39

Chacu Collective Hunting of Camelids and Pastoralism in the
Peruvian Andes
Tetsuya INAMURA
Graduate School of International Cultural Studies
Aichi Prefectural University
1522-3 Ibaragabasama, Kumabari, Nagakute-cho, Aichi-gun, Aichi 480-1198, Japane-mail: inamura@lit.aichi-pu.ac.jp

Abstract
In the ancient Inca Empire, the chacu, a kind of collective hunting of wild animals, was widelypracticed. It was a system of use, control and preservation of wild animals. In particular, as the wool ofthe vicuña was so fine, when captured, vicuñas were not killed but released alive after the wool was cut.
The chacu disappeared after the empire fell, but recently it has been revived. The purpose of this paper
is to describe the ancient chacu, the process of its revival and factors in its revival. Also I will discuss
some issues that studying the chacu raises, such as characteristics of Andean pastoralism, rethinking thedichotomy between hunting and pastoralism and the domestication of Andean camelids.
Key words: alpaca, chacu, hunting, pastoralism, vicuña

1. Introduction
In the ancient Inca Empire, a kind of driving andenclosed hunting of wild animals, called the chacu,
was widely practiced. In particular, as the wool of thevicuña (a kind of wild camelid) was so fine and delicate, it was used to weave the clothes for the Inca emperor and the royal family. For this reason, when avicuña was captured, it was not killed but released
alive after the wool was cut. When the Inca Empire
was conquered by the Spanish and colonized, thispractical use of wild animals and the related preservation system ceased to exist and the number of wild
animals decreased drastically as a result of unrestricted hunting.
Nevertheless, after hundreds of years, chacu has
been revitalized. This revitalized chacu was firstachieved in the national reserve ‘Pampa Galeras’ in
1993, and then spread rapidly, bringing big profits tothe native communities in a wide range of the Andean
high plateau. In addition, the reevaluation of thevicuña led to control of illegal hunting, and thenumber of vicuñas has increased. The chacu is a kindof hunting of wild animals which includes factors ofcontrol and protection.
There are four kinds of camelids in the Andes. Twoof them are wild: the vicuña and the guanaco; and theothers are domesticated: the alpaca and the llama(Figs. 1-4). Recent studies suggest a close genetic
relationship between the alpaca and the vicuña, andGlobal Environmental Research
10(1)/2006: 39-48
printed in Japanbetween the llama and the guanaco. These studies
suggest that the ancestral animals of the alpaca and thellama could be the vicuña and the guanaco,
respectively. Figures 5-8 show the past and present
distribution of each camelid (Novoa & Wheeler, 1984).
Probable distributions of vicuñas and alpacas prior to1532 are almost identical and probable distributions ofguanacos and llamas prior to 1532 have similartendencies, in that they cover not only the Andean
highlands but also the coast. Distributions of theseanimals support the theory of the wild ancestry of the
alpaca and llama.
Now we can observe the chacu collective huntingof vicuñas before us, and we also know about the
behavior of vicuñas. New knowledge about vicuñas
has important implications for the characteristics ofAndean pastoralism, the domestication of Andean
camelids and rethinking the dichotomy between
hunting (wild animals) and pastoralism (domesticatedanimals).

2. The Chacu in the Ancient Inca Empire
and the Process of its Revival
It is known that the chacu was practiced under therule of the Incaic emperor. It is recorded in thechronicles of El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (Garcilasode la Vega, 1966: 325-326):‘At a certain time of the year, after the breeding
season, the Inca went out to the province that took
©2006 AIRIES

40

Tetsuya INAMURA

Fig. 1 A vicuña.

Fig. 2 A guanaco.

Fig. 3 An alpaca.

Fig. 4 A llama.

Fig. 5 Past and present distribution of vicuñas.

Fig. 6 Past and present distribution ofguanacos.

Fig. 7 Past and present distribution of alpacas.

Fig. 8 Past and present distribution of llamas.

Chacu Collective Hunting of Camelids and Pastoralism in the Peruvian Andes

his fancy, provided that the business of peace andwar permitted. He bade twenty or thirty thousand
Indians present themselves, or more or less according to the area that was to be beaten. These men
were divided into two groups, one of which wentout in a line to the right and the other to the left,
until they had made a great enclosure which might
consist of twenty or thirty leagues of land, or moreor less according to the area agreed on. They followed the rivers, brooks, and valleys that had been
fixed as the limits for the year’s hunting andavoided entering the area set aside for the following year. They shouted as they went and observed
all the animals they started. It had already been arranged where the two lines of men were to cometogether to close the circle and shut in the gamethey had collected. They also knew from observation where the beasts had stopped, and the country
they chose was clear of trees and rocks so as tofacilitate the chase. Having enclosed the game,they tightened the circle forming three or four rowsof men, and closed in until they could take thegame with their hands.’‘The number of deer of various kinds and of thelarge sheep they call huanacu, with coarse wool,
and of the smaller vicuña, with very fine wool, wasvery considerable. Naturally in some areas they
were more plentiful than others, but often morethan twenty, thirty, or forty thousand head weretaken, a very fine sight which gave rise to much rejoicing. That was in former times. Those in Peru
can say how few have escaped the destruction andwaste caused by the arquebus, for guanacos andvicuñas are now hardly to be found except inplaces where firearms have not reached.’
The chacu was a practically and ‘rationally’ established system of utilization and preservation ofwild animals. The guanacos and vicuñas were shornand then released.
The Andean region in old times was inhabited by a
far greater number of wild animals. But after the Inca
Empire was conquered and destroyed, the number ofwild animals decreased drastically due to excessive
hunting.
In 1965 the number of vicuñas inhabiting Peru wasless than 10,000 and they were indicated to be on theverge of extinction. Then the government planned toestablish a reserve at Pampa Galeras (an area with analtitude of 4,000 m) and in 1967 this national reserve
was established. Then, other communities joined the41

project for the preservation of vicuñas (Wheeler et al.,
1997: 284).
In the 1980s, the ultra leftist group, ‘Shining Path’
attacked the reserve and control was totally lost. In thelatter half of the 1980s, ‘Shining Path’ expanded its
power and engaged in illegal hunting of vicuñas togain funds. Others took up illegal hunting also and itcame to be practiced more and more and the numberof vicuñas decreased.
In the 1990s, under the Fujimori government,
when the public security of the country recovered, alegal base was established for the rational use of vicuñas. Peru had ratified the international CITES treaty(Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of wild fauna and flora). In 1987, the categorization of vicuñas wool was allowed to be changed
from category 1 (commercial trade of the endangered
species prohibited) to category 2 (commercial tradeallowed but only with an export license or certification). Thus, international trade was opened to vicuña
wool.
In 1993, President Fujimori was invited to
the national reserve of Pampa Galeras to observe thefestival with chacu and traditional folk music anddance. Since then, the ‘Gran Chacu’ festival has continued to be held every year on June 24. In 1994, theInternational Vicuña Consortium (IVC) was established with the cooperation of Italy and Peru, and vicuña wool began to be sold to IVC.
According to my fieldwork, in 2001, the chacu
was carried out 49 times in the Lucanas community,
to which Pampa Galeras belongs, and 11,026 vicuñas
were captured. From 3,890 vicuñas among them,
890 kg of the wool was cut and processed. Afterremoving dirt and cerda (hard wool), 700 kg wasshipped bringing an income of about 150,000 dollars.
Thanks to the income from the chacu, various infrastructures could be provided to the community, as
this is how the main part of the income is used. Electricity could be introduced, the village square, officebuildings and schools were reconstructed and vehicles
were bought for the village.
In 2000 at the national level, 151 communities captured 35,637 vicuñas, producing 3,427 kg of wool
from 16,956 vicuñas (Table 1). In 16 prefectures, there
were 841 groups engaged in controlling and using
vicuñas in 2000, with the registered area exceeding 8
million hectors, and the number of vicuñas in the area
amounting to 118,678 (Table 2). According to thestatistics, the total number of vicuñas increased from67,000 in 1994 to 141,000 in 1999.

Table 1 Capture and shearing of vicuñas and production of wool.
year
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
captured vicuñas
6,128
16,204
15,683
22,11828,612
29,859sheared vicuñas
3,278
9,616
7,145
10,352
13,083
15,462
kgs of wool
832
2,223
1,478
2,008
2,543
3,052
participating
12
90
77
100
151
189
communities
Ministerio de Agricultura (2001) ‘Consejo Nacional de Camélidos Sudamericanos.’

2000
35,637
16,956
3,427
151

42

Tetsuya INAMURA
Table 2 Nacional statistics of vicuñas 2000.
Number ofOrganizations
1 AYACUCHO
692
2 PUNO
13
238
3 LIMA
7118
4 JUNIN
648
5 APURIMAC
584
6 HUANCAVELICA
460
7 CUZCO881
8 AREQUIPA
6
51
9 ICA
1
5
10 TACNA
326
11 ANCASH
410
12 PASCO
2
3
13 MOQUEGUA
2
15
14 CAJAMARCA
1
1
15 HUANUCO
1
1
16 LA LIBERTAD
1
8
TOTAL
70
841
CONACS (2000) ‘Evaluación Poblacional de Vicuñas 2000.’No

3.

Department

No. of Provs.

Modern Chacu and Its Festival

Pampa Galeras, the famous national reserve for
vicuñas, is situated at an altitude of 4,000 m in the
Department of Ayacucho. It is at a distance of 90 km
from Nazca, famous for gigantic ancient pictures on
the ground.
I stayed in the village of Lucanas (3,800 m a.s.l.)in June of 2002 and observed an actual chacu.
Capturing of vicuñas on June 24 is called the ‘Gran
Chacu’ and is carried out as one of the events of thefestival.
The ‘Gran Chacu’ festival began in the evening ofJune 23 on the eve of this festival in the public squareof Lucanas. A temporary stage was built for the
performance of various kinds of Andean folk music.
Stalls were lined up in the square and it became more
and more crowded toward the evening. The mostimpressive part was a joint performance of a young
people’s rock band and the traditional acrobatic danceof Ayacucho department called ‘danza de tijeras’(meaning ‘dance of scissors’).
On June 24, at 10 o’clock in the morning, people
left by car one after another from Lucanas village toattend the chacu, which would be held on the highplateau (4,000 m a.s.l.). In the direction of Nazca 30
minutes by car along the paved road, the pivot of thefan, a round-shaped trap (fence) could be seen, which
had been set up as a capturing point to enclose thevicuñas (Fig. 9). Four kilometers ahead of it was theplace where the drive of the animals would begin.
Soon, a crowd of people began to move toward thetrap to enclose the herds of vicuñas (Fig. 10). Afterabout one hour, some hundreds of vicuñas were enclosed inside the nylon net fence (Fig. 11). Figure 12
shows the guide map of the ‘Gran Chacu’ delivered

Total Vicuñas
40,39018,107
17,68911,40810,020
8,745
4,209
3,681
1,583
1,214
684
343
293
235
51
26
118,678

Total area
Hectares884,489
2,288,910
250,045535,286
737,370
1,343,364
719,030
1,101,144
20,870105,199
145,3631
381,896193
0
57,0308,570,190

by CONACS (Consejo Nacional de Camelidos
Sudamericanos).
After a while, young boys and girls dressed as
Incaic soldiers or maiden servants for Inti (the sungod) began to dance inside the round enclosure. Thenthe King Inca appeared and climbed up to the stonealtar which had been made at the center of the enclosure. After him, the Empress also went up to the altar.
A male vicuña and a female vicuña were carried to thealtar and their ears were cut. The blood was thenpoured into a cup. The king took the cup and lifted it
up to Inti and drank it up (Fig. 13). Then some vicuñas
were caught by bare hand and pushed down to theground. The wool of the vicuñas was cut (Fig. 14). It
was offered to the king and then to Inti by the king.
This ceremonial performance was performed byteachers and students of the Lucanas ‘colegio’ (junior-senior high school). When this ceremony was over,the spectators went to the headquarters of the Pampa
Galeras reserve. The vicuñas whose wool had not yet
been cut were left inside the enclosure until the nextday. At the reserve headquarters, people danced in acircle to folk music till late.
The next morning, the cutting of the vicuñas’ wool
began. By the side of the enclosure, three sets of electric clippers powered by a gasoline electric motor
were prepared. The vicuñas were captured by barehand and carried to the wool cutting place. One of the‘engineers’ checked the health condition of the vicuñas and measured the length of their wool. Vicuñaswith wool less than 2.5 cm were immediately released.
Vicuñas with wool long enough were pushed down to
the ground and released immediately when the shearing was finished. Once the wool is cut, it takes 2 years
to grow to 2.5 cm again. That means it is a 2 year rotation for the same vicuña.

Chacu Collective Hunting of Camelids and Pastoralism in the Peruvian Andes

Fig. 9 The Stage of the Gran Chacu.

Fig. 11 Vicuñas captured in the nylon corral.

43

Fig. 10 Start of the Gran Chacu.

Fig. 12 Guidemap of the Gran Chacu delivered by CONACS (2000).

Fig. 13 An Inca offering wine with blood of a vicuña to Inti,
the sun god.

Fig. 14 Shearing the wool of vicuñas.

4.

predatory” (Ingold, 1980: 2). Also in her ‘Introduction
to predation’ in the book ‘Walking Larder: Patterns ofDomestication, Pastoralism, and Predation,’ CluttonBrock (1988) says, “Predators feed on prey; that is,they are normally carnivores which kill other living
animals for food, but a parasite may also be termed a
predator on its host. It has been argued that all humanactivities involving the exploitation of animals are
predation and, in the social sense, parasitism. But it is
only when humans are subsisting as hunters, in fact
like carnivores, that there is no element of protectionin the interactions between predators and prey. As
soon as animals are herded or domesticated, humans

Chacu, Hunting and Pastoralism

There is a common idea of a clear dichotomy between hunting and pastoralism. For example, Ingold
places hunting in opposition to pastoralism, related tothe binary opposition between predation and protection, in his triangular model of hunting, pastoralism
and ranching (Fig. 15). He says “These three modes― hunting, pastoralism and ranching ― may be given
preliminary definition in terms of three oppositions,one on the ecological level, and the other two on thesocial level.” and “The pastoral association, then, is
protective, whereas hunting and ranching are44

Tetsuya INAMURA

protection
PASTORALISM

subsistence

HUNTING
sharing

accumulation

predation

RANCHING
marketFig. 15 Model of ‘hunting-pastoralism-ranching triangle’ by Ingold.

become protectors rather than predators. The relationship ceases to be one of simple predation and becomesa form of symbiosis in which individual animals benefit from the association until the moment of their death,and the species benefits genetically by becoming
much more widespread than it was in the wild
(Clutton-Brock, 1988: 279).”
Such an idea of a clear distinction between wild
animals (object of hunting or predation) and domestic
animals (object of pastoralism or protection) is accepted by many researchers, but the chacu makes theidea invalid. Garcilaso de la Vega (1966: 326) says:“With the game they caught lions, bears, many
foxes, wild cats, which they call ozcollo, of two or
three kinds, genets, and other similar creatures that
do harm to game. They were all killed at once inorder to rid the country of such vermin.”“All the game was taken by hand. Female deerof all kinds were at once released, as there was nowool to be got from them. The old ones whichwere past breeding were killed. They also releasedsuch males as were necessary as sires, picking thebest and largest. The rest were all killed and theirmeat was divided among the common people. The
guanacos and vicuñas were shorn and then also
released. A tally was kept of the number of wild
sheep as of the domesticated, and recorded on thequipus, the yearly accounts, noting the different
species and the number of males and females.
They also kept the score of the animals they killed,
both noxious and useful: knowing how many head
had been killed and how many released alive, they
could tell at what rate the game had increased at
the next hunt.”
The ancient chacu had an aspect of hunting which
involves killing animals to eat. However, it was not
simple hunting, because the wild animals were not
only used rationally, but were also protected and preserved. The number of captured animals was recordedin quipus, an Incaic method of counting, using knots
in ropes. Female deer were released alive. Male deer
were usually killed for eating, but males classified assires were released alive as well. This is a kind of control over reproduction that is an important element ofdomestication of animals. Furthermore, useful wild
animals were well protected.
The chacu reminds us of the diversity of ways
available for the utilization of animals, not an opposition between predation and protection, but a continuity between predation and protection.

5. Andean Pastoralism, the Chacu andDomestication
Pastoral people on the Andean high plateau mainly
live in U-shaped valleys, which have a scattering ofrich alpine moors, best suited for pasturing alpacas.
Their houses together with surrounding pastureland
are called estancia, and are occupied by a patrilocal
extended family. The average size of each estancia isapproximately 20 km2 in Puica in the southwestern
highlands of Peru, where I practiced fieldwork. People
recognize the boundaries by natural indexes such as
rivers, rivulets, ridges, big rocks, etc.
Pastoralists usually have two domiciles within
their estancia.1) The main domicile is located near
the rivulet, so it is easy to get water for daily life.
There are some stone houses and some big and smallstone corrals for the livestock at the main domicile.
The big corrals, called waran, are for keeping the livestock at night in the dry season and the small corrals,
called rutuna cancha (corral for cutting), are used for
cutting alpaca wool, loading and unloading llamacaravan freight, or for rituals involving livestock. In
addition to the main domicile, there is a sub-domicile
called the astana, which is composed of one houseand many corrals for the livestock. The distance
between the two domiciles is only one or a few
kilometers, and between these places, some of thefamily members and all of the livestock make seasonal movements. However, this seasonal movement
is far different from the pastoral transhumance practiced by Himalayan yak herders, and is limited to thearea of one estancia. There is hardly any difference
between the altitudes of these places. During the dry

Chacu Collective Hunting of Camelids and Pastoralism in the Peruvian Andes

season (May to October), they move approximately
every month for grass rotation between these twohouses. During the wet season from November toApril, the livestock are kept inside a corral at the
sub-domicile, which is located on a well-drained swell.
The wet season is the time of lambing of the domestic
animals. For protection of the newborn animals fromfoxes or condors, the livestock are all kept in a big,
neatly closed corral called a chaupi cancha (central
corral), and the herders rotate the corrals. They also
rotate the small corrals called rutuna cancha.
Andean camelids have a habit of leaving theirdung in the same place, so in the wet season the
ground of the corral gets muddy with the mixture ofdung and there is a risk of pollution with contagious
bacteria. Newborn domestic animals have a high mortality rate during the wet season, so it is important tomaintain well-drained corrals in order to reduce thedeath rate. This is the reason there are many corrals
for rotation at the sub-domicile.
Thus the seasonal movement of the Andean herders is on a micro-scale and its most important object is
to secure better conditions for the corrals in the wet
season. So, we can consider Andean pastoralism
sedentary at least in the Central Andes.
Figure 16 shows factors of two unique features of
the Andean pastoralism, its sedentary nature and theabsence of milking. In the Andean highlands, there islittle change in temperature throughout the year,
though there is a big daily change in temperature. The
ecological conditions are favorable and stable fordomestic animals adapted to low temperatures. On the
Small difference intemperature during the year
Alpine moor, which ismaintained throughout
the year

Herd can be raised in a small
territory on the high plateau
during the year

No need for pastoraltranshumance

Sedentary
pastoralism

45

other hand, there is a remarkable dry season, but alpine moors are maintained by glacial seepage throughout the year. Strong sunshine promotes the growth ofgrass there. For these reasons, pastoral transhumance
is not required and it is possible for the livestock to be
pastured within a limited place throughout the year.
Being tropical highlands, the Andes have a great
diversity of ecological conditions according to theelevation within a small horizontal distance. These
conditions encourage the farmers to move verticallyand maximize the use of the different elevations to
produce a variety of crops.
The agricultural zone and pastoral zone are substantially divided, and yet they are adjacent to eachother. Ecological factors have created a stable relationship between pastoralists and farmers (or pastoralism and agriculture), reinforced by other factors:
llamas as means of transportation, alpaca wool for
exchange and dung as fertilizer. Andean pastoralists
have been able to obtain agricultural products as astaple in their diet because of all these conditions. It
seems to be the reason they have not needed to use
milk in their diet. As I have said, the characteristics ofAndean pastoralism can be explained by ecologicalconditions, supported by the behavior of the vicuña,
the possible ancestor of the alpaca.
The Central Andes lie between extreme eastern wet
and western dry climates, which have created at least
two types of pastoralism. The dryness of the westernplateau affects the ‘division’ more. Concretely speaking, in the case of Puica, the plateau area is separated
from the valley by barren dry land, which forms a

TropicalHighlandPlateau／Valley
Pastoralism／Agriculture(clearly divided but adjecent)（ecological features oftropical highlands）

Stable relationship between
pastoralists and farmers

・ Llama as meansof transportation
・ Alpaca wool for
exchange
・Dung as fertilizer

Pastoralists have been able toget a supply of agricultural
products easily from farmers.

Social and cultural relations
between pastoralists and farmers

No utilizationof milk

Features of the vicuña (wild animal
closely related to the alpaca):・living on the high plateau
・‘family groups’ have fixed territories.

Fig. 16 Two main distinctive features of Andean pastoralism, and related factors.

46

Tetsuya INAMURA

clear ecological and social barrier between the pastoral society and the agricultural society (Inamura,
1986, 1988, 1995, 2002, 2006). In contrast, thehumidity of the eastern slope of the Andes brings
about environmental continuity between the agricultural and pastoral zones, and it affects the ‘adjacency,’
in which the agro-pastoral complex developed(Webster, 1973, 1983; Yamamoto, 1985). The agropastoralists directly exploit the environment from1,500 to 4,500 m a.s.l., moving vertically to cultivate
various crops which are adapted to various altitudes.
In the Andes, the ecological differences between
the east and the west brought about two forms ofadaptation. But in both cases, the pastoralism is sedentary, and it should be stressed that the vertical movement of the agro-pastoral complex is required only forthe sake of agriculture.2) The pastoralism is sedentary
and the agriculture is mobile in the Central Andes.3)
In the Old World, pastoralism is practiced mainly
in dry or cold areas and it is commonly assumed thatthe traditional forms of pastoralism would imply
movement. In the Central Andes, however, sedentary
pastoralism was established.
As to the domestication of camelids, Wheeler offers the most reliable archeological data and analysis
from the excavation at Telarmachay Cave (Wheeler,
1988, 2000). According to her, domestication occurred
between 4000 and 3500 BC in the Junin basin of thecentral plateau of Peru. She points out two major
pieces of evidence. One is the appearance of a new
type of incisors, of the same type as the alpaca’s. The
other is a sudden increase in the rate of newborn
camelids such that they represent more than 50% of
all fragments of bones of camelids. It is not possible
for hunters to kill such a high rate of newborn animals.
It can be explained only by the gathering of animals,
which causes sickness to newborn animals, because in
the wet season the ground of the corral gets muddy
with the mixture of dung and there is a risk of pollution with contagious bacteria. The wet season is thetime when offspring and newborns have a highmortality rate.
The actual herders have tried to reduce the mortality. This is the reason pastoralists in Puica practiceFig. 17 Family group of vicuñas.

small scale seasonal movement within the territory ofeach family and why there are many corrals for rotation at the sub-domicile, as I have explained.
Regarding vicuñas, they form groups of two types(Pérez, 1994: 41). One is the ‘family’ group which iscomposed of a dominant male and a few females with
their kids (Fig. 17). The average number of membersof a family group is 5.3. Each ‘family’ group has its
own fixed territory, which has an area of 8 to 40 hectares according to the size of the group. The other typeis groups of young males which move about without
their own territory (Fig. 18).
Recent studies of genetic analyses of Andean
camelids conclude that there is a close relationshipbetween the guanaco and llama, and also between thevicuña and alpaca (Kadwell et al., 2001; Kawamoto etal., 2004, 2005). These support the idea of sedentarism of Andean pastoralism of alpacas, because of theexistence of fixed territories of vicuñas. As I discussed,
the sedentary nature of Andean pastoralism can be
explained by the ecological condition of the Central
Andes and also the characteristics of the vicuña, theprobable ancestral animal of alpaca (Fig. 16).
An archeological study has indicated the existenceof sedentary hunters of wild camelids (Rick, 1988).
According to this study, one band composed of 25
persons could be supported within the limits of a circle of 9 km in diameter. Ancient ruins of traps for enclosed hunting have been found in some places in theAndes (Fig. 19) (Aguilar, 1988:59-65).
Nowadays each community of Andean indigenous
people has an exclusive legal right of access tovicuñas on their land. Because ‘family’ groups ofvicuñas have a fixed territory, theoretically particulargroups of vicuñas could be in the possession ofparticular groups of hunters. In this way, the chacu
contradicts the triangular model of Ingold, who says:“The first social opposition serves to differentiate
the hunting economy from both pastoralism andranching. It is between contradictory rationalities ofsharing and accumulation, predicated respectively on
the principles of collective and divided access to themeans of subsistence. In the hunting economy, animals belong to no one, and therefore every one has aFig. 18 Group of young male vicuñas.

Chacu Collective Hunting of Camelids and Pastoralism in the Peruvian Andes

47

transhumance in the Central Andes as in the Himalayas,
except for the movement of llama caravans involved intransporting and trading.

References

Fig. 19 Ancient ruins of a trap for chacu.

right to their meat. In pastoral and ranch economies,
animals on the hoof constitute private property overwhich the owner has an exclusive right of disposal.”Because of such fixed territories, people can practice the capture of vicuñas very easily, currently using
fences made of nylon net. Now in Pampa Galeras they
are also installing a permanent net fence to secure
game, preventing vicuñas from leaving the territory of
their community.
The chacu and the net fence cause us to consider
the possibility of enclosing wild camelids after thecollective hunting of the chacu, which could be thefirst step in domestication. Such an idea of exclusive
access to wild animals might be also an important step
toward domestication.
Notes1) See the map in my previous article (Inamura, 2002: 89).
2) I discussed this theme in my previous article (Inamura,2002). Some types of pastoral movement may exist in theCentral Andes, but we should pay attention to thedifferences between the cases in the Andes and those in the
Himalayas (Fürer-Haimendorf, 1964; Brower, 1991;
Inamura, 2002). I do not deny the possibility of seasonal
pastoral movement in the Central Andes, as I havediscussed in relation to the small scale of movement in
Puica’s case. I characterize the pastoralism in the Central
Andes basically as sedentary, because ecologically it ispossible to keep the livestock within a limited area in theplateau or valley heads stably throughout the year (Inamura,
1995, 2002).
3) As for seasonal movement in the Andes, some researchers
have suggested pastoral transhumance (Custred, 1977: 68;
Flores, 1975:7-8; Orlove, 1977a: 84, 1977b: 92, Palacios
1981: 224-228). However, there are no detailed case studies
reporting on this. The result of my research showed that
there was no evidence of a clear type of pastoral

Aguilar Meza, T. (1988) Las Trampas para Cazar Camélidos.
In: J. A. Flores Ochoa, ed., Llamichos y Pacocheros: Pastoresde Llamas y Alpacas, Centro de Estudios Andinos, Cuzco,
pp.59-65.
Brower, B. (1991) Sherpa of Khumbu: People, Livestock, andLandscap. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Clutton-Brock, J. ed., (1988) The Walking Larder: Patterns ofDomestication, Pastoralism, and Predation, Unwin Hyman
Inc., London.
CONACS (Consejo Nacional de Camélidos Sudamericanos)(2000) Evaluación Poblacional de Vicuñas 2000. Ministeriode Agricultura del Perú.
Custred, G. (1977) Las Punas de los Andes Centrales. In: Flores
J. A. Ochoa, ed., Pastores de puna, Institute de Estudios
Peruanos, Lima.
Flores Ochoa, J. A. (1975) Pastores de Alpacas. Allpanchis,Cuzco, 8:5-24.
Fürer-Haimendorf, C. von (1964) The Sherpa of Nepal:
Buddhist Highlanders. John Murray, London.
Garicilaso de la Vega, El Inca (1966) Royal Commentaries of
the Incas and General History of Peru. Trans. by Harold V.
Livermore, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Inamura, T. (1986) Relaciones Estructurales entre Pastores yAgricultores de un Distrito Altoandino en el Sur del Peru. In:
S. Masuda, ed., Etnografia e Historia del Mundo Andino:Continuidad y Cambio. Tokyo University Press, pp. 197-229.
Inamura, T. (1988) Relaciones Estructurales de Pastores yAgricultores en las Fiestas Religiosas de un Distrito. In: J. A.
Flores Ochoa, ed., Llamichos y Pacocheros: Pastores deLlamas y Alpacas, Centro de Estudios Andinos, Cuzco,
pp. 203-214.
Inamura, T. (1995) Llama and Alpaca: Andean Indigenous
Society and Pastoralism. Kadensha, Tokyo. (in Japanese)
Inamura, T. (2002) The Pastoralism in the Andes and theHimalayas. Global Environmental Research, 6: 85-102.
Inamura, T. (2006) Las Características del Uso de Camélidos
en los Andes: El Pastoreo y la Resurrección del Chacu, laTradición Incaica en el Perú. In: L. Millones and T. Kato,
eds., Desde el exterior: El Perú y sus estudios. Tercer
Congreso Internacional de Peruanistas, Nagoya, 2005, Fondo
Editorial de la Facultad de Ciencias Sociales: Universidad
Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, pp. 35-70.
Ingold, T. (1980) Hunters, Pastoralism and Ranchers: Reindeer
Economies and their transformations. Cambridge University
Press, London.
Kadwell, M., M. Fernandez, H. F. Stanley, R. Baldi, J. C.
Wheeler, R. Rosadio and M. W. Bruford (2001) Genetic
Analisis Reveals the Wild Ancestors of the Llama and the
Alpaca. Proeedings of the Royal Society of London, Serie B,
Biological Sciences, 268: 2575-2584.
Kawamoto, Y. et. al. (2004) A Preliminary Study on BloodProtein Variations of Wild and Domestic Camelids in Peru.
Report of the Society for Researches on Native Livestock, 21:297-304.
Kawamoto, Y., et. al. (2005) Genetic Differentiation among
Andean Camelid Populations Measured by Blood Protein
Markers. Report of the Society for Researches on Native
Livestock, 22: 41-51.
Ministerio de Agricultura del Perú (2001) Consejo Nacional deCamélidos Sudamericanos. Lima.
Novoa, C. and J. C. Wheeler (1984) Llama and Alpaca. In: I. L.
Mason, ed., Evolution of Domesticated Animals. Longman,

48

Tetsuya INAMURA

London, pp. 116-128.
Orlove, B. (1977a) Alpacas, Sheep and Men: the Wool Export
Economy and Regional Society in Southern Peru. Academic
Press, New York.
Orlove, B. (1977b) Integration through Production: the Use ofZonation in Espinar, American Ethnologist, 4: 84-101.
Pérez Ruiz, W. (1994) La Saga de la Vicuña. Diálogo s.a.,Lima.
Rick, J. W. (1988) Identificando el Sedentarismo Pre- histórico
en los Cazadores Recolectores: un Ejemplo de la Sierra Sur
del Perú. In: J. C. Flores Ochoa, ed., Llamichos y Pacocheros:
Pastores de Llamas y Alpacas. Centro de Estudios Andinos,
Cuzco, pp. 37-43.
Webster, S. (1973) Native Pastoralism in the Andes. Ethnology,
12: 115-133.
Webster, S. (1983) Una Comunidad Quechua Indígena en la

Explotación de Multiples Zonas Ecológicas. In: Flores J. A.
Ochoa, and B. Juan Nunez del Prado, eds., Q’ero: el Último
Ayllu Inka, Centro de Estudios Andinos, Cuzco, pp.30-47.
Wheeler, J. C. (1988) Nuevas Evidencias Arqueológicas
acerca de la Domesticación de la alpaca, la llama y eldesarrollo de la ganadería autóctona. In: Flores Ochoa, J. C.
ed., Llamichos y Pacocheros: Pastores de Llamas y Alpacas.
Centro de Estudios Andinos, Cuzco, pp. 45-57.
Wheeler, J. C. and R. Domingo Hoces (1997) Community
Participation, Sustainable Use, and Vicuña Conservation in
Peru. Mountain Research and Development, 17: 283-287.
Yamamoto, N. (1985) Ecological Complementary of AgroPastoralism: Some Comments. In: S. Masuda, I. Shimada
and C. Morris, eds., Andean Ecology and Civilization.
University of Tokyo Press.

(Received 9 May 2006, Accepted 15 June 2006)