〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉
はじめに
1 David J. Crandall et al. (8 Dec 2010), “Inferrings o c i a l t i e s f r o m g e o g r a p h i c c o i n c i d e n c e s,”

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107, http://www.pnas.
org/content/107/52/22436.short.
ドイツの政治家マルテ・スピッツは、位置情報デー
タの威力を明らかにするために、6カ月間にわたる
自分の立ち回り先をジャーナリストたちに公開した。Zeit Online (Mar 2011), “Tell-all telephone,”, http://www.zeit.de/datenschutz/maltespitz-data-retention.
Manlio De Domenico, Antonio Lima, and Mirco
Musolesi (18‒19 Jun 2012), “Interdependence andpredictability of human mobility and social
interactions,” Nokia Mobile Data Challenge
Workshop, Newcastle, UK, http://www.cs.bham.
ac.uk/research/projects/nsl/mobility-prediction.
携帯電話基地局のデータと通話内容の音声データを照らし合わせることにより、被告人がしばしば自分の居場所について嘘を言っていたと裁判所を説得させられる場合もある。2002年に妻を殺害したスコット・ピーターソンに有罪判決がくだされた際には、この種の証拠が大きな意味をもった（ピーターソンの 愛 人 ア ン バ ー・フ レ イ が 通 話 の 盗 聴 に 協 力 した）。Associated Press (27 Aug 2004), “Testimony inPeterson trial turns to evidence from computers,”, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/
nation/2004-08-27-peterson̲x.htm.
Evan Perez and Siobhan Gorman (15 Jun 2013),“Phones leave a telltale trail,”,
http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB100014241278
87324049504578545352803220058. Trevor Hughes(7 Dec 2013), “Cellphone data aided in solving two
Larimer County murders,”, http://archive.coloradoan.com/article/20131207/
NEWS01/312070068/Cellphone-data-aided-solvingtwo-Larimer-County-murders.
ただし、警察はその正確性を誇大宣伝し、そうした
デ ー タ に 基 づ い て 無 実 の 人 も 逮 捕 し て い る。
(6 Sep 2014), “The two towers,” http://
www.economist.com/news/united-states/21615622junk-science-putting-innocent-people-jail-two-towers.
Mike Masnick (9 Sep 2014), “Turns out cell phone
location data is not even close to accurate, buteveryone falls for it,”
, https://www.
techdirt.com/articles/20140908/04435128452/turnsout-cell-phone-location-data-is-not-even-close-toaccurate-everyone-falls-it.shtml.
Heather Murphy (22 Jan 2014), “Ominous text
message sent to protesters in Kiev sends chills
around the Internet,”,,
http://thelede.blogs.ny times.com/2014/01/22/
ominous-text-message-sent-to-protesters-in-kievsends-chills-around-the-internet.
Michael Isikoﬀ (18 Feb 2010), “FBI tracks suspectsʼ
cell phones without a warrant,”, http://www.newsweek.com/fbi-tracks-suspects-cell-phoneswithout-warrant-75099.
Steve Olenski (17 Jan 2013), “Is location based
advertising the future of mobile marketing and

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mobile advertising?”, http://www.forbes.com/
sites/marketshare/2013/01/17/is-location-basedadvertising-the-future-of-mobile-marketing-andmobile-advertising. John McDermott (20 Feb 2014),“Why the Webʼs biggest players are gobbling up
location-based apps,”, http://digiday.com/
platforms/apple-google-microsoft-yahoo-are-bettingon-mobile.
Anton Troianovski (21 May 2013), “Phone ﬁrms selldata on customers,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323
463704578497153556847658. Rachel King (13 Jul
2013), “ACLU: AT&T customer privacy at risk,”, http://blogs.wsj.
com/cio/2013/07/13/aclu-att-customer-privacy-atrisk.
Hiawatha Bray (8 Jul 2013), “Cellphone data minedto create personal profiles,”, http://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2013/07/07/yourcellphone-yourself/eSvTK1UCqNOE7D4qbAcWPL/
story.html.
Craig Timberg (24 Aug 2014), “For sale: Systems
that can secretly track where cellphone users goaround the globe,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/business/technology/for-salesystems-that-can-secretly-track-where-cellphoneusers-go-around-the-globe/2014/08/24/f0700e8af003-11e3-bf76-447a5df6411f̲story.html.
Verint (2014), “About Verint,” http://www.verint.
com/about.
Privacy International (2012), “Cobham sellsmonitoring centres, phone monitoring, technicalsurveillance and location monitoring technology.
British export law doesnʼt speciﬁcally regulate thesetechnologies, so they can easily end up in the wrong
hands,” https://www.privacyinternational.org/sii/
cobham.
2011年の時点での顧客リストは、アルジェリア、オーストラリア、オーストリア、ベルギー、ブルネ
イ、チェコ、ジョージア（グルジア）、ガーナ、アイルランド、クウェート、リビア、ノルウェー、パ
キスタン、サウジアラビア、シンガポール、スロバ
キア、スペイン、スウェーデン、台湾、トルコ、イギ リ ス、ア メ リ カ。Cobham (2011), “Tactical C4I
systems: Eagle‒Close Combat Radio (CCR),” https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.documentcloud.org/
documents/409237/115-cobham-tactical-c4i.pdf.
Craig Timberg (24 Aug 2014), “For sale: Systems
that can secretly track where cellphone users goaround the globe,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/business/technology/for-salesystems-that-can-secretly-track-where-cellphoneusers-go-around-the-globe/2014/08/24/f0700e8af003-11e3-bf76-447a5df6411f̲story.html.
Tobias Engel (9 Jan 2009), “Locating mobile phones
using Signalling System #7,” Chaos Computer Club,
http://berlin.ccc.de/~tobias/25c3-locating-mobilephones.pdf.
Kevin J. OʼBrien (28 Oct 2012), “Data-gathering via
apps presents a gray legal area,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/29/technology/
mobile-apps-have-a-ravenous-ability-to-collectpersonal-data.html.

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このような追跡用アプリは多数出回っている。そのなかでもとくに露骨なのが「ハロー・スパイ」だ。
公式ウェブサイトには、「親のための道徳にかなった 監 視」、も し く は「自 分 の 所 有 し て い る 携 帯 端
末、あるいは監視について適切な同意を得ている携
帯端末」の監視に用いるためのものという但し書きがあるが、「隠密モード」で機能させられることを自賛しており、サイトには浮気対策に関するコーナーまである。http://hellospy.com.
20 「ステルス・ジニー」というアプリの発売元の CEOは2014年、アメリカ国内での販売を理由に告発・逮捕 さ れ た。Craig Timberg and Matt Zapatosly (29Sep 2014), “Maker of StealthGenie, an app used forspying, is indicted in Virginia,”,
h t t p : / / w w w. w a s h i n g t o n p o s t . c o m / b u s i n e s s /technology/make-of-app-used-for-spying-indicted-invirginia/2014/09/29/816b45b8-4805-11e4-a046120a8a855cca̲story.html.
21 Spencer E. Ange and Lauren Weber (22 Oct 2013),“Memo to workers: The boss is watching,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/
SB10001424052702303672404579151440488919138.
22 Barton Gellman and Ashkan Soltani (4 Dec 2013),“NSA tracking cellphone locations worldwide,
Snowden documents show,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/
nsa-tracking-cellphone-locations-worldwide-snowdendocuments-show/2013/12/04/5492873a-5cf2-11e3bc56-c6ca94801fac̲story.html. Ashkan Soltani andBarton Gellman (10 Dec 2013), “New documents
show how the NSA infers relationships based on
mobile location data,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-switch/
wp/2013/12/10/new-documents-show-how-the-nsainfers-relationships-based-on-mobile-location-data.
James Glanz, Jeﬀ Larson, and Andrew W. Lehren(27 Jan 2014), “Spy agencies tap data streamingfrom phone apps,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2014/01/28/world/spy-agencies-scourphone-apps-for-personal-data.html.
23 この真偽について、確かなことはわからない。Dana
Priest (21 Jul 2013), “NSA growth fueled by need totarget terrorists,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsagrowth-fueled-by-need-to-targetterrorists/2013/07/21/24c93cf4-f0b1-11e2-bed3b9b6fe264871̲story.html. Ryan Gallagher (22 Jul
2013), “NSA can reportedly track phones even whentheyʼre turned off,”, http://www.slate.com/
blogs/future̲tense/2013/07/22/nsa̲can̲reportedly̲
track̲cellphones̲even̲when̲they̲re̲turned̲off.
html.
24 私が知るかぎり、この言葉を最初に使ったのはピー
タ ー・ス ワ イ ヤ ー だ。Peter Swire and Kenesa
Ahmad (28 Nov 2011), “ʻGoing darkʼ versus aʻgolden age for surveillance,ʼ” Center for Democracy
and Technology, http://www.futureofprivacy.org/wpcontent/uploads/Going-Dark-Versus-a-Golden-Agefor-Surveillance-Peter-Swire-and-Kenesa-A.pdf.
25 Polly Sprenger (26 Jan 1999), “Sun on privacy: ʻGet
over it,ʼ”, http://archive.wired.com/politics/
law/news/1999/01/17538.
26 US Joint Chiefs of Staff (11 Aug 2011), “Jointii

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Operations,” Joint Publication 3-0, http://fas.org/irp/
doddir/dod/jp3̲0.pdf.
Eric Schmidt and Jared Cohen (2013),, Knopf, http://www.newdigitalage.com.
［邦訳／『第五の権力── Google には見えている未来』（ダイヤモンド社）］
28 この取引について露骨に述べる人はいないが、誰もが「監視は安全のために不可欠だ」という趣旨のことを主張している。Patricia Zengerle and Tabassum
Zakaria (18 Jun 2013), “NSA head, lawmakers
defend surveillance programs,” Reuters, http://www.
reuters.com/article/2013/06/18/us-usa-securityidUSBRE95H15O20130618. Al Jazeera (29 Oct2013), “NSA chief defends spy program in face ofprotest from allies,” Al Jazeera, http://america.
aljazeera.com/articles/2013/10/29/nsa-chief-defendss
pyprogramamidusriftwitheurope.html.
29 テクノロジー批評家のエフゲニー・モロゾフがこの点を指摘している。Evgeny Morozov (22 Oct 2013),“The real privacy problem,”,h t t p : / / w w w. t e c h n o l o g y r e v i e w. c o m /featuredstory/520426/the-real-privacy-problem.
第 1 部 私たちの超監視社会
第 1 章 情報化時代の「排ガス」
1
Peter Eckersley (Jul 2010), “How unique is yourweb browser?”,
B e r l i n , h t t p s : / / p a n o p t i c l i c k . e f f. o r g / b r o w s e runiqueness.pdf.
2
Paul A. Zandbergen (26 Jun 2009), “Accuracy of
iPhone locations: A comparison of assisted GPS,
WiFi and cellular positioning,”
13, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.14679671.2009.01152.x/abstract. Paul A. Zandbergen and
Sean J. Barbeau (Jul 2011), “Positional accuracy ofassisted GPS data from high-sensitivity GPS-enabledmobile phones,”
64, http://
www.paulzandbergen.com/files/Zandbergen̲
Barbeau̲JON̲2011.pdf.
3
Ben Wojdyla (21 Feb 2012), “How it works: The
computer inside your car,”, http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/how-to/repair/howit-works-the-computer-inside-your-car.
4Nate Cardozo (11 Feb 2013), “Mandatory blackboxes in cars raise privacy questions,” Electronic
Frontier Foundation, https://www.eff.org/press/
releases/mandatory-black-boxes-cars-raise-privacyquestions.
5
Lucas Mearian (23 Jul 2013), “Self-driving cars
could create 1GB of data a second,”, h t t p : / / w w w. c o m p u t e r w o r l d . c o m / s /article/9240992/Self̲driving̲cars̲could̲create̲1GB̲
of̲data̲a̲second.
6
Benjamin Henne, Maximilian Koch, and Matthew
Smith (3‒7 Mar 2014), “On the awareness, control
and privacy of shared photo metadata,” Distributed
Computing & Security Group, Leibniz University,presented at the Eighteenth International Conference
for Financial Cryptography and Data Security,
Barbados, http://ifca.ai/fc14/papers/fc14̲
submission̲117.pdf.

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この点は、デジタルカメラのメタデータに関して最も ぞ っ と す る 要 素 だ。Mathew Honan (19 Jan
2009), “I am here: One manʼs experiment with thelocation-aware lifestyle,”, http://www.wired.
com/gadgets/wireless/magazine/17-02/lp̲guineapig.
次第に各国政府は、匿名での現金払いの選択肢をな
く し は じ め て い る。Adrianne Jeﬀries (27 Mar
2013), “Golden Gate Bridgeʼs new cashless tollway
promises convenience in exchange for privacy,”, http://www.theverge.com/2013/3/27/4150702/
golden-gate-bridges-new-cashless-tollway-promisesconvenience-for-privacy. Anh Do (20 Mar 2014),“Orange Countyʼs toll roads going cashless,”, http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/
la-me-ln-cashless-toll-roads-20140320-story.html.
Tr e v o r Pe t t i f o r d ( 1 3 J u n 2 0 1 4 ) , “ Ve t e r a n s
Expressway tolls to start going cashless,”, http://www.baynews9.com/content/news/
baynews9/news/article.html/content/news/articles/
bn9/2014/6/13/veterans̲expressway̲.html. Martine
Powers (17 Jul 2014), “Starting Monday, no morecash at Tobin tolls,”, http://www.
bostonglobe.com/metro/2014/07/16/starting-mondaymore-cash-tobin/WZKMDilsfLULQtYiGZCrEK/story.
html.
Nest (2012), “Nest Learning Thermostat,” http://
certified.nest.com/resources/NEST̲POS̲brochure̲
r7̲300.pdf.
Eliza Barclay (4 May 2012), “The ʻsmart fridgeʼ ﬁnds
the lost lettuce, for a price,”
NPR, http://www.npr.org/blogs/
thesalt/2012/05/03/151968878/the-smart-fridgeﬁnds-the-lost-lettuce-for-a-price.
Ry Crist (8 Jan 2014), “Haierʼs new air conditioner
is the ﬁrst Apple-certiﬁed home appliance,”,
http://ces.cnet.com/8301-35306̲1-57616915/haiersnew-air-conditioner-is-the-ﬁrst-apple-certiﬁed-homeappliance.
Heather Kelley (15 Jan 2014), “Google wants to run
your home with Nest,” CNN, http://www.cnn.
com/2014/01/15/tech/innovation/google-connecthome-nest.
US Department of Energy (2008), “The smart grid:
An introduction,” http://energy.gov/sites/prod/ﬁles/oeprod/DocumentsandMedia/DOE̲SG̲Book̲Single̲
Pages(1).pdf. US Department of Energy (2014),“What is the smart grid?” https://www.smartgrid.
gov/the̲smart̲grid.
Gregory Ferenstein, “How health trackers could
reduce sexual infidelity,”, http://techcrunch.com/2013/07/05/how-health-trackerscould-reduce-sexual-inﬁdelity.
Fitabase (3 Dec 2013), “Privacy policy,” http://www.
ﬁtabase.com/Privacy.
Sarah E. Needleman (14 Aug 2012), “New medical
devices get smart,”, http://online.
wsj.com/news/articles/SB10000872396390444318104
577587141033340190.
Sara M. Watson (10 Oct 2013), “The latest
smartphones could turn us all into activity trackers,”, http://www.wired.com/2013/10/the-trojanhorse-of-the-latest-iphone-with-the-m7-coprocessorwe-all-become-qs-activity-trackers.

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Thomas Goetz (17 Nov 2007), “23AndMe will
decode your DNA for $1,000. Welcome to the ageof genomics,”, http://www.wired.com/
medtech/genetics/magazine/15-12/ff̲genomics.
Elizabeth Murphy (14 Oct 2013), “Inside 23andMe
founder Anne Wojcickiʼs $99 DNA revolution,”, http://www.fastcompany.com/3018598/for99-this-ceo-can-tell-you-what-might-kill-you-inside23andme-founder-anne-wojcickis-dna-r.
Charles Seife (27 Nov 2013), “23andMe is terrifying,
but not for the reasons the FDA thinks,”, http://www.scientificamerican.com/
article/23andme-is-terrifying-but-not-for-reasons-fda.
Rebecca Greenﬁeld (25 Nov 2013), “Why 23andMe
terriﬁes health insurance companies,”,
http://www.fastcompany.com/3022224/innovationagents/why-23andme-terrifies-health-insurancecompanies.
Leo Kelion (6 Jan 2014), “CES 2014: Sony showsoﬀ life logging app and kit,”, http://www.
bbc.com/news/technology-25633647.
Alec Wilkinson (28 May 2007), “Remember this? A
project to record everything we do in life,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n e w y o r k e r . c o m /reporting/2007/05/28/070528fa̲fact̲wilkinson.
Jenna Wortham (8 Mar 2013), “Meet Memoto, thelifelogging camera,”, http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/08/meet-memotothe-lifelogging-camera.
Ken Hess (10 Jan 2014), “The Internet of Things
outlook for 2014: Every thing connected andcommunicating,”, http://www.zdnet.com/theinternet-of-things-outlook-for-2014-everythingconnected-and-communicating-7000024930.
Georgina Stylianou (29 Apr 2013), “Idea to haves e n s o r s t r a c k e v e r y t h i n g i n c i t y,”(Christchurch), http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/
business/the-rebuild/8606956/Idea-to-have-sensorstrack-everything-in-city. Victoria Turk (Jul 2013),“City sensors: the Internet of Things is taking over
our cities,”, http://www.wired.co.uk/magazine/archive/2013/07/everything-is-connected/citysensors.
Sam Byford (5 Jan 2014), “Kolibreeʼs smart
toothbrush claims to track and improve your dental
h y g i e n e ,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e v e r g e .
com/2014/1/5/5277426/kolibree-smart-toothbrush.
Margaret Rhodes (23 Sep 2014), “Ex-Tesla andNASA engineers make a light bulb thatʼs smarter
than you,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/09/
ex-tesla-nasa-engineers-make-light-bulb-thatssmarter.
チャールズ・ストロスは、そうしたテクノロジーの実用化がもつ意味を論じている。Charles Stross (25Jun 2014), “YAPC::NA 2014 keynote: Programming
Perl in 2034,”, http://www.antipope.
org/charlie/blog-static/2014/06/yapcna-2014-keynoteprogrammin.html.
Valentina Palladino (8 Jan 2014), “AdhereTechʼssmart pill bottle knows when you take, and miss,your medication,”, http://www.theverge.
com/2014/1/8/5289022/adheretech-smart-pill-bottle.
Econocom (19 Sep 2013), “When fashion meets theiii

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Internet of Things,”, http://blog.econocom.
com/en/blog/when-fashion-meets-the-internet-ofthings. Michael Knigge (28 Aug 2014), “Tagging
along: Is Adidas tracking soccer fans?”, http://www.dw.de/tagging-along-is-adidastracking-soccer-fans/a-1788463.
前にも似たようなことがあった。1970年代にデジタ
ル時計が普及しはじめたときは、時計単独の装置だった。目覚まし時計と腕時計があるだけだったのだ。しかし、価格が下がると、ほかの製品にも組み込まれるようになった。最初は電子レンジ、そのあとはコーヒーポット、オーブン、サーモスタット、
ビデオレコーダー、テレビと、デジタル時計が一体化した製品が増えていった。同じことがインターネ
ットと結びついたセンサーにも起きようとしている。
Natasha Lomas (9 May 2013), “10BN+ wirelessly
connected devices today, 30BN+ in 2020ʼs ʻInternet
Of Everything,ʼ says ABI Research,”,
http://techcrunch.com/2013/05/09/internet-ofeverything.
Valentina Palladino (10 Jan 2014), “Invisible
intelligence: How tiny sensors could connect
everything we own,”, http://www.theverge.
com/2014/1/10/5293778/invisible-intelligence-tinysensors-that-connect-everything.
Ben Hammersley (Jul 2013), “When the world
becomes the Web,”, http://www.wired.co.uk/
magazine/archive/2013/07/everything-is-connected/
when-the-world-becomes-the-web.
ニューアーク・リバティ国際空港（ニュージャージー 州）に は、す で に 導 入 さ れ て い る。Diane
Cardwell (17 Feb 2014), “At Newark Airport, thelights are on, and theyʼre watching you,”, http://www.ny times.com/2014/02/18/
business/at-newark-airport-the-lights-are-on-andtheyre-watching-you.html.
Olga Kharif (31 Oct 2013), “As drones evolve frommilitary to civilian uses, venture capitalists move in,”
, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
business/as-drones-evolve-from-military-to-civilianuses-venture-capitalists-movein/2013/10/31/592ca862-419e-11e3-8b74d89d714ca4dd̲story.html.
Paul McLeary (29 Jun 2014), “Powerful radar blimp
to surveil Washington, Baltimore, out to sea,”, http://www.defensenews.com/
article/20140629/DEFREG02/306290012/PowerfulRadar-Blimp-Surveil-Washington-Baltimore-Out-Sea.
た と え ば 次 を 参 照。Electronic Frontier Foundation(2014), “The governmentʼs word games when talking
about NSA domestic spying,” https://www.eff.org/
nsa-spying/wordgames.
この数字は、1ページに含まれるデータを2キロバイ
トとして計算したもの。この「1ページ＝2キロバイ
ト」という前提は合理的だが、5000億ページという数字は正確でない。実際には、多くのデータが音声、画像、写真だからだ。
M. G. Siegler (4 Aug 2010), “Eric Schmidt: Every 2days we create as much information as we did up to
2 0 0 3 ,”, http://techcrunch.
com/2010/08/04/schmidt-data.
Cisco (10 Jun 2014), “Cisco visual networking index:

Forecast and methodology, 2013‒2018,” http://www.
cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/serviceprovider/ip-ngn-ip-next-generation-network/white̲
paper̲c11-481360.html.
42 Chris M. Evans (18 Apr 2014), “IAAS Series: Cloudstorage pricing: How low can they go?”, http://blog.architecting.it/2014/04/18/iaas-seriescloud-storage-pricing-how-low-can-they-go.
43 K. Young (6 Sep 2012), “How much would it cost to
store the entire Twitter Firehose?”, http://blog.mortardata.com/
post/31027073689/how-much-would-it-cost-to-storethe-entire-twitter.
44 Brewster Kahle (2013), “Cost to store all US
phonecalls made in a year so it could be datamined,”
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0Auql
WHQKlooOdGJrSzhBVnh0WGlzWHpCZFNVcURk
X0E#gid=0.
45 James Bamford (15 Mar 2012), “The NSA isbuilding the countryʼs biggest spy center (watch
what you say),”, http://www.wired.com/
threatlevel/2012/03/ﬀ̲nsadatacenter/all.
46 Forbes (19 Oct 2012), “The 5 largest data centers in
the world,”, http://www.forbes.com/pictures/
fhgl45ijg/range-international-information-hub.
47 Kashmir Hill (24 Jul 2013), “Blueprints of NSAʼsridiculously expensive data center in Utah suggest it
holds less info than thought,”, http://www.
forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2013/07/24/blueprintsof-nsa-data-center-in-utah-suggest-its-storagecapacity-is-less-impressive-than-thought.
48 Siobhan Gorman (21 Oct 2013), “Contractors ﬁght
over delays to NSA data center,”,
http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB100014240527
02303672404579149902978119902.
49 Randall Munro (2013), “Googleʼs datacenters onpunch cards,”, https://what-if.xkcd.
com/63.
50 Cyrus Farivar (15 Nov 2012), “How one law student
is making Facebook get serious about privacy,”, http://arstechnica.com/techpolicy/2012/11/how-one-law-student-is-makingfacebook-get-serious-about-privacy. Olivia Solon (28Dec 2012), “How much data did Facebook have on
one man? 1,200 pages of data in 57 categories,”, h t t p : / / w w w. w i r e d . c o . u k / m a g a z i n e /archive/2012/12/start/privacy-versus-facebook.
51 これを受けてシュレムスは、フェイスブックを相手
取 っ て 集 団 訴 訟 を 起 こ し た。Liat Clark (1 Aug
2014), “Facebook hit with international class action
lawsuit,”, http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2014-08/01/facebook-class-action-lawsuit.
第 2 章 監視されるデータ
1
スノーデン以前の内部告発者には、トーマス・ドレ
ーク、マーク・クライン、ビル・ビニーなどがいる。その後の内部告発者たちの素性はまだ明らかにな っ て い な い。Bruce Schneier (7 Aug 2014), “TheUS intelligence community has a third leaker,”, https://www.schneier.com/blog/
archives/2014/08/the̲us̲intellig.html.
2
Glenn Greenwald (5 Jun 2013), “NSA collecting
phone records of millions of Verizon customers

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

daily,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-courtorder.
Barack Obama (7 Jun 2013), “Statement by the
President,” US Executive Office of the President,
h t t p : / / w w w. w h i t e h o u s e . g o v / t h e - p r e s s office/2013/06/07/statement-president. James R.
Clapper (7 Jun 2013), “DNI statement on recent
unauthorized disclosures of classiﬁed information,”Oﬃce of the Director of National Intelligence, http://w w w. d n i . g o v / i n d e x . p h p / n e w s r o o m / p r e s s releases/191-press-releases-2013/868-dni-statementon-recent-unauthorized-disclosures-of-classifiedinformation. Ed OʼKeefe (6 Jun 2013), “Transcript:
Dianne Feinstein, Saxby Chambliss explain, defend
NSA phone records program,”,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/post-politics/
wp/2013/06/06/transcript-dianne-feinstein-saxbychambliss-explain-defend-nsa-phone-recordsprogram.
オバマ大統領がつねに、ある特定の言葉遣いをしていることに疑念をいだかずにいられないのは、私だ
けだろうか？ オバマは「誰もみなさんの電話を聞いてはいません」といった言い方をする。文字どおり解釈すれば、NSA が通話を録音し、それを文字に起こして分析し、しばしばそれを読んでいる可能性は残る。おそらく、実際にそうなのだろう。そして、学者肌の大統領は、あくまでも嘘はついていな
いと言い張れるのだ。
こ の 点 に つ い て は、以 下 の 記 事 が 素 晴 ら し い。
Dahlia Lithwick and Steve Vladeck (22 Nov 2013),“Taking the ʻmehʼ out of metadata,”, http://w w w. s l a t e . c o m / a r t i c l e s / n e w s ̲ a n d ̲ p o l i t i c s /jurisprudence/2013/11/nsa̲and̲metadata̲how̲the̲
government̲can̲spy̲on̲your̲health̲political̲
beliefs.html.
Edward W. Felten (23 Aug 2013), “Declaration ofProfessor Edward W. Felten,”.,
United States District Court, Southern District of
New York (Case 1:13-cv-03994-WHP), https://www.
aclu.org/files/pdfs/natsec/clapper/2013.08.26%20
ACLU%20PI%20Brief%20-%20Declaration%20-%20
Felten.pdf.
Yves-Alexandre de Montjoye et al. (2‒5 Apr 2013),“Predicting people personality using novel mobile
phone-based metrics,” 6th International Conference
on Social Computing, Behavioral-Cultural Modelinga n d P r e d i c t i o n , Wa s h i n g t o n , D. C . , h t t p : / /realitycommons.media.mit.edu/download.php?ﬁle=deMontjoye2013predicting-citation.pdf.
IBM は、電話通話のメタデータを分析する方法の講
座 を 開 講 し て い る。IBM Corporation (2014),“9T225G: Telephone analysis using i2 Analystʼs
Notebook,” http://www-03.ibm.com/services/learning/content/ites.wss/zz/en?pageType=course̲description&courseCode=9T225G&cc=.
Jonathan Mayer and Patrick Mutchler (12 Mar
2014), “MetaPhone: The sensitivity of telephonem e t a d a t a ,”, h t t p : / / w e b p o l i c y.
org/2014/03/12/metaphone-the-sensitivity-oftelephone-metadata.
NSA の「KEYSCORE」プ ロ グ ラ ム の ス ラ イ ド では、「ウェブベースの検索」のデータの収集について触れている。この点からも、NSA がこの種のデータをメタデータとみなしていることがわかる。
Glenn Greenwald (31 Jul 2013), “XKeyscore: NSA
tool collects ʻnearly everything a user does on theinternet,ʼ”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/jul/31/nsa-top-secret-program-onlinedata.
11 「should I tell my girlfriend」でも結果は似たようなものだ。
12 A r w a M a h d a w i ( 2 2 O c t 2 0 1 3 ) , “ G o o g l e ʼ s
autocomplete spells out our darkest thoughts,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /commentisfree/2013/oct/22/google-autocomplete-unwomen-ad-discrimination-algorithms.
13 Derek Thompson (1 Oct 2010), “Googleʼs CEO:ʻThe laws are written by lobbyists,ʼ”, http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2010/10/
googles-ceo-the-laws-are-written-by-lobbyists/63908.
14 ツイッターの書き込みを手がかりに、ユーザーの就
寝 時 間 と 起 床 時 間 を 割 り 出 せ る。Amit Agarwal(2013), “Sleeping Time,”, http://sleepingtime.org.
15 フェイスブック上の人間関係に関する2つの研究が浮き彫りにしているように、政治的傾向や性的指向、その他の個人的特徴を明らかにするのは簡単だ。Carter Jernigan and Behram R. T. Mistree (5Oct 2009), “Gaydar: Facebook friendships expose
sexual orientation,”
14, http://
firstmonday.org/article/view/2611/2302. Michal
Kosinski, David Stillwell, and Thore Graepel (11 Mar
2013), “Private traits and attributes are predictablefrom digital records of human behavior,”, http://www.pnas.
org/content/early/2013/03/06/1218772110.abstract.
MIT メディアラボの「イマージョン」というツール
を用いれば、電子メールのメタデータから人間関係を割り出せる。MIT Media Lab (2013), “Immersion:
A people-centric view of your email life,” https://immersion.media.mit.edu.
17 Brian Lam (19 Jun 2013), “Phew, NSA is justcollecting metadata. (You should still worry),”,
http://www.wired.com/2013/06/phew-it-was-justmetadata-not-think-again.
18 Edward W. Felten (23 Aug 2013), “Declaration ofProfessor Edward W. Felten,”.,
United States District Court, Southern District of
New York (Case 1:13-cv-03994-WHP), https://www.
aclu.org/files/pdfs/natsec/clapper/2013.08.26%20
ACLU%20PI%20Brief%20-%20Declaration%20-%20
Felten.pdf.
19 Alan Rusbridger (21 Nov 2013), “The Snowden
leaks and the public,”,
http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2013/nov/21/snowden-leaks-and-public.
20 David Cole (10 May 2014), “ʻWe kill people basedon metadata,ʼ”, http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2014/may/10/wekill-people-based-metadata.
21 John O. Koehler (1999),
Westview Press,
16v

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22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

vi

http://books.google.com/books?id=waxWwxY1tt8C.
Mary DeRosa (2005), “Section 206: Roving
surveillance authority under FISA: A summary,”, http://apps.americanbar.org/
natsecurity/patriotdebates/section-206.
デーヴィッド・ライアンがこの点を指摘している。
David Lyon (2003),,
P o l i t y, h t t p : / / w w w. p o l i t y. c o . u k / b o o k .
asp?ref=0745631819.
BrickHouse Security (2014), “iPhone / Android Spy
Stick,”, https://www.skymall.com/iphone%2F-android-spy-stick/28033GRP.html.
Keyloggers.com (2014), “Top keyloggers of 2014
comparison and reviews,” http://www.keyloggers.
com.
Stealth Genie (2014), “Live call intercept,” http://
www.stealthgenie.com/features/live-call-intercept.
html.
Amazon.com (2014), “DJI Phantom 2 Ready to Fly
Quadcopter - With Zenmuse H3-2D Camera Gimbal:$959.00 (list $999),” Amazon.com, http://www.
amazon.com/Dji-Phantom-Ready-Fly-Quadcopter/dp/
B00H7HPU54.
鳥や昆虫に似た空飛ぶセンサーの試作品も登場している。宙を漂う埃の粒子ほどの大きさの機器も登場
す る か も し れ な い。Elisabeth Bumiller and Thom
Shanker (19 Jun 2011), “War evolves with drones,
some tiny as bugs,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/20drones.html. John
W. Whitehead (15 Apr 2013), “Roaches, mosquitoes,
and birds: The coming micro-drone revolution,”
Rutherford Institute, https://www.rutherford.org/
publications̲resources/john̲whiteheads̲
commentary/roaches̲mosquitoes̲and̲birds̲the̲
coming̲micro̲drone̲revolution.
Ashkan Soltani (9 Jan 2014), “The cost of
surveillance,” http://ashkansoltani.org/2014/01/09/
the-cost-of-surveillance. Kevin S. Bankston andAshkan Soltani (9 Jan 2014), “Tiny constables andthe cost of surveillance: Making cents out of,”
123, http://
yalelawjournal.org/forum/tiny-constables-and-thecost-of-surveillance-making-cents-out-of-unitedstates-v-jones.
Carrie Johnson (21 Mar 2012), “FBI still struggling
with Supreme Courtʼs GPS ruling,”, http://www.npr.org/2012/03/21/149011887/
fbi-still-struggling-with-supreme-courts-gps-ruling.
Shawn Musgrave (5 Mar 2014), “A vast hidden
surveillance network runs across America, poweredby the repo industry,”,
http://betaboston.com/news/2014/03/05/a-vasthidden-surveillance-network-runs-across-americapowered-by-the-repo-industry. Shawn Musgrave (5Mar 2014), “Massive license plate location databasejust like Instagram, Digital Recognition Network
insists,”, http://betaboston.
com/news/2014/03/05/massive-license-platelocation-database-just-like-instag ram-dig italrecognition-network-insists.
V ig ilant V ideo (23 Feb 2009), “Site specificp r e p a r a t i o n s h e e t f o r L E A R N V. 4 . 0 s e r v e r
installation,” https://www.aclu.org/files/FilesPDFs/

ALPR/texas/alprpra̲portharthurPD̲portarthurtx%20%287%29.pdf.
33 Cyrus Farivar (27 Feb 2012), “Your car, tracked: The
rapid rise of license plate readers,”,
http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/09/your-cartracked-the-rapid-rise-of-license-plate-readers.
Catherine Crump (18 Jul 2013), “You are being
tracked: How license plate readers are being used torecord Americansʼ movements,” American Civil
Liberties Union, https://www.aclu.org/files/
assets/071613-aclu-alprreport-opt-v05.pdf.
34 Craig Timberg and Ellen Nakashima (16 Jun 2013),“State photo-ID databases become troves for police,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
business/technolog y/state-photo-id-databasesbecome-troves-for-police/2013/06/16/6f014bd4-ced511e2-8845-d970ccb04497̲story.html.
35 Josh Hicks (18 Feb 2014), “Homeland Security
wants to build national database using license plates c a n n e r s ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/blogs/federal-eye/
wp/2014/02/18/homeland-security-wants-to-buildnational-database-using-license-plate-scanners. Dan
Froomkin (17 Mar 2014), “Reports of the death of anational license-plate tracking database have been
greatly exaggerated,”, https://ﬁrstlook.org/th
eintercept/2014/03/17/1756license-plate-trackingdatabase.
36 James Bridle (18 Dec 2013), “How Britain exported
next-generation surveillance,”, https://
medium.com/matter-archive/how-britain-exportednext-generation-surveillance-d15b5801b79e. Jennifer
Lynch and Peter Bibring (6 May 2013), “Automatedlicense plate readers threaten our privacy,” ElectronicF r o n t i e r Fo u n d a t i o n , h t t p s : / / w w w. e f f . o r g /deeplinks/2013/05/alpr.
37 警 察 も そ の デ ー タ を 入 手 し て い る。Hélène
Mulholland (2 Apr 2012), “Boris Johnson plans togive police access to congestion charge cameras,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /politics/2012/apr/02/boris-johnson-police-congestioncharge.
38 Dan Froomkin (17 Mar 2014), “Reports of the deathof a national license-plate tracking database havebeen greatly exaggerated,”, https://ﬁrstlook.
org/theintercept/2014/03/17/1756license-platetracking-database.
39 US Federal Bureau of Investigation (15 Sep 2014),“FBI announces full operational capability of thenext generation identiﬁcation system,” http://www.
fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/fbi-announcesfull-operational-capability-of-the-next-generationidentiﬁcation-system.
40 William Maclean (2 Oct 2014), “Dubai detectives to
get Google Glass to fight crime,” Reuters, http://
www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/02/us-emiratesdubai-google-police-idUSKCN0HR0W320141002.
41 Glenn Greenwald (5 Jun 2013), “NSA collecting
phone records of millions of Verizon customers
daily,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-courtorder.
42 Brandon Griggs (20 Aug 2013), “New Google Maps

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43

44
45

46

47

48

49

50

51

can help you avoid traﬃc,” CNN, http://www.cnn.
com/2013/08/20/tech/mobile/google-waze-mobilemaps.
Alexandra Alter (19 Jul 2012), “Your e-Book isreading you,”, http://online.wsj.
com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304870304577
490950051438304.
ネットフリックス、アマゾン、フールー（Hulu）な
どの動画配信サービスにも同じことは言える。
Jennifer 8. Lee (21 Mar 2002), “Welcome to the
database lounge,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2002/03/21/technology/welcome-to-thedatabase-lounge.html. Katie R. Holloman and D.
Evan Ponder (2007), “Clubs, bars, and the driverʼs
license scanning system,” in, ed. Amy Albert, Ethica Publishing, http://
www.ethicapublishing.com/7CH5.htm.
Buzzfeed (10 Apr 2014), “How privileged are you?”
http://www.buzzfeed.com/regajha/how-privilegedare-you.
Caitlin Dewey (26 Jun 2014), “The scary, eyeopening truth of Internet tracking ̶ on Buzzfeed
quizzes, and everywhere else,”,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/
wp/2014/06/26/the-scary-eye-opening-truth-ofinternet-tracking-on-buzzfeed-quizzes-andeverywhere-else.
Marco D. Heusch (28 Oct 2013), “Privacy threats
when seeking online health information,”, http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/
article.aspx?articleid=1710119.
Ron Nixon (3 Jul 2013), “U.S. Postal Service logging
all mail for law enforcement,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/04/us/monitoringof-snail-mail.html.
Ms. Smith (18 Jun 2012), “The future of drone
surveillance: Cyborg insect drones,”,
http://www.networkworld.com/article/2222611/
microsoft-subnet/the-future-of-drone-surveillance-swarms-of-cyborg-insect-drones.html.
Ravi Subban and Dattatreya P. Mankame (2014),“Human face recognition biometric techniques:
Analysis and review,”

56

57

58

59

60

61

52

53

54

55

235, http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1
007%2F978-3-319-01778-5̲47.
Chaochao Lu and Xiaoou Tang (15 Apr 2014),“Surpassing human-level face verificationp e r f o r m a n c e o n L F W w i t h G a u s s i a n Fa c e ,”a r X i v : 1 4 0 4 . 3 8 4 0 [ c s. C V ] , h t t p : / / a r x i v. o r g /abs/1404.3840.
Barry Fox (5 Feb 2007), “Invention: Covert iris
scanner,”, http://www.newscientist.
com/article/dn11110-invention-covert-iris-scanner.
html.
Zhaoxiang Zhang, Maodi Hu, and Yunhong Wang(2011), “A survey of advances in biometric gait
recognition,”, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science 7098, Springer-Verlag, http://link.
s p r i n g e r. c o m / c h a p t e r / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 %2F978-3-642-25449-9̲19.
Katherine Albrecht (2008), “RFID tag: Youʼre it,”(Sep 2008): 72‒77, http://www.

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scientificamerican.com/article/how-rfid-tags-couldbe-used. University of Washington College ofEngineering (22 Feb 2008), “University launches
RFID people tracking experiment,”,
http://www.rfidjournal.com/articles/view?6924.
Christopher Zara (8 Jan 2013), “Disney Worldʼs
RFID tracking bracelets are a slippery slope, warns
privacy advocate,”,
http://www.ibtimes.com/disney-worlds-rﬁd-trackingbracelets-are-slippery-slope-warns-privacyadvocate-1001790.
Quentin Hardy (7 Mar 2013), “Technology turns totracking people oﬄine,”, http://bits.
blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/07/technology-turns-totracking-people-oﬄine.
Stephanie Cliﬀord and Quentin Hardy (15 Jul 2013),“Attention, shoppers: Store is tracking your cell,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s .
com/2013/07/15/business/attention-shopper-storesare-tracking-your-cell.html. Brian Fung (19 Oct2013), “How stores use your phoneʼs WiFi to track
your shopping habits,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-switch/
wp/2013/10/19/how-stores-use-your-phones-wiﬁ-totrack-your-shopping-habits. Latanya Sweeney (12Feb 2014), “My phone at your service,” US Federal
Trade Commission, http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/
blogs/techftc/2014/02/my-phone-your-service.
Bram Bonne et al. (4‒7 Jun 2013), “WiFiPi:
Involuntary tracking of visitors at mass events,” 14th
International Symposium and Workshops on Worldof Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks,
Madrid, http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.
jsp?arnumber=6583443.
Jim Edwards (9 Jan 2014), “Ford exec retracts
statements about tracking drivers with the GPS int h e i r c a r s ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
businessinsider.com/ford-jim-farley-retractsstatements-tracking-drivers-gps-2014-1.
Curt Magleby (3 Feb 2014), Letter to the Honorable
Al Franken, United States Senate, re: Collection oflocation information, http://www.franken.senate.gov/
ﬁles/letter/140212FordResponse.pdf.
US Government Accountability Oﬃce (6 Dec 2013),“In-car location-based services: Companies aretaking steps to protect privacy, but some risks may
not be clear to consumers,” Report to the Chairman,
Subcommittee on Privacy, Technology and the Law,
Committee on the Judiciary, US Senate, GAO-14-81,
http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-14-81.
British Broadcasting Corporation (10 Mar 2008),“Camera ʻlooksʼ through clothing,”,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7287135.stm.
Rocco Parascandola (23 Jan 2013), “NYPD
Commissioner says department will begin testing a
new high-tech device that scans for concealed
weapons,”, http://www.
nydailynews.com/new-york/nypd-readies-scan-andfrisk-article-1.1245663. Carter M. Armstrong (17 Aug
2012), “The truth about terahertz,”,
http://spectrum.ieee.org/aerospace/military/the-truthabout-terahertz.
Larry Hardesty (4 Aug 2014), “Extracting audio fromvii

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

visual information,”, http://newsoﬃce.mit.
edu/2014/algorithm-recovers-speech-fromvibrations-0804. Abe Davis et al. (10‒14 Aug 2014),“The visual microphone: Passive recovery of soundfrom video,” 41st International Conference on
Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques(SIGGRAPH 2014), Vancouver, British Columbia,
http://people.csail.mit.edu/mrub/papers/VisualMic̲
SIGGRAPH2014.pdf.
64 Erik Kain (30 Dec 2013), “The NSA reportedly has
total access to the Apple iPhone,”, http://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2013/12/30/the-nsareportedly-has-total-access-to-your-iphone.
65 Shaun Waterman (9 Mar 2009), “DHS wants to use
human body odor as biometric identifier, clue to
deception,” UPI, http://www.upi.com/Top̲News/
Special/2009/03/09/DHS-wants-to-use-human-bodyodor-as-biometric-identifier-clue-to-deception/UPI20121236627329.
66 Pranav Dixit (19 Aug 2014), “Banks now know who
you are from how you type,”, http://gizmodo.com/your-phone-can-now-identify-youbased-on-how-you-type-1623733346.
67 「計量文献学」と呼ばれる。Sadia Afroz et al. (18-21
May 2014), “Doppelgänger ﬁnder: Taking stylometry
to the underground,” IEEE Symposium on Security& Privacy, Oakland, California, http://www.cs.gmu.
edu/~mccoy/papers/oakland2014-underground.pdf.
68 Raphael Satter (13 Oct 2014), “Voiceprints being
harvested by the millions,” Associated Press, http://
www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/
millions-of-voiceprints-quietly-beingharvested/2014/10/13/b34e291a-52af-11e4-b86d184ac281388d̲story.html. Raphael Satter (13 Oct2014), “Banks harvest callersʼ voiceprints to fightfraud,” Associated Press, http://www.washingtonpost.
com/world/europe/banks-harvest-callers-voiceprintsto-ﬁght-fraud/2014/10/13/715c6e56-52ad-11e4-b86d184ac281388d̲story.html.
69 Nicola Clark (17 Mar 2014), “Airlines use digitaltechnology to get even more personal,”, http://www.ny times.com/2014/03/18/
business/airlines-use-digital-technology-to-get-evenmore-personal.html.
70 Andrew Hough (10 Mar 2010), “ʻMinority Reportʼ
dig ital billboard ʻwatches consumers shop,ʼ”, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/
news/7411249/Minority-Report-digital-billboardwatches-consumers-shop.html.
71 C l i n t B o u l t o n ( 1 1 O c t 2 0 1 3 ) , “ S n a c k m a k e rmodernizes the impulse buy with sensors, analytics,”, http://blogs.wsj.com/
cio/2013/10/11/snackmaker-modernizes-the-impulsebuy-with-sensors-analytics.
72 次の作品は、これらのアイデアを用いた見事なＳＦ
短 編 だ。Ken Liu (Dec 2012), “The perfect match,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
lightspeedmagazine.com/ﬁction/the-perfect-match.
73 Bryan Acohido (15 Nov 2011), “Facebook tracking isunder scrutiny,”, http://usatoday30.
usatoday.com/tech/news/story/2011-11-15/facebookprivacy-tracking-data/51225112/1.
74 Cotton Delo (22 Feb 2013), “Facebook to partner

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with Acxiom, Epsilon to match store purchases withuser profiles,”, http://adage.com/
article/digital/facebook-partner-acxiom-epsilonmatch-store-purchases-user-proﬁles/239967.
私はユーザーの個人データを集めない「ダック・ダ
ック・ゴー」という検索エンジンを使っている。
https://duckduckgo.com.
Jonathan Mayer (17 Feb 2012), “Safari trackers,”, http://webpolicy.org/2012/02/17/safaritrackers.
Benjamin Mako Hill (11 May 2014), “Google has
most of my email because it has all of yours,”, http://mako.cc/copyrighteous/googlehas-most-of-my-email-because-it-has-all-of-yours.
Mun Wong (4 May 2011), “Top 5 cities with thelargest surveillance camera networks,”, http://www.vintechnology.com/journal/
uncategorized/top-5-cities-with-the-largestsurveillance-camera-networks. David Barrett (10 Jul
2013), “One surveillance camera for every 11 people
in Britain, says CCTV survey,”, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/10172298/Onesurveillance-camera-for-every-11-people-in-Britainsays-CCTV-survey.html. Thales Group (11 Apr
2014), “Mexico City, the worldʼs most ambitious
urban security programme,” https://www.thalesgroup.
com/en/worldwide/security/case-study/mexico-cityworlds-most-ambitious-urban-security-programme.
Seagate Technology LLC (2012), “Video surveillance
storage: How much is enough?” http://m.seagate.
com/ﬁles/staticﬁles/docs/pdf/whitepaper/video-survstorage-tp571-3-1202-us.pdf.
Jeremy Bentham (1791),, T. Payne, http://cartome.org/
panopticon2.htm.
Oscar H. Gandy Jr. (1993),, Westview
Press, http://books.google.com/
books?id=wreFAAAAMAAJ.［邦 訳 ／『個 人 情 報 と権力──統括選別の政治経済学』（同文舘出版）］;Tom Brignall III (2002), “The new panopticon: The
Internet viewed as a structure of social control,”Tennessee Tech University, http://unpan1.un.org/
intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/
unpan003570.pdf.
Ellen Nakashima (16 Jan 2007), “Enjoying
technologyʼs conveniences but not escaping its
watchful eyes,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/
article/2007/01/15/AR2007011501304.html.

第 3 章 分析されるデータ
1
Charles Duhigg (16 Feb 2012), “How companies
learn your secrets,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2012/02/19/magazine/shopping-habits.
html.
2
Gregory Piatetsky (8 Dec 2013), “3 stages of Big
D a t a ,”, h t t p : / / w w w. k d n u g g e t s.
com/2013/12/3-stages-big-data.html.
3Michael Scherer (7 Nov 2012), “Inside the secretworld of the data crunchers who helped Obamawin,”, http://swampland.time.com/2012/11/07/
inside-the-secret-world-of-quants-and-data-crunchers-

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

4

5

6

7

8

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11

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who-helped-obama-win.
2つ の 例 を 挙 げ よ う。Lars Backstrom et al. (5 Jan
2012), “Four degrees of separation,” arXiv:1111.4570[cs.SI], http://arxiv.org/abs/1111.4570. Russell B.
Clayton (Jul 2014), “The third wheel: The impact ofTwitter use on relationship inﬁdelity and divorce,”17,
http://www.cs.vu.nl/~eliens/sg/local/cyber/twitterinﬁdelity.pdf.
実験では、同性愛者男性と異性愛者男性を88％の確率で、アフリカ系アメリカ人と白人のアメリカ人を95％の確率で、民主党員と共和党員を85％の確率で正しく識別できた。Michal Kosinski, David Stillwell,and Thore Graepel (11 Mar 2013), “Private traits
and attributes are predictable from digital records ofhuman behavior,”, http://www.pnas.org/content/
early/2013/03/06/1218772110.
Sara M. Watson (14 Mar 2012), “I didn't tell
Facebook I'm engaged, so why is it asking about myfiancé?”, http://www.theatlantic.com/
technology/archive/2012/03/i-didnt-tell-facebook-imengaged-so-why-is-it-asking-about-my-ﬁanc/254479.
Katie Heaney (19 Mar 2013), “Facebook knew I was
gay before my family did,”, http://www.
buzzfeed.com/katieheaney/facebook-knew-i-was-gaybefore-my-family-did.
Geoﬀrey A. Fowler (13 Oct 2012), “When the most
personal secrets get outed on Facebook,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB1000
0872396390444165804578008740578200224.
2014年のある時期、同性愛者の出会い系アプリ「グラインダー」では、システム上の欠陥により、世界中で同性愛者の居場所が誰にでもわかるようになっていた。そこには、ウガンダやロシア、イランなど、同性愛者に身の危険が及びかねない国も含まれて い た。John Aravosis (26 Aug 2014), “Popular gay
dating app Grindr faces creepy security breachallegations,”, http://americablog.
com/2014/08/grindr-users-unwittingly-giving-awayexact-location.html.
Sara M. Watson (16 Sep 2014), “Ask the decoder:
Stalked by socks,” Al Jazeera, http://america.
aljazeera.com/articles/2014/9/16/the-decoderstalkedbysocks.html.
Sylvan Lane (13 Aug 2014), “16 creepiest targeted
Fa c e b o o k a d s,”, http://mashable.
com/2014/08/13/facebook-ads-creepy.
Guy Gugliotta (19 Jun 2006), “Data mining stillneeds a clue to be effective,”,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/
article/2006/06/18/AR2006061800524.html. Phillip
Segal (28 Mar 2011), “Data mining is dumbed down
intelligence,”, http://www.
ethicalinvestigator.com/internet/data-mining-isdumbed-down-intelligence. Ogi Ogas (8 Feb 2013),“Beware the big errors of ʻBig Data,ʼ”, http://www.wired.com/2013/02/big-data-means-big-errorspeople.
Barton Gellman and Ashkan Soltani (18 Mar 2014),“NSA surveillance program reaches ʻinto the pastʼ toretrieve, replay phone calls,”, http://

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21

www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/
nsa-surveillance-program-reaches-into-the-past-toretrieve-replay-phone-calls/2014/03/18/226d2646ade9-11e3-a49e-76adc9210f19̲story.html.
US Department of Justice (16 Dec 2009), “Credit
Suisse agrees to forfeit $536 million in connection
with violations of the International Emergency
Economic Powers Act and New York State law,”
http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2009/December/09ag-1358.html. Oﬃce of the District Attorney, NewYork County (10 Dec 2012), “Standard Chartered
Bank reaches $327 million settlement for illegaltransactions,” http://manhattanda.org/node/3440/
print. Office of the District Attorney, New YorkCounty (30 Jun 2014), “BNP Paribas Bank pleads
guilty, pays $8.83 billion in penalties for illegaltransactions,” http://manhattanda.org/node/4884/
print.
Scott Rosenﬁeld (23 Jul 2013), “Top 3 ﬁnishers in1998 Tour test positive,”, http://www.
outsideonline.com/news-from-the-field/Top-3Finishers-in-1998-Tour-Test-Positive.html.
Glenn Greenwald (21 Jul 2013), “XKeyscore: NSA
tool collects ʻnearly everything a user does on theinternet,ʼ”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/jul/31/nsa-top-secret-program-onlinedata. US National Security Agency (8 Jan 2007),“XKEYSCORE (training slides),” https://www.eff.
org/document/2013-07-31-guard-xkeyscore-trainingslides (page 2).
James Ball (30 Sep 2013), “NSA stores metadata of
millions of web users for up to a year, secret ﬁlesshow,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/sep/30/nsa-americans-metadata-yeardocuments.
Ryan Devereaux, Glenn Greenwald, and Laura
Poitras (19 May 2014), “Data pirates of the
Caribbean: The NSA is recording every cell phone
call in the Bahamas,”, https://ﬁrstlook.org/
theintercept/article/2014/05/19/data-piratescaribbean-nsa-recording-every-cell-phone-callbahamas. Julian Assange (23 May 2014), “WikiLeaks
statement on the mass recording of Afghan
telephone calls by the NSA,”, https://wikileaks.org/WikiLeaks-statement-on-the-mass.html.
David Kravets (17 Jan 2014), “Obama revamps NSA
phone metadata spying program,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/01/obama-nsa.
暗号化された SSL 通信すべてがここに含まれるのかは、私にはわからない。私の推測では、NSA は
多くの SSL をリアルタイムで解読する能力をもって い る。Matthew Green (2 Dec 2013), “How does
the NSA break SSL?”, http://blog.
cryptographyengineering.com/2013/12/how-doesnsa-break-ssl.html.
Barton Gellman and Ashkan Soltani (4 Dec 2013),“NSA tracking cellphone locations worldwide,
Snowden documents show,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/
nsa-tracking-cellphone-locations-worldwide-snowdendocuments-show/2013/12/04/5492873a-5cf2-11e3bc56-c6ca94801fac̲story.html.

ix

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24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

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34

x

James Bamford (15 Mar 2012), “The NSA isbuilding the countryʼs biggest spy center (watch
what you say),”, http://www.wired.com/
threatlevel/2012/03/ﬀ̲nsadatacenter/all.
Kevin Poulsen (27 Jan 2014), “If you used thissecure webmail site, the FBI has your inbox,”,
http://www.wired.com/2014/01/tormail.
Cyrus Farivar (27 Feb 2012), “Your car, tracked: The
rapid rise of license plate readers,”,
http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/09/your-cartracked-the-rapid-rise-of-license-plate-readers. Steve
Orr (26 Jul 2014), “New York knows where yourlicense plate goes,”, http://w w w. d e m o c r a t a n d c h r o n i c l e . c o m / s t o r y /news/2014/07/26/new-york-license-platereaders/13179727.
Declan McCullagh (19 Mar 2013), “Cops: U.S. law
should require logs of your text messages,”,
http://news.cnet.com/8301-13578̲3-57575039-38/
cops-u.s-law-should-require-logs-of-your-textmessages.
Philip Bump (17 Jul 2013), “The NSA admits it
analyzes more peopleʼs data than previously
revealed,”, http://www.thewire.com/
politics/2013/07/nsa-admits-it-analyzes-morepeoples-data-previously-revealed/67287.
Amy Davidson (16 Dec 2013), “The dominoʼs
hypothetical: Judge Leon vs. the N.S.A.,”, http://www.newyorker.com/news/amydavidson/the-dominos-hypothetical-judge-leon-vs-then-s-a.
ジョナサン・メイヤーらは、このデータを分析する
ことの難しさを指摘している。Jonathan Mayer andPatrick Muchler (9 Dec 2013), “MetaPhone: The
NSA three-hop,”, http://webpolicy.
org/2013/12/09/metaphone-the-nsa-three-hop.
Barton Gellman and Laura Poitras (10 Jul 2013),“NSA slides explain the PRISM data-collection
p r o g r a m ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/politics/prismcollection-documents.
Shane Harris (17 Jul 2013), “Three degrees ofseparation is enough to have you watched by the
NSA,”, http://complex.foreignpolicy.
com/posts/2013/07/17/3̲degrees̲of̲separation̲is̲
enough̲to̲have̲you̲watched̲by̲the̲nsa.
Tony Bradley (17 Jan 2014), “NSA reform: What
President Obama said, and what he didnʼt,”,
h t t p : / / w w w. f o r b e s . c o m / s i t e s /tonybradley/2014/01/17/nsa-reform-what-presidentobama-said-and-what-he-didnt.
James Risen and Laura Poitras (20 Sep 2013), “NSA
gathers data on social connections of U.S. citizens,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s .
com/2013/09/29/us/nsa-examines-social-networks-ofus-citizens.html.
Vauhini Vara (23 Aug 2007), “Facebook gets
personal with ad targeting plan,”,
http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/
SB118783296519606151.
グーグルやマイクロソフトは、児童ポルノの証拠を
見 つ け れ ば 警 察 に 通 報 す る。Matthew Sparkes (4Aug 2014), “Why Google scans your emails for childporn,”, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/
technology/google/11010182/Why-Google-scansyour-emails-for-child-porn.html. Leo Kelion (6 Aug
2014), “Microsoft tip leads to child porn arrest in
Pennsylvania,”, www.bbc.co.uk/go/em/
fr/-/news/technology-28682686.
35 プライバシー・市民的自由監督委員会によれば、改正外国情報監視法（FAA）第702条に基づく NSA のデータ収集活動では、キーワードによるデータ収集はおこなっていないという。ただし、NSA の監視を根拠づける法令はこの条文だけではないし、抜け道 も 多 い。Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight
Board (2 Jul 2014), “Report on the surveillance
program operated pursuant to Section 702 of theForeign Intelligence Surveillance Act,” http://www.
pclob.gov/All%20Documents/Report%20on%20
the%20Section%20702%20Program/PCLOB-Section702-Report.pdf. Jennifer Granick (11 Feb 2014),“Eight questions PCLOB should ask about Section702,”, https://justsecurity.org/7001/
questions-pclob-section-702.
36 Jacob Appelbaum et al. (3 Jul 2014), “NSA targets
the privacy-conscious,”, http://daserste.
ndr.de/panorama/aktuell/nsa230̲page-1.html.
37 Marcy Wheeler (15 Oct 2013), “About that May
2007 FISC opinion,”, http://www.
emptywheel.net/2013/10/15/about-that-may-2007ﬁsc-opinion.
38 Marcy Wheeler (16 May 2014), “The ʻautomatedqueryʼ at the telecoms will include ʻcorrelations,ʼ”, h t t p : / / w w w. e m p t y w h e e l .
net/2014/05/16/the-automated-query-at-thetelecoms-will-include-correlations. Marcy Wheeler(28 Jun 2014), “NSAʼs new-and-improved callchaining process, now with no calls required,”, http://www.emptywheel.net/2014/06/28/nsasnew-and-improved-call-chaining-process-now-withno-calls-required.
39 「CO-TRAVELLER」と 呼 ば れ る プ ロ グ ラ ム だ。
Barton Gellman and Ashkan Soltani (4 Dec 2013),“NSA tracking cellphone locations worldwide,
Snowden documents show,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/
nsa-tracking-cellphone-locations-worldwide-snowdendocuments-show/2013/12/04/5492873a-5cf2-11e3bc56-c6ca94801fac̲story.html.
40 US National Security Administration (2012),“Summary of DNR and DNI Co-Travel analytics,”
https://www.eff.org/files/2013/12/11/20131210wapo-cotraveler̲overview.pdf.
41 Julian Sanchez (11 Oct 2013), “Other uses of the
NSA call records database: Fingerprinting burners?”, http://justsecurity.org/2013/10/11/nsacall-records-database-ﬁngerprinting-burners.
42 Barton Gellman and Ashkan Soltani (4 Dec 2013),“NSA tracking cellphone locations worldwide,
Snowden documents show,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/
nsa-tracking-cellphone-locations-worldwide-snowdendocuments-show/2013/12/04/5492873a-5cf2-11e3bc56-c6ca94801fac̲story.html.
43 主に 「CO-TRAVELLER」プログラムによる。あな
たが主に用いている携帯電話とつねに同じネットワ

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ーク上にある携帯電話が見つかれば、それもあなたの携帯電話である可能性が高い。US Department ofJustice (13 Feb 2012), “Criminal complaint,”, (Casenumber under seal), United States District Court,
Northern District of Illinois, Eastern Division, http://w w w. j u s t i c e . g o v / u s a o / i l n / p r / c h i c a g o / 2 0 1 3 /pr0222̲01d.pdf.
Hiawatha Bray (30 Apr 2014), “How location-based
apps will shape the future of shopping,”,
http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/crux/2014/04/30/
how-location-based-apps-will-shape-the-future-ofshopping.
Lauren Johnson (9 Jun 2014), “Why Microsoft iswrapping location-based ads around retail stores:
Tests significantly lifted foot traffic,”, http://www.adweek.com/news/technology/
why-microsoft-wrapping-location-based-ads-aroundretail-stores-158189.
Hiawatha Bray (8 Jul 2013), “Cellphone data minedto create personal profiles,”, http://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2013/07/07/yourcellphone-yourself/eSvTK1UCqNOE7D4qbAcWPL/
story.html.
Ali Winston (17 Jun 2014), “Plans to expand scopeof license-plate readers alarm privacy advocates,”Center for Investigative Reporting, http://cironline.
org/reports/plans-expand-scope-license-plate-readersalarm-privacy-advocates-6451.
次の記事は、それを実行しようというＦＢＩの計画について論じている。Electronic Privacy Information
Center (Dec 2013), “The FBIʼs Next Generation
Identification program: Big Brotherʼs ID system?”, https://epic.org/privacy/
surveillance/spotlight/ngi.html.
2003年にロンドンで導入されたとき、このカードを用いた追跡が実行されるのではないかという懸念の
声 が 上 が っ た。Aaron Scullion (25 Sep 2003),“Smart cards track commuters,”, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3121652.stm.
Greg Weston, Glenn Greenwald, and Ryan Gallagher(30 Jan 2014), “CSEC used airport Wi-Fi to track
Canadian travellers: Edward Snowden documents,”, http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/csecused-airport-wi-fi-to-track-canadian-travellersedward-snowden-documents-1.2517881.
Alessandro Acquisti, Ralph Gross, and Fred
Stutzman (4 Aug 2011), “Faces of Facebook: Privacyin the age of augmented reality,” Black Hat 2011,
L a s Ve g a s, N e v a d a , h t t p : / / w w w. h e i n z . c m u .
edu/~acquisti/face-recognition-study-FAQ/acquistifaces-BLACKHAT-draft.pdf.
Scott Ellart (7 Dec 1999), “System and method forconverting data between data sets (US 5999937 A),”US Patent and Trademark Oﬃce, http://www.google.
com/patents/US5999937.
Cotton Delo (22 Feb 2013), “Facebook to partnerwith Acxiom, Epsilon to match store purchases withuser profiles,”, http://adage.com/
article/digital/facebook-partner-acxiom-epsilonmatch-store-purchases-user-proﬁles/239967.
Caroline Cooper and Claire Gordon (2 Apr 2014),“The people making money oﬀ your drinking habits

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and STDs,” Al Jazeera, http://america.aljazeera.com/
watch/shows/america-tonight/articles/2014/4/2/thepeople-makingmoneyoffyourdrinkinghabitsandstds.
html.
Max Fisher (19 Feb 2013), “Chinese hackers outed
themselves by logging into their personal Facebooka c c o u n t s ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/
wp/2013/02/19/chinese-hackers-outed-themselvesby-logging-into-their-personal-facebook-accounts.
Paul Roberts (7 Mar 2012), “Chats, car crushes andcut ʼn paste sowed seeds of LulzSecʼs demise,”, http://threatpost.com/chats-car-crushesand-cut-n-paste-sowed-seeds-lulzsecsdemise-030712/76298.
Chris Soghoian (13 Nov 2012), “Surveillance andsecurity lessons from the Petraeus scandal,”American Civil Liberties Union, https://www.aclu.
org/blog/technology-and-liberty-national-security/
surveillance-and-security-lessons-petraeus-scandal.
Dan Oakes (12 Apr 2012), “Hacking caseʼs body ofevidence,”, http://www.smh.
com.au/technology/technology-news/hacking-casesbody-of-evidence-20120412-1wsbh.html.
Ronen Bergman et al. (17 Jan 2011), “An eye for aneye: The anatomy of Mossadʼs Dubai operation,”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/
an-eye-for-an-eye-the-anatomy-of-mossad-s-dubaioperation-a-739908.html.
Paul Ohm (13 Aug 2009), “Broken promises ofprivacy: Responding to the surprising failure ofanonymization,”
57, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲
id=1450006.
Michael Barbaro and Tom Zeller Jr. (9 Aug 2006),“A face is exposed for AOL Search No. 4417749,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s .
com/2006/08/09/technology/09aol.html.
Arvind Narayanan and Vitaly Shmatikov (18‒20 May
2008), “Robust de-anonymization of large sparse
datasets,” 2008 IEEE Symposium on Security andPrivacy, Oakland, California, http://dl.acm.org/
citation.cfm?id=1398064 and http://www.cs.utexas.
edu/~shmat/shmat̲oak08netﬂix.pdf.
1990年代半ば、マサチューセッツ州団体保険委員会
は、研究に資するために、州職員の病院データを公開した。氏名、住所、社会保障番号は消去されていたが、コンピュータ科学者のラターニャ・スウィー
ニー（当時は MIT の大学院生）は、生年月日と郵便番号を有権者登録データベースと照合することにより、非匿名化に成功した。Latanya Sweeney (Jun
1997), “Weaving technology and policy together tomaintain conﬁdentiality,”
25, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
doi/10.1111/j.1748-720X.1997.tb01885.x/abstract.
Latanya Sweeney (2000), “Simple demographics
often identify people uniquely,” Carnegie Mellon
University, Data Privacy Working Paper 3, http://
dataprivacylab.org/projects/identiﬁability/paper1.pdf.
Philippe Golle (30 Oct 2006), “Revisiting theuniqueness of simple demographics in the US
population,” 5th ACM Workshop on Privacy in theElectronic Society (WPESʼ06), Alexandria, Virginia,xi

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http://crypto.stanford.edu/~pgolle/papers/census.pdf.
Melissa Gymrek et al. (18 Jan 2013), “Identifying
personal genomes by surname inference,”
3 3 9 , h t t p : / / w w w. s c i e n c e m a g . o r g /content/339/6117/321.abstract. John Bohannon et al.
(18 Jan 2013), “Genealogy databases enable namingof anonymous DNA donors,”
339, http://
www.sciencemag.org/content/339/6117/262.
Adam Tanner (11 Oct 2013), “Anonymous sex
survey takers get identified in data dive,”,h t t p : / / w w w. f o r b e s . c o m / s i t e s /adamtanner/2013/10/11/decoding-the-secrets-of-sexdata.
Arvind Narayanan and Vitaly Shmatikov (Jun 2010),“Myths and fallacies of ʻpersonally identifiable
information,ʼ”53,
http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1743558.
Ryan Gallagher (25 Aug 2014), “The surveillanceengine: How the NSA built its own secret Google,”, https://firstlook.org/
theintercept/2014/08/25/icreach-nsa-cia-secretgoogle-crisscross-proton.
Yves-Alexandre de Montjoye et al. (4 Feb 2013),“Unique in the crowd: The privacy bounds of humanmobility,”
3, Article 1376, http://
www.nature.com/srep/2013/130325/srep01376/full/
srep01376.html.
データの匿名化が不可能だと言うつもりはない。しかし、正しくそれをおこなうのは非常に難しく、簡単に過ちを犯してしまう。秘密性の高いデータをランダムな数字に置き換えれば事足りると思っている人が多いが、実際にはそれでは不十分だ。たいてい、まったく効果がない。
以 下 は、ア メ リ カ 国 土 安 全 保 障 省 の 例 だ。Mary
Ellen Callahan (Mar 2012), “Handbook forsafeguarding sensitive personally identifiable
information,” US Department of Homeland Security,
http://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/privacy/Guidance/handbookforsafeguardingsensitivePII̲march̲2012̲webversion.pdf.

第 4 章 監視ビジネス
1 Casey Houser (16 Oct 2013), “Use your ﬂashlight
app for trick-or-treating,”, https://www.
gazelle.com/thehorn/2013/10/16/use-your-ﬂashlightapp-for-trick-or-treating.
2 Cecilia Kang (5 Dec 2013), “Flashlight app kept
users in the dark about sharing location data,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
business/technology/ﬂashlight-app-kept-users-in-thedark-about-sharing-location-dataftc/2013/12/05/1be26fa6-5dc7-11e3-be07006c776266ed̲story.html.
3 Jason Hong (30 Nov 2012), “Analysis of Brightest
F l a s h l i g h t F r e e f o r A n d r o i d ,”, http://confabulator.blogspot.
com/2012/11/analysis-of-brightest-flashlight-free.
html.
4 US Federal Trade Commission (5 Dec 2013),“Android Flashlight app developer settles FTC
charges it deceived consumers: ʻBrightest Flashlightʼ
app shared usersʼ location, device ID without
consumersʼ knowledge,” http://www.ftc.gov/news-

xii

events/press-releases/2013/12/android-ﬂashlight-appdeveloper-settles-ftc-charges-it-deceived.
5
監視が強制されるケースもある。製品の保証を受けるためには、私的な情報をメーカーに提供しなくてはならない場合が多い。
6
私がある観光地の情報をグーグルで検索したとこ
ろ、ほどなく、その観光地に関するオンライン旅行
代理店トラベロシティの広告を見せられはじめた。
私はトラベロシティのアカウントをもってもいない
のに、である。
7
Peter Eckersley (21 Sep 2009), “How online tracking
companies know most of what you do online (andwhat social networks are doing to help them),”Electronic Frontier Foundation, https://www.eﬀ.org/
deeplinks/2009/09/online-trackers-and-socialnetworks.
8
Samuel Gibbs (28 Oct 2013), “Mozillaʼs Lightbeam
Firefox tool shows whoʼs tracking your online
movements,”, http://www.theguardian.
com/technology/2013/oct/28/mozilla-lightbeamtracking-privacy-cookies.
9
Alexis Madrigal (29 Feb 2012), “Iʼm being followed:
How Google ̶ and 104 other companies ̶ aretracking me on the web,”, http://www.
theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/02/imbeing-followed-how-google-151-and-104-othercompanies-151-are-tracking-me-on-the-web/253758.
10 Julia Angwin (30 Jul 2010), “The Webʼs new gold
mine: Your secrets,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052748703
940904575395073512989404.
11 Scott Thurm and Yukari Iwatani Kane (18 Dec
2010), “Your apps are watching you,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB1000
1424052748704368004576027751867039730.
12 Andrew Cunningham (5 Jul 2013), “Samsung and
Jay-Z give the Internet a masterʼs class in how not
to make an app,”, http://arstechnica.
com/gadgets/2013/07/samsung-and-jay-z-give-theinternet-a-masters-class-in-how-not-to-make-an-app.
13 Frances Zhang, Fuming Shih, and Daniel Weitzner(4‒8 Nov 2013), “No surprises: measuring
intrusiveness of smartphone applications by detecting
objective context deviations,” 12th ACM Workshop
on Privacy in the Electronic Society (WPESʼ13),
B e r l i n , G e r m a ny, h t t p : / / d l . a c m . o r g / c i t a t i o n .
cfm?id=2517864.
14 Douglas Rushkoﬀ (6 Jul 2012), “Will your Internet
provider be spying on you?” CNN, http://www.cnn.
com/2012/07/06/opinion/rushkoﬀ-online-monitoring.
David Kravets (25 Feb 2013), “ISPs now monitoringfor copyright infringement,”, http://www.
wired.com/2013/02/copyright-scoﬄaws-beware.
15 Casey Johnston (3 Dec 2012), “How to get targeted
ads on your TV? Try a camera in your set-top box,”, http://arstechnica.com/techpolicy/2012/12/how-to-get-targeted-ads-on-your-tv-acamera-in-your-set-top-box. Christopher Zara (26 Jul
2013), “Is your cable box spying on you? Behaviordetecting devices from Verizon, Microsoft and others
worry privacy advocates,”, http://www.ibtimes.com/your-cable-boxspying-you-behavior-detecting-devices-verizon-

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

microsoft-others-worry-privacy-1361587.
監視とプライバシーについて論じるとき、フィクシ
ョンの世界の比喩を用いることが多いのは興味深い。オーウェル的だの、カフカ的だのと言ったり、『指輪物語』にちなんで「サウロンの目のよう」と言 っ た り す る。Bruce Schneier (18 Apr 2014),“Metaphors of surveillance,”,https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2014/04/
metaphors̲of̲su.html.
17 Peter Eckersley (Jul 2010), “How unique is yourweb browser?”,https://panopticlick.eff.org/browser-uniqueness.pdf.
Keaton Mowery and Hovav Shacham (24 May
2012), “Pixel perfect: Fingerprinting canvas in
HTML5,” Web 2.0 Security and Privacy, San
F r a n c i s c o, C a l i f o r n i a , h t t p : / / c s e w e b. u c s d .
edu/~hovav/papers/ms12.html. Julia Angwin (21 Jul
2014), “Meet the online tracking device that is
virtually impossible to block,”, http://www.propublica.org/article/meet-the-online-trackingdevice-that-is-virtually-impossible-to-block. Gunes
Acar et al. (10 Aug 2014), “The web never forgets:persistent tracking mechanisms in the wild,” ACM
Conferen ce on Computer and Communications
Security (CCS 2014), Scottsdale, Arizona, https://securehomes.esat.kuleuven.be/~gacar/persistent/
index.html.
18 Google (5 Jul 2014), Post re: Removal of Google+
u s e r n a m e r e s t r i c t i o n s, h t t p s : / / p l u s. g o o g l e .
com/+googleplus/posts/V5XkYQYYJqy.
19 実名登録により危険にさらされる恐れのあるユーザ
ーからの批判を受けて、フェイスブックは方針を再検 討 し て い る。Facebook (2014), “What names areallowed on Facebook?” https://www.facebook.com/
help/112146705538576. Reed Albergotti (2 Oct2014), “Facebook changes real-name policy after
uproar from drag queens,”,
http://online.wsj.com/articles/facebook-changes-realname-policy-after-uproar-from-dragqueens-1412223040.
20 いくらかは人々の意識が変わってきた。多くの人
は、スマートフォンのアプリを利用するために少額の支払いをすることに慣れはじめている。将来は、もっと大きな金額を支払うことにも抵抗が薄まるかもしれない。しかし、インターネット・ビジネスの監視の側面は変わっていない。私たちは、料金を支払って利用しているアプリに監視されているのだ。
21 Kristina Shampanier, Nina Mazar, and Dan Ariely(Dec 2007), “Zero as a special price: The true valueof free products,”
26, http://web.
mit.edu/ariely/www/MIT/Papers/zero.pdf.
22 Scott Bradner (3 Aug 2010), “The price of freeInternet: A piece of your soul,”,h t t p : / / w w w. n e t w o r k w o r l d . c o m /columnists/2010/080310bradner.html.
23 Kurt Opsahl (28 Apr 2010), “Facebookʼs eroding
privacy policy: A timeline,” Electronic Frontier
Foundation, https://www.eﬀ.org/deeplinks/2010/04/
facebook-timeline.
24 Matt McKeon (15 May 2010), “The evolution ofprivacy on Facebook,” http://mattmckeon.com/
facebook-privacy.

25

16

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

Associated Press (2 Apr 2013), “Timeline: A look atdevelopments linked to Google privacy concerns,”, http://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/timelinea-look-at-developments-linked-to-google-privacyconcerns-1.1220927.
Rich Mogull (25 Jun 2014), “Why Apple really cares
about your privacy,”, http://www.
macworld.com/article/2366921/why-apple-reallycares-about-your-privacy.html.
Charles Arthur (18 Sep 2014), “Appleʼs Tim Cookattacks Google and Facebook over privacy flaws,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /technology/2014/sep/18/apple-tim-cook-googlefacebook-privacy-surveillance.
Jay Greene (18 Mar 2014), “Amazon easing into $1
billion sideline business: ad sales,”,
http://union-bulletin.com/news/2014/mar/18/
amazon-easing-1b-sideline-business-ad-sales. Nadia
Tuma and Laura Simpson (23 Jan 2014), “WhyAmazonʼs data store doesnʼt scare people ̶ but
Facebookʼs does,”, http://adage.com/
article/guest-columnists/americans-scared-amazon-sdata-store/290953.
Amy Harmon (24 Aug 2001), “As public records goonline, some say theyʼre too public,”, http://www.ny times.com/2001/08/24/
nyregion/as-public-records-go-online-some-say-theyre-too-public.html. Mark Ackerman (26 Aug 2013),“Sales of public data to marketers can mean big $$for governments,”, http://denver.
cbslocal.com/2013/08/26/sales-of-public-data-tomarketers-can-mean-big-for-governments.
以下は、アクシオムについての素晴らしい記事だ。
Natasha Singer (16 Jun 2012), “Mapping, andsharing, the consumer genome,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/17/technology/
acxiom-the-quiet-g iant-of-consumer-databasemarketing.html.
世界プライバシー・フォーラムの推計によれば、データブローカーの数は約4000社に上るという。Pam
Dixon (18 Dec 2013), “Testimony of Pam Dixon,
Executive Director, World Privacy Forum, before theU.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, andTransportation: What information do data brokers
have on consumers, and how do they use it?”
, http://www.worldprivacyforum.
org/2013/12/testimony-what-information-do-databrokers-have-on-consumers.
Craig Timberg (27 May 2014), “Brokers use ʻbillionsʼ
of data points to profile Americans,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/
technology/brokers-use-billions-of-data-points-toprofile-americans/2014/05/27/b4207b96-e5b2-11e3a86b-362fd5443d19̲story.html.
さまざまな企業が収集している膨大な量の監視デー
タについて、ウォール・ストリート・ジャーナル紙が 秀 逸 な 連 載 記 事 を 載 せ て い る。
, “What They Know” series index, http://
online.wsj.com/public/page/what-they-know-digitalprivacy.html.
US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, andTr a n s p o r t a t i o n , O f f i c e o f O v e r s i g h t a n dInvestigations, Majority Staff (18 Dec 2013), “Axiii

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

review of the data broker industry: Collection, use,and sale of consumer data for marketing purposes,”
Staff report for Chairman Rockefeller, http://
consumercal.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/
senate̲2013̲data̲broker̲report.pdf.
35 Lois Beckett (13 Sep 2013), “Everything we know
about what data brokers know about you,”, https://www.propublica.org/article/
everything-we-know-about-what-data-brokers-knowabout-you.
36 Natasha Singer (5 Sep 2013), “Acxiom lets
consumers see data it collects,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/05/technology/
acxiom-lets-consumers-see-data-it-collects.html.
37 Charles Duhigg (20 May 2007), “Bilking the elderly,with a corporate assist,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/business/20tele.html.
38 US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, andTr a n s p o r t a t i o n , O f f i c e o f O v e r s i g h t a n dInvestigations, Majority Staff (18 Dec 2013), “A
review of the data broker industry: Collection, use,and sale of consumer data for marketing purposes,”
Staff report for Chairman Rockefeller, http://
consumercal.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/
senate̲2013̲data̲broker̲report.pdf.
39 Joseph Turow (7 Feb 2012), “A guide to the digitaladvertising industry thatʼs watching your every
click,”, http://www.theatlantic.com/
technology/archive/2012/02/a-guide-to-the-digitaladvertising-industry-thats-watching-your-everyclick/252667.
40 この言葉を最初に言ったのが誰なのかははっきりしな い。Jonathan Zittrain (21 Mar 2012), “Memepatrol: ʻWhen something online is free, youʼre notthe customer, youʼre the product,ʼ”, http://blogs.law.harvard.
edu/futureoftheinternet/2012/03/21/meme-patrolwhen-something-online-is-free-youre-not-thecustomer-youre-the-product.
41 Nelson Wyatt (7 Nov 2013), “Former U.S. vicepresident Al Gore predicts lawmakers will rein ins u r v e i l l a n c e ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
vancouversun.com/news/Former+vicepresident+Gore+predicts+lawmakers+will+rein/9129866/story.html.
42 Laurence Green (5 Jul 2010), “Why creativity will
buy you more success than money,”,h t t p : / / w w w. t e l e g r a p h . c o . u k / f i n a n c e /businessclub/7872084/Why-creativity-will-buy-youmore-success-than-money.html.
43 理屈の上ではそうだが、実際はそれほどうまくいかな い と 主 張 す る 論 者 も い る。Douglas Rushkoﬀ(2013),, Current, http://www.rushkoff.com/presentshock.
44 R e a l G r e e n Sy s t e m s ( 2 0 1 4 ) , “ M e a s u r e m e n t
Assistant: An online measuring software application
combining aerial photography and measuring tools,”
https://www.realgreen.com/measurement̲assistant.
html.
45 Nathan Abse (Oct 2012), “Big data delivers on
campaign promise: Microtargeted political advertising
in Election 2012,” Interactive Advertising Bureau,
http://www.iab.net/media/ﬁle/Innovations̲In̲Web̲

xiv

Marketing̲and̲Advertising̲delivery.pdf.
Michael Scherer (7 Nov 2012), “Inside the secretworld of the data crunchers who helped Obamawin,”, http://swampland.time.com/2012/11/07/
inside-the-secret-world-of-quants-and-data-cruncherswho-helped-obama-win. Sasha Issenberg (19 Dec
2012), “How President Obamaʼs campaign used big
data to rally individual voters,”
h t t p : / / w w w. t e c h n o l o g y r e v i e w. c o m /featuredstory/509026/how-obamas-team-used-bigdata-to-rally-voters.
47 Ed Pilkington and Amanda Michel (17 Feb 2012),“Obama, Facebook and the power of friendship: The
2012 data election,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/17/obama-digitaldata-machine-facebook-election. Tanzina Vega (20Feb 2012), “Online data helping campaigns
customize ads,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2012/02/21/us/politics/campaigns-usemicrotargeting-to-attract-supporters.html.
48 データの誤りを本人が修正できるようにしているデータブローカーも増えている。修正されれば、販売するデータの品質が高まるからだ。こうした修正は業者の商売を助ける効果をもつが、業者側は消費者に権利を認めたという言い方をしている。
49 写真共有サイトのシャッターフライは2014年、子どもが生まれたばかりの人たちにお祝いの電子メールを送った。しかし、一部に誤りが含まれていて、メディアで大きく取り上げられた。Kashmir Hill (14May 2014), “Shutterfly congratulates a bunch ofpeople without babies on their ʻnew arrivals,ʼ”, h t t p : / / w w w. f o r b e s . c o m / s i t e s /kashmirhill/2014/05/14/shutterfly-congratulates-abunch-of-people-without-babies-on-their-new-arrivals.
50 誤った人物に見せた広告が目的を達したエピソード
はいろいろ紹介されているが、そのかなりの割合
は、自分にピタリと合わせた広告の影響を受けたと
きより、ピントのはずれた広告の影響を受けたときのほうが自覚しやすいために、目立ったにすぎない。
51 Jalal Mahmud, Jeﬀrey Nichols, and Clemens Drews(7 Mar 2014), “Home location identification of
Twitter users,” arXiv:1403.2345 [cs.SI], http://arxiv.
org/abs/1403.2345.
52 たとえば、次のエッセーはインターネット広告の有
効 性 に 疑 念 を 投 げ か け て い る。Derek Thompson(13 Jun 2014), “A dangerous question: Does Internet
advertising work at all?”, http://www.
theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/06/
a-dangerous-question-does-internet-advertising-workat-all/372704.
53 2014年、事務用品小売りのオフィスマックスがマイ
ク・シーイーという人物に送ったダイレクトメールの 宛 先 に、「Mike Seay/Daughter Killed in Car
Crash/Or Current Business」と記されていた。マイクが娘を自動車事故で亡くしたことがデータベースに記されていて、そのために起きた誤りだった。データブローカーの集めているデータがいかにプライ
バシーに踏み込んでいるかを浮き彫りにしている事例と言えるだろう。Amy Merrick (23 Jan 2014), “A
death in the database,”, http://www.
newyorker.com/online/blogs/currency/2014/01/
ashley-seay-officemax-car-crash-death-in-the46

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

database.html.
Blase Ur et al. (2 Apr 2012), “Smart, useful, scary,
creepy: Perceptions of online behavioral advertising,”, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, https://www.cylab.cmu.edu/research/
techreports/2012/tr̲cylab12007.html.
55 Farhad Manjoo (23 Aug 2012), “The uncanny valleyof Internet advertising,”, http://www.slate.com/
articles/technolog y/technolog y/2012/08/the̲uncanny̲valley̲of̲internet̲advertising̲why̲do̲
creepy̲targeted̲ads̲follow̲me̲everywhere̲i̲go̲
on̲the̲web̲.html. Sara M. Watson (16 Jun 2014),“Data doppelgängers and the uncanny valley of
personalization,”, http://www.theatlantic.
com/technology/archive/2014/06/datad o p p e l g a n g e r s - a n d - t h e - u n c a n ny - v a l l e y - o f personalization/372780.
56 Mike Masnick (11 Mar 2008), “Whereʼs the line
between personalized advertising and creeping
people out?”, http://www.techdirt.com/
articles/20080311/121305499.shtml.
57 Sara M. Watson (16 Sep 2014), “Ask the decoder:
Stalked by socks,” Al Jazeera, http://america.
aljazeera.com/articles/2014/9/16/the-decoderstalkedbysocks.html.
58 Blase Ur et al. (2 Apr 2012), “Smart, useful, scary,
creepy: Perceptions of online behavioral advertising,”
CyLab, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, https://www.cylab.cmu.edu/research/
techreports/2012/tr̲cylab12007.html.
59 Evan Selinger (22 Aug 2012), “Why do we love tocall new technologies ʻcreepyʼ?”, http://www.
slate.com/articles/technology/future̲tense/2012/08/
facial̲recognition̲software̲targeted̲advertising̲we̲love̲to̲call̲new̲technologies̲creepy̲.html. Omer
Tene and Jules Polonetsky (16 Sep 2013), “A theoryof creepy: Technology, privacy, and shifting social
norms,”, http://yjolt.org/theory-creepy-technology-privacy-andshifting-social-norms.
60 M i k e I s a a c ( 2 N o v 2 0 1 1 ) , “ N e w G o o g l e
ʻtransparencyʼ feature aims to reduce ad-targeting
creepiness,”, http://www.wired.com/2011/11/
google-ad-transparency-target. Todd Essig (27 Feb
2012), “ʻBig Dataʼ got you creeped out?
Transparency can help,”, http://www.forbes.
com/sites/toddessig/2012/02/27/big-data-got-youcreeped-out-transparency-can-help.
61 Charles Duhigg (19 Feb 2012), “How companies
learn your secrets,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2012/02/19/magazine/shopping-habits.
html.
62 Kashmir Hill (21 Aug 2013), “Use of ad blocking ison the rise,”, http://www.forbes.com/sites/
kashmirhill/2013/08/21/use-of-ad-blocking-is-on-therise.
63 Victor Luckerson (7 Mar 2014), “Twitterʼs ad prices
are in free fall,”, http://time.com/16032/twitterad-prices-decline. Brian Womack (16 Apr 2014),“Google revenue falls short of estimates, ad prices
drop,”, http://www.
businessweek.com/news/2014-04-16/google-revenuefalls-short-of-estimates-as-ad-prices-decline-1.
54

64

Emily Steel (12 Jun 2013), “Companies scramble for
consumer data,”, http://link.ft.com/
r/S4XZQQ/Z8K8I2/9ZND5E/972MV7/VTD3N8/SN/
h. Ken Figueredo (19 Jun 2013), “Prices and valueof consumer data,”, http://www.
more-with-mobile.com/2013/06/prices-and-value-ofconsumer-data.html.
65 Tristan Louis (31 Aug 2013), “How much is a user
worth?”, http://www.forbes.com/sites/
tristanlouis/2013/08/31/how-much-is-a-user-worth.
66 Tim Hwang and Adi Kamdar (9 Oct 2013), “Thetheory of peak advertising and the future of theweb,” Peakads.org, http://peakads.org/images/Peak̲
Ads.pdf. Tim Hwang (19 Mar 2014), “The PeakAdvertising Institute,”,
https://www.newschallenge.org/challenge/2014/
feedback-review/the-peak-advertising-institute.
67 Doc Searls (23 Mar 2009), “After the advertisingbubble bursts,”, http://blogs.law.
harvard.edu/doc/2009/03/23/after-the-advertisingbubble-bursts.
68 Moshe Yudkowsky (2005),
Berrett-Koehler Publishers, http://www.
pebbleandavalanche.com.
Mark Graham (2008), “Warped geographies ofdevelopment: The Internet and theories of economic
development,”
2/3, http://www.
geospace.co.uk/ﬁles/compass.pdf.
70 Mike Masnick (19 Jun 2013), “Hollywoodʼs newtalking point: Gatekeepers are awesome,”,h t t p s : / / w w w. t e c h d i r t . c o m /articles/20130613/18243923466/hollywoods-newtalking-point-gatekeepers-are-awesome.shtml.
71 Alina M. Chircu and Robert J. Kauffman (1998),“Analyzing market transformation in the presence ofInternet-driven disintermediation: The case of onlinet r a v e l r e s e r v a t i o n p r o v i d e r s,” M a n a g e m e n t
Information Systems Research Center, http://
citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1
96.4820&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
72 Tim Williams (3 Jun 2013), “The disintermediationof the advertising agency business,”, http://w w w. l i n k e d i n . c o m / t o d a y / p o s t /article/20130603205503-2042198-thedisintermediation-of-the-agency-business.
73 Eric Schmidt and Jared Cohen (2013),
69

74

75

76

, Knopf, http://www.newdigitalage.com.
http://www.newdigitalage.com.［邦 訳 ／『第 五 の 権
力── Google には見えている未来』（ダイヤモンド社）］
Carl Shapiro and Hal Varian (1998),,
Harvard Business Review Press, http://www.
inforules.com.［邦訳／『「ネットワーク経済の法則──アトム型産業からビット型産業へ」（ＩＤＧコ
ミュニケーションズ）』］
comScore (21 Jun 2014), “comScore releases June2014 U.S. search engine rankings,” https://www.
comscore.com/Insights/Market-Rankings/comScoreReleases-June-2014-US-Search-Engine-Rankings.
Maeve Duggan and Aaron Smith (30 Dec 2013),xv

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77

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79

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89

“Social media update 2013,” Pew Research Internet
Project, http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/12/30/
social-media-update-2013.
Troy (12 May 2013), “Highlights from the U.S. Book
Consumer Annual Review,”, http://aalbc.com/tc/index.php/topic/2051highlights-from-the-us-book-consumer-annual-review.
Treﬁs Team (24 Jul 2014), “Comcast earnings grow
15% on good broadband growth,”, http://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2014/07/24/
comcast-earnings-grow-15-on-good-broadbandgrowth.
Matthew Fordahl (2 Feb 2001), “eBay to hide
membersʼ e-mail addresses,”, http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=98958.
eBay (1 Oct 2011), “E-mail addresses and somelinks no longer permitted in listings,” http://pages.
ebay.com/sellerinformation/news/links2011.html.
eBay (2 Oct 2012), “Sellers: E-mail addresses andsome URLs no longer allowed in member-tomember messages,” http://announcements.ebay.
com/2012/10/sellers-e-mail-addresses-and-some-urlsno-longer-allowed-in-member-to-member-messages.
Steven Levy (22 Apr 2014), “Inside the science thatdelivers your scary-smart Facebook and Twitter
feeds,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/04/
perfect-facebook-feed.
Nate Anderson (24 Jul 2008), “.06% opt out:
NebuAd hides link in 5,000-word privacy policy,”, http://arstechnica.com/
uncategorized/2008/07/06-opt-out-nebuad-hides-linkin-5000-word-privacy-policy.
Bruce Schneier (26 Nov 2012), “When it comes tosecurity, weʼre back to feudalism,”, http://www.wired.com/2012/11/feudal-security.
Rachel King (15 Oct 2012), “Consumers actually
really like cloud storage, report says,”, http://www.zdnet.com/consumers-actually-really-like-cloudstorage-report-says-7000005784.
クラウド・コンピューティングについて基礎的な知
識 を 得 る に は、次 の 資 料 が 優 れ て い る。Michael
Armbrust et al. (10 Feb 2009), “Above the clouds: A
Berkeley view of cloud computing,” Technical Report
No. UCB/EECS-2009-28, Electrical Engineering andComputer Sciences, University of California at
Berkeley, http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Pubs/
TechRpts/2009/EECS-2009-28.pdf.
グーグルとマイクロソフトは、児童ポルノの証拠を
見 つ け れ ば 通 報 し て い る。Robert Macpherson (4Aug 2014), “Google defends child porn tip-offs topolice,”, http://news.yahoo.com/googledefends-child-porn-tip-offs-police-025343404.html.
Leo Kelion (6 Aug 2014), “Microsoft tip leads tochild porn arrest in Pennsylvania,”,
http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-28682686.
Jonathan Zittrain (2009), “Tethered appliances,
software as service, and perfect enforcement,” inYale
University Press, http://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/
handle/1/4455262/Zittrain̲Future%20of%20the%20
Internet.pdf.
Meg Albus (5 Sep 2013), “Donʼt get rejected byApple!”, https://projects.pbs.

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org/confluence/pages/viewpage.
action?pageId=34046325.
Brad Stone (18 Jul 2009), “Amazon erases Orwell
books from Kindle,”, http://www.
ny times.com/2009/07/18/technolog y/companies/18amazon.html.
Sam Grobart (14 Nov 2013), “Software makersʼ
subscription drive,”, http://www.
businessweek.com/articles/2013-11-14/2014-outlooksoftware-makers-subscription-drive.
David Pogue (17 Sep 2013), “Adobeʼs software
subscription model means you canʼt own yoursoftware,”, http://www.
scientificamerican.com/article/adobe-softwaresubscription-model-means-you-cant-own-yoursoftware.
ほかの企業に比べて、グーグルはデータの引き揚げを認める度合いが大きい。
Henry Farrell (Fall 2013), “The tech intellectuals,”
30, http://www.democracyjournal.org/30/
the-tech-intellectuals.php.
こうしたサービスや機器が不可欠なもので、それなしで生きることは不可能だ、と言うつもりはない。
私はフェイスブックのアカウントをもっていない。
携帯電話をもっていない人たちもいるし、ある知人はオンラインショッピングをいっさい利用しない。
選択権は私たちにある。しかし、これらのものを１つも利用せずに生きるのは、私生活の面でも職業生活の面でも非常に難しいかもしれない。
Jessica Goldstein (29 Apr 2014), “Meet the woman
who did everything in her power to hide her
pregnancy from Big Data,”, http://thinkprogress.org/culture/2014/04/29/3432050/canyou-hide-from-big-data.

第 5 章 国家の監視と統制
1
Barton Gellman and Ashkan Soltani (14 Oct 2013),“NSA collects millions of e-mail address books
g l o b a l l y,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsacollects-millions-of-e-mail-address-booksglobally/2013/10/14/8e58b5be-34f9-11e3-80c67e6dd8d22d8f̲story.html. Barton Gellman andAshkan Soltani (30 Oct 2013), “NSA inﬁltrates links
to Yahoo, Google data centers worldwide, Snowden
documents say,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsainfiltrates-links-to-yahoo-google-data-centersworldwide-snowden-documents-say/2013/10/30/
e51d661e-4166-11e3-8b74-d89d714ca4dd̲story.html.
Barton Gellman and Laura Poitras (7 Jun 2013),“U.S., British intelligence mining data from nine U.S.
Internet companies in broad secret program,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
investigations/us-intelligence-mining-data-from-nineus-internet-companies-in-broad-secretprogram/2013/06/06/3a0c0da8-cebf-11e2-8845d970ccb04497̲story.html.
2
US Executive Oﬃce of the President (24 Oct 1952),
Memorandum to Secretary of State and Secretary of
Defense re: Communications Intelligence Agency,
US National Security Agency, http://www.nsa.gov/
public̲info/̲ﬁles/truman/truman̲memo.pdf; Thomas〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

L. Burns (1990), “The origins of the National
Security Agency 1940‒1952 (U),” Center for
Cryptologic History, US National Security Agency,
http://www.nsa.gov/public̲info/̲files/cryptologic̲
histories/origins̲of̲nsa.pdf.
3 一 部 の 政 治 学 者 は、
「secret」と「mystery」の 違い、「puzzle」と「mystery」の違いを論じている。
Joseph S. Nye Jr. (Jul/Aug 1994), “Peering into the
future,”, http://www.foreignaffairs.
com/articles/50102/joseph-s-nye-jr/peering-into-thefuture. Gregory F. Treverton (Sep 2001), “Reshaping
national intelligence for an age of information,”
Research Brief 5, European Union Center for
California, http://eucenter.scrippscollege.edu/
ﬁles/2011/06/Treverton-05.pdf.
4 Dan Geer (9 Oct 2013), “Tradeoﬀs in cyber security,”
http://geer.tinho.net/geer.uncc.9x13.txt.
5
NSA の監視活動を規制する1978年の外国情報監視法（FISA）では、アメリカ国内での標的を「外国勢力の工作員」に限定していた。しかし、2008年の改正外国情報監視法（FAA）では、外国人をすべて対象にできるものとされた。
6Dana Priest (21 Jul 2013), “NSA growth fueled byneed to target terrorists,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/
nsa-growth-fueled-by-need-to-targetterrorists/2013/07/21/24c93cf4-f0b1-11e2-bed3b9b6fe264871̲story.html.
7 これは、NSA が1984年に実際におこなっていたこと だ。William J. Broad (8 Nov 1998), “A tale ofdaring American submarine espionage,”, http://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/08/us/
a-tale-of-daring-american-submarine-espionage.html.
8 Google (2014), “Data center locations,” https://www.
google.com/about/datacenters/inside/locations/index.
html.
9 Barton Gellman and Greg Miller (29 Aug 2013),“U.S. spy networkʼs successes, failures and objectives
detailed in ʻblack budgetʼ summary,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/
national-security/black-budget-summary-details-usspy-networks-successes-failures-andobjectives/2013/08/29/7e57bb78-10ab-11e3-8cddbcdc09410972̲story.html. Ewan MacAskill andJonathan Watts (29 Aug 2013), “US intelligencespending has doubled since 9/11, top secret budget
reveals,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/aug/29/us-intelligence-spending-double9-11-secret-budget.
10 Ryan Singel (10 Oct 2007), “NSAʼs lucky break:How the U.S. became switchboard to the world,”, https://web.archive.org/
web/20071019223411/http://www.wired.com/
politics/security/news/2007/10/domestic̲taps.
Christopher Mims (8 Jun 2013), “Why the NSA has
access to 80% of online communication even if
Google doesnʼt have a ʻbackdoor,ʼ”, http://qz.com/92369/why-nsa-has-access-to-80-of-onlinecommunication-even-if-google-doesnt-have-a-backdoor.
11 Ewen MacAskill and James Ball (2 Nov 2013),“Portrait of the NSA: no detail too small in quest fort o t a l s u r v e i l l a n c e ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.

theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/02/nsa-portraittotal-surveillance. Glenn Greenwald (2014),

12

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18

, Macmillan, chap. 3, http://
leaksource.info/2014/07/31/glenn-greenwalds-noplace-to-hide-nsa-documents-excerpts.［邦 訳 ／『暴露 ── ス ノ ー デ ン が 私 に 託 し た フ ァ イ ル』（新 潮社）］
この点について、確かなことは私にもわからない。
内部告発者のビル・ビニーは、NSA による大々的な通話録音を指摘しているが、証拠は示していな
い。Antony Loewenstein (10 Jul 2014), “Theultimate goal of the NSA is total population control,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /commentisfree/2014/jul/11/the-ultimate-goal-of-thensa-is-total-population-control.
Ryan Devereaux, Glenn Greenwald, and Laura
Poitras (19 May 2014), “Data pirates of the
Caribbean: The NSA is recording every cell phone
call in the Bahamas,”, https://ﬁrstlook.org/
theintercept/article/2014/05/19/data-piratescaribbean-nsa-recording-every-cell-phone-callbahamas. Julian Assange (23 May 2014), “WikiLeaks
statement on the mass recording of Afghan
telephone calls by the NSA,”, https://wikileaks.org/WikiLeaks-statement-on-the-mass.html.
Dana Priest (21 Jul 2013), “NSA growth fueled byneed to target terrorists,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/
nsa-growth-fueled-by-need-to-targetterrorists/2013/07/21/24c93cf4-f0b1-11e2-bed3b9b6fe264871̲story.html.
Robert OʼHarrow Jr., Dana Priest, and Marjorie
Censer (10 Jun 2013), “NSA leaks put focus on
intelligence apparatusʼs reliance on outside
c o n t r a c t o r s,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/business/nsa-leaks-put-focus-onintelligence-apparatuss-reliance-on-outsidecontractors/2013/06/10/e940c4ba-d20e-11e2-9f1a1a7cdee20287̲story.html. Jonathan Fahey and Adam
Goldman (10 Jun 2013), “Leak highlights key role ofprivate contractors,” Associated Press, http://bigstory.
ap.org/article/leak-highlights-key-role-privatecontractors.
Barton Gellman and Greg Miller (29 Aug 2013),“ʻBlack budgetʼ summary details U.S. spy networkʼssuccesses, failures and objectives,”,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/nationalsecurity/black-budget-summary-details-us-spynetworks-successes-failures-andobjectives/2013/08/29/7e57bb78-10ab-11e3-8cddbcdc09410972̲story.html.
Barton Gellman and Greg Miller (29 Aug 2013),“ʻBlack budgetʼ summary details U.S. spy networkʼssuccesses, failures and objectives,”,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/nationalsecurity/black-budget-summary-details-us-spynetworks-successes-failures-andobjectives/2013/08/29/7e57bb78-10ab-11e3-8cddbcdc09410972̲story.html.
Steven Aftergood (Mar 2014), “Intelligence budget
data,” Federation of American Scientists Intelligence
Resource Program, http://fas.org/irp/budget/index.

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html.
19 「イラクとアフガニスタンにおける作戦は、技術的情報収集とコミュニケーション・テクノロジーに関する意思決定に計り知れない影響を及ぼすだろう」。Richard A. Clarke et al. (12 Dec 2013),“Liberty and security in a changing world: Reportand recommendations of The Presidentʼs Review
Group on Intelligence and Communications
Technologies,” US Executive Oﬃce of the President,
p. 187, http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/
ﬁles/docs/2013-12-12̲rg̲ﬁnal̲report.pdf.
20 関係者は「トゥエルブ・トリプルスリー」と呼ぶ。
US Executive Oﬃce of the President (4 Dec 1981),“Executive Order 12333 ̶ United States intelligence
activities,”, http://www.archives.gov/
federal-register/codification/executive-order/12333.
html. Alex Abdo (29 Sep 2014), “New documents
shed light on one of the NSAʼs most powerful tools,”, https://www.aclu.org/blog/nationalsecurity/new-documents-shed-light-one-nsas-mostpowerful-tools.
21 Mark Jaycox (5 Nov 2013), “Three leaks, three
weeks, and what weʼve learned about the US
governmentʼs other spying authority: Executive
Order 12333,” Electronic Frontier Foundation,
https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2013/10/three-leaksthree-weeks-and-what-weve-learned-aboutgovernments-other-spying.
22 US Congress (2001), “USA Patriot Act Section 215,”
http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-107hr3162enr/
pdf/BILLS-107hr3162enr.pdf.
23 Marcy Wheeler (14 Aug 2014), “George W. Bushʼsfalse heroes: The real story of a secret Washington
sham,”, http://www.salon.com/2014/08/14/
george̲w̲bushs̲false̲heroes̲the̲real̲story̲of̲a̲
secret̲washington̲sham.
24 2007年に成立した「米国保護法（PAA）」という法律もあった。この法律はのちに失効し、役割は FAAに引き継がれたが、PAA の下で認められた権限は維持されることになった。そうした権限がいくつあるかは不明なので、この法律の役割がどの程度大きい
かはわからない。James Risen (6 Aug 2007), “Bushsigns law to widen reach for wiretapping,”, http://www.ny times.com/2007/08/06/
washington/06nsa.html. Ryan Singel (6 Aug 2007),“Analysis: New law gives government six months toturn Internet and phone systems into permanent
spying architecture,”, http://www.wired.
com/2007/08/analysis-new-la.
25 スノーデン文書の1つに、その手続きが記されている。US National Security Agency (8 Jan 2007),“Minimization procedures used by the National
Security Agency in connection with acquisitions offoreign intelligence information pursuant to Section
702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, as
amended,” http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2013/jun/20/exhibit-b-nsa-proceduresdocument.
26 Jennifer Granick (25 Aug 2014), “Intercept reporting
raises broader metadata minimization question,”, http://justsecurity.org/14327/interceptreporting-raises-broader-metadata-minimizationquestion. Marcy Wheeler (26 Aug 2014), “SPCMA

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a n d I C R E AC H ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
emptywheel.net/2014/08/26/spcma-and-icreach.
27 Barton Gellman, Julie Tate, and Ashkan Soltani (5Jul 2014), “In NSA-intercepted data, those nottargeted far outnumber the foreigners who are,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
world/national-security/in-nsa-intercepted-data-thosenot-targeted-far-outnumber-the-foreigners-whoare/2014/07/05/8139adf8-045a-11e4-85724b1b969b6322̲story.html.
28 Nadia Kayyali (21 May 2014), “How the NSA istransforming law enforcement,”, http://gizmodo.com/how-the-nsa-is-transforming-lawenforcement-1579438984.
29 Ryan Gallagher (25 Aug 2014), “The surveillanceengine: How the NSA built its own secret Google,”, https://firstlook.org/
theintercept/2014/08/25/icreach-nsa-cia-secretgoogle-crisscross-proton.
30 権限を最も大きく拡大したのは、2005年の米国愛国者法改正再授権法だった。しかし、一部条項は違憲とされた。
31 John Villasenor (30 Dec 2013), “What you need toknow about the third-party doctrine,”,h t t p : / / w w w. t h e a t l a n t i c . c o m / t e c h n o l o g y /archive/2013/12/what-you-need-to-know-about-thethird-party-doctrine/282721.
32 IMSI と は「International Mobile Subscriber Identity（国際移動体加入者識別番号）」の略で、携帯電話ユーザーに割り振られた固有の番号だ。携帯電話を利用する際に電話がこの番号を発信するので、そのユーザーの所在地がわかる。
33 「スティングレイ」は商品名ではあるが、IMSI キャ
ッチャー全般を指す言葉として用いられるようになっている。ほかには、「アンバージャック」という商品もある。
34 Joel Hruska (17 Jun 2014), “Stingray, the fake cell
phone tower cops and carriers use to track yourevery move,”, http://www.extremetech.
com/mobile/184597-stingray-the-fake-cell-phonetower-cops-and-providers-use-to-track-your-everymove.
35 Lauren Walker (23 Sep 2014), “New documents
reveal information about police cellphone tracking
devices,”, http://www.newsweek.com/
new-documents-reveal-information-about-police-cellphone-tracking-devices-272746.
36 Kim Zetter (19 Jun 2014), “Emails show feds asking
Florida cops to deceive judges,”, http://www.
wired.com/2014/06/feds-told-cops-to-deceive-courtsabout-stingray.
37 Nathan Freed Wessler (3 Jun 2014), “U.S. Marshals
seize local copsʼ cell phone tracking files inextraordinary attempt to keep information frompublic,”, https://www.aclu.org/blog/
national-security-technology-and-liberty/us-marshalsseize-local-cops-cell-phone-tracking-ﬁles. Kim Zetter(3 Jun 2014), “U.S. Marshals seize copsʼ spying
records to keep them from the ACLU,”,
http://www.wired.com/2014/06/feds-seize-stingraydocuments.
38 National Counterterrorism Center (2007), “Terrorist
Identities Datamart Environment (TIDE),” https://〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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web.archive.org/web/20140712154829/http://www.
nctc.gov/docs/Tide̲Fact̲Sheet.pdf. Richard A. BestJr. (19 Dec 2011), “The National Counterterrorism
Center (NCTC): Responsibilities and potential
congressional concerns,” Congressional ResearchService, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/R41022.pdf. Matt
Sledge (16 Feb 2013), “National Counterterrorism
Centerʼs ʻterrorist informationʼ rules outlined in
d o c u m e n t ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
huffingtonpost.com/2013/02/15/nationalcounterterrorism-center-nctc-terrorist-information̲
n̲2697190.html.
Eric Schmitt and Michael S. Schmidt (24 Apr 2013),“2 U.S. agencies added Boston bomb suspect towatch lists,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2013/04/25/us/tamerlan-tsarnaev-bomb-suspectwas-on-watch-lists.html.
Karen DeYoung (25 Mar 2007), “Terror database has
quadrupled in four years,”, http://w w w. w a s h i n g t o n p o s t . c o m / w p - d y n / c o n t e n t /article/2007/03/24/AR2007032400944.html.
Julia Angwin (13 Dec 2013), “U.S. terrorism agency
to tap a vast database of citizens,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB1000
1424127887324478304578171623040640006.
Jeremy Scahill and Ryan Devereaux (5 Aug 2014),“Watch commander: Barack Obamaʼs secretterrorist-tracking system, by the numbers,”,
https://ﬁrstlook.org/theintercept/article/2014/08/05/
watch-commander.
US Department of Justice (2014), “Organized Crime
Drug Enforcement Task Forces,” http://www.justice.
gov/criminal/taskforces/ocdetf.html.
US Executive Oﬃce of the President (2009), “TheComprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative,”
http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/foreign-policy/
cybersecurity/national-initiative.
Robert Beckhusen (5 Apr 2013), “The ATF wants
ʻmassiveʼ online database to find out who yourfriends are,”, http://www.wired.com/2013/04/
atf-database.
Lisa Myers, Douglas Pasternak, and Rich Gardella(14 Dec 2005), “Is the Pentagon spying on
Americans?”, http://www.nbcnews.com/
id/10454316/ns/nbc̲nightly̲news̲with̲brian̲
williams-nbc̲news̲investigates/t/pentagon-spyinga m e r i c a n s. M a r c y W h e e l e r ( 2 4 J u l 2 0 0 7 ) ,“ C u n n i n g h a m , C I FA , a n d C h e n e y, a n e w
chronology,”, http://www.emptywheel.
net/2007/07/24/cunningham-cifa-and-cheney-a-newchronology.
2014年、連邦上訴裁判所はこうした監視を違法と判断。それにより得られた証拠に基づいて児童ポルノ所持で有罪とされた男性の有罪判決を破棄した。
Victoria Cavaliere (18 Sep 2014), “U.S. court rules
Navy wrongfully monitored computers in child pornprobe,” Reuters, http://www.reuters.com/article/
idUSKBN0HD2EU20140918.
Robert Mueller (15 Nov 2004), “The FBI: Improving
intelligence for a safer America,” address delivered
to the Town Hall Los Angeles, Los Angeles,
California, http://www.fbi.gov/news/speeches/thefbi-improving-intelligence-for-a-safer-america. US

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Department of Homeland Security (4 Sep 2012),“Fusion centers handout,” http://www.dhs.gov/sites/
default/files/publications/Fusion%20Centers%20
Handout.pdf. US House of Representatives (Jul2013), “Majority staﬀ report on the national networkof fusion centers,” Committee on Homeland Security,
http://homeland.house.gov/sites/homeland.house.
gov/files/documents/CHS%20SLFC%20Report%20
2013%20FINAL.pdf.
Torin Monahan (2010), “The future of security?
Surveillance operations at Homeland Security fusionc e n t e r s ,”3 7 , h t t p : / / w w w.
socialjusticejournal.org/archive/120̲37̲23/120̲07Monahan.pdf.
Priscilla M. Regan, Torin Monahan, and Krista
Craven (3 Dec 2013), “Constructing the suspicious:
Data production, circulation, and interpretation by
DHS Fusion Centers,”,
http://aas.sagepub.com/content/ear
ly/2013/11/29/0095399713513141.abstract.
Michael German and Jay Stanley (Dec 2007),“Whatʼs wrong with fusion centers?” American Civil
Liberties Union, https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/
privacy/fusioncenter̲20071212.pdf. Sharon Bradford
Franklin et al. (6 Sep 2012), “Recommendations forfusion centers: Preserving privacy and civil liberties
while protecting against crime and terrorism,”
Constitution Project, http://www.constitutionproject.
org/pdf/fusioncenterreport.pdf.
Colin Moynihan (22 May 2014), “Oﬃcials cast wide
net in monitoring Occupy protests,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/23/us/officialscast-wide-net-in-monitoring-occupy-protests.html.
Mara Verheyden-Hilliard and Carl Messineo (5 May
2014), “Out of the shadows: The hidden role of the
Fusion Centers in the nationwide spying operation
against the Occupy movement and peaceful protest
in America,” Partnership for Civil Justice, http://
www.justiceonline.org/one-nation-under-surveillance/out-of-the-shadows-pcjf-report.pdf.
US Federal Bureau of Investigation (2010),“Protecting America from terrorist attack: Our Joint
Terrorism Task Forces,” http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/
investigate/terrorism/terrorism̲jttfs. US Departmentof Homeland Security (19 Dec 2013), “Fusion
Centers and Joint Terrorist Task Forces,” http://
www.dhs.gov/fusion-centers-and-joint-terrorism-taskforces.
American Civil Liberties Union (Sep 2013),“Unleashed and unaccountable: The FBIʼs uncheckedabuse of authority,” https://www.aclu.org/sites/
default/ﬁles/assets/unleashed-and-unaccountable-fbireport.pdf. Roberto Scalese (10 Apr 2014), “ACLU
sues FBI, US attorney for Todashev, Task Forcerecords,”, http://www.boston.com/
news/local/massachusetts/2014/04/10/aclu-sues-fbiattorney-for-todashev-task-force-records/
MYWzetg75Zy3DIpLB1nyrO/story.html.
American Civil Liberties Union of Colorado (24 Aug
2010), “New documents confirm: FBIʼs Joint
Terrorism Task Force targets peaceful activists forharassment, political surveillance,” http://aclu-co.org/
new-documents-confirm-fbis-joint-terrorism-task-xix

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force-targets-peaceful-activists-for-harassmentpolitical-surveillance. Kevin Gosztola (4 Jul 2014),“FBI, JTTF and US Marshals are reportedly visiting
political activists about thirty year-old case,”, h t t p : / / d i s s e n t e r. f i r e d o g l a k e .
com/2014/07/04/fbi-jttf-us-marshals-service-arereportedly-visiting-political-activists-about-thirty-yearold-case.
Spencer Ackerman (23 Sep 2011), “New evidence ofanti-Islam bias underscores deep challenges for FBIʼsr e f o r m p l e d g e ,”, h t t p : / / w w w. w i r e d .
com/2011/09/fbi-islam-domination/all.
Adam Gabbatt (1 Aug 2013), “New York woman
visited by police after researching pressure cookers
online,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/aug/01/new-york-police-terrorismpressure-cooker. Carlos Miller (23 May 2014),“Terrorist Task Force cop visits man at home forphotographing police buildings,”, http://photographyisnotacrime.
com/2014/05/23/terrorist-task-force-cop-visits-manhome-photographing-police-buildings. Steve Annear(11 Jul 2014), “ACLU files lawsuit after feds eye
photographerʼs ʻsuspiciousʼ behavior,”, http://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/
blog/2014/07/11/aclu-james-prigoff-terrorism-taskforce-lawsuit.
Duncan Campbell (3 Jun 2014), “Revealed: GCHQʼsbeyond top secret Middle Eastern Internet spy base,”, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2014/06/03/
revealed̲beyond̲top̲secret̲british̲intelligence̲
middleeast̲internet̲spy̲base.
Nicky Hager and Stefania Maurizi (5 Nov 2013),“Cyprus: The home of British/American Internet
surveillance in the Middle East,”, http://espresso.repubblica.it/inchieste/2013/11/04/news/
the-history-of-british-intelligence-operations-incyprus-1.139978. Richard Norton-Taylor (28 Nov
2013), “Secret memos show eﬀorts of MI5, MI6 andGCHQ to maintain Cyprus base,”, http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/nov/29/
intelligence-mi5-mi6-gchq-cyprus-national-archives.
Sven Becker et al. (18 Jun 2014), “New NSA
revelations: Inside Snowdenʼs Germany file,”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/
new-snowden-revelations-on-nsa-spying-ingermany-a-975441.html. Hubert Gude et al. (18 Jun
2 0 1 4 ) , “ S p y i n g t o g e t h e r : G e r m a ny ʼ s d e e p
cooperation with the NSA,”, http://www.
spiegel.de/international/germany/the-german-bndand-american-nsa-cooperate-more-closely-thanthought-a-975445.html.
Jacques Follorou and Glenn Greenwald (21 Oct2013), “France in the NSAʼs crosshair: Phone
networks under surveillance,”, http://www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2013/10/21/
france-in-the-nsa-s-crosshair-phone-networks-undersurveillance̲3499741̲651865.html. Jacques Follorou
and Franck Johannes (4 Jul 2013), “Revelations on
the French Big Brother,”, http://www.
lemonde.fr/societe/article/2013/07/04/revelations-onthe-french-big-brother̲3442665̲3224.html.
Ryan Gallagher (18 Jun 2014), “How secret partners

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expand NSAʼs surveillance dragnet,”,
https://ﬁrstlook.org/theintercept/article/2014/06/18/
nsa-surveillance-secret-cable-partners-revealedrampart-a.
Jason Om (30 Oct 2013), “Spy expert says Australia
operating as ʻlistening postʼ for US agencies
including the NSA,”, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-10-30/australia-acting-aslistening-post-for-us-spy-agencies/5056534.
Glenn Greenwald and Ryan Gallagher (15 Sep
2014), “New Zealand launched mass surveillance
project while publicly denying it,”
, https://firstlook.org/theintercept/2014/09/15/new-zealandgcsb-speargun-mass-surveillance.
Craig Timberg (6 Jun 2014), “Vodafone reveals thatgovernments are collecting personal data without
limits,”, http://www.washingtonpost.
com/business/technology/governments-collectingpersonal-data-without-limit-saysvodafone/2014/06/06/ff0cfc1a-edb4-11e3-9b2d114aded544be̲story.html.
Michael R. Gordon (7 Feb 2014), “Indonesia takes
aim at Australia over spying on talks,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/18/world/
asia/indonesia-takes-aim-at-australia-over-spying-butnot-the-us.html.
Andrei Soldatov and Irina Borogan (Fall 2013),“Russiaʼs surveillance state,”,
http://www.worldpolicy.org/journal/fall2013/Russiasurveillance. James A. Lewis (18 Apr 2014),“Reference note on Russian communications
surveillance,” Center for Strategic and International
Studies, http://csis.org/publication/reference-noterussian-communications-surveillance.
Andrei Soldatov and Irina Borogan (21 Dec 2012),“In ex-Soviet states, Russian spy tech still watchesyou,”, http://www.wired.com/2012/12/russiashand/all.
Owen Matthews (12 Feb 2014), “Russia tests ʻtotal
surveillanceʼ at the Sochi Olympics,”,
http://www.newsweek.com/2014/02/14/russia-teststotal-surveillance-sochi-olympics-245494.html. Joshua
Kopstein (13 Feb 2014), “Sochiʼs other legacy,”, http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/
sochis-other-legacy.
Gus Hosein (2010), “Privacy as a political right,”
3 9 , h t t p s : / / w w w.
privacyinternational.org/reports/privacy-as-a-politicalright/surveillance-of-politicalmovements#footnote5̲5pc3hb7.
James A. Lewis (2006), “The architecture of control:Internet surveillance in China,” Center for Strategic
and International Studies, http://csis.org/ﬁles/media/
csis/pubs/0706̲cn̲surveillance̲and̲information̲
technology.pdf.
Australian (4 Mar 2011), “China mobile phone
tracking system attacked as ʻBig Brotherʼsurveillance,”, http://www.theaustralian.
com.au/news/world/china-mobile-phone-trackingsystem-attacked-as-big-brother-surveillance/storye6frg6so-1226015917086.
Frank Langﬁtt (29 Jan 2013), “In China, beware: A
camera may be watching you,”〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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, http://www.npr.org/2013/01/29/170469038/
in-china-beware-a-camera-may-be-watching-you.
Calum MacLeod (3 Jan 2013), “China surveillancetargets crime ̶ and dissent,”, http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/01/03/
china-security/1802177.
Vernon Silver (8 Mar 2013), “Cracking Chinaʼs
Skype surveillance software,”, h t t p : / / w w w. b u s i n e s s w e e k . c o m /articles/2013-03-08/skypes-been-hijacked-in-chinaand-microsoft-is-o-dot-k-dot-with-it.
John Markoﬀ (1 Oct 2008), “Surveillance of Skypemessages found in China,”, http://w w w. ny t i m e s . c o m / 2 0 0 8 / 1 0 / 0 2 / t e c h n o l o g y /internet/02skype.html.
John Ribeiro (13 Jan 2011), “RIM allows India
access to consumer BlackBerry messaging,”,
http://www.cio.com/article/654438/RIM̲Allows̲
India̲Access̲to̲Consumer̲BlackBerry̲Messaging.
Amol Sharma (28 Oct 2011), “RIM facility helps
India in surveillance efforts,”
http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB100014240529
70204505304577001592335138870. First Post (31Dec 2012), “Telecos agree to real-time intercept forBlackberry messages,”, http://tech.ﬁrstpost.
com/news-analysis/telecos-agree-to-real-timeintercept-for-blackberry-messages-212476.html.
Alexei Anishchuk (25 Apr 2011), “BlackBerry ﬁrm
seeks security ʻbalanceʼ in Russia,” Reuters, http://
www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/25/us-blackberryrussia-idUSTRE73O1ZL20110425.
Al Jazeera (4 Aug 2010), “Saudi ban on BlackBerryfrom Friday,” Al Jazeera, http://www.aljazeera.com/
news/middleeast/2010/08/2010844243386999.html.
Josh Halliday (18 Apr 2011), “UAE to tighten
BlackBerry restrictions,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/technolog y/2011/apr/18/uaeblackberry-e-mails-secure.
Jakarta Post (15 Sep 2011), “Government asks RIM
to open access to wiretap Blackberry users,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e j a k a r t a p o s t . c o m /news/2011/09/15/government-asks-rim-open-accesswiretap-blackberry-users.html.
R. Jai Krishna (8 Aug 2012), “India sees resolution
to BlackBerry dispute,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10000872396390443
404004577576614174157698. British Broadcasting
Corporation (11 Jul 2013), “India is ʻready to useʼBlackberry message intercept system,”,
http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-23265091.
James Ball and Benjamin Gottlieb (25 Sep 2012),“Iran tightens online control by creating own
network,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2012/sep/25/iran-state-run-internet.
H . J. A l b r e c h t ( 2 0 0 3 ) , “A l b r e c h t 2 0 0 3 ̶
Rechtswirklichkeit und Eﬃzienz der Überwachung
der Telekommunikation nach den §§ 100a, 100b
StPO und anderer verdeckter
Ermittlungsmaßnahmen: Abschlussbericht,” Max
Planck Institute for Foreign and International
Criminal Law, http://www.gesmat.bundesgerichtshof.
de/gesetzesmaterialien/16̲wp/telekueberw/
rechtswirklichkeit̲%20abschlussbericht.pdf.

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Winston Maxwell and Christopher Wolf (23 May
2012), “A global reality: Governmental access todata in the cloud: A comparative analysis of ten
international jurisdictions,” Hogan Lovells, http://
www.cil.cnrs.fr/CIL/IMG/pdf/Hogan̲Lovells̲White̲Pa p e r ̲ G o v e r n m e n t ̲ A c c e s s ̲ t o ̲ C l o u d ̲ D a t a ̲
Paper̲1̲.pdf.
David Stout (9 Jul 2014), “Thailandʼs junta arrests
an editor over a Facebook comment,”, http://time.com/2968680/thailand-junta-editor-facebookthanapol-eawsakul-fah-diew-khan.
British Broadcasting Corporation (20 Nov 2012),“India woman arrested over Facebook post inʻshock,ʼ”, http://www.bbc.com/news/
world-asia-india-20405457. Agence France-Presse(19 Nov 2012), “Indians arrested for Facebook poston Mumbai shutdown,”,
http://www.scmp.com/news/asia/article/1086094/
indians-arrested-facebook-post-mumbai-shutdown.
Asia News Network (4 Jun 2013), “Woman detained
for allegedly insulting Malaysian king on Facebook,”, http://news.asiaone.com/News/
L a t e s t + N e w s / S c i e n c e + a n d + Te c h / S t o r y /A1Story20130604-427357.html.
このハッキングの背後には別の国が存在し、イランはそれに便乗しただけという可能性もある。Hans
Hoogstraaten et al. (13 Aug 2012), “Black Tulip:
Report of the investigation into the DigiNotar
Certificate Authority breach,” Project PR-110202,
Fox-IT BV, http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/bestanden/
documenten-en-publicaties/rapporten/2012/08/13/
black-tulip-update/black-tulip-update.pdf.
Somini Sangupta (11 Sep 2011), “Hacker rattles
security circles,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2011/09/12/technology/hacker-rattlesinternet-security-circles.html.
Gregg Keizer (6 Sep 2011), “Hackers spied on
300,000 Iranians using fake Google certificate,”, http://www.computerworld.com/s/
article/9219731/Hackers̲spied̲on̲300̲000̲
Iranians̲using̲fake̲Google̲certiﬁcate.
Information Warfare Monitor (29 Mar 2009),“Tracking GhostNet: Investigating a cyber espionage
network,” Citizen Lab, Munk Centre for International
Studies, University of Toronto, http://www.infowarmonitor.net/ghostnet.
Ellen Nakashima (28 May 2012), “Newly identiﬁed
computer virus, used for spying, is 20 times size ofS t u x n e t ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/newlyidentiﬁed-computer-virus-used-for-spying-is-20-timessize-of-stuxnet/2012/05/28/gJQAWa3VxU̲story.
html.
Dan Goodin (14 Jan 2013), “Massive espionage
malware targeting governments undetected for 5
years,”, http://arstechnica.com/
security/2013/01/red-Oct-computer-espionagenetwork-may-have-stolen-terabytes-of-data.
Peter Apps and Jim Finkle (7 Mar 2014), “Suspected
Russian spyware Turla targets Europe, United
S t a t e s ,” R e u t e r s , h t t p : / / w w w. r e u t e r s . c o m /article/2014/03/07/us-russia-cyberespionage-insightidUSBREA260YI20140307.

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96

Kaspersky Lab (10 Feb 2014), “Unveiling ʻCaretoʼ:
The masked APT,”, http://www.securelist.
com/en/downloads/vlpdfs/unveilingthemask̲v1.0.pdf.
97 Ellen Nakashima (29 May 2014), “Iranian hackers
target U.S. oﬃcials,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/iranianhackers-are-targeting-us-officials-through-socialnetworks-report-says/2014/05/28/7cb86672-e6ad11e3-8f90-73e071f3d637̲story.html.
98 Matthew M. Aid (10 Jun 2013), “Inside the NSAʼsultra-secret China hacking group,”,
http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/06/10/
inside̲the̲nsa̲s̲ultra̲secret̲china̲hacking̲group.
99 Bruce Schneier (4 Oct 2013), “Attacking Tor: How
the NSA targets usersʼ online anonymity,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/04/torattacks-nsa-users-online-anonymity.
100 これらのプログラムには、さらに凝った暗号名がつけられている。そしてなによりも興味深いのは、次の NSA の最高機密文書がスノーデン以外の人物から リ ー ク さ れ た も の ら し い と い う こ と だ。
Leaksource (30 Dec 2013), “NSAʼs ANT Divisioncatalog of exploits for nearly every major software/h a r d w a r e / f i r m w a r e ,” h t t p : / / l e a k s o u r c e .
info/2013/12/30/nsas-ant-division-catalog-of-exploitsfor-nearly-every-major-software-hardware-ﬁrmware.
Der Spiegel (29 Dec 2013), “Inside TAO: Documents
reveal top NSA hacking unit,”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/the-nsa-usespowerful-toolbox-in-effort-to-spy-on-globalnetworks-a-940969.html. Jacob Appelbaum, Judith
Horchert, and Christian Stöcker (29 Dec 2013),“Shopping for spy gear: Catalog advertises NSA
toolbox,”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/catalog-reveals-nsa-has-backdoors-for-numerous-devices-a-940994.html.
101 Matthew M. Aid (15 Oct 2013), “The NSAʼs newcode breakers,”, http://www.
foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/10/15/the̲nsa̲s̲
new̲codebreakers.
102 73know a lot about China: This describes one of theChinese military hacking units. Mandiant (18 Feb
2013), “APT1: Exposing one of Chinaʼs cyberespionage units,” http://intelreport.mandiant.com/
Mandiant̲APT1̲Report.pdf.
103 Kim Zetter (13 Jan 2010), “Google hackers targeted
source code of more than 30 companies,”,
http://www.wired.com/2010/01/google-hack-attack.
104 Greg Weston (16 Feb 2011), “Foreign hackers attack
Canadian government,”, http://www.cbc.
ca/news/politics/foreign-hackers-attack-canadiangovernment-1.982618.
105 Nicole Perlroth (31 Jan 2013), “Hackers in China
attacked the Times for last 4 months,”, http://www.ny times.com/2013/01/31/
technology/chinese-hackers-infiltrate-new-yorktimes-computers.html.
106 Riva Richmond (2 Apr 2011), “The RSA hack: Howthey did it,”
, http://bits.blogs.
nytimes.com/2011/04/02/the-rsa-hack-how-they-didit. Kelly Jackson Higgins (29 Mar 2012), “China
hacked RSA, U.S. oﬃcial says,”,
http://www.darkreading.com/attacks-breaches/china-xxii

hacked-rsa-us-official-says/d/d-id/1137409; Ellen
Nakashima (19 May 2014), “U.S. announces firstcharges against foreign country in connection withcyberspying,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/us-toannounce-first-criminal-charges-against-foreigncountry-for-cyberspying/2014/05/19/586c9992-df4511e3-810f-764fe508b82d̲story.html.
107 Julian E. Barnes (4 Mar 2008), “Chinese hacking
worries Pentagon,”, http://articles.
latimes.com/2008/mar/04/world/fg-uschina4. Ellen
Nakashima (27 May 2013), “Conﬁdential report lists
U.S. weapons system designs compromised by
Chinese cyberspies,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/
conﬁdential-report-lists-us-weapons-system-designscompromised-by-chinese-cyberspies/2013/05/27/
a42c3e1c-c2dd-11e2-8c3b-0b5e9247e8ca̲story.html.
108 中国政府が背後にいたかどうかはわからないが、状況 証 拠 は そ の 可 能 性 を 強 く 示 唆 し て い る。Andy
Greenberg (1 Apr 2013), “Evidence mounts that
Chinese government hackers spread Android
malware,”, http://www.forbes.com/sites/
andygreenberg/2013/04/01/evidence-mounts-thatchinese-government-hackers-spread-androidmalware.
109 Ellen Nakashima and Lisa Rein (11 Jul 2014),“Chinese hack aims at federal workersʼ data,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
world/national-security/chinese-hackers-go-after-usworkers-personal-data/2014/07/10/92db92e8-084611e4-8a6a-19355c7e870a̲story.html.
110 Peter Schweizer (Jan/Feb 1996), “The growth of
economic espionage: America is target number one,”, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/
articles/51617/peter-schweizer/the-growth-ofeconomic-espionage-america-is-target-number-one.
111 David E. Sanger (20 May 2014), “With spy charges,
U.S. treads ﬁne line in ﬁghting Chinese espionage,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s .
com/2014/05/20/us/us-treads-fine-line-in-fightingchinese-espionage.html. Jack Goldsmith (25 Mar
2013), “Why the USG complaints against Chinese
economic cyber-snooping are so weak,”,
http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/03/why-the-usgcomplaints-against-chinese-economic-cyber-snoopingare-so-weak.
112 O Globo (8 Sep 2013), “NSA documents show
United States spied Brazilian oil giant,”,
http://g1.globo.com/fantastico/noticia/2013/09/nsadocuments-show-united-states-spied-brazilian-oilgiant.html.
113 Der Spiegel (15 Sep 2013), “ʻFollow the moneyʼ:
NSA spies on international payments,”,
http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/spiegelexclusive-nsa-spies-on-international-banktransactions-a-922276.html.
114 Kenneth W. Dam and Herbert S. Lin, eds. (1996),, National Academies Press, http://www.nap.
edu/catalog.php?record̲id=5131.
115 Morgan Marquis-Boire et al. (24 Jun 2014), “Police
story: Hacking Teamʼs government surveillance〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

malware,” Citizen Lab, Munk School of Global
Affairs, University of Toronto, https://citizenlab.
org/2014/06/backdoor-hacking-teams-tradecraftandroid-implant. William Anderson (24 Jun 2014),“Hacking Team 2.0: The story goes mobile,”, http://securelist.com/blog/research/63693/
hackingteam-2-0-the-story-goes-mobile.
116 Bill Marczak et al. (12 Feb 2014), “Hacking Teamand the targeting of Ethiopian journalists,” Citizen
Lab, Munk School of Global Aﬀairs, University ofToronto, https://citizenlab.org/2014/02/hacking-teamtargeting-ethiopian-journalists. Craig Timberg (12Feb 2014), “Foreign regimes use spyware againstjournalists, even in U.S.,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/
foreign-regimes-use-spyware-against-journalists-evenin-us/2014/02/12/9501a20e-9043-11e3-84e127626c5ef5fb̲story.html.
117 Andrew Jacobs, Miguel Helft, and John Markoﬀ (13Jan 2010), “Google, citing attack, threatens to exit
China,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2010/01/13/world/asia/13beijing.html. David E.
Sanger (6 May 2013), “U.S. blames Chinaʼs military
directly for cyberattacks,”, http://www.ny times.com/2013/05/07/world/asia/usaccuses-chinas-military-in-cyberattacks.html.
118 New York Times (7 May 2013), “China andcyberwar (editorial),”, http://www.
ny times.com/2013/05/08/opinion/china-andcyberwar.html. David E. Sanger and Elisabeth
Bumiller (31 May 2011), “Pentagon to consider
cyberattacks acts of war,”. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/01/us/politics/01cyber.
html.
119 Barack Obama (17 Jan 2014), “Obamaʼs speech on
N.S.A. phone surveillance,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/18/us/politics/obamasspeech-on-nsa-phone-surveillance.html.
120 Michael S. Schmidt, Keith Bradsher, and Christine
Hauser (8 Oct 2012), “U.S. panel cites risks in
Chinese equipment,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2012/10/09/us/us-panel-calls-huaweiand-zte-national-security-threat.html.
121 US National Security Agency (24 Jun 2008),“SOUFFLETROUGH: ANT product data,” http://
leaksource.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/nsa-antsouﬄetrough.jpg. US National Security Agency (24Jun 2008), “FEED-TROUGH: ANT product data,”
http://leaksource.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/nsaant-feedthrough.jpg. US National Security Agency(24 Jun 2008), “JETPLOW: ANT product data,”
http://leaksource.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/nsaant-jetplow.jpg. US National Security Agency (24Jun 2008), “HEADWATER: ANT product data,”
http://leaksource.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/nsaant-jetplow.jpg. US National Security Agency (24Jun 2008), “HEADWATER: ANT product data,”
http://leaksource.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/nsaant-headwater.jpg. US National Security Agency (24Jun 2008), “HALLUXWATER: ANT product data,”
http://leaksource.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/nsaant-halluxwater.jpg.
122 Jeremy Hsu (26 Mar 2014), “U.S. suspicions ofChinaʼs Huawei based partly on NSAʼs own spy
tricks,”, http://spectrum.ieee.org/
tech-talk/computing/hardware/us-suspicions-ofchinas-huawei-based-partly-on-nsas-own-spy-tricks.
123 軍事用語では、スパイ活動のためのハッキングは「Computer Network Exﬁltration(CNE)」、ダ メ ー ジを与えるためのハッキングは「Computer Network
Attack(CAN)」と 呼 ぶ。Alexander Klimburg andHeli Tirmaa-Klaar (15 Apr 2011), “Cybersecurity andcyberpower: Concepts, conditions and capabilities
f o r c o o p e r a t i o n f o r a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e E U,”
Directorate-General for External Policies of theUnion, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/
etudes/etudes/join/2011/433828/EXPO-SEDE̲
ET(2011)433828̲EN.pdf. Alexander Klimburg (2 Sep
2014), “Shades of cyber grey: Espionage and attackin cyberspace,”,
http://www.ﬂetcherforum.org/2014/09/02/klimburg.
124 しかし、それは「サイバー戦争」ではない。政治的論議では、「サイバー戦争」という言葉が多用されすぎている。次の著作が参考になる。Thomas Rid(2013),, Oxford
University Press, http://thomasrid.org/no-cyber-war.
125 James Bamford (13 Aug 2014), “Edward Snowden:
The untold story,”, http://www.wired.
com/2014/08/edward-snowden.
126 軍にサイバー戦争部門を設けている国は、もっと多い か も し れ な い。George Mason University Schoolof Public Policy (Feb 2014), “Cyber security export
markets 2014,” Virginia Economic Development
Partnership, http://exportvirginia.org/wp-content/
uploads/2014/02/Report-on-Cyber-Security-Preface.
pdf
127 Joshua Davis (21 Aug 2007), “Hackers take down
the most wired country in Europe,”, https://web.archive.org/web/20071019223411/http://www.
wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff̲
estonia.
128 John Markoﬀ (13 Aug 2008), “Before the gunﬁre,cyberattacks,”
http://www.nytimes.
com/2008/08/13/technology/13cyber.html.
129 Matthew Weaver (8 Jul 2009), “Cyberattackers
target South Korea and US,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/world/2009/jul/08/south-koreacyber-attack.
130 Charles Clover (11 Mar 2009), “Kremlin-backed
group behind Estonia cyber blitz,”,
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/57536d5a-0ddc-11de8ea3-0000779fd2ac.html.
131 David Kushner (26 Feb 2013), “The real story of
Stuxnet,”, http://spectrum.ieee.org/
telecom/security/the-real-story-of-stuxnet. Kim Zetter(2014),
Crown
Publishers, http://books.google.com/
books/?id=iBTpnQEACAAJ.
132 William J. Broad, John Markoff, and David E.
Sanger (15 Jan 2011), “Israeli test on worm called
crucial in Iran nuclear delay,”,h t t p : / / w w w. ny t i m e s. c o m / 2 0 1 1 / 0 1 / 1 6 / w o r l d /middleeast/16stuxnet.html.
133 Nicole Perlroth (23 Oct 2012), “In cyberattack on
Saudi firm, U.S. sees Iran firing back,”xxiii

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉, http://www.ny times.com/2012/10/24/
business/global/cyberattack-on-saudi-oil-firmdisquiets-us.html. Reuters (9 Dec 2012), “Aramcosays cyberattack was aimed at production,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/10/
business/global/saudi-aramco-says-hackers-took-aimat-its-production.html.
134 Derek S. Reveron (Summer 2008), “Counterterrorism
and intelligence cooperation,”
1 , h t t p : / / w w w.
g lobalaffairsjournal.com/archive/Summer08/
REVERON.pdf.
135 Ross Anderson (23‒24 Jun 2014), “Privacy versus
government surveillance: Where network effects
meet public choice,” 13th Annual Workshop on the
Economics of Information Security, Pennsylvania
State University, http://weis2014.econinfosec.org/
papers/Anderson-WEIS2014.pdf.
136 Nick Perry and Paisley Dodds (16 Jul 2013),“5-nation spy alliance too vital for leaks to harm,”
Associated Press, http://bigstory.ap.org/article/
experts-say-us-spy-alliance-will-survive-snowden.
137 Henrik Moltke and Sebastian Gjerding (4 Nov 2013),“Denmark part of NSA inner circle,”,
http://www.information.dk/477405.
138 Der Spiegel (22 Jul 2013), “ʻKey partnersʼ: Secretlinks between Germany and the NSA,”,
http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/germanintelligence-worked-closely-with-nsa-on-datasurveillance-a-912355html. Hubert Gude et al. (18Jun 2014), “Spying together: Germanyʼs deep
cooperation with the NSA,”, http://www.
spiegel.de/international/germany/the-german-bndand-american-nsa-cooperate-more-closely-thanthought-a-975445.html; Ewen MacAskill and James
Ball (2 Nov 2013), “Portrait of the NSA: No detail
too small in quest for total surveillance,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/02/nsaportrait-total-surveillance.
139 Jay Solomon and Siobhan Gorman (21 May 2009),“Pakistan, India and U.S. begin sharing intelligence,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/
articles/SB124287405244442187.
140 Ellen Knickmeyer and Siobhan Gorman (9 May
2012), “Behind foiled jet plot, stronger Saudi ties,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/
articles/SB10001424052702304543904577394373945
627482. Glenn Greenwald and Murtaza Hussain (25Jul 2014), “The NSAʼs new partner in spying: Saudi
Arabiaʼs brutal state police,”https://
firstlook.org/theintercept/2014/07/25/nsas-newpartner-spying-saudi-arabias-brutal-state-police.
141 Edward Snowden (7 Mar 2014), “Statement to theEuropean Parliament,” European Parliament, http://
www.europarl.europa.eu/document/activities/cont/20
1403/20140307ATT80674/20140307ATT80674EN.
pdf.
142 Andy Müller-Maguhn et al. (31 Aug 2014), “A twofaced friendship: Turkey is ʻpartner and targetʼ forthe NSA,”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/documents-show-nsa-and-gchq-spiedon-partner-turkey-a-989011.html. Laura Poitras et al.
(31 Aug 2014), “How the NSA helped Turkey kill

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Kurdish rebels,”, https://firstlook.org/
theintercept/2014/08/31/nsaturkeyspiegel.
143 David E. Sanger (1 May 2014), “U.S. and Germany
fail to reach a deal on spying,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/02/world/europe/
us-and-germany-fail-to-reach-a-deal-on-spying.html.
Mark Landler (2 May 2014), “Merkel signals thattension persists over U.S. spying,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/03/world/europe/merkel-says-gaps-with-us-over-surveillance-remain.
html. Andy Müller-Maguhn et al. (14 Sep 2014),“Treasure map: The NSA breach of Telekom andother German firms,”, http://www.
spiegel.de/international/world/snowden-documentsindicate-nsa-has-breached-deutschetelekom-a-991503.html.
144 多くの論者がみるところ、アメリカとイギリスは、自国の国内法による制約を迂回する方便として互いの国民を監視している。自国民のデータがその監視の過程で「偶発的」に入手されたものだとみずからが思えれば、この行為は合法とされる。
145 Justin Elliott and Theodoric Meyer (23 Oct 2013),“Claim on ʻattacks thwartedʼ by NSA spreads despitelack of evidence,”, http://www.
propublica.org/article/claim-on-attacks-thwarted-bynsa-spreads-despite-lack-of-evidence.
146 Glenn Greenwald, Laura Poitras, and Ewen
MacAskill (11 Sep 2013), “NSA shares raw
intelligence including Americansʼ data with Israel,”, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/11/nsa-americans-personal-data-israeldocuments.
147 ただし、政治的計算がなくなったわけではない。中国政府は、ウイグル人テロリストに悩まされており、その脅威に対処するためにアメリカが協力してくれれば間違いなく歓迎するだろう。しかし、アメリカは協力しない。ウイグル人のテロが続けば、中国を弱体化させる一要素になるからだ。Chien-peng
Chung (2002), “Chinaʼs ʻwar on terrorʼ: September
11 and Uighur separatism,”, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/58030/chien-pengchung/chinas-war-on-terror-september-11-anduighur-separatism. Elizabeth van Wie Davis (Jan2008), “Uyghur Muslim ethnic separatism in
Xinjiang, China,” Asia-Pacific Center for Security
Studies, http://www.apcss.org/college/publications/uyghur-muslim-ethnic-separatism-in-xinjiang-china.
148 John Laughland (8 Sep 2004), “The ChechensʼA m e r i c a n f r i e n d s,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/08/usa.russia.
Simon Shuster (19 Sep 2011), “How the war on
terrorism did Russia a favor,”, http://content.
time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2093529,00.html.
James Gordon Meek (19 Feb 2014), “The secretbattles between US forces and Chechen terrorists,”, http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/secretbattles-us-forces-chechen-terrorists/
story?id=22580688.
149 Tom Winter (25 Mar 2014), “Russia warned U.S.
about Tsarnaev, but spelling issue let him escape,”, http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/
boston-bombing-anniversary/russia-warned-u-sabout-tsarnaev-spelling-issue-let-him-n60836.

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

150 Laura Smith-Spart and Nick Paton Walsh (4 Feb
2014), “United States reveals ʻspecificʼ threats to
O l y m p i c G a m e s ,” C N N, h t t p : / / w w w. c n n .
com/2014/02/04/world/europe/russia-sochi-winterolympics.
第 6 章 官民監視パートナーシップ
1 コミュニケーション論の研究者であるロバート・M・マクチェズニーは、こうしたビッグデータとビッグな政府の共生関係を評して「運命の絆で結ばれたカップルが自由と民主主義に暗い影を落とす」と
述 べ て い る。Robert M. McChesney (2013),

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3

4

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7

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, New Press, p. 21, http://books.
google.com/books/?id=j̲7EkTI8kVQC.
このことは、マーク・クラインの内部告発により、
スノーデンの暴露以前から明らかになっていた。
Mark Klein (8 Jun 2006), “Declaration of Mark
Klein,”, United States
District Court, Northern District of California (No.
C-06-0672-VRW), https://www.eﬀ.org/ﬁles/ﬁlenode/
att/Mark%20Klein%20Unredacted%20DeclIncluding%20Exhibits.pdf. Ellen Nakashima (7 Nov
2007), “A story of surveillance,”,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/
article/2007/11/07/AR2007110700006.html.
James Ball, Luke Harding, and Juliette Garside (2Aug 2013), “BT and Vodafone among telecoms
companies passing details to GCHQ,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/business/2013/aug/02/
telecoms-bt-vodafone-cables-gchq.
Vodafone (2014), “Law enforcement disclosurer e p o r t ,” h t t p : / / w w w. v o d a f o n e . c o m / c o n t e n t /sustainabilityreport/2014/index/operating̲
responsibly/privacy̲and̲security/law̲enforcement.
html. Peter Svensson (9 Jun 2014), “Vodafone reportsparks global surveillance debate,” Associated Press,
http://bigstory.ap.org/article/cellphone-operatorwades-surveillance-debate. Juliette Garside (5 Jun
2014), “Vodafone reveals existence of secret wires
that allow state surveillance,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/business/2014/jun/06/vodafonereveals-secret-wires-allowing-state-surveillance.
Jacques Follorou and Glenn Greenwald (25 Oct2013), “France in the NSAʼs crosshair: Wanadoo and
Alcatel targeted,”, http://www.lemonde.fr/
technologies/article/2013/10/21/france-in-the-nsa-scrosshair-wanadoo-and-alcateltargeted̲3499739̲651865.html. Jacques Follorou (21Mar 2014), “Espionnage: Comment Orange et lesservices secrets coopèrent,”, http://www.
lemonde.fr/international/article/2014/03/20/dgseorange-des-liaisons-incestueuses̲4386264̲3210.html.
British Broadcasting Corporation (8 Apr 2014), “TopEU court rejects EU-wide data retention law,”, h t t p : / / w w w. b b c . c o m / n e w s / w o r l d europe-26935096.
Iran Media Program (8 Apr 2013), “Digital media:
FATA p o l i c e s I n t e r n e t c a f é s w i t h 2 0 n e w
regulations,” Annenberg School for Communication,h t t p : / / w w w. i r a n m e d i a r e s e a r c h . o r g / e n /blog/218/13/04/08/1322.
Reporters Without Borders (2013), “Vietnam,” in

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, http://surveillance.rsf.org/en/
vietnam.
Rama Lakshmi (1 Aug 2011), “Indiaʼs new Internet
rules criticized,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/world/indias-new-internet-rulescriticized/2011/07/27/gIQA1zS2mI̲story.html.
Chris Jay Hoofnagle (1 Aug 2003), “Big Brotherʼslittle helpers: How Choicepoint and othercommercial data brokers collect, process, andpackage your data for law enforcement,”
29, http://papers.ssrn.com/
sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲id=582302. Jon D. Michaels(6 Oct 2008), “All the presidentʼs spies: Privatepublic intelligence partnerships in the war on terror,”96, http://papers.ssrn.com/
sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲id=1279867.
Matthew L. Wald (21 Feb 2004), “U.S. calls releaseof JetBlue data improper,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/21/business/21blue.html.
CR Staﬀ (1 May 2003), “U.S. government purchasedata on Mexicoʼs 65 million registered voters,”
I n f o r m a t i o n C l e a r i n g h o u s e , h t t p : / / w w w.
informationclearinghouse.info/article3186.htm.
US Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (11 May
2014), “Bank Secrecy Act requirements: A quickreference guide for money services business,” http://
www.ﬁncen.gov/ﬁnancial̲institutions/msb/materials/
en/bank̲reference.html.
Kenneth Lowe (29 Jun 2008), “Illinois made $64.3
million selling driverʼs license information,”, http://herald-review.com/business/local/
illinois-made-million-selling-driver-s-licenseinformation/article̲43c51a15-c885-575e-ac5d0c01cc9acb6b.html.
Joe Guillen (11 Jul 2010), “Ohio collects millions
selling driving records with your personal
information,”, http://www.cleveland.
com/open/index.ssf/2010/07/ohio̲collects̲millions̲selling.html.
Tim Cushing (13 Feb 2013), “Texas DMV sells
personal information to hundreds of companies;
Drivers not allowed to opt-out,”, http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20130212/21285321958/
texas-dmv-sells-personal-information-to-hundredscompanies-drivers-not-allowed-to-opt-out.shtml.
Jeﬀ Weinsier (12 Oct 2011), “Florida makes $63M
selling driversʼ info,”, http://www.local10.
com/news/Florida-Makes-63M-Selling-DriversInfo/3078462.
Kim Zetter (11 Dec 2003), “For sale: The American
voter,”, http://archive.wired.com/politics/
security/news/2003/12/61543.
Rowena Maxon (18 Apr 2014), “HMRC to sell
taxpayersʼ financial data,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/politics/2014/apr/18/hmrc-to-selltaxpayers-data.
Randeep Ramesh (19 Jan 2014), “NHS patient data
to be made available for sale to drug and insurance
firms,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
society/2014/jan/19/nhs-patient-data-availablecompanies-buy.
マネーロンダリング（不正資金の洗浄）ならぬ「デxxv〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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ータロンダリング」という言い方もされる。Chris
Jay Hoofnagle (2 Sep 2014), “The Potemkinism ofprivacy pragmatism,”, http://www.slate.com/
articles/technology/future̲tense/2014/09/data̲use̲
regulation̲the̲libertarian̲push̲behind̲a̲new̲take̲on̲privacy.single.html.
Geoff Duncan (9 Jun 2012), “Why Do Not Trackmay not protect anybodyʼs privacy,”,
http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/why-do-nottrack-may-not-protect-anybodys-privacy.
European Parliament and Council of Europe (24 Oct
1995), “Directive 95/46/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995
on the protection of individuals with regard to theprocessing of personal data and on the freemovement of such data,” http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31995L0046:
en:HTML. Council of Europe (Apr 2014),“Handbook on European data protection law,” http://
www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Handbook̲data̲protection̲ENG.pdf.
Zack Whittaker (25 Apr 2011), “Safe harbor: Why
EU data needs ʻprotectingʼ from US law,”,
http://www.zdnet.com/blog/igeneration/safe-harborwhy-eu-data-needs-protecting-from-us-law/8801.
Jay Stanley (Aug 2004), “The surveillance-industrial
complex,” American Civil Liberties Union, https://w w w. a c l u . o r g / s i t e s / d e f a u l t / f i l e s / F i l e s P D F s /surveillance̲report.pdf.
Dana Priest and William M. Arkin (19 Jul 2010), “A
hidden world, growing beyond control,”, http://projects.washingtonpost.com/top-secretamerica/articles/a-hidden-world-growing-beyondcontrol.
Robert OʼHarrow Jr., Dana Priest, and Marjorie
Censer (10 Jun 2013), “NSA leaks put focus on
intelligence apparatusʼs reliance on outside
c o n t r a c t o r s,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/business/nsa-leaks-put-focus-onintelligence-apparatuss-reliance-on-outsidecontractors/2013/06/10/e940c4ba-d20e-11e2-9f1a1a7cdee20287̲story.html.
勤務時間外に仕事に直接使えるような発明をする時
間など、アレキサンダーにはなかった可能性が高い。Shane Harris (29 Jun 2014), “The NSAʼs cyberking goes corporate,”, http://www.
foreignpolicy.com/articles/2014/07/29/the̲crypto̲king̲of̲the̲NSA̲goes̲corporate̲keith̲alexander̲
patents. Conor Friedersdorf (31 Jul 2014), “Keith
Alexanderʼs unethical get-rich-quick plan,”,
http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/07/
keith-alexanders-unethical-get-rich-quickplan/375367.
Spencer Ackerman (17 Oct 2014), “Senior NSA
official moonlighting for private security firm,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m / u s news/2014/oct/17/senior-nsa-official-moonlightingprivate-cybersecurity-ﬁrm.
Elaman-Gamma Group (2011), “German security
solutions,”, https://s3.amazonaws.com/
s3.documentcloud.org/documents/810435/313elaman-product-list-ﬁnﬁsher.pdf.
Morgan Marquis-Boire and Bill Marczak (29 Augxxvi

2012), “The smartphone who loved me: FinFisher
goes mobile?” Citizen Lab, Munk School of Global
Affairs, University of Toronto, http://citizenlab.
org/2012/08/the-smartphone-who-loved-me-ﬁnﬁshergoes-mobile. Nicole Perlroth (30 Aug 2012),“Software meant to fight crime is used to spy on
dissidents,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2012/08/31/technology/finspy-software-istracking-political-dissidents.html.
32 Bill Marczak et al. (17 Feb 2014), “Mapping Hacking
Teamʼs ʻuntraceableʼ spyware,” Citizen Lab, Munk
School of Global Affairs, Univers-ity of Toronto,
https://citizenlab.org/2014/02/mapping-hackingteams-untraceable-spyware.
33 Vernon Silver and Ben Elgin (22 Aug 2011),“Torture in Bahrain becomes routine with help from
Nokia Siemens,”, http://www.
bloomberg.com/news/2011-08-22/torture-in-bahrainbecomes-routine-with-help-from-nokia-siemensnetworking.html.
34 Ms. Smith (10 Nov 2011), “Secret snoop conference
for govʼt spying: Go stealth, hit a hundred thousand
targets,”, http://www.networkworld.
com/article/2221080/microsoft-subnet/secret-snoopconference-for-gov-t-spying---go-stealth--hit-ahundred-thousand-targe.html. Jennifer ValentinoDeVries, Julia Angwin, and Steve Stecklow (19 Nov
2011), “Document trove exposes surveillancemethods,”, http://online.wsj.com/
news/articles/SB100014240529702036114045770441
92607407780. Vernon Silver (21 Dec 2011), “Spies
fail to escape spyware in $5 billion bazaar for cyberarms,”, http://www.bloomberg.com/
news/2011-12-22/spies-fail-to-escape-spyware-in-5billion-bazaar-for-cyber-arms.html.
35 ISS World Training (3‒4 Mar 2014), “ISS World
Middle East,” J. W. Marriott, Dubai, UAE, http://
www.issworldtraining.com/iss̲mea/Brochure01.pdf.
36 プライバシー保護活動をおこなう団体「プライバシー・インターナショナル」は、2006〜09年の参加者リストを公表している。Privacy International has alist of who attended between 2006 and 2009. Privacy
International (2012), “Surveillance Whoʼs Who,”
https://www.privacyinternational.org/sww.
37 Uwe Buse and Marcel Rosenbach (8 Dec 2011),“The transparent state enemy: Western surveillancetechnology in the hands of despots,”,
http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/thetransparent-state-enemy-western-surveillancetechnology-in-the-hands-of-despots-a-802317.html.
38 Visiongain (8 Jan 2013), “ʻGlobal cyberwarfare
market to be worth $16.96bn in 2013ʼ says
Visiongain Report,” Reuters, http://www.reuters.
c o m / a r t i c l e / 2 0 1 3 / 0 1 / 0 8 /idUSnPre7f3zna+100+PRN20130108. James
Bamford (12 Jun 2013), “The secret war,”,
http://www.wired.com/2013/06/general-keithalexander-cyberwar/all.
39 Paul Sonne and Margaret Coker (30 Aug 2011),“Firms aided Libyan spies,”,
http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB100014240531
11904199404576538721260166388.
40 Elbit Systems (24 Apr 2013), “Elbit Systems

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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awarded a $40 million contract to supply a countryin Africa with the Wise Intelligence Technology(WiT[TM]) System,” http://ir.elbitsystems.com/
phoenix.zhtml?c=61849&p=irolnewsArticle&ID=1810121.
Der Spiegel (11 Apr 2012), “Monitoring the
opposition: Siemens allegedly sold surveillance gear
to Syria,”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/ard-reports-siemens-soldsurveillance-technology-to-syria-a-826860.html.
Ben Elgin and Vernon Silver (3 Nov 2011), “Syria
crackdown gets Italy ﬁrmʼs aid with U.S.-Europe spy
gear,”, http://www.bloomberg.com/
news/2011-11-03/syria-crackdown-gets-italy-firm-said-with-u-s-europe-spy-gear.html.
Paul Sonne and Margaret Coker (30 Aug 2011),“Firms aided Libyan spies,”,
http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB100014240531
11904199404576538721260166388.
Sarah Kendzior and Katy Pearce (11 May 2012),“How Azerbaijan demonizes the Internet to keep
citizens oﬄine,”, http://www.slate.com/blogs/
future̲tense/2012/05/11/azerbaijan̲eurovision̲song̲
contest̲and̲keeping̲activists̲and̲citizens̲oﬀ̲the̲internet̲.html.
Sarah Kendzior (Jul 2012), “Digital freedom of
expression in Uzbekistan: An example of social
control and censorship,” New America Foundation,
http://newamerica.net/sites/newamerica.net/files/
policydocs/KendziorFINAL7172012.pdf.
O p e n Te c h n o l o g y I n s t i t u t e ( 9 D e c 2 0 1 3 ) ,“International agreement reached controlling exportof mass and intrusive surveillance technology,” New
America Foundation, http://oti.newamerica.net/
blogposts/2013/international̲agreement̲reached̲
controlling̲export̲of̲mass̲and̲intrusive̲
surveillance.
Uwe Buse and Marcel Rosenbach (8 Dec 2011),“The transparent state enemy: Western surveillancetechnology in the hands of despots,”,
http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/thetransparent-state-enemy-western-surveillancetechnology-in-the-hands-of-despots-a-802317.html.
導入国リストは以下のとおり。アフガニスタン、バー レ ー ン、ビ ル マ（ミ ャ ン マ ー）、中 国、エ ジ プト、インド、インドネシア、イラク、ケニア、クウ
ェート、レバノン、マレーシア、ナイジェリア、カ
タール、ロシア、サウジアラビア、シンガポール、
韓 国、シ リ ア、タ イ、ト ル コ、ベ ネ ズ エ ラ。Irene
Poetranto et al. (9 Nov 2011), “Behind Blue Coat:
Investigations of commercial filtering in Syria andBurma,” Citizen Lab, Munk School of Global Aﬀairs,
University of Toronto, https://citizenlab.org/2011/11/
behind-blue-coat. Irene Poetranto et al. (29 Nov
2011), “Behind Blue Coat: An update from Burma,”
Citizen Lab, Munk School of Global Affairs,
University of Toronto, https://citizenlab.org/2011/11/
behind-blue-coat-an-update-from-burma. Morgan
Marquis-Boire et al. (15 Jan 2013), “Planet Blue
Coat: Mapping global censorship and surveillance
tools,” Citizen Lab, Munk School of Global Aﬀairs,
University of Toronto, https://citizenlab.org/2013/01/
planet-blue-coat-mapping-global-censorship-and-

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surveillance-tools.
Adam Senft et al. (20 Feb 2014), “Internet ﬁlteringin a failed state: The case of Netsweeper in
Somalia,” Citizen Lab, Munk School of Global
Affairs, University of Toronto, https://citizenlab.
org/2014/02/internet-filtering-failed-state-casenetsweeper-somalia. Helmi Noman et al. (20 Jun
2013), “O Pakistan, we stand on guard for thee: An
analysis of Canada-based Net-sweeperʼs role inPakistanʼs censorship regime,” Citizen Lab, Munk
School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto,
https://citizenlab.org/2013/06/o-pakistan.
Open Net Initiative (12 Oct 2005), “Internet ﬁlteringin Burma 2005,” https://opennet.net/sites/opennet.
net/ﬁles/ONI̲Burma̲Country̲Study.pdf. New Lightof Myanmar (16 May 2004), “Prime minister attends
ceremony to introduce Fortinet Antivirus Firewall,”, http://www.myanmar.gov.
mm/NLM-2004/May04/enlm/May16̲h1.html.
Ben Arnoldy (10 Oct 2007), “When US-madeʻcensorwareʼ ends up in iron ﬁsts,”, http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/1010/
p01s01-ussc.html.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (Sep2012), “The use of the Internet for terrorist
purposes,” http://www.unodc.org/documents/
frontpage/Use̲of̲Internet̲for̲Terrorist̲Purposes.
pdf.
Planet Biometrics (2 Mar 2011), “Biometrics cruisei n t o t h e D i s n e y D r e a m , ” h t t p : / / w w w.
planetbiometrics.com/article-details/i/504.
US Congress (2012), “Department of State Rewards
Program Update and Technical Corrections Act of2012,” Public Law 283, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/
pkg/PLAW-112publ283/html/PLAW-112publ283.
htm.
Charlie Savage (7 May 2013), “U.S. weighs wide
overhaul of wiretap laws,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/08/us/politics/obamamay-back-fbi-plan-to-wiretap-web-users.html.
Charlie Savage (27 Sep 2010), “U.S. tries to make iteasier to wiretap the Internet,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/27/us/27wiretap.
html.
Tim Rogers (Nov 2013), “The real story of Lavabitʼsfounder,”, http://www.dmagazine.com/
publications/d-magazine/2013/november/real-storyof-lavabit-founder-ladar-levison.
Spencer Ackerman (9 Aug 2013), “Lavabit e-mailservice abruptly shut down citing government
interference,”, http://www.theguardian.
com/technology/2013/aug/08/lavabit-e-mail-shutdown-edward-snowden. Ladar Levison (20 May
2014), “Secrets, lies and Snowdenʼs email: Why I
was forced to shut down Lavabit,”, http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/may/20/
why-did-lavabit-shut-down-snowden-email.
Declan McCullagh (24 Jul 2013), “Feds put heat on
Web firms for master encryption keys,”,
http://www.cnet.com/news/feds-put-heat-on-webﬁrms-for-master-encryption-keys.
全ユーザーのデータへの無制約のアクセスを FBI に認めず、サービスを閉鎖したことを理由に、レヴィ

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ソ ン は 逮 捕 す る と 脅 さ れ た。Michael Isikoﬀ (13Aug 2013), “Lavabit.com owner: ʻI could be arrestedʼ
for resisting surveillance order,”, http://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/lavabit-com-owner-icould-be-arrested-resisting-surveillance-orderf6C10908072.
Serge Malenkovich (21 Mar 2013), “Does Big
Brother watch your Skype?”,
http://blog.kaspersky.com/skype-governmentsurveillance. James Risen and Nick Wingfield (20Jun 2013), “Silicon Valley and spy agency bound bystrengthening web,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2013/06/20/technology/silicon-valleyand-spy-agency-bound-by-strengthening-web.html.
Microsoft Corporation (13 Oct 2011), “Microsoft
oﬃcially welcomes Skype,”,
http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/press/2011/oct11/10-13skypepr.aspx.
Glenn Greenwald (11 Jul 2013), “Microsoft handed
the NSA access to encrypted messages,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/11/
microsoft-nsa-collaboration-user-data.
Craig Timberg (11 Sep 2014), “U.S. threatened
massive fine to force Yahoo to release data,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
business/technology/us-threatened-massive-fine-toforce-yahoo-to-release-data/2014/09/11/38a7f69e39e8-11e4-9c9f-ebb47272e40e̲story.html.
Joseph Menn (20 Dec 2013), “Secret contract tied
NSA and security industry pioneer,” Reuters, http://
www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/20/us-usa-securityrsa-idUSBRE9BJ1C220131220.
レベル3コミュニケーションズ社は、NSA 内の暗号名で「LITTLE」と呼ばれている。一般的に、あなたの利用している接続業者に NSA の暗号名がついていれば、あなたの通信は傍受されていると考えていい。Nicole Perlroth (25 Nov 2013), “N.S.A. may have
hit Internet companies at a weak spot,”, http://www.ny times.com/2013/11/26/
technology/a-peephole-for-the-nsa.html.
Brandon Downey (30 Oct 2013), “This is the big
story in tech today,”, https://plus.google.
com/+BrandonDowney/posts/SfYy8xbDWGG.
Ryan Gallagher and Glenn Greenwald (12 Mar
2014), “How the NSA plans to infect ʻmillionsʼ ofcomputers with malware,”, https://ﬁrstlook.
org/theintercept/article/2014/03/12/nsa-plans-infectmillions-computers-malware.
Sean Gallagher (14 May 2014), “Photos of an NSA
ʻupgradeʼ factory show Cisco router getting implant,”, http://arstechnica.com/techpolicy/2014/05/photos-of-an-nsa-upgrade-factoryshow-cisco-router-getting-implant. Sarah Silbert (16May 2014), “Latest Snowden leak reveals the NSA
intercepted and bugged Cisco routers,”,
http://www.engadget.com/2014/05/16/nsa-buggedcisco-routers.
James Ball, Julian Borger, and Glenn Greenwald (5Sep 2013), “Revealed: How US and UK spy agencies
defeat internet privacy and security,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/05/nsagchq-encryption-codes-security. Nicole Perlroth, Jeﬀ
Larson, and Scott Shane (5 Sep 2013), “N.S.A. able

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to foil basic safeguards of privacy on Web,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/06/us/
nsa-foils-much-internet-encryption.html.
Brian Krebs (28 May 2014), “Backdoor in callmonitoring, surveillance gear,”,
http://krebsonsecurity.com/2014/05/backdoor-in-callmonitoring-surveillance-gear.
Peter Maass and Laura Poitras (10 Oct 2014), “Coresecrets: NSA saboteurs in China and Germany,”, https://firstlook.org/
theintercept/2014/10/10/core-secrets.
Martin Bryant (7 Mar 2014), “Google is ʻpretty sureʼ
its data is now protected against government spying,
Eric Schmidt says,”, http://thenextweb.
com/google/2014/03/07/google-pretty-sure-protectedgovernment-spying-eric-schmidt-says.

第 2 部 なにが脅かされるのか？
第 7 章 政治的自由と正義
1
David Greene (27 Jan 2014), “Deep dive into
: Why freedom of
association matters,” Electronic Frontier Foundation,
https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2014/01/deep-diveﬁrst-unitarian-church-v-nsa-why-freedom-associationmatters.
2
Joshua Eaton (15 Aug 2014), “Challenging thesurveillance state,”, http://www.uuworld.
org/ideas/articles/297088.shtml.
3
Yochai Benkler (13 Sep 2013), “Time to tame the
NSA behemoth trampling our rights,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/sep/13/nsa-behemoth-trampling-rights.
4
Economist (16 Nov 2013), “The recorded world:
Every step you take,”, http://www.
economist.com/news/leaders/21589862-camerasbecome-ubiquitous-and-able-identify-people-moresafeguards-privacy-will-be.
5Daniel J. Solove (2004),, New
York University Press, http://docs.law.gwu.edu/
facweb/dsolove/Digital-Person/text/Digital-PersonCH3.pdf.
6
国土安全保障省は以前──そしておそらくは現在も── SNS を監視し、アメリカ政府に批判的なニュースに人々がどのような反応を示すかを見張っていた（い る）。Ellen Nakashima (13 Jan 2012), “DHS
monitoring of social media worries civil liberties
a d v o c a t e s ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/dhsmonitoring-of-social-media-worries-civil-libertiesadvocates/2012/01/13/gIQANPO7wP̲story.html.
7
British Broadcasting Corporation (31 Jan 2012),“Caution on Twitter urged as tourists barred fromUS,”
, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/
technology-16810312.
8
Gerry Smith (25 Jun 2014), “How police arescanning all of Twitter to detect terrorist threats,”, http://www.huffingtonpost.
c o m / 2 0 1 4 / 0 6 / 2 5 / d a t a m i n r- m i n e s - t w i t t e r- t o ̲n̲5507616.html.
9Philip Messing (13 Apr 2013), “JFK passenger
detained after talking about ʻbombʼ sandwich,”, http://nypost.com/2013/04/13/jfk-

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20

passenger-detained-after-talking-about-bombsandwich.
次の素晴らしいエッセーがこの点を論じている。
Praxis (17 Jan 2014), “The world is now an airport:
Surveillance and social control,”, https://
medium.com/i-m-h-o/9a1e5268ﬀ39.
Lauren Russell (24 Apr 2013), “When oversharing
online can get you arrested,” CNN, http://www.cnn.
com/2013/04/18/tech/social-media/onlineoversharing-arrests.
British Broadcasting Corporation (27 Mar 2012),“Fabrice Muamba: Racist Twitter user jailed for 56
days,”, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ukwales-17515992; British Broadcasting Corporation (4Jun 2014), “Man jailed for oﬀensive Ann Maguire
Facebook post,”, http://www.bbc.co.uk/
news/uk-england-27696446.
Jeremy Scahill and Glenn Greenwald (10 Feb 2014),“The NSAʼs secret role in the U.S. assassination
program,”, https://ﬁrstlook.org/theintercept/
article/2014/02/10/the-nsas-secret-role. Cori Crider(4 Mar 2014), “Killing in the name of algorithms,” Al
Jazeera, http://america.aljazeera.com/
opinions/2014/3/drones-big-data-waronterrorobama.
html.
John Kaag and Sarah Kreps (2014),,
W i l e y, c h a p. 1 2 , h t t p : / / b o o k s . g o o g l e . c o m /books?id=I8oOBAAAQBAJ.
Richard Engel and Robert Windrem (5 Jun 2013),“CIA didnʼt always know who it was killing in drone
strikes, classified documents show,”,
http://investigations.nbcnews.com/̲
news/2013/06/05/18781930-cia-didnt-always-knowwho-it-was-killing-in-drone-strikes-classifieddocuments-show.
Karen McVeigh (27 Aug 2013), “NSA surveillance
program violates the constitution, ACLU says,”, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/
aug/27/nsa-surveillance-program-illegal-aclu-lawsuit.
Oliver August (23 Oct 2007), “The Great Firewall:
Chinaʼs misguided ̶ and futile ̶ attempt to control
w h a t h a p p e n s o n l i n e ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
oliveraugust.com/journalism̲chinas-internet-heroes.
htm.
Gary King, Jennifer Pan, and Margaret E Roberts(May 2013), “How censorship in China allows
government criticism but silences collective
expression,”107,
http://gking.harvard.edu/publications/howcensorship-china-allows-government-criticismsilences-collective-expression.
Caitlin Dewey (12 Aug 2013), “Wikipedia largely
alone in defying Chinese self-censorship demands,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/08/12/wikipedia-largelyalone-in-defying-chinese-self-censorship-demands.
Ronald Deibert et al., eds. (2010),

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24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32
, MIT Press, http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/access-controlled. John D. Sutter (19 Jun
2012), “Google reports ʻalarmingʼ rise in government
censorship requests,” CNN, http://www.cnn.
com/2012/06/18/tech/web/google-transparency-

33

report.
Forbes (25 Dec 2000), “Swastika.com,”,
http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2000/1225/6616164s1.
html.
British Broadcasting Corporation (1 Sep 2013),“Vietnam internet restrictions come into effect,”, http://www.bbc.com/news/worldasia-23920541.
Ronald Deibert et al., eds, (2008),,
MIT Press, http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/accessdenied.
Ben Quinn (10 Oct 2011), “Biggest four UK ISPs
switching to ʻopt-inʼ system for pornography,”, http://www.theguardian.com/society/2011/
oct/11/pornography-internet-service-providers.
Anthony Faiola (28 Sep 2013), “Britainʼs harshcrackdown on Internet porn prompts free-speechd e b a t e ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/world/europe/britains-harshcrackdown-on-internet-porn-prompts-free-speechdebate/2013/09/28/d1f5caf8-2781-11e3-937292606241ae9c̲story.html.
Ewen MacAskill (1 Dec 2010), “WikiLeaks website
pulled by Amazon after U.S. political pressure,”, http://www.theguardian.com/media/2010/
dec/01/wikileaks-website-cables-servers-amazon.
Neil MacFarquhar (6 May 2014), “Russia quietly
tightens reins on web with ʻBloggers Law,ʼ”, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/07/
world/europe/russia-quietly-tightens-reins-on-webwith-bloggers-law.html.
市民に互いのことを密告させることは、社会に大きな害を及ぼす。社会に恐怖心が充満して、社会の一体 性 を 生 み 出 す 連 帯 感 が そ こ な わ れ て し ま う。
Bruce Schneier (26 Apr 2007), “Recognizing ʻhinkyʼvs. citizen informants,”, https://w w w. s c h n e i e r. c o m / b l o g / a r c h i v e s / 2 0 0 7 / 0 4 /recognizing̲hin̲1.html.
Jason Q. Ng (12 Mar 2012), “How China gets theInternet to censor itself,”, http://wagingnonviolence.org/feature/how-china-gets-theinternet-to-censor-itself.
Cuiming Pang (2008), “Self-censorship and the riseof cyber collectives: An anthropological study of a
C h i n e s e o n l i n e c o m m u n i t y,”
18, http://www.uri.edu/iaics/
content/2008v17n3/05%20Cuiming%20Pang.pdf.
Gregory L. White and Philip G. Zimbardo (May1975), “The chilling effects of surveillance:
Deindividuation and reactance,” Office of Naval
Research/National Technical Information Service,
http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a013230.pdf.
US Supreme Court (23 Jan 2012), “Decision,”(No. 10-1259), http://caselaw.
lp.ﬁndlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&navby=c
ase&vol=000&invol=10-1259#opinion1.
Eben Moglen (27 May 2014), “Privacy under attack:
The NSA ﬁles revealed new threats to democracy,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /technology/2014/may/27/-sp-privacy-under-attacknsa-ﬁles-revealed-new-threats-democracy.
G. Alex Sinha (28 Jul 2014), “With liberty toxxix

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monitor all,” Human Rights Watch, http://www.hrw.
org/reports/2014/07/28/liberty-monitor-all.
34 オーストラリアで NSA と同様の役割を担う「オーストラリア通信電子局（ASD）」は、アメリカの法律事務所メイヤー・ブラウンとその顧客であるインドネシア政府の間の通信を傍受していた。そして、
ASD は そ の 情 報 を NSA に 提 供 し て い た。James
Risen and Laura Poitras (15 Feb 2014), “Spying by
NSA ally entangled US law ﬁrm,”,
h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s . c o m / 2 0 1 4 / 0 2 / 1 6 / u s /eavesdropping-ensnared-american-law-ﬁrm.html.
35 G. Alex Sinha (28 Jul 2014), “With liberty tomonitor all,” Human Rights Watch, http://www.hrw.
org/reports/2014/07/28/liberty-monitor-all-0.
36 PEN America (2013), “Chilling effects: NSA
surveillance drives U.S. writers to self-censor,” http://
www.pen.org/sites/default/files/Chilling%20Effects̲
PEN%20American.pdf.
37 こ の 調 査 が 実 施 さ れ た の は、NSA が ベ ラ イ ゾ ン（そして、おそらくほかのすべての通信会社）から電話通話のメタデータを入手し、グーグルやヤフー、フェイスブック、マイクロソフト、ツイッターなどからインターネット関連のデータを入手していたことが報じられた直後だ。Elizabeth Dwoskin (26Aug 2014), “Survey: People donʼt want to talk online
about the NSA,”, http://blogs.
wsj.com/digits/2014/08/26/survey-people-dont-wantto-talk-online-about-the-nsa.
38 Amrita Jayakumar (2 Apr 2014), “Americans saytheyʼre shopping less online. Blame the NSA,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
blogs/the-switch/wp/2014/04/02/americans-saytheyre-shopping-less-online-blame-the-nsa.
39 David Greene (6 Nov 2013), “EFF ﬁles 22 ﬁrsthandaccounts of how NSA surveillance chilled the rightto association,” Electronic Frontier Foundation,
https://www.eff.org/press/releases/eff-files-22ﬁrsthand-accounts-how-nsa-surveillance-chilled-rightassociation.
40 Dawinder S. Sidhu (2007), “The chilling effect ofgovernment surveillance programs on the use of theInternet by Muslim-Americans,”

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44

7, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract̲id=1002145.
Alex Marthews and Catherine Tucker (24 Mar
2014), “Government surveillance and Internet searchbehavior,” Social Science Research Network, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲
id=2412564.
United Nations High Commissioner for Human
Rights (30 Jun 2014), “The right to privacy in thedigital age,” http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/
HRC/RegularSessions/Session27/Documents/A.
HRC.27.37̲en.pdf.
Liz Klimas (22 Mar 2012), “Simply visiting terrorist
websites could mean jail time in France,”,
http://www.theblaze.com/stories/2012/03/22/simplyvisiting-terrorist-websites-could-mean-jail-time-infrance.
Rachel Clark (11 Jul 2013), “ʻEverything about
everyoneʼ: the depth of Stasi surveillance in the
GDR,”, http://thevieweast.wordpress.

xxx

com/2013/07/11/everything-about-everyone-thedepth-of-stasi-surveillance-in-the-gdr. Oka Efagene(20 Aug 2014), “Your calls may soon be monitored:
NCC,”, http://pulse.ng/lifestyle/tech/securityvs-privacy-your-calls-may-soon-be-monitored-nccid3066105.html.
45 Carl Joachim Friedrich (Oct 1939), “Democracy anddissent,”
10, http://onlinelibrary.
wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-923X.1939.tb00987.x/
abstract.
46 Bruce Schneier (2012),, Wiley, chap.
16, http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/
productCd-1118143302.html.［邦 訳 ／『信 頼 と 裏 切りの社会』（NTT 出版）］
47 Frank Zappa and Peter Occhiogrosso (1989),, Poseidon Press, p. 185,
http://books.google.com/books?id=FB0O̲HCpBy0C.
［邦訳／『フランク・ザッパ自伝』（河出書房新社）］
48 ワシントン大学のニール・リチャーズに言わせれば、「新しいアイデアが最もはぐくまれるのは、ものごとが公にされて厳しく監視されていない場である場合が多い」。Neil M. Richards (May 2013), “Thedangers of surveillance,”126,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲
id=2239412.
49 メリーランド州のボルチモア市は、建築許可違反を見つけるために航空写真を利用している。具体的には、建築許可のデータベースと、複数の時点の航空
写 真 を 照 合 す る 方 法 を 用 い る。Doug Donovan (7Sep 2004), “A birdʼs-eye view of every part of thecity,”, http://articles.baltimoresun.
com/2004-09-07/news/0409070310̲1̲images-deckaerial.
50 Gregory Conti (4 Apr 2014), “A conservation theoryof governance for automated law enforcement,” We
Robot 2014, Coral Gables, Florida, http://robots.law.
miami.edu/2014/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Shayetal-TheoryofConservation̲ﬁnal.pdf.
51 たとえば、妻やそのほかの女性をレイプして、その肉を食べる計画についてオンライン上で友達と会話していたニューヨークの警察官──「カニバル・コップ（人肉食警官）」と呼ばれた──は、その計画を実行に移していないにもかかわらず、起訴された。Daniel Beekman and Dareh Gregorian (1 Jul
2014), “ʻCannibal copʼ released into custody of his
mother after conviction overturned in stunning
reversal,”, http://www.
nydailynews.com/new-york/nyc-crime/convictioncannibal-nypd-overturned-article-1.1850334. Daniel
Engber (2 Jul 2014), “The cannibal cop goes free,
but what about the murderous mechanic?”,
http://www.slate.com/articles/news̲and̲politics/
crime/2014/07/the̲cannibal̲cop̲gilberto̲valle̲
goes̲free̲what̲about̲michael̲van̲hise̲and.html.
52 Walter L. Perry et al. (2013), “Predictive policing:
The role of crime forecasting in law enforcement
operations,” RAND Corporation, https://www.ncjrs.
gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/243830.pdf. US National
Institute of Justice (13 Jan 2014), “Predictive
policing research,” http://www.nij.gov/topics/lawenforcement/strategies/predictive-policing/Pages/
research.aspx.

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Michael L. Rich (Mar 2013), “Should we makecrime impossible?”36, http://www.harvard-jlpp.com/wpcontent/uploads/2013/04/36̲2̲795̲Rich.pdf.
Yochai Benkler (4 Dec 2013), “System andconscience: NSA bulk surveillance and the problem
of freedom,” Center for Research on Computationand Society, Harvard University, http://crcs.seas.
harvard.edu/event/yochai-benkler-crcs-lunch-seminara n d h t t p s : / / w w w. y o u t u b e . c o m /watch?v=6EUueRpCzpw.
William E. Colby (1976), “Intelligence secrecy andsecurity in a free society,”1,
http://people.exeter.ac.uk/mm394/Intelligence%20
Secrecy%20and%20Security.pdf. James E. Knott(Summer 1975), “Secrecy and intelligence in a freesociety,”
19, https://www.cia.
gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kentcsi/vol19no2/html/v19i2a01p̲0001.htm.
Pamela O. Long and Alex Roland (1994), “Military
secrecy in antiquity and early medieval Europe: A
critical reassessment,”11,
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/073415
19408581866?journalCode=ghat20.
Lewis A. Coser (Summer 1963), “The dysfunctionsof military secrecy,”
11, http://www.
jstor.org/discover/10.2307/798801.
ノルマンディー上陸作戦の実行日（「D デイ」）はその 典 型 だ。Jon S. Wendell (1997), “Strategic
deception behind the Normandy invasion,” US Air
Force, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1997/Wendell.htm. Dan Lamothe (6 Jun
2014), “Remembering the military secrecy and liesthat made D-Day successful,”,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/
wp/2014/06/06/remembering-the-military-secrecyand-lies-that-made-d-day-successful.
Steven Aftergood (Oct 1999), “Government secrecy
and knowledge production: A survey of some generalissues,” in, ed.
Judith Reppy, Cornell University Peace Studies
Program Occasional Paper #23, http://large.stanford.
edu/publications/crime/references/dennis/occasionalpaper23.pdf. Francis B. Kapper (Oct 1999), “Therole of government in the production and control ofscientific and technical knowledge,” ibid. Koen
Vermeir and Daniel Margocsy (Jun 2012), “States ofsecrecy: An introduction,”
45, http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=860848
7&ﬁleId=S0007087412000052.
Pe t e r G a l i s o n ( A u t u m n 2 0 0 4 ) , “ R e m o v i n gknowledge,”
31, http://www.fas.
harvard.edu/~hsdept/bios/docs/Removing%20
Knowledge.pdf.
同上。
US Oﬃce of Management and Budget (Feb 2014),“Suitability and security processes review,” http://
www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/omb/suitsec-2014.pdf.
ジェームズ・クラッパー国家情報長官はこう述べている。「原告の主張に関わりのある NSA の情報収集
活動の規模と作戦の詳細について、現時点で未公開の情報を開示すれば、わが国の国家安全保障にきわ

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めて重大な損害が及びかねない」。James R. Clapper(20 Dec 2013), “Public declaration of James R.
Clapper, Director of National Intelligence,”(08-cv-4873JSW;(07-cv-693JSW), United States District Court for the Northern
District of California, http://www.dni.gov/files/
documents/1220/DNI%20Clapper%202013%20
Jewel%20Shubert%20SSP%20Unclassified%20
Signed%20Declaration.pdf.
スノーデンの暴露があったあと、秘密裁判所である
外国情報監視裁判所は、一般論的性格の強い判決の多くを開示した。これも、スノーデンの行動がなければ実現していなかったことだ。
Jennifer Valentino-DeVries (2 Jun 2014), “Sealed
court files obscure rise in electronic surveillance,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/
article̲email/sealed-court-files-obscure-rise-inelectronic-surveillance-1401761770lMyQjAxMTA0MDAwMzEwNDMyWj.
Joseph Cox (7 Aug 2014), “UK police wonʼt admittheyʼre tracking peopleʼs phone calls,”, http://motherboard.vice.com/read/uk-police-wont-admittheyre-tracking-peoples-phone-calls.
次の記事には、NSL を受け取った人物による興味深い回想が記されている。記事は匿名で発表されたが、のちに、「インターネット・アーカイブ」の創設者であるブリュースター・ケールが筆者だと暴露さ れ た。Anonymous (23 Mar 2007), “My National
Security Letter gag order,”, http://w w w. w a s h i n g t o n p o s t . c o m / w p - d y n / c o n t e n t /article/2007/03/22/AR2007032201882.html.
Kim Zetter (3 Mar 2014), “Florida copsʼ secretweapon: Warrantless cellphone tracking,”,
http://www.wired.com/2014/03/stingray. Kim Zetter(4 Mar 2014), “Police contract with spy tool makerprohibits talking about deviceʼs use,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/03/harris-stingray-nda.
Darwin Bond-Graham and Ali Winston (30 Oct2013), “All tomorrowʼs crimes: The future of policing
looks a lot like good branding,”, http://www.sfweekly.com/2013-10-30/news/predpol-sfpdpredictive-policing-compstat-lapd/full.
Jennifer K. Elsea (10 Jan 2013), “The protection ofclassified information: The legal framework,”
Congressional Research Service, http://fas.org/sgp/
crs/secrecy/RS21900.pdf.
Carrie Newton Lyons (2007), “The state secrets
privilege: Expanding its scope through government
misuse,”99, http://
www.fas.org/sgp/jud/statesec/lyons.pdf. Sudha Setty(Jul 2012), “The rise of national security secrets,”
44, http://
connecticutlawreview.org/files/2012/09/5.SettyFINAL.pdf. D. A. Jeremy Telman (Mar 2012),“Intolerable abuses: Rendition for torture and thestate secrets privilege,”63,
h t t p : / / s c h o l a r. v a l p o . e d u / c g i / v i e w c o n t e n t .
cgi?article=1136&context=law̲fac̲pubs.
Eric Lichtblau and Scott Shane (9 Jul 2006), “Allywarned Bush on keeping spying from Congress,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s .
com/2006/07/09/washington/09hoekstra.html. Scottxxxi

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

Shane (11 Jul 2009), “Cheney is linked toconcealment of C.I.A. project,”,h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s . c o m / 2 0 0 9 / 0 7 / 1 2 / u s /politics/12intel.html. Paul Lewis (31 Jul 2013),“White House unable to conﬁrm if Congress briefed
on NSA spy program,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/31/white-housecongress-nsa-xkeyscore.
Barton Gellman (15 Aug 2013), “What to say, andnot to say, to ʻour overseers,ʼ”,
http://apps.washingtonpost.com/g/page/national/
what-to-say-and-not-to-say-to-our-overseers/390.
Glenn Greenwald (4 Aug 2013), “Members ofCongress denied access to basic information about
NSA,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
commentisfree/2013/aug/04/congress-nsa-deniedaccess.
Spencer Ackerman (14 Aug 2013), “Intelligencecommittee urged to explain if they withheld crucial
NSA document,”, http://www.theguardian.
com/world/2013/aug/14/nsa-intelligence-committeeunder-pressure-document.
Charlie Savage and Laura Poitras (11 Mar 2014),“How a court secretly evolved, extending U.S. spiesʼ
reach,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2014/03/12/us/how-a-courts-secret-evolutionextended-spies-reach.html.
Emily Peterson (30 Sep 2011), “Under seal: Secrets
at the Supreme Court,” Reporters Committee for
Freedom of the Press, http://www.rcfp.org/browsemedia-law-resources/news-media-law/news-medialaw-summer-2011/under-seal-secrets-supreme-cour.
Cora Currier (30 Jul 2013), “Charting Obamaʼscrackdown on national security leaks,”,
http://www.propublica.org/special/sealing-loose-lipscharting-obamas-crackdown-on-national-securityleaks.
Leonard Downie Jr. and Sara Rafsky (Oct 2013),“Leak investigations and surveillance in post-9/11
America,” Committee to Protect Journalists, https://www.cpj.org/reports/2013/10/obama-and-the-pressus-leaks-surveillance-post-911.php; David Pozen (20Dec 2013), “The leaky leviathan: Why thegovernment condemns and condones unlawful
disclosures of information,”
127, http://harvardlawreview.org/2013/12/the-leakyleviathan-why-the-government-condemns-andcondones-unlawful-disclosures-of-information.
Daniel Ellsberg (30 May 2014), “Snowden would not
get a fair trial ̶ and Kerry is wrong,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/
may/30/daniel-ellsberg-snowden-fair-trial-kerryespionage-act.
David Dishneau (20 Jul 2012), “Manning largely
barred from discussing WikiLeaks harm,” AssociatedPress, http://seattletimes.com/html/
nationworld/2018724246̲apusmanningwikileaks.
html.
この主張を支持するかどうかでは、アメリカ国民の賛 否 が ほ ぼ 拮 抗 し て い る。Seth Motel (15 Apr
2014), “NSA coverage wins Pulitzer, but Americans
remain divided on Snowden leaks,” Pew Research
C e n t e r, h t t p : / / w w w. p e w r e s e a r c h . o r g / f a c t -xxxiitank/2014/04/15/nsa-coverage-wins-pulitzer-butamericans-remain-divided-on-snowden-leaks.
83 Jonathan Topaz (28 May 2014), “John Kerry:
Edward Snowden a ʻcoward . . . traitor,ʼ”,
http://www.politico.com/story/2014/05/edwardsnowden-coward-john-kerry-msnbc-interviewnsa-107157.html.
84 Phoebe Greenwood (4 Jul 2014), “Edward Snowden
should have right to legal defense in US, says Hillary
Clinton,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2014/jul/04/edward-snowden-legal-defencehillary-clinton-interview.
85 Daniel Ellsberg (30 May 2014), “Snowden would not
get a fair trial ̶ and Kerry is wrong,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/
may/30/daniel-ellsberg-snowden-fair-trial-kerryespionage-act. Trevor Timm (23 Dec 2013), “IfSnowden returned to US for trial, could court admit
any NSA leak evidence?”, http://boingboing.net/2013/12/23/snowden.html.
86 Nate Anderson (13 May 2014), “How a mayorʼsquest to unmask a foul-mouthed Twitter user blew
up in his face,”, http://arstechnica.com/
tech-policy/2014/05/how-a-mayors-quest-to-unmaska-foul-mouthed-twitter-user-blew-up-in-his-face. Kim
Zetter (12 Jun 2014), “ACLU sues after Illinois
mayor has cops raid guy parodying him on Twitter,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/06/peoriamayor-twitter-parody.
87 Jenna Portnoy (19 Mar 2014), “Attorney General toState Police: Stop photographing protesters at Chris
Christie town halls,”, http://www.nj.
com/politics/index.ssf/2014/03/attorney̲general̲to̲
state̲police̲stop̲photographing̲protesters̲at̲chris̲
christie̲town̲halls.html.
88 Mark Mazzetti and Carl Hulse (31 Jul 2014),“Inquiry by CIA aﬃrms it spied on Senate panel,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s .
com/2014/08/01/world/senate-intelligence-commiteecia-interrogation-report.html.
89 Laura Poitras, Marcel Rosenbach, and Holger Stark(26 Aug 2013), “Codename ʻApalacheeʼ: How
America spies on Europe and the UN,”,
http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/secret-nsadocuments-show-how-the-us-spies-on-europe-andthe-un-a-918625.html.
90 Brian Ross, Vic Walter, and Anna Schecter (9 Oct
2008), “Inside account of U.S. eavesdropping on
Americans,”, http://abcnews.
g o. c o m / B l o t t e r / e x c l u s i v e - i n s i d e - a c c o u n t - u s eavesdropping-americans/story?id=5987804.
91 Cyrus Farivar (17 Jul 2014), “Snowden: NSA
employees routinely pass around intercepted nudephotos,”, http://arstechnica.com/techpolicy/2014/07/snowden-nsa-employees-routinelypass-around-intercepted-nude-photos.
92 Siobhan Gorman (23 Aug 2013), “NSA oﬃcers spy
on love interests,”, http://blogs.wsj.com/washwire/2013/08/23/
nsa-oﬃcers-sometimes-spy-on-love-interests.
93 US National Security Agency (3 May 2012), “NSAW
SID intelligence oversight quarterly report: First
quarter calendar year 2012 (1 Jan‒31 Mar 2012),”

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB436/docs/EBB-044.pdf.
94 NSA は意図的に監察システムの自動化を避けている。そのため、同局が監察業務に割くことを決めた
人員の数によって、見つかる違反の件数が決まること に な る。Marcy Wheeler (20 Aug 2013), “If NSA
commits database query violations, but nobody
audits them, do they really happen?”,
http://www.emptywheel.net/2013/08/20/if-nsacommits-database-query-violations-but-nobodyaudits-them-do-they-really-happen.
95 Shaun Usher (5 Jan 2012), “Like all frauds your end
is approaching,”, http://www.
lettersofnote.com/2012/01/king-like-all-frauds-yourend-is.html.
96 US Senate (26 Apr 1976), “Final report of the SelectCommittee to Study Governmental Operations with
Respect to Intelligence Activities, United States
Senate, Book II: Intelligence activities and the rightsof Americans,” US Government Printing Office, p.
213, https://archive.org/details/ﬁnalreportofsel02unit.
97 Michael S. Schmidt and Colin Moynihan (24 Dec
2012), “FBI counterterrorism agents monitored
Occupy movement, records show,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/25/nyregion/
occupy-movement-was-investigated-by-fbicounterterrorism-agents-records-show.html. Beau
Hodai (9 Jun 2013), “Government surveillance ofOccupy movement,”, http://www.
sourcewatch.org/index.php/Government̲
Surveillance̲of̲Occupy̲Movement.
98 Charlie Savage and Scott Shane (16 Dec 2009),“Intelligence improperly collected on U.S. citizens,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s .
com/2009/12/17/us/17disclose.html.
99 American Civil Liberties Union (25 Oct 2006),“ACLU uncovers FBI surveillance of Maine peace
activists,” https://www.aclu.org/national-security/aclu-uncovers-fbi-surveillance-maine-peace-activists.
100 American Civil Liberties Union (29 Jun 2010),“Policing free speech: Police surveillance andobstruction of First Amendment-protected activity,”
https://www.aclu.org/files/assets/Spyfiles̲2̲0.pdf.
Linda E. Fisher (2004), “Guilt by expressive
association: Political proﬁling, surveillance and theprivacy of groups,”
46, http://
www.arizonalawreview.org/pdf/46-4/46arizlrev621.
pdf. US Department of Justice (Sep 2010), “A
review of the FBIʼs investigations of certain domestic
advocacy groups,” http://www.justice.gov/oig/special/s1009r.pdf.
101 Glenn Greenwald and Murtaza Hussain (9 Jul 2014),“Under surveillance: Meet the Muslim-American
leaders the FBI and NSA have been spying on,”, https://firstlook.org/theintercept/
article/2014/07/09/under-surveillance.
102 Associated Press (2012), “Highlights of APʼs Pulitzer
Prize-winning probe into NYPD intelligence
operations,” Associated Press, http://www.ap.org/
media-center/nypd/investigation, and http://www.
ap.org/Index/AP-In-The-News/NYPD.
103 Kade Crockford (25 May 2014), “Documents show
Bostonʼs ʻantiterrorismʼ fusion center obsessively

documented Occupy Boston,” Privacy SOS, http://
privacysos.org/node/1417. Carol Rose and Kade
Crockford (30 May 2014), “When police spy on freespeech, democracy suffers,”, http://cognoscenti.wbur.org/2014/05/30/boston-regionalintelligence-center-carol-rose-kade-crockford.
104 Luke OʼNeil (13 Aug 2014), “Beantownʼs Big
Brother: How Boston police used facial recognition
technology to spy on thousands of music festival
attendees,”, http://noisey.vice.com/blog/
beantowns-big-brother.
105 Lisa Myers, Douglas Pasternak, and Rich Gardella(14 Dec 2005), “Is the Pentagon spying on
Americans?”, http://www.nbcnews.com/
id/10454316/ns/nbc̲nightly̲news̲with̲brian̲
williams-nbc̲news̲investigates/t/pentagon-spyinga m e r i c a n s. M a r c y W h e e l e r ( 2 4 J u l 2 0 0 7 ) ,“ C u n n i n g h a m , C I FA , a n d C h e n e y, a n e w
chronology,”, http://www.emptywheel.
net/2007/07/24/cunningham-cifa-and-cheney-a-newchronology.
106 Glenn Greenwald, Ryan Grim, and Ryan Gallagher(26 Nov 2013), “Top-secret document reveals NSA
spied on porn habits as part of plan to discredit
ʻradicalizers,ʼ”, http://www.
huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/26/nsa-porn-muslims̲
n̲4346128.html.
107 Chris Hamby (6 Oct 2014), “Government set up a
fake Facebook page in a womanʼs name,”,
http://www.buzzfeed.com/chrishamby/governmentsays-federal-agents-can-impersonate-woman-online.
108 William Bender (23 Feb 2010), “Lawyer: L. Merion
i s m u m o n n u m b e r o f w e b c a m p i c t u r e s ,”, http://articles.philly.com/201002-23/news/24957453̲1̲webcam-laptops-students.
109 Eric Lichtblau and James Risen (23 Jun 2006),“Bank data is sifted by U.S. in secret to block terror,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s .
com/2006/06/23/washington/23intel.html. Loek
Essers (3 Jul 2014), “EU court orders moretransparency over US-EU terrorist ﬁnance tracking
program,”, http://www.pcworld.com/
article/2450760/eu-court-orders-more-transparencyover-useu-terrorist-finance-tracking-program.html.
Monika Ermert (23 Oct 2013), “European
Parliament: No more bank data transfers to US for
anti-terror investigations,”, http://www.ip-watch.org/2013/10/23/
european-parliament-no-more-bank-data-transfers-tous-for-anti-terror-investigations.
110 ACLU (7 Mar 2002), “How the USA-Patriot Act
expands law enforcement “sneak and peek”
warrants,” https://www.aclu.org/technology-andliberty/how-usa-patriot-act-expands-law-enforcementsneak-and-peek-warrants. Trevor Timm (26 Oct2011), “Ten years after the Patriot Act, a look at thethree most dangerous provisions aﬀecting ordinary
Americans,”, https://www.eﬀ.org/deeplinks/2011/10/ten-years-later-lookthree-scariest-provisions-usa-patriot-act.
111 NSA は1970年代から麻薬取締局（DEA）と情報共有をしてきた。James Bamford (2008),

xxxiii〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉, Doubleday, http://books.
google.com/books?id=8zJmxWNTxrwC.
112 John Shiffman and Kristina Cooke (5 Aug 2013),“U.S. directs agents to cover up program used toinvestigate Americans,” Reuters, http://www.reuters.
com/article/2013/08/05/us-dea-sodidUSBRE97409R20130805. Hanni Fakhoury (6 Aug
2013), “DEA and NSA team up to share intelligence,leading to secret use of surveillance in ordinary
investigations,” Electronic Frontier Foundation,
https://www.eﬀ.org/deeplinks/2013/08/dea-and-nsateam-intelligence-laundering. John Shiffman andDavid Ingram (7 Aug 2013), “IRS manual detailed
DEAʼs use of hidden intel evidence,” Reuters, http://
www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/07/us-dea-irsidUSBRE9761AZ20130807.
113 NSA の内部告発者であるビル・ビニーはこう述べて い る。「デ ー タ を 使 え な け れ ば、自 分 で 捜 査 して、並列構築をおこなう必要がある。つまり、通常の捜査手法によってそのデータを見つけなくてはならない。ただし、少なからずヒントを得られる。どこにデータがあるかを NSA が教えてくれるのだ」。
Alexa OʼBrien (30 Sep 2014), “Retired NSA
technical director explains Snowden docs,”, http://www.alexaobrien.com/secondsight/wb/
binney.html.
114 Brian Krebs (14 Oct 2014), “Silk Road lawyers pokeholes in FBIʼs story,”, http://krebsonsecurity.com/2014/10/silk-road-lawyers-pokeholes-in-fbis-story.
115 Rob Evans and Paul Lewis (26 Oct 2009), “Police
forces challenged over files held on law-abiding
protesters,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
uk/2009/oct/26/police-challenged-protest-ﬁles.
116 Gordon Rayner and Richard Alleyne (12 Apr 2008),“Council spy cases hit 1,000 a month,”,
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1584808/
Council-spy-cases-hit-1000-a-month.html. Sarah
Lyall (24 Oct 2009), “Britons weary of surveillancein minor cases,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2009/10/25/world/
europe/25surveillance.html.
117 James Bamford (16 Sep 2014), “Israelʼs NSA
scandal,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2014/09/17/opinion/israels-nsa-scandal.html.
118 次のエッセーがそのような主張を展開している。
Daniel Davies (23 Sep 2014), “Every single IT guy,
every single manager . . . ,”, http://crookedtimber.org/2014/09/23/every-single-it-guyevery-single-manager.
119 Hillary Rodham Clinton (21 Jan 2010), “Internet
freedom,”, http://www.foreignpolicy.
com/articles/2010/01/21/internet̲freedom.
120 US Department of State (2014), “Internet freedom,”
http://www.state.gov/e/eb/cip/netfreedom/index.htm.
121 British Broadcasting Corporation (2 Jun 2014), “ʻWeare being watchedʼ say Egyptians on social media,”, http://www.bbc.com/news/blogstrending-27665568.
122 Jayshree Bajoria (5 Jun 2014), “Indiaʼs snooping andSnowden,”, http://blogs.wsj.com/
indiarealtime/2014/06/05/indias-snooping-andsnowden.

xxxiv

123 Shannon Tiezzi (28 Mar 2014), “China decries US
ʻhypocrisyʼ on cyber-espionage,”, http://thediplomat.com/2014/03/china-decries-ushypocrisy-on-cyber-espionage. Xinhua News Agency(11 Jul 2014), “Putin calls US surveillance practiceʻutter hypocrisy,ʼ”, http://www.
c h i n a d a i l y. c o m . c n / w o r l d / 2 0 1 4 - 0 7 / 1 1 /content̲17735783.htm.
124 Mark Zuckerberg (13 Mar 2014), “As the world
becomes more complex . . . ,”, https://www.facebook.com/zuck/posts/10101301165605491.
第 8 章 公平で平等なビジネス
1
Oﬃce of the Minnesota Attorney General (19 Jan
2012), “Attorney General Swanson sues Accretive
Health for patient privacy violations,” Oﬃce of theMinnesota Attorney General, http://www.ag.state.
mn.us/Consumer/PressRelease/120119AccretiveHeal
th.asp.
2
Tony Kennedy and Maura Lerner (31 Jul 2012),“Accretive is banned from Minnesota,”,
h t t p : / / w w w. s t a r t r i b u n e . c o m / l i f e s t y l e /health/164313776.html.
3Kate Crawford and Jason Schultz (2014), “Big data
and due process: Toward a framework to redress
predictive privacy harms,”
55, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract̲id=2325784.
4
Marc Hochstein (26 Jun 2000), “Wells kills web link
after Acorn sues,”, http://www.
americanbanker.com/issues/165̲119/-128168-1.html.
Gary A. Hernandez, Katherine J. Eddy, and Joel
Muchmore (Fall 2001), “Insurance weblining andunfair discrimination in cyberspace,”54, http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/smulr54&div=91.
5Bill Davidow (5 Mar 2014), “Redlining for the 21st
century,”, http://www.theatlantic.com/
business/archive/2014/03/redlining-for-the-21stcentury/284235.
6
Michael Liedtke (22 Jun 2000), “Lawsuit alleges
Wells Fargo uses Internet to promote discrimination,”, http://articles.latimes.com/2000/
jun/22/business/ﬁ-43532. Ronna Abramson (23 Jun
2000), “Wells Fargo accused of ʻredliningʼ on theNet,”, http://www.computerworld.
com/article/2596352/ﬁnancial-it/wells-fargo-accusedof--redlining--on-the-net.html.
7
Marcia Stepanek (3 Apr 2000), “Weblining,”, http://www.businessweek.
com/2000/00̲14/b3675027.htm. Casey Johnston (10Oct 2013), “Denied for that loan? Soon you may
thank online data collection,”, http://arstechnica.com/business/2013/10/denied-for-thatloan-soon-you-may-thank-online-data-collection.
8
US Executive Oﬃce of the President (1 May 2014),“Big data: Seizing opportunities, preserving values,”
http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/
big̲data̲privacy̲report̲may̲1̲2014.pdf.
9ニューヨーク州では非常時の便乗値上げを禁じているので、ウーバーは料金の決め方を修正せざるをえ
な か っ た。Mike Isaac (8 Jul 2014), “Uber reaches

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

d e a l w i t h N e w Yo r k o n s u r g e p r i c i n g i nemergencies,”, http://bits.blogs.
nytimes.com/2014/07/08/uber-reaches-agreementwith-n-y-on-surge-pricing-during-emergencies. Peter
Himler (12 Aug 2014), “UBER: So cool, yet so
uncool,”, http://www.forbes.com/sites/
peterhimler/2014/08/12/uber-so-cool-but-so-uncool.
10 Jennifer Valentino-DeVries, Jeremy Singer-Vine, andAshkan Soltani (24 Dec 2012), “Websites vary
prices, deals based on usersʼ information,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/
SB10001424127887323777204578189391813881534.
Michael Schrage (29 Jan 2014), “Big dataʼs
dangerous new era of discrimination,”, http://blogs.hbr.org/2014/01/bigdatas-dangerous-new-era-of-discrimination.
11 Emily Steele and Julia Angwin (4 Aug 2010), “On
the Webʼs cutting edge, anonymity in name only,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/
articles/SB10001424052748703294904575385532109
190198.
12 Jennifer Valentino-DeVries, Jeremy Singer-Vine, andAshkan Soltani (24 Dec 2012), “Websites vary
prices, deals based on usersʼ information,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/
SB10001424127887323777204578189391813881534.
13 Pam Dixon and Robert Gellman (2 Apr 2014), “Thescoring of America: How secret consumer scores
threaten your privacy and your future,” World
Privacy Forum, http://www.worldprivacyforum.org/
wp-content/uploads/2014/04/WPF̲Scoring̲of̲America̲April2014̲fs.pdf.
14 Jessica E. Vascellaro (7 Mar 2011), “TVʼs next
wave: Tuning in to you,”, http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB1000142405274870428830
4576171251689944350.
15 Dana Mattioli (23 Aug 2012), “On Orbitz, Mac users
steered to pricier hotels,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304
458604577488822667325882.
16 Bill McGee (3 Apr 2013), “Do travel deals change
based on your browsing history?”, http://w w w. u s a t o d a y. c o m / s t o r y / t r a v e l / c o l u m n i s t /mcgee/2013/04/03/do-travel-deals-change-based-onyour-browsing-history/2021993.
17 Michael Fertik (15 Jan 2013), “The rich see a
diﬀerent Internet than the poor,”,
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/rich-seediﬀerent-internet-than-the-poor.
18 Lucia Moses (2 Oct 2013), “Marketers should takenote of when women feel least attractive: Whatmessages to convey and when to send them,”, http://www.adweek.com/news/advertisingbranding/marketers-should-take-note-when-womenfeel-least-attractive-152753. Kim Bates (4 Oct 2013),“Beauty vulnerability: What got lost in translation,”, http://www.adweek.com/news/advertisingbranding/beauty-vulnerability-what-got-losttranslation-152909.
19 Frank N. Magid Associates (2011), “How America
shops and spends 2011,” Newspaper Association ofAmerica, http://www.naa.org/docs/newspapermedia/
data/howamericashopsandspends̲2011.pdf. Nielsen

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(8 Mar 2013), “Does gender matter?” http://www.
nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2013/does-gendermatter-.html.
Katie Lobosco (27 Aug 2013), “Facebook friends
could change your credit score,” CNN, http://money.
cnn.com/2013/08/26/technology/social/facebookcredit-score.
Carrie Teegardin (21 Dec 2008), “Card companies
adjusting credit limits: For some, lowering based onwhere they shop,”,
https://web.archive.org/web/20110728060844/http://w w w. a j c . c o m / n e w s / c o n t e n t / b u s i n e s s /stories/2008/12/21/creditcards̲1221.html.
Oscar H. Gandy Jr. (1993),, Westview
Press, http://books.google.com/
books?id=wreFAAAAMAAJ.［邦 訳 ／『個 人 情 報 と権力──統括選別の政治経済学』（同文舘出版）］
次の論文は、企業がビッグデータを用いて人々を差別 的 に 扱 う 方 法 の 数 々 を 紹 介 し て い る。Solon
Barocas and Andrew D. Selbst (14 Sep 2014), “Bigdataʼs disparate impact,” Social Science Research
Network, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract̲id=2477899.
Casey Johnston (13 Apr 2014), “When therestaurant you Googled Googles you back,”, http://arstechnica.com/staﬀ/2014/04/whenthe-restaurant-you-googled-googles-you-back.
Hilary Osborne (13 Aug 2012), “Aviva to trial
smartphone car insurance technology,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/money/2012/aug/13/
aviva-trial-smartphone-car-insurance-technology.
Randall Stross (25 Nov 2012), “So youʼre a good
driver? Letʼs go to the monitor,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/25/business/seeking-cheaper-insurance-drivers-accept-monitoringdevices.html. Brad Tuttle (6 Aug 2013), “Big data is
my copilot: Auto insurers push devices that trackd r i v i n g h a b i t s,”, h t t p : / / b u s i n e s s. t i m e .
com/2013/08/06/big-data-is-my-copilot-auto-insurerspush-devices-that-track-driving-habits.
Nancy Gohring (7 Jul 2014), “This company saved$300k on insurance by giving employees Fitbits,”
h t t p : / / w w w. c i t e w o r l d . c o m /article/2450823/internet-of-things/appirio-fitbitexperiment.html.
Lee Crane (5 Sep 2013), “Gym class is about to geteven worse for the athletically dis-inclined,”, http://www.digitaltrends.com/sports/gymclass-is-about-to-get-even-worse-for-the-athleticallydis-inclined. Emily Miels (28 May 2014), “Heart ratemonitors allow Memorial High School students to
get the most out of their workouts,”, http://www.leadertelegram.com/news/
front̲page/article̲ec2f0b72-e627-11e3-ac950019bb2963f4.html. Katie Wiedemann (14 Aug
2014), “Heart rate monitors now required in
Dubuque P.E. classes,” KCRG, http://www.kcrg.com/
subject/news/heart-rate-monitors-now-required-indubuque-physical-education-classes-20140814.
Joel Schechtman (14 Mar 2013), “Book: HP piloted
program to predict which workers would quit,”, http://blogs.wsj.com/cio/2013/03/14/

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book-hp-piloted-program-to-predict-which-workerswould-quit.
職場での監視に関する概説としては、次の論文が優れ て い る。Alex Roxenblat, Tamara Kneese, anddanah boyd (8 Oct 2014), “Workplace surveillance,”, http://www.
datasociety.net/pubs/fow/WorkplaceSurveillance.pdf.
Ellen Messmer (31 Mar 2010), “Feel like youʼrebeing watched at work? You may be right,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n e t w o r k w o r l d . c o m /article/2205938/data-center/feel-like-you-re-beingwatched-at-work--you-may-be-right.html. Ann
Bednarz (24 Feb 2011), “Pay no attention to thatwidget recording your every move,”,
http://www.networkworld.com/article/2200315/databreach/pay-no-attention-to-that-widget-recordingyour-every-move.html. Josh Bersin (25 Jun 2014),“Quantified self: Meet the quantified employee,”, h t t p : / / w w w. f o r b e s . c o m / s i t e s /joshbersin/2014/06/25/quantified-self-meet-thequantiﬁed-employee.
職場における監視とプライバシーへの影響について
は、次 の 文 献 が 優 れ て い る。Corey A. Ciocchetti(2010), “The eavesdropping employer: A twenty-ﬁrst
century framework for employee monitoring,”
Daniels College of Business, University of Denver,
h t t p : / / w w w. f u t u r e o f p r i v a c y. o r g / w p - c o n t e n t /uploads/2010/07/The̲Eavesdropping̲
Employer̲%20A̲Twenty-First̲Century̲Framework.
pdf.
Don Peck (20 Nov 2013), “Theyʼre watching you atwork,”, http://www.theatlantic.com/
magazine/archive/2013/12/theyre-watching-you-atwork/354681. Hannah Kuchler (17 Feb 2014), “Datapioneers watching us work,”, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/d56004b0-9581-11e3-9fd600144feab7de.html.
ある友人（女性）は、パーソナライズド広告に対する感情を次のように述べている。いわく、年齢を重ねるにつれて、美容整形や「年寄りの病気」の薬品の広告を見せられることが増えている。こうやって自分の年齢をつねに意識させられることは、愉快でないとのことだ。Lynn Sudbury and Peter Simcock(2008), “The senior taboo? Age based sales
promotions, self-perceived age and the older
consumer,”
8, http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/eacr/
vol8/eacr̲vol8̲28.pdf.
Deborah C. Peel (7 Feb 2014), “Declaration of
Deborah C. Peel, M.D., for Patient Privacy Rights
Foundation in support of Plaintiﬀsʼ Motion for Partial
Summary Judgment,”(3:13-cv-03287
JSW), United States District Court for the Northern
D i s t r i c t o f C a l i f o r n i a , h t t p s : / / w w w. e f f. o r g /ﬁles/2013/11/06/allplaintiﬀsdeclarations.pdf.
Andrew Odlyzko (5‒6 Jun 2014), “The end ofprivacy and the seeds of capitalismʼs destruction,”
Privacy Law Scholars Conference, Washington, D.C.,
http://www.law.berkeley.edu/plsc.htm.
Paddy Kamen (5 Jul 2001), “So you thought searchengines offer up neutral results? Think again,”, http://www.commercialalert.org/issues/

xxxvi

culture/search-engines/so-you-thought-searchengines-oﬀer-up-neutral-results-think-again.
37 Gary Ruskin (16 Jul 2001), Letter to Donald Clark,
US Federal Trade Commission, re: Deceptive
advertising complaint against AltaVista Co., AOL
Time Warner Inc., Direct Hit Technologies, iWon
Inc., LookSmart Ltd., Microsoft Corp. and Terra
Lycos S.A., Commercial Alert, http://www.
commercialalert.org/PDFs/SearchEng ines.pdf.
Heather Hippsley (27 Jun 2002), Letter to Gary
Ruskin re: Complaint requesting investigation ofvarious Internet search engine companies for paid
placement and paid inclusion programs, US Federal
Trade Commission, http://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/
files/documents/closing̲letters/commercial-alertresponse-letter/commercialalertletter.pdf.
38 Danny Sullivan (30 May 2012), “Once deemed evil,
Google now embraces ʻpaid inclusion,ʼ”, http://marketingland.com/once-deemed-evilgoogle-now-embraces-paid-inclusion-13138.
39 Michael Cooney (25 Jun 2013), “FTC tells Google,
Yahoo, Bing, others to better diﬀerentiate ads in web
content searches,”, http://www.
networkworld.com/community/blog/ftc-tells-googleyahoo-bing-others-better-differentiate-ads-webcontent-searches. Mary K. Engle (24 Jun 2013),“Letter re: Search engine advertising practices,” USFederal Trade Commission, http://www.ftc.gov/sites/
default/files/attachments/press-releases/ftcconsumer-protection-staﬀ-updates-agencys-guidancesearch-engine-industryon-need-distinguish/130625sea
rchenginegeneralletter.pdf.
40 Josh Constine (3 Oct 2012), “Facebook now lets
U.S. users pay $7 to promote posts to the news
feeds of more friends,”, http://techcrunch.com/2012/10/03/us-promoted-posts.
41 Robert M. Bond et al. (13 Sep 2012), “A 61-millionperson experiment in social inﬂuence and politicalmobilization,”
489, http://www.nature.com/
nature/journal/v489/n7415/full/nature11421.html.
42 ジョナサン・ジットレーンがその点を論じている。
Jonathan Zittrain (1 Jun 2014), “Facebook could
decide an election without anyone ever ﬁnding out,”, http://www.newrepublic.com/
article/117878/information-fiduciary-solutionfacebook-digital-gerrymandering.
43 アメリカの選挙は接戦が多い。2000年の大統領選で、アル・ゴアはジョージ・W・ブッシュに0.01％の差で敗れた。2008年の上院選（ミネソタ州選出）
で は、ア ル・フ ラ ン ケ ン が わ ず か312票 差 で ノ ー
ム・コールマンを退けている。
44 Robert Epstein (23-26 May 2013), “Democracy at
risk: Manipulating search rankings can shift votersʼ
preferences substantially without their awareness,”
25th Annual Meeting of the Association for
Psychological Science, Washington, D.C., http://
aibrt.org/downloads/EPSTEIN̲and̲Robertson̲2013Democracy̲at̲Risk-APS-summary-5-13.pdf.
45 「情報の量が膨大で、透明性がきわめて高く、非常に幅広いものである場合は、あくまでも裏づけのある事実だけを用いて、紛れもないプロパガンダと大衆扇動をおこなえる」と、ダン・ギアは述べている。以 下 の 文 献 に 引 用。Jonathan Zittrain (20 Jun

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46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

2014), “Engineering an election,”
127, http://harvardlawreview.
org/2014/06/engineering-an-election.
Ai Weiwei (17 Oct 2012), “Chinaʼs paid trolls: Meetthe 50-Cent Party,”, http://www.
newstatesman.com/politics/politics/2012/10/
china%E2%80%99s-paid-trolls-meet-50-cent-party.
Mara Hvistendahl (22 Aug 2014), “Study exposes
Chinese censorsʼ deepest fears,”
345, http://
www.sciencemag.org/content/345/6199/859.full.
Gary King, Jennifer Pan, and Margaret E. Roberts(22 Aug 2014), “Reverse-engineering censorship in
China: Randomized experimentation and participant
observation,”
345, http://www.sciencemag.
org/content/345/6199/1251722.
Philip Elmer-DeWitt (16 Apr 2013), “Say it ainʼt so,
Samsung,”, http://fortune.com/2013/04/16/
say-it-aint-so-samsung.
Bryan Horling and Matthew Kulick, (4 Dec 2009),“Personalized search for everyone,”, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2009/12/
personalized-search-for-everyone.html. Tim Adams(19 Jan 2013), “Google and the future of search:
Amit Singhal and the Knowledge Graph,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/
jan/19/google-search-knowledge-graph-singhalinterview.
Chitika Online Advertising Network (7 Jun 2013),“The value of Google result positioning,” https://
cdn2.hubspot.net/hub/239330/file-61331237-pdf/
ChitikaInsights-ValueofGoogleResultsPositioning.pdf.
Joseph Turow (2013),, Yale University Press, http://yalepress.
yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300165012.
Eli Pariser (2011),, Penguin Books, http://
www.theﬁlterbubble.com.［邦訳／『フィルターバブ
ル──インターネットが隠していること』
（ハヤカ
ワ文庫）］
Cass Sunstein (2009),, Princeton
University Press, http://press.princeton.edu/
titles/8468.html.［旧版の邦訳は『インターネットは民主主義の敵か』（毎日新聞社）］
公正を期すために言っておくと、このような傾向はインターネットより古く、インターネットの世界だ
け に 限 ら れ る も の で も な い。Robert D. Putnam(2000),, Simon and Schuster, http://
bowlingalone.com.［邦訳／『孤独なボウリング──
米国コミュニティの崩壊と再生』（柏書房）］
Adam D. I. Kramer, Jamie E. Guillory, and Jeﬀrey T.
Hancock (17 Jun 2014), “Experimental evidence ofmassive-scale emotional contagion through social
networks,”
111, http://
www.pnas.org/content/111/24/8788.full.
Lucia Moses (2 Oct 2013), “Marketers should takenote of when women feel least attractive: Whatmessages to convey and when to send them,”, http://www.adweek.com/news/advertisingbranding/marketers-should-take-note-when-womenfeel-least-attractive-152753.

56

Mark Buchanan (17 Aug 2007), “The science ofsubtle signals,”, http://w e b. m e d i a . m i t . e d u / ~ s a n d y / H o n e s t - S i g n a l s sb48̲07307.pdf.
57 こうした操作が潜在的にインターネットに及ぼすダメージは、もっと深刻なものになる可能性もある。
社会のシステムは、企業によってコントロールされているからだ。ハーバード大学法科大学院のローレ
ンス・レッシグは、コンピューティングのアーキテ
クチャが規制の手段になりうることを指摘している。Lawrence Lessig (2006),, Basic Books, http://
codev2.cc.［邦 訳 ／『CODE VERSION2.0』（翔 泳社）］
58 Ed Pilkington and Amanda Michel (17 Feb 2012),“Obama, Facebook and the power of friendship: The
2012 data election,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/17/obama-digitaldata-machine-facebook-election. Tanzina Vega (20Feb 2012), “Online data helping campaigns
customize ads,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2012/02/21/us/politics/campaigns-usemicrotargeting-to-attract-supporters.html. Nathan
Abse (Oct 2012), “Big data delivers on campaign
promise: Microtargeted political advertising inElection 2012,” Interactive Advertising Bureau,
http://www.iab.net/media/ﬁle/Innovations̲In̲Web̲
Marketing̲and̲Advertising̲delivery.pdf.
59 Sasha Issenberg (19 Dec 2012), “How President
Obamaʼs campaign used big data to rally individual
voters,”, http://www.
technologyreview.com/featuredstory/509026/howobamas-team-used-big-data-to-rally-voters.
60 Micah Altman, Karin MacDonald, and Michael
MacDonald (2005), “Pushbutton gerrymanders: How
computing has changed redistricting,” in61

62, ed. Thomas E. Mann and Bruce E.
Cain, Brookings Institution Press, http://openscholar.
mit.edu/sites/default/files/dept/files/pushbutton.pdf.
Robert Draper (19 Sep 2012), “The league of
dangerous mapmakers,”, http://www.
theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/10/theleague-of/309084. Tracy Jan (23 Jun 2013), “Turning
the political map into a partisan weapon,”, h t t p : / / w w w. b o s t o n g l o b e . c o m / n e w s /nation/2013/06/22/new-district-maps-reapedrewards-for-gop-congress-but-cost-fewer-moderatesmore-gridlock/B6jCugm94tpBvVu77ay0wJ/story.
html.
Arch Puddington (9 Oct 2013), “To renew American
democracy, eliminate gerrymandering,” Freedom
House, http://www.freedomhouse.org/blog/renewamerican-democracy-eliminate-gerrymandering. Press
Millen (20 Jul 2014), “With NC gerrymandering,democracy is the loser,”, http://www.
newsobserver.com/2014/07/20/4014754/with-ncgerrymandering-democracy.html.
John Markoff (16 Feb 1995), “A most-wanted
cyberthief is caught in his own web,”, http://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/16/us/
a-most-wanted-cyberthief-is-caught-in-his-own-web.
html.

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Robert OʼHarrow Jr. (17 Feb 2005), “ID data connedf r o m f i r m ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A308972005Feb16.html.
Brian Krebs (2 Sep 2014), “Banks: Credit cardbreach at Home Depot,”, http://krebsonsecurity.com/2014/09/banks-credit-cardbreach-at-home-depot. Robin Sidel (18 Sep 2014),“Home Depotʼs 56 million card breach bigger thanTargetʼs,”, http://online.wsj.com/
articles/home-depot-breach-bigger-thantargets-1411073571.
Dominic Rushe (3 Oct 2014), “JP Morgan Chasereveals massive data breach affecting 76m
households,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
business/2014/oct/02/jp-morgan-76m-householdsaﬀected-data-breach.
Brian Krebs (20 Oct 2013), “Experian sold consumer
data to ID theft service,”, http://k r e b s o n s e c u r i t y. c o m / 2 0 1 3 / 1 0 / e x p e r i a n - s o l d consumer-data-to-id-theft-service.
M. E. Kabay (2008), “A brief history of computer
crime: An introduction for students,” Norwich
University, http://www.mekabay.com/overviews/
history.pdf.
アメリカではこれが大きな問題になりつつある。
M i c h a e l K r a n i s h ( 1 6 Fe b 2 0 1 4 ) , “ I R S i soverwhelmed by identity theft fraud,”,
h t t p : / / w w w. b o s t o n g l o b e . c o m / n e w s /nation/2014/02/16/identity-theft-taxpayerinformation-major-problem-forirs/7SC0BarZMDvy07bbhDXwvN/story.html. Steve
Kroft (21 Sep 2014), “Biggest IRS scam around:
Identity tax refund fraud,”, http://www.
cbsnews.com/news/irs-scam-identity-tax-refundfraud-60-minutes.
2014年、中国のハッカーに侵入されたアメリカ政府のデータベースには、機密取り扱い許可を受けている人物に関する私的な情報も含まれていた。ハッキ
ングをおこなったのが詐欺目的の犯罪者だったのか、それとも機密に触れられる人物を脅そうとする
情 報 機 関 職 員 だ っ た の か は わ か っ て い な い。
Michael S. Schmidt, David E. Sanger, and Nicole
Perlroth (9 Jul 2014), “Chinese hackers pursue key
data on U.S. workers,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2014/07/10/world/asia/chinese-hackerspursue-key-data-on-us-workers.html.
一例を挙げると、2014年に1000社を超す企業がある
1種類のマルウェアに感染し、クレジットカード情報を盗まれたが、被害企業がそのことに気づいていな い ケ ー ス が 多 か っ た。Nicole Perlroth (8 Sep
2014), “Home Depot data breach could be thelargest yet,”, http://bits.blogs.
nytimes.com/2014/09/08/home-depot-conﬁrms-thatit-was-hacked.
Richard Winton (1 Sep 2011), “ʻSextortionʼ: 6 years
for O.C. hacker who victimized women, girls,”, http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/
lanow/2011/09/sextortion-six-years-for-oc-hackerwho-forced-women-to-give-up-naked-pics-.html.
Nate Anderson (10 Mar 2013), “Meet the men who
spy on women through their webcams,”, http://arstechnica.com/tech-xxxviii

73

policy/2013/03/rat-breeders-meet-the-men-who-spyon-women-through-their-webcams.
Kashmir Hill (25 Sep 2012), “FTC says rent-to-own
computers captured couples having sex,”,
http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2012/09/25/
ftc-its-not-cool-to-put-spyware-on-rent-to-owncomputers-without-customer-consent. Dara Kerr (22Oct 2013), “Aaronʼs computer rental chain settles
FTC spying charges,”, http://www.cnet.com/
news/aarons-computer-rental-chain-settles-ftc-spyingcharges.

第 9 章 企業の競争力
1
著作権表示は1994年だが、実際の原著刊行は1993年10月。Bruce Schneier (1994),, Wiley,https://www.schneier.com/book-applied.html.［第2版の邦訳は『暗号技術大全』（ソフトバンククリエイ
ティブ）］
2
Wired (Apr 1996), “On newsstands now: Crypto
catalog,”, http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/4.04/updata.html.
3
Stephen T. Walker (12 Oct 1993), “Oral testimony
by Stephen T. Walker, President, Trusted Information
Systems, Inc., for Subcommittee on Economic Policy,
Trade and Environment, Committee on Foreign
Aﬀairs, US House of Representatives,” http://fas.org/
irp/congress/1993̲hr/931012̲walker̲oral.htm.
4
最新のそうしたデマについては、たとえば以下を参照。Ellen Nakashima (26 Jul 2014), “Proliferation of
new online communications services poses hurdles
for law enforcement,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/
proliferation-of-new-online-communications-servicesp o s e s - h u r d l e s - f o r - l a w enforcement/2014/07/25/645b13aa-0d21-11e4-b8e5d0de80767fc2̲story.html. Orin Kerr (19 Sep 2014),“Appleʼs dangerous game,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/
wp/2014/09/19/apples-dangerous-game. Brent
Kendall (25 Sep 2014), “FBI director raises concerns
about smartphones,”, http://online.wsj.com/articles/fbi-director-raises-concernsabout-smartphone-security-plans-1411671434.
5
FBI のルイス・フリー長官（当時）はこう述べていた。「私たちは、強力な暗号を、強靭な暗号を好ましいものと考える。わが国は、そして産業界は、それを必要としている。私たちは、司法の監督下に秘密の扉とカギを確保し、犯罪を企てている人間がいるときにそれを利用できるようにしてほしいだけだ」。第6章では、FBI 法律顧問による同趣旨の発言（2010年）を 紹 介 し た。Brock N. Meeks (12 May
1995), “Jacking in from the narco-terrorist
encryption port,”, http://www.
cyberwire.com/cwd/cwd.95.05.12a.html.
6
Wa y n e M a d s e n ( N o v 1 9 9 4 ) , “ T h e C l i p p e rcontroversy,”
3, http://w w w. s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m / s c i e n c e / a r t i c l e /pii/1353485894900973. Matt Blaze (5‒9 Dec 2011),“Key escrow from a safe distance: Looking back at
the Clipper Chip,” 27th Annual Computer Security
Applications Conference, Orlando, Florida, http://
www.crypto.com/papers/escrow-acsac11.pdf.

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

7ア メ リ カ 軍 は、1987年 の 時 点 で す で に NSA か ら「the STU-III」と い う 同 様 の 機 器 を 提 供 さ れ て い
た。Department of Defense Security Institute (Feb
1997), “STU-III handbook for industry,” http://www.
tscm.com/STUIIIhandbook.html.
8 Hal Abelson et al. (Jun 1999), “The risks of key
recovery, key escrow, and trusted third-party
encryption,”
2, https://www.schneier.com/paper-key-escrow.html.
9Crypto Museum (2014), “AT&T TSD-3600-E
Telephone Encryptor,” http://www.cryptomuseum.
com/crypto/att/tsd3600.
10 Dorothy E. Denning and Dennis K. Branstad (Mar1996), “A taxonomy for key escrow encryption
systems,”
39, http://
faculty.nps.edu/dedennin/publications/TaxonomyCACM.pdf.
11 Lance J. Hoffman et al. (10 Jun 1999), “Growing
development of foreign encryption products in theface of U.S. export regulations,” Report GWUCPI-1999-02, Cyberspace Policy Institute, George
Washington University School of Engineering andApplied Science, http://cryptome.org/cpi-survey.htm.
12 次 の 記 事 は、当 時 の こ と が よ く わ か る 資 料 だ。
Steven Levy (May 1993), “Crypto rebels,”,
http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/1.02/crypto.
rebels̲pr.html.
13 次 の 資 料 は、こ の3つ の 側 面 に つ い て 論 じ た も のだ。Danielle Kehl et al. (29 Jul 2014), “Surveillancecosts: The NSAʼs impact on the economy, Internet
freedom and cyberspace,” Open Technolog yInstitute, New America Foundation, http://www.
newamerica.net/publications/policy/surveillance̲
costs̲the̲nsas̲impact̲on̲the̲economy̲internet̲
freedom̲cybersecurity.
14 Barton Gellman and Laura Poitras (7 Jun 2013),“U.S., British intelligence mining data from nine U.S.
Internet companies in broad secret program,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
investigations/us-intelligence-mining-data-from-nineus-internet-companies-in-broad-secretprogram/2013/06/06/3a0c0da8-cebf-11e2-8845d970ccb04497̲story.html.
15 David Gilbert (4 Jul 2013), “Companies turn to
Switzerland for cloud storage following NSA spying
revelations,”, http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/business-turns-away-dropboxtowards-switzerland-nsa-486613.
16 Ellen Messmer (8 Jan 2014), “NSA scandal spooking
IT pros in UK, Canada,”, http://www.networkworld.com/article/2173190/security/
nsa-scandal-spooking-it-pros-in-uk--canada.html.
17 NTT Communications (28 Mar 2014), “NSA aftershocks: How Snowden has changed ICT decisionm a k e r s ʼ a p p r o a c h t o t h e c l o u d ,” h t t p : / /nsaaftershocks.com/wp-content/themes/nsa/images/
NTTC̲Report̲WEB.pdf.
18 Daniel Castro (5 Aug 2013), “How much will
PRISM cost the U.S. cloud computing industry?”
Information Technology and Innovation Foundation,
http://www.itif.org/publications/how-much-willprism-cost-us-cloud-computing-industry. Andrea
Peterson (7 Aug 2013), “NSA snooping could cost

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U.S. tech companies $35 billion over three years,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
blogs/the-switch/wp/2013/08/07/nsa-snooping-couldcost-u-s-tech-companies-35-billion-over-three-years.
James Staten (14 Aug 2013), “The cost of PRISM
will be larger than ITIF projects,”, http://blogs.forrester.com/james̲staten/13-0814-the̲cost̲of̲prism̲will̲be̲larger̲than̲itif̲
projects.
Christopher Mims (14 Nov 2013), “Ciscoʼs disastrous
quarter shows how NSA spying could freeze US
companies out of a trillion-dollar opportunity,”, http://qz.com/147313/ciscos-disastrousquarter-shows-how-nsa-spying-could-freeze-uscompanies-out-of-a-trillion-dollar-opportunity.
Anton Troianovski, Thomas Gry ta, and Sam
Schechner (30 Oct 2013), “NSA fallout thwarts
AT&T,”, http://online.wsj.com/
news/articles/SB100014240527023040732045791678
73091999730.
Wolf Richter (17 Oct 2013), “NSA revelations kill
IBM hardware sales in China,”,
http://www.testosteronepit.com/home/2013/10/17/
nsa-revelations-kill-ibm-hardware-sales-in-china.html.
Spencer E. Ante (22 Nov 2013), “Qualcomm CEOsays NSA fallout impacting China business,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/
SB10001424052702304337404579214353783842062.
Mark Scott (26 Jun 2014), “Irked by NSA, Germany
cancels deal with Verizon,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/27/business/angered-bynsa-activities-germany-cancels-verizon-contract.html.
Stephen L. Carter (13 Feb 2014), “U.S. techʼs costly
trust gap,”, http://www.
businessweek.com/articles/2014-02-13/nsa-snoopingbacklash-could-cost-u-dot-s-dot-tech-companiesbillions. Claire Cain Miller (22 Mar 2014), “N.S.A.
spying imposing cost on tech firms,”, http://www.ny times.com/2014/03/22/
business/fallout-from-snowden-hurting-bottom-lineof-tech-companies.html.
Ashley Lau (18 May 2014), “Cisco chief urges
Obama to curb NSA surveillance activity,” Reuters,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/18/ciscosystems-nsa-idUSL1N0O40F420140518.
Sean Gallagher (14 May 2014), “Photos of an NSA
ʻupgradeʼ factory show Cisco router getting implant,”, http://arstechnica.com/techpolicy/2014/05/photos-of-an-nsa-upgrade-factoryshow-cisco-router-getting-implant.
Dominic Rushe (11 Sep 2013), “Zuckerberg: USgovernment ʻblew itʼ on NSA surveillance,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /technology/2013/sep/11/yahoo-ceo-mayer-jail-nsasurveillance.
Cornelius Rahn (13 Sep 2011), “Deutsche Telekom
wants ʻGerman cloudʼ to shield data from U.S.,”, http://www.bloomberg.com/
news/2011-09-13/deutsche-telekom-wants-germancloud-to-shield-data-from-u-s-.html.
Allison Grande (20 Nov 2013), “Googleʼs policies
violate German privacy law, court says,”,
http://www.law360.com/articles/490316/google-s-xxxix

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policies-violate-german-privacy-law-court-says.
Loek Essers (18 Feb 2014), “Facebook must comply
with German data protection law, court rules,”, http://www.pcworld.com/article/2098720/
facebook-must-comply-with-german-data-protectionlaw-court-rules.html.
Loek Essers (7 May 2013), “Berlin court: Appleʼs
privacy policy violates German protection law,”, h t t p : / / w w w. m a c w o r l d . c o m /article/2038070/apples-privacy-policy-violatesgerman-data-protection-law-berlin-court-rules.html.
Der Spiegel (5 Aug 2013), “NSA blowback: German
minister ﬂoats US company ban,”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/germanm i n i s t e r- o n - e u - c o m p a ny - b a n - f o r- p r i v a c y violation-a-914824.html.
Krista Hughes (27 Mar 2014), “Data privacy shapes
up as a next-generation trade barrier,” Reuters,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/27/us-usatrade-tech-analysis-idUSBREA2Q1K120140327.
アメリカの多くのテクノロジー企業は懸念を強めてい る。Stephen Lawson (8 Oct 2014), “Jitters overUS surveillance could break the Internet, tech
executives warn,”, http://www.itworld.com/
security/440886/jitters-over-us-surveillance-couldbreak-internet-tech-leaders-warn.
Georg Mascolo and Ben Scott (Oct 2013), “Lessons
from the summer of Snowden: The hard road backto trust,” Open Technology Institute, New America
Foundation, http://www.newamerica.net/sites/
newamerica.net/files/policydocs/NAF-OTI-WCSummerOfSnowdenPaper.pdf. Mark Scott (11 Jun
2014), “European ﬁrms turn privacy into sales pitch,”, h t t p : / / b i t s. b l o g s. ny t i m e s.
com/2014/06/11/european-firms-turn-privacy-intosales-pitch.
スイスのプロトンメールという企業は、NSA に傍受されない電子メールサービスを提供している。
John Biggs (23 Jun 2014), “ProtonMail is a Swiss
secure mail provider that wonʼt give you up to the
N S A ,”, http://techcrunch.
com/2014/06/23/protonmail-is-a-swiss-secure-mailprovider-that-wont-give-you-up-to-the-nsa.
Jonathan W. Palmer, Joseph P. Bailey, and Samer
Faraj (Mar 2000), “The role of intermediaries in thedevelopment of trust on the WWW: The use andprominence of trusted third parties and privacys t a t e m e n t s,”
5, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
doi/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2000.tb00342.x/full.
Janice Y. Tsai et al. (Jun 2007), “The eﬀect of online
privacy information on purchasing behavior: Ane x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y,” 6 t h Wo r k s h o p o n t h eEconomics of Information Security (WEIS),P i t t s b u r g h , Pe n n s y l v a n i a , h t t p : / / w e i s 2 0 0 7 .
econinfosec.org/papers/57.pdf.
Cadie Thompson (7 Mar 2014), “Want privacy
online? Start-ups bet users are ready to pay,”, http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/security/wantprivacy-online-start-ups-bet-users-are-readypay-n47186.
DuckDuckGo, http://www.duckduckgo.com.
Sharon Profis (26 Sep 2014), “10 things to know

about Ello, the ad-free social network,” CNET,
http://www.cnet.com/how-to/what-is-ello-the-adfree-social-network.
第10章 プライバシー
1
次の1979年の記事は、プライバシーを、自分に関する事実を隠して評判を過大に高めるための手段と位置 づ け て い る。Richard A. Posner (1979), “Privacy,
secrecy and reputation,”28,
http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=2832&context=journal̲articles.
2
ダニエル・ソローヴはしばしば、この種の議論を論駁 し て き た。Daniel J. Solove (Nov/Dec 2007),“ʻIʼve got nothing to hideʼ and othermisunderstandings of privacy,”
44, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract̲id=998565. Daniel J. Solove (15 May
2011), “Why privacy matters even if you have
ʻnothing to hide,ʼ”,https://chronicle.com/article/Why-Privacy-MattersEven-if/127461.
3
Huffington Post (25 May 2011), “Google CEO on
privacy (VIDEO): ʻIf you have something you donʼtwant anyone to know, maybe you shouldnʼt be doingit,ʼ”, http://www.huffingtonpost.
com/2009/12/07/google-ceo-on-privacy-if̲n̲383105.
html.
4
Elinor Mills (14 Jul 2005), “Google balances privacy,
reach,”, http://news.cnet.com/Googlebalances-privacy,-reach/2100-1032̲3-5787483.html.
Randall Stross (28 Aug 2005), “Google anything, solong as itʼs not Google,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/28/technology/28digi.
html.
5
Bobbie Johnson (10 Jan 2010), “Privacy no longer asocial norm, says Facebook founder,”,http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2010/
jan/11/facebook-privacy.
6
Brian Bailey (11 Oct 2013), “Mark Zuckerberg buys
four houses near his Palo Alto home,”, http://www.mercurynews.com/
business/ci̲24285169/mark-zuckerberg-buys-fourhouses-near-his-palo-alto-home.
7Peter E. Sand (Spring/Summer 2006), “The privacy
value,”
2, http://
moritzlaw.osu.edu/students/groups/is/ﬁles/2012/02/5Sand.pdf.
8Judith Donath (2014),
MIT Press, https://encrypted.
google.com?id=XcgmnwEACAAJ.
9David Kirkpatrick (2010),

10, Simon and Schuster, https://www.facebook.
com/thefacebookeﬀect.［邦 訳 ／『フ ェ イ ス ブ ッ ク
若き天才の野望── 5 億人をつなぐソーシャルネッ
トワークはこう生まれた』（日経 BP）］
エベン・モグレンは、プライバシーを 3 つの要素にわけて論じている。第1は秘密性。メッセージの内容を、意図した相手以外に知られないようにできることだ。第 2 は匿名性。メッセージの内容がまった
く秘密でない場合でも、送り手と受け手の素性の秘密が守られることだ。匿名性は、情報を発するときだけでなく、情報を読むときにも守られるべきであ〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

ることを忘れてはならない。第 3 は自律性。秘密性や匿名性を侵すような圧力を受けることなく、人生の 重 要 な 意 思 決 定 を お こ な え る こ と だ。Eben
Moglen (27 May 2014), “Privacy under attack: The
NSA files revealed new threats to democracy,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /technology/2014/may/27/-sp-privacy-under-attacknsa-ﬁles-revealed-new-threats-democracy. 一 方、ダニエル・ソローヴは、プライバシーを 6 つの要素にわけている。 1 放っておいてもらう権利、 2 自己に対する他者のアクセスを制限する能力、 3 秘密、 4
私的情報のコントロール、 5 自分らしさや人としての尊厳の保護、 6 親密な人間関係やそうした生活の側面に対するアクセスのコントロールまたは制限であ る。Daniel J. Solove (Jul 2002), “Conceptualizing
privacy,”
90, http://
scholarship. law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1408&context=californialawreview.
11 danah boyd (2014),, Yale University Press, p.
76, http://www.danah.org/books/ItsComplicated.pdf.
［邦訳／『つながりっぱなしの日常を生きる──ソーシャルメディアが若者にもたらしたもの』（草思社）］
12 そうしたディストピアはフィクションの世界で描かれ て き た。Dave Eggers (2013),, Knopf,
http://www.mcsweeneys.net/articles/a-brief-q-a-withdave-eggers-about-his-new-novel-the-circle.［邦 訳 ／『ザ・サークル』（早川書房）］
13 Helen Nissenbaum (Fall 2011), “A contextual
approach to privacy online,”
11, http://
www.amacad.org/publications/daedalus/11̲fall̲
nissenbaum.pdf. Alexis C. Madrigal (29 Mar 2012),“The philosopher whose ﬁngerprints are all over the
FTCʼs new approach to privacy,”, http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/print/2012/03/thephilosopher-whose-fingerprints-are-all-over-the-ftcsnew-approach-to-privacy/254365.
14 George E. Panichas (May 2014), “An intrusion
theory of privacy,”
20, http://link.
springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11158-014-9240-3.
15 Peter H. Klopfer and Daniel I. Rubenstein (Summer
1977), “The concept
and its biological basis,”33, https://www.princeton.
edu/~dir/pdf̲dir/1977̲Klopfer̲Rubenstein̲
JSocIssues.pdf.
16 Peter Watts (9 May 2014), “The scorched earth
society: A suicide bomberʼs guide to online privacy,”
Symposium of the International Association ofPrivacy Professionals, Toronto, Ontario, http://www.
rifters.com/real/shorts/TheScorchedEarthSocietytranscript.pdf.
17 S i d n e y M . J o u r a r d ( S p r i n g 1 9 6 6 ) , “ S o m e
p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f p r i v a c y,”31, http://scholarship.law.
d u k e . e d u / c g i / v i e w c o n t e n t .
cgi?article=3110&context=lcp. Stephen T. Margulis(Jul 2003), “Privacy as a social issue and behavioral
concept,”
59, http://o n l i n e l i b r a r y. w i l e y. c o m / d o i / 1 0 . 1 1 1 1 / 1 5 4 0 4560.00063/abstract.
18 James Q. Whitman (Apr 2004), “The two westerncultures of privacy: Dignity versus liberty,”

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113, http://www.yalelawjournal.org/article/
the-two-western-cultures-of-privacy-dignity-versusliberty.
Michael P. Lynch (22 Jun 2013), “Privacy and thethreat to the self,”, http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/06/22/privacyand-the-threat-to-the-self.
その記録はイラン・コントラ事件で証拠提出を命じ
ら れ た。Michael Tackett (14 Feb 1987), “Computer
log tells Iran tale: Printouts give probers memos by
key officials,”, http://articles.
chicagotribune.com/1987-02-14/
news/8701120148̲1̲nsc-staff-professional-officesystem-profs.
Elizabeth Wasserman (17 Nov 1998), “Gates
deposition makes judge laugh in court,” CNN, http://
edition.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9811/17/
judgelaugh.ms.idg.
Bill Hutchinson (31 Aug 2014), “Jennifer Lawrence,other celebrities have nude photos leaked on Internet
after massive hacking scandal,”, http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/
gossip/jennifer-lawrence-celebrities-nude-photosleaked-internet-article-1.1923369.
サーボール・バイオメトリクスという会社は、この目的のために運転免許証スキャナーを販売している。Servall Biometrics (2014), “ClubSecurity: ID
scanners for bars and nightclubs,” http://www.
servallbiometrics.com/index.php/products.
Charles Stross (14 May 2007), “Shaping the future,”, http://www.antipope.org/charlie/
blog-static/2007/05/shaping̲the̲future.html.
テッド・チャンの短編に、このテーマを扱ったもの
が あ る。Ted Chiang (Fall 2013), “The truth of fact,
the truth of feeling,”,
http://subterraneanpress.com/magazine/fall̲2013/
the̲truth̲of̲fact̲the̲truth̲of̲feeling̲by̲ted̲
chiang.
メディア論の研究者であるハロルド・イニスは、さまざまなコミュニケーション形態にそれぞれ内在す
る傾向性の違いについていち早く論じていた。いわく、コミュニケーションの媒体には、時間を越えた伝達力が高いものと空間を越えた伝達力が高いものがあり、それぞれ異なるコントロールと社会的関わり の 形 態 を 生 む と い う。Harold Innis (1951),, University of Toronto Press,
http://books.google.com?id=egwZyS26booC.［邦 訳／『メディアの文明史――コミュニケーションの傾向性とその循環』（新曜社）］
この点に関する研究は興味深い。私たちは、重要な出来事の細部まで忘れてしまう。たとえば、スペー
スシャトル「チャレンジャー号」の爆発事故、O.J
シンプソンの無罪評決、9.11テロのときに、自分がどこにいたかという記憶について調べた研究がある。John Neil Bohannon III (Jul 1988), “Flashbulb
memories for the space shuttle disaster: A tale oft w o t h e o r i e s ,”2 9 , h t t p : / / w w w.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/0010027788900364. Heike Schmolck, Elizabeth
A. Buffalo, and Larry R. Squire (Jan 2000),“Memory distortions develop over time:
Recollections of the O. J. Simpson trial verdict after
15 and 32 months,”
11, http://xli

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34

psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2000-15144-007. Jennifer
M. Talarico and David C. Rubin (Sep 2003),“Conﬁdence, not consistency, characterizes ﬂashbulb
m e m o r i e s ,”14,
http://911memory.nyu.edu/abstracts/talarico̲rubin.
pdf. Andrew R. A. Conway et al. (Jul 2008),“Flashbulb memory for 11 September 2001,”
23, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.
com/doi/10.1002/acp.1497/abstract.
Michelle Natividad Rodriguez and Maurice Emsellem(Mar 2011), “65 million need not apply: The casefor reforming criminal background checks for
employment,” National Employment Law Project,
http://www.nelp.org/page/-/65̲Million̲Need̲Not̲
Apply.pdf.
Wendy Hui Kyong Chun (Autumn 2008), “Theenduring ephemeral, or the future is a memory,”
35, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/art-history/
events/past-imperfect/chun-reading.
Bruce Schneier (27 Feb 2014), “NSA robots areʻcollectingʼ your data, too, and theyʼre getting awaywith it,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
commentisfree/2014/feb/27/nsa-robots-algorithmsurveillance-bruce-schneier.
Electronic Frontier Foundation (2013), “Thegovernmentʼs word games when talking about NSA
domestic spying,” https://www.eff.org/nsa-spying/wordgames. Trevor Timm (14 Aug 2013), “A guideto the deceptions, misinformation, and word games
officials use to mislead the public about NSA
surveillance,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2013/08/guide-deceptionsword-games-obfuscations-oﬃcials-use-mislead-publicabout-nsa.
1982年のマニュアルによれば、「情報が『収集』されたとみなされるのは、国防総省の情報収集部門の職員により任務の一環として用いられるために入手された場合に限られる」。また、「電子的手段によって獲得されたデータが『収集』されたとされるのは、読み取れる形に処理された場合に限られる」とのことだ。US Department of Defense, Oﬃce of theUnder Secretary of Defense for Policy (Dec 1982),“Procedures governing the activities of DoD
intelligence components that affect United States
persons,” DoD 5240-1R, p. 15, http://www.fas.org/
irp/doddir/dod/d5240̲1̲r.pdf.
国防総省は、言葉の本来の意味での解釈と使用を避けるよう注意喚起までしている。
「この手続きは、マニュアル DoD5240.1R を読む人物をはじめて規制の『迷宮』に誘うためのものである。その旅を始めるにあたって、まず用語について認識を修正しなくて は な ら な い。DoD 5240.1-R で 用 い ら れ る 用 語
は、特別な意味で用いられている。一般的な用法に
従 っ て 解 釈 す る と 迷 子 に な り か ね な い」。US
Defense Intelligence Agency, Defense HUMINT
Service (Aug 2004),,
Defense Intelligence Management Document CC0000-181-95, https://www.aclu.org/files/assets/
eo12333/DIA/Intelligence%20Law%20Handbook%20
Defense%20HUMINT%20Service.pdf.
Andrea Mitchell (9 Jun 2013), “Transcript of Andrea
Mitchellʼs interview with Director of National
Intelligence James Clapper,”, http://www.

xlii

nbcumv.com/mediavillage/networks/nbcnews/
pressreleases?pr=contents/press-releases/2013/06/09/
nbcnewsexclusiv1370799482417.xml.
35 Ron Wyden (12 Mar 2013), “Wyden in intelligence
hearing on GPS surveillance & Natʼl Security
Agency collection,”, https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=QwiUVUJmGjs.
36 Google (2014), “Ads in Gmail,” https://support.
google.com/mail/answer/6603?hl=en.
37 運輸保安庁は2010年、フルボディスキャナーはデータを保存していないと請け合った。ところが、電子
プライバシー情報センターが入手した文書によれば、このスキャナーにはハードドライブと USB ポ
ー ト が つ い て い た。Ginger McCall (3 Aug 2010),“Documents reveal that body scanners routinely
store and record images,” Electronic Privacy
Information Center, http://epic.org/press/EPIC̲
Body̲Scanner̲Press̲Release̲08̲03̲10.pdf. Declan
McCullagh (4 Aug 2010), “Feds admit storing
checkpoint body scan images,”, http://www.
cnet.com/news/feds-admit-storing-checkpoint-bodys c a n - i m a g e s . U S Tr a n s p o r t a t i o n S e c u r i t y
Administration (6 Aug 2010), “TSA response toʻFeds admit storing checkpoint body scan images,ʼ”, http://blog.tsa.gov/2010/08/tsa-responseto-feds-admit-storing.html.
38 私たちが電子ペットの「ファービー」に不安をいだ
かないのは、そのためだ。しかし、録音機能が搭載されれば事情が変わってくる。NSA はある時期、そ れ を 警 戒 し て い た。British Broadcasting
Corporation (13 Jan 1999), “Furby toy or Furby
spy?”, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
americas/254094.stm.
39 Bruce Schneier (21 Oct 2013), “Why the NSAʼsdefense of mass data collection makes no sense,”, http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/
archive/2013/10/why-the-nsas-defense-of-mass-datacollection-makes-no-sense/280715.
40 Bruce Schneier (2000),, Wiley, chap. 9,
http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/
productCd-0471453803.html.［邦 訳 ／『暗 号 の 秘 密とウソ──ネットワーク社会のデジタルセキュリティ』（翔泳社）］
41 Charles Glaser (1 Jun 2011), “Deterrence of cyberattacks and U.S. national security,” Report GWCSPRI-2011-5, George Washington University Cyber
Security Policy and Research Institute, http://www.
c s p r i . s e a s . g w u . e d u /uploads/2/1/3/2/21324690/2011-5̲cyber̲deterrence̲and̲security̲glaser.pdf. Joseph S. Nye Jr. (May2010), “Cyber power,” Harvard Kennedy School,
Belfer Center for Science and International Aﬀairs,
http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/ﬁles/cyber-power.
pdf.
42 Nicole Perlroth (31 Jan 2013), “Hackers in China
attacked the Times for last 4 months,”, http://www.ny times.com/2013/01/31/
technology/chinese-hackers-infiltrate-new-yorktimes-computers.html.
43 匿名性を制限しても荒らし行為はなくならない。
人々のオンライン上での行動は単純なものではな
く、匿名性というより、社会的制約が緩むことの影〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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響を強く受けているからだ。John Suler (Jun 2004),“The online disinhibition effect,”7, http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/
abs/10.1089/1094931041291295.
Philipp Winter and Stefan Lindskog (6 Aug 2012),“How the Great Firewall of China is blocking Tor,”
Second USENIX Workshop on Free and Open
Communications on the Internet, Bellevue,
Washington, https://www.usenix.org/system/files/
conference/foci12/foci12-ﬁnal2.pdf.
Leon Panetta (11 Oct 2012), “Remarks by Secretary
Panetta on cybersecurity to the Business Executives
f o r N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y, N e w Yo r k C i t y,” U S
Department of Defense, http://www.defense.gov/
transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=5136.

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第11章 安全
1 Bruce Schneier (17 May 2007), “Virginia Techlesson: Rare risks breed irrational responses,”,
http://archive.wired.com/politics/security/commentary/securitymatters/2007/05/
securitymatters̲0517.
2 Washingtonʼs Blog (15 Aug 2014), “Youʼre nine times
more likely to be killed by a police oﬃcer than at e r r o r i s t ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonsblog.com/2014/08/youre-nine-timeslikely-killed-police-oﬃcer-terrorist.html.
3 Spencer Ackerman (13 Dec 2013), “NSA review toleave spying programs largely unchanged, reportssay,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/dec/13/nsa-review-to-leave-spyingprograms-largely-unchanged-reports-say.
4 事後にすべての手がかりを見たあとだと、点と点を結びつけられたはずだと思いがちだ。このような思考パターンは「後知恵バイアス」と呼ばれる。事後には有益なデータがすぐに目につくが、事前の段階
では、膨大な量の無関係のデータの中に埋もれてしまっている。それに、それらのデータのつなぎ合わ
せ方は無数にあり、どのような結論が導き出されても不思議でない。
5 Nassim Nicholas Taleb (2007), “The narrative
fallacy,” inRandom House, chap. 6, http://www.
fooledbyrandomness.com.［邦訳／『ブラック・スワ
ン ── 不 確 実 性 と リ ス ク の 本 質』（ダ イ ヤ モ ン ド社）］
6 Associated Press (2 Feb 2012), “U.S. no-fly list
doubles in one year,”, http://usatoday30.
usatoday.com/news/washington/story/2012-02-02/noﬂy-list/52926968/1.
7 Eric Schmitt and Michael S. Schmidt (24 Apr 2013),“2 U.S. agencies added Boston bomb suspect towatch list,”, https://www.nytimes.
com/2013/04/25/us/tamerlan-tsarnaev-bomb-suspectwas-on-watch-lists.html.
8 W. T. Ngai et al. (Feb 2011), “The application ofdata mining techniques in ﬁnancial fraud detection:
A classiﬁcation framework and an academic review
of literature,”
50, https://w w w. s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m / s c i e n c e / a r t i c l e / p i i /S0167923610001302. Siddhartha Bhattacharyya et al.
(Feb 2011), “Data mining for credit card fraud: A
comparative study,”
50,

12https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0167923610001326.
Erika Harrell and Lynn Langton (12 Dec 2013),“Victims of identity theft 2012,” US Bureau of
Justice Statistics, http://www.bjs.gov/index.
cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=4821.
US Government Accountability Office (2013),“Oﬀshore tax evasion: IRS has collected billions ofdollars, but may be missing continued evasion,”R e p o r t G A O - 1 3 - 3 1 8 , h t t p : / / w w w. g a o. g o v /assets/660/653369.pdf. IBM Corporation (2011),“New York State Tax: How predictive modeling
improves tax revenues and citizen equity,” https://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/us/en/leadership/nystax/assets/pdf/0623-NYS-Tax̲Paper.pdf.
Walter L. Perry et al. (2013), “Predictive policing:
The role of crime forecasting in law enforcement
operations,” RAND Corporation, https://www.ncjrs.
gov/pdﬃles1/nij/grants/243830.pdf.
John Mueller and Mark G. Stewart (2011),, Oxford University
P r e s s, c h a p. 2 , h t t p : / / b o o k s. g o o g l e . c o m /books?id=jyYGL2jZBC4C.
13 Jeﬀ Jonas and Jim Harper (11 Dec 2006), “Eﬀective
counterterrorism and the limited role of predictive
data mining,” Cato Institute, http://www.cato.org/
publications/policy-analysis/effectivecounterterrorism-limited-role-predictive-data-mining.
Fred H. Cate (Summer 2008), “Government data
mining: The need for a legal framework,”
43, http://w w w. l a w. h a r v a r d . e d u / s t u d e n t s / o r g s / c r c l /vol43̲2/435-490̲Cate.pdf.
14 G. Stuart Mendenhall and Mark Schmidhofer(Winter 2012-13), “Screening tests for terrorism,”, http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/ﬁles/serials/files/regulation/2013/1/v35n4-4.pdf. Corey
Chivers (6 Jun 2013), “How likely is the NSA
PRISM program to catch a terrorist?”, http://bayesianbiologist.com/2013/06/06/
how-likely-is-the-nsa-prism-program-to-catch-aterrorist. Marcy Wheeler (15 Jun 2013), “Theineﬃcacy of Big Brother: Associations and the terror
factory,”, http://www.emptywheel.
net/2013/06/15/the-inefficacy-of-big-brotherassociations-and-the-terror-factory.
15 この落とし穴は、統計学では「基準値の誤り」と呼ばれる。これは、テロ対策以外の分野でも起こりうる現象だ。たとえば、医学検査法の精度がきわめて高くても、その病気の発症者の割合が非常に低い場
合は同様の問題を生む。ここではあえて数学的議論には踏み込まないが、興味のある読者には次の論文
が 参 考 に な る だ ろ う。Jeﬀ Jonas and Jim Harper(11 Dec 2006), “Eﬀective counterterrorism and thelimited role of predictive data mining,” Cato
Institute, http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/
pubs/pdf/pa584.pdf.
16 J. D. T u c c i l l e ( 1 9 J u l 2 0 1 3 ) , “ W h y s p y o neverybody? Because ʻyou need the haystack to ﬁnd
the needle,ʼ says NSA chief,”, http://reason.
com/blog/2013/07/19/why-spy-on-everybodybecause-you-need-th.

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Mike Masnick (15 Oct 2013), “Latest revelations
show how collecting all the haystacks to find theneedle makes the NSAʼs job harder,”,h t t p s : / / w w w. t e c h d i r t . c o m /articles/20131014/17303424880/latest-revelationsshow-how-collecting-all-haystacks-to-find-datamakes-nsas-job-harder.shtml.
Chris Young (12 Mar 2012), “Military intelligence
redeﬁned: Big Data in the battleﬁeld,”, http://www.forbes.com/sites/techonomy/2012/03/12/
military-intelligence-redefined-big-data-in-thebattleﬁeld.
Matt Briggs (7 Jun 2013), “Data mining: PRISM,
NSA and false positives: Update,”, http://wmbriggs.com/blog/?p=8239.
Lowell Bergman et al. (17 Jan 2006), “Spy agency
data after Sept. 11 led F.B.I. to dead ends,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/17/
politics/17spy.html.
US Government Accountability Office (26 Mar
2013), “Information sharing: Additional actions could
help ensure that efforts to share terrorism-related
suspicious activity reports are effective,” Report
GAO-13-233, http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/652995.
pdf.
Yochai Benkler (8 Oct 2013), “Fact: The NSA getsnegligible intel from Americansʼ metadata. So end
collection,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
commentisfree/2013/oct/08/nsa-bulk-metadatasurveillance-intelligence. Peter Bergen (Jan 2014),“Do NSAʼs bulk surveillance prog rams stop
terrorists?” New America Foundation, http://
newamerica.net/publications/policy/do̲nsas̲bulk̲
surveillance̲programs̲stop̲terrorists.
Marcy Wheeler (12 Dec 2013), “Did DOJ prosecute
Basaaly Moalin just to have a Section 215 ʻsuccessʼ?”, http://www.emptyhzdgy ７ctft ６７、gwheel.net/2013/12/12/did-doj-prosecute-basaalymoalin-just-to-have-a-section-215-success.
旅客機の保安検査にはそうした例が多い。2001年、リチャード・リードという男が靴に爆弾を隠して旅
客機に乗り込む事件が起きた。この事件の最大の影
響は、搭乗前に乗客が靴を脱いでみせるよう要求されるようになったことだった。
Francis Gouillart (10 Jun 2013), “Big data NSA
spying is not even an effective strategy,”,
http://management.fortune.cnn.com/2013/06/10/bigdata-nsa-spying-is-not-even-an-eﬀective-strategy. Ed
Pilkington and Nicholas Watt (12 Jun 2013), “NSA
surveillance played little role in foiling terror plots,
experts say,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/jun/12/nsa-surveillance-data-terrorattack. Washingtonʼs Blog (13 Jun 2013), “The dirty
little secret about mass surveillance: It doesnʼt keep
u s s a f e ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonsblog.com/2013/06/the-dirty-little-secretabout-nsa-spying-it-doesnt-work.html.
Jeﬀrey W. Seifert (3 Apr 2008), “Data mining andhomeland security: An overview,” Congressional
Research Service, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/
homesec/RL31798.pdf.
Pe t e r B e r g e n ( 3 0 D e c 2 0 1 3 ) , “ Wo u l d N S A
surveillance have stopped 9/11 plot?” CNN, http://

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www.cnn.com/2013/12/30/opinion/bergen-nsasurveillance-september-11.
Simon Shuster (19 Apr 2013), “The brothers
Tsarnaev: Clues to the motives of the alleged Boston
bombers,”, http://world.time.com/2013/04/19/
the-brothers-tsarnaevs-motives.
Marcy Wheeler (12 Apr 2014), “The day after
government catalogs data NSA collected on
Tsarnaevs, DOJ refuses to give Dzhokhar notice,”, h t t p : / / w w w. e m p t y w h e e l .
net/2014/04/12/the-day-after-government-catalogsdata-nsa-collected-on-tsarnaevs-doj-refuses-to-givedzhokhar-notice.
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks (2004),, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO911REPORT/pdf/GPO-911REPORT.pdf.
Dan Eggen, Karen DeYoung, and Spencer S. Hsu (27Dec 2009), “Plane suspect was listed in terror
database after father alerted U.S. officials,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/25/
AR2009122501355.html.
Dominic Casciani (7 Sep 2009), “Liquid bomb plot:
What happened,”, http://news.bbc.co.
uk/2/hi/uk̲news/8242479.stm.
NSA は54件のテロを阻止したと主張しているが、厳密な数字とは言えない。このほとんどはテロ計画と は 言 い 難 く、舞 台 も ア メ リ カ 国 外 だ。Justin
Elliott and Theodoric Meyer (23 Oct 2013), “Claimon ʻattacks thwartedʼ by NSA spreads despite lack ofevidence,”, http://www.propublica.org/
article/claim-on-attacks-thwarted-by-nsa-spreadsdespite-lack-of-evidence.
Kevin Strom and John Hollywood (2010), “Building
on clues: Examining successes and failures indetecting U.S. terrorist plots,” Institute for Homeland
Security Solutions, http://sites.duke.edu/ihss/
ﬁles/2011/12/Building̲on̲Clues̲Strom.pdf.
Bruce Schneier (8 Sep 2005), “Terrorists donʼt domovie plots,”, http://archive.wired.com/
politics/security/commentary/
securitymatters/2005/09/68789.
Bruce Schneier (2012),, Wiley, chap.
16, http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/
productCd-1118143302.html.［邦 訳 ／『信 頼 と 裏 切りの社会』（NTT 出版）］
Ross Anderson (2 Oct 2001), “Why information
security is hard: An economic perspective,”
University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory,
http://www.acsac.org/2001/papers/110.pdf. Matthew
Miller, Jon Brickey, and Gregory Conti (29 Nov
2012), “Why your intuition about cyber warfare is
probably wrong,”, http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/why-your-intuitionabout-cyber-warfare-is-probably-wrong.
Bruce Schneier (19 Nov 1999), “A plea forsimplicity: You canʼt secure what you donʼt
understand,”, https://www.
schneier.com/essay-018.html.
Edward Tufte (2003), “Why producing good software

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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is difficult,”, http://www.
edwardtufte.com/bboard/q-and-a-fetch-msg?msg̲
id=0000D8. James Kwak (8 Aug 2012), “Software
runs the world: How scared should we be that somuch of it is so bad?”, http://www.
theatlantic.com/business/archive/2012/08/softwareruns-the-world-how-scared-should-we-be-that-somuch-of-it-is-so-bad/260846.
Michael Riley et al. (13 Mar 2014), “Missed alarms
and 40 million stolen credit card numbers: How
Target blew it,”
, http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-03-13/targetmissed-alarms-in-epic-hack-of-credit-card-data.
Elizabeth A. Harris et al. (17 Jan 2014), “A sneaky
path into Target customersʼ wallets,”, http://www.ny times.com/2014/01/18/
business/a-sneaky-path-into-target-customers-wallets.
html.
Elizabeth A. Harris (6 May 2014), “Faltering Target
parts ways with chief,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2014/05/06/business/target-chiefexecutive-resigns.html.
Nicole Perlroth (31 Jan 2013), “Hackers in China
attacked the Times for last 4 months,”, http://www.ny times.com/2013/01/31/
technology/chinese-hackers-infiltrate-new-yorktimes-computers.html.
本書執筆時点での目標は、EFLOPS の処理能力を実現すること。EFLOPS とは、1秒あたり100京回の演
算 を お こ な う 能 力 の こ と だ。James Bamford (15Mar 2012), “The NSA is building the countryʼsbiggest spy center (watch what you say),”,
http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/03/ff̲
nsadatacenter/all.
Bruce Schneier (4 Oct 2013), “Attacking Tor: How
the NSA targets usersʼ online anonymity,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/04/torattacks-nsa-users-online-anonymity.
Glenn Greenwald and Edward Snowden (17 Jun
2013), “Edward Snowden: NSA whistleblower
answers reader questions,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/17/edwardsnowden-nsa-ﬁles-whistleblower.
それにまつわる倫理上の問題は、次の論文で論じられている。Serge Egelman, Cormac Herley, and PaulC. van Oorschot (9-12 Sep 2013), “Markets for zeroday exploits: Ethics and implications,” New Security
Paradigms Workshop, Banﬀ, Alberta, Canada, http://
www.nspw.org/papers/2013/nspw2013-egelman.pdf.
Stefan Frei (5 Dec 2013), “The known unknowns:
Empirical analysis of publicly-unknown security
vulnerabilities,” NSS Labs, https://www.nsslabs.com/
system/files/public-report/files/The%20Known%20
Unknowns̲1.pdf.
Andy Greenberg (21 Mar 2012), “Meet the hackers
who sell spies the tools to crack your PC (and get
paid six-ﬁgure fees),”, http://www.forbes.com/
sites/andygreenberg/2012/03/21/meet-the-hackerswho-sell-spies-the-tools-to-crack-your-pc-and-getpaid-six-ﬁgure-fees. ロシアと北朝鮮は、ゼロデイ脆弱性を獲得するために莫大な資金を投じている。
Nicole Perlroth and David E. Sanger (13 Jul 2013),“Nations buying as hackers sell ﬂaws in computer

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code,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2013/07/14/world/europe/nations-buying-ashackers-sell-computer-flaws.html. Office of theSecretary of Defense (4 Feb 2014), “Military andsecurity developments involving the Democratic
Peopleʼs Republic of North Korea 2013,” http://www.
defense.gov/pubs/North̲Korea̲Military̲Power̲Report̲2013-2014.pdf.
Dancho Danchev (2 Nov 2008), “Black market for
zero day vulnerabilities still thriving,”, http://www.zdnet.com/blog/security/black-market-for-zeroday-vulnerabilities-still-thriving/2108.
この点に関する最も重要な研究は、次の論文だ。
Eric Rescorla (7 Feb 2005), “Is ﬁnding security holesa good idea?” RTFM, Inc., http://www.rtfm.com/
bugrate.pdf. Sandy Clark et al. (6‒10 Dec 2010),“Familiarity breeds contempt: The honeymoon eﬀect
and the role of legacy code in zero-day
vulnerabilities,” 26th Annual Computer Security
Applications Conference, Austin, Texas, http://dl.
acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1920299. Andy Ozment andStuart E”>http://www.rtfm.com/bugrate.pdf. Sandy
Clark et al. (6‒10 Dec 2010), “Familiarity breeds
contempt: The honeymoon effect and the role oflegacy code in zero-day vulnerabilities,” 26th Annual
Computer Security Applications Conference, Austin,
Texas, http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1920299.
Andy Ozment and Stuart E. Schechter (11 May
2006), “Milk or wine: Does software security
improve with age?” MIT Lincoln Laboratory, https://
research.microsoft.com/pubs/79177/milkorwine.pdf.
このような問題は、組み込み機器とインターネッ
ト・オブ・シングズ（IoT）ではさらに甚だしい。
Bruce Schneier (6 Jan 2014), “The Internet ofThings is wildly insecure ̶ and often unpatchable,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/01/theres-nogood-way-to-patch-the-internet-of-things-and-thats-ahuge-problem.
James Ball, Julian Borger, and Glenn Greenwald (5Sep 2013), “Revealed: How US and UK spy agencies
defeat internet privacy and security,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/05/nsagchq-encryption-codes-security.
こ の4つ の 点 は、次 の 論 文 で 指 摘 さ れ て い る。
Danielle Kehl et al. (29 Jul 2014), “Surveillancecosts: The NSAʼs impact on the economy, Internet
freedom and cyberspace,” Open Technolog yInstitute, New America Foundation, http://www.
newamerica.net/publications/policy/surveillance̲
costs̲the̲nsas̲impact̲on̲the̲economy̲internet̲
freedom̲cybersecurity.
Michael Daniel (28 Apr 2014), “Heartbleed:
Understanding when we disclose cybervulnerabilities,”, http://www.
whitehouse.gov/blog/2014/04/28/heartbleedunderstanding-when-we-disclose-cybervulnerabilities.
Ryan Naraine (14 Sep 2010), “Stuxnet attackers
used 4 Windows zero-day exploits,”, http://www.zdnet.com/blog/security/stuxnet-attackers-used4-windows-zero-day-exploits/7347.
Andrea Peterson (4 Oct 2013), “Why everyone is left
less secure when the NSA doesnʼt help ﬁx security

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ﬂaws,”, http://www.washingtonpost.
com/blogs/the-switch/wp/2013/10/04/why-everyoneis-left-less-secure-when-the-nsa-doesnt-help-fixsecurity-ﬂaws.
58 David E. Sanger (12 Apr 2014), “Obama lets N.S.A.
exploit some Internet ﬂaws, oﬃcials say,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/13/us/
politics/obama-lets-nsa-exploit-some-internet-flawsofficials-say.html. Kim Zetter (15 Apr 2014),“Obama: NSA must reveal bugs like Heartbleed,
unless they help the NSA,”, http://www.
wired.com/2014/04/obama-zero-day.
59 そ れ を 見 わ け る 試 み も な さ れ て は い る。Andy
Ozment (2‒3 Jun 2005), “The likelihood ofvulnerability rediscovery and the social utility ofvulnerability hunting,” Workshop on Economics andInformation Security, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
http://infosecon.net/workshop/pdf/10.pdf.
60 Robert Axelrod and Rumen Iliev (28 Jan 2014),“Timing of cyber conflict,”

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1 1 1 , h t t p : / / w w w. p n a s. o r g / c o n t e n t /early/2014/01/08/1322638111.full.pdf.
バックドアについて専門用語を使わずにわかりやすく解説したものとしては、次の記事がある。Serdar
Yegulalp (13 Jun 2014), “Biggest, baddest, boldest
software backdoors of all time,”, http://www.techworld.com.au/slideshow/547475/pictures̲biggest̲baddest̲boldest̲software̲backdoors̲all̲
time.
James Ball, Julian Borger, and Glenn Greenwald (5Sept 2013), “Revealed: How US and UK spy
agencies defeat Internet privacy and security,”, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/
sep/05/nsa-gchq-encryption-codes-security. Guardian(5 Sep 2013), “Project Bullrun ̶ classiﬁcation guideto the NSAʼs decryption program,”, http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2013/
sep/05/nsa-project-bullrun-classiﬁcation-guide, http://
cryptome.org/2013/09/nsa-bullrun-2-16guardian-13-0905.pdf.
US National Security Agency (2012), “SIGINT
Enabling Project,” http://www.propublica.org/
documents/item/784285-sigint-enabling-project.html.
Lorenzo Franceschi-Bicchierai (11 Sep 2013), “Didthe FBI lean on Microsoft for access to its
encryption software?”, http://mashable.
com/2013/09/11/fbi-microsoft-bitlocker-backdoor.
Jesse Emspak (16 Aug 2012), “FBI surveillance
backdoor might open door to hackers,”,
h t t p : / / w w w. n b c n e w s . c o m / i d / 4 8 6 9 5 6 1 8 / n s /technology̲and̲science-security/t/fbi-surveillancebackdoor-might-open-door-hackers. Ben Adida et al.
(17 May 2013), “CALEA II: Risks of wiretap
modiﬁcations to endpoints,” Center for Democracy
and Technology, https://www.cdt.org/files/pdfs/
CALEAII-techreport.pdf. Bruce Schneier (29 May
2013), “The FBIʼs new wiretap plan is great news
f o r c r i m i n a l s,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/05/29/the̲fbi̲s̲new̲wiretapping̲plan̲is̲great̲news̲for̲criminals.
Susan Landau (2011),
, MIT

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Press, http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/surveillance-orsecurity. New York Times (21 Sep 2013), “Close the
NSAʼs backdoors,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2013/09/22/opinion/sunday/close-thensas-back-doors.html.
Vassilis Prevelakis and Diomidis Spinellis (29 Jun
2007), “The Athens aﬀair,”, http://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/security/the-athens-aﬀair.
Alexander Smoltczyk (5 Oct 2006), “Eavesdroppingon La Bella Vita: Listening quietly in Italy,”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/eavesdropping-on-la-bella-vita-listening-quietly-initaly-a-440880.html. John Leyden (14 Apr 2008),“Preatoni breaks silence over Telecom Italia spying
p r o b e ,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e r e g i s t e r.
co.uk/2008/04/14/telecom̲italia̲spying̲probe̲
update.
Bruce Schneier (23 Jan 2010), “U.S. enables Chinese
h a c k i n g o f G o o g l e ,” C N N, h t t p : / / w w w. c n n .
com/2010/OPINION/01/23/schneier.google.hacking/index.html.
Susan Landau (23 Mar 2012), “The large immortal
machine and the ticking time bomb,” Social Sciences
Resarch Network (republished Nov 2013 in
11),
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲
id=2028152.
Lawrence Lessig (20 Oct 2014), “Institutional
corruption and the NSA: Lawrence Lessig interviews
Edward Snowden at Harvard Law,”, h t t p : / / w w w. y o u t u b e . c o m /watch?v=DksIFG3Skb4.
Ryan Devereaux, Glenn Greenwald, and Laura
Poitras (19 May 2014), “Data pirates of the
Caribbean: The NSA is recording every cell phone
call in the Bahamas,”, https://ﬁrstlook.org/
theintercept/article/2014/05/19/data-piratescaribbean-nsa-recording-every-cell-phone-callbahamas.
US National Security Agency (2012), “SIGINT
Enabling Project,” http://www.propublica.org/
documents/item/784285-sigint-enabling-project.html.
Craig Timberg and Ashkan Soltani (14 Dec 2013),“NSA cracked popular cellphone encryption,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
business/technology/by-cracking-cellphone-code-nsahas-capacity-for-decoding-privateconversations/2013/12/13/e119b598-612f-11e3-bf4561f69f54fc5f̲story.html.
Dan Shumow and Niels Ferguson (21 Aug 2007),“On the possibility of a backdoor in the NIST
SP800-90 Dual̲EC̲PRNG,” Microsoft Corporation,
http://rump2007.cr.yp.to/15-shumow.pdf. Matthew
Green (18 Sep 2013), “The many ﬂaws of Dual̲EC̲
DRBG,”, http://blog.
cryptographyengineering.com/2013/09/the-manyflaws-of-dualecdrbg.html. D.W. (18 Sep 2013),“Explaining weakness of Dual̲EC̲PRNG to wider
audience?”, https://c r y p t o. s t a c k e x c h a n g e . c o m / q u e s t i o n s / 1 0 4 1 7 /explaining-weakness-of-dual-ec-drbg-to-wideraudience.
Ryan Gallagher and Glenn Greenwald (12 Mar〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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2014), “How the NSA plans to infect ʻmillionsʼ ofcomputers with malware,”, https://ﬁrstlook.
org/theintercept/article/2014/03/12/nsa-plans-infectmillions-computers-malware.
Glenn Greenwald (14 Jul 2014), “Hacking online
polls and other ways British spies seek to control theI n t e r n e t ,”, https://firstlook.org/
theintercept/2014/07/14/manipulating-online-pollsways-british-spies-seek-control-internet.
Bruce Schneier (21 May 2014), “The NSA is notmade of magic,”, https://www.
schneier.com/blog/archives/2014/05/the̲nsa̲is̲not̲.
html.
Nicholas Weaver (13 Mar 2014), “A close look at
the NSAʼs most powerful Internet attack tool,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/03/quantum.
Matt Brian (20 Jun 2014), “Hackers use Snowden
leaks to reverse-engineer NSA surveillance devices,”, http://www.engadget.com/2014/06/20/nsabugs-reverse-engineered.
Bruce Schneier (4 Oct 2013), “Attacking Tor: How
the NSA targets usersʼ online anonymity,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/04/torattacks-nsa-users-online-anonymity.
私の最初の記事以降、このプログラムについて多くの こ と が わ か っ て き た。Nicholas Weaver (13 Mar
2014), “A close look at the NSAʼs most powerfulattack tool,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/03/
quantum. Claudio Guarnieri (24 Jan 2014), “TheInternet is compromised,”, https://medium.
com/@botherder/the-internet-is-compromised4c66984abd7d. Der Spiegel (30 Dec 2013), “NSADokumente: So bernimmt der Geheimdienst fremde
Rechner,”, http://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/nsa-dokumente-so-uebernimmt-dergeheimdienst-fremde-rechner-fotostrecke-105329.
html. Der Spiegel (30 Dec 2013), “NSA-Dokumente:
So knackt der Geheimdienst Internetkonten,”, http://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/nsadokumente-so-knackt-der-geheimdienstinternetkonten-fotostrecke-105326.html.
Nicholas Weaver, Robin Sommer, and Vern Paxson(8‒11 Feb 2009), “Detecting forged TCP reset
packets,” Network and Distributed System Security
Symposium (NDSS 2009), San Diego, California,
http://www.icir.org/vern/papers/reset-injection.
ndss09.pdf.
Morgan Marquis-Boire (15 Aug 2014), “Schrodingerʼs
cat video and the death of clear-text,” Citizen Lab,
Munk School of Global Affairs, University ofToronto, https://citizenlab.org/2014/08/cat-videoand-the-death-of-clear-text. Morgan Marquis-Boire(15 Aug 2014), “You can get hacked just by
watching this cat video on YouTube,”,https://firstlook.org/theintercept/2014/08/15/catvideo-hack. Cora Currier and Morgan Marquis-Boire(30 Oct 2014), “Secret manuals show the spyware
sold to despots and cops worldwide,”,
https://ﬁrstlook.org/theintercept/2014/10/30/hackingteam.
Airpwn (27 May 2009), “Airpwn 1.4,”,
http://airpwn.sourceforge.net/Airpwn.html.
Tom Simonite (19 Sep 2012), “Stuxnet tricks copied

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by computer criminals,”,
http://www.technologyreview.com/news/429173/
stuxnet-tricks-copied-by-computer-criminals.
Andy Greenberg (2 Sep 2014), “The police tool thatpervs use to steal nude pics from Appleʼs iCloud,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/09/eppb-icloud.
Mobistealth (2014), “Ultimate cell phone monitoring
software,” http://www.mobistealth.com.
Ian Bremmer (18 Nov 2013), “Lost legitimacy: Why
governing is harder than ever,”,
http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/140274/ianbremmer/lost-legitimacy.
Vivienne Walt (30 Jun 2013), “European officials
infuriated by alleged NSA spying on friendly
diplomats,”, http://world.time.com/2013/06/30/
european-officials-infuriated-by-alleged-nsa-spyingon-friendly-diplomats. Anne Gearan (21 Oct 2013),“Report that NSA collected French phone records
causing diplomatic headache for U.S.,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/
national-security/report-that-nsa-collected-frenchphone-records-causing-diplomatic-headache-forus/2013/10/21/bfa74f22-3a76-11e3-a94fb58017bfee6c̲story.html. Zachary Keck (31 Oct2013), “Outrage over NSA spying spreads to Asia,”, http://thediplomat.com/2013/10/outrageover-nsa-spying-spreads-to-asia. Matthew
Karnitschnig (9 Feb 2014), “NSA flap strains ties
with Europe,”, http://online.wsj.
com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303874504579
372832399168684.
David E. Sanger (1 May 2014), “U.S. and Germany
fail to reach a deal on spying,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/02/world/europe/
us-and-germany-fail-to-reach-a-deal-on-spying.html.
Mark Landler (2 May 2014), “Merkel signals thattension persists over U.S. spying,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/03/world/europe/merkel-says-gaps-with-us-over-surveillance-remain.
html.
Juan Forero (17 Sep 2013), “NSA spying scandal
spoils dinner at the White House for Brazilʼsp r e s i d e n t ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/world/nsa-spying-scandal-spoilsdinner-at-the-white-house-for-brazilspresident/2013/09/17/24f5acf6-1fc5-11e3-9ad096244100e647̲story.html.

第 3 部 超監視社会への対抗策
第12章 原則
1以上のような議論については、以下の書籍で詳しく
論 じ ら れ て い る。Daniel Solove (2011),

2, Yale University Press, http://papers.ssrn.
com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲id=1827982. Susan
Landau (2011),, MIT Press,
http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/surveillance-orsecurity.
私たちの行動の多くは、安全に関する心理によって
説 明 で き る。Bruce Schneier (11‒14 Jun 2008),“The psychology of security,” in Serge Vaudenay, ed.,xlvii

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉, Springer, https://www.schneier.com/paper-psychology-of-security.pdf.
Daniel Gardner (2008),

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, Penguin, http://books.google.com/
books?id=bmyboRubog4C.
もちろん、状況は人によって異なる。政治家は、テロが起きた場合に非難されることを恐れるため、目に見えるテロ対策を実施したいと考える理由がある。市民、とくに社会で政治的・宗教的に風当りの強い集団の人たちは、明らかに監視の標的にされや
すいが、抵抗するために結束して強力な発言力を振るうことができない。一方、安全を守るために大々的な対策が実施されれば莫大な予算が動くので、政府の契約を受注する企業と、そうした企業に支持された政治家たちは恩恵を受ける。
次の論文は、ゲーム理論の考え方に基づくモデルにより、同様の主張を展開している。Tiberiu Dragu(Feb 2011), “Is there a trade-off between security
and liberty? Executive bias, privacy protections, andterrorism prevention,”
105, http://journals.cambridge.org/download.
php?ﬁle=%2FPSR%2FS0003055410000614a.pdf&cod
e=193cd836312527364579326df0a7aa58.
Susan Landau (2011),, MIT
Press, http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/surveillance-orsecurity.
Electronic Frontier Foundation (28 Nov 2012), “Howto help protect your online anonymity using Tor,”
https://www.eﬀ.org/sites/default/ﬁles/ﬁlenode/Basic̲
Tor̲Intro̲Guide̲FNL.pdf.
もちろん、それを試みているのは NSA だけではない。Roger Dingledine (30 Jul 2014), “Tor security
advisory: ʻRelay earlyʼ traffic confirmation attack,”, https://blog.torproject.org/blog/torsecurity-advisory-relay-early-traffic-confirmationattack.
US National Security Agency (8 Jan 2007), “TorStinks,” http://cryptome.org/2013/10/nsa-tor-stinks.
pdf.
Kevin Poulsen (5 Aug 2014), “Visit the wrong
website and the FBI could end up in your computer,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/08/operation̲
torpedo.
Leo Kelion (22 Aug 2014), “NSA and GCHQ agents
ʻleak Tor bugs,ʼ alleges developer,”, http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-28886462.
Anthony Zurcher (31 Oct 2013), “Roman Empire to
the NSA: A world history of government spying,”, h t t p : / / w w w. b b c . c o m / n e w s /magazine-24749166.
John M. Cardwell (Winter 1978), “A Bible lesson ons p y i n g ,”, http://southerncrossreview.org/44/cia-bible.htm.
テロが起きるリスクがどれくらいあり、テロリストがどの程度の損害を及ぼす可能性があるかについては、複雑で重要な議論がある。しかし、それは本書の 範 囲 を 逸 脱 し て い る。Bruce Schneier (14 Mar
2013), “Our security models will never work ̶ nomatter what we do,”, http://www.wired.
com/2013/03/security-when-the-bad-guys-have-xlviii

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technology-too-how-do-we-survive.
もっとも、私たちが政府や企業を信頼するプロセス
は、こ の よ う な 理 性 的 な も の に は 程 遠 い。Bruce
Schneier (2012),, Wiley, http://w w w. w i l e y. c o m / W i l e y C D A / W i l e y T i t l e /productCd-1118143302.html.［邦 訳 ／『信 頼 と 裏 切りの社会』（NTT 出版）］
もっとも、どのような組織でも、秘密の領域を限定的に設けることは不可欠だ。組織内の人々が適切に仕事をするために、その必要がある。大学で教員の終身在職権授与を判断する委員会での採決内容など、賛否のわかれる意思決定に関する審理過程は、
秘密にしなくてはならない。公にすると、意思決定プロセスの独立性がそこなわれる恐れがある。正しい決定をくだすことより、自分の振る舞いが部外者にどう見えるかを気にするようになるからだ。
Adrian J. Lee and Sheldon H. Jacobson (May 2012),“Addressing passenger risk uncertainty for aviation
security screening,”
46, http://
pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/
trsc.1110.0384. Susan Stellin (21 Oct 2013),“Security check now starts long before you ﬂy,”
, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/22/
business/security-check-now-starts-long-before-youﬂy.html. Alissa Wickham (7 Mar 2014), “TSA halts
program to screen passengersʼ online data,”,
http://www.law360.com/articles/516452/tsa-haltsprogram-to-screen-passengers-online-data.
Amber Torrey (Apr 2008), “The discriminant
analysis used by the IRS to predict profitable
individual tax return audits,” Bryant University,
http://digitalcommons.bryant.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1000&context=honors̲mathematics.
ここに、デーヴィッド・ブリンが言う「透明社会」の問題点がある。透明性には、リスクがついて回る。たとえば、あなたが警察官から身分証明書の提示を求められた場合、その警察官があなたにみずか
らの身分証明書を見せたとしても、力の不均衡が解消 さ れ る わ け で は な い。David Brin (1998),
Basic Books,
http://www.davidbrin.com/transparentsociety1.html.
アイスランドの海賊党（そういう名前の政党があるのだ）は、2014年にこの点をきわめて的確に表現している。
「個人にプライバシーの権利を認めるとは、弱者を強者の権力乱用から守ることを意味し、透明性を徹底するとは、強者が弱者を監視する道を
開 く こ と を 意 味 す る」。Paul Fontaine (19 Aug
2014), “Prime Minister learns what ʻtransparencyʼ
m e a n s ,”, http://grapevine.is/
news/2014/08/19/prime-minister-learns-whattransparency-means.
もちろん例外はある。有罪判決を受けた人物の足首にモニターを装着させることは、監視される側の人
物の力を弱めることになるが、メリットがある。
Peter Watts (9 May 2014), “The scorched earth
society: A suicide bomberʼs guide to online privacy,”
Symposium of the International Association ofPrivacy Professionals, Toronto, Ontario, http://www.
rifters.com/real/shorts/TheScorchedEarthSocietytranscript.pdf.
Ray Sanchez (19 Jul 2010), “Growing number of〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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prosecutions for videotaping the police,”,
http://abcnews.go.com/US/TheLaw/videotapingcops-arrest/story?id=11179076.
Kathryn Marchocki (25 May 2014), “Court rules
Free State project president had right to ﬁlm Weare
police during a traﬃc stop,”, http://www.unionleader.com/apps/pbcs.dll/
article?AID=/20140525/NEWS07/140529379.
David Lepeska (27 Dec 2011), “When police abusesurveillance cameras,”, http://www.citylab.
com/politics/2011/12/surveillance-cameras-threatpolice-privacy/806.
Sara Libby (18 Aug 2014), “Even when police dowear cameras, donʼt count on seeing the footage,”, http://www.citylab.com/crime/2014/08/
even-when-police-do-wear-cameras-you-cant-counton-ever-seeing-the-footage/378690.
Chris Matyszczyk (14 Aug 2014), “Ferguson, Mo.,
unrest tests legal right to ﬁlm police,”, http://www.cnet.com/news/ferguson-unrest-tests-legalright-to-film-police. Hillel Italie (19 Aug 2014),“Ferguson arrests include at least 10 journalists,”
A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s , h t t p : / / a b c n e w s . g o. c o m /Entertainment/wireStory/ferguson-arrests-include-10journalists-25044845.
Cyrus Farivar (8 Apr 2014), “LAPD oﬃcers monkeywrenched cop-monitoring gear in patrol cars,”, http://arstechnica.com/techpolicy/2014/04/lapd-oﬃcers-monkey-wrenched-copmonitoring-gear-in-patrol-cars.
Peter Swire (5‒6 Jun 2014), “The declining half-lifeof secrets and the future of signals intelligence,” 7th
Privacy Law Scholars Conference, Washington, D.C.,
http://www.law.berkeley.edu/plsc.htm.
Jacob Appelbaum et al. (23 Oct 2013), “Berlin
complains: Did US tap Chancellor Merkelʼs mobile
phone?”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/merkel-calls-obama-oversuspicions-us-tapped-her-mobile-phone-a-929642.
html. Ian Traynor, Philip Oltermann, and Paul Lewis(23 Oct 2013), “Angela Merkelʼs call to Obama: Are
you bugging my mobile phone?”, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/23/usmonitored-angela-merkel-german.
ソ連のスパイだったキム・フィルビーについての次の著作は、情報機関のそうした性格を描いている。
Ben Macintyre (2014),, Crown, http://books.
google.com/books?id=wIzIAgAAQBAJ.［邦 訳 ／『キム・フィルビー──かくも親切な裏切り』
（中央公
論新社）］
Charles Stross (18 Aug 2013), “Spy kids,”, h t t p : / / w w w. f o r e i g n p o l i c y. c o m /articles/2013/08/28/spy̲kids̲nsa̲surveillance̲next̲
generation.
US Oﬃce of Management and Budget (Feb 2014),“Suitability and security processes review,” http://
www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/omb/suitsec-2014.pdf.
USC Annenberg School for Communication and
Journalism (22 Apr 2013), “Is online privacy over?
Findings from the USC Annenberg Center for the
Digital Future show millennials embrace a new
online reality,”, http://annenberg.usc.edu/News%20and%20Events/
News/130422CDF̲Millennials.aspx. Mary Madden
et al. (21 May 2013), “Teens, social media, andprivacy,” Pew Research Internet Project, http://www.
pewinternet.org/files/2013/05/PIP̲
TeensSocialMediaandPrivacy̲PDF.pdf.
34 厳密に言うと、この点がいまの若者と年長世代の違いによるものなのかは明らかでない。ひょっとすると、これは世代による違いではなく年齢層による違いにすぎず、若者たちが年齢を重ねると態度が変わり、もっとプライバシーを重んじるようになる可能性もある。
35 私が思うに、政府や企業の秘密は癌の化学療法に似ている。化学療法は患者の体をゆっくり蝕むが、それより速いペースで癌細胞を殺す。そのため、差し引きすればメリットがある。もし、患者の体を痛めつけない癌治療法が見いだされれば、化学療法はた
だちにすたれるだろう。同じように、政府や企業に秘密を許すより害の少ない方法があれば、私たちはそれを用いるべきだ。
36 Charlie Rose, Inc. (29 Jul 2013), “General Michael
Hayden, former director of the NSA and the CIA
and principal with the Chertoﬀ Group,”, h t t p : / / w w w. c h a r l i e r o s e . c o m /watch/60247615.
37 Nassim Nicholas Taleb and Constantine Sandis (1Oct 2013), “The skin in the game heuristic forprotection against tail events,”
1, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract̲id=2298292.
38 緊密に結びついている非直線的で複雑なシステム
は、破滅的破綻をもたらす。Charles Perrow (1984),, Princeton University Press, https://encrypted.google.com/books?id=VC5hYoMw4N0C.
そう考えることには癒し効果もあるようだ。KevinGriﬃn (23 Sep 2011), “Step 9 of Buddhist addiction
recovery: The freedom of imperfection,”, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/kevin-griffin/
buddhist-addiction-recovery-step-9̲b̲958708.html.
40 Yacov Y. Haimes (Apr 2009), “On the deﬁnition ofr e s i l i e n c e i n s y s t e m s ,”29, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.
com/doi/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2009.01216.x/abstract.
41 Jesse Robbins et al. (Nov 2012), “Resiliencee n g i n e e r i n g : L e a r n i n g t o e m b r a c e f a i l u r e ,”55, http://queue.acm.
org/detail.cfm?id=2371297.
42 いくつかのアイデアは次を参照。Warigia Bowman
and L. Jean Camp (Apr 2013), “Protecting theInternet from dictators: Technical and policy
solutions to ensure online freedoms,”
18, http://www.innovation.cc/scholarly-style/warigia̲camp̲bowman5edits18vi1a3.pdf.
43 James Bamford (2002),, Anchor,
http://www.randomhouse.com/features/bamford/
author.html.［邦訳／『すべては傍受されている──
米国国家安全保障局の正体』（角川書店）］
44 Jack Goldsmith (12 Apr 2014), “Cyber paradox:
Every oﬀensive weapon is a (potential) chink in our
defense ̶ and vice versa,”, http://www.
lawfareblog.com/2014/04/cyber-paradox-every39

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oﬀensive-weapon-is-a-potential-chink-in-our-defenseand-vice-versa.
45 Stephanie K. Pell and Christopher Soghoian (15 May
2014), “Your secret Stingrayʼs no secret anymore:
The vanishing government monopoly over cell phonesurveillance and its impact on national security andconsumer privacy,”(forthcoming), http://papers.ssrn.com/
sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲id=2437678.
46 Kim Zetter (3 Sep 2014), “Phone ﬁrewall identiﬁesrogue cell towers trying to intercept your calls,”, http://www.wired.com/2014/09/cryptophoneﬁrewall-identiﬁes-rogue-cell-towers. Ashkan Soltani
and Craig Timberg (17 Sep 2014), “Tech ﬁrm tries
to pull back curtain on surveillance efforts inWashington,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/
researchers-try-to-pull-back-curtain-on-surveillanceefforts-in-washington/2014/09/17/f8c1f590-3e8111e4-b03f-de718edeb92f̲story.html.
第13章 国家に関する提案
1 Richard A. Clarke et al. (12 Dec 2013), “Liberty andsecurity in a changing world: Report andrecommendations of the Presidentʼs Review Groupon Intelligence and Communications Technologies,”
US Executive Oﬃce of the President, http://www.
whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/2013-12-12̲rg̲ﬁnal̲report.pdf.
2 Electronic Frontier Foundation (5 Jan 2014), “13international principles on the application of humanrights to communication surveillance,” https://necessaryandproportionate.org/ﬁles/2014/01/05/13ponepagerfinal.pdf; Electronic Frontier Foundation(May 2014), “Necessary and proportionate:
International principles on the applications of humanrights law to communications surveillance:
Background and supporting legal analysis,” https://en.necessaryandproportionate.org.
〈資 料 1 〉通 信 監 視 へ の 人 権 適 用 に 関 す る 国 際 原 則（2014年）
・法定主義──プライバシーの制限は、明確に、そして細部にわたるまで具体的に法律で定めるべきである。
そして、テクノロジーの急速な進歩にプライバシー保護の仕組みが追いつくように、法律を頻繁に見直さな
くてはならない。
・目的の正当性──通信監視が許されるのは、国の最も重要な目的を追求するために必要な場合に限られるべきである。
・必要性──通信監視が正当な目的を達成するために必要であると立証するのは、国家の責任である。
・妥当性──通信監視のメカニズムは、正当な目的を達成するために有効なものでなくてはならない。
・相当性──通信監視は、プライバシーの権利と意見の自由、表現の自由に干渉し、民主主義社会の土台を脅
かす、きわめて重大な権利侵害行為とみなすべきである。通信監視を相当な範囲にとどめるためには、一般
的には、しかるべき権限をもつ司法機関による事前の承認が必要とされる。
・しかるべき権限をもつ司法機関──通信監視に関わる決定は、公正で独立した、しかるべき権限をもつ司法機関によってなされなくてはならない。

l・適正手続き──人権への干渉はいかなる場合も、法律に基づく手続きに従って決定されなくてはならない。
その手続きは、誰でも利用できる公平で公開の聴聞の場で、すべての人に同一の基準でおこなわれるべきである。
・本人への通知──通信監視の許可がくだされる場合
は、対象者に通知されるべきである。通知すれば捜査が妨げられると、しかるべき権限をもつ司法機関が判断した場合を除いて、監視が実行される前に、誰もが異議申し立ての機会を与えられなくてはならない。
・透明性──政府は十分な情報を公開し、国民が監視活動の規模と性質を理解できるようにする義務を負っている。また、政府は、監視に関わる国家との取引の規模と性質についてサービス提供企業が詳細に開示することを全般的に禁じてはならない。
・国民による監督──通信監視の透明性を確保し、権限乱用の責任を問えるようにするために、国家は独立した監督メカニズムを設けるべきである。その監督メカ
ニズムには、国家の行動に関連がある可能性のある情報すべてを入手する権限をもたせなくてはならない。
・通信とシステムの保全──サービス提供者や、ハード
ウェアおよびソフトウェアのメーカーは、システムに監視機能やバックドアを組み込んだり、国家による監視のためだけに特定の情報を収集もしくは保持したりすることを強制されてはならない。
・国際協力に関する保護措置──国家は、監視を実行するために他国の協力を求める場合がある。その際は、公開の明確な合意を結び、適用される可能性のある基準のなかで最も厳重にプライバシーを保護するものに準拠するようにしなくてはならない。
・違法な情報取集に対する保護措置──違法な電子的監視をおこなった者はすべて、民事と刑事の制裁を受けるべきである。また、そのような監視により影響を受けた人物には、是正のために必要な法的メカニズムを利用する機会が認められなくてはならない。人権を脅かすような監視活動を暴露した内部告発者は、強力な保護を与えられるべきである。
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一例を挙げよう。ジェームズ・クラッパー国家情報長官はこう述べている。
「政府が通信情報を収集するために用いている手法について情報を開示すれば、探知を避けるための手引書を敵に与えることになるのは明らかだ」。Associated Press (9 Jun 2013),“Intelligence chief James Clapper defends Internet
spying program,”, http://www.
nydailynews.com/news/politics/intelligence-chiefjames-clapper-defends-internet-spying-programarticle-1.1367423.
2014年には、中東情勢に関してジョン・ケリー国務
長官とさまざまな国の間で交わされた通信をイスラエルが傍受していたことが明らかになっている。
Der Spiegel (3 Aug 2014), “Wiretapped: Israeleavesdropped on John Kerry in Mideast talks,”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/
israel-intelligence-eavesdropped-on-phone-calls-byjohn-kerry-a-984246.html.
Conor Friedersdorf (18 Mar 2014), “Why isnʼt the
Fourth Amendment classified as top secret?”, http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/
archive/2014/03/why-isnt-the-fourth-amendmentclassiﬁed-as-top-secret/284439.
忘れてはならない。こうした透明性の多くは、警察の権力乱用を受けて導入されたものだ。警察が情報〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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機関に比べて権限乱用に走りにくいわけではなく、情報機関より歴史が古いために、その行動をコントロールするルールが整っているとみるべきだ。
Bruce Schneier (31 Jul 2012), “Drawing the wrong
lesson from horriﬁc events,” CNN, http://www.cnn.
com/2012/07/31/opinion/schneier-aurora-aftermath/index.html.
IT セキュリティの分野では、不透明なセキュリティ
システムのことを「隠すことによるセキュリティ」と呼ぶ。好ましいセキュリティの設計は、この対極にある。つまり、詳細まですべて公開されても機能するシステムが望ましい。Bruce Schneier (15 May
2002), “Secrecy, security, and obscurity,”, https://www.schneier.com/crypto-gram-0205.
html#1.
Michael J. Selgelid (Sep 2009), “Governance of dualuse research: An ethical dilemma,”
87, http://www.who.int/
bulletin/volumes/87/9/08-051383/en. Carl Zimmer (5Mar 2012), “Amateurs are new fear in creating
mutant virus,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2012/03/06/health/amateur-biologists-are-newfear-in-making-a-mutant-flu-virus.html. Michael
Specter (12 Mar 2012), “The deadliest virus,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n e w y o r k e r . c o m /magazine/2012/03/12/the-deadliest-virus. Arturo
Casadevall (Jan/Feb 2014), “Redaction of sensitive
data in the publication of dual use research ofconcern,”
5, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC3884058.
Beth M. Kaspar (Aug 2001), “The end of secrecy?
Military competitiveness in the age of transparency,”
Occasional Paper No. 23, Center for Strategy andTechnolog y, Air War College, Air University,
Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, http://www.fas.
org/sgp/eprint/kaspar.pdf.
US National Security Agency (31 Oct 2013), “NSAʼs
activities: Valid foreign intelligence targets are thefocus,” http://www.nsa.gov/public̲info/press̲room/2013/NSA̲Activities̲Valid̲FI̲Targets.pdf.
たとえば、ベイツ判事はこう記している。「NSA は
頻繁に、法的に許された情報収集の範囲を逸脱してい た」。Spencer Ackerman (19 Nov 2013), “FISA
court order that allowed NSA surveillance isrevealed for first time,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/19/court-orderthat-allowed-nsa-surveillance-is-revealed-for-firsttime. Yochai Benkler (16 Oct 2013), “How the NSA
and FBI foil weak oversight,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/16/nsa-fbiendrun-weak-oversight. John D. Bates (3 Oct 2011),“Memorandum opinion,” (case title and number
redacted), US Foreign Intelligence Surveillance
Court, https://www.aclu.org/files/assets/fisc̲
opinion̲10.3.2011.pdf. Marcy Wheeler (22 Aug
2014), “This is why you canʼt trust the NSA. Ever,”, http://theweek.com/article/index/266785/thisis-why-you-cant-trust-the-nsa-ever.
Peter Wallsten (10 Aug 2013), “Lawmakers say
obstacles limited oversight of NSAʼs telephonesurveillance program,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/politics/2013/08/10/bee87394004d-11e3-9a3e-916de805f65d̲story.html.

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Glenn Greenwald (4 Aug 2013), “Members ofCongress denied access to basic information about
NSA,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
commentisfree/2013/aug/04/congress-nsa-deniedaccess.
Ailsa Chang (11 Jun 2013), “What did Congress
really know about NSA tracking?”, NPR, http://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolit
ics/2013/06/11/190742087/what-did-congress-reallyknow-about-nsa-tracking.
Ron Wyden (29 Jan 2014), “Wyden statement at
Senate Intelligence Committeeʼs open hearing,”
http://www.wyden.senate.gov/news/press-releases/
wyden-statement-at-senate-intelligence-committeesopen-hearing.
Dianne Feinstein (28 Oct 2013), “Feinstein statement
on intelligence collection of foreign leaders,” http://
www.feinstein.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/2013/10/
feinstein-statement-on-intelligence-collection-offoreign-leaders.
Alan Grayson (25 Oct 2013), “Congressionaloversight of the NSA is a joke. I should know, Iʼm in
Congress,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
commentisfree/2013/oct/25/nsa-no-cong ressoversight.
Bruce Schneier (16 Jan 2014), “Today I briefed
Congress on the NSA,”, https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2014/01/today̲i̲briefed.html.
Peter Wallsten (10 Aug 2013), “Lawmakers say
obstacles limited oversight of NSAʼs telephonesurveillance program,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/politics/2013/08/10/bee87394004d-11e3-9a3e-916de805f65d̲story.html. Glenn
Greenwald (4 Aug 2013), “Members of Congressdenied access to basic information about NSA,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /commentisfree/2013/aug/04/congress-nsa-deniedaccess.
John Napier Tye (18 Jul 2014), “Meet Executive
Order 12333: The Reagan rule that lets the NSA spy
on Americans,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/opinions/meet-executive-order12333-the-reagan-rule-that-lets-the-nsa-spy-onamericans/2014/07/18/93d2ac22-0b93-11e4-b8e5d0de80767fc2̲story.html. Charlie Savage and Alicia
Parlapiano (13 Aug 2014), “Two sets of rules forsurveillance, within U.S. and on foreign soil,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s . c o m /interactive/2014/08/13/us/two-sets-of-rules-forsurveillance.html. Ellen Nakashima and Ashkan
Soltani (23 Jul 2014), “Privacy watchdogʼs next
target: The least-known but biggest aspect of NSA
surveillance,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-switch/
wp/2014/07/23/privacy-watchdogs-next-target-theleast-known-but-biggest-aspect-of-nsa-surveillance.
Charlie Savage (13 Aug 2014), “Reagan-era order onsurveillance violates rights, says departing aide,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/14/us/
politics/reagan-era-order-on-surveillance-violatesrights-says-departing-aide.html.
US Senate (23 Apr 1976), “Final report of the Selectli〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

Committee to Study Governmental Operations with
Respect to Intelligence Activities: National Security
Agency Surveillance affecting Americans,” US
Government Printing Oﬃce, http://www.aarclibrary.
org/publib/church/reports/book3/pdf/ChurchB3̲10̲
NSA.pdf.
23 Caspar Bowden (23 Aug 2012), “Submission to the
Joint Committee on the draft Communications Data
B i l l ,” h t t p : / / w w w. a c a d e m i a . e d u / 6 0 0 2 5 8 4 /Submission̲to̲the̲Joint̲Committee̲on̲the̲draft̲Communications̲Data̲Bill.
24 最近の訴訟で、ある判事はこの条項を「理解不能とまでは言わないまでも難解」と指摘。政府の代理人
まで「複雑に入り組んだ法律」であることを認めてい る。Owen Bowcott (18 Jul 2014), “Intelligence
services ʻcreating vast databasesʼ of intercepted
emails,”, http://www.theguardian.com/uknews/2014/jul/18/intelligence-services-emaildatabase-internet-tribunal.
25 捜査権限規制法に基づく大量監視は、ヨーロッパ人権条約にも違反する。Nick Hopkins (28 Jan 2014),“Huge swath of GCHQ mass surveillance is illegal,says top lawyer,”, http://www.theguardian.
com/uk-news/2014/jan/28/gchq-mass-surveillancespying-law-lawyer.
26 NSA の活動は「政府の3部門によりきわめて厳しい
監 督 下 に 置 か れ て い る」と、オ バ マ は 述 べ た。
Barack Obama (7 Jun 2013), “Transcript: Obamaʼsremarks on NSA controversy,”,
h t t p : / / b l o g s. w s j . c o m / w a s h w i r e / 2 0 1 3 / 0 6 / 0 7 /transcript-what-obama-said-on-nsa-controversy.
27 Electronic Privacy Information Center (2014),“Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act court orders
1979‒2014,” https://epic.org/privacy/wiretap/stats/ﬁsa̲stats.html.
28 アメリカ自由人権協会 (ACLU) は、この法律を改める べ き 理 由 を 説 明 し て い る。American Civil
Liberties Union (2014), “Reform the Patriot Act
Section 215,” https://www.aclu.org/free-speechnational-security-technology-and-liberty/reformpatriot-act-section-215.
29 ACLU はこの法律の改正も主張している。Jameel
Jaﬀer (19 Mar 2014), “Submission of Jameel Jaﬀer,
Deputy Legal Director, American Civil Liberties
Union,” Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board
Public Hearing on Section 702 of the FISA
Amendments Act, http://www.pclob.gov/Library/
Meetings-Events/2014-March-19-Public-Hearing/
Testimony̲Jaﬀer.pdf.
30 以前、上院情報特別委員会でロン・ワイデン上院議員とキース・アレキサンダーNSA 局長の間で交わされた会話がそれをよく物語っている。ワイデンは
アレキサンダーに、NSA はアメリカ人の携帯電話
位置情報を一括入手しているのかと尋ねた。それに対する答えは、米国愛国者法第215条の下の権限においてそのデータを収集することはしていないというものだった。そこでワイデンは、ほかの法的権限の下で収集しているのかと尋ねた。この問いに対して、アレキサンダーは回答を拒んだ。Robyn Greene(27 Sep 2013), “Itʼs oﬃcial: NSA wants to suck up
all Americanʼs phone records,”,
https://www.aclu.org/blog/national-security/itsoﬃcial-nsa-wants-suck-all-americans-phone-records.

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Marcy Wheeler (14 Aug 2014), “The majority of 215
orders come from Internet companies that refuse
NSLs,”, http://www.emptywheel.
net/2014/08/14/the-bulk-of-215-orders-come-frominternet-companies-that-refuse-nsls.
Marcy Wheeler (23 Jun 2014), “The single branchtheory of oversight,”, http://www.
cato-unbound.org/2014/06/23/marcy-wheeler/singlebranch-theory-oversight.
Richard A. Clarke et al. (12 Dec 2013), “Liberty andsecurity in a changing world: Report andrecommendations of the Presidentʼs Review Groupon Intelligence and Communications Technologies,”
US Executive Oﬃce of the President, http://www.
whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/2013-12-12̲rg̲ﬁnal̲report.pdf.
Barack Obama (17 Jan 2014), “Remarks by the
President on review of signals intelligence,” US
Executive Office of the President, http://www.
whitehouse.gov/the-press-oﬃce/2014/01/17/remarkspresident-review-signals-intelligence.
Garrett Hatch (27 Aug 2012), “Privacy and Civil
Liberties Oversight Board: New independent agency
status,” Congressional Research Service, http://www.
fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34385.pdf.
Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board (2 Jul
2014), “Report on the surveillance program operated
pursuant to Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence
Surveillance Act,” http://www.pclob.gov/All%20
Documents/Report%20on%20the%20Section%20
702%20Program/PCLOB-Section-702-Report.pdf.
American Civil Liberties Union (2 Jul 2014),“Government privacy watchdog signs oﬀ on much of
NSA warrantless wiretapping program,” https://www.aclu.org/national-security/government-privacywatchdog-signs-much-nsa-warrantless-wiretappingprogram. Jennifer Granick (2 Jul 2014), “Did
PCLOB answer my eight questions about Section702?”, http://justsecurity.org/12516/
pclob-answer-questions-section-702.
Frederick A. O. Schwarz Jr. (12 Mar 2014), “Whywe need a new Church Committee to ﬁx our broken
intelligence system,”, http://www.thenation.
com/article/178813/why-we-need-new-churchcommittee-ﬁx-our-broken-intelligence-system.
次 は そ の 一 例 だ。Gregory Conti, Lisa Shay, andWoodrow Hartzog (Summer 2014), “Deconstructing
the relationship between privacy and security,”
33, http://
ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.
jsp?arnumber=6824305.
Jameel Jaﬀer (19 Mar 2014), “Submission of Jameel
Jaffer, Deputy Legal Director, American Civil
Liberties Union,” Privacy and Civil Liberties
Oversight Board Public Hearing on Section 702 of
the FISA Amendments Act, http://www.pclob.gov/
Library/Meetings-Events/2014-March-19-PublicHearing/Testimony̲Jaﬀer.pdf.
Privacy SOS (10 Dec 2013), “No evidence, noworries: on the use of secret subpoenas,” http://
www.privacysos.org/node/1263.
Andrew Nolan, Richard M. Thompson II, and Vivian
S. Chu (25 Oct 2013), “Introducing a public

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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advocate into the Foreign Intelligence SurveillanceActʼs courts: Select legal issues,” Congressional
Research Service, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/
advocate.pdf. Stephen I. Vladeck et al. (29 May
2013), “The case for a FISA ʻSpecial Advocate,ʼ”Constitution Project, http://www.constitutionproject.
org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/The-Case-for-aFISA-Special-Advocate̲FINAL.pdf. Covington &Burling (May 2014), “The constitutionality of ap u b l i c a d v o c a t e f o r p r i v a c y,” h t t p : / / w w w.
i n s i d e p r i v a c y. c o m / f i l e s / 2 0 1 4 / 0 7 / T h e Constitutionality-of-a-Public-Advocate-for-Pri.pdf.
Joel Reidenberg (2 Nov 2013), “The data
surveillance state in the US and Europe,”(forthcoming), http://papers.ssrn.
com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲id=2349269.
Edward Snowden (7 Mar 2014), “Statement toEuropean Parliament,” http://www.europarl.europa.
eu/document/activities/cont/201403/20140307ATT80
674/20140307ATT80674EN.pdf.
Merrick Bobb (16 Nov 2005), “Internal and external
police oversight in the United States,” Police
Assessment Resource Center, http://www.parc.info/
client̲files/altus/10-19%20altus%20conf%20paper.
pdf.
Michael P. Weinbeck (3 Jun 2010), “Watching thewatchmen: Lessons for federal law enforcementfrom Americaʼs cities,”
3 6 , h t t p : / / w w w. w m i t c h e l l . e d u / l a w r e v i e w /documents/12.weinbeck.pdf. Eduardo L. Calderon
and Maria Hernandez-Figueroa (Jan 2013), “Citizen
oversight committees in law enforcement,” California
State University Fullerton Center for Public Policy,
http://cpp.fullerton.edu/cpp̲policeoversight̲report.
pdf.
David Pozen (20 Dec 2013), “The leaky leviathan:Why the government condemns and condones
unlawful disclosures of information,”
127, http://harvardlawreview.org/2013/12/
the-leaky-leviathan-why-the-government-condemnsand-condones-unlawful-disclosures-of-information.
Rahul Sagar (20 Dec 2013), “Creaky leviathan: Acomment on David Pozenʼs,”127, http://cdn.
harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/
forvol127̲sagar.pdf.
以下の2つのエッセーは、そのような主張をしている。danah boyd (19 Jul 2013), “Whistleblowing is
the new civil disobedience: Why Edward Snowden
matters,”, http://www.zephoria.org/
thoughts/archives/2013/07/19/edward-snowdenwhistleblower.html. William E. Scheuerman (Sep2014), “Whistleblowing as civil disobedience: Thecase of Edward Snowden,”40, http://psc.sagepub.com/
content/40/7/609.abstract.
G. Alex Sinha (28 Jul 2014), “With liberty tomonitor all,” Human Rights Watch, http://www.hrw.
org/reports/2014/07/28/liberty-monitor-all-0.
Rahul Sagar (2013),, Princeton University Press, http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10151.html.
Mary-Rose Papandrea (Mar 2014), “Leaker traitor

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whistleblower spy: National security leaks and theFirst Amendment,”
94, http://www.bu.edu/bulawreview/files/2014/05/
PAPANDREA.pdf; Bruce Schneier (6 Jun 2013),“What we donʼt know about spying on citizens:
Scarier than what we know,”, http://www.
theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/06/what-wedont-know-about-spying-on-citizens-scarier-thanwhat-we-know/276607.
ヨハイ・ベンクラーはそのときに裁判所が用いるべき基準を示している。Yochai Benkler (Jul 2014), “A
public accountability defense for national security
leakers and whistleblowers,”
8 , h t t p : / / b e n k l e r. o r g / B e n k l e r ̲Whistleblowerdefense̲Prepub.pdf.
ヨハイ・ベンクラーに言わせれば、アメリカが取れる最も賢明な行動は、スノーデンを免責し、帰国さ
せ る こ と だ と い う。Yochai Benkler (8 Sep 2014),“Want to reform the NSA? Give Edward Snowden
immunity,”, http://www.theatlantic.com/
politics/archive/2014/09/want-to-reform-the-nsa-giveedward-snowden-immunity/379612/2.
US Department of Labor (2014), “TheWhistleblower Protection Programs,” http://www.
whistleblowers.gov.
グレン・レイノルズは、内部告発の弊害を最少化
し、恩恵を最大化するためのアイデアを示している。Glenn Reynolds (15 Sep 2014), “Donʼt fear the
leaker: Thoughts on bureaucracy and ethicalwhistleblowing,” Social Sciences Research Network,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲
id=2496400.
Axel Arnbak (30 Sep 2013), “The question lawyers
donʼt ask: Can law address total transnational
surveillance?” Congress on Privacy and Surveillance,
Lausanne, Switzerland, http://ic.epfl.ch/privacysurveillance.
Ben Emmerson (23 Sep 2014), “Report of theSpecial Rapporteur on the promotion and protectionof human rights and fundamental freedoms while
countering terrorism,” United Nations General
Assembly, Sixty-ninth session, Agenda item 68(a),https://docs.google.com/document/d/18U1aHmKx9jf
DQjCZeAUYZdRjl6iF4QjuS̲aJO2Uy7NY/edit?pli=1.
Kim Zetter (22 Oct 2013), “Court rules probablecause warrant required for GPS trackers,”,
http://www.wired.com/2013/10/warrant-requiredgps-trackers.
Robert Barnes (25 Jun 2014), “Supreme Court says
police must get warrants for most cellphones e a r c h e s ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/national/supreme-court-policemust-get-warrants-for-most-cellphonesearches/2014/06/25/e2ff1326-fc6b-11e3-8176f2c941cf35f1̲story.html.
Orin Kerr and Greg Nojeim (1 Aug 2012), “The data
question: Should the third-party records doctrine berevisited?”, http://www.abajournal.
com/magazine/article/the̲data̲question̲should̲the̲third-party̲records̲doctrine̲be̲revisited. Colleen
Maher Ernst (Jan 2014), “A proposed revision of thethird-party doctrine,”
37, http://www.harvard-jlpp.com/wp-liii

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content/uploads/2014/01/37̲1̲329̲Maher.pdf.
Richard M. Thompson II (5 Jun 2014), “The Fourth
Amendment third-party doctrine,” Congressional
Research Service, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/
R43586.pdf.
現状では、そのような変更をおこなうことに前向きな姿勢を示している最高裁判事は、ソニア・ソトマ
イ ヨ ー ル だ け だ。Richard M. Thompson II (5 Jun
2014), “The Fourth Amendment third-party
doctrine,” Congressional Research Service, http://fas.
org/sgp/crs/misc/R43586.pdf.
2014年、ロシアは「ウィンドウズ」のゼロデイ脆弱性を用いて、北大西洋条約機構（NATO）とウクラ
イナ政府に対するスパイ活動をおこなった。Ellen
Nakashima (13 Oct 2014), “Russian hackers use
ʻzero-dayʼ to hack NATO, Ukraine in cyber-spy
c a m p a i g n ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/russianhackers-use-zero-day-to-hack-nato-ukraine-in-cyberspy-campaign/2014/10/13/f2452976-52f9-11e4-892e602188e70e9c̲story.html.
Cory Doctorow (11 Mar 2014), “If GCHQ wants toimprove national security it must ﬁx our technology,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /technology/2014/mar/11/gchq-national-securitytechnology. Dan Geer (2013), “Three policies,”
http://geer.tinho.net/three.policies.2013Apr03Wed.
PDF.
David E. Sanger (29 Apr 2014), “White Housedetails thinking on cybersecurity ﬂaws,”, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/29/us/
white-house-details-thinking-on-cybersecurity-gaps.
html.
勧 告 は30項 目。Richard A. Clarke et al. (12 Dec
2013), “Liberty and security in a changing world:
Report and recommendations of The Presidentʼs
Review Group on Intelligence and Communications
Technologies,” US Executive Oﬃce of the President,
http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/
docs/2013-12-12̲rg̲ﬁnal̲report.pdf.
Bruce Schneier (19 May 2014), “Should U.S. hackers
fix cybersecurity holes or exploit them?”,h t t p : / / w w w. t h e a t l a n t i c . c o m / t e c h n o l o g y /archive/2014/05/should-hackers-fix-cybersecurityholes-or-exploit-them/371197.
Michael Daniel (28 Apr 2014), “Heartbleed:
Understanding when we disclose cybervulnerabilities,”, http://www.
whitehouse.gov/blog/2014/04/28/heartbleedunderstanding-when-we-disclose-cybervulnerabilities. David E. Sanger (28 Apr 2014),“White House details thinking on cybersecurity
flaws,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2014/04/29/us/white-house-details-thinking-oncybersecurity-gaps.html. Christopher Joye (8 May
2014), “Interview transcript: Former head of the
NSA and commander of the US cyber command,
General Keith Alexander,”, http://www.afr.com/Page/Uuid/b67d7b3ed570-11e3-90e8-355a30324c5f.
Bruce Schneier (5 Sep 2013), “The US governmenthas betrayed the internet. We need to take it back,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /

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commentisfree/2013/sep/05/government-betrayedinternet-nsa-spying. Stephen Farrell (2013),“Pervasive monitoring is an attack,” Internet
Engineering Task Force Trust, Network Working
Group, http://tools.ietf.org/pdf/draft-farrell-perpassattack-00.pdf.
Charlie Savage (27 Sep 2010), “U.S. tries to make iteasier to wiretap the Internet,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/27/us/27wiretap.
html. Ryan Singel (17 Feb 2011), “FBI pushes forsurveillance backdoors in Web 2.0 tools,”,
http://www.wired.com/2011/02/fbi-backdoors.
Valerie Caproni (17 Feb 2011), “Statement before
the House Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee on
C r i m e , Te r r o r i s m , a n d H o m e l a n d S e c u r i t y,
Wa s h i n g t o n , D. C . ,” U S Fe d e r a l B u r e a u o fInvestigation, http://www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/going-dark-lawful-electronic-surveillance-in-the-faceof-new-technologies.
これは最近始まったことではない。NSA は1980〜90年代に、スイスのクリプト社が販売するハードウ
ェア暗号化製品にバックドアを仕込んでいた。Scott
Shane and Tom Bowman (4 Dec 1995), “Rigging thegame,”, http://cryptome.org/jya/nsasun.htm. Wayne Madsen (Winter 1998), “Crypto
AG: The NSAʼs Trojan whore?”
63, http://mediaﬁlter.org/caq/cryptogate.
Christopher Ketcham (27 Sep 2008), “An Israeli
Tr o j a n h o r s e ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
counterpunch.org/2008/09/27/an-israeli-trojan-horse.
James Bamford (3 Apr 2012), “Shady companies
with ties to Israel wiretap the U.S. for the NSA,”, http://www.wired.com/2012/04/shadycompanies-nsa/all. Richard Sanders (Spring 2012),“Israeli spy companies: Verint and Narus,”
66, http://coat.ncf.ca/P4C/66/spy.pdf.
1990年代に、全米アカデミーズも同様のことを提唱している。「勧告 1 ──アメリカ国内でのいかなる形の暗号製品の製造、販売、使用を法律で禁じない。とくに、キーエスクロウを採用しない暗号の使用を禁じる法律は、技術上も、法律上・憲法上も問題を生む。技術的には、そのような禁止措置を迂回する方策が多数存在する。法律的・憲法的には、とくに表現の自由に関連した問題が生じることがほぼ避けられない。それらの問題を解決することは容易でないだろう。勧告1は、政権の暗号政策のこの側面を補強することを目的としている」。Kenneth W.
D a m m a n d H e r b e r t S. L i n , e d s. ( 1 9 9 5 ) ,, National Academies Press, http://www.nap.
edu/catalog.php?record̲id=5131.
Bruce Schneier (4 Oct 2014), “Stop the hysteria overApple encryption,” CNN, http://edition.cnn.
com/2014/10/03/opinion/schneier-apple-encryptionhysteria/index.html.
74 Administrative Office of the US Courts (11 Jun
2014), “Table 3: Major offenses for which courtauthorized intercepts were granted pursuant to 18
U.S.C. 2519 January 1 through December 31, 2013,”
from2013, http://www.uscourts.gov/
Statistics/WiretapReports/wiretap-report-2013.aspx.
75 Andy Greenberg (2 Jul 2014), “Rising use of
encryption foiled cops a record 9 times in 2013,”73

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, http://www.wired.com/2014/07/rising-use-ofencryption-foiled-the-cops-a-record-9-times-in-2013.
Steven Bellovin et al. (6‒7 Jun 2013), “Lawful
hacking: Using existing vulnerabilities for
wiretapping on the Internet,” Privacy Legal Scholars
Conference, Berkeley, California, http://papers.ssrn.
com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲id=2312107.
Jacob Appelbaum et al. (23 Oct 2013), “Berlin
complains: Did US tap Chancellor Merkelʼs mobile
phone?”, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/merkel-calls-obama-oversuspicions-us-tapped-her-mobile-phone-a-929642.
html. Ian Traynor, Philip Oltermann, and Paul Lewis(23 Oct 2013), “Angela Merkelʼs call to Obama: Are
you bugging my mobile phone?”, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/23/usmonitored-angela-merkel-german.
Ewan MacAskill and Julian Borger (30 Jun 2013),“New NSA leaks show how US is bugging its
European allies,”, http://www.theguardian.
com/world/2013/jun/30/nsa-leaks-us-buggingeuropean-allies. Glenn Greenwald (2014),, Macmillan, http://glenngreenwald.
net.［邦訳／『暴露──スノーデンが私に託したファイル』（新潮社）］
Laura Poitras, Marcel Rosenbach, and Holger Stark(26 Aug 2013), “Codename ʻApalacheeʼ: How
America spies on Europe and the UN,”,
http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/secret-nsadocuments-show-how-the-us-spies-on-europe-andthe-un-a-918625.html.
両者の間に不確実性があると、誰も望まないエスカ
レ ー ト の 原 因 に な り か ね な い。Herbert Lin (Fall2012), “Escalation dynamics and conﬂict terminationin cyberspace,”
6, http://
www.au.af.mil/au/ssq/2012/fall/lin.pdf.
Peter B. Kraska (Jan 2007), “Militarization andpolicing: Its relevance to 21st century police,”
1, http://cjmasters.eku.edu/sites/cjmasters.
eku.edu/files/21stmilitarization.pdf. John Paul andMichael L. Birzer (Mar 2008), “The militarization of
the American police force: A critical assessment,”
1, http://www.
suu.edu/hss/polscj/journal/V1N1.pdf#page=25.
Abigail R. Hall and Christopher J. Coyne (Spring2013), “The militarization of U.S. domestic policing,”
17, http://www.independent.org/
pdf/tir/tir̲17̲04̲01̲hall.pdf. Matthew Witt (Mar2013), “Morewell than Orwell: Paramilitarization in
the United States post-9/11,”
3 6 , h t t p : / / w w w. j o u r n a l o f 9 1 1 s t u d i e s . c o m /resources/2013WittVol36Mar.pdf.
ま ず は 次 の 著 作 か ら 入 る と い い だ ろ う。Radley
Balko (2013),, Public
Affairs Press, http://books.google.com/
books?id=M3KSMQEACAAJ.
Barack Obama (17 Jan 2014), “Transcript ofPresident Obamaʼs Jan. 17 speech on NSA reforms,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
politics/full-text-of-president-obamas-jan-17-speechon-nsa-reforms/2014/01/17/fa33590a-7f8c-11e3-

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9556-4a4bf7bcbd84̲story.html.
Scott Charney (30 Apr 2010), “Rethinking the cyberthreat: A framework and path forward,” Microsoft
Corporation, http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/
download/details.aspx?id=747.
犯罪と戦争の境界線もぼやけている。詳しくは次を参 照。Benjamin J. Priester (24 Aug 2007), “Who isa ʻterroristʼ? Drawing the line between criminal
defendants and military enemies,” Florida State
University College of Law, Public Law Research
Paper No. 264, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract̲id=1009845.
こ の 情 緒 的 な 言 葉 を 用 い る 人 が あ ま り に 多 い。
Richard Behar (13 Oct 2008), “World Bank undercybersiege in ʻunprecedented crisis,ʼ”,
http://www.foxnews.com/story/2008/10/13/worldbank-under-cyber-siege-in-unprecedented-crisis. Scott
Harkey (3 Jul 2012), “Our view: Arizona must rise
to challenge of cybersiege,”,
http://www.eastvalleytribune.com/opinion/article̲
fcfd880c-a421-11e0-a8e5-001cc4c002e0.html.
Kaspersky Lab (2014), “Under cybersiege: Whatshould America do?”, http://kasperskygovforum.com.
サイバー戦争が起きた際にネットワークを「徴用」する制度の導入を提唱している論者もいる。Susan
W. Brenner and Leo L. Clarke (Oct 2010), “Civilians
in cyberwarfare: Conscripts,”
43, http://www.vanderbilt.edu/
jotl/manage/wp-content/uploads/Brenner-̲Final̲1.
pdf.
RAND Corporation (20 Mar 2001), “Overview of the
Posse Comitatus Act,” in, http://www.rand.org/content/
dam/rand/pubs/monog raph̲reports/MR1251/
MR1251.AppD.pdf. Charles Doyle and Jennifer K.
Elsea (16 Aug 2012), “The Posse Comitatus Act andrelated matters: The use of the military to executecivilian law,” Congressional Research Service, http://
www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R42659.pdf.
Rhett A. Hernandez (Oct 2012), “U.S. Army Cyber
Command: Cyberspace for Americaʼs force ofdecisive action,”, http://connection.ebscohost.
com/c/articles/82115370/u-s-army-cyber-commandcyberspace-americas-force-decisive-action.
ここ数十年、NSA は民間企業へのデータと通信セ
キュリティの提供を増やしている。企業がそのような政府の支援を必要としていることは間違いないが、そ れ は も っ と 透 明 化 さ れ る べ き だ。Susan
Landau (29 Sep 2014), “Under the radar: NSAs
eﬀorts to secure private-sector telecommunications
infrastructure,”, http://jnslp.com/2014/09/29/under-the-radarnsas-efforts-to-secure-private-sectortelecommunications-infrastructure.
Robert A. Roe et al. (11 Jun 1987), “Computer
Security Act of 1987: Report,” Committee on
Science, Space, and Technology, US House ofR e p r e s e n t a t i v e s, h t t p s : / / b e t a . c o n g r e s s. g o v /cong ressional-report/107th-cong ress/senatereport/239/1. Electronic Privacy Information Center(2014), “Computer Security Act of 1987,” http://
epic.org/crypto/csa.

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Milton Mueller (21 Jun 2012), “Threat analysis of
the WCIT part 4: The ITU and cybersecurity,”
I n t e r n e t G o v e r n a n c e P r o j e c t , h t t p : / / w w w.
internetgovernance.org/2012/06/21/threat-analysisof-the-wcit-4-cybersecurity.
ブラジル政府はそれを義務づける法律まで提案したが、のちに取り下げた。Esteban Israel and Anthony
Boadle (28 Oct 2013), “Brazil to insist on local
Internet data storage after U.S. spying,” Reuters,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/28/net-usbrazil-internet-idUSBRE99R10Q20131028. Anthony
Boadle (18 Mar 2014), “Brazil to drop local data
storage rule in Internet bill,” Reuters, http://www.
reuters.com/article/2014/03/19/us-brazil-internetidUSBREA2I03O20140319.
Michael Birnbaum (1 Nov 2013), “Germany looks at
keeping its Internet, e-mail traﬃc inside its borders,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
world/europe/germany-looks-at-keeping-its-internete-mail-traﬃc-inside-its-borders/2013/10/31/981104fe424f-11e3-a751-f032898f2dbc̲story.html.
Charles Maynes (11 Jul 2014), “Russia tightens
Internet screws with ʻserver law,ʼ” Deutsche Welle,
http://www.dw.de/russia-tightens-internet-screwswith-server-law/a-17779072. Adrien Henni (12 Jul
2014), “New personal data storage rules to affectboth foreign and domestic players ̶ but still no“Chinese wall” surrounding Russia,”, http://www.ewdn.com/2014/07/12/
new-personal-data-storage-rules-to-affect-bothforeign-and-domestic-players-but-no-chinese-wallsurrounding-russia.
Jacquelyn Burkell et al. (2 Jan 2014), “Facebook:Public space, or private space?”, http://www.tandfonline.
com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369118X.2013.870591.
利用規約に目を通したとしても、内容は曖昧で、会社側が望みどおりのことをし、通知や同意なしに規約を変更する権利も認められている。
S c o t t Ly b a r g e r ( 1 9 9 9 ) , “ C o n d u i t o r f o r u m ?
Regulatory metaphors for the Internet,”
37, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.
1080/08997225.1999.10556239.
Noah D. Zatz (Fall 1998), “Sidewalks in cyberspace:
Making space for public forums in the electronic
environment,”
1 2 , h t t p : / / j o l t . l a w. h a r v a r d . e d u / a r t i c l e s / p d f /v12/12HarvJLTech149.pdf. Laura Stein (Jan 2008),“Speech without rights: The status of public spaceon the Internet,”
11, http://w w w. t a n d f o n l i n e . c o m / d o i /abs/10.1080/10714420801888385. Lyrissa Lidsky(Dec 2011), “Public forum 2.0,”
91, http://www.bu.edu/law/central/jd/
organizations/journals/bulr/volume91n6/documents/
LIDSKY.pdf.

2〈資料 2 〉OECD プライバシー枠組み（1980年）
・収集制限の原則──個人データの収集には、制限が設けられるべきである。また、いかなるデータの収集も、適法かつ公正な方法により、必要に応じてデータ
主体への通知と同意をへたうえで実施されなくてはならない。
・データ内容の原則──収集される個人データは、利用目的に沿い、その目的に必要な範囲内のものであるべきである。また、そのデータは、正確、完全、最新の内容でなくてはならない。
・目的明確化の原則──個人データを収集する目的は、収集時よりも前に特定されなくてはならない。また、収集したデータは、収集目的を達成するためだけに用いられるべきである。それ以外の目的で利用する場合
は、収集目的と矛盾しない用途であること、そして、
目的変更の都度に新たな用途を明示することが必要である。
・利用制限の原則──個人データは、ａデータ主体の同意がある場合、またはｂ法律で認められている場合を除き、前項に従って明示された以外の目的のために公開されたり、提供されたり、その他の形で利用された
りしてはならない。
・安全保護措置の原則──個人データは、消失、不正ア
クセス、毀損、不正な利用、改竄、漏洩などのリスクに対して、合理的な安全保護措置によって守られなくてはならない。
・公開の原則──個人データの状況、扱い方、方針については、原則として公開すべきである。保管されている個人データの有無とそのデータの種類、主な利用目
的、そしてデータ収集者の素性と通常の所在地を知る手立てが容易に得られなくてはならない。
・個人参加の原則──個人は、以下の権利をもつ。
ａデータ管理者が自身に関するデータを保有しているかどうかを、データ管理者またはその他の者に確認する権利
ｂ自身のデータを保有している者から、そのデータについて、合理的期間内に、有料の場合も過度に高くない料金で、合理的な方法により、本人に理解しやすい形で知らされる権利
ｃ上記のａおよびｂに基づく要請を拒否された場合に、理由の説明を受け、その決定に対して異議を申し立てる権利ｄ自身に関するデータの内容に異を唱え、それが受け入れられた場合は、そのデータを抹消、訂正、補足、修正される権利・責任の原則──データ管理者は、以上の諸原則に実効性をもたせるための措置を実施する責任を負う。
3

第14章 企業に関する提案
1 地球環境の破綻は、資源の保全によってではなく、新しいテクノロジーの誕生によって回避される可能性 の ほ う が 高 い。Bjørn Lomborg (2001),, Cambridge University Press, https://lvi

encrypted.google.com/books?id=JuLko8USApwC.
［邦訳／『環境危機をあおってはいけない――地球
環境のホントの実態』（文藝春秋）］
Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (2013), “The OECD privacy
framework,” http://www.oecd.org/sti/ieconomy/
oecd̲privacy̲framework.pdf.

European Parliament and Council of Europe (24 Oct
1995), “Directive 95/46/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 19
95 on the protection of individuals with regard to theprocessing of personal data and on the freemovement of such data,” http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31995L0046:

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5

6

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10

en:HTML. Neil Robinson et al. (2009), “Review of
the European Data Protection Directive,” Report TR710-ICO, Information Commissionerʼs Oﬃce, RAND
Corporation, http://ico.org.uk/~/media/documents/
library/data̲protection/detailed̲specialist̲guides/
review̲of̲eu̲dp̲directive.ashx.
Karlin Lillington (14 May 2014), “Analysis: Google
takes another hit with EU privacy rulings,”, http://www.irishtimes.com/business/sectors/
technology/analysis-google-takes-another-hit-with-euprivacy-rulings-1.1793749. Price Waterhouse Coopers(Jul 2014), “EU data protection reforms: Challenges
for businesses,” http://www.pwc.com/en̲US/us/riskassurance-services/publications/assets/pwc-eu-dataprotection-reform.pdf.
European Commission (25 Jan 2012), “Commission
proposes a comprehensive reform of the dataprotection rules,” http://ec.europa.eu/justice/newsroom/data-protection/news/120125̲en.htm.
European Commission (25 Jan 2012), “Why do weneed an EU data protection reform?” http://ec.
europa.eu/justice/data-protection/document/
review2012/factsheets/1̲en.pdf. European
Commission (12 Mar 2014),”Progress on EU dataprotection now irreversible following European
Parliament vote,” http://europa.eu/rapid/pressrelease̲MEMO-14-186̲en.htm.
次の論文は、データプライバシーの経済原理に関する 入 門 と し て 優 れ て い る。Tyler Moore (2011),“Introducing the economics of cybersecurity:
Principles and policy options,” in,National Academies Press, http://cs.brown.edu/
courses/csci1800/sources/lec27/Moore.pdf.
Patrick J. OʼToole, Corey M. Dennis, and Douglas
Levy (28 Mar 2014), “Best practices for avoiding
data breach liability,”,
http://milawyersweekly.com/news/2014/03/28/
commentary-best-practices-for-avoiding-data-breachliability.
Sasha Romanosky, David Hoﬀman, and Alessandro
Acquisti (25‒26 Jun 2012), “Empirical analysis ofdata breach litigation,” 11th Annual Workshop on
the Economics of Information Security, Berlin,
Germany, http://weis2012.econinfosec.org/papers/
Romanosky̲WEIS2012.pdf.
Alex Williams (23 Dec 2013), “Target may be liable
for up to $3.6 billion for card data breach,”, http://techcrunch.com/2013/12/23/targetmay-be-liable-for-up-to-3-6-billion-from-credit-carddata-breach. Lance Duroni (3 Apr 2014), “JPMLcentralizes Target data breach suits in Minn.,”, http://www.law360.com/articles/524968/
jpml-centralizes-target-data-breach-suits-in-minn.
Brian Krebs (8 Jan 2014), “Firm bankrupted bycyberheist sues bank,”, http://krebsonsecurity.com/2014/01/firm-bankrupted-bycyberheist-sues-bank. Brian Krebs (20 Jun 2014),“Oil Co. wins $350,000 cyberheist settlement,”, http://krebsonsecurity.com/2014/06/oilco-wins-350000-cyberheist-settlement. Brian Krebs(13 Aug 2014), “Tenn. ﬁrm sues bank over $327K

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cyberheist,”, http://krebsonsecurity.
com/2014/08/tenn-utility-sues-bank-over-327kcyberheist.
次の論文は、それを確定する方法を提案している。
Maurizio Naldi, Marta Flamini, and GiuseppeDʼAcquisto (2013), “Liability for data breaches: A
proposal for a revenue-based sanctioning approach,”in(Lecture Notes in
Computer Science Volume 7873), Springer, http://l i n k . s p r i n g e r. c o m / c h a p t e r / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 %2F978-3-642-38631-2̲20.
Willis H. Ware et al. (Jul 1973), “Records,
computers and the rights of citizens: Report of theSecretaryʼs Advisory Committee on Automated
Personal Data Systems,” DHEW Publication (OS)73-94, US Department of Health, Education andWelfare, http://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/
opcl/docs/rec-com-rights.pdf.

〈資料 3 〉アメリカ公正情報取り扱い綱領（1973年）
公正情報取り扱い綱領は、以下の 5 つの原則に基づいている。
1
存在自体が秘密にされた個人データ記録システムがあってはならない。
2
個人は、自身に関してどのような情報が記録されていて、それがどのように用いられているかを知る手立てを与えられなくてはならない。
3
個人は、同意なしに、自身に関する情報が収集目的
以外の目的に利用されたり、提供されたりすることを阻止する手立てを与えられなくてはならない。
4
個人は、自身の個人特定可能な情報の記録について、訂正・変更する手立てを与えられなくてはならない。
5
個人特定可能な情報を生成し、保管し、利用し、配布する組織は、そのデータが所期の目的で利用されることを保証し、不正利用を防ぐための措置を講じなくてはならない。
13

プライバシー規制が環境保護規制から学ぶべき点に
つ い て 論 じ た 著 作 は 多 い。Dennis D. Hirsch (Fall2006), “Protecting the inner environment: Whatprivacy regulation can learn from environmental
law,
41, http://papers.ssrn.
com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲id=1021623. Ira S.
Rubinstein (2011), “Privacy and regulatory
innovation: Moving beyond voluntary codes,”6, http://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/ﬁles/documents/
public̲comments/privacy-roundtables-commentproject-no.p095416-544506-00022/544506-00022.pdf.
14 ただし、オープンソースの無料ソフトウェアの場合など、ユーザーと契約関係がない場合には、ある程度の例外扱いが必要だ。
15 Giuseppe Dari-Matiacci and Nuno Garoupa (May2009), “Least cost avoidance: The tragedy ofcommon safety,”
25, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract̲id=560062. Paul Rosenzweig (5 Nov
2013), “Cybersecurity and the least cost avoider,”, http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/11/
cybersecurity-and-the-least-cost-avoider.
16 個人データに対する所有権は、かなり複雑な概念である。Ali M. Al-Khouri (Nov 2012), “Datalvii〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

ownership: Who owns ʻmy dataʼ?”

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18

19

20

21

2, http://www.id.gov.ae/assets/FNukwmhbQ4k.pdf.
aspx. Jacob M. Victor (Nov 2013), “The EU General
Data Protection Regulation: Toward a property
regime for protecting data privacy,”
123, http://www.yalelawjournal.org/comment/the-eugeneral-data-protection-regulation-toward-a-propertyregime-for-protecting-data-privacy.
Jennifer Valentino-DeVries and Jeremy Singer-Vine(7 Dec 2012), “They know what youʼre shoppingfor,”, http://online.wsj.com/news/
articles/SB10001424127887324784404578143144132
736214. Jeremy Singer-Vine (7 Dec 2012), “How
Dataium watches you,”, http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/12/07/how-dataiumwatches-you.
Frank Pasquale (21 Apr 2009), “The troubling trend
toward trade secret-protected ranking systems,”
Chicago Intellectual Property Colloquium, Chicago,
Illinois, http://www.chicagoip.com/pasquale.pdf.
Ethan Zuckerman (5 Sep 2012), “TSA pre-check,fairness and opaque algorithms,”, h t t p : / / w w w. e t h a n z u c k e r m a n . c o m /blog/2012/09/05/tsa-pre-check-fairness-and-opaquealgorithms.
Daniel Weitzner (29‒30 Jan 2014), “Thejurisprudence of accountability,” 2nd International
Workshop on Accountability: Science, Technology
and Policy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, http://dig.
csail.mit.edu/2014/AccountableSystems2014/abs/
weitzner-account-jurisprudence-abs.pdf. Ed Felten(19 Mar 2014), “Algorithms can be more accountable
than people,”, https://freedom-totinker.com/blog/felten/algorithms-can-be-moreaccountable-than-people. Ed Felten (12 Sep 2012),“Accountable algorithms,”, https://
freedom-to-tinker.com/blog/felten/accountablealgorithms.
たとえば、マイクロソフトや世界経済フォーラムもその動きに加わっている。Craig Mundie (Mar/Apr
2014), “Privacy pragmatism: Focus on data use, notdata collection,”
93, http://www.
foreignaffairs.com/articles/140741/craig-mundie/
privacy-pragmatism. William Hoffman et al. (May2014), “Rethinking personal data: A new lens forstrengthening trust,” World Economic Forum, http://
reports.weforum.org/rethinking-personal-data.
William Hoffman et al. (May 2014), “Rethinking
personal data: Trust and context in user-centred data
ecosystems,” World Economic Forum, http://reports.
weforum.org/rethinking-personal-data. William
Hoffman et al. (May 2014), “Rethinking personal
data: Trust and context in user-centred data
ecosystems,” World Economic Forum, http://www3.
weforum.org/docs/WEF̲RethinkingPersonalData̲
TrustandContext̲Report̲2014.pdf. William H.
Dutton et al. (May 2014), “The Internet trust bubble:
Global values, beliefs and practices,” World
Economic Forum, http://www3.weforum.org/docs/
WEF̲InternetTrustBubble̲Report2̲2014.pdf. Fred
H . C a t e , Pe t e r C u l l e n , a n d V i k t o r M a y e rSchonberger (Mar 2014), “Data protection principles

lviii

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25

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27

28
29

30

for the 21st century: Revising the 1980 OECD
Guidelines,” Oxford Internet Institute, University of
Oxford, http://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/publications/Data̲
Protection̲Principles̲for̲the̲21st̲Century.pdf.
Presidentʼs Council of Advisors on Science andTechnology (May 2014), “Big data and privacy: A
technology perspective,” http://www.whitehouse.gov/
sites/default/ﬁles/microsites/ostp/PCAST/pcast̲big̲
data̲and̲privacy̲-̲may̲2014.pdf.
Chris Jay Hoofnagle (2 Sep 2014), “The
Potemkinism of privacy pragmatism,”, http://w w w. s l a t e . c o m / a r t i c l e s / t e c h n o l o g y / f u t u r e ̲tense/2014/09/data̲use̲regulation̲the̲libertarian̲push̲behind̲a̲new̲take̲on̲privacy.single.html.
A. Michael Froomkin (23 Feb 2014), “Regulating
mass surveillance as privacy pollution: Learning fromenvironmental impact statements,” University of
M i a m i , h t t p : / / p a p e r s. s s r n . c o m / s o l 3 / p a p e r s.
cfm?abstract̲id=2400736.
Julie Brill (2 Jun 2014), “Weaving a tapestry toprotect privacy and competition in the age of Big
Data,” European Data Protection SupervisorʼsWorkshop on Privacy, Consumer Protection andCompetition in the Digital Age, Brussels, Belgium,
http://www.ftc.gov/system/ﬁles/documents/public̲statements/313311/140602edpsbrill2.pdf. Jules
Polonetsky and Omer Tene (6 Dec 2012), “Itʼs not
how much data you have, but how you use it:
Assessing privacy in the context of consumer data
integration,” Future of Privacy Forum, http://www.
futureofprivacy.org/wp-content/uploads/FPF-WhitePaper-Its-Not-How-Much-Data-You-Have-But-HowYou-Use-It̲FINAL.pdf.
European Union (9 Dec 2013), “National dataprotection authorities,” http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/bodies/authorities/index̲en.htm.
Alon Halevy, Peter Norvig, and Fernando Pereira(Mar/Apr 2009), “The unreasonable eﬀectiveness ofdata,”
24, https://static.
googleusercontent.com/media/research.google.com/
en/us/pubs/archive/35179.pdf.
Doug Gross (7 Jan 2013), “Library of Congress digs
into 170 billion tweets,” CNN, http://www.cnn.
com/2013/01/07/tech/social-media/library-congresstwitter.
Martin Fowler (12 Dec 2013), “Datensparsamkeit,”
http://martinfowler.com/bliki/Datensparsamkeit.html.
もちろん、法律さえあれば、かならず実際に保護されるとは限らない。2011年には、ドイツ政府が自国の強力なデータ保護法を破り、「トロイの木馬」型のマルウェアで自国民をスパイしていたことが明らかになった。多くの事例が繰り返し浮き彫りにしているように、どんな法律をつくっても、法律に従う
意思のない政府から私たちを守ることはできないのだ。Chaos Computer Club (8 Oct 2011), “Chaos
Computer Club analyzes government malware,”http://ccc.de/en/updates/2011/staatstrojaner.
DLA Piper (7 Mar 2013), “Data protection laws of
the world,” http://files.dlapiper.com/files/Uploads/
Documents/Data̲Protection̲Laws̲of̲the̲World̲2013.pdf. Theodore J. Kobus III and Gonzalo
S. Zeballos (19 Feb 2014), “2014 international
compendium of data privacy laws,” Baker Hostetler,

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

31

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33

34

35

36

37

38

http://www.bakerlaw.com/ﬁles/Uploads/Documents/
Data%20Breach%20documents/InternationalCompendium-of-Data-Privacy-Laws.pdf.
ただし、検索履歴を消去する設定にしていなければ、ある程度は確認できる。Dave Greenbaum (12Jul 2014), “Googleʼs new account history page helps
further control your privacy,”, http://lifehacker.com/googles-new-account-history-pagehelps-further-control-1603125500.
Hugh Campos (19 Nov 2011), “Hugo Campos ﬁghts
f o r t h e r i g h t t o o p e n h i s h e a r t ʼ s d a t a ,”TEDxCambridge, Cambridge, Massachusetts, http://
tedxtalks.ted.com/video/TEDxCambridge-HugoCampos-ﬁght.
Bruce Schneier (Jul/Aug 2010), “A taxonomy ofsocial networking data,”
8(4), http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs̲all.
jsp?arnumber=5523874.
Blake Ross (13 Sep 2011), “Improved friend lists,”, https://www.facebook.com/notes/facebook/
improved-friend-lists/10150278932602131.
Tony Bradley (13 Oct 2010), “Think your tweet isprivate? Think again,”, http://www.
pcworld.com/article/207710/think̲your̲twitter̲dm̲
is̲private̲think̲again.html.
Leslie Meredith (15 Jan 2013), “Why you shouldmake Instagram private before Saturday,”, http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/whyyou-should-make-instag ram-private-saturdayf1B7987618.
Serge Malenkovich (25 Jan 2013), “How to protect
your privacy on Pinterest,”,
http://blog.kaspersky.com/protect-your-privacy-onpinterest.
US Executive Office of the President (Feb 2012),“Consumer data privacy in a networked world: A
framework for protecting privacy and promoting
innovation in the global digital economy,” http://
www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/ﬁles/privacy-ﬁnal.
pdf.

〈資料 4 〉アメリカ消費者プライバシー権利章典（2012年）
・個人によるコントロール──消費者は、企業が自分についてどのような個人データを収集し、それをどのように用いるかをコントロールする権利をもつ。
・透明性──消費者は、プライバシーとセキュリティの扱いについて、わかりやすい情報を容易に得る権利をもつ。
・文脈の尊重──消費者は、データを提供した文脈に沿う範囲で、個人データを収集、利用、公開される権利をもつ。
・セキュリティ──消費者は、個人データを安全に、そして責任をもって取り扱われる権利をもつ。
・アクセスと正確性──消費者は、扱いやすい形式で自身の個人データにアクセスし、それを訂正する権利をもつ。この権利は、データの機密性の高さと、そのデータが不正確だった場合に本人に及ぶ悪影響の大きさにふさわしい形で行使できなくてはならない。
・収集範囲の限定──消費者は、合理的な範囲内でのみ
個人データを収集・保管される権利をもつ。
・責任──消費者は、本権利章典を確実に守るために適切な措置を講じている企業によって、個人データを扱われる権利をもつ。

39

US Executive Oﬃce of the President (1 May 2014),“Big data: Seizing opportunities, preserving values,”
http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/
big̲data̲privacy̲report̲may̲1̲2014.pdf.
40 Jaron Lanier (2013),
Simon
and Schuster, http://books.google.com/books?id=w̲
LobtmRYmQC.
41 European Commission (8 Jul 2014), “Factsheet onthe ʻRight to be Forgottenʼ ruling (C-131/12),” http://
ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/ﬁles/factsheets/
factsheet̲data̲protection̲en.pdf.
42 Rory Cellan-Jones (13 May 2014), “EU court backs
ʻright to be forgottenʼ in Google case,”,
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27388289.
Court of Justice of the European Union (13 May
2014), “Judgment in Case C-131/12:

43

44

45

46

47

,” http://curia.europa.
eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2014-05/
cp140070en.pdf.
Jane Wakefield (15 May 2014), “Politician andpedophile ask Google to ʻbe forgotten,ʼ”,
http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27423527.
Alessandro Mantelero (Jun 2013), “The EU Proposal
for a General Data Protection Regulation and theroots of the ʻright to be forgotten,ʼ”29, http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S0267364913000654.
この点を明らかにするための実験が多くおこなわれて い る。Patricia A. Norberg, Daniel R. Horne, andDavid A. Horne (Summer 2007), “The privacy
paradox: Personal information disclosure intentions
versus behaviors,”
41,
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.17456606.2006.00070.x/abstract. Leslie K. John,
Alessandro Acquisti, and George Loewenstein (6 Jul
2009), “The best of strangers: Context-dependent
willingness to divulge personal information,” Social
Sciences Research Network, http://papers.ssrn.com/
sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲id=1430482. Susan Waters
and James Ackerman (Oct 2011), “Exploring privacy
management on Facebook: Motivations andperceived consequences of voluntary disclosure,”17,
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.10836101.2011.01559.x/full. Fred Stutzman, Ralph Gross,and Alessandro Acquisti (Apr 2013), “Silent
listeners: The evolution of privacy and disclosure on
Facebook,”
4,
https://www.cylab.cmu.edu/news̲events/news/2013/
acquisti-7-year-study-facebook-privacy.html.
そのように人々を操作することは驚くほど簡単だ。
Idris Adjerid et al. (22 Mar 2013), “Sleights ofprivacy: Framing, disclosures, and the limits oftransparency,”, http://www.heinz.cmu.edu/~acquisti/papers/acquistisleights-privacy.pdf.
Sara M. Watson (29 Apr 2014), “If customers knew
how you use their data, would they call it creepy?”, http://blogs.hbr.org/2014/04/ifcustomers-knew-how-you-use-their-data-would-they-lix〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

48

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53

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57

lx

call-it-creepy.
Chris Jay Hoofnagle and Jan Whittington (28 Feb
2014), “Free: Accounting for the costs of theInternetʼs most popular price,”
61, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲
id=2235962.
Kirsten Martin (2 Dec 2013), “Transaction costs,
privacy, and trust: The laudable goals and ultimate
failure of notice and choice to respect privacy
online,”18, http://ﬁrstmonday.org/ojs/
index.php/fm/article/view/4838/3802.
私が知るかぎり、 2 人の法学者が別個にこのアイデ
ア を 提 唱 し て い る。Jerry Kang et al. (Mar 2012),“Self-surveillance privacy,”97,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract̲
id=1729332. Jack M. Balkin (5 Mar 2014),“Information fiduciaries in the dig ital age,”, http://balkin.blogspot.co.uk/2014/03/
information-ﬁduciaries-in-digital-age.html.
Jonathan Zittrain (1 Jun 2014), “Facebook could
decide an election without anyone ever ﬁnding out,”, http://www.newrepublic.com/
article/117878/information-fiduciary-solutionfacebook-digital-gerrymandering.
Dan Geer (9 Oct 2013), “Tradeoﬀs in cyber security,”
http://geer.tinho.net/geer.uncc.9x13.txt.
ポップアップ広告の発明者は謝罪をしている。The
inventor of the pop-up ad has apologized. Ethan
Zuckerman (14 Aug 2014), “The Internetʼs own
original sin,”, http://www.theatlantic.com/
technology/archive/2014/08/advertising-is-theinternets-original-sin/376041.
Ann Cavoukian (Jan 2011), “Privacy by Design: The
7 foundational principles,”, http://www.privacybydesign.ca/content/uploads/2009/08/7f
oundationalprinciples.pdf. US Federal Trade
Commission (Mar 2012), “Protecting consumer
privacy in an era of rapid change: Recommendations
for businesses and policymakers,” http://www.ftc.
gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/federaltrade-commission-report-protecting-consumerprivacy-era-rapid-change-recommendations/120326pr
ivacyreport.pdf.
Ingrid Lunden (30 Sep 2013), “Digital ads will be
22% of all U.S. ad spend in 2013, mobile ads 3.7%;
total global ad spend in 2013 $503B,”,
http://techcrunch.com/2013/09/30/digital-ads-willbe-22-of-all-u-s-ad-spend-in-2013-mobile-ads-3-7total-gobal-ad-spend-in-2013-503b-sayszenithoptimedia. Marketing Charts (23 Dec 2013),“Data dive: US TV ad spend and inﬂuence (Updated
̶ Q3 2013 data),” http://www.marketingcharts.com/
wp/television/data-dive-us-tv-ad-spend-andinﬂuence-22524.
James Kunstler (21 Oct 2005), “The psychology ofprevious investment,”, http://www.raisethehammer.org/article/181.
Charlie Savage (14 May 2014), “Phone company
pushed back against NSAʼs data collection, court
papers show,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2014/05/15/us/politics/phone-company-pushedback-against-nsas-data-collection-court-papers-show.
html. Claire Cain Miller (13 Jun 2013), “Secret court

ruling put tech companies in data bind,”, http://www.ny times.com/2013/06/14/
technology/secret-court-ruling-put-tech-companiesin-data-bind.html.
58 Ewen MacAskill (9 Sep 2013), “Yahoo ﬁles lawsuit
against NSA over user data requests,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/09/
yahoo-lawsuit-nsa-surveillance-requests. Mike
Masnick (27 Jan 2014), “Feds reach settlement with
Internet companies allowing them to report notnearly enough details on surveillance eﬀorts,”, h t t p s : / / w w w. t e c h d i r t . c o m /articles/20140127/17253826014/feds-reachsettlement-with-internet-companies-allowing-themto-report-not-nearly-enough-details-surveillanceefforts.shtml. Spencer Ackerman (3 Feb 2014),“Microsoft, Facebook, Google and Yahoo release US
surveillance requests,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/03/microsoftfacebook-google-yahoo-ﬁsa-surveillance-requests.
59 Google (2014), “Transparency report,” https://www.
google.com/transparencyreport/userdatarequests/US.
60 Brian Fung (9 Jan 2014), “The ﬁrst phone company
to publish a transparency report isnʼt AT&T or
Ve r i z o n ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-switch/
wp/2014/01/09/the-ﬁrst-phone-company-to-publisha-transparency-report-isnt-att-or-verizon.
61 Verizon (22 Jan 2014), “Verizon transparency
report,” http://transparency.verizon.com/us-data.
62 Glenn Greenwald (5 Jun 2013), “NSA collecting
phone records of millions of Verizon customers
daily,”, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-courtorder.
63 Craig Timberg (1 May 2014), “Apple, Facebook,others defy authorities, notify users of secret datad e m a n d s ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/business/technology/applefacebook-others-defy-authorities-increasingly-notifyusers-of-secret-data-demands-after-snowdenrevelations/2014/05/01/b41539c6-cfd1-11e3-b8120c92213941f4̲story.html.
64 Jacob Siegal (30 Aug 2013), “Microsoft, Google team
up to sue federal government over NSA spying,”, http://bgr.com/2013/08/30/microsoft-googlensa-lawsuit.
65 Ewan MacAskill (9 Sep 2013), “Yahoo ﬁles lawsuit
against NSA over user data requests,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/09/
yahoo-lawsuit-nsa-surveillance-requests. Kevin
Collier (15 Jul 2013), “Yahoo wins court order torelease records of its fight against PRISM,”, http://www.dailydot.com/news/yahoo-prismcourt-win-fisa-declassified. Craig Timberg (11 Sep
2014), “U.S. threatened massive ﬁne to force Yahoo
to release data,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/business/technolog y/usthreatened-massive-fine-to-force-yahoo-to-releasedata/2014/09/11/38a7f69e-39e8-11e4-9c9febb47272e40e̲story.html.
66 Cyrus Farivar (5 Nov 2013), “Apple takes strong
privacy stance in new report, publishes rare ʻwarrant〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

67

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canary,ʼ”, http://arstechnica.com/techpolicy/2013/11/apple-takes-strong-privacy-stance-innew-report-publishes-rare-warrant-canary.
アップルの「カナリア」は姿を消した。それがなにを意味するのか、確かなことは誰にもわからない。
Jeﬀ John Roberts (18 Sep 2014), “Appleʼs ʻwarrant
canaryʼ disappears, suggesting new Patriot Act
demands,”, https://gigaom.com/2014/09/18/
apples-warrant-canary-disappears-suggesting-newpatriot-act-demands.
The Electronic Frontier Foundation is keeping ascorecard. Nate Cardozo, Parker Higgins, and Kurt
Opsahl (13 Mar 2014), “Update: Encrypt the Web
report: Whoʼs doing what,” Electronic Frontier
Foundation, https://www.eﬀ.org/deeplinks/2013/11/
encrypt-web-report-whos-doing-what.
Sean Gallagher (6 Nov 2013), “Googlers say “F***you” to NSA, company encrypts internal network,”, http://arstechnica.com/informationtechnolog y/2013/11/googlers-say-f-you-to-nsacompany-encrypts-internal-network.
Barton Gellman and Ashkan Soltani (14 Oct 2013),“NSA collects millions of e-mail address books
g l o b a l l y,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsacollects-millions-of-e-mail-address-booksglobally/2013/10/14/8e58b5be-34f9-11e3-80c67e6dd8d22d8f̲story.html.
Andrea Peterson, Barton Gellman, and Ashkan
Soltani (14 Oct 2013), “Yahoo to make SSL
encryption the default for Webmail users. Finally,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
blogs/the-switch/wp/2013/10/14/yahoo-to-make-sslencryption-the-default-for-webmail-users-finally;
Craig Timberg, Barton Gellman, and Ashkan Soltani(26 Nov 2013), “Microsoft, suspecting NSA spying,
to ramp up efforts to encrypt its Internet traffic,”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/
business/technology/microsoft-suspecting-nsa-spyingto-ramp-up-efforts-to-encrypt-its-internettraffic/2013/11/26/44236b48-56a9-11e3-8304caf30787c0a9̲story.html.
い く つ か の 例 を 挙 げ よ う。Danny Yadron (3 Jun
2014), “Comcast to encrypt email for security,”, http://online.wsj.com/articles/
comcast-to-encrypt-email-for-security-1401841512.
Mikey Campbell (13 Jun 2014), “Apple will soon
encrypt iCloud emails in transit between service
providers,”, http://appleinsider.com/
articles/14/06/13/apple-will-soon-encrypt-icloudemails-in-transit-between-service-providers-.
Nate Cardozo, Parker Higgins, and Kurt Opsahl (13Mar 2014), “Update: Encrypt the web report: Whoʼsdoing what,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, https://www.eﬀ.org/deeplinks/2013/11/encrypt-web-reportwhos-doing-what. Claire Cain Miller (13 Jun 2013),“Secret court ruling put tech companies in databind,”, http://www.ny times.
com/2013/06/14/technology/secret-court-ruling-puttech-companies-in-data-bind.html.
2014年後半、アップルはすべてのデータを暗号化す
るようシステムを修正。アンドロイト端末は2011年
から暗号化機能を搭載していたが、2014年にアップ

ルに追随する形でそれを初期設定で採用するようにした。David E. Sanger and Brian X. Chen (26 Sep
2014), “Signaling post-Snowden era, new iPhone
locks out NSA,”, http://www.
nytimes.com/2014/09/27/technology/iphone-locksout-the-nsa-signaling-a-post-snowden-era-.html. Craig
Timberg (18 Sep 2014), “Newest Androids will join
iPhones in offering default encryption, blocking
p o l i c e ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-switch/
wp/2014/09/18/newest-androids-will-join-iphones-inoﬀering-default-encryption-blocking-police.
75 Google (3 Jun 2014), “Transparency report:
Protecting emails as they travel across the web,”, http://googleblog.blogspot.
com/2014/06/transparency-report-protecting-emails.
html.
76 Claire Cain Miller (13 Jun 2013), “Secret court
ruling put tech companies in data bind,”, http://www.ny times.com/2013/06/14/
technology/secret-court-ruling-put-tech-companiesin-data-bind.html. Craig Timberg (11 Sep 2014),“U.S. threatened massive fine to force Yahoo torelease data,”, http://www.
washingtonpost.com/business/technolog y/usthreatened-massive-fine-to-force-yahoo-to-releasedata/2014/09/11/38a7f69e-39e8-11e4-9c9febb47272e40e̲story.html.
77 Kim Zetter (28 Aug 2012), “Twitter ﬁghts back toprotect ʻOccupy Wall Streetʼ protester,”,
http://www.wired.com/2012/08/twitter-appealsoccupy-order. Tiﬀany Kary (14 Sep 2012), “Twitterturns over Wall Street protester posts under seal,”, http://www.bloomberg.com/
news/2012-09-14/twitter-turns-over-wall-streetprotester-posts-under-seal.html.
78 Vindu Goel and James C. McKinley Jr. (26 Jun
2014), “Forced to hand over data, Facebook files
appeal,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2014/06/27/technolog y/facebook-battlesmanhattan-da-over-warrants-for-user-data.html.
79 3 つの非営利団体が意見書を提出した。電子フロン
ティア財団、アメリカ自由人権協会（ACLU）、エ
ンピープルドである。Electronic Frontier Foundation(24 Oct 2013), “Brief of amicus curiae,”[Lavabit], Case Nos. 13-4625, 13-4626, UnitedStates Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit,
https://www.eff.org/document/lavabit-amicus.
American Civil Liberties Union (25 Oct 2013), “Briefof amicus curiae,”[Lavabit], Case Nos. 13-4625,
13-4626, United States Court of Appeals for the
Fourth Circuit, https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/
ﬁles/assets/stamped̲lavabit̲amicus.pdf. Empeopled
LLC (24 Oct 2013), “Brief of amicus curiae,”[Lavabit], Case Nos. 13-4625, 13-4626, UnitedStates Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit,
http://justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/
empeopled-lavabit-amicus.pdf.
80 Rebecca MacKinnon (2006), “ʻRace to the bottomʼ:
Corporate complicity in Chinese Internetlxi

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82

83

84

85

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censorship,” Human Rights Watch, http://www.hrw.
org/reports/2006/china0806/5.htm.
Thomas Lee (25 May 2014), “Mind your business:
Slow ﬂex of techʼs lobbying muscle,”, http://www.sfgate.com/technology/article/
M i n d - Yo u r - B u s i n e s s - S l o w - f l e x - o f - t e c h - s lobbying-5504172.php. Joseph Menn (5 Jun 2014),“U.S. technology companies beef up security tothwart mass spying,” Reuters, http://www.reuters.
com/article/2014/06/05/us-cybersecurity-techidUSKBN0EG2BN20140605. Reform Government
S u r v e i l l a n c e ( 2 0 1 4 ) , h t t p s : / / w w w.
reformgovernmentsurveillance.com.
Zack Whittaker (4 Feb 2013), “Privacy groups callon US government to stop lobbying against EU data
law changes,”, http://www.zdnet.com/privacygroups-call-on-us-government-to-stop-lobbyingagainst-eu-data-law-changes-7000010721. JamesFo n t a n e l l a - K h a n ( 2 6 J u n 2 0 1 3 ) , “ B r u s s e l s :Astroturfing takes root,”, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/74271926-dd9f-11e2-a75600144feab7de.html. David Meyer (12 Mar 2014),“Web ﬁrms face a strict new set of privacy rules in
Europe: Hereʼs what to expect,”, http://gigaom.com/2014/03/12/web-ﬁrms-face-a-strict-newset-of-privacy-rules-in-europe-heres-what-to-expect.
Tim Berners-Lee (Dec 2010), “Long live the Web,”, http://www.cs.virg inia.
edu/~robins/Long̲Live̲the̲Web.pdf; Jemima Kiss
(11 Mar 2014), “An online Magna Carta: BernersLee calls for bill of rights for web,”, http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/mar/12/
online-magna-carta-berners-lee-web.
Thomas Hobbes (1651),, Printed for
A n d r e w C r o o k e , h t t p : / / w w w. g u t e n b e r g . o r g /ﬁles/3207/3207-h/3207-h.htm.［邦訳／『リヴァイア
サン』］
John Locke (1690),,
Printed for Awnsham Churchill, http://books.google.
com/books/?id=LqA4nQEACAAJ.［邦訳／『統治二論』］
Rebecca MacKinnon (2012),, Basic Books, http://www.owlasylum.net/
owl̲underground/social/ConsentoftheNetworked.pdf.
The Public Voice (3 Nov 2009), “The Madrid
Privacy Declaration,” International Conference ofData Protection and Privacy Commissioners, Madrid,
Spain, http://privacyconference2011.org/htmls/
adoptedResolutions/2009̲Madrid/2009̲M1.2.pdf.

〈資料 5 〉マドリード・プライバシー宣言（2009年）
市民社会は、この「プライバシー・データ保護コミッシ
ョナー国際会議」の第31回年次総会の場において──
1 個人データを収集・処理する者に義務を課し、個人データを収集される者の権利を認める「公正情報取扱い」に関するグローバルな枠組みへの支持を再確認し、2 商業的利益や政治的影響力と無関係に、法的枠組みに準拠して透明性のある決定をくだせる独立のデー
タ保護機関への支持を再確認し、3 個人を特定可能な情報の収集を最少化、もしくは完
全になくすための真の「プライバシー強化手法」

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8

9

10

と、プライバシー基準の遵守を求める実効的な「プライバシー影響評価」への支持を再確認し、
欧州評議会の条約第108号および2001年の議定書を批准していない国に対して、可及的速やかな批准を促し、包括的なプライバシー保護の枠組みと独立のデータ
保護機関の設置していない国に対して、可及的速やかな設置を促し、
プライバシー保護の法的枠組みを設置している国に対して、その枠組みの実効的な実施と、世界レベルと地域レベルの協力を促し、各国に対し、個人データが不正に公開されたり、収集目的と合致しない形で用いられたりした場合にただちに本人に通知されるようにすることを促し、各国に対し、データを匿名化する手法の適切さについて包括的な調査を実施し、その手法が実際にプライバシーと匿名性を守れているか判断するためのデータを集めることを勧告し、
顔認識、全身スキャン、生体認証、皮膚埋め込み型
無線 IC タグなどの新しい大量監視システムの開発と導入を一時停止し、独立機関による透明性のある徹底した検討と民主的議論の対象にすることを要求
し、法の支配、基本的人権の尊重、民主的制度への支援を土台に、市民社会が全面的に参加する形で、プライバシー保護の新しい国際的枠組みを確立することを要求する。

第15章 私たちができること
1
Eben Moglen (27 May 2014), “Privacy under attack:
The NSA ﬁles revealed new threats to democracy,”, h t t p : / / w w w. t h e g u a r d i a n . c o m /technology/2014/may/27/-sp-privacy-under-attacknsa-ﬁles-revealed-new-threats-democracy.
社会学者のゲーリー・マルクスは、監視への対抗策
2を11の類型にわけて紹介している。本章では、マルクスの用語を借りて説明を進めたい。Gary T. Marx
(May 2003), “A tack in the shoe: Neutralizing andresisting the new surveillance ”
59, http://web.mit.edu/gtmarx/www/tack.html.
3
R. Jason Cronk (25 Nov 2013), “Thoughts on theterm ʻprivacy enhancing technologies,ʼ”, http://privacymaverick.com/2013/11/25/
thoughts-on-the-term-privacy-enhancingtechnologies.
4
Jon Brodkin (2 May 2014), “EFF ʻPrivacy Badgerʼ
plugin aimed at forcing websites to stop tracking
users,”, http://arstechnica.com/
information-technology/2014/05/eff-privacy-badgerplugin-aimed-at-forcing-websites-to-stop-trackingusers.
5
Electronic Privacy Information Center (2014), “EPIC
online guide to practical privacy tools,” http://epic.
org/privacy/tools.html.
6Sara M. Watson (24 Sep 2014), “Ask the Decoder:
How private is private browsing, really?” Al Jazeera,
http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/9/24/
private-browsing.html.
7
Microsoft Corporation (21 Aug 2013), “BitLocker
overview,” http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/
hh831713.aspx.
8Apple Corporation (Aug 2012), “Best practices for
deploying FileVault 2,” http://training.apple.com/pdf/

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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10

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13
14

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20

21

WP̲FileVault2.pdf.
James Lyne (29 May 2014), “Open source crypto
TrueCrypt disappears with suspicious cloud of
mystery,”, http://www.forbes.com/sites/
jameslyne/2014/05/29/open-source-crypto-truecryptdisappears-with-suspicious-cloud-of-mystery.
Nikita Borisov, Ian Goldberg, and Eric Brewer (28Oct 2004), “Oﬀ-the-record communication, or, Why
not to use PGP,” ACM Workshop on Privacy in theElectronic Society (WPESʼ04), Washington, D.C.,
https://otr.cypherpunks.ca/otr-wpes.pdf.
Stephan Somogyi (3 Jun 2014), “Making end-to-end
encryption easier to use,”, h t t p : / / g o o g l e o n l i n e s e c u r i t y. b l o g s p o t .
com/2014/06/making-end-to-end-encryption-easierto.html.
Tim Dierks and Eric Rescorla (17 Apr 2014), “TheTransport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version
1.3,” Internet Engineering Task Force Trust, Network
Working Group, http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-ietftls-rfc5246-bis-00.
Electronic Frontier Foundation (2014), “HTTPSEverywhere,” https://www.eﬀ.org/Https-everywhere.
次 の ウ ェ ブ ペ ー ジ が 手 引 き に な る だ ろ う。
Electronic Privacy Information Center (2014), “EPIC
online guide to practical privacy tools,” http://epic.
org/privacy/tools.html.
Peter Bright and Dan Goodin (14 Jun 2013),“Encrypted e-mail: How much annoyance will you
tolerate to keep the NSA away?”,
http://arstechnica.com/security/2013/06/encrypted-email-how-much-annoyance-will-you-tolerate-to-keepthe-nsa-away.
インターネット・エンジニアリング・タスクフォース（IETF）は、セキュリティと蔓延する監視について 次 の 声 明 を 発 表 し て い る。Jari Arkko andStephen Farrell (7 Sep 2014), “Security andpervasive monitoring,” Internet Engineering Task
Force, https://www.ietf.org/blog/2013/09/securityand-pervasive-monitoring.
Mirimir (2014), “Advanced privacy and anonymity
using VMs, VPNʼs, Tor, etc,”, https://www.
ivpn.net/privacy-guides/advanced-privacy-andanonymity-part-1.
Andy Greenberg (21 May 2014), “Free app lets thenext Snowden send big files securely anda n o n y m o u s l y,”, h t t p : / / w w w. w i r e d .
com/2014/05/onionshare.
ただし、最近の冷蔵庫の大半は金属の箱ではなくなっているので、この目的にはあまり適さない。実際に試す前に、冷蔵庫の材質を確認することをお勧めする。
John Farrier (16 Apr 2014), “What is a job thatexists only in your country?”, http://www.neatorama.com/2014/04/16/What-Is-a-JobThat-Exists-Only-in-Your-Country.
Robinson Meyer (24 Jul 2014), “Anti-surveillance
camouflage for your face,”, http://www.
theatlantic.com/features/archive/2014/07/
makeup/374929. Joseph Cox (14 Sep 2014), “Therise of the anti-facial recognition movement,”,
http://kernelmag.dailydot.com/issue-sections/features-issue-sections/10247/anti-facial-recognition-

movement.
Adam Harvey (2013), “Stealth wear,”,
http://ahprojects.com/projects/stealth-wear.
23 具体的な手法に関しては、以下が参考になるだろう。Finn Brunton and Helen Nissenbaum (2 May
2011), “Vernacular resistance to data collection andanalysis: A political theory of obfuscation,”
1 5 , h t t p : / / f i r s t m o n d a y. o r g / a r t i c l e /view/3493/2955.
24 この手法は、ロバート・ハインラインの小説にも登場 す る。Robert A. Heinlein (1956),,
D o u b l e d a y, h t t p : / / b o o k s . g o o g l e . c o m /books?id=bnoGAQAAIAAJ.［邦訳／『ダブル・スター』（創元 SF 文庫）］
25 その気まずさを克服することが重要だ。次の記事にあるように、以前、コムキャストのサービスを解約しようとした顧客が解約理由を執拗に尋ねられたが、回答を拒んだことがあった。一見すると、顧客の態度は無礼に思えるかもしれないが、よくよく考えれば、コムキャスト側は回答を要求する権利などない。Xeni Jardin (14 Jul 2014), “Listen to Comcast
torture Ryan Block and Veronica Belmont as they
try to cancel service,”, http://boingboing.
net/2014/07/14/listen-to-comcast-torture-ryan.html.
26 ジュリア・アングウィンは著書で、監視を逃れるために奮闘した1年間を振り返っている。Julia Angwin(2014),

22

27

28

29

30

31

32

, Times Books, http://books.google.com/
books?id=bbS6AQAAQBAJ.［邦訳／『ドラグネット
監視網社会──オンライン・プライバシーの守り方』（祥伝社）］
スチュアート・ベイカーがこの点を指摘している。
Stewart A. Baker (29 Oct 2013), “Potential
amendments to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance
Act,” Testimony before the Permanent SelectCommittee on Intelligence of the United States
House of Representatives, http://intelligence.house.
gov/sites/intelligence.house.gov/files/documents/
Baker10292013.pdf.
David E. Sanger (13 Aug 2013), “NSA leaks makeplan for cyberdefense unlikely,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/13/us/nsa-leaksmake-plan-for-cyberdefense-unlikely.html.
DLA Piper (7 Mar 2013), “Data protection laws of
the world,” DLA Piper, http://ﬁles.dlapiper.com/ﬁles/Uploads/Documents/Data̲Protection̲Laws̲of̲the̲World̲2013.pdf.
マイクロソフトは2014年、もっぱらアイルランドに保管しているデータの提供を要求された際に抵抗したが、裁判所はその主張を認めなかった（本書執筆
時 点 で 上 訴 中）。Joseph Ax (31 Jul 2014), “U.S.
judge orders Microsoft to submit customerʼs emails
from abroad,” Reuters, http://www.reuters.com/
article/2014/07/31/usa-tech-warrantsidUSL2N0Q61WN20140731.
Guardian (19 Sep 2014), “Former UK ambassador to
the United States given data-access role,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/
sep/19/sir-nigel-shienwald-data-access-role-davidcameron.
Rich Mogull (25 Jun 2014), “Why Apple really cares
about your privacy,”, http://www.

lxiii

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33

34

35

36

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38

39

40

41

macworld.com/article/2366921/why-apple-reallycares-about-your-privacy.html. Charles Arthur (18
Sep 2014), “Appleʼs Tim Cook attacks Google andFacebook over privacy ﬂaws,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/technology/2014/sep/18/apple-timcook-google-facebook-privacy-surveillance.
ヨーロッパ諸国はアメリカに比べて、政府による監視 に 対 す る 制 約 が 緩 い。Cyrus Farivar (13 Oct2013), “Europe wonʼt save you: Why e-mail isprobably safer in the US,”, http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2013/10/europe-wontsave-you-why-e-mail-is-probably-safer-in-the-us.
James Kanter (8 Apr 2014), “European court rejects
data retention rules, citing privacy,”,
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/09/business/international/european-court-rejects-data-retentionrules-citing-privacy.html.
David Meyer (17 Jul 2014), “The UKʼs ʻemergencyʼ
DRIP surveillance law is now a done deal,”,
http://gigaom.com/2014/07/17/the-uks-emergencydrip-surveillance-law-is-now-a-done-deal.
Ray Corrigan (11 Jul 2014), “Mass surveillance andscared politicians,”, http://b2fxxx.blogspot.
com/2014/07/mass-surveillance-and-scaredpoliticians.html.
No CCTV, http://www.no-cctv.org.uk/camera̲
locations/default.asp. The CCTV Treasure Hunt,
http://cctvtreasurehunt.wordpress.com. NYC
Surveillance Camera Project, http://www.mediaeater.
com/cameras.
Christian (24 Jun 2004), “After the Saturday larged e m o n s t r a t i o n a g a i n s t N E I S S o u t h Ko r e a ngovernment shows how it understand thedemocracy,”, http://act.jinbo.net/drupal/
node/5819. Seoyong Kim and Sunhee Kim (Oct2004), “The conflict over the use of information
technology in South Korean schools,”
17,
http://ajou.ac.kr/~seoyong/paper/Seoyong%20Kim2004-The%20Conflict%20Over%20the%20Use%20
of%20Information%20Technology.pdf.
IBM Corporation (16 Dec 2004), “METRO Groupʼs
Future Store takes German public by storm ̶ thanks
to wireless technology,” ftp://ftp.software.ibm.com/
software/solutions/pdfs/10704035̲Metro̲cs̲1b.pdf.
Kim Zetter (28 Feb 2004), “Germans protest radioID plans,”, http://archive.wired.com/techbiz/
media/news/2004/02/62472. Jan Libbenga (1 Mar
2004), “German revolt against RFID,”,
http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/03/01/german̲
revolt̲against̲rﬁd.
K. C. Jones (17 Feb 2009), “Facebookʼs terms of use
draw protest,”, http://www.
informationweek.com/software/social/facebooksterms-of-use-draw-protest/d/d-id/1076697. Bobbie
Johnson and Afua Hirsch (18 Feb 2009), “Facebook
backtracks after online privacy protest,”,
http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2009/feb/19/facebook-personal-data.
Ashley Halsey III and Derek Kravitz (25 Nov 2010),“Protests of TSA airport pat-downs, body scanners
donʼt delay Thanksgiving travel,”,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/
article/2010/11/24/AR2010112406989.html. Jason

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Keyser (25 Oct 2012), “TSA quietly removing somefull body scanners,” Associated Press, http://bigstory.
ap.org/article/government-replaces-body-scannerssome-airports-0.
漸進的に変化を遂げ、悪戦苦闘しながらも前に進むの だ。Charles E. Lindblom (Spring 1959), “Thescience of ʻmuddling through,ʼ”19, http://www.jstor.org/stable/973677.

第16章 新しい社会規範
1Paul Blumenthal (2 Mar 2009), “Congress had notime to read the USA PATRIOT Act,” Sunlight
Fo u n d a t i o n , h t t p : / / s u n l i g h t f o u n d a t i o n . c o m /blog/2009/03/02/congress-had-no-time-to-read-theusa-patriot-act.
2
Leonie Huddy and Stanley Feldman (Sep 2011),“Americans respond politically to 9/11:
Understanding the impact of the terrorist attacks andtheir aftermath,”
66, http://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21823777.
3
Tim Dawson (9 Jun 2014), “More like the Stasi thanJames Bond,” National Union of Journalists, http://
www.nuj.org.uk/news/more-like-the-stasi-than-jamesbond.
4
Joseph H. Campos III (7 Sep 2013), “Memory andremembrance: The diffusion of fear, horror andterror into control and legitimacy,” At the Interface,
Mansfield College, Oxford, UK, http://www.interdisciplinary.net/at-the-interface/wp-content/
uploads/2013/07/camposfhtpaper.pdf.
5Jack Goldsmith (9 Aug 2013), “Reﬂections on NSA
oversight, and a prediction that NSA authorities (andoversight, and transparency) will expand,”,http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/08/reﬂections-onnsa-oversight-and-a-prediction-that-nsa-authoritiesand-oversight-and-transparency-will-expand.
6
Donna G. Bair-Mundy (Aug 2009), “Of terrorists,tyrants, and social turmoil: A competing-fears
theoretical model for the evolution of law relating totelecommunication privacy vis-a-vis law enforcement
surveillance in America,” University of Hawaiʼi at
Manoa, http://books.google.com/
books?id=8LveYgEACAAJ. Samuel Best et al. (Dec2012), “Al Qaeda versus Big Brother: Anxiety about
government monitoring and support for domestic
counterterrorism policies,”34,
h t t p : / / l i n k . s p r i n g e r. c o m / a r t i c l e / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 % 2
Fs11109-011-9177-6. Keven G. Ruby (2012),

7

8, University
o f C h i c a g o P r e s s, h t t p : / / b o o k s. g o o g l e . c o m /books?id=UPILnwEACAAJ.
Dawn Rothe and Stephen L. Muzzatti (Nov 2004),“Enemies everywhere: Terrorism, moral panic, andU.S. civil society,”
12, http://
www.researchgate.net/publication/227209259̲
Enemies̲Everywhere̲Terrorism̲Moral̲Panic̲and̲
US̲Civil̲Society/ﬁle/32bfe50d3c7fe0d03b.pdf. David
Rothkopf (6 Aug 2013), “The real risks,”, h t t p : / / w w w. f o r e i g n p o l i c y. c o m /articles/2013/08/06/the̲real̲risks̲war̲on̲terror.
そ れ は 保 身 の た め の 行 動 に ほ か な ら な い。Bruce
Schneier (22 Feb 2007), “Why smart cops do dumb

〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

things,”, http://archive.wired.com/politics/
security/commentary/securitymatters/2007/02/72774.
9 リークされた NSA の内部マニュアルでは、9.11テ
ロを引き合いに出して監視を正当化するよう勧めている。
「第 2 の9.11テロを阻止できず、その事件について説明することになるよりは、いまここでこれ
らのプログラムについて説明したいのです」。JasonLeopold (30 Oct 2013), “Revealed: NSA pushed
9/11 as key ʻsound biteʼ to justify surveillance,” Al
Jazeera, http://america.aljazeera.com/
articles/2013/10/30/revealed-nsa-pushed911askeysou
ndbitetojustifysurveillance.html.
10 Clay Shirky (14 Mar 2010), Remarks at South bySouthwest (SXSW), Austin, TX, quoted in Kevin
Kelly (2 Apr 2010), “The Shirky principle,”, http://kk.org/thetechnium/2010/04/the-shirkyprin.
11 Stewart Baker (24 Feb 2014), Remarks at 2014
Executive Security Action Forum Annual Meeting,
RSA Conference, San Francisco, California.
12 Jack Goldsmith (9 Aug 2013), “Reﬂections on NSA
oversight, and a prediction that NSA authorities (andoversight, and transparency) will expand,”,http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/08/reﬂections-onnsa-oversight-and-a-prediction-that-nsa-authoritiesand-oversight-and-transparency-will-expand.
13 北朝鮮やキューバの人々はテロから守られているかもしれないが、それと引き換えに払っている代償はあまりに大きいように思える。
14 Bruce Schneier (17 May 2007), “Virginia Techlesson: Rare risks breed irrational responses,”,
http://archive.wired.com/politics/security/commentary/securitymatters/2007/05/
securitymatters̲0517
15 この表現は、昔の連邦最高裁判所が用いたものだ。
「これは、秩序か自由かの選択ではない。秩序のある自由か、それとも秩序も自由もない無法状態かという選択である。もし、裁判所がささやかな現実的な知恵を発揮せず、教条主義的な論理を抑えなけれ
ば、憲法の権利章典を自殺条項に変えてしまうことに な る」。US Supreme Court (16 May 1949),
Opinion,, http://caselaw.lp.
f i n d l a w. c o m / s c r i p t s / g e t c a s e .
pl?court=us&vol=337&invol=1.「自 殺 条 項」に つ いて は 次 も 参 照。Linda Greenhouse (22 Sep 2002),“Suicide pact,”, http://www.nytimes.
com/2002/09/22/weekinreview/the-nation-suicidepact.html.「自殺条項」という言葉をタイトルに用い た 書 籍 も あ る。Richard A. Posner (2006),

16, Oxford University Press, http://books.
google.com/books?id=hP6PAAAAMAAJ.
Richard Orange (14 Apr 2012), “ʻAnswer hatredwith loveʼ: How Norway tried to cope with thehorror of Anders Breivik,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/15/anders-breiviknorway-copes-horror. Balazs Koranyi and Victoria
Klesty (26 Apr 2012), “Tens of thousands protest at
Norway Breivik trial,” Reuters, http://in.reuters.com/
article/2012/04/26/norway-breivik-protestidINDEE83P0B720120426. Tim Cushing (26 Jul
2012), “One year after the Breivik massacre, Norway
continues to fight terrorism with democracy,

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openness and love,”, https://www.techdirt.
com/articles/20120724/20363519819/one-year-afterbreivik-massacre-norway-continues-to-ﬁght-terrorismwith-democracy-openness-love.shtml.
Bruce Schneier (7 Jan 2012), “Our reaction is thereal security failure,”, https://www.
schneier.com/essays/archives/2010/01/our̲reaction̲
is̲the.html.
John Mueller and Mark G. Stewart (2011),, Oxford University
P r e s s, c h a p. 9 , h t t p : / / b o o k s. g o o g l e . c o m /books?id=l1IrmjCdguYC&pg=PA172.
私は「恐怖を乗り越えて（＝ beyond fear）」という言葉をタイトルにした本を書いた。Bruce Schneier(2003),, Wiley, http://books.
google.com/books/about/?id=wuNImmQufGsC.［邦訳／『セキュリティはなぜやぶられたのか』（日経BP）］
Nate Silver (10 Jul 2013), “Public opinion shifts on
security-liberty balance,”,, h t t p : / / f i v e t h i r t y e i g h t . b l o g s. ny t i m e s.
com/2013/07/10/public-opinion-shifts-on-securityliberty-balance.
ニューヨーク大学のヘレン・ニッセンボーム教授が指摘するように、文脈、そして人々がいだく期待を抜きに、プライバシーについて正しく論じることはで き な い。Helen Nissenbaum (Fall 2011), “A
contextual approach to privacy online,”11,
http://www.amacad.org/publications/daedalus/11̲
fall̲nissenbaum.pdf. Alexis C. Madrigal (29 Mar
2012), “The philosopher whose ﬁngerprints are allover the FTCʼs new approach to privacy,”,h t t p : / / w w w. t h e a t l a n t i c . c o m / t e c h n o l o g y /print/2012/03/the-philosopher-whose-fingerprintsare-all-over-the-ftcs-new-approach-toprivacy/254365.
インターネットは国際的な性格ゆえに世界中で均質化していく半面、土地による違いはずっと残るのだ。
Sarah Grider Cronan and Neal F. Bailen (5 Apr
2007), “ʻShould I Google the jury?ʼ and other ethicalconsiderations,” Section of Litigation, American Bar
Association, http://apps.americanbar.org/litigation/committees/products/articles/0407̲cronan.html.
Samantha Henig (Mar 2013), “Why you should stop
Googling your dates,”, http://www.glamour.
com/sex-love-life/2013/03/why-you-should-stopgoogling-your-dates. 次の動画は、これがエスカレー
トするとどうなるかを描いている。Mario Contreras(29 May 2014), “Meet in a public place,”,
http://vimeo.com/96870066.
Andrea Bartz and Brenna Ehrlich (7 Dec 2011),“The dos and donʼts of Googling people,” CNN,
http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/07/tech/social-media/
netiquette-google-stalking.
Joe Coscarelli (12 Dec 2010), “Does Julian Assangehave a proﬁle on OKCupid?”, http://blogs.villagevoice.com/runninscared/2010/12/does̲
julian̲ass.php.
Economist (5 Jun 2014), “Misery merchants,”, http://www.economist.com/news/lxv

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international/21606307-how-should-onlinepublication-explicit-images-without-their-subjectsconsent-be.
David Kravets (15 Jul 2013), “Mugshot-removal sites
accused of extortion,”, http://www.wired.
com/2013/07/mugshot-removal-extortion. David
Segal (6 Oct 2013), “Mugged by a mug shot online,”, h t t p : / / w w w. n y t i m e s .
com/2013/10/06/business/mugged-by-a-mug-shotonline.html.
David Brin (1998),

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Basic Books, http://www.davidbrin.com/
transparentsociety1.html.
Emily Nussbaum (12 Feb 2007), “Say everything,”, http://nymag.com/news/
features/27341.
Jessy Irwin (7 Oct 2014), “Grooming students for a
lifetime of surveillance,”, http://modelviewculture.com/pieces/grooming-students-fora-lifetime-of-surveillance.
電子バッジの着用を生徒に義務づけている学校もある。これは、畜産農家が家畜の管理に用いるのと同
じテクノロジーだ。Associated Press (11 Oct 2010),“Houston-area schools tracking students with radio
frequency badges,”, http://w w w. d a l l a s n e w s . c o m / n e w s / e d u c a t i o n /headlines/20101011-Houston-area-schools-trackingstudents-with-6953.ece.
United Nations (10 Dec 1948), “The Universal
Declaration of Human Rights,” http://www.un.org/
en/documents/udhr.
この条約は、2010年に追加議定書が採択されている。European Court of Human Rights (1 Jun 2010),“European Convention of Human Rights,” Council ofEurope, http://www.echr.coe.int/documents/
convention̲eng.pdf.
Doug Linder (2014), “Exploring constitutional
conflicts: The right of privacy,” University ofMissouri, Kansas City, http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/
projects/ftrials/conlaw/rightofprivacy.html.
2000年に発表された時点では法的拘束力のない文書だったが、2009年のリスボン条約の一部として批准されて法的拘束力を持つようになった。European
Union (18 Dec 2000), “Charter of Fundamental
Rights of the European Union,” http://ec.europa.eu/
justice/fundamental-rights/charter/index̲en.htm.

38〈資料 6 〉EU 基本権憲章（2000年）
第 7 条 私的生活・家庭生活の尊重。すべての人は、私的生活・家庭生活、住居、通信を尊重される権利をもつ。
第 8 条 個人データの保護。
1 すべての人は、みずからに関する個人データを保護される権利をもつ。
2 個人データは、明示された目的のために、そして本人の承諾など法律で定められた適法な根拠に基づいて、公正に扱われなくてはならない。すべての人
は、みずからに関して収集されたデータにアクセスし、それを修正する権利をもつ。
3 これらのルールの遵守は、独立した機関により監督を受けなくてはならない。

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この国連決議は、「プライバシー、家族、家庭、通信を恣意的もしくは不法に干渉されないというプラ
イバシーの権利、そして、そのような干渉に対する法的保護を与えられる権利を確認し、プライバシーの権利を行使することが表現の自由と思想の自由を実現するうえで重要な役割を果たし、民主社会の 1
つの基盤を成すものであることを確認」している。
United Nations General Assembly (21 Jan 2014),“Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 18
December 2013, 68/167, The right to privacy in thedigital age,” http://www.un.org/ga/search/view̲doc.
asp?symbol=A/RES/68/167.
アメリカ建国の父の1人であるベンジャミン・フラ
ンクリンは、こう述べている。「その場限りのささ
やかな安全を得ようとして、本質的な自由を手放すような人間は、自由も安全も得る資格がない」
Marcia Stepanek (8 Aug 2013), “The Snowden
eﬀect: An opportunity?”, http://www.ssireview.org/blog/entry/the̲snowden̲eﬀect̲an̲opportunity.
Gerald F. Seib (21 Nov 2008), “In crisis, opportunity
for Obama,”, http://online.wsj.
com/news/articles/SB122721278056345271.
Bruce Schneier (2012),, Wiley, http://w w w. w i l e y. c o m / W i l e y C D A / W i l e y T i t l e /productCd-1118143302.html.［邦 訳 ／『信 頼 と 裏 切りの社会』（NTT 出版）］
Charles Safran et al. (Jan/Feb 2007), “Toward anational framework for the secondary use of healthdata: An American Medical Informatics Association
white paper,”
1 4 , h t t p s : / / w w w.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S106750270600212X. Peter B. Jensen, Lars J.
Jensen, and Søren Brunak (Jun 2012), “Mining
electronic health records: Towards better research
applications and clinical care,”13, http://www.dartmouth.edu/~cbbc/
courses/bio270/PDFs-13S/Tim̲Byounggug.pdf.
Reynol Junco (2014),, Wiley/Jossey-Bass, http://www.
w i l e y. c o m / W i l e y C D A / W i l e y T i t l e /productCd-1118647459.html.
Christian Rudder (28 Jul 2014), “We experiment on
human beings!”, http://blog.okcupid.com/
i n d e x . p h p / w e - e x p e r i m e n t - o n - h u m a n - b e i n g s.
Christian Rudder (4 Sep 2014), “When websites
peek into private lives,”, http://online.wsj.com/articles/when-websites-peek-intoprivate-lives-1409851575.
Mark Weinstein (2 Sep 2014), “OKCupid, thatʼs
O K S t u p i d ,”, h t t p : / / w w w.
huffingtonpost.com/mark-weinstein/okcupid-thatsokstupid̲b̲5739812.html.
US Executive Oﬃce of the President (2013), “Digital
government: Building a 21st century platform tobetter serve the American people,” http://www.
whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/egov/digitalgovernment/digital-government.html. Microsoft
Corporation (27 Mar 2013), “State and local
governments adopt Microsoft Dynamics CRM to〈原註ならびに資料一覧〉

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improve citizen service delivery,”, http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/
press/2013/mar13/03-27dynamicscrmpr.aspx.
イギリスの GCHQ は、このような社会的議論を明らかに恐れている。スノーデンが暴露した文書の1つによれば、GCHQ 内部では再三にわたり、監視の広がりに関して「有害な社会的議論」を避ける必要
性 が 論 じ ら れ て い た。James Ball (25 Oct 2013),“Leaked memos reveal GCHQ eﬀorts to keep mass
surveillance secret,”, http://www.
theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/oct/25/leakedmemos-gchq-mass-surveillance-secret-snowden.
この言葉は、アメリカの奴隷制廃止活動家セオド
ア・パーカーの1853年の言葉をアレンジしたものだ。パーカーはこう述べた。「私は道徳の世界を知っているふりをするつもりなどない。そこに懸かる弧は長く、目を凝らしても先は見えない。弧の湾曲の仕方を計算し、経験に基づいてその行き着く先を推測することもできない。それでも、私に見えていることから確信をもって言えることがある。それは、その弧が正義のほうに向かって曲がっていると
い う こ と だ」。garson (15 Nov 2012), “The arc of
the moral universe is long but it bends towardjustice,”, http://quoteinvestigator.
com/2012/11/15/arc-of-universe.

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