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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
῏῍ῌῐῑ῎
No. 3., p. -ῌ3 ῍,**-῎Review of Recent Insights on Physical Behavior of Gases in
Porous Media : Theoretical and experimental Investigations
on Density Driven Gas Flow
Dennis E. ROLSTON* and Andrew S. ALTEVOGT*** Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California, Davis** Civil & Environmental Engineering, Princeton University
Abstract
Under natural conditions, forces such as gravity, temperature, and pressure gradients in the soil
coupled with di#usive ﬂuxes will control the fate of gaseous contaminants. The assumptions
underlying the basic equations of di#usive and advective gas transport processes in soil are
discussed.

To test the traditional equations for gas transport, laboratory experiments wereconducted to explore the transport of a dense gas (freon-++-) through columns of air-dry Oso-Flacosand with a large concentration of freon-++- maintained at the inlet to the columns. Gas densities(concentrations) were monitored at the inlet and the outlet and within the columns duringtransport.

Signiﬁcant di#erences in ﬂuxes and density proﬁles were observed for the three

primary ﬂow directions (horizontal, vertically upward, vertically downward) at high source
densities. Numerical models based on the standard Darcy-Fickian transport equation did not ﬁt
the measured ﬂuxes. Slip ﬂow was found to be signiﬁcant relative to Darcy advective ﬂow, but
did not account for the discrepancy between model simulations and data.

Further theory

development was necessary in order to ascertain why the standard equations did not adequately
describe the di#usive and advective transport processes for dense gases. New equations governing the transport of gaseous chemicals in porous media were derived by applying the method ofvolume averaging to the point equations for mass and momentum ﬂux. The form of the newtransport parameters provide possible explanations for discrepancies between experimental andnumerical modeling results for systems where neither di#usive nor advective driving forces
dominate.
Key words : dense gas, gaseous contaminant, slip ﬂow, di#usive and advective gas transport,
volume averaging techniqueIntroduction
An understanding of the transport of gasphase chemicals in porous media is importantin determining the fate of many soil and vadosezone gases and contaminants. Numerous physical and chemical properties and the way theseproperties interact and vary through time andspace will control gas-phase contaminant transport. Gas-phase ﬂuxes in the vadose zone will
generally be controlled by some combinationof driving forces due to gravity and gradientsin pressure, temperature, and concentration.
Physical and chemical parameters such as permeability, porosity, di#usion, and sorption coe$cients will exert control over the magnitudeof the ﬂuxes of interest.
Modeling of gas transport in situations ofenvironmental concern has generally been accomplished by utilizing equations that havebeen successfully employed to describe liquidtransport processes. Liquids and gases will, for

ῐ

4



example, behave di#erently in their interactions with the solid-phase in porous media.
This becomes quite clear in examining the assumptions which underlie Darcy’s Law, thestandard liquid phase advective velocity expression. Darcy’s Law is based on the assumption that velocity at the pore walls is equal tozero. In the gas phase, however, if transport
occurs in the region where neither advection
nor di#usion is dominant, this assumption will
be invalid. The form of the advective velocity
expression may need to be altered to accountfor the non-zero velocity at the pore walls (slipvelocity). The slip velocity accounts for only
one of a number of factors that must be examined in order to arrive at a thorough understanding of the physics of gas transport inporous media.
The objectives of this study were to examine
the validity of the traditional gas-phase transport equations for porous media and to explore
any modiﬁcations that must be made to theequations based on an in-depth examination of
the assumptions which underlie the traditional
equations. Transport experiments were conducted and compared with the output of anumerical model based on traditional and newtransport equations.
Physics of Gas Transport
Di#usion velocities of gas mixtures in soil
are related to each other in a complex mannerdependent upon the mole fraction of each gas,
the molar ﬂuxes of each gas, and the binary
di#usion coe$cient of each gas pair. Curtissand Hirschfelder (+3.3) gave the general equations for steady transport of a multicomponent
mixture of gases, based on gas kinetic theory.
If gravity e#ects are ignored or di#usion
occurs only horizontally (and di#usion occurs
for vertical distances no greater than +** m),
the well-known Stefan-Maxwell (SM) equations provide the theoretical framework for
di#usion of gases in soils. The SM equations(Amali and Rolston, +33-) are :3.  ,**-v

ῌ

yi Jjyj Ji
P dyj

RT dx
Dij

+

j+, jiwhere Jj is the molar ﬂux density [moles/(soilarea x time)] for species j, yj is the vapor mole
fraction for species j, Dij is the e#ective binary
di#usion coe$cient in soil of species i in j (orvice versa), P is the total gas mixture pressure(Pa), T is the mixture temperature (K), R is theuniversal gas constant (2.-+. J mol+ K+), andx is the spatial coordinate.
Fick’s law for di#usion is a restrictive case of
the SM equations. Jaynes and Rogowski (+32-)
concluded that Fick’s law would result in incorrect estimations of mass distributions andmass ﬂuxes for systems containing more than
two vapor components when the concentrations of the di#using species are not negligible
compared to the bulk phase gas. Amali and
Rolston (+33-) showed that if the total mole
fraction of volatile organic chemical (VOC)
vapors in air exceeded about *.*/, Fick’s law
ﬂuxes deviated from the true di#usive ﬂux foreach species by up to /ῌ. This indicated thatthe total mole fraction of the di#using species
also needs to be considered in addition to therequirement of Le#elaar (+321) that the binary
di#usion coe$cients of the di#using species
must be su$ciently di#erent for multicomponent e#ects to be observed.
Thus, Fick’s law is generally applicable for
only a few special cases. One of these cases isfor the di#usion of a trace gas in a binary
mixture, meaning that the mole fraction of the
tracer gas is small. The second special case isfor di#usion of two gases in a closed system(total pressure remains constant). In this case,neither gas needs to be in trace amounts.
Therefore, if Fick’s law is to be used as thebasis for any method of measuring the soil gas
di#usivity, the method should satisfy one ormore of these conditions.
Assuming that the special case conditions
are met, Fick’s law is given by
Mg(Cg
fgDp
,At(x
where Mg is the amount of gas di#using (g gas),῔῕ : Review of Recent Insights on Physical Behavior of Gases in Porous Media : Theoretical and experimental Investigations on Density Driven Gas Flow

A is the cross-sectional area of the soil (m, soil),t is time (s), fg is the gas ﬂux density (g gas mῑ,soil sῑ+), Cg is concentration in the gaseous
phase (g gas mῑ- soil air), x is distance (m soil),and Dp is the soil-gas di#usion coe$cient (msoil air mῑ+ soil sῑ+). The unsteady di#usion ofa gas, which is nonreactive (physically, biologically, and chemically), is described by the
combination of Fick’s law (Eq. [,]) and the continuity equationfation (m/s,), and a is a factor in the slip velocity
expression. Adsorption of the gas can be described by a Langmuir isotherm. The Darcy
velocity term takes into account an advective
component due to di#erences in gas density.
The slip velocity term arises from the nonequimolar ﬂux for gases that are not in trace
amounts and have very di#erent di#usion co-

῎-῏

where fa is the soil-air content (m- air mῑ- soil).
For cases where external forcing occurs
causing pressure gradients or driving forces
due to density di#erences, advective processes
need to be considered in addition to the di#usive processes given by Eq. [,] and [-]. The
traditional equations for di#usive and advective gas-phase mass and momentum conservation in a binary system can be represented, in
one dimension as (Altevogt et al., ,**- a)fuῐrbulkphase pressure (Pa), g is gravitational accelera-

e$cients.

(,Cg
(Cg
ΐDp ,
(t
(x

Mass :

5aQ
ῌ+ῐarF῍,

(rF
(
ΐ
(t
(z

ῌ῏῏῏ῌ
῍῍῏῏῏ῌ῍῎Materials and Methods
Experiments were conducted in an apparatus consisting of a stainless steel cylinder
packed with Oso-Flaco sand with large chambers on either end. The volumes of the inlet
and outlet chambers were -+ and +0.- L, respectively, and were constructed of --mm thickstainless steel. The soil cylinder was *..* mlong with an I. D. of 11 mm. Freon-++- (+,+,,
Trichloro- +,,,, triﬂouroethane) was utilized as
the tracer gas due to its relatively high molecular weight and vapor pressure. Table + presents the physical and chemical properties ofRctardation Coc$cicnt

rDP

(wF
(z

ῑ

ῌ῏ῌ
῍῍῏ῌ
῍῎

(
῎rF vz῏(z ῌ῍῎῎.῏Table +

Advcctive Flux

Physical and chemical characteristics ofthe experimental system

Fickian Di#usivc Flux

Momentum : vzΐῑ

Kz
m

dwF
dz
dP
ῐrg ῐ
῎/῏
dz
wFῐa

ῌ῏῏῍῏῏῎Darcy Vclocity

Dp

ῌῌ
῍῍ῌ
῍῎
Slip Vclocity

where rbulk is the bulk density of the soil (kgsoil/m- soil), a and Q are measured adsorption/
desorption rate constants for the Langmuir isotherm (m- gas/kg freon and kg freon/kg soil,

Packed Column Properties
Bulk Density
Permeability

Oso-Flaco Sand Properties
Mineral Density
Mean Pore Diameter

Freon ++-

is mass fraction of the tracer gas (kg freon/kg
gas), vz is total advective velocity (m- gas mῑ,“Air”freon/m gas), t is time (s), z is distance (m soil),-r is total gas phase density (kg gas/m- gas), wF

soil sῑ+), m is mixture viscosity (Pa s), Kz ispermeability (m- gas/m soil), P is total gas,40+ g soil/m- soil particles/4-ῒ+*ῑ/ m gas

Chemical Properties

Molecular Weight
Vapor Pressue
Viscosity
Binary Soil Gas
Di#usion Coefficient

respectively), rF is density of the tracer gas (kg+4/1 g soil/m- soil
,41.ῒ+*ῑ++ m- gas/m soil

Molecular Weight
Viscosity+214-3 g/mol*4.. atm (.4./ῒ+*. Pa)+4*-ῒ+*ῑ/ Pa s
+4-ῒ+*ῑ0 m- gas mῑ+ soil sῑ+,242+ g/mol+420ῒ+*ῑ/ Pa s



6

the experimental system. All parameters were
measured independently.
Experiments were run in a ,/ constanttemperature room. Experiments were initiatedby injecting a measured amount of liquid freon
into the vented inlet chamber and allowing it
to vaporize. A plunger connecting the chamber to the soil cylinder was kept closed until
the freon had fully vaporized and its concentration had stabilized. The plunger was thenpulled and freon was allowed to enter the soil.
During transport experiments, gas samples
were taken with /* mL gas sampling syringes(Hamilton) through mininert (VICI Inc.) ports
located along the soil cylinder and in the inlet
and outlet chambers and analyzed on a gas
chromatograph. Experiments were conductedin three separate conﬁgurations : verticallyupward (inlet at the bottom of the system),vertically downward (inlet at the top), andhorizontally. For more information on the experiments, see Altevogt et al. (,**- a, ,**- c).
Results and Discussion
Comparison of Numerical Modeling Output
with Experimental Data
Figure + presents model output plotted withmeasured data for a vertically downward transport experiment conducted at an approximate
inlet freon-++- density of +.20 mg/mL. Figure +a contains the results for ﬂux at the soil

Fig. +

3.

,**-

column outlet. Fig. +b compares the measured
freon density proﬁles at / and ,/ cm from theinlet chamber with model output. In bothﬁgures, it is clear that the traditional transport
equations (Eqs. [.] and [/]) are far from adequate for describing experimental data. It
should be noted that many previous studies
might have missed this result due to the use of
ﬁtted dispersion coe$cients. It should be
noted that these equations do not include amechanical dispersion term. The highest velocity encountered in all of our experiments
was 0.,+*. m/s. Utilizing this value alongwith the mean pore diameter (estimated frommean particle size) and di#usion coe$cientfrom Table + yields a Peclet number of *.*,/.
This is the maximum value of the Peclet
number that was encountered, and it lies well
below the criteria value of + (Aris +3/0, Bear
+322, Auriault and Adler +33/). This means thatmechanical dispersion will be negligible for allof the ﬂow regimes of interest in this study.
The slip velocity was accounted for only byutilizing the expression in Eqs. [.] and [/].
Volume Averaged Transport Equations
Based on the poor ﬁt of the traditional equations to the experimental data, additional
theoretical analysis was conducted. The fully
coupled equations derived in the volume
averaging work of Altevogt et al. (,**- b) canbe represented as

Comparison of data and numerical models for vertically downward data. Flux to the outlet
chamber (a) and density proﬁles (b). q*.0/ for new model output.

῔῕ : Review of Recent Insights on Physical Behavior of Gases in Porous Media : Theoretical and experimental Investigations on Density Driven Gas Flow

Mass :

fuῐrbulkaQ
ῌ+ῐarF῍,

(rF
(
ῒ
(t
(z

῏ῒῒῒ῍
῎ῐῒῒῒ῍῎ῑ
Rctardation Coc$cicnt

rDP

(wF
(z

ῑ

῏ῒ῍
῎ῐῒ῍
῎ῑ
Fickian Di#usivc Flux((῎rF vz῏ῐ(z ῏ῐῑ (zTraditional
Advcctive Flux

Couplcd
ClosureVariablc
Estimatc

῎0῏

ῌῌ῍ῌ῎

qrF vz῏ῒῐῒῑ
Newly Dcrivcd
Slip Coupling
Tcrm

Momentum : vzῒῑ

Kz
m

dwF
dz
dP
ῐrg ῐ
ῐ
dz
wFῐa

῏ῒῒῐῒῒῑ
Darcy Vclocity

Dp

῏῍
῎ῐ῍
῎ῑ
Slip Vclocity

ῌ rbulkaQ ῎ῌ wFῑ+ ῎ (rF
῍ῌ+ῐarF῍,῏῍rFῐra῏ (t῎1῏῏ῒῒῒῒῒ῍
῎ῐῒῒῒῒῒ῍
῎ῑ
Sorptive Vclocity

The term q appears in Eq. [0] as a result of theorder of magnitude estimate (Altevogt et al.,,**- b) that the slip coupling term will be a
linear function of the species density within
the range *.+ΐqΐ+*. Di#erences between Eqs.
[.] and [/] and Eqs. [0] and [1] lie in the reduction in magnitude of the advective ﬂux and theinclusion of a sorptive contribution to the velocity, both of which arise directly from microscale coupling of the mass and momentum
equations. Equations were solved using a onedimensional ﬁnite di#erence numerical technique.
The newly derived mass and momentum
equations ﬁt the data remarkably well with aﬁtted q value of *.0/. This value of qῒ*.0/ wasequally applicable to cases of upward and horizontal transport (not shown). The model
output from the new transport equations withqῒ*.0/ provides a very good match to the data.
This corresponds well with our estimate that q
should be of the order *.+ΐqΐ+*. In order toobtain an exact expression for the slip coupling
term in Eq. [0], it will be necessary to fully

7

solve the coupled closure equations presented
in Altevogt et al. (,**- b).
It must be noted that due to the high molecular mass of freon-++- relative to that of “air”,
the value of a will be minimized and the e#ects
of slip magniﬁed. For species with smaller
di#erences in molecular mass, the value of theslip velocity will be greatly reduced. Secondly,
freon-++- adsorbs weakly to the Oso-Flaco sandused in these studies as compared with otherorganic chemical/porous media combinations.
Thus, the values of sorptive velocity will undoubtedly be higher in many situations.
Summary
Comparison of simulations using the traditional transport equations with data fromcolumn experiments using a dense gas (freon++-) clearly show that these equations are notadequate for describing transport of volatile
chemicals in the region where neither di#usion
nor advective processes dominate. Sensitive
measurement of pressure within the soilcolumn (Altevogt et al., ,**- a) showed that theinteraction between the non-equimolar di#usive ﬂux and advection due to gravity produces signiﬁcant pressure gradients within thesoil that di#er depending on ﬂow direction.
Newly derived transport equations, using
volume averaging techniques, gave additionalterms arising directly from microscale coupling of the mass and momentum equations.
Simulations using the newly derived equations
compared remarkably well with data. Further
research is needed on the coupling term toevaluate the physical signiﬁcance and degreeof transferability to other systems.
References
Altevogt, A.S., D.E. Rolston, and R.T. Venterea.
(,**- a) : Density and pressure e#ects on thetransport of gas-phase chemicals in unsaturated porous media. Water Resour. Res., -3 (-).
Available from : doi : +*.+*,3/,**,WR**+--2.
Altevogt, A.S., D.E. Rolston, and S. Whitaker. (,**b) : New equations for binary gas transport inporous media, Part + : equation development.

*5Cº » 3. ¼ j,**-m

8Adv. Water Resour. ,0 : 03/ῌ1+/.
Altevogt, A.S., D.E. Rolston, and S. Whitaker. (,**c) : New equations for binary gas transport inporous media, Part , : experimental validation.
Adv. Water Resour. ,0 : 1+1ῌ1,-.
Amali, S., and D.E. Rolston. (+33-) : Theoretical investigation of multicomponent volatile organic vapor di#usion : Steady-state ﬂuxes. J. Environ. Qual. ,, : 2,/ῌ2-+.
Aris, R. (+3/0) : On the dispersion of a solute in a
ﬂuid ﬂowing through a tube. Proceedings of
the Royal Society London, Ser. A, ,-/ : 01ῌ11.
Auriault, J.L., and P.M. Adler. (+33/) : Taylor dispersion in porous media : Analysis by multiple

scale expansions. Advances in Water Resources +2 : ,+1ῌ,,0.
Bear, J. (+322) : Dynamics of Fluids in PorousMedia. Dover Publications Inc., New York.
Curtiss, C.F., and J.O. Hirschfelder. (+3.3) : Transport properties of multicomponent gas mixtures. J. Chem. Phys. +1 : //*ῌ///.
Jaynes, D.B., and A.S. Rogowski. (+32-) : Applicability of Fick’s law to gas di#usion. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. .1 : .,/ῌ.-*.
Le#elar, P.A. (+321) : Dynamic simulation of multinary di#usion problems related to soil. Soil
Sci. +.- : 13ῌ3+.

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
ῐ῎῍ῑῒ῏
No. 3., p. ++ῌ+3 ῍,**-῎Review of Recent Progress in Predicting Gas TransportParameters for Undisturbed Andisols : Campbell b
Dependent Models for Gas Di#usivity
and Air Permeability
Per MOLDRUP*, Seiko YOSHIKAWA (OSOZAWA)**, Toshiko KOMATSU (YAMAGUCHI)***,
Torben OLESEN* and Dennis E. ROLSTON***** Environmental Engineering Section, Dept. of Life Sciences, Aalborg University,
Sohngaardsholmsvej /1, DK-3*** Aalborg, Denmark** Dept. of Hilly Land Agriculture, Natl. Agric. Reseach Center for Western Region,
Ikano ,/1/, Zentsuji, Kagawa 10/ῌ**/-, Japan*** Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University,,// Shimo-okubo, Saitama --2ῌ2/1*, Japan**** Soils and Biogeochemistry, Dept. of Land, Air, and Water Resources,
University of California, Davis, Ca 3/0+0, USA
Abstract
This paper reviews and connects recent studies on gas transport parameter models for Japanese
volcanic ash soils (Andisols). Soil water retention from ῌ+ kPa to ῌ+./ MPa of matric potential for
di#erently-textured, undisturbed Andisols from three prefectures in Japan was well described by
the simple Campbell (+31.) model. Gas di#usivity in the same matric potential range was well
predicted by two recent soil type (Campbell b) dependent models, while the classical Millington
and Quirk (+30+) model markedly under-predicted gas di#usivity for all Andisols. Air permeability (ka) in wet to medium moist soil (from ῌ+ to ῌ+** kPa of matric potential) was also well
predicted by a Campbell b dependent model, provided that ka at ῌ+* kPa of matric potential wasmeasured and used as a reference point in the model. In conclusion, Campbell-based models
appear highly useful for describing pore characteristics and predicting gaseous phase transportparameters in Andisols.
Key words : gas di#usion, gas transport, Campbell soil water retention model, BBC gas di#usivity
model, soil structure ﬁngerprint+.

Introduction

Predictive models for the key transport parameters in the soil gaseous phase (the soil gas
di#usion coe$cient and the soil air permeability) have until recently only been tested within
limited ranges of soil pore size distribution andsoil total porosity (Moldrup et al., ,**+). Since
volcanic ash soils (Andisols) exhibit soil physical properties that are quite di#erent fromnormal (non-volcanic) mineral soils, including
larger total porosities and higher soil water
retention (broader pore size distributions), data
for Andisols should prove highly valuable intesting the general validity of predictivemodels for the gas di#usion coe$cient (gasdi#usivity) and air permeability, both being
functions of soil air-ﬁlled porosity and soil
type. The distinctive soil physical characteristics of Andisols is typically caused by allo-ῐ12ΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ 3. ῏ ῌ,**-῍

phane, a non-crystaline and highly porous mineral. Andisols are found in all parts of Japanand cover more than +0ῌ (more than 0*,***km,) of the total land area of Japan (Adachi,+31+). For more on Andisol and allophane properties and characteristics, we refer to Henmi(+322), Shoji et al. (+33-), Iwata et al. (+33/), andSo (+333).
Gas di#usivity (Dp) controls gas transportand fate in natural soil systems where di#usive
gas transport is typically dominating compared with convective gas transport. Important examples are soil aeration (Buckingham,+3*.) and its e#ects on plant health (Osozawa etal., +33., Hasegawa, +33.), the emission of
fumigants at soil fumigation sites (Brown andRolston, +32*), the di#usion and volatilisationof organic chemicals from polluted soils(Petersen et al., +330), and the di#usion andbiodegradation of greenhouse gases such as
methane and carbon dioxide (Kruse et al., +330,
Yoshikawa and Hasegawa, ,***). One of the“rules of thumb” in soil physics is an almost
universal use of the Millington and Quirk (MQ,
+30+) equation to predict the changes in Dp with
air-ﬁlled porosity (e) in transport and fatemodels for gaseous compounds in soil. Since
the MQ (+30+) equation is (i) originally derived
only for a soil medium with randomly dis
tributed particles of uniform size (most resembling a coarse sandy soil), (ii) derived forthe case of permeability rather than di#usivity, (iii) not taking into account any e#ects
of soil pore size distribution, and (iv) not
validated against undisturbed soil data
representing a broad range of soil texture, thealmost universal use of the MQ (+30+) equation
to predict Dp (e) does not seem warranted.
Air permeability (ka) as a function of air-ﬁlled
porosity (e) governs convective (pressure gradient induced) air and gas transport in soil. The
increased use of soil venting (soil vapor extraction, SVE) systems during vadose zone
remediation at polluted soil sites has created arenewed interest in ka and its dependency onsoil type and e, since ka typically will be thegoverning parameter for SVE system performance and clean-up e$ciency (Poulsen et al.,+332). Also, air permeability is an easily andrapidly measured parameter compared to for
example gas di#usivity (Iversen et al., ,**+),and ka alone or in combination with Dp provides valuable information about soil structure
and pore connectivity (Ball, +32+, Moldrup etal., ,**+, ,**- a). At present, however, no reliable models to predict ka as a function of e inundisturbed soil across soil types are available(Moldrup et al., +332, ,**+, ,**- a).
The objective of this paper is to review, connect, and put into perspective recent tests ofmodels for soil water retention (pore size distribution), gas di#usivity, and air permeability, as
compared with data for undisturbed volcanic
ash soils (Andisols) from three prefectures inJapan. Further details about data and model
tests can be found in Moldrup et al. (,**- a, b).
The use of combined water retention, gas di#usivity, and air permeability data to provide
valuable information about soil aeration, porecharacteristics, and soil structure is brieﬂy discussed.
,.

Materials and Methods,. + Materials
The +2 Andisols considered here represent
di#erent location, soil type, soil depth, and soil
management and cultivation, and can brieﬂy
be described as follows :+) Seven Andisols from Tsumagoi, Gunma
Prefecture, Honshu (labelled Tsumagoi +ῌ1).
The sample area is characterized by humic andﬁne-textured Andisols with typically -*ῌ/*ῌ
clay. The main crop was cabbage (Tsumagoi +ῌ/). Tsumagoi 0ῌ1 were sampled at a noncultivated ﬁeld.
,) Five Andisols from Miura, Kanagawa
Prefecture, Honshu (Miura +ῌ/). The sample
area is characterized by light-clay Andisols.
The main crop was Japanese radish. Miura .ῌ
/ were sampled at a ﬁeld where soil layer exchange treatment had taken place -ῌ. years
previous to sampling.

῔῕ : Review of Recent Progress in Predicting Gas Transport Parameters for Undisturbed Andisols : Campbell b Dependent Models for Gas Di#usivity and Air Permeability 13

Fig. +(a) The Campbell water retention model (Eq. [+]) ﬁtted to measured data for . Andisols. pF
῍Log (ῌycm H, O)῍Log (ῌyPa)ῌ,. (b) Scatterplot comparison of predicted and measured
relative gas di#usivities (Dp/D*) for +2 Andisols (Moldrup et al, ,**- b). Test of theMillington and Quirk (+30+) model (Eq. [,] ; solid circles), and the BBC model (Eq. [-] ; open
triangles). RMSE is root mean square error of prediction.

-) Six Andisols from Kumamoto prefecture
in Kyushu (Kyushu +ῌ0). The sample area
(grasslands) were characterized by humic(Kyushu .ῌ0) and highly humic (Kyushu +ῌ-)Andisols.
,. , Measurements
Soil water retention (pore size distribution),gas di#usivity, and air permeability data were
measured at between 0 and 3 di#erent soil
matric potentials. The measurements weredone on undisturbed +** cm- soil samples in a
broad matric potential interval from ῑ+ kPa(near water saturation) to ῑ+./ MPa (wilting
point). Three closely-sampled soil cores wereused for each soil. Since variability between
samples were low, especially for soil water retention and gas di#usivity, mean values forthree samples were used in the predictivemodel tests. Soil water retention was measured following Klute (+320). Gas di#usivity
was measured as described by Osozawa (+321),
following the principles of Currie (+30*). Air
permeability was measured following the principles of Grover (+3/0).

-.

Modelling Approaches and Results-. + Soil-Water Retention
We applied the Campbell (+31.) soil water
retention (pore size distribution) model,yῌyeῒ῍qῌqs῎ῑbῌ
῏+ῐwhere y is soil matric potential (Pa), ye is soil
matric potential at air entry, q is volumetricsoil water content, qs is volumetric soil watercontent at water saturation, and b (ΐ*) is theCampbell pore size distribution parameter, corresponding to the slope of the soil water retention curve in a Log (q)-Log (ῑy) coordinate
system.
The Campbell model (Eq. [+]) provided anear-perfect ﬁt to the retention data for all +2
Andisols (coe$cient of regression, r,ΐ*.33)
from ῑ+ kPa to ῑ+./ MPa (Moldrup et al., ,**b). Values of Campbell b ranged from 2.(Miura ,) to .*.2 (Kyushu ,). Examples of the ﬁt
by the Campbell (+31.) retention model to measured data are shown in Fig. + a.
Because of the excellent ﬁt by the simple
Campell (+31.) model, more complicated (multiparameter) retention models like the Mualemvan Genuchten (van Genuchten, +32*) model
were not considered and, consequently, predic-

14  3.  ,**-

tive gas di#usivity models linked to theMualem-van Genuchten retention model (e.g. :Freijer, +33.) were also not considered. However, we recognize that bimodal water retention
models based on the Mualem-van Genuchten
or similar unimodal retention models can provide even more accurate ﬁt to soil-water retention data for Andisols, from water saturation to
wilting point (Abenney-Mickson et al., +330).
Bimodal water retention models may therefore
be highly useful to derive further information
on pore size distribution and pore characteristics and to predict unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and water and solute transport inAndisols.
-. , Gas Di#usivity
We tested the Millington and Quirk (+30+)
model,
DpῌD*e-.--ῌ,
,
where Dp is the gas di#usion coe$cient in soil,
D* is the gas di#usion coe$cient in air, e is thesoil air-ﬁlled porosity (volumetric soil air content), and  is the soil total porosity. Furthermore, we tested two recent and soil-type(Campbell b) dependent gas di#usivity models
for undisturbed soil. The ﬁrst is the BBC[Buckingham(+3*.)-Burdine(+3/-)-Campbell(+31.)] model suggested by Moldrup et al.
(+333),
DpῌD*,eῌ,-ῌb
-
and the second is the soil macro-porosity dependent model by Moldrup et al. (,***),
DpῌD*,e +* kPa-*.*.e +* kPaῌeῌe +* kPa,-ῌb
.
where e +* kPa is the soil air-ﬁlled porosity at+* kPa of soil matric potential, corresponding
to the volumetric content of soil pores with anequivalent diameter -* mm, and is labeled thesoil macro-porosity. Moldrup et al. (,***) foundthat the ﬁrst term in Eq. [.] (marked by brackets) well described gas di#usivity at +* kPa
for +.. undisturbed soil from Europe, and thatthe entire equation well predicted Dp as a function of e for further ,+ undisturbed European
soils where complete Dp (e) data sets were available. The BBC model (Eq. [-]) gave equally

accurate predictions as Eq. [.], while the MQ(+30+) model (Eq. [,]) gave poor predictions
except for sandy soils.
When tested against the Dp (e) data for the +2
Andisols, the two Campbell b dependent models gave similar and good predictions, while
the MQ (+30+) model markedly under-estimatedthe measured Dp (e) data for all +2 Andisols(Moldrup et al., ,**- b). Figure + b shows acomparison between the performance of the
BBC model, Eq. [-], and the MQ (+30+) model,
Eq. [,], tested against the data for the +2
Andisols. The test results emphasize that thesoil type independent Millington and Quirk(+30+) Dp (e) model cannot provide realistic predictions of gas di#usivity in Andisols. Instead,any of the two soil type dependent (Campbell bdependent) Dp (e) models can be used to obtainrealistic predictions for di#usive gas transport
in undisturbed Andisols.
-. - Air Permeability
We applied a general power function model
for ka (e) with reference point not at air saturation but instead at +* kPa in order to makethe ka (e) model analogous to the above presented gas di#usivity models. Thus,kaka +* kPaeῌe +* kPah/where h is a tortuosity/connectivity parameter. Based on Moldrup et al. (+332, ,**+), we
tested Eq. [/] with (i) h+(b/,*), and (ii) h+(b/.). The original model by Moldrup et al.
(+332) with h+(b/.) did a poor job in predicting ka (e) for the Japanese Andisols, both inmore dry soil (matric potential below +* kPa)
and in more wet soil (matric potential above+* kPa). This is in agreement with the previous
model tests against European soils, where Eq.
[/] with h+(b/.) only could predict ka (e)well for sandy soils with b values below 0(compared to b values always exceeding 2 for
the Japanese Andisols).
The recent model by Moldrup et al. (,**+)
with h+(b/,*) had previously tested wellfor European soils with clay contents between++ and .0῍ and, also, tested well for the Japanese Andisols under wet and medium soil mois-ῑῒ : Review of Recent Progress in Predicting Gas Transport Parameters for Undisturbed Andisols : Campbell b Dependent Models for Gas Di#usivity and Air Permeability 15

Fig. ,.

(a) Scatterplot comparison of predicted (Eq. [/]) and measured air permeabilities for theAndisols (Moldrup et al., ,**- a). (b) Comparison of air permeability (ka) and gas di#usivity(Dp/D*) for Tsumagoi 0. The solid line is the predictive ka (e) model (Eq. [/] with h῍+ῌ(b/,*)).

ture conditions (between ῍+ kPa and ῍+**kPa) (Moldrup et al., ,**-a). However, for thehighly-structured Tsumagoi soils, ka steeply increased with increasing e under dry soil conditions, suggesting the sudden occurrence of ahighly connected air-ﬁlled pore network underdrainage. Because of this, the ka (e) model withh῎+ῌ(b/,*) markedly under-predicted themeasured ka (e) for y῏῍-** kPa (pFῐ-./) forsome soils, see Fig. , a.
The sudden increase in ka at dry conditions isshown for Tsumagoi 0 in Fig. , b. Since thesudden increase in the gas transport parameterand the subsequent under-prediction by asimple power function model is not observed
for gas di#usivity (example given in Fig. , b),
the results clearly imply that ka is markedly
inﬂuenced by soil structure while Dp is muchless a#ected. The solid line in Fig. , b is thepredictive ka (e) model (Eq. [/] with h῎+ῌ(b/,*)). Note that in Moldrup et al. (,**- a), a
di#erent (soil type independent) ka (e) model iscompared with the same data.
To describe ka (e) across the entire matricpotential range, a two- or three-region ka (e)model would be needed to better describe ka inthe dry region (to include soil structure, especially connectivity, e#ects) and in the wet
region (to include e#ects of pore blocking byinterconnected water ﬁlms), cf. Fig. , b. Recently, a two-region probability-law model forka (e) that can accurately describe ka (e) data forwell-structured Andisols (e.g., the Tsumagoi
Andisol shown in Fig. , b) within a broad
matric potential range has been developed(Poulsen et al., ,**-).
At present, measurements of ka at at least
one soil matric potential (suggested to be ῍+*kPa) or preferably more are needed to apply
the predictive model [Eq. [/] with h῎+ῌ(b/,*)]
in the wet to medium soil moisture range.
Without any ka measurements, ka (e) can at present not be realistically predicted in undisturbed soils including Andisols.
-. . Gaseous Phase Fingerprints
The data for the Japanese Andisols, measured by Yoshikawa, are unique because soil
water retention, soil gas di#usivity, and soil air
permeability were measured on the same, undisturbed soil samples at as many as 3 di#erent
soil matric potentials. This enabled us to develop and test new soil indexes based on the gastransport parameters (Dp and ka). In Moldrup etal. (,**- a, b), two such indexes are suggested :+) A soil aeration index based on measurements of Dp and soil water retention on thesame undisturbed soil samples at a minimumof 0ῌ1 di#erent soil matric potentials. This  3.

16

so-called Gas Di#usion Fingerprint (GDF) plot
provided the ability to clearly distinguish between soils with low and high aeration potential and, thus, to identify soils with a highpossibility of developing plant diseases related
to poor soil aeration.
,) A soil structure index based on measurements of ka, Dp, and soil water retention on thesame undisturbed soil samples at a minimumof 0ῌ1 di#erent soil matric potentials. This incombination with the Millington and Quirk(+30.) convective-di#usive ﬂuid ﬂow model enabled the development of a simple Soil Structure Fingerprint (SSF) plot that clearly showed
the e#ects of soil management and organic
matter content on soil structure.
Such soil gaseous phase ﬁngerprints may bevaluable in evaluating soil management andcultivation e#ects on pore network and soil
and plant health. Also, combined measurements of water retention, gas di#usivity, andair permeability may provide new information
about inactive pore space for gas transport(Schjonning et al., ,**,).
..

Conclusions+) Soil water retention (pore size distribution) from + kPa to +./ MPa of soil matricpotential was well described by the simple
Campbell (+31.) retention model for all +2 undisturbed Andisols. Although the use of multiparameter, bimodal retention models seems
promising for describing pore size distribution
and hydraulic characteristics for Andisols (e.g.
: Abenney-Mickson et al., +330), multi-parameter retention models are likely not necessary in
relation to developing accurate predictivemodels for gas di#usivity.
,) Gas di#usivity in the same matric potential range (+ kPa to +./ MPa) was accurately
predicted by two recent soil type (Campbell b)
dependent models, while the popular Millington and Quirk (+30+) model markedly underpredicted Dp (e) for all +2 Andisols (Moldrup etal., ,**- b). The Millington and Quirk (+30+)
model is not realistic for predicting gas,**-

di#usivity in undisturbed Andisols. Instead,the Campbell b dependent Dp (e) models arerecommended for use in future gas transportand fate models for Andisols.
-) Air permeability in wet to medium moist
soil (+ to +** kPa of matric potential) was
well predicted by a simple Campbell b dependent model, provided that ka at +* kPa ofmatric potential was measured (Moldrup et al.,,**- a). Since + to +** kPa of matric potential is a realistic range for soil venting systems,
the b dependent ka (e) model seems useful insimulating and designing soil venting systems.
Predictions of ka (e) also in more dry Andisol
will require two- or multi-region models for ka(e) together with additional ka measurements.
.) Soil physics has traditionally been dominated by soil water physics. The combined usedof pore size distribution, gas di#usivity, and air
permeability data can give us new information
on soil management and cultivation e#ects on
soil aeration, soil structure and soil pore characteristics and pore networks and can open up
for new and exiting ﬁndings within the area ofsoil air physics.
References
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(+330) : Evaluation of two soil water retention
models for the prediction of hydraulic conductivity of Daisen Kuroboku (volcanic ash) soil.
Soil Phys. Cond. Plant Growth Jpn. 1. : +1ῌ,1.
Adachi, T. (+31+) : On the area and humus content
of Ando soils in Japan. Jpn. J. of Soil Sci. Plant
Nutri. ., : -*3ῌ-+-.
Ball, B.C. (+32+) : Modelling of soil pores as tubes
using gas permeabilities, gas di#usivities, andwater release. J. Soil. Sci. -, : .0/ῌ.2+.
Brown, B.D. and Rolston, D.E. (+32*) : Transport
and transformation of methyl bromide in soils.
Soil Sci. +-* : 02ῌ1/.
Burdine, N.T. (+3/-) : Relative permeability calculations from pore size distribution data. TransAIME +32 : 1+ῌ11.
Buckingham, E. (+3*.) : Contributions to ourknowledge of the aeration of soils. USDA Bur.
Soil Bull. No. ,/.
Campbell, G.S. (+31.) : A simple method for
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moisture retention data. Soil Sci. ++1 : -++ῌ-+..
Currie, J.A. (+30*) : Gaseous di#usion in porous
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Freijer, J.I. (+33.) : Calibration of jointed tube
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Soil Sci. +00 : 31ῌ+*0.
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and SSSA, Madison, WI.
Kruse, C.W., Moldrup, P. and Iversen, N. (+330) :Modeling di#usion and reaction in soils : II.
Atmospheric methane di#usion and consumption in a forest soil. Soil Sci. +0+ : -//ῌ-0/.
Millington, R. J. and Quirk, J.M. (+30+) : Permeability of porous solids. Trans. Faraday Soc. /1 :+,**ῌ+,*1.
Millington, R. J. and Quirk, J.M. (+30.) : Formation
factor and permeability equations. Nature(London) ,*, : +.-ῌ+./.
Moldrup, P., Olesen, T., Komatsu, T., Schjonning, P.
and Rolston, D.E. (,**+) : Tortuosity, di#usivity, and permeability in the soil liquid andgaseous phases. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 0/ : 0+-ῌ0,-.
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Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 0. : 3.ῌ+**.
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in undisturbed soil. Soil Sci. +0. : /.,ῌ//+.

Moldrup, P., Poulsen, T.G., Schjonning, P., Olesen,
T. and Yamaguchi T. (+332) : Gas permeability
in undisturbed volcanic ash soils : Measurements and predictive models. Soil Sci. +0- :+2*ῌ+23.
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and Rolston, D.E. (,**-a) : Air permeability inundisturbed volcanic ash soils : Predictivemodel test and soil structure ﬁngerprint. Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. J. 01 : -,ῌ.*.
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and Rolston, D.E. (,**-b) : Gas di#usivity inundisturbed volcanic ash soils : Test of soilwater-characteristic based prediction models.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 01 : .+ῌ/+.
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Cond. Plant Growth Jpn. // : /-ῌ0*.
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Nutr. .* : ../ῌ.//.
Petersen, L.W., El-Farhan, Y.H., Moldrup, P.,
Rolston, D.E. and Yamaguchi, T. (+330) : Transient di#usion, adsorption, and emission ofvolatile organic vapors in soils with ﬂuctuating low water contents. J. Environ. Qual. ,/ :+*/.ῌ+*0-.
Poulsen, T.G., Moldrup, P., Schjonning, P.,
Massmann, J.W. and Hansen., J.A. (+332) : Gas
permeability and di#usivity in undisturbed
soil : Soil vapor extraction implications. ASCE
J. Environ. Eng. +,. : 313ῌ320.
Poulsen, T.G., Moldrup, P., Yoshikawa, S. andKomatsu, T. (,**-) : Two-region probability
law model for describing air and water
permeabilities in unsaturated, structured soils(Soil Sci., in preparation).
Rolston, D.E. and Moldrup, P. (,**,) : Chapter ..-.
Gas di#usivity. In : Dane, J.H. and G.C. Topp.
(ed.). Methods of Soil Analysis. Part .. SSSA
Book Ser /. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI pp.
+++-ῌ++-3.
Schjonning, P., Munkholm, L. J., Moldrup, P. andJacobsen, O.H. (,**,) : Modelling soil porecharacteristics from measurements of air exchange : the long-term e#ects of fertilizationand crop rotation. European J. Soil Sci. /- : --+ῌ--3.
Shoji, S., Nanzyo, M. and Dahlgren, R.(+33-) : Volcanic ash soils : genesis, properties and utilization. Developments in Soil Sci. Vol. ,+. Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
So, E.ῌK. (+333) : Inﬂuence of allophane content on

AB=¶/f · 3. ¸ C,**-E

18

the physical properties for volcanic cohesive
soil. Soil Phys. Cond. Plant Growth Jpn. 2, :.-῎/..
van Genuchten, M. Th. (+32*) : A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivityof unsaturated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. .. :23,῎232.

Yoshikawa, S. and Hasegawa, S. (,***) : Diurnaland seasonal changes in CO, concentrationand ﬂux in an andisol and simulation based onchanges in CO, production rate and gas
di#usivity. Japan International ResearchCenter for Agricultural Sciences, JARQ -. : +῎+-.



:!"#$%&'()
 Campbell-b+,-./* '(**ῌ  ***ῌ *ῌ *ῌ *****  !
** "#$%&%'()*+*** ,-./ )*!
**** 0123456

0

1

789:; <7=>?@AB C4DE FGHI=JKLMNO+PQFRSTU"=)*VWXY; Z[=\]V^_`a=bcTd <7= - G=e=Af=ghi` +2 =>?
@ABSjIFkHI; ABl1mnopq r+ kPasr+./ MPa t=uvwfxy:Campbell C+31.E Fz{; z|}~STXb`d l1mnopqtb=:; , G=_HAB+ CCampbell-b E Fz{; z|PQb`d, G=:; ῌ BBC CBuckingham-Burdine-CampbellE X; ῍ lmnpo4 Cr+* kPa FkTJFSTE bcTd ; |IHT Millington and
Quirk C+30+E b:;  : +2 =>?@ABSjIb|`d $A

B Cl1mnopqr+sr+** kPaE =J ka :; Q`l1mnopqr+* kPa b= ka V[HTXFz{;¡h Campbell-b Fz{; z|PQb`d ¢8X_

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²³´µ< : ,**- ´ 0 µ 0 <²/´µ< : ,**- ´ 2 µ 1 <¼e : Review of Recent Progress in Predicting Gas Transport Parameters for Undisturbed Andisols : Campbell b Dependent Models for Gas Di#usivity and Air Permeability 19

Dr. Moldrup  : 

ῌ     !"#$% &'Moldrup :() &*+,- .
 "/ 0ῌ
1 
123 4' ,&, 516
7 867 9:;< bimodal 23=, ῌ
40 &>' : 0$&'
Moldrup :67 ῌ
?@: ,ABCDE(F:G- ( HIAndisol (J/<&>' Andisol 67 K!
L.
& >'   ῌM   ῌNO5
 pF ,.* 51 4F"P0 
 - Q'-( 67 pF,.* 51&R, ("&%#" '  51+67 STUVSF" 1+<W4(+ 1+W W$,#JX!
(Y",Z(.  51+67 [\1]"$# .< *+#$("& %#" ' :U V ^ _ finger print `GDFa  b c finger
print %%/&<dG:e,#J""'
Moldrup :fgh &; ijklmVnopqrEs(P&UV^_ # ' --(P&UV^_ . nopqrE(UV^_Di 5'(^_ D* (t>( `DiῌD*a ( *A+
(u ' v wijklmVnopqrEx+* cm H, O ῌ x-* cm H, O ῍ .
 )nG

opqrE( air ﬁlled pore  e+, e,, P&UV^_ D+, D, G ' ,# ynopqrE(
P&^_z air ﬁlled pore z(t>({`D,xD+aῌ`e,xe+a| }G ' -( ijklm
VnopqrE8G 4 `-67x+* cm H, O
&x-* cm H, O 4a $* UV^_~+, ῌ'O:&=,#" '  " !nopqrE4(, air ﬁlled
pore $* UV^_~+,#" &=,#"' v, ($" Andisol "-&`x+* cm H, Oa &.6$/(0" ' " airF " (.
ﬁlled pore , 1^_
J2(.
"- =G' !< Andisol :&.6$/(0 G"^_3"( " (. 'K% 45(u67 Andisol 8
air ﬁlled pore ,1^_"F]: - :" (.
 ' - :" (9
( - :+ 9;5<,#"="#" ' ->
6"# K?CDE$"#*G (:< UV^_@¡ air ﬁlled pore dG"&$&A, %%BC(.<-¢(£TUV^_ finger print %%(.
' -¤D¥&FE¦8,G§#"¨&JF"' ¥& -ῌbc ,#+30. G Millinton and Quirk =,H©ªCDE
?,#" «§"' ,&, -¬IῌbcF  J + ­®¯pDlmV
fg°K@±#" ' L . H²M³´ "67 -NO,ῌ´<P,' -¬I&BC#" J µQG - (¶¢R:·,3 - µQGT ("]  : J -  ¬ I    # @ ¸ 9  7  - Andisol " F 51=,
'J(. - F - (
`S¹ : º¢ »}a/J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
\]
No. 3., p. ,+,-+ -,**-.



   *Trace gas emissions from soil ecosystems and theirimplications in the atmospheric environment
Kazuyuki YAGI** National Institute for Agro-Environmental Science, -ῌ+ῌ- Kannondai, Tsukuba -*/ῌ20*.

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Change & Technical Paper -*, International Soil
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 z-  {|  {}9A"~#V Q+*

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temperaturey! #  Högberg et al. 8,**+;  {Nature, -30 : /1*ῌ/1,.

sensitivity

of

soil

respiration.

/ }9&%oO(HI#  J

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& Hanson et al. 8,***;  }9&HI#{}between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmos-

9 &x + p V 

phere. In Soils and the greenhouse e#ect. ed. A.F.

O'() #Bouwman, pp. 0+ῌ+,1. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.,/ῌ ῎ ῍ ῏<`7*&  ABCDEF

79:@ABCDEFG&x 
 KL ABCDEF 7f%fGreat Britain.
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oxide from agricultural soils. Nutrient Cycling inAgroecosystems, .0 : /-ῌ1*.
FAO and IFA, (,**+) : Global estimation of gaseous'#Q[MN%$& A" % CO,

emissions of NH-, NO and N,O from agricultural+" Q, O-  .

land. FAO and IFA, Rome.

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uv# I&  ¡"#  R¢

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67ῌ879'-.45:;<=>ῌ?
ῌ@ABCDEFG"H'(IJ)*K" LMNO pp. 11ῌ22.
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UVW ,*** :Z[,X.

45EY-\ S]^_/`a87.bcdeEfg.87"hi" 1+ : //.ῌ/0..
jklm : ,**- l 0 m . 
jnlm : ,**- l 2 m ,3  : 34CDnῌ

39+ W XY 2@/ ZIK[\ ](

^_`a bcd(/:: CO,    !"#$%&'

(#)*+ ,  CO, -#.(/ 0  1 2345 67&'!"89:+;<=>&'ABCD

?@

EF(

CO, #

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(#)*+ (+/G*)*/ H IJ

efge334hi"j k&'34l89mn"
jo+EF(hip+efge3 1@](0@ ('/
 :
q

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34hi"j k&'34l89mn"

jo+EF1@ ('#(*K#A/ A uv
wxyz{|2}(U ~p+  :G?*K#+LMM (@K## NOPGQ
T(U

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@

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+p ('2RM(/J :  J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
23>v
No. 3., p. .+ .3 ,**-



CO,

O,



   *Behaviors of CO, and O, Gases in a Field Soil with a Hard Pan
Tomonori FUJIKAWA*
Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, The University of Tokyo, +ῌ+ῌ+ Yayoi,
Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo ++-ῌ20/1, Japan
Abstract
Gas concentration in the soil air is di#erent from that in atmosphere, because it is a#ected by
activity of microorganisms, gas di#usion and chemical reaction. Under the ﬁeld condition for
cultivation, large changes in soil physical properties by human operations may a#ect the gas
behavior in the soil. The objective of this study is to clear gases behaviors in the soil from ﬁeld
measurements, column experiments and simulations.
Under ﬁeld condition, CO, and O, gas concentrations in the deeper layer than the hard panchanged remarkably with seasons, whereas those concentrations in the top layer changed little.
From the column experiments, CO, gas concentrations in the top layer increased with inﬁltration,
whereas CO, gas concentrations decreased both in the other layers and in the atmosphere. Thechanges of O, gas concentrations after inﬁltrations are opposite to those of CO, gas.

Simulation

with measured gas CO, gas concentration of column experiment suggested that the activity of
microorganisms at the hard pan might be larger, and also, prevention of gas movement above thehard pan or large ﬂux of gas through the top layer might be keep CO, gas concentration low in the
top layer.

It was concluded that gas concentrations changes above and below the hard pan,because the hard pan a#ects the activity of microorganisms and gas di#usion.
Key words : soil gas, ﬁeld soil, hard pan

ABC!0Dr*C )Pyatt and Smith, +32- ;+    
 


Osozawa and Hasegawa, +33/ ; Sierra and Renault,

+332 ; Sotomayor and Rice, +333,1 S5]^Z:

 !"#$%&'( )CO, N, O

n/dstjkAB'(JKEN nud23

CH. *+, -./01 23#45!"6'(

>v45tvwAxy - '(JKz{?

789:23;<ῌ=>?@ABC!0DEF|}Az~'(_`eft9w*A:C

G 23HI 23#'(JKLMNOPAQ

*1

RFS

:$%&'(TUAVWXAY%Z[

1

ABB '(_`Az~DS\Z]^Z23# CO, '(_`:!"BVaD O, '(_`:!"BVbS

23#'(JK: 23d 23 -c54AK CO, '(A Az~D( 2  A¡¢N£p

*C- '(_`!0d_`efgH: ]^x¤5- CO, O, '(AL : (dhi *Cjk lm 2;<gI nopq/* ©ª!!«¬­®]^® ¯++-ῌ20/1
 : 23'( ¬23 °±²-¥¦Z0S-§5¨? '(



42

   
 ! ² 3. ¼ 9,**-:

  CO, O, !ῌῌ " #$%&$'() ῌ *+,-.ῌ /$M }~% \] I7 $!
#%&Q }~&Y ,. T
*]I +I$}~I7

0123/45$678 9,***: ;8,, 

 9,**-: $<=%

'(i#o7,  CO, O, 

,***

 

  *,* cm _  &,-z67 e b z ,* cm ¡. ¢£'( CO, O,   $%
&; >? !

!&CO,  ¤I O,  /UI7 e b;¥0 $@%&$'()$6

 CO, 7

/©

,+ )AB

CDEFGK

$M+332  / S 9TU / S): V

WXY+332  +* S 9+* S): 

WXY+333  - S 9- S):

Q¦ I7 e b§¨©

+0῍ O, §,῍ 9+* S)  2* cm: z67

>JK 
H(&I J; L !

7N OPQR$^ . a% $ª 1b *,* cm «$2¬3­ I AI ebT 

®;¥Q¦ %&67 4 t5Y+* S) e bT

92Z:  ¯ ®;¥¨ CO,   / O, - [ )$ e bTi#o7   p q67 >)$67( \]$^ +  _r  i#  q t6JKῌ ;7`^$^ , a% b cde b  

¥ % AIf Lgh! "`I7

I&67 9^ /1: _7 

i#j  CO, O,   $m&nmo  p q!kl
9q: r p«$2¬3­ yp   7 kl$° +* S 1b ±¦67 9^ 2: ¯ )$M e b

 9gh!  st$ u$vwx: 

T +* S)

kl$m&nmoypz /¦67²« ³´&I ¨q&t6;

  pit %{I7|}~$&I}~I7 '7}~$^ - a% (
Rolston 9+320: $n I / S)7) 52$v7  ( ῌ+Fig .+

CO,  ¨¦ O,  ! ¤µ¶o o  qLt6&8·¤%&$9¸I7 Roch-ette and Gregorich 9+303: ; Joshi et al. 9+33+:¹º&«»% ²: ³´&I 1;¡ )\]Locations of each research area in the
ﬁeld.

ῌ,

`^

Fig. ,

Soil proﬁles.

 :  !"#ῌῌ-

Fig. /%&

43

Fig. -

Schematic diagrams of gas sampling pipes.

Fig. .

Gas concentration distributions in the ﬁeld.

ῌῌ.

ῌῌ/

CO, $ O,

The distribution of the number ofmicroorganisms.

ῌῌ0Fig. 0

Soil temperature proﬁles.

  3.  -,**-344

 CO, !" 

41:5n"vwab , mm xyz5:?@A{|"ab./01c #$./01:} s *t#$%&'() *+, -./012,341567!89:;<!:=>?@ABC:DEF"+* cm -~r,3 D ,/t/1 cm -s,3 'c +.**
Mgῌm- +* cmt,/ cm -*+,3 'c +.,/ Mgῌm- "-++ c +, DE c

BCG?@AHI:J 3 KL" MNOP
QR:ST UVW

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ῌ2
Fig. 2ab

ghijk@l:G#$;dopq$r, s *t+* cm u _`

,**-



abc#$;defm CO, O,- 
-+ PQRXYZ:[\]^'_` "The distributions
coe$cient.

mmῌh   +* c s +*t+/ mm !;" \RQ]jcru

56

Solid, liquid and gaseous phases of soil.

ῌ3

56
of

 , c +,t+-gas

di#usionFig. 3?@ABCJ

Schematic diagram of apparatus ofcolumn experiments.

·¸¹º : 56"%.»XYZ/ CO, 3* cm 



O, /¼^

45& KL '(>T_B @/bc d. N, /<=

 
-+, XY

Z/ CO,/ ;

 +1  CO, O,  !"# +* $% & '( *)+* cm *&+, *-./0 12/3456( 7+*)-, 

KL*&  /j;XYZ/"jk.@ ;A_B @* <,/ cm8 *9: CO, ;<= O, ;XYFGH >?%.@:_j 78  _/j";AB  ,* cm 4( 7" XY  /9

(8 *&&CDE*-B FGHIJ*-,+   KL*"MNIJ 7[?IJ8 &</IJ ]¡4dR

OP 7# ++8 FGHIJ/!& Q
'(RS56(*&KL/"TUK 5@_B <¢/IJ

 ,* "IJ *  * - 0 +, +. / / £ ¤6(/VWXYZ/ CO, ;<= O,

 +.+)+.- mmῌh * +, ¦*-. IJ

;>?%.@ ;AB A 56([H§/¨©ª«¬j"# +, $%*&KL/!;\+]T^%.

&¥

/FG

-,, 

/0 FGHIJ*&CDE¤/ CO, O, j"# +- _B 56(4(R`.KL FGH/$% ­4 CO, &<®S56([

!/a4/bc d ῌ KL*&\*&>?/0 '(*&<= O, 

ef g;hi%./0 FGHXY/ef g&

& CO,  &0/¯\"$ < 7+,

\jkl 4(/efmn;o_.@

 ῍ KL*&pqrg/st];+]T Lu

Z8 ®S56([*&<=/0 '(*&>?

/ CO, /j& ,* cm 75

vwE_pqx^ ;fyd4.@  ῎ FGH

6(8 *°+ ,.3ῌ  / cm 7'(8 *°+ *..0ῌ *XY&?"-B . <RS'(/

z{|}~*d4 /?x^; d4./0 KL*

j/bc d '(/, />?.pqx&? /  ? A/fyd4.@^ /hi;*-. 4. ­4'(/_; ?/;pqx^;±T_ XYZ*²f CO, &.".& 4FGH"4IJ

XYZ³´ '(/ CO, ;<= µ+,;*-.

Z/ CO, ;>? . E 56

E 56([/ CO, O, /

ῌ+*Fig. +*([/ CO, j/bc d /¶fy

FGHXYZ/!

Gas concentration distributions in the column.

46

  3.  ,**-U?@)VW<2 34567>XYZ[\<Boeckx and Cleemput, +330  CO, 

% VW)]^@+_2 !"#$%c<de>?@)VW<% f ab. 

,**-,-).+/)012 3456789):;<=2 CO, >?
@ABCDEAFG)H/IJ% ABCDEAFG
KL2 ,-MNOPQ)RS= CO, >Tῌ++34567d>Fig. ++

Comparison of gas concentrations
between in column and in ﬁeld soils.

ῌ+Fig. +-c<=SSghYi#2 jkl2 mnop
TU?@Hqrs)tu+/ vw_2 ,-MNOPQLxgI%.+ 

&'()*+`- ab

e

y,C
yC
zr{D
yt
yz,

|L
yC
r
D y,C
z {
yt
e
e yz,

ῌ+,
Fig. +,

AFG?@

Changes of suction with time.

}~g>?@Changes of gas concentrations after inﬁltration.

¸¹º» : Z%)* e  C  r 



CO, 8 O,¼

47

Z[fg 3hY ij3k!&/8l D   t  z  e Dm  lm   3  nopq3W

  !"#$%&# r  '

XY R#Z[\]1rst3uj8(%) *+,-%./(0# 12 3 4 2 3vw!"8xem" y/ 

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>

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3WX&/8 Z[ \]3k!&/8%) * CDEFGCHI%.
/(0# z%L +. ;b> O ,-) *#rῌe  Z[ +.-{+*|. cm-ῌcm-ῌs y., 

} [ +./{+*|0 cm-ῌcm-ῌs S /~+* cm

L +. CDEFGCHIMN%O L +. ;a> CHI $lm !"$% +ῌ+* 8*+rῌeP* QRS



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

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V

   3(&TU  2 J0+

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 2



vw[8) *#R#   r VJ  Gr #%#WX(2 38 
[

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%)

,-$ + JSk!&%+  CO,   3W8&$
YJ*+,-%0# z%L +. ;c> *# r ῌ e  Z[ +.0 { +*|.

O ,-)cm ῌcm ῌs y } [ +./{+*|0 cm-ῌcm-ῌs S-- *.3/  ) JS W ;zP*>  CO,  3 * # 
ij*.3/  + [/῍ 3W8!"/8% ,-   8l(SJYz*#/"m ,-&#  G

 *./~,0 mgC g|+ h|+ S Sakamoto and Oba;+33.> 3

%&+

*#

*.-~+.+

mgC g|+ h|+ r Ross and Tate ;+33-> 3¡ %&+ *#

*.+~+.2 mgC g|+ h|+ 8&$

0# CDEFGCHIW8  %)*#3 $8&MN%** ¢lm*!3h&8xem" *l*  2 vw£¤!¥X(&  ¦§s%"ml# 3//"R$m"#MN%R88¨_ J(

ῌ ©T

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 *# R#   [z&%+­8®¯V*(& °*+ Z[JSª&%
@JSWXYV%/83l0#
῍  MN ±²' CO, O,V ª!J0+«(/83l0

CDEFGCHIMN# ³ª!   V 1V' 

Simulated CO, gas concentrations.

´µῌ ῌ (¶ Vlm·"/83

ῌ+.
Fig. +.

tu   3.  q,**-r

48



sonal changes of carbon dioxide concentrationῌ   

and ﬂux in an andisol, Soil Sci., // : //῎0,.

 !"#$%& '( )*Pyatt, D.G. and Smith, K.A. (+32-) : Water and oxygen+ !",-./0123456784

regime of four soil types at Newcastle Forest,/0 97:; CO, !",-3!",-5<=
/>?@A;4.BC>
῍ .DE84/0  (F*south Scotland, J. Soil Sci., -. : .0/῎.2,.
Rochette, P and Gregorich, E.G (+332) : Dynamics ofsoil microbial biomass C, soluble organic C and!"#$GH.IJ8K !",-BL.

CO,, evolution after three years of manure appli-

1MNIJ84.BC>

cation, Can. J. Soil Sci., 12 : ,2-῎,3*.

) OP QRS? T( U5VW 

XY:; /!

"#$GH Z[ + 1M\!"GH. ]^!"VH_ /`\ab5cd?C5ef8ῌ ῏ ῎ ῍
Boeckx, P. and van Cleemput (+330) : Methane oxidation in a neutral landﬁll cover soil : Inﬂuence ofmoisture content, temperature and nitrogenturn over, J. Environ. Qual., ,/ : +12῎+2-.

ghijῌkῌlῌmnop q,**-r : 5s8

tuv

CO, O, !"VHwk8xy zt{| ,,/ : +++῎++2.
ghijῌkῌlῌw

Rolston, D.E. (+320) : Gas Flax, Klute, A. ed., Methodof soil analysis, Part +, No. 3, Am. Soc. Agron. :pp. ++*-῎++*3.
Ross, D. J. and Tate, K.R. (+33-) : Microbial C and N,
and respiratory activity, in litter and soil of asouthern beech (Nothofagus) forest : distribution and properties, Soil Biol. Biochem., ,/ (.) :.11῎.2-.
Sakamoto, K. and Oba, Y. (+33.) : E#ect of fungal tobacterial biomass ratio on the relationship between CO, evolution and total soil microbial biomass, Biol. Fertil. Soils, +1 : -3῎...
Sierra, J. and Renault, P. (+332) : Temporal pattern of}~ῌmnop q,***r : ^tu&BL CO, O, !

oxygen concentration in a hydromorphic soil,
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 0, : +-32῎+.*/.

",-BL w ? zt{| ,*2 : +3῎,2.

Sotomayor, D. and Rice, C.W. (+333) : Soil air carbon

Joshi, M., Mer, G.S., Singh, S.P. and Rawat, Y.S. (+33+) :dioxide and nitrous oxide concentrations in pro-

Seasonal pattern of total soil respiration in un-ﬁles under tallgrass prairie and cultivation, J.

saturated and disturbed ecosystem of Central

Environ. Qual., ,2 : 12.῎13-.

Himalaya, Biol. Fertil. Soils, ++ : ,01῎,1,.
Osozawa, S. and Hasegawa, S. (+33/) : Diel and sea- : ,**-  /  ,2  : ,**-  3  . 

56º» :

/z>{|>u_ CO,  O, ¼G

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

 2**

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,-. 2** /!0

49

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 */1>



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 FG 2/T>"V# ?8). @ 'A B 27,/~UId,%C ' D?.-.#T  ,/TY>"VK>/L"#

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*(

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:

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
'oNo. 3., p. /+/0 ,**- ..    *Discussion in the ..th Symposium on Soil Ecosystem
and Gases behavior in Soil
Hisayoshi INOUE** National Agricultural Research Center for Western Region, Ikano-cho ,/1/,
Zentsuji, Kagawa 10/ῌ**/-, Japan,**,  ++  ,- .. 

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Prof. Rolston ΐῑ῏῍ῌ῎ῐ῔ῒb>  ,dV Parlange @ >¡ ῌ e:B Phillips-DeVries GA῔῕ :N2$-OP#QR#$ S$%&T'=t_`¢)^_B> - ,UVA(&P#4%WXBYZ

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Acetylene (C,H,) inhibition technique was used tomeasure denitriﬁcation N loss from lowland rice ﬁeld  !"#$ῌ%&in Thailand on the observation that in the presenceof C,H, concentrations ranging from *.- to +.,῍ (vol/(b)cdefvol) gaseous N loss appeared exclusively as N,O.

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Total denitriﬁcation N loss, emitted as N,O®N, form(b).jkl65 im/ 0_mnJop

at the C,H, treated site, was calculated to be +.231

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In contrast, N loss in the form of N,O at the control@{)J7  X 96:; <|C<}LJ%site was +.0*3 kg-N/ha and *.,, for these periods, : =>op 1s t 5 8s 1s ~respectively.

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High proportion of N,O in the ratio of

N,O to N,O®N, might be attributed to the acidityof the soil and the relatively lower soil tempera-'()*+, -./0

ture because of ponding water.

The observation

revealed that whether ponding water is present or?cdef  @absent was a major controlling factor for N,O ﬂux as

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ponding water on the soil surface greatly suppressed\7P :  C@&'56;6the emissions of highly soluble N,O, while very highF;CDE[#@-Y;7 G65 ABH

peaks of N,O were observed during absence of pond-@  N% !"- +** cc ?/

ing water.

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N,O emissions were highly a#ected by

NO--N concentration in the reduced *ῌ,* cm plow

JK_F7layer as well as soil temperature, yielding higher N,O_8% &'@5- AB LMC emission with higher NO--N concentration and soil

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temperature.

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Journal of the Japanese Societyof
Soil Physics
October ῍ῌῌ῎

No. 3.

Contents./th Symposium, Japanese Society of Soil Physics (Second Information/Program)
Foreword ῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍T. AKAE῍ +..th Symposium, Japanese Society of Soil Physics“Gas Behavior in Soil Ecosystems and Environment ῌ A New Turn of Soil Physics ῌ”Lectures
Review of Recent Insights on Physical Behavior of Gases in Porous Media :Theoretical and experimental Investigations on Density Driven Gas Flow῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍D. E. ROLSTON, A. S. ALTEVOGT῍ Review of Recent Progress in Predicting Gas Transport Parameters for Undisturbed
Andisols : Campbell b Dependent Models for Gas Di#usivity and Air Permeability῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍P. MOLDRUP, S. YOSHIKAWA (OSOZAWA), T. KOMATSU (YAMAGUCHI),
T. OLESEN and D. E. ROLSTON῍++
Trace gas emissions from soil ecosystems and their implications in the atmosphericenvironment ῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍K. YAGI῍,+
My Research
A research trend of greenhouse gaseous emission from soils
ῌ Carbon cycling, N, O and CH. ﬂux in upland ﬁelds and forests ῌ ῍T. SAWAMOTO῍-Behaviors of CO, and O, Gases in a Field Soil with a Hard Pan ῍῍῍῍῍T. FUJIKAWA῍.+
Miscellaneous
Discussion in the ..th Symposium on Soil Ecosystem and Gases behavior in Soil῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍H. INOUE῍/+
Abstract of Poster session ῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍/1Readers’ column ῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍A. ISHIHARA῍0+Book Review ῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍M. NAKANO῍0Announcements ῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍0/Editor’s Postscript ῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍῍1,Japanese Society of Soil Physics
Department of Environmental Management Engineering
Faculty of Environmental Science and Technology, Okayama University-ῌ+ῌ+ Tsushimaonaka, Okayama 1**ῌ2/-*, Japan