ENEXECUTIVE SUMMARY - JUNE 2020

THE FUTURE IS PUBLICTOWARDS DEMOCRATIC OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC SERVICES
Resistance to privatisation has turned into a powerfulforce for change: (re)municipalisation. The term (re)municipalisation refers to the reclaiming of public
ownership of services as well as the creation of new
public services. In recent years, the Transnational
Institute and partner organisations have identified
more than 1,400 successful (re)municipalisation cases
involving more than 2,400 cities in 58 countries
around the world.
But this publication is about more than just numbers.
It shows that public services are more important
than ever in the face of the climate catastrophe,
mounting inequalities and growing political unrest.
The COVID-19 crisis too has made painfully clear thedisastrous effects of austerity, social security cutsand privatised health care systems, but it has also
demonstrated that public services and the people who
operate them are truly the foundation of healthy andresilient societies. Years of privatisation and austerity
have choked off democratic control and sufficientfunding to this foundation. As privatisation fails, a
growing international movement is choosing (re)municipalisation as a key tool for redefining public
ownership for the 21st century.
The stories in this book take us to new countries
and introduce us to new sectors to illustrate thediversity of (re)municipalisation efforts. Each (re)municipalisation has its own specific challenges:
from waste management in Egypt to the new public
pharmacies in Chile, and to the many remote US
municipalities that have delivered jobs and improved
quality of life by developing broadband internet.
Together, civil society organisations, trade unions
and local authorities are shaping a new templatefor how to expand democratic public ownership to
all levels of society and opening up new routes tocommunity-led and climate conscious public services.

tni.org/futureispublic
Download the entire bookThis is the executive summary of the book ‘The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Ownership of
Public Services’. The 15 chapters that make up this book provide insights into the diverse struggles for(re)municipalisation around the world, including obstacles, opportunities and results.
TNI.ORG/FUTUREISPUBLIC
The global survey of (re)municipalisation consisted of 1408 cases at the end of October 2019. The datathat has been gathered is the result of concerted efforts by all publishers and 22 researchers did desktop
research to verify the collected data. For more information about our research methodology, please see
the book’s introduction and appendix.
The database is available at: https://publicfutures.org. This interactive database is developed in collaboration
with the University of Glasgow. Additional cases and information will be added to this new database as
they are collected.
DESIGNER Karen Paalman
COPY EDITOR Ann Doherty
CONTACT Satoko Kishimoto (satoko@tni.org) or Lavinia Steinfort (l.steinfort@tni.org) at Transnational
Institute.
The Transnational Institute (TNI) is an international research and advocacy institute committed to building
a just, democratic and sustainable planet. For more than 40 years, TNI has served as a unique nexus
between social movements, engaged scholars and policy makers.

PUBLISHED BY

Fighting privatisation of public services
The neoliberal current is powerful ...
Private Finance Initiatives (PFI)

Public asset sale

Public-private-parnerships (PPP)

Corporatisation

Competitive tenders

Outsourcing

Liberalised market competition

De-privatisation/Reclaiming public services
924
Remunicipalisations• Termination/non-renewal of private contracts• Public acquisition• Insourcing/bringing services back in house

484
Municipalisations/
Creation of public services

PUBLIC-PUBLIC PARTNERSHIPS• new municipal companies• new public service programmesIntermunicipal, peer to peer

PUBLIC-COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
local, not-for-profit organisations

PUBLIC-COMMONS PARTNERSHIPS

UK
94

Norway18

USco-ownership, diversified public
ownership, co-productionof services

Chile

France
19

141

40

109

Philippines

21

Critical mass of local changes inspires country-wide democratic public ownership
The future is public. Across the world today, people areThis report builds on our initial research. We have now

building better, more democratic and more inclusive

identified more than 1,400 cases of remunicipalisation

public services. In the context of the climate crisis,

or municipalisation involving over 2,400 cities inmounting inequalities and growing political unrest,

58 countries. The data and case studies illustratethese public services are more important than ever.

the diversity of (re)municipalisation efforts, andThis report shows that another world is possible;

include additional countries and new sectors withand what’s more, that people have already started

their specific challenges, such as the waste sector

building it together.

in many African countries.

This is the executive summary of the book The

Our research also shows that the pressures opposing

Future is Public: Towards Democratic Ownership of Public

remunicipalisation have not abated. Privatisation

Services. Many of the organisations and contributors

is still high on the agenda for private corporations

behind this publication first joined forces several

and financial markets, as well as for many national

years ago to oppose the tide of water privatisation

governments and international institutions. There arethat was sweeping the world and to support themultiple forms of privatisation and various names

accompanying resistance that was directed at privatethat disguise this process, including ‘public-private

corporations. This opposition to privatisation quickly

partnerships’ (PPPs), ‘private finance initiatives’ (PFIs),

turned into a global alliance for a positive cause: (re)outsourcing, corporatisation, ‘right to choice’, forced

municipalisation. This term captures both the idea

competition and market liberalisation.

of reversing privatisation as well as the developmentof new public services that can help us to meet theGiven the powerful forces2 lined up to countersocial, ecological and democratic challenges of ourremunicipalisation, it’s all the more remarkable that

1

time. Our 2017 publication Reclaiming Public Services

so many services and facilities are being returned

featured more than 800 cases of (re)municipalisation

to public ownership and control. This demonstrates

happening across all sectors and continents. Eventhat people embrace the value of public services,back then we knew that this was probably just theand highlights the determination of communities,

tip of the iceberg.

trade unions and elected officials to defend them.

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 3

1408 (Re)municipalisationsof public services
Sweden Finland

110 UK

51
Canada230 USA

156

Norway 42

25
4 1

35

2

Russia411

1Lithuania
Czech Republic
2
3 Ukraine
10 4
Hungary

Austria
Italy 5

4

119 Spain

4

Denmark Germany

Netherlands
Belgium
Luxembourg
FrancePortugal

8

1
1

1
2

Montenegro Greece
Albania3

Kazakhstan
1

Bulgaria
4 Turkey

South Korea

Uzbekistan

1 Lebanon

Egypt

3
1

8

India

Honduras
1 Nicaragua
2

Venezuela

1

GuineaColombia 3

1

Bolivia16

1 Uganda

3

Indonesia

1 Tanzania

BrazilPeru

2

4

Mozambique2

1 Paraguay

6

9Argentina
44

Australia

3South Africa

1

Uruguay

BETWEEN 2000 AND 2019, MORE THAN 2,400 CITIES IN 58 COUNTRIESBROUGHT PUBLIC SERVICES UNDER PUBLIC CONTROL(Re)municipalisation sectors
311

Water

NºcasesFranceUS
Spain
Germany

109
71
38
17

CanadaArgentina
Philippines
Italy
Hungary88744South Africa
MéxicoKazakhstan
Indonesia
Colombia
Venezuela
UkraineUK
TurkeyMozambique
Malaysia
India

3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

BrazilBolivia
Uzbekistan
Uruguay
UgandaTanzania
SwedenRussiaPortugal
LebanonGuineaEcuadorCentral African Republic
Belgium
Albania

2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

EnergyLocal government
Housing 31
Food and catering 28
Public (green) space maintenance 22
Security and emergency services 17
Parking 15
Building cleaning and maintenance 14
Sports 12
Cultural activities 9
IT 7
Construction 7
Prison 5
Funeral services 47563138 Health care + Social services

374

223

Country

Philippines

21

Malaysia

1

Central African Republic

Ecuador 1

Chile

Japan

3 Nepal4

Mexico18

5CountryNºcasesUK
Spain
Germany
France

55
40
34
21

CanadaDenmark
Netherlands
Austria
Philippines

15
12
8
7
6

NorwaySouth Korea
Chile
Finland
Australia
Malaysia
India
Italy
New ZealandTurkey
US

5
5
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
1

CountryNºcasesGermany

305

Spain
UK
US
Japan
Netherlands

18
13
11
4
4

Australia
Belgium
Denmark
FranceGreeceIndia
Argentina
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Honduras
Lithuania
Philippines

2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1

Ukraine1

Human resources 3

192

Other 49

Telecommunications
CountryNºcasesUS
Germany
Netherlands
CanadaMalaysia

145
35
7
3
1

4 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

Education 38
CountryNºcasesJapan
Malaysia
Germany
UK
Philippines
CanadaSpain
BrazilChile
India
Nicaragua

12
6
5
4
3
2
2
1
1
1
1

Transport
Country

FranceUK
Austria
Netherlands
CanadaPortugal
Czech Republic
India
Malaysia
Turkey

21
12
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
1

47

Nºcases

CountryNºcases

Chile
NorwayCanadaSpain
UK
Denmark
Sweden

40
18
14
14
10
8
7

Philippines
Malaysia
Nepal
Australia
Germany

4
4
3
2
2

Japan
US
BelgiumBrazilFinland
India
Luxembourg
Montenegro
Portugal
Russia

2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

85

Waste
CountryNºcases

NorwayUK
Denmark
Germany
CanadaSpain
Egypt
FranceNetherlands
Paraguay
Peru

19
15
13
13
7
6
4
3
3
1
1

New Zealand1Our research shows that remunicipalisation is stillpushed by powerful players, accompanied by plenty

going strong in sectors like energy and water. We

of international funding, enabled by favourable

also discovered vibrant remunicipalisation andlegal conditions, and it allows politicians wary ofmunicipalisation trends in unanticipated sectors likeelection cycles to pass the costs on to the next

telecommunications, which was beyond the scopemunicipal government. Yet on the other hand, (re)of our previous publications. In today’s world, high-municipalisation is fuelled by the aspirations ofspeed internet access is essential for households andcommunities and local governments to pursue social

businesses. We found that regional and municipal

and environmental goals, to foster local democracy

governments are stepping in to bridge the digitaland participation, and ultimately to reclaim democratic

divide by offering affordable high-speed internet

control over public services and local resources inservice, ensuring accessibility, and revitalising local

order to protect their common futures. As this reporteconomies in small towns and rural areas whereshows, these aspirations are so strong that they haveprivate telecom companies are reluctant to invest

successfully led to 924 remunicipalisations and 484

due to lack of profitability. The UK Labour Party

municipalisations between 2000 and 2019.

took this trend a step further in its 2019 election
manifesto with a plan to partially nationalise British

This wave of (re)municipalisations is taking place

Telecom and offer free universal broadband. Thisat a critical moment. The COVID-19 crisis has madegoes to show that even an economic sector that is

painfully clear the disastrous effects of austerity,

usually seen as the domain of corporate giants cansocial security cuts and privatised health care systems

be transformed to deliver a universal public service.

all over the world. In addition, far-right politicalmovements continue to seek to capitalise on people’s

While this publication showcases many examples of

insecurity and anger, and are using racism, fascism andthe (re)municipalisation of public services—touching

xenophobia to further divide populations. Progressive

virtually every country and every sector—new cases offorces must offer solidarity and concrete solutions:privatisation continue to emerge. This report is about

decent jobs, public services for all, and resilient local

more than just the numbers: it’s about a growing

economies. We must provide viable public alternatives

global movement. In many ways, privatisation is thethat strengthen both communities and the democraticeasy option for local and national authorities: it isfabric of society.

Reclaiming and creating public services:(Re)municipalisation
Remunicipalisation

Municipalisation

924

484
education

218

energy55

health care and social services

190

local government

CITIES OR REGIONSREVERSE46

transportenitiz

a n d wo r ker-ledtelecommunications

156 energy

PRIVATISATIONc4

NEW PUBLIC SERVICESS

3

waste

9

water

34 local government
81 health care & social services

82

waste

303 water

CITIESOR REGIONSCOOPERATIVESREVERSEPRIVATISATIONSUPPORT

26

CITIESIT OR REGIONSCREATE

12 education

COOPERATIVES
TO CREATE NEW
PUBLIC SERVICES

187 telecommunications2

transport

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 5

Country profiles

CANADA OF CASES 51
TOTAL NUMBER

Remunicipalisation 34
Municipalisation 17

Transport

Waste

Telecommunications

2

7

3

Health care &social services

Water

Education8

2

14
Local government

Housing 1

15

Food and catering 1
Parking 3
Sports and cultural activities 2
Financing and maintenance 6
Other 2Highlights• Since 2017, there have been more than 20 new cases of (re)municipalisationin water, waste, transport, telecommunications and health care sectors.
• The 15 remunicipalisations in local government include housing, parking,security, police station construction and recreation services.
• Interesting remunicipalisation cases include solid waste (Winnipeg,
Manitoba) and waste water (Taber, Alberta and Owen Sound, Ontario).
• Reclaiming public services leads to more economically efficient and better
quality services.

CHILE OF CASES 44
TOTAL NUMBER

Remunicipalisation 2
Municipalisation 42

Health care &social services

40
Education

1

Local government

3

Building cleaning and maintenance 2
Housing 1

Highlights• Between 2015 and 2018, 40 new public pharmacies have been created andthe “Chilean Association of Popular Pharmacies” brings thesemunicipalities (80 in total) together.
• They follow the public pharmacy model of the local government of Recoleta,
where some residents are now spending 70% less on medication permonth.
• In 2018, the local government created the Open University of Recoleta.
• Today it provides 150 courses in the areas of arts, science, humanities,
social science and technology. In total, 3,300 students have taken one ormore courses at the Open University.

6 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

DENMARK OF CASES 35
TOTAL NUMBER

Remunicipalisation 29
Municipalisation 6

Health care &social services

8

Waste

Energy132Highlights

Local government

12

Building cleaning and maintenance 7
Construction 1
Human resources 3
Other 1• Privatisation in the elderly care sector, imposed by flawed "free choice"policies, has proved uneconomical, with 54 cases of bankruptcy of private
providers since 2013.
• The municipality of Frederiksberg (part of Copenhagen) saved even moremoney than it expected when it decided to collect and manage its waste
through its own, employee-led company in 2011.
• Several examples of remunicipalisation and insourcing of cleaning services
by local goverments and hospitals because of quality problems and labour
standards.

FRANCE OF CASES 156
TOTAL NUMBER

Remunicipalisation 155
Municipalisation 1

Transport

Waste

21

3

Energy

Water

2

109

Local government

21

Highlights

Food and catering 4
Sports 1
Parking 3• Around 70% of all cases took place in the water sector, which has seen awave of remunicipalisation since 2000, including large cities such as Paris,
Rennes, Grenoble, Nice and Montpellier.
• Paris is a significant model for remunicipalisation, with the introductionof groundbreaking democratic accountability mechanisms, an emphasison access to water for all, including homeless people and migrants, andadaptation to climate change - while keeping prices lower than they were
before remunicipalisation.
• Access to organic, local food in school restaurants and childcare is anothersector where progressive cities and local authorities are reinventing public
services, with the creation of municipal farms and innovative procurement
policies.
• Several cities like Paris and Rennes have introduced innovative partnerships
with the farming sector to protect water catchments, encourage a shift toorganic production and create new markets for them through procurement
and public labels.

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 7

GERMANY OF CASES 411
TOTAL NUMBER

Remunicipalisation 255
Municipalisation 156

Health care &social services

Waste

Telecommunications

12

35

EnergyWater

Education

305

18

5

2

Local government

Housing 4

34

Food and catering 2
Public (green) space maintenance 3
Security and emergency services 11
Building cleaning and maintenance 6
Sports 5
Cultural activities 3

Highlights• With financial support from the federal government, new municipal andintermunicipal partnerships have provided broadband services in more than
200 municipalities over the last ten years.
• As part of the German Energiewende (energy transition), municipalities
reclaimed more than 300 energy services and networks.
• In Berlin, the district government of Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg brought backapartment blocks in an attempt to prevent rising rents in 2018. In Spandau
and Reinickendorf, the local government brought back 6,000 formerly
privatised apartments in 2019.

MALAYSIA OF CASES 16
TOTAL NUMBER

Remunicipalisation 1
Municipalisation 15

Health care &social services

Telecommunications

4

1

Transport

Water

Highlights

1

2• The state of Selangor successfully remunicipalised water services in 2018
after a 20-year-long costly conflict.
• The state of Selangor’s People’s Care Initiative (IPR) started in 2008, as anintegrated social protection program which covers education, health care,housing and food. They focus on low income families being able to access
all these services.
• Free water (20 cubic meters/a month/a family), free bus transportation and
300 free internet Wifi spots are also part of the program.

Local government2

Education

6

Housing 1
Food and catering 1

8 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

NORWAY OF CASES 42
TOTAL NUMBER

Remunicipalisation 39
Municipalisation 3

Health care &social services

Waste

19

18

Highlights

Local government

5

Building cleaning and maintenance 4
Security and emergency services 1• In 2017, more than 100 municipalities took public control over their waste
collection after RenoNorden's bankruptcy.
• Merging small towns into one municipality provided an opportunity for intermunicipal remunicipalisation or creation of an integrated municipal company
with public sector solidarity and capacity building.
• Remunicipalisation of care services (nursing homes, elderly care) and local
government services (staffing agency) are significant.
• Strong and strategic role of workers' unions in the process of remunicipalisation.

PHILIPPINES OF CASES 21
TOTAL NUMBER

Municipalisation 21

Health care &social services

4
Education

3

Energy1
Local government

6

Public (green) space maintenance 1
Food and catering 4
Security and emergency services 1

Water

7

Highlights• Philippine municipalities are creating new public services to increase welfare-based social protection.
• Binalonan started delivering effective health care services to residents, including care centres andfinancial support for health services. The municipality reduced chronic child malnutrition by 17% andincreased use of contraceptives by 51%.
• The municipality of Cainta Rizal launched its “One Cainta” program in 2016, providing free education
through the establishment of a college, enrolling 800 students per year, and additional health carefacilities, improving access to medical services for economically disadvantaged groups.
• Philippine municipalities are taking on an important role in increasing the country’s climate resilience,by establishing integrative approaches to farming and fishing, ecosystem protection, and energy
generation (Del Carmen and Lanuza).

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 9

SPAIN OF CASES 119
TOTAL NUMBER

Remunicipalisation 105
Municipalisation 14

Health care &social services

Waste

6

14
EnergyWater

Education

18

38

2

Local government

41

Housing 2
Food and catering 1

Public (green) space maintenance 12
Parking 6
Building cleaning and maintenance 10
Sports 2
Cultural activities 2
Construction 1
Funeral services 2

Highlights• The number of (re)municipalisations has more than doubled since 2017.
• A very strong social and municipalist movement has pushed for the 38
water remunicipalisations.
• Water remunicipalisation in Terrassa is leading to new forms of democratic
decision-making. With the support of civil society, the city created a Water
Observatory so users can participate in public management.
• Valladolid has saved €13.3 million since water remunicipalisation in 2017,
almost 4% of the municipal budget for 2018.
• In total, 41 local government services were remunicipalised, such as school
canteens, green spaces, parking, cleaning and funeral services.

Other 3

USA OF CASES 230
TOTAL NUMBER

Remunicipalisation 81
Municipalisation 149

Energy11
Health care &social services

2
Local government

1

Telecommunications

145
Water

Highlights

71• A total of 11 energy (re)municipalisations occurred, aimed at tackling theclimate crisis, building community wealth and increasing democratic (user)
control.
• Since 2002, there have been 71 water remunicipalisations. The busiest year
was 2010, with 10 reclaimed water services, leading to reduced user fees.
• Flagship water remunicipalisations took place in Atlanta, Missoula, Montara
and Pittsburgh.
• At least 141 new public telecommunication services were created to
improve access and democratic control, to deliver jobs and stimulate
economic activity (Tullahoma and Chattanooga), improve quality of life andto advance health and education (EC Fiber in Vermont).
• Interesting public-public partnership models involving local authorities
in Washington State (Northwest Open Access Network), Skagit County andThomasville.

Prison 1

10 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

UK OF CASES 110
TOTAL NUMBER

Remunicipalisation 96
Municipalisation 14

Health care &social services

Waste

Transport

15

12EnergyWater

Education

13

2

4

9

Local government

55

Housing 18
Food and catering 3
Public (green) space maintenance 4
Security and emergency services 1
Parking 1

Building cleaning and maintenance 9
Sports 2
Cultural activities 1

Highlights• Two major PFI companies went bankrupt in 2018 and 2019.
(Re)municipalisation cases increased from 64 in 2017 to 108 in 2019.
• Strong trend to reverse outsourcing to insourcing since 2008 acrossall sectors and foremost in local government (IT, housing, cleaning andmaintenance), as well as waste and transport.
• Public ownership of water, energy, rail, mail and NHS enjoys public support.
For example, 83% support public water.
• Remunicipalisation, insourcing and new public service experiences fuel thegrowing national demand for democratic public ownership.

IT 7
Construction 3
Prison 1
Human resources 2
Other 3

Key findings

changes that are resulting from (re)municipalisation.
The most direct positive impact of (re)municipalisation

1. Remunicipalisation and municipalisation
are redefining public ownershiphas been the lower costs of operating the services:
this is anticipated or has already been achieved in a
total of 245 cases. In some cases, a reduction in the

The research highlights how remunicipalisation andoperation of the service has meant lower user fees:

municipalisation are redefining public ownership

this is expected or has already happened in 188 cases.

and advancing a 21st century vision that centres

In at least 264 cases, investment in the improvement

on democratic participation and control. A growingof the service and environmental protection has

network of progressive green municipalities is tackling

either risen or is forecasted to do so.

climate change and rising inequality using strategies
that feature (re)municipalisation. Cities are perfectly

The workers that provide public services are key, andpositioned to explore direct democracy, as well as

their working conditions inevitably reflect their ability

to advance innovative economic models that build

to deliver quality services. Throughout the studied

community wealth and create decent employment.

(re)municipalisation processes, overall employment

Motivations for remunicipalisation are diverse, butconditions were maintained. In 158 cases, they were

often involve a failed privatisation. This foregrounds

even likely to be enhanced or markedly improved

our emerging findings as well as the many positive

when workers – especially those in vulnerable

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 11

circumstances – were able to achieve better protections

to protect the environment far into the future are

and conditions. The involvement of trade unions wasshowing their strength as public actors.

critical in attaining these results.
To various degrees in all of the 1,400 cases, we observed
For the sake of future generations, it is our collectivethat public actors (re)established values that serve

duty to develop integrated climate and energy policies

public and planetary interests as they returned to orthat decarbonise society. A significant number ofcreated public services. Together, these key elements

de-privatisations are making a positive impact onfor reclaiming and expanding public services provide

local economies by delivering secure employment

a solid definition of 21st century public ownership.

and attracting new business and research centres.

This trend must continue.

Ecological sustainability and social empowerment
also play a key role in building shared community

Our research posed the question of whether (re)wealth in the local economy (as seen in 297 of themunicipalisation has resulted in improved democratic

studied cases), and municipal moves away fromcontrol under public ownership. The answer in many

privatisation are intended to or in fact already havecases was affirmative; we managed to find clear

contributed to an ecological transition in at leastreferences to the introduction or improvement of

119 cases. Efforts towards integrated public policy

democratic mechanisms in at least 149 cases. Measurescoordination to protect the environment in the areas

and results range from increased accountability,of energy, waste, housing, water, food and transporttransparency and information disclosure to thehave also been clearly observed (209 cases). Pioneering

establishment of participatory governance in publiccities and public companies that strategically invest

corporations.

(Re)municipalisations strive for

297

INCREASED LOCAL CAPACITY FOR

188

WORKING

CONDITIONS

9

209

27

THAT BENEFIT PEOPLE AND PLANETBANKRUPTCY

PUBLIC INVESTMENTFOR QUALITY SERVICES

245

DEMOCRATIC CONTROLAND PUBLIC OWNERSHIPLOWER FEES

ACHIEVING POLICY GOALSINCREASED

IMPROVEDBETTERFOR RESIDENTS

COMMUNITY WEALTH BUILDING

264

158

149

A FEMINIST APPROACH
to public services

PUBLIC AUTHORITIES119MEASURES TO TACKLE
THE CLIMATE CRISIS

12 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

PUBLIC HEALTH AND
HARM REDUCTIONRESPONDING TO PRIVATE SECTOR

BETWEEN
USERS, WORKERS OR
76 PARTNERSHIPSCOMMUNITIES AND

BETTER VALUEFOR MONEY AND
PUBLIC SECTOR SAVINGS

142 ENHANCED

138

UNIVERSAL ACCESSTO PROTECT HUMAN
AND SOCIAL RIGHTS

2. Remunicipalisation reduces costs andimproves services

collective case that services that are publicly owned
and directly provided by public sector workers makegood economic sense. As previously mentioned, we

Although cost is not the only consideration whenfound at least 245 cases in which (re)municipalisation

deciding to remunicipalise a public service, it iseither aims to or has already managed to reduce theobviously one of the most important factors. Public

cost of providing services as well as a minimum ofservices provide the best value for money, contraryat least 264 cases in which municipal companies

to neoliberal claims that privatisation, PPPs andforesee or have already succeeded in increasing public

outsourcing put less pressure on the public treasury.

investment in services and infrastructure. WhenIn 2014, the Auditor General in the Canadian province

services return to public ownership, tax revenues andof Ontario reviewed 74 PPP projects and concluded

any revenue generated from user fees can be directlythat they had cost the public CAN$ 8 billion moreinvested into improving services and ensuring theirthan if the province had used public procurement.

sustainability.

Similarly, the provincial Auditor General in Canada’s
British Columbia reviewed 16 PPP projects in 2014 andreported that the province had paid approximately

Case study A - Valladolid, Spain: Water supply

twice as much for private sector financing as it
would have if it had borrowed the money itself.3 In

In 2016, the Valladolid City Council decided to

the UK, a 2018 National Audit Office report foundremunicipalise the water supply in the metropolitan

that the private financing of public projects canarea as its contract with a private provider was due

cost up to 40 per cent more than relying solely on

to expire the following year. Over the previous 20

government borrowing. To illustrate, a report by the

years, the private company had raised prices for

UK Treasury Committee estimated that a privately

consumers by 37.28 per cent. This made drinking

financed hospital would cost 70 per cent more thanwater almost unaffordable for poorer households,

a publicly financed one.5

especially after the 2008-2009 economic crisis.

4

An additional incentive was the lack of investment
There are five main reasons why privatised services

in the water network under private ownership,

generally cost more:

although the company had consistently reaped

1. Corporations must generate profits and pay dividends

high profits.

to their shareholders and any parent companies.
In 2015, municipal elections brought in a new
2. Privatisation brings extra layers of complexity andgovernment and the opportunity to terminate

costs, including the payment of substantial fees toprivate water management in Valladolid. An

the consultants and lawyers who design the contracts.

absolute majority in the City Council approved the
remunicipalisation of water services in December

3. Public authorities lose control over the costs of

2016, and the newly established public waterrunning the service, as private operators tend tocompany Aquavall went on to employ the entire

outsource some of the work to other companies andworkforce of the previously private business. After

this often comes at high cost.

two years in operation, Aquavall had already saved
the city €13.3 million, equivalent to 4 per cent of

4. Private operators lack a long-term vision when it

its total budget in 2018 (€337.2 million).6 So far,comes to financial management.

the new public company has had a total turnoverof €26.4 million. Much of the profits are now used

5. Public bodies typically pay lower interest rates

to maintain and improve the city’s sanitation andthan private entities, hence their borrowing costs

distribution grids, which in turn has helped toare lower.

stabilise the maintenance fees paid by consumers.
In addition, the remaining revenue is being used to

There is solid evidence that privatisation costs more.

build community wealth through investments inStories of remunicipalisation help us to build ourphotovoltaic panels, which are expected to lower
the cost of electricity production in the future.

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 13

3. Private management and ownership of
public services risks bankruptcy

the privatisation of waste services has led to unequalcoverage: affluent city areas receive good service andpoorer neighbourhoods are neglected. Consequently,

The story behind remunicipalisation is often about

70 per cent of Dar es Salaam’s waste is either disposed

residents, workers and public officials achieving social

of informally, illegally dumped in waterways or fields,

and environmental objectives by reclaiming control

or burned.7

over public services. But there are also stories of failed
privatisations. We counted at least 27 cases involving
bankruptcies of private operators while compiling

Case study B - Kragerø, Norway: Waste

our (re)municipalisation survey. The 2018 collapse

managementof Carillion, a UK company specialised in outsourcing
contracts and privatised infrastructure, jeopardised

In Kragerø, employees and the works council of

420 private finance initiative projects as well as thethe private waste collection company RenoNorden

future of 18,000 employees. In Denmark, after so-

alerted the municipal administration in 2017

called ‘free choice’ policies introduced mandatorythat the firm was no longer fulfilling its duties.

competition in elderly care, a large number of private

Following a thorough analysis, the municipality

companies collapsed. In Norway, the bankruptcy of

concurred and decided to bring waste collectionwaste management company RenoNorden wouldback in-house. It managed to end the contract withhave impacted more than 137 municipalities if the

RenoNorden before the company went bankrupt

union had not anticipated its economic difficulties

and succeeded in keeping on its employees. As

and worked with local officials to prepare for thea consequence of this remunicipalisation, waste

remunicipalisation of services.

collection fees for residents have been reducedby 14 per cent, while wages and pensions for

Bankruptcies and corporate collapses reveal the truth

the employees have increased. The municipality

behind privatisation’s false promises of efficiency andcontinues to save money by avoiding expensive

innovation; many privatisation deals are economicallytendering processes, and also benefits from theunviable. Outsourcing contracts and public-private

increase in full-time staff who are able to help

partnerships are often designed to prioritise profits

out with other municipal services.

and dividends over service quality. When profits dryup or fail to materialise, corporations and investors

In addition to better pay, former RenoNorden

walk away, abandoning the service as well as theemployees also report other improvements. For

workers and people who rely on it for survival.

example, the municipality offers educational

Another illustration of privatisation’s economic

support to workers without formal vocational

failures is the unwillingness of private operators totraining so that they can obtain official diplomas,deliver services to areas, communities or user groups

and more staff are receiving permanent contracts

that are not profitable enough, cannot afford to pay

with increased hours or full-time positions.8

or are more expensive to serve. For example, major
telecommunications companies in the US havenot been interested in serving rural areas, smaller

Case study C - Region of Southern Denmark:municipalities and low-income communities. Local

Ambulance services

governments and community-owned companies have
stepped in to fill the gap by developing high-speed

Until the summer of 2016, the Region of Southernbroadband internet infrastructure in many areas

Denmark outsourced its ambulance service towhere corporations had failed to deliver.

private companies. Soon after winning the last
public tender, however, the Danish arm of Dutch

In most African countries, private waste operators

ambulance company BIOS not only struggled tooperate only in the wealthiest neighbourhoods ofrecruit enough drivers, but also failed to reimburse

large cities, thus excluding the vast majority of thean accidental double payment made by the Region.

population. In the city of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania,

As a result, BIOS Denmark went bankrupt in

14 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

July 2016. The Region took the opportunity to

Case study D - Selangor State, Malaysia: Healthremunicipalise the rescue service, hiring 657

and social careformer BIOS employees and an additional 100
emergency medical technicians. In comparison

Following a change of government in 2008,

with the operational costs under BIOS’ predecessor

Selangor introduced an integrated social protection

FALCK, the Region managed to reduce the costprogram called Inisiatif Peduli Rakyat (‘People’s Careof ambulance services by 15 per cent, while

Initiative’). Funded through state revenues, thesimultaneously improving the quality throughprogramme aims to improve the welfare of various

hiring extra staff. A political majority in the Region

vulnerable groups in the areas of education, socialof Southern Denmark has since decided to excludecare, water provision, transportation, housing andprivate companies from handling ambulance

food. Improving social care plays a particularly

operations in Southern Jutland and on the island

important role in this initiative; since 2008, theof Funen.

Skim Mesra Usia Emas (‘Golden Age Friendly’)

9scheme has been offering a funeral payment of
RM2,500 (€538) for registered senior citizens

4. (Re)municipalisation helps to uphold andpromote human and social rights

looking to help relatives cover their burial expenses.
In addition, a women’s health scheme launched in2010 provides free mammograms to women aged

The 2018 report of the UN Special Rapporteur on

35 and above. Yet another initiative launched in

extreme poverty and human rights

says that the2017 subsidises primary healthcare provision for

widespread privatisation of public services andlow-income households, with the state providing

infrastructure is systematically eliminating human

RM500 (equivalent to €108) per year for medical

rights protections and further marginalising people

expenses.12

10

who live in poverty. The report looks at the humanrights implications of privatisation in the criminal
justice system, social services, water, sanitation,

Case study E - Berlin, Germany: Housing

electricity, healthcare, transportation and education.
Special Rapporteur Philip Alston criticises the lack of

The German capital city Berlin has seen a doublinghuman rights criteria in most privatisation agreements;of the average rent in just five years.13 Local gov-these deals rarely include any monitoring of theernments have responded to residents’ resulting

impact on poor people.

outcry with decisive measures, such as the public
acquisition of privatised housing units and a policy(Re)municipalisation is an antidote to this erosion

to halt rising rents. In the Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg

of human rights. Our study discovered 138 cases inborough, for example, the district senate supported

which the defence of human and social rights was a

residents in stopping the sale of 675 apartments

clear policy objective of (re)municipalisation, as well

to real estate holding Deutsche Wohnen. Tenants

as many concrete measures to achieve this goal. For

had feared disproportionate rent increases due toexample, the Parisian public water company Eau dethe unnecessary renovation projects imposed by

Paris was established in 2010, ending a long period

the company.14

of privatisation that had begun in the mid-1980s.
The company states that its mission goes beyond

The federal state of Berlin called upon the district

connecting pipes; it is committed to defending thecourt to prevent the sales, but its request washuman right to water for all people in Paris regardless

rejected in 2018. Circumventing legal restrictions,of their legal status. Eau de Paris is maintaining andthe senate then enabled tenants to make use

expanding a network of public water fountains acrossof their pre-emption rights by means of a so-the city that provide access to water for the mostcalled ‘stretched acquisition’: residents could

vulnerable populations. This is an essential service‘buy’ their apartments and then sell them onfor the refugees who arrive in the city each day, as

to the public Berlin Housing Association. In latewell as for people experiencing homelessness.

2019, the Housing Association bought back an

11

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 15

additional 6,000 apartments in the districts ofThis report documents at least 158 cases of munici-

Spandau and Reinickendorf – the largest act ofpalisation and remunicipalisation that aim to improve

remunicipalisation in German history. In Octoberor that have already bettered conditions for workers.

2019, the Berlin state passed a rent control law

Improvements include pay, occupational health andthat froze rents at the June 2019 level for the next

safety, freedom of association, collective bargain-

five years, and also capped rental payments at aing, freedom of speech and worker participation

set maximum.

in decision making. These cases demonstrate that15

16

providing quality employment and improving workThe tenants of 1.5 million Berlin homes will benefit

ers’ conditions – while valuing their knowledge andfrom these changes. Against the backdrop of thisexperience about how services should be organised

powerful municipal activity, the tenant movement

and operated – goes hand in hand with building

is growing fast: demands for a referendum toaccessible and economically efficient public services.

transfer around 240,000 apartments currently

It is no coincidence that workers and their unions arein the hands of Deutsche Wohnen and other big

often at the forefront of (re)municipalisation efforts.

property companies into public ownership are
gaining traction.
Case study F - Seoul, South Korea: Cleaning inurban transport

5. (Re)municipalisation can reverse
precarious work

A capital city with nearly 10 million residents, Seoul
has undergone a comprehensive labour policy

Privatisation, outsourcing, PPPs, austerity measuresreform under the leadership of the current mayor

and similar policies are often justified with claims

Park Won-soon. Between 2013 and 2017, the citythat the private sector is more efficient and will saveregularised the employment status of 7,296 public

public funds. In reality however, if private operators

sector workers, 70 per cent of whom are cleaners.

do reduce costs, it is often at the expense of public

Many of them are now directly employed by the twoservice workers. By cutting jobs, eroding working

new public corporations, Seoul Metro Environment

conditions and undermining collective bargaining,

and Seoul Urban Rail Green Environment. Previously,

privatisation is a powerful driver of precarious work.

they had worked for subcontractors who provided

This is a problem not only for workers, their families

no social or health protections and did not pay themand local communities, but also for users as theproperly. Their salaries have since gone up by an

quality and accessibility of the service decline.

average of 7.3 per cent, and their welfare rights
have become standardised. Despite increased labour

In contrast, there are many examples of remunici-

costs, the city’s balance sheet has also improved,

palisation and insourcing in which local councils haveas the elimination of management fees and 10

saved money while improving working conditions

per cent VAT payments to subcontractors have

and/or pay. Since 2011, London’s Islington Council

significantly reduced operational costs.18

has taken back contracts worth about £380 million
in cleaning, building and grounds maintenance aswell as waste management services. The move has
meant better pay and improved working conditions

6. (Re)municipalisation can improve publichealth and reduce harmfor 1,200 frontline employees, and has generated
savings of about £14 million.17 In Kragerø, Norway,

The health care sector faces ever-increasing

the remunicipalisation of waste management has

privatisation pressures, for example from outsourcing

led to a 14 per cent reduction in fees for residents,

and competitive tenders. Profit-making service

while delivering an increase in workers’ wages andproviders and facilities enjoy a growing market

pensions.

thanks to liberalisation, which is driven largely byinternational trade and investment agreements.

16 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

It is clear however that remunicipalisation andcountry’s dispensaries. With the goal of providing

municipalisation in the health sector benefits publicaffordable medicine for the population, the local

health, especially for the most vulnerable families.

government of Recoleta created the country’s first

Examples from the publication include a regional‘popular pharmacy’ in 2015. Restoring the role ofhospital complex in Helsinki, Finland and new public

the state as a direct supplier of goods, this model

pharmacies in 40 Chilean municipalities. These cases

has also revived the solidarity aspect of social

highlight how public authorities have established solid

security by facilitating equal access for peoplecommitments to protect public health by investingwith lower incomes through subsidies. Now in its

in and directly providing services.

fifth year of operation, the model has proven to behighly effective. Calculations by the municipality

Our study counted at least 142 cases of newly createdshow a significant cut in the cost of medicine foror remunicipalised public services that did or are

residents; some people’s monthly medical bills

expected to enhance public health or provide harm

have seen reductions of up to 70 per cent.19

reduction services. Harm reduction services, which
include a range of health and social policies andprogrammes, are often overlooked although they are

Case study H - São Paulo, Brazil: Harm reduction

vital for improving public health. These services lessen
the stigma and physical consequences associatedOver the past 20 years, the São Paulo neighbourhoodwith drug use by supporting rather than excludingof Luz has been known for its high number ofand criminalising users.

residents struggling with homelessness andaddiction to crack cocaine. Many public initiatives

Supervised drug consumption rooms, where people

tried to address this situation during the 1990s andcan safely and hygienically use drugs under staffed

2000s with a focus on neighbourhood security andand controlled conditions, have emerged in 29 cities

the criminalisation of addicts. However, in January

across Europe as well as in Canada, Brazil and Australia.

2014, then Mayor Fernando Haddad adopted a new

These initiatives, which have points of contact for

approach: working with community leaders andhelp and support, have significantly contributed to

local NGOs to negotiate the removal of 147 tents

harm reduction among people experiencing addiction

and starting a dialogue with crack cocaine users.

and have decreased social exclusion and alienation.
Among the new projects is the publicly funded OpenArms programme, which reaches out to drug users
Case study G - Recoleta (Santiago Metropolitan

with the offer of accommodation, three meals per

Region), Chile: Access to medicinesday, a job at the municipality and access to healthservices – all of this without forcing the clients

In a country characterised by deeply embedded

to stop using drugs. Since its creation, 73 perneoliberalism, the commune of Recoleta in Chilecent of those helped by Open Arms have stopped

has been swimming against the current. In thisusing crack cocaine, saving the state R$68 million

area to the north of Santiago, nearly 14 per cent of(€11.8 million).20

the population lives in poverty; more than double
the regional average. Mayor Daniel Jadue, who won
the 2012 elections, has started to recover public
ownership of healthcare services and has created

7. (Re)municipalisation can enabledemocratic public ownershipnew public programmes in education and housing
to better support local residents.

Public ownership is not always democratic or efficient.
The public sector may be bogged down by bureaucracy

Many Chileans still depend on privately owned

and inefficiency, or captured by vested interests,

pharmacies for their medication, and are vulnerable

corruption and authoritarian rulers. However, theseto unregulated price setting by the three companies

same problems can similarly affect private sector

that monopolise the operation of 90 per cent of thecompanies and organisations.

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 17

Building strong, high-quality public services requires

Public ownership can take the form of collaboration

new forms of public ownership that allow residents towith grassroots citizens’ and workers’ cooperatives, orparticipate in democratic decision making, both directlyof co-ownership shared between a public authority

and indirectly. Many forms exist. Changes brought

and a not-for-profit association. In the German

about by (re)municipalisation range from strengthened

town of Wolfhagen, the cooperative that helped

mechanisms for accountability, transparency andfund the local wind turbines owns a quarter of theinformation disclosure to the establishment ofpublic energy company and has two seats on its

participatory governance in public corporations. A

board.22 This co-ownership, which happened after(re)municipalised or new municipal company can

the remunicipalisation of the local electricity grid,

democratise its governance by ensuring that user

resulted in lower power bills, investments in the

representatives are on the board, as is the case forcooperative’s kindergarten and a near doubling ofwater services in Grenoble and Paris. In Denmark,the number of staff.

the law enables public companies to reserve onethird of their board seats for worker representatives.

Interestingly, collaborations and partnerships with
community-based organisations tend to reinvent

Including worker and user representatives on thethe culture of public institutions and encourage

decision-making bodies of public entities is one ofdeeper democratic practice. They reshape relations

the most important ways to improve governancebetween governments, the economy and a people inand expand the meaning of public ownership. Thisa way that enables social and environmental goals

representation can be enhanced by the creation

to come first. There are many examples of publicof meaningful spaces for users, such as peoples’

authorities working with nonprofits and cooperatives.

observatories and assemblies. Cities including Paris,

For instance, various Dutch municipalities support

Barcelona and Terrassa in Spain include worker andthe nonprofit association Wireless Leiden in providing

citizen representatives on the advisory boards offree internet in some parts of the city of Leiden as

their public utilities. In Terrassa, an autonomous body

well as in surrounding towns. Across Spain, proactive

called the Terrassa Water Observatory was createdcities are choosing cooperative energy retailers suchwith the mandate to facilitate citizen participation inas Som Energia, GoiEner and EnergÉtica over large

the co-creation of policies and in decisions affecting

private companies.

the municipal water supply.
Our research identified clear references to increased

Case study I - Terrassa, Spain: Water supply

democratic control as the confirmed or expected resultof (re)municipalisation in at least 149 cases. The

In Catalonia’s third largest city, Terrassa, the citizen

Mexican city of Ramos Arizpe stopped a PPP for water

platform Taula de l’Aigua de Terrassa began to cam-services and successfully remunicipalised the service

paign for a return to public water management inin 2014. The mayor announced that the new public

2014. Their Social Pact for Public Water, which aims

company, COMPARA, would open up participation

to ensure the public, integrated and participatory

in order to transform the relationship between the

management of the entire water cycle, gained

service provider and users. The technical council,

support from municipal election candidates in

one of the company’s main governance bodies, is2015. The following year, the recently elected city

composed of the mayor, two representatives fromcouncil passed a motion in favour of direct water

the state government water operator, the manager

management, and Taigua was ultimately createdof COMPARA, experts from a research centre, andas a public enterprise in 2018. Soon afterwards,

activists from the users’ association. Examples like

Terrassa’s citizens’ forum, whose positions are takenthese from Ramos Arizpe and Terrassa show that the

into account by local authorities, approved thedemocratic level of any public enterprise depends on

establishment of the Terrassa Water Observatory

the social struggle, i.e. the extent to which residents(Observatorio del Agua de Terrassa, OAT).

21

are organised in the demand for popular control
and meaningful participation in the governance ofa public service.

18 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

This observatory works independently from themunicipality. It abides by the Social Pact for Public
Water and holds decision-making power over public

8. Remunicipalisation must engage withand learn from workers

water management. Designed to facilitate citizen
participation and strategic decision making, theAlliances of trade unions and civil society organisations

OAT’s highest governing body is composed of ahave led numerous fights against privatisation torepresentative of each political group, the municipal

victory. In Lagos, Nigeria, an alliance of unions,

government, technical service staff, businesses,

communities and NGOs created a citizens’ vision andcommunity groups, unions and local university

strategies to reform the state water company as an

researchers. As it has taken up the challenge toalternative to privatisation. On the subject of de-govern and co-produce water services together

privatisation, Public Services International (PSI) has

with its users, the collaborative public water

worked with affiliated trade unions to identify lessonsmodel of the OAT has become a point of reference

about how to prepare for the remunicipalisation offor many other municipalities in Catalonia andpublic services.25

throughout Spain.23
The remunicipalisation of public services both involves
and affects workers, as they are the ones operating
Case study J - Plymouth, UK: Energy transition

services and entrenched in their structures. The labour
dimension exemplifies that every remunicipalisation

In 2013, the City of Plymouth and its residents

case is unique due to the local and national regulations

established the Plymouth Energy Community (PEC),

that affect the terms and conditions of workers’

a member-owned community benefit organisation

employment. Important recommendations include

whose profits are reinvested into the community.

reaching out at an early stage to all affected workers

The city provided a grant, loans and staff expertiseand supporting them through the process; ensuring

to the organisation in order to boost its capacity

regular communication and cooperation between

to “create a fair, affordable, low-carbon energy

national union federations and their local branches;

system with local people at its heart”. In 2014,

and seeking to open a negotiation table with local

the PEC developed its own green energy arm, PEC

authorities as soon as possible in order to ensure a fair

Renewables, which funds, installs and manages local

private-to-public transition for all service workers.

schemes for the generation of renewable energy.
By 2019, PEC had helped more than 20,000

The Norwegian municipal workers’ union deployedhouseholds to save over £1 million on energy bills

successful strategies following the massive bankruptcy

and had cleared a total of over £26,000 in smallof RenoNorden in 2017, which affected waste collection

debt. PEC has also built a solar farm on a plot ofservices in 137 municipalities.26 The union’s national

contaminated land, which combined with rooftop

head office teamed up with the local branch inpanels on schools and community buildings hasorder to influence city councils in the affectedenabled the city to produce enough clean electricity

municipalities to vote against the new tender so

to supply 2,000 homes. Revenue, which is expected

as to bring waste services back in-house. The Osloto amount to £1.5 million over the project’s 20-

branch of Fagforbundet, the Norwegian public services

year lifetime, will be reinvested in initiatives tounion, turned a vulnerable transition period into an

reduce carbon emissions and energy poverty inopportunity by growing its membership with inclusive

Plymouth. As the municipality continues to work

recruitment strategies. The Fagforbundet teams

alongside PEC, this public-community partnership

recruited workers from the private company – manyhas become the democratic driving force behindof them migrants with temporary contracts – prior

the city’s localised energy transition.

to remunicipalisation. They successfully built up

24

solidarity with non-union workers during the transition,
ultimately securing permanent employment andimproved working conditions for the remunicipalised
workers.

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 19

Local tripartite cooperation is exercised in moreeducation jobs bears the brunt of the burden whenthan half of Norway’s municipalities. Politicians,

these sectors are privatised. Together, the impacts ofadministrative leaders and trade unions work

privatisation hit groups that are already marginalised

constructively to create a culture of collaboration

the hardest, especially those who face discriminationthat promotes the collective finding of the bestin the labour market and have lower incomes. As alocal solutions for the specific challenges facing theresult, women of colour, indigenous women, migrantmunicipality. Employees and other voices normallywomen and LGBTQI+ persons, among others, pay the

not heard by municipal management are given ahighest price for privatisation. Gender justice andplatform through the creation of a forum to shareprivatisation are therefore fundamentally opposed.

ideas and suggestions, and these are in turn handled

And whereas reversing privatisation and rebuilding

systematically. Fagforbundet argues that tripartite

public services increases accessibility, public ownershipcooperation following remunicipalisation is a usefulis unfortunately no guarantee for gender justice.

tool for improving services from the workers’ pointof view, and that it also helps to counter further

While it is essential that women are equally represented

outsourcing and privatisation forces in the publicin leadership positions, this alone will not ensuresector.

that a public service meets the essential needs of27

poorer women and that it operates within planetary

9. Transforming public ownership for
ecofeminist public services

boundaries. An ecofeminist approach would enable
deeper levels of democratisation, in which public
services are run from the bottom up and care forEcofeminist public services put care for people andboth human and non-human life is incorporated.

the planet, rather than private profit, at the centre.

Ultimately, we need to feminise how politics are

Taking an ecofeminist approach to public services

done.28 This would mean that politicians and publicforces us to recognise that we as human beings areadministrations would not only listen to residents

deeply interdependent on each other as well as on

but would include them on a permanent basis in

the biospace that we inhabit. Consequently, thispolicy and decision-making processes. In turn, thisviewpoint advocates for a transformation of how

would require new mechanisms through which

public services are owned and organised.

marginalised groups are given the real power toensure that public services improve the everyday

Privatisation, public-private partnerships andlives of the many, instead of just the elite few. Thisoutsourcing are focused on short-term financial

is because, as COVID-19 has taught us, our societies

gain. These models of service delivery tend to amplify

are only as safe, healthy and resilient as the mostexisting injustices and destroy ecosystems. They areoppressed among us.29

also likely to harm vulnerable people who are morereliant on public services, a disproportionate number

Some Philippine cities are at the forefront ofof whom are women. Furthermore, the pursuit ofproviding women-focused services. The Bagong

profit often leads to rate hikes, compromising access

Silang Cooperative, located in Caloocan, was created

to services.

by local women to supply residents of this poor urban
community with bulk water. Profits are paid back to

When subsidies are cut as part of austerity measuresmembers of the cooperative and reinvested in public

and privatisations, care for children, the elderly andservices, such as childcare. In 2019, Bagong Silang

others becomes unaffordable. Care work tends to fall

was serving 742 households. In another example,

to women, as the division of labour that underpins

the municipality of Binalonan in the Philippines

our economic model is deeply gendered and racialised.

has been providing financial assistance to women,

Not only do women still carry out the majority ofchildren, single parents and senior citizens, as well as

care and domestic work – which pays poorly or

childcare and free primary health care since 2015.30

not at all – but much of this work is outsourced to
women of colour. In addition, the high concentrationof women working in public care, cleaning and

20 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

10. (Re)municipalisation can strengthencommunity wealth and local economies

Case study K - Cities across the United States:

Reclaiming and creating publicly owned services such as

A total of 141 new public telecommunications

waste collection, food, cleaning and telecommunications

services have been created by local authorities

can transform entire communities. When a utility

in the United States over the past few years.

company is democratically controlled, it is far more

Aimed at improving access and democratic control,

likely to reinvest its profits back into the community

municipalities have come up with schemes toand in that way localise the economy. Community

deliver jobs and increase economic activity

wealth building, a term coined by the US-based(for example in Tullahoma, Chattanooga and

Democracy Collaborative, refers to engaging so-called

Thomasville, Tennessee); to improve quality of life

‘anchor institutions’ whose procurement, employment(in Wilson, North Carolina and Mount Washington,

and investment decisions can bring ecological and

Massachusetts); and to advance access to healthequitable economic development.

care and education (for instance with the ECFiber

Telecommunications

internet nonprofit in Vermont).
These anchor institutions, which range from themunicipality itself to hospitals, universities, public

In Thomasville, Georgia, the publicly owned Com-

telecoms companies and community-owned waste

munity Network Services (CNS) have been credited

facilities, are locally rooted and have the capacity towith helping to support small businesses and a

improve people’s quality of life. For example, local

thriving downtown area. The local government

governments are using public procurement to contractof Scott County, Minnesota, created a public fibrewith worker cooperatives in order to keep their cities

network by first connecting anchor institutions,clean (for example in Valparaíso, Chile). They are also

such as schools and municipal facilities. The net-

partnering with local farmers to protect groundwater

work has created more than 1,000 jobs and has

and to sell organic food to school restaurants (as istremendously improved internet access for thethe case in Rennes, France). Localising the economy

area’s educational institutions. Public ownership

can also take the form of municipalities removing

has also resulted in major savings for the local

public services from the market and reducing user

school district, whose telecoms expenses wentfees. For example, Islington in the UK brought 35,000

down from $58 to $7 per megabit. In Morristown,

council homes back in-house in 2011. Six years later,

Tennessee, the newly created and publicly owned

the municipality created Angelic Energy, a new public

FiberNET provides excellent and affordable in-energy company. These decisions enable the council

ternet services to families, businesses and public

to provide fairer priced housing, power and gas, ininstitutions. Furthermore, the fibre network has

particular for lower-income households.

delivered major savings, created employment andprompted companies to relocate to Morristown

Our research counted 297 such cases of (re)due to the area’s faster internet speed.31

municipalisation that did or were expected to contributeto community wealth building and to sustaining aresilient local economy. Some of these examples

Case study L - Zabaleen community in Cairo,

involve the wiser use of locally abundant natural

Egypt: Waste management

resources, while others create meaningful jobs forresidents and new sustainable business activities.

The Zabaleen community consists of around 70,000

The preservation and build-up of local ecologicalresidents who have traditionally sorted aboutknowledge and practices are pivotal to building

two-thirds of Cairo’s mostly organic waste – up

future-proof public services.

to 15,000 tons each day. Their door-to-door
waste collection and management system enables
recycling rates of 85 per cent in the city and relies
heavily on pigs, which feed on the food waste.

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 21

Cairo’s waste management was privatised in earlymunicipalising a public service in at least 119 cases.

2000, and the companies that took over from the

The majority of these cases were in the energy sector.

Zabaleen workers only achieved recycling rates

According to our study, the number of energy (re)of around 25 per cent. They even failed to collectmunicipalisations around the world increased by

the waste from certain parts of the city, requiringalmost 20 per cent between 2017 and 2019 to reach

residents to bring their own rubbish to central

a total of 374.

collection points and charging them for this poor
service via their electricity bills. What’s more, theIn many countries, a small number of large private

Zabaleen workers who had been recruited to help

corporations monopolise the energy market. And

the companies with sorting were now earning 75

despite decades of pressure from civil society, mostper cent less than previously.

energy corporations continue to extract ever-more
fossil fuels. This is a key reason for communities

Following hundreds of lawsuits on the inclusionand cities to reverse energy privatisation or, likeof waste management costs in electricity bills,

Nottingham in the UK, to create new municipal

the Cairo government decided to remunicipalise

energy companies. In a liberalised energy market,

the system in 2017 and to partner again with thewhere competition favours the big players, mostZabaleen community. The waste management

municipalities do not have the ability to expropriate

system run by the Zabaleen community demon-a private company. However, they may be able tostrates that creating a circular economy is possible

create new public energy companies that invest in– even in mega cities like Cairo, which is home toenergy efficiency projects and generate local solar and18 million inhabitants.32

wind energy. Furthermore, by retrofitting public andresidential buildings, municipalities can significantly
reduce their energy use and make energy more

11. (Re)municipalisation is a strategy totackle the climate emergency

affordable for everyone.33
In 2018, the Bulgarian city of Dobrich remunicipalised

It will be very challenging to tackle the climate crisis as

its street lighting. As of late 2019, the city had

long as private operators are running energy services

replaced 1,500 old light bulbs with energy-efficientand infrastructure for profit. Maximising sales andLED units. This has cut electricity use for street lighting

returns on investment are at odds with a dramaticby a total of 47 per cent. The city also retrofitted

reduction in energy use. Yet this transition towards

71 municipal buildings and 41 residential apartment

a low-carbon economy that is no longer obsessedblocks, resulting in heating bills that were between

with the extractive ‘growth’ that continues to fuel

30 and 60 per cent lower for thousands of families.34

catastrophic climate change is urgently needed.
Ending privatisation allows municipalities toMunicipalities and public authorities are better

coordinate public policy in order to meet today’s

positioned than multinationals to prioritise long-

biggest challenges, which include tackling the climate

term ecological concerns over short-term financial

crisis and poverty. Our research identified at leastconsiderations. While international and country-wide

209 cases of (re)municipalisation that strive forcoordination is clearly vital for achieving a global

better policy coordination to improve equality,

energy transition, many communities, citizens andsustainability and social cohesion. They do this bycities are already reacting to the climate crisis byinterlinking emissions reductions and energy poverty,

retrofitting the housing stock, generating renewable

for example. Privatised power companies on the otherenergy in their regions, localising food systems andhand generally continue to rely on fossil fuels, andaddressing the risks of extreme weather events.

their price hikes may result in unbearable conditions
for residents living in energy poverty.35

Our research found that tackling the climate crisis,
for example by switching to renewable energy andreducing CO2 emissions, was a key reason for (re)22 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

Both the impacts of the climate crisis and municipal

town’s resilience, the unit is specifically prioritising

responses differ widely from one geographical context

the needs of women, children, the elderly andto another. As many communities in the global South

people with disabilities.37

have been at the frontline of the climate crisis for along time, local authorities have needed to mitigate
against the impacts of so-called climate disasters.

Case study N - Rennes, France: Water

In the Philippines, for example, municipalities aremanagement, organic agriculture and quality

developing services to support not only farmers but

food for school children

also the more vulnerable people in society.
Rennes, in the Brittany region of France, remuReclaiming transport and waste services can also

nicipalised its water service in 2014. In a region

help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The recent

known for its polluting industrial agriculture,

remunicipalisation of public transport in the Dutch

protecting water sources was a key long-term

cities of Rotterdam and The Hague for example hasconcern for the remunicipalised operator. The city’s

enabled both cities to partially replace their fleets

Terre de Sources (‘Land of Springs’) programme,with electric buses. In another case, the French city oflaunched in 2015, has been helping farmers with

Briançon committed to achieving ‘zero waste’ when

the switch to a pesticide-free agro-ecological mode

it remunicipalised its waste services in 2013, andof production as a way to prevent water pollution

has already reduced the amount of waste produced

at the source. Simultaneously, the initiative has

by 33 per cent.

increased local demand for the farmers’ produce
by linking up with school canteens in the wider
Rennes area and by creating a new label under theCase study M - Cities across the Philippines:

Terre de Sources name that facilitates commercial

Addressing the impacts of extreme weather events

sales of their local, sustainably produced foods insupermarkets. Other French cities, including Paris,

In the Philippine cities of Dumangas, Gerona, andhave developed similar programmes to protect

Siargao, the local governments have created climate

their catchment areas as well as to provide qual-

schools to help farmers and fishing communities

ity food for school children and avoid expensive

to better address the impacts of extreme weather

water treatment.38

events and other climate-related hazards thatare threatening their incomes and livelihoods. Bylearning how to monitor weather changes and adjust
agricultural practices accordingly, students of the

12. Public-public cooperation can counter
corporate power

Dumangas climate school have already managed
to improve local rice production.36

Remunicipalisation can be a very uneven battle. Local
public authorities and communities have far fewer
resources than big corporations. Local, national andCase study O - Lanuza, Philippines: Disaster riskinternational cooperation between public operators

reduction and rehabilitation

is key to shifting the balance of power. Whether
informal or institutionally formalised, public-public

The surfing town of Lanuza has created acooperation has often been critical to the growth

Disaster Risk Reduction and Rehabilitation unitof the (re)municipalisation movement. In the caseto improve the resilience of the municipalityof the French water sector, where Suez and Veolia

in the face of the worsening climate crisis. As

initially controlled all levers of power – policy,

the local economy is highly dependent upon its

research, technology and advice to local authorities

forests, watersheds and mangroves, it is using a– pioneering public authorities such as Grenoble andcomprehensive framework that takes into accountParis played a key role in initiating and fostering thisthe interdependence between people’s livelihoods

kind of active collaboration. Without such synergy atand the entire ecosystem. In order to enhance thethe municipal level, (re)municipalisation would nothave been possible.39

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 23

Public-public cooperation also remains essential in the

Nice’s Côte d’Azur was the country’s first

period following remunicipalisation. This is especially‘metropolitan area’ when it was created in 2012.

true when it comes to research and development;

The area is unique in that the great majority of

new public services must be solidified and able tothe vast extent of its land is located in rural or

respond to new challenges. Partnerships between

mountainous areas, ranging from the alpine peaks

public operators, along with alliances with academicof the Mercantour National Park all the way to theinstitutions, can offer effective responses to this end.

Mediterranean Sea. The main reason that the city

This type of knowledge creation and management

chose the path of remunicipalisation was its aim to

is not done for commercial reasons, with the intent

establish “territorial solidarity” across this very largeof developing and selling patented technologicaland incredibly varied area; private management

solutions. It is carried out with the public interest

had become “unsuitable” for an area of this size.

in mind, and in such a way that allows for flexibility

Today, 33 of Nice’s 49 municipalities – roughly

in the adaptation of knowledge to local conditions.

80 per cent of the population – depend on the
newly created public company Eau d’Azur.

Such forms of public cooperation are also key inextending public services to countries or areas where

Only public management was thought to be capable

the private sector has been unwilling or unable toof promoting solidarity-based relationships andprovide coverage, including rural regions, low-income

the necessary ‘pooling of resources’ between theneighbourhoods and disinvested communities. It was

metropolitan area’s municipalities. Eau d’Azur is

critical in extending community-owned broadband

now planning to further standardise the quality

internet infrastructure to small and rural towns inof its service and its water prices throughout the

the United States. In the water sector, not-for-profit

Nice metropolitan area.40

public-public partnerships with established operators
have helped newly created or fragile operators (forinstance in the global South) to consolidate their

Case study Q - Nottingham, UK: Energy supply

operations and become more efficient.
Robin Hood Energy is a municipal energy supplier
Often, the consolidation of public services in rural(and a ‘Living Wage Employer’) in Nottingham. It

regions and urban areas – in other words, the merging

was created in 2015 to fight energy poverty andof small local public services into larger ones – ischallenge the country’s Big Six energy companies

seen as being favourable to privatisation, as it createsby offering guaranteed price transparency, banninglarger markets that are more desirable for private

director bonuses and excluding private shareholders.

companies. Interestingly however, harnessing the forceof public-public cooperation can turn this situation

Today, this not-for-profit company assists andupside down and make consolidation an opportunity

partners with nine other UK cities that have set

for remunicipalisation and democratisation on aup their own ‘white label’ enterprises to offer thelarger scale.

same affordable tariff to all of their residents.
Through these public partnerships, Robin Hood
Energy is already serving a total of over 130,000

Case study P - Nice metropolitan area, France:

users across the country. The company is reinvestingWater

all of its surplus (£200,000 pounds in 2019) inmore renewable and affordable energy services:

Councillors from Nice and its surrounding communes

for example by offering a ‘warm home’ discount.

announced in 2013 that the city’s water services

It also partners with a number of social housing

would gradually shift towards public management.

associations and supports municipalities in the

The private company that had been in charge ofprovision of energy efficiency services.41

water management in this fifth largest city in France
had been in operation ever since the metropole’s
water system was first set up in 1864.

24 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

Conclusion: Moving forward

Notification Directive. Thanks to concerted efforts
by civil society groups across Europe, this Directive

Remunicipalisation and municipalisation are powerful

was put on hold for over a year. But in March 2020,

political strategies to fight against privatisation

European Commissioners gave a new push for theand the extractive economy at large. Whereas most

Directive by launching the Single Market Enforce-national governments are failing to address extreme

ment Action Plan. If this initiative gets through, theinequality and the ecological crisis, many cities arenotification procedure could curtail the democratic

stepping up to tackle these challenges and improveright of municipalities to regulate corporate giants

the livelihoods of their residents. Local people andlike Airbnb and Carrefour.42

workers have much to gain from pushing their local
governments to reverse privatisation and democratise

Countless trade and investment agreements provide

their public services.

transnational corporations with the legal tools tosue national governments for hundreds of millions

Some very progressive municipalities are recentering

or even billions of dollars when the democratic

their policies and public services to prioritise thedecisions of municipalities potentially curb futureneeds of the most marginalised people in our

profits. Some of these agreements, such as the EU’s

society, including undocumented migrants, people

Energy Charter Treaty, are explicitly used to thwart

with disabilities and low-income families. Moreenvironmental policy.43 Moreover, as long as municipal

democratic local authorities even dare to shareand cooperative enterprises have to compete withdecision-making powers and open up ownershipbig business, the majority of small-scale solutions

models to representatives of users, workers, civil

will have a hard time surviving. The painful proof

society and research institutions. Public ownershipof this reality is the many Danish as well as a few

sometimes has the reputation of being top-down,

German energy cooperatives that have disappeared

discarding the realities on the ground. But many of

due to increased competition.44

the cases that we have presented here demonstratethat the delivered democratic innovation puts the

Since austerity measures following the 2008 financial‘public’ back into public services. These are vitalcrisis have slashed municipal public sector budgets,

contributions to the building of public ownership in

it is of the utmost importance to transform the way

the 21st century.

in which public resources are spent. As demonstrated
by the COVID-19 outbreak, public services are theMunicipalities are at the forefront of creating

backbone of our society. But sufficient funding isdemocratic public ownership. Municipal practices

needed before societies can rely on these services,– from the participatory mechanisms of citizens’

especially in times of crisis. And although someobservatories to diversified public ownership andgovernments have already pledged to increase public

worker engagement – can inspire a broader, country-

spending in the health sector, we need to be careful

wide vision of democratic public ownership. Not onlythat this money actually benefits public services andare these bottom-up initiatives to build collective

is not used to promote further PPPs and other forms

ownership urgently needed, but they are also aof private sector involvement.

powerful basis to push for public ownership on alllevels and in all regions.

In the current model, public finance is used to absorb
risk by guaranteeing the profits of private investors.

However, we have a big battle to fight against theThis comes at a very high public cost. As Thomas

huge corporate forces that are teaming up for even

Marois points out, public finance institutions havegreater market dominance, competition and pri-

US$73 trillion in assets worldwide, with over half ofvatisation. The EU Services Directive (also known

that in the hands of public banks.45 In total, this is

as the Bolkestein Directive) has already pushed

equivalent to 93 per cent of the global Gross Domestic

liberalisation in a wide range of services over the

Product. Hence, it would be much more effective if

past decade. In 2018, powerful business lobbies

national and municipal governments were to cut

craving even more hard-core liberalisation nearly
succeeded in pressuring the EU to pass the Services

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 25

out the big private middlemen and invest theseThis research demonstrates that when essential services

public funds directly into society. Combining direct

are publicly owned and democratically organised they

public investment with a much-needed progressive

can effectively strengthen community wealth, localise

tax system could nurture territorial solidarity by

the economy and fulfil people’s collective needs. Let’s

writing universal public services into reality. If quality

extend the demand for democratic public ownership

public services were universal, spanning the local toto the highest levels and start calling for universal

the national and the urban to the rural, they could

access to each and every public service so that all

redistribute wealth and battle geographical inequalities.

residents can lead dignified and prosperous lives.

If social movements act together in demanding
democratic public ownership on the regional and

As racism, fascism and the far right are on the rise,country levels, we could actually change the designoffering viable systemic solutions that work for bothfor how our economies and public services are run.

people and the planet can significantly help to rebuild

In the United States, numerous cities are advocating

our democracies, societies and economies on the basis

for locally owned and controlled energy and bankingof solidarity and cooperation so that they work forservices. Since 2019, the youth-led Sunrise Movement,

the many, and not just the few. Our public future

various trade unions and presidential candidate Bernielies in the hands of communities – not corporations.

Sanders have been calling for a national Green New
Deal that centres around the public ownership ofenergy, housing and finance. The COVID-19 outbreakhas further increased the urgency and necessity ofthese calls. When municipalities team up with social
movements, they can reset a country’s political
agenda.46
Inspiration also comes from the trade unions andcivil society organisations that are challenging theSouth African government to rebuild Eskom, one of
the biggest electricity companies in the world, intoa fully public and people-serving utility.47 And in
the UK, despite its electoral loss, the Labour Party’s
2019 manifesto was a good example of the type ofnational support and policy framework that would
allow local governments to reclaim public services
and rebuild their capacity to directly provide local
services.

26 | The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services

Endnotes
1.

2.

Kishimoto, S. and Petitjean, O. (2017). Reclaiming Public Services:
How citizens and cities are turning back privatisation, Amsterdam:
Transnational Institute. https://www.tni.org/en/publication/
reclaiming-public-services
These forces include the International Monetary Fund,the World Bank, the World Trade Organisation, theOrganisation for Economic Cooperation and Development,
the European Union, national Chambers of Commerce andtrade ministries, transnational corporations and the lobbies
that represent them, and the ‘Big Four’ audit firms Deloitte,
PricewaterhouseCoopers, Ernst & Young and KPMG, among
others.

25.

See Chapter 12, ‘The labour dimension of remunicipalisation:
Public service workers and trade unions in transition’ by Daria
Cibrario.

26.

See Chapter 1, ‘Norway: Bankruptcy sparks more than 100
cases of remunicipalisation’ by Nina Monsen and Bjørn
Pettersen.

27.

Ibid.

28.

Roth, L and Shea Baird, K. (2019), Municipalism and the
Feminization of Politics. Roarmag. Issue 6. https://roarmag.
org/magazine/municipalism-feminization-urban-politics/

29.

Billing, L. (2020), What does feminist leadership look like ina pandemic?, Medium. https://medium.com/@leila_billing/
what-does-feminist-leadership-look-like-in-a-pandemic35b2ee0eb994

30.

Quiray, K.M. and Manahan M.A. (2012), Bridging the Gap
in Water Service Provision in the Philippines: New Roles forCommunities, Focus on the Global South. https://focusweb.
org/bridging-the-gap-in-water-service-provision-in-thephilippines-new-roles-for-communities/3.

See Chapter 3, ‘Canada: Local insourcing in face of national
privatization push’ by Robert Ramsay.

4.

Report about PFI and PF2 by the National Audit Office, January
2018. https://www.nao.org.uk/report/pfi-and-pf2/

5.

HC Treasury Committee, Private Finance Initiative, Seventeenth
Report of Session 2010–2012, HC 1146, July 2011, paragraph
48.

31.

6.

Refers to figures published by the municipality of Valladolid:
https://www.valladolid.es/es/actualidad/noticias/aquavallconsigue-beneficios-13-millones-euros-destinados-i

See Chapter 9, ‘USA: Communities providing affordable, fast
broadband Internet’ by Thomas M. Hanna and Christopher
Mitchell.

32.

7.

See Chapter 5, ‘Africa: Private waste service failure &alternative vision’ by Vera Weghmann.

See Chapter 5, ‘Africa: Private waste service failure &alternative vision’ by Vera Weghmann.

33.

8.

8 See Chapter 1, ‘Norway: Bankruptcy sparks more than
100 cases of remunicipalisation’ by Nina Monsen and Bjørn
Pettersen.

See Chapter 15, ‘Putting energy democracy at the heart of aGreen New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe’ by Lavinia
Steinfort.

34.

9.

See Chapter 4, ‘Outsourcing: Problems without benefits? The
Danish experience with outsourcing and remunicipalisation’ byThomas Enghausen.

For more information, see: https://municipalpower.org/
articles/how-dobrich-is-pioneering-the-energy-transitionin-bulgaria/

35.

10.

Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty andhuman rights, United Nations General Assembly, September
2018. https://undocs.org/A/73/396

Energy poverty relates to the inability to properly light, heat orcool one’s home, due to a combination of high energy prices,
low incomes and inadequate housing. https://righttoenergy.
org/

11.

See Chapter 2, ‘Paris celebrates decade of public water success’
by Celia Blauel.

36.

For more information, see: http://resilient-cities.iclei.org/
fileadmin/sites/resilient-cities/files/Images_and_logos/
dumangas_climate_field_school.pdf

12.

Portal Rasmi Kerajaan Negeri Selangor, “Inisiatif Peduki
Rakyat”, available at: https://www.selangor.gov.my/index.php/
pages/view/2534 Also see Chapter 7, ‘Putting the ‘public’ inpublic services: (Re)municipalisation cases in Malaysia and thePhilippines’ by Mary Ann Manahan and Laura Stegemann.

37.

Cadiogan, A. (2016), A test of local climate adaptation,
Rappler, 29 November. https://www.rappler.com/move-ph/issues/disasters/thought-leaders/153969-test-local-climateadaptation

13.

For more information, see: https://interaktiv.morgenpost.de/berlinmieten/

38.

14.

Paul, U. (2019), Deutsche Wohnen: Warum das Urteil zur KarlMarx-Allee für Berlin positiv ist, Berliner Zeitung, 19 April.
https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/berlin/deutsche-wohnenwarum-das-urteil-zur-karl-marx-allee-fuer-berlin-positivist-32402122

Binctin, B. (2020), Quand la protection de l’eau se transforme
en repas de qualités pour les écoliers, Observatoire desMultinationales. https://multinationales.org/Quand-laprotection-de-l-eau-se-transforme-en-repas-de-qualitespour-les

39.

See Chapter 11, ‘The empire strikes back: Corporate responses
to remunicipalisation’ by Olivier Petitjean.

40.

For more information see: http://www.remunicipalisation.
org/#case_Nice41.

Presentation by Mark Bramah, Consultant at Robin Hood
Energy: https://www.cn2019.org/fileadmin/inhalte/
Presentations/WS4_The_city_as_an_energy_services_
provider.pdf

42.

Hoedeman, O. (2020), How EU rules are getting in the wayof progressive public policy – and how cities are fighting
back. openDemocracy. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/
oureconomy/how-eu-rules-are-getting-in-the-way-ofprogressive-public-policy-and-how-cities-are-fighting-back/43.

Eberthardt, P. and Olivet, C. (2018), One Treaty to rule themall. Transnational Institute and Corporate Europe Observatory.
https://www.tni.org/files/publication-downloads/one_treaty_
to_ruled_them_all.pdf

44.

Wierling, A. et al. (2018), ‘Statistical evidence on the role ofenergy cooperatives for the energy transition in European
countries’. Sustainability 10(9). https://www.mdpi.com/20711050/10/9/3339

45.

Marois, T. (2019), ‘Public Banking on the Future We Want’,in Public Finance for the Future We Want. Amsterdam:
Transnational Institute. https://www.tni.org/en/publicfinance46.

For more information, see: https://berniesanders.com/en/
issues/green-new-deal/

47.

For more information, see: https://www.new-eskom.org/

15.

rbb 24 (2019), Land Berlin kauft 6.000 Wohnungen zurück,
27 September. https://www.rbb24.de/politik/beitrag/2019/09/
berlin-kauft-6000-wohnungen-zurueck.html

16.

For more information, see: https://stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/wohnen/wohnraum/mietendeckel/

17.

See Chapter 6, ‘National, regional and local moves towards
public ownership in the UK’ by David Hall.

18.

ソウルの市民民主主義 日本の政治を変えるために、白石 孝(編著)、2018年

19.

See Chapter 8, ‘Rebuilding public ownership in Chile: The social
practices of the Recoleta commune and the challenges toovercoming neoliberalism’ by Alexander Panez Pinto.

20.

Rui, T. (2016), Relatório da Pesquisa de Avaliação Preliminar do
programa ‘De Braços Abertos’, Plataforma Brasileira de Política
de Drogas. http://pbpd.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/
Pesquisa-De-Bra%C3%A7os-Abertos-1-2.pdf

21.

For more information, see: http://www.remunicipalisation.
org/#case_Ramos%20Arizpe

22.

Russell, B. (2019). This small German town took backthe power and went fully renewable. Ponderwall. https://
ponderwall.com/index.php/2019/12/08/wolfhagen-germantown-fully-renewable/

23.

See Chapter 10, ‘A new water culture: Catalonia’s public cogovernance model in the making’ by Míriam Planas and Juan
Martínez.

24.

For more information, see: https://municipalpower.org/articles/
plymouth-energy-community-a-story-about-energytransition-and-social-justice/

The Future is Public: Towards Democratic Public Services | 27