Chapter 15

Putting energy democracy at
the heart of a Green New Deal tocounter the climate catastrophe
By Lavinia Steinfort

Youth climate activists have taken to the streets to demand immediate
action from political power holders. They brought the issues of climate
and labour together by calling for a global climate strike in September
2019, in which an historic 7.6 million students, (grand)parents andworkers from 185 countries participated. Over 70 trade unions around theworld supported the general strike and the number of climate groups thatare demanding just transition pathways for fossil fuel workers are alsosteadily increasing.
The European landscape of climate activism is becoming densely
populated. Numerous communities are defending nature along with theirlivelihoods. Initiatives like the German anti-coal coalition Ende Gelände
practice civil disobedience to mobilise large numbers of activists forclimate justice. Most of the ongoing demonstrations in 2020 – such as
Fridays for Future, Extinction Rebellion and Earth Strike – are led bypupils and students who are joined by their families and teachers on
the streets. Some, like the Shell Must Fall alliance,1 are more explicitly
tying corporate power to the climate crisis that has long been destroying
communities and the biosphere, particularly in the global South. Or takethe overlap between climate activism and the Gilets Jaunes protesters’
struggle; they successfully mobilised hundreds of millions of lower andmiddle-class folks across France to fight Olivier Macron’s so-calledcarbon taxes, which follow an extractivist logic in favour of the rich andpaid for by the impoverished.2 The message: climate action must haveeconomic justice at its heart.

215

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

Photo of Fridays for Future in Sanremo, Italy. Credit: Tommi Boom, Flickr, Licence CC BY-SA 2.0

The alliance for a Green New Deal for Europe3 was formed to turn demands
for climate justice into policy proposals. Soon after even the European
Commission (EC) endorsed the call for a Green New Deal to re-evaluate
the European Union’s policies in light of the climate and ecologicalemergency.4 However, the EC’s focus on economic growth has proven toprioritise private profits (i.e. privatisation) over social and environmental
concerns. The experience of many cities and citizens is that big businessis blocking the energy transition. By reclaiming energy grids and services,and creating democratic public ownership models, they have been able
to take climate actions that put people and planet first. For the labourand climate justice movements to prevail, we need to collectively standup against market solutions and build on the diverse forms of energy
democracy that are already being developed across Europe.

216

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

How market solutions continue to fail people andplanet
The first half of 2019 was the worst for clean energy spending in six
years, with investments dropping globally.5 There has been a slowdown
in the shift to renewable electricity across the EU since 2014, with annual
investments in renewables dropping by 50 per cent between 2011 and2017.6 The EC has warned its member states that their energy and climate
plans are unlikely to meet the EU 2030 targets for renewable energy andenergy efficiency. Half of the EU countries will probably not even meettheir 2020 target for renewables.7 As Trade Unions for Energy Democracy
explains in much more detail,8 leaving renewable energy to the market
implies that small energy companies have to compete with the big
multinationals for subsidies and energy supply. This approach has failed
to bring the necessary investments. Since 1996, the EC has been pushingfor energy liberalisation. The promise was that this would increase
competition. However, by 2009 only five big energy companies werestill dominating the European market.9 This market approach is not only
leaving many Europeans in energy poverty,10 it also has not delivered anenergy transition at the needed scale and speed. For the last two decades,
it was not competition but public policy and state aid, often in the form of
feed-in tariffs (FiTs),11 that drove the growth of solar and wind electricity.
This caused renewable energy prices to drop while people’s energy
bills were increasing,12 because users were ultimately paying for thesesubsidies – lower income users in particular. For example, in Italy 85 percent of the FiTs’ benefits went to large producers and Italian users had tofoot the bill.13 Or take the Netherlands, where the vast majority of publicresources spent on climate and energy policy goes to corporations. Only
one fourth of the funds benefits households, of which higher income onesreceive as much as 80 per cent.14 Because of the initial growth of solar
and wind renewables, many European governments got convinced thatthe energy transition was no longer dependent on subsidies and decided
to partially or completely revoke their FiTs schemes. However, without

217

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

state subsidies and with lower prices for renewables, markets do notdeliver the high returns that private investors are looking for. Moreover,across Europe FiTs have been replaced by competitive bidding, further
benefiting the large and established companies.15 As a result, smaller
energy cooperatives have had to close down in Denmark and Germany,
which shows where current policies could lead us. Generally, investments
in renewables in European countries continue to plummet.16
In the meantime, Europe’s civil society has been doing a whole lot of
advocacy to push the EC to acknowledge the rights of citizens and cooperatives in its Clean Energy Package. But as the EC continues to put allits faith in market rule and competition, it reduces EU citizens to theirmarket value. The package requires EU countries to implement legislationthat protects the right of citizens and so-called energy communities to
produce, sell and store their own energy.17 Although this may benefit
the more affluent European citizenry, these ‘market rights’ turn users
into market players who have to compete with each other while being
outcompeted by the energy incumbents. This approach can only increase
the power of the big energy companies, which will undermine the smaller
energy initiatives that the rulebook promises to protect. Labour andclimate justice movements need to jointly push back against the fallacy
of market competition so that our policies no longer treat the climate andenergy transition as a class privilege, but as a human right.

Why we need democratic public ownership for a
successful energy transition
To kick-start the energy transition, especially a just one, we can nolonger waste time and public funding on the private and incumbent
companies seeking guaranteed profits. Instead, we should take the wholeenergy sector out of the market and into democratic public ownership.
From South Africa to the United States, campaigns that aim to prevent orreverse energy privatisations and build or transform public enterprises

218

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

in an equitable and ecological fashion are in full swing. This is because
energy privatisations, public-private partnerships (including powerpurchase agreements) and outsourcing models have led to worsening
labour conditions, massive price hikes and a dire lack of investments.
In South Africa, a coalition consisting of trade unions and civil society
organisations is fighting to save and transform the electricity multinational
Eskom. The government wants to break up and sell off its generation,transmission and distribution sections.18 Because this notorious WorldBank policy of ‘unbundling’ is known for ushering in private companies,
the coalition is proposing to build a new Eskom that is ‘fully public andserving the people’ in order to develop its renewable potential in waysthat create jobs and improve everyone’s life quality.19
In his Green New Deal proposal, US presidential candidate Bernie Sanders
called for realising full public ownership over renewable energy and theentire power system by favouring ‘public power districts and municipallyand cooperatively-owned utilities’.20 This declaration is, on the one hand,a response to the horrific Californian wildfires caused by the negligence of
the American investor-owned utility Pacific Gas & Electric. On the other
hand, it builds on the growing number of citizen campaigns – from San
Francisco and Lancester to Hermiston and Minnesota – that successfully
pushed their local authorities to provide publicly owned electricity fromrenewable sources. Popular pressure from across US cities and states havebeen a pre-condition for Sanders to put country-wide public ownership ofelectricity on the agenda.
European civil society can learn from the South African and UnitedStates campaigns given we face similar bottlenecks. Firstly, they point
to the necessary strategy of proposing pathways to transform Europe’s
corporatised state-owned electricity companies – such as EDF (France),
RWE and E.ON (Germany), Iberdrola (Spain), ENEL (Italy) and Vattenfall(Sweden) – into democratic public entities considering they currently

219

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

behave, domestically and internationally, like predatory multinationals.
Secondly, these campaigns show that the localised and country-wide
demands for publicly owned energy systems should not oppose but
strengthen one another.
It is clear that we need to develop comprehensive proposals for carefullyplanned energy transitions that are country- and continent-wide. But
for these to be endorsed by politicians and policy-makers, grassroots
engagement is essential. This will only reach a tipping point when residents
are experiencing the benefits that the many forms of public ownershipcan bring. Reversing energy privatisations and setting up municipally
owned energy company – in other words, (re)municipalisation – is one
strategy for democratising our energy systems and for building more just
local economies.
In 2017, the Transnational Institute reported in Reclaiming Public Services
that since the start of the twenty-first century, 311 energy services andinfrastructure have either been reclaimed (189) or newly built (122).21
In 2019, the figure of reported (re)municipalisations had risen to an
impressive 374. To show the variety of municipal energy ownershipmodels, and ways in which it can deepen democracy, let us zoom in on
Germany, the United Kingdom, Bulgaria and Spain.

Germany: remunicipalisations to participate in energy
governance
The German energy transition was enabled by an alliance between theSocial Democrats and Green Party, those who introduced FiTs in 2000.
The Big Four energy companies failed to shift to renewable energy, forexample by adjusting the grids for decentralised generation. This coincidedwith many grid concession contracts having expired in the previous two
decades. The anti-nuclear and renewable energy movements pushedhundreds of municipalities to reclaim the grids and create their own local

220

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

supply companies. Exemplary remunicipalisations have happened in
Wolfhagen and Hamburg.
In Wolfhagen, as the contract with private operator E.ON expired andafter three years of tough negotiations, the municipal council managed
to remunicipalise its electricity grid in 2006. The impact has been extraordinary. The annual profit resulted in cheaper prices for electricity,
a two-fold expansion in staff and even allowed to fund the local
kindergarten. Then, after a fierce public debate about the need to go 100
per cent renewable, the town did not have to turn to big private investors,
because residents were able and willing to organise themselves and set
up a citizen co-operative to raise the millions needed to pay for thewind turbines.22 This public–citizen partnership led to improved local
economic democracy as the co-operative became the owner of a quarterof the municipal energy company’s assets and now has two seats on its
board.
Similarly, the Hamburg government decided to create the public energy
supplier Hamburg Energie, but was not willing to remunicipalise the energy
infrastructure. The inhabitants successfully organised a referendum in2013 to reclaim the city’s electricity, gas and heating grids. By 2016, thecity had completely bought back the electricity grid and one year into the
remunicipalisation it had generated savings of €34.5 million. Parallel tothat, it created the Energy Advisory Board, as part of the public energy
agency, with 20 local representatives from the social, science, industry
and business sectors. Their meetings are open to the public, giving
citizens the opportunity to ask questions and submit proposals.23 Then,in 2018, the gas and heating grids were reclaimed as well.

221

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

United Kingdom: transitioning to new public energy
enterprises
Eleven per cent of the UK population is facing energy poverty withthousands of people dying because of cold homes every winter.24 Citizens’
mobilisations have led in recent years to the creation of a public energy
company in Nottingham and an energy community organisation in
Plymouth. Their purpose is to offer more affordable tariffs, providing
energy efficiency services and supporting renewable energy generation.
Plymouth Energy Community (PEC) is a member-owned community
benefit organisation created in 2013 with the support of City Council. The
city provided a grant, loans and staff expertise so that the organisation
could strengthen local capacities to ‘create a fair, affordable, low-carbon
energy system with local people at its heart’. In 2014, it created PEC
Renewables, which funds, installs and manages local renewable energy
generation schemes. By 2019, PEC supported more than 20,000 households
to save over £1 million on their energy bills, clearing over £26,000 insmall debts.25 PEC also built a solar farm on a plot of contaminated land.
Combined with the rooftop panels on schools and community buildings,
the city is producing 6 MW of renewable energy. Revenue is expected
to reach up to £1.5 million and will be reinvested in carbon and energy
poverty reduction projects.26
Robin Hood Energy is a municipal energy supplier in Nottingham thatwas created in 2015 to fight energy poverty and take on the country’s Big
Six energy companies by guaranteeing transparent pricing, no private
shareholders and no director bonuses. Today, it partners with nine otherUK cities to offer certified green energy and better tariffs to residents
across the country. It now supplies energy to 130,000 users, has 200
employees and has already made savings of £200,000, which is being
fully reinvested in more affordable and renewable energy services.27

222

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

However, for these municipal and community-owned companies to succeed and not outcompete each other, the whole energy system needs to bereclaimed. The Labour Party published a report that called for the creationof a National Energy Agency.28 This agency would own the transmission
lines and be in charge of planning and setting decarbonisation targets.
Regional authorities would own distribution grids. Municipalities andcommunities would be able to locally produce renewable energy and supply residents. This scaled and integrated approach would be able to serve
the entire territory, replacing competition with collaboration.

Bulgaria: learning from public control practices
Bulgaria is among the hardest hit by the climate crisis in Europe. It also
faces the highest level of energy poverty, affecting 37 per cent of the
population. While the national government is still betting on coal, municipalities are fighting the climate crisis much more actively. Particularly,
the city of Dobrich has become a role model for other European cities
wanting to transform their energy system, despite limited financial
resources. The municipality has built up refurbishment expertise, which
has led to 30–60 per cent lower energy bills for thousands of families.29
In 2018, it remunicipalised its street lighting, and the city is switching to
LED lights.
Dobrich also benefited from a refurbishment partnership with ENEMONA,a private construction company. Because public-private partnerships
tend to socialise losses and privatise profits, the City of Dobrich decided
to enter into a contract that explicitly guarantees a strong performanceby the private company. It forced the construction company to generateenergy and financial savings for the municipality when its nurseryand kindergarten were refurbished, among other public buildings.
The contract ensured that public interest rather than private gain wasprioritised in this partnership. The kindergarten refurbishment alone
resulted in 112 tons of annual CO2 reductions, €15,000 in annual savingsand 40 per cent reduced energy use.

223

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

Spain: cities and citizens join forces to build energy
democracies
In 2015, building on the 15-M movement in which millions of residents
occupied city squares, Spanish citizens’ platforms brought progressive‘municipalist’ candidates to power. With 15 per cent of the population
living in energy poverty and electricity prices having increased by 83 percent since 2013, fighting the private power system and building energy
democracy was a key priority for these municipalist city councils.

Photo of Plaza de Catalunya occupation in Barcelona on 22 May, 2015. Credit: Fotomovimiento, Flickr,
Licence CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

The solutions that have been developed range from setting up newmunicipal electricity companies (Barcelona, Pamplona and Palma de
Mallorca), involving residents in writing more just energy policies (Cadiz)and getting united in the Spanish Platform for a New Energy Model(Plataforma por un Nuevo Modelo Energético), in which municipalists can
exchange lessons learned and best practices. Hundreds of cities are now

224

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

also contracting renewable energy co-operatives, such as Som Energia
and GioEner, with some municipalities agreeing to pay the electricity
bills for impoverished families in their area.30
Moreover, the Network for Energy Sovereignty developed 19 policy
recommendations31 for Spanish municipalities to more systematicallyinvolve citizens in energy decision-making. For example, the network
proposes ways for women, in particular single mothers who are thehardest affected by the fossil fuel model, to steer the climate and energy
transition towards an ecofeminist economy.
In 2018, the governing citizen platform Barcelona en Comu created the
new energy retail company Barcelona Energia to buy energy directlyfrom renewable sources. In 2019, the municipality created a participatory
council that is open to users and citizens’ groups and is authorised tosubmit proposals on the strategic direction of the company, give input on
issues, such as tariffs and investments, and help shape education policies.
The city launched special tariffs too. One is for those who use less energy
to benefit from a cheaper tariff and the other is a ‘solar’ tariff to support
users who produce and use their own energy. The new public company
is supplying the municipal buildings and can serve 20,000 households.
Once in office, the municipalists of Cadiz created two permanent
citizen working groups to fight energy poverty and complete the energy
transition. They pushed the city administration to generate solar
power and switch its whole energy use towards renewable electricity.32
It organised residents who face energy poverty to co-design a social
discount programme, which would guarantee electricity access to over
2,000 families in need by reducing bills by up to 80 per cent. Moreover,due to improved synergies between the city council and the semi-public
electricity company, 55 per cent of the company’s revenues are now being
reinvested to cover the costs of municipal energy use and pay for thesocial discount. This has prevented disconnection for thousands of homes
every year.

225

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

Conclusion
Corporate power will continue to fuel the climate crisis, especially given
many big energy companies have the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) on
their side33 to curtail the democratic powers of more than 50 countries.
The treaty’s investment protection mechanism – also known as investor–
state dispute settlement – enables powerful energy companies to sue
countries for outrageously high sums of money. Three foreign investors
have used this mechanism to pressure Bulgaria into paying hundredsof millions of dollars for decisions that would limit their profits andcombat energy poverty. Moreover, the German multinational Uniper has
threatened to use the ECT to sue the Netherlands, if it were to approve a
law to phase out coal-fired power plants.34 For many civil society groups
it has become crystal clear that the ECT gives corporations the power tohalt the energy transition.
Given the persisting powers of fossil fuel companies, it should come asno surprise that for 2018 global carbon emissions hit a record high, while
use of fossil fuels grew with the demand for gas, oil and coal which all
increased, and the energy demand reached its fastest pace this decade.35
Building energy democracies to avert the climate catastrophe would help
reverse these trends; it would also entail a transformation of our food,transport and industrial systems. However, since energy is the lifebloodof these systems, a more comprehensive transition is not possible if
governments continue to rely on big business.
The public strategies discussed in this chapter are preventing andreversing the privatisation of energy and infrastructure, slowly chippingaway at big energy’s stranglehold, as well as transforming and building
new public companies that are equitable and ecologically sound. Thereis much to learn from the concrete municipal practices presented here,
especially when local authorities partner with co-operatives and give users
and workers decision-making powers. Yet we must also acknowledge

226

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophethat these small-scale alternatives as well as many climate actions canbe easily quelled by big business. For this reason, we need to organise
ourselves en masse to stop the ECT and turn back energy privatisations,while creating a public energy economy of the largest scale.
Most importantly, a Green New Deal will only be meaningful if we takeour country-wide energy systems out of the market and into democratic
public ownership. Otherwise, we will fall short of achieving anythingclose to an energy transition, locally and around the world. At the sametime, public energy is a necessary starting point but will not be enoughif the most affected communities are not in the driving seat of renewableenergy systems.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Lavinia Steinfort is a social geographer
and political activist. As a researcher at theTransnational Institute (TNI) she is working on
public alternatives such as (re)municipalisationof public services, a just transition towards
energy democracy and transforming financefor the 99%. Lavinia is co-implementing the‘mPOWER’ project that facilitates peer learning
among European energy transition cities andis the coordinator of the international Energy
Democracy alliance. She co-authored the bookCredit: Samir Achbab

Public Finance for the Future We Want and thereport One Treaty to Rule Them All about theEnergy Charter Treaty.

227

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

Endnotes
1

For more information about the Shell Must Fall alliance: https://code-rood.org/en/shell-mustfall/2

Dianara, A. (2018) ‘We’re with the Rebels’. Jacobin Magazine, 30 November. Available at:https://jacobinmag.com/2018/11/yellow-vests-france-gilets-jaunes-fuel-macron?fbclid=IwAR3_
sy8C-J4NKrERbBpebrhGX2-3G9-Ego3rWylQ6Sz5rd-SxOcO6kFKUAg4

3

For more information about the Green New Deal for Europe: https://report.gndforeurope.com/

4

Harvey, F. i.a. (2019) ‘European Green Deal will change economy to solve climate crisis, says
EU’. Guardian, 11 December. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/dec/11/europeangreen-deal-will-change-economy-to-solve-climate-crisis-says-eu

5Porter, G. Jr. (2019) ‘The World Is Spending the Least on Clean Energy in Six Years’.
Bloomberg, 10 July. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-07-10/the-world-is-spending-the-least-on-clean-energy-in-six-years

6

Rueter, G. and Russell, R. (2018) ‘Europe breaks own renewables record — but can’t keep up
with China’. Deutsche Welle, 1 January. https://www.dw.com/en/europe-breaks-own-renewablesrecord-but-cant-keep-up-with-china/a-42386502

7European Court of Auditors (2019) Wind and solar power for electricity generation: Significant
action needed if EU targets to be met. Special report, No 08. Luxemburg: ECA. https://www.eca.
europa.eu/Lists/ECADocuments/SR19_08/SR_PHOTOVOLTAIC_EN.pdf

8

Treat, J. (2019) ‘What Ever Happened to the Energy Transition?’. Trade Unions for Energy
Democracy, June. http://unionsforenergydemocracy.org/what-ever-happened-to-the-energy-transition/

9

Thomas, S. (2018) ‘Corporate performance of the Seven Brothers of the European energy
market: Then there were five’. Utilities Policy, February. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/
article/abs/pii/S0957178717301534

10

The Right to Energy Coalition (2018) ‘Eliminating energy poverty in Europe: The role ofMarket Design’. 11 September.

11

Feed-in tariffs are fixed electricity prices that are paid to renewable energy producers for each
unit of energy produced and injected into the electricity grid. See: https://energypedia.info/wiki/
Feed-in_Tariffs_(FIT)

12

Institute for Energy Research (2018) ‘Global Investment in Renewable Energy Stalled Due to
Subsidy Cuts’. 26 February. https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/global-investment-renewable-energy-stalled-due-subsidy-cuts/

13

Galgóczi, B. (2015) ‘Europe’s energy transformation in the austerity trap’. European
Trade Union Institute, p. 87. https://www.etui.org/Publications2/Books/Europe-s-energy-transformation-in-the-austerity-trap

14

Vergeer, R. (2017) ‘Wie profiteert vn het klimaatbeleid’. CE Delft, April. https://www.ce.nl/
publicaties/1931/wie-profiteert-van-het-klimaatbeleid

15

Alvarez, M. et al. (2017) Auctions for renewable energy support – Taming the beast ofcompetitive bidding. Lyngby, Denmark: Technical University of Denmark, p. 23. https://orbit.
dtu.dk/files/142941994/aures_finalreport.pdf

16

Wierling, A. et al. (2018) ‘Statistical evidence on the role of energy cooperatives for the energy
transition in European countries’. Sustainability 10(9). https://www.mdpi.com/20711050/10/9/3339

17

Friends of the Earth Europe (2019) ‘Unleashing the power of community renewable energy’.
14 February. https://www.foeeurope.org/unleashing-power-community-energy

228

Putting energy democracy at the heart of a Green New Deal to counter the climate catastrophe

18

The electricity multinational has been facing a death spiral because of a drop in electricity
sales, in part because of higher tariffs and renewable energy use that subsidise private operators. For more information: http://aidc.org.za/a-different-eskom-achieving-a-just-energy-transition-for-south-africa/

19

For more information: https://www.new-eskom.org/

20

For more information: https://berniesanders.com/en/issues/green-new-deal/

21

Kishimoto, S. and Petitjean, O. (2017) Reclaiming Public Services: How cities and citizens areturning back privatisation. Amsterdam: Transnational Institute. https://www.tni.org/en/publication/reclaiming-public-services

22

Chakrabortty, A. (2017) ‘How a small town reclaimed its grid and sparked a community
revolution’. The Guardian, 28 February. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/feb/28/small-town-wolfhagen-community-revolution-german-europe-energy-contract

23

World Future Council (2016) ‘Energy remunicipalisation: How Hamburg is buying backenergy grids’. 19 October. https://www.worldfuturecouncil.org/energy-remunicipalisation-hamburg-buys-back-energy-grids/

24

Chapman, B. (2018) ‘Fuel poverty crisis: 3,000 Britons dying each year because they can’t heat
their homes, study shows’. The Independent, 22 February. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/
business/news/cold-weather-uk-winter-deaths-europe-polar-vortex-a8224276.html

25

For more information: https://www.plymouthenergycommunity.com/about/aims-values

26

For more information: https://municipalpower.org/articles/plymouth-energy-community-a-story-about-energy-transition-and-social-justice/27

For more information: https://robinhoodenergy.co.uk/news/robin-hood-energy-story-2018/28

For more information see Labour Party (2019) Bringing energy home: Labour’s plan for
publicly owned energy networks. London: Labour Party.https://www.labour.org.uk/wp-content/
uploads/2019/03/Bringing-Energy-Home-2019.pdf

29

For more information: https://municipalpower.org/articles/how-dobrich-is-pioneering-theenergy-transition-in-bulgaria/

30

For more information: http://www.energy-democracy.net/?p=1050

31

La Xarxa per la sobirania energètica, Xse (2019) Acciones para la soberanía energética desdelos municipios. https://xse.cat/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Proposta-Municipalista-Xse-2019-Cast.
pdf

32

Burgen, S. (2019) ‘Renewable Energy in Cádiz and Barcelona, Spain’. AltEnergyMag, 30
May. https://www.altenergymag.com/article/2019/05/renewable-energy-in-cadiz-and-barcelona-spain/31052

33

Eberthardt, P. and Olivet, C. (2018) One Treaty to rule them all. June. Amsterdam:
Transnational Institute and Corporate Europe Observatory. 13 June.

34

Open letter on the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) to the European Union, 9 December 2019.
http://foeeurope.org/sites/default/files/eu-us_trade_deal/2019/en-ect-open-letter1.pdf

35

Chestney, N. (2019) ‘Global carbon emissions hit record high in 2018: IEA’. Reuters, 26 March.

229