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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Preface
The National Green Hydrogen Mission has been approved by the Union Cabinet on 4th January2023 with an outlay of ₹ 19,744 crore. The Mission aims at making India a global hub of Green
Hydrogen production, utilization and export. A key component of the proposed Mission is toestablish a conducive Research and Innovation ecosystem for Green Hydrogen in the country.
In the run up to the Mission’s launch, it was decided that various stakeholders in the
Government, Industry, and Academia should come up with a joint report outlining the current
status of research and technology development in the country and provide recommendations fora national research and innovation roadmap to support the Green Hydrogen ecosystem.
Accordingly, a drafting committee was constituted with experts and representatives from Officeof Principal Scientific Advisor, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Ministry of Petroleum
and Natural gas, NITI Aayog, Department of Science & Technology, Department of Atomic
Energy, Defense Research and Development Organization, Indian Space Research
Organization, Indian Oil Corporation Ltd., Indian Institute of Science, IIT Delhi, IIT Madras, IIT
Bombay, IIT Kharagpur, IIT Kanpur, IIT Roorkee, IIT Guwahati, IIT Hyderabad, Central Electro
Chemical Research Institute, National Chemical Laboratory, NTPC - NETRA , National Instituteof Solar Energy, Confederation of Indian Industry, Indian Hydrogen Alliance, Federation ofIndian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers,
Council on Energy, Environment and Water, World Resources Institute, The Energy andResources Institute. Joint Secretary, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy was the convenorof the committee.
Thematic sub-committees on hydrogen production, hydrogen storage, hydrogen transportation,and hydrogen applications assisted the committee and provided detailed insights on specificareas. The committee has prepared this draft roadmap through in-depth analysis of the current
status of technology and ongoing research, benchmarking and gap. The roadmap recommends
research and development actions for each part of the Green Hydrogen value chain. It is
expected that this draft roadmap would serves as a guidance for developing a vibrant researchand development ecosystem required to commercialize Green Hydrogen and contribute to
India’s ambitious climate and energy goals.

bR&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Authors and Contributors
Amrit Singh Deo (Indian Hydrogen Alliance); Anand (Indian Institute of Science); Anandh
Subramaniam (Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur); Anita Gupta (Department of Science andTechnology); Ankur Rawal (Council on Energy, Environment, and Water); Arpan Gupta(Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry); Ashish Garg (Indian Institute ofTechnology Kanpur); Ashish Lele (CSIR - National Chemical Laboratory); BhagyadharBhoi(CSIR - Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology); Bhushan Chitale (Thermax Limited);
Chandan Banerjee (National Institute of Solar Energy); Chitra Rajagopal (Indian Institute ofTechnology Delhi); C S Gopinath (CSIR - National Chemical Laboratory); Dhiraj Mahajan(Indian Institute of Technology Ropar); Deepak Yadav (Council on Energy, Environment, andWater); Deepesh Gujrathi (KPIT Technologies Limited); DMR Panda (NTPC Ltd.); Giridhar
Madras (Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad); Guncha Munjal (World Resources Institute);
Harsh Kanani (KPMG); Harshal Agarwal (CSIR - Central Electrochemical Research Institute);
Heena Mandloi (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy); Jyoti Mukul (Confederation of Indian
Industry); K.A. Subramanian (Indian Institute of Technology Delhi); Kaustubh Pathak (KPIT
Technologies Limited); K. T. Shenoy (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre); Lakshmanan D (NTPCLtd.); Laltu Chandra (Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur); Mayank Khurana (Boston
Consulting Group); Mahendra Pareta (Defence Research and Development Organization);
Mahesh Murthy (Thermax Ltd.); Manoj Kumar Upadhyay (Niti Aayog); Naresh Lalwani (JSWGroup); Narsimha Chary Mummedy (Ayana Renewable Power Private Limited); Nishith Verma(Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur); Prashant Dwivedi (Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy); Pratibha Sharma (Indian Institute of Technology Bombay); PratheekSripathy (Council
on Energy, Environment, and Water); Rahul Pataballa (NTPC Ltd.); Rajat Seksaria (ACMEGroup); Rintu Banerjee (Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur); R Raghunathan (Indian
Institute of Technology Madras); R Sonde (Indian Institute of Technology Delhi); Sachin Chugh(Indian Oil Corporation Limited); S.A. Ilangovan (Indian Space Research Organization);
Sandeep Kashyap (ACME Group); Santoshkumar D Bhat (Central Electrochemical ResearchInstitute); Shashi Shekhar (PSA Fellow); Shiromani Kant (ACME); Shirish S Garud (The Energy
and Resources Institute); ShivanandNimbargi (Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerceand Industry); S Dasappa (Indian Institute of Science); Siddharth R Mayur (h2e Power); S.
Ravichandran (Central Electrochemical Research Institute); S Roy Choudhury (Defense
Research and Development Organization); SSV Ramakumar (Indian Oil Corporation Limited);
Sudeep S. Dalvi (Toyota Kirloskar); Sushmit Roy (Confederation of Indian Industry); Swati
Neogi (Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur); Tushar Goyal (ACME); Umish Srivastava(Indian Oil Corporation Limited); Utsav Shah (World Resources Institute); V.C. Srivastava(Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee); Vineet Mittal (Avaada); Venkata Mohan (Central
Electrochemical Research Institute); Vimal Chandra Srivastava (Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee); Yogesh Sanklecha (ACME).

cR&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Green Hydrogen: Initiative for Research and Innovation in India ....................... 1
Chapter 2: Hydrogen Production ............................................................................................. 3
2.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 4
2.3. National and international R&D activities ......................................................................... 5
2.4. R&D priorities: Mission Mode Projects ............................................................................. 92.5. R&D priorities: Grand Challenge Projects ...................................................................... 11
2.6. R&D priorities: Blue Sky Projects................................................................................... 13
Chapter 3: Hydrogen Storage ................................................................................................. 15
3.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................... 15
3.2. Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 16
3.3. National and international R&D activities ....................................................................... 17
3.4. R&D priorities: Mission Mode Projects ........................................................................... 26
3.5. R&D priorities: Grand Challenge Projects ...................................................................... 26
3.6. R&D priorities: Blue Sky Projects................................................................................... 27
Chapter 4: Hydrogen Transport .............................................................................................. 31
4.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................... 31
4.2. Objective ....................................................................................................................... 33
4.3. National and international R&D activities ....................................................................... 34
4.4. R&D priorities: Mission Mode Projects ........................................................................... 45
4.5. R&D priorities: Grand Challenge Projects ...................................................................... 45
4.6. R&D priorities: Blue Sky Projects................................................................................... 45
Chapter 5: End-use Applications............................................................................................ 48
5.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................... 48
5.2. Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 51
5.3. National and international R&D activities ....................................................................... 52
5.4. R&D priorities: Mission Mode Projects ........................................................................... 71
5.5. R&D priorities: Grand Challenge Projects ...................................................................... 72
5.6. R&D priorities: Blue Sky Projects................................................................................... 73
Chapter 6: Enabling hydrogen framework ............................................................................. 74
6.1. Hydrogen purification..................................................................................................... 74
6.2. Carbon Accounting Methodology ................................................................................... 77
6.3. Balance of Plant (BoP) component manufacturing and validation .................................. 77dR&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

List of Figures
Figure 1: Various pathways for hydrogen production...................................................................3
Figure 2:Different Methods of Hydrogen storage [1] ...................................................................15
Figure 3: Comparison of different Hydrogen storage methods ..................................................16
Figure 4:a). H2 Storage in a salt cavern, b). H2 storage in rock cavern (Source: Google) ..........17
Figure 5: Filament winding machine ..........................................................................................21
Figure 6: FEM Simulation results of Type III composite Cylinder ..............................................22
Figure 7: Fabricated Type 3 composite Cylinder prototype by Indian Oil ...................................22
Figure 8: The prototype of Indian Oil (A) before testing, (B) after burst testing, and (C)pressure ........................................................................................................................22
Figure 9: Pathways for hydrogen transport ................................................................................31
Figure 10: Types of cylinders ....................................................................................................33
Figure 11: Multiple use cases relevant in India ..........................................................................49
Figure 12: Testing of CSIR-3 kWe Fuel Cell Stack at Industry site (CSIR-NMITLI Program) .....54
Figure 13: Testing of CSIR-10 kWe Fuel Cell Stack for Vehicular platform in collaboration
with Industry (CSIR-NMITLI Program) ...........................................................................56
Figure 14: Development of CSIR-5 kW HT-PEMFC system for stationary application incollaboration with Industry .............................................................................................56
Figure 15: A photographic view of a hydrogen-fuelled generator developed in IIT Delhi with
MNRE fund support. ......................................................................................................59
Figure 16:Process flow chart for green steel production ............................................................62
Figure 17: Depiction of Salt Caverns for Hydrogen Storage. .....................................................96
Figure 18: Different Types of Cylinders .....................................................................................98
Figure 19: Different classes of materials for solid-state hydrogen storage [22] ..........................101e

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

List of Tables
Table 1: Mission Mode projects targets .....................................................................................10
Table 2: Grand Challenge mode project targets ........................................................................11
Table 3: Blue Sky Projects targets ............................................................................................14
Table 4: Underground storage of hydrogen in Salt cavern worldwide ........................................17
Table 5: Cylinder testing requirement as per ISO 15869 ...........................................................24
Table 6: Mission Mode activities................................................................................................28
Table 7: Roadmap for R&D on Hydrogen Storage ....................................................................29
Table 8: Summary of technology developments for hydrogen transport ....................................35
Table 9: Concern areas for green hydrogen transport in India...................................................43
Table 10: Targets for green hydrogen R&D in India ..................................................................46
Table 11: Comparison between the Conventional process and Hydrogen Plasma process forclean and green steel ....................................................................................................62
Table 12: Typical impurities in the hydrogen produced from different production pathways.......74
Table 13 : Target of Key Performance Parameters for sustainable development ofElectrolyser systems......................................................................................................79
Table 14: Hydrogen production-related work at different institutions in India [11] ........................87
Table 15: Indian Patents in Multiple Hydrogen Production Pathways and Key Institutes ...........93
Table 16: Overview of technologies with their respective power generation capacity ..............109
Table 17 Technology comparison for light passenger/ commercial vehicles ............................113
Table 18 Technology comparison for heavy commercial vehicles ...........................................114
Table 19 Different technologies considering the power generation capacity ............................115f

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Chapter 1: Green Hydrogen: Initiative for Research and Innovation in India
Technology development and innovation are crucial for achieving India’s Green Hydrogenambitions. A focussed approach would be required to solve critical cost and technology
challenges to enhance Green Hydrogen production and use. The National Green Hydrogen
Mission proposes a comprehensive R&D programme to drive innovation in various aspects ofGreen Hydrogen.
Hydrogen technologies across the value chain are currently under development. Maturetechnologies like electrolysers, fuel cells and carbon composite cylinders are not yet costcompetitive with alternatives;other upcoming technologies promising lower costs are yet toprove long-term performance. The aim is to design affordable, efficient, safe and reliable
pathways. At the current levels of technology development, significant scope exists for
improvement along each of these aspects. Accordingly, major economies and corporations areheavily invested in R&D.
India's R&D roadmap for green hydrogen technology aims to address these challenges anddevelop innovative solutions to overcome them. The roadmap focuses on developing newmaterials, technologies, and infrastructure to improve the efficiency, reliability, and costeffectiveness of green hydrogen production, storage, and transportation. The R&D program will
also prioritize safety and address technical barriers and challenges in developing a hydrogen
economy.
Research and Development strategy under the Mission
The National Green Hydrogen Mission proposes the following strategies for R&D:a) Support innovation to increase the viability and feasibility of Green Hydrogen production,
storage, transportation, and utilization and enhance the systems and procedures'
effectiveness, safety and reliability. There is a need to haveR&D projects aligned withtargets, are time bound, and have a potential for scale-up.
b) The proposed R&D programme has been drafted in consultation with Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). Support is proposed for identified Mission
Mode Projects with short-term (0 - 5 years) impact horizon. Development of the final
product in partnership with industry will be prioritised, along with leveraging existing
capabilities and infrastructure during this period. Projects entailingthe development ofdomestic modular electrolysers, Type III/Type IV compressed hydrogen tanks andPolymer electrolyte membrane(PEM) fuel cellswill be included under this. Biomassbased hydrogen generation will also be scaled-up for commercial applications.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIAc) Grand Challenge Projects with a mid-term (0 - 8 years) impact horizon would be initiatedparallelly with a focus on critical technologies to mitigate licensing challenges and supply
limits. The projects will most likely be in a consortium and would require reinforcement ofexisting capabilities and infrastructure. Likely Grand Challenges will be built around
manufacturing of critical electrolyser and fuel cell components like Membrane Electrode
Assemblies (MEAs), electrocatalysts, Catalyst Coated Membranes (CCMs), Gas
Diffusion Layers (GDLs), bipolar plates, etc. To scale up domestic manufacturing,
improve effectiveness and reduce costs of critical technologies, component-specificresearch is critical.
d) Blue Sky Projects having a long-term (0 - 15 years) horizon would be taken up with afocus on establishing global IP and competitive advantage for the Indian industry. BlueSky projects will aim to develop capabilities of the Indian R&D sector within an array of
subjects like the development of 3rd generation electrocatalysts (Bunched Nanospheres- BNS, Bunched Nanocages - BNCs, etc.), reversible Solid Oxide Electrolysers (SOECs)
and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs), thermochemical water splitting for hydrogenproduction, seawater electrolysis, thermo-catalytic pyrolysis, plasma pyrolysis, salt
cavern surveys, high entropy alloys for reversible hydrogen storage, etc.
e) A public-private partnership framework for R&D (Strategic Hydrogen Innovation
Partnership – SHIP) will be facilitated under the Mission. The framework involvestheestablishment of a dedicated R&D fund, with inputs from Industry and Government
institutions. Funding from Venture Capital will be looked at to boost innovation for the
short and long term. The R&D programme under the Mission will seek to develop
globally competitive technologies in various segments. A consortium-based approach,leveraging the strengths of each institution/industry, will be encouraged.
f) The R&D programme will focus on the creation of Centres of Excellence through subject
expertise and research infrastructure. A network approach will be undertaken involving
the academia-industry-government to ensure the seamless transfer andcommercialisation of new technology.
g) The Mission will seek to leverage the inherent strengths and technological experience ofinstitutions such as Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Indian Space Research
Organization(ISRO), Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), Indian Instituteof Technology (IITs), Indian Institute of Science (IISc), etc. and the Indian industry.
Planning activities under the Mission will take into consideration the available capabilities
and build upon prior achievements. Industry-academia-government networks would be
important to ensure the technological developments are commercialised, andappropriate policy and regulation support are provided in this regard. Ministry of New
And Renewable Energy (MNRE) would play the role of facilitator in this regard to devise
policy support for effective industry-academia collaboration that might be required.

h) State-of-the-artMicro, Small & Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) and start-ups working on
indigenous technology advancement and adaptation will be encouraged under active
Government programmes, as well as various support mechanisms under the Mission.
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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Chapter 2: Hydrogen Production
2.1.

Introduction

Hydrogen can be generated from diverse resources, which include fossil fuel resources such ascoal, natural gas, and lignite, and renewable resources such as biomass and water splitting
using solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal energy. As shown in fig 1, a wide variety ofpathways are available for hydrogen production, which according to the feedstock used, can bedivided into two major categories, namely, fossil fuels and renewable resources derived
hydrogen. Fossil fuels-derived hydrogen production includes coal gasification, along withhydrocarbon reforming and pyrolysis. Renewable resources-based hydrogen production
includes biomass process and water splitting using renewable energy.

Figure 1: Various pathways for hydrogen production

There are numerous methods for hydrogen production,with the most widely used being steam
methane reforming, methanol-reforming, partial oxidation of hydrocarbons, auto thermal
reforming, coal gasification, and electrolysis of water. The other methods of hydrogenproduction including biomass gasification and photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting.
However, these are still in the research phase.
The quality of hydrogen produced is directly dependent on the cost of the method of production,
separation, and purification. India has a current demand of 6MT of grey hydrogen. This usage isconcentrated in two main areas – industrial usage in refining and as a feedstock to produce
ammonia and methanol. While methanol production requires a small amount of hydrogen,current hydrogen consumption is equally split between refining and ammonia production.With
advancing technologies, we have seen a small demand of about 0.3 million tonnes of hydrogenfor steel production. Currently, for steel making, hydrogen is not used directly. Indirectly,3

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

hydrogen is part of syngas which is produced via coal gasification and used in 1.8 million tonnes
vertical shaft DRI plant. Demand for hydrogen from the power and mobility sectors is expected
to start materializing from 2025 onwards.
The technologies to produce low-emission hydrogen are at different stages of development. For
electrolysis technologies, alkaline and Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolysers arecommercially available (TRL 9), although they are still not competitive with conventional
unabated fossil-based technologies. Solid Oxide Electrolyser Cells (SOEC) are still under
demonstration (TRL 7), and Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) electrolysers are at prototype
level (TRL 6). However, these technologies are observing rapid development.

2.2.

Objectives

Electrolysis, with high capital costs and dependency on electric costs, has made it the mostexpensive method of producing Hydrogen. Technology advancement to build large capacity andimprove the efficiency of electrolysers is also a big challenge. Keeping these problem
statements in mind,the key objectives of the 2030 vision are:










Steep reduction in electrolyser capital and operational expenditure
Enhance operational capacity and efficiency, keeping in mind durability and reliability,
especially when operating dynamically
Decrease carbon footprint by increasing current density
Showcase the benefits of adding electrolysers tothe power system through their ability to
seamlessly integrate higher concentrations of renewables while providing flexibility
Reducing the life-cycle carbon footprint of electrolysers by ensuring circularity of material
employed as well as for the production process
Design and develop large-scale (MW) Electrolyser systems, including Stack and BOP
Build capacity and keep stock of material and critical components of Electrolyser stacks
Deployment rates to be increased
Reengineer and improve manufacturing for both water and steam electrolysis

For sustainable development of Electrolyser systems (i.e., short, medium or long term), thetargets for Key Performance Parameters (KPP) like current density, specific power
consumption, hydrogen purity, degradation rate, CAPEX, stack size, etc., may be mentioned. A
KPP sheet is enclosed for reference inAnnex1.
Technological improvements through research and innovation will be key tothe development of
more efficient and cost-effective electrolysers. Technological advancements will allow for
upscaling electrolyser plants to modules of tens of megawatts and subsequently to electrolyser
plants in the range of gigawatts. Rapid technological advancements along with favourable
feasibility policy measures which enable renewable energy cost reduction will help achieve
India’s ambitious green goals. Favourable conditions will allow for producing renewablehydrogen at a levelized cost of hydrogen below INRH2100/kg

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

2.3.

National and international R&D activities

Various research groups in India are engaged in Research, Development, and Demonstration(RD&D) projects on hydrogen production. A brief on the hydrogen production research initiatives
by various research organizations in India is given below:
1. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai
BARC has been exploring several hydrogen production pathways. The technologies are broadlyclassified into three categories. Hydrogen production using a) only electricity, i.e., Alkaline
Water Electrolysis (AWE) and Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) based electrolysis, b) only
heat source, i.e., Thermo-chemical splitting of water like Iodine Sulphur (I-S) process, c) bothelectricity and heat source like High-Temperature Steam Electrolysis (HTSE), Copper-Chlorine(Cu-Cl) Cycle and Hybrid Sulphur (Hy-S) cycle[2] and d) Sunlight-driven photocatalytic hydrogengeneration. The details of the activities undertaken under each production method for BARC arelisted in Annex2.
2. CSIR - Central Electrochemical Research Institute, Karaikudi
CSIR-CECRI’s research focuses on the generation of green hydrogen by PEM-based waterelectrolysis, photochemical oxidation of water using a molecular catalyst, and water oxidation byfunctional electro catalysts and novel composite electrolytes [4]. The design of electrodes andelectrolytes for hydrogen generation using sea water has also been explored at CECRI.
Reduced Titania was used as a catalyst. The primary challenge with finding the right catalyst for
sea water splitting has been balancing the effectiveness of the catalyst and its stability in water.
Based on the materials developed, electrolyser technology has been developed by CECRI andtransferred to industry[2].
3. ONGC Energy Centre (OEC)OEC is engaged in developing a green hydrogen eco-system by following a collaborative
consortium mode with various national Centres of excellence by mobilizing national resources
devoted to various elements of a hydrogen economy with a focus on large-scale greenhydrogen generation to develop cost-effective indigenous technology. OEC’s focus has been on
thermo-chemical water splitting.
From among various possible options of thermo-chemical cycles, OEC has chosen two
processes, viz., Copper-Chlorine (Cu-Cl) cycle and Iodine-Sulphur (I-S) cycle due to relatively
low-temperature requirement of 550°C and 900°C respectively, and opportunities for efficient
integration with other energy systems nuclear or solar power. So far, OEC has established theprocesses viz. close-loop Copper-Chlorine (Cu-Cl) cycle and close/ open loop Iodine-Sulphur (IS) cycle at lab/ lab engineering scale, and the next priority is to scale up using engineering
materials using indigenous resources [5]. Details are provided in Annex3.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

4. Indian Oil R&D Centre, Faridabad
With the objective of assessing different hydrogen production pathways based on indigenously
available resources, IndianOil R&D is setting up three hydrogen generation demonstration
plants for generating the required hydrogen for undertaking fuel cell bus demonstration trials.
Indian Oil R&D and the Indian Institute of Science are jointly working on the development anddemonstration of oxy-steam biomass gasification-based hydrogen generation technology,
design, manufacturing, integration, supply, installation & commissioning of the solar-powered
electrolyser-based green hydrogen production system and dispensing station for refuellinghydrogen and natural gas and bio-CNG reforming-based hydrogen generation plant is being set
up for the production of hydrogen for undertaking fuel cell buses demonstration trials. Details of
the demonstration plants are given in Annex4.
5. KPIT Technologies
Biomass-to-Hydrogen is not only environment friendly but a sustainable solution which can help
in reducing the oil import bill of the country as well as can help in improving farmers’ income byproviding value to the agricultural residue, which otherwise is being burnt in the country. As theavailability of biomass is spread across the country, these technologies are suitable for
distributed generation of Hydrogen near the point of consumption. Distributed generation of
Hydrogen will reduce the cost associated with handling and transportation of Hydrogen. This isideal in the case of mobility applications which will potentially be a significant Hydrogenconsuming sector in the next 5-10 years. Recognizing this, KPIT has been working on thedevelopment of the following two biomass-to-Hydrogen technologies - Microbial darkfermentation process in collaboration with Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, and Hydrogengeneration by gasification of biomass in collaboration with Ankur Scientific Technologies Pvt
Ltd. Details of the same are mentioned in Annex5.
6. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)
To achieve the goal of sustainability, TERI researchers explored intensively on darkfermentation process for hydrogen production with the financial assistance provided by the
Department of Biotechnology, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL), Center forHigh Technology (CHT) of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural gas (MoP&NG), Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). In-depth research explorations by TERI researchers,
along with the existing state of art large-scale fermentation facilities at TERI, eventually paved
the way for the successful development of a pilot 1000-litre scale fermentation process forhydrogen production from sugar cane blackstrap molasses.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Considering food security issues, TERI researchers actively pursued research on hydrogenproduction from lignocellulosic/woody biomass. TERI researchers explored in isolation of thedesired microbe that can utilize both C5 and C6 sugar for hydrogen production. A unique C5&C6 sugar fermenting microbe was isolated at TERI. This microbe utilizes broad-spectrum C5
sugar-rich biomass samples such as woody biomass (rice straw, wheat straw, sugarcane
bagasse, sorghum stover, sugarcane trash), aquatic plant, algal biofilm, and produced hydrogenwith significant yield efficiency. Further process parameters were optimized to producehydrogen through dark fermentation by this microbe from woody biomass. This process was
successfully scaled up to a 150-litre scale fermenter at TERI’s state of art Fermentation
Technology Research Center, TERI GRAM[6].
7. CSIR - Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (IICT)CSIR-IICT has been working on the dark fermentation process for biohydrogen production
process from biogenic waste since 2005. Different wastes, like food waste, vegetable waste,distillery waste, etc., have been used as a source of carbon to produce biohydrogen. Processparameters such as selective enrichment of biocatalyst, retention time, redox microenvironment,
and bioreactor configuration, which could enhance yield and hydrogen conversion efficiencies,
were optimized. After years of research and overcoming all the process limitations, IICT has
successfully developed and demonstrated biohydrogen technology, which can convert
biodegradable waste/ wastewater with funding from MNRE. A pilot scale bioreactor with 10 m3
was designed, fabricated, and operated at IICT with abiohydrogen production capacity of 50 m3
per day Hydrogen production through a biological route [7].
8. Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
IIT, Kharagpur, extensively worked on biohydrogen production via dark fermentation. Different
organic
wastessuch
ascane
molasses,distillery
effluent,
andstarchy
wastewaterwereexamined as potential substrates for biohydrogen production by Enterobactercloacae IIT-BT 08. Groundnut deoiled cake (GDOC) was considered an additional nutritional
supplement to enhance biohydrogen yields. The maximum hydrogen yield of 12.2 mol H 2/ kg of
COD removed was obtained using cane molasses and GDOC as co-substrates. To further
ensure the reliability of the process, bench (50 L) and pilot scale (10000 L) bioreactors were
customized and operated. The pilot scale study achieved 76.2 m 3 hydrogen with a COD removaland energy conversion efficiency of 18.1 kg/m 3 and 37.9%, respectively. This study provided an
extensive strategy formoving from lab to pilot-scale biohydrogen production, thereby providing
further opportunities for commercial exploitation [8].
In addition to above mentioned key research initiatives, multiple other research institutions/organizations in the country are putting a lot of work intohydrogen production matters.Improvecell design for high performance and increase cell/stack robustness. A brief of the same ispresented in Annex6.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Identification of the gap:Industry needs and proposed recommendations
Several of the basic research needs in hydrogen production mirror those of hydrogen storage
and use. These needs are discussed in the following sections.
Catalysis
Research is needed around catalysis in all aspects of hydrogen production. Such research
includes integrating molecular and heterogeneous catalysts into solar photo-electrochemicaland photo-catalytic systems, interfacing biological and bio-mimetic catalysts with chemical andelectrochemical systems, improving catalysts for fuel processing, and developing catalysts foruse in thermal hydrogen cycles. The areas of hydrogen production and use are strongly linked
through catalysis because fuel cell catalysts that are not easily poisoned by CO would enable
the use of reformed hydrogen with less extensive purification.
Better fuel processing catalysts would reduce the need for separations processes that remove
CO. Similarly, the development of intermediate-temperature fuel cells (200–400°C) that tolerate
CO would greatly relax the requirements for fuel processing catalysts. Cost and scaleconsiderations in hydrogen production and use call for the development of all of these nextgeneration catalysts from abundant raw materials.
Separations
Improved membranes and chemical separation processes are needed in fuel processing, in theseparation of hydrogen and oxygen produced by photocatalysis and photosynthesis, and in thehigh-temperature chemical processes of thermal hydrogen production.
Interfacial Chemistry and Materials
Solar PV/photo-electrochemical and bio-mimetic hydrogen production involve electron and ion
transfer at catalyst/electrolyte interfaces and present material problems like those for PEM fuelcells. Corrosion-resistant materials are needed in thermal hydrogen production. Further
development of high-temperature materials is needed for thermally assisted electrolysis, likethat of solid oxide fuel cells.
Theory and Modelling
Theory has a unique role in many aspects of hydrogen production, storage, and use. Inhydrogen production, theory is particularly important in uncovering the mechanisms ofheterogeneous, molecular, and biological catalysis, understanding the complex photo-redox
processes associated with solar hydrogen production, and in modelling the chemical processes
involved in hydrogen-producing thermal chemical cycles.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Life cycle assessment
India needs to undertake a comprehensive Life Cycle Analysis for the hydrogen value chain.
This exercise will ascertain the real benefits/constraints of various hydrogen production,
storage, and usage pathways thatcan govern the policy planning and channelization of funding
support for hydrogen activities.
Key Recommendations







2.4.

Mission Mode projects
Testing / Certification Infrastructure Augmentation
Key national-level studies
Fiscal support
Governing / monitoring mechanisms
Public Private Partnerships (PPPs)

R&D priorities: Mission Mode Projects

Projects with short-term (0 - 5 years) impact horizon/Early-Stage Research Action
The following projects are recommended for consideration


Low PGM catalyst/ electrode development for reduced cost, improved performance, andincreased durability of PEM electrolysers



AEM electrocatalyst development with faster Oxygen Evolution Reaction (OER) kinetics
and catalyst activity

Development of SOEC electrolysers

Development of feedstock agnostic biomass gasification technology for hydrogenproduction

The following table recommends performance targets & demonstration projects for the missionmode category.

9

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Table 1:Mission Mode projects targets

Sl.
No.
1

Technology

Performance targets/Demonstration Projects

Indigenousdevelopment & scale ofPEM electrolysis withCurrent Density
2 A/cm2 @ ≤ 1.9 V
3 A/cm2 @ ≤ 1.6 V (ultimate)
Durability
40,000 h (short term)
80,000 h (ultimate)
PGM Loading
3 mg/cm2 (short-term)
0.5 mg/cm2 (mid term)
0.125 mg/cm2 (ultimate)2

Solid Oxide electrolytic Stack Level:
cell indigenization &i. Current Density (A/cm2@1.28 V/cell)
scale – up to 25
current status: 0.6
kW(short-term) / 100
short-term target (5 years): 1.2
kW long-term having
ultimate target: 2.0
ii. Degradation rate( mV/kh or %/kh):Current status: 6.4 or 0.5
short-term target (5 years): 3.2 or 0.25
ultimate target- 1.6 or 0.12
iii. Lifetime (Hours )current status: 20000
short-term target (5 years): 40000
ultimate target: 80000
Electrolyser:
i. Electrical Eff kWh/kg or %of LHV of H2:
Current status: 38 or 88%
Short-term target (5 years): 36 or 93%
Ultimate target: 35 or 95%

3

Biomass gasification

Development of ultra-efficient biomass gasifiers throughimproved reactor designs

10

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

2.5.

R&D priorities: Grand Challenge Projects

Projects with a mid-term (0 - 8 years) impact horizon/ Demonstration Actions for encouraging
start-ups and industries to growThe following projects are recommended for consideration-

AEM electrolyser development
Power to gas/co-electrolysis technology development with SOEC
Demonstration of biomass gasification-based hydrogen generation
Compact bio-methane reformers development for decentralized hydrogengeneration
Development of integrated net carbon-negative solutions for H2 production
in a cost-effective way through indigenous technologies

The following table recommends performance targets & demonstration projects for the
grand challenge mode category.
Table 2: Grand Challenge mode project targets

Sl.
No.

Technology

Performance targets/Demonstration Projects

1

CBG Reforming+CCS

Setting up 10 pilot plants for CBG reforming to green hydrogenwith RE integration
Parallel development of Carbon capture technology andsequestration at identified geo-locations(aquifers/basalts/EOR/coal bed methane recovery)
Deliverables:a. Existing infrastructure of SMR can be utilized without any
redundancy
b.CO2 transport and storage network
c.CO2 storage efficiency analysis
d. Cost competitiveness2

AEM electrolyser
development withcurrent

Density
0.8 A/cm2 @ ≤ 1.92 V&
Durability
40,000 h (short-term)
1,00,000 h (ultimate)11

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Sl.
No.

Technology

Performance targets/Demonstration Projects
Cost
USD350/kg
Energy48kWh/kg

3

Intermediate
temperature coelectrolysis of CO2 &H2OCurrent status: 750-950 oC Target: 500-650 oC

4Power to X

1.RE power integrated with intermediate/high-temperature Coelectrolysis for syngas/Green ammonia/Green methanol
synthesis
Deliverables:
a.Optimisation of process conditions and indigenization ofreactor designb.Techno-economic assessment of integrated system
2.Demonstration of SOEC integrated with solar thermal
technologies

5Electrolyser scale-up

1.Setting up of small-scale manufacturing plants forelectrolyser components with an aim to scale-up in the near
future2.Development of small-scale mobile hydrogen generators for
futuristic applications.

6

PEM electrolysis

PEM stack development with optimised PGM loading at parwith DOE technical targets (5kW/10kW/50kW)

7

AEM electrolysis

AEM stack development with high membrane durability(5kW/10kW/50kW)

8

RE powered
electrolysers

1.Demonstration of Solar PV powered electrolyser operation

Fuel cell demonstration
projects

1. Fuel cell (small capacity0.25kW-1.25kW) vehicle (H2bicycle, L1 & L2 category vehicles): Development of indigenous PEM Fuel cell stack & BOP

9

2.Development of efficient rectifiers & electronic controllers forthe operation of electrolysers on dual inputs- solar & grid12

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Sl.
No.

Technology

Performance targets/Demonstration Projects
 Pilot-level demonstrationof Prototypes forstandardization
 Demonstration and wide-scale trials of hydrogen e-bikes(1000 Nos)
2. Range Extenders (Capacity up to 5kW for category M & M1
vehicles) Development of indigenous PEM stack & Fuel cellsystem as a range extender forelectric vehicle
 Pilot level demonstration, Validation for standardization
purposes (50 Nos)
3. Development of Fuel cell stack/systems for Category M3&N Vehicles
 Development of indigenous stack, BOP components &Fuel cell system and its hybridization for Fuel cellelectric vehicle
 Pilot-level demonstrations and wide-scale trials,
Validation for standardization purposes (50 Nos)
 Introduction of fuel cell vehicles in inter/intra citypassenger transport
4. Development of Fuel cell stack/systems for Group 1 (small
capacity: 1200 ft range) and Group 2 (medium 3500 ft
range) Unmanned Aerial vehicle (UAV) Development of indigenous PEM Fuel cell stack, BOP&system for UAV
 Pilot level demonstration, Validation for standardization
purpose – 50 Nos

2.6.

R&D priorities: Blue Sky Projects

Projects having a long-term (0 - 15 years) horizon would be taken up with a focus onestablishing global IP and competitive advantage for the Indian industry.
The following projects are recommended for consideration-

Sea water electrolysis for hydrogen production-

Photo electrochemical water splitting-

Thermochemical water splitting and integration with nuclear/ solar heat source-

Microbial electrolysis system for hydrogen production-

Novel technologies for the conversion of biomass to hydrogen13

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA-

Bio-methane pyrolysis for hydrogen production-

Waste to hydrogen

The following table recommends performance targets & demonstration projects for the blue-sky
mode category.
Table 3: Blue Sky Projects targets

Sl.
No.

Technology

Performance targets/Demonstration Projects

1

Sea water electrolysis Current density: 0.5A/cm2 @1.7V
technology
Activation Overpotential: 1.5V @ 10mA/cm2
development
Durability: 5,000 h

2

Reversible fuel cell/ FC efficiency @ 0.5A/cm2: 80% (ultimate 90%)
electrolyser technology
Electrolyser efficiency @ 1A/cm2: 80% (ultimate 90%)
development targets% degradation %/1000 h: <1.5 (ultimate 0.125)

3

Photo
– Cost USD5.7 per kg (ultimate USD2.1 per kg)
electrochemical splitting
Solar to hydrogen conversion ratio 20 % (ultimate 25%)of water
PEC electrode cost: USD 200 per m2 (ultimate USD 100 per
m2)
Electrode replacement time: 2 years (ultimate 10)
1.Mid-scale PEC systemapplication (1kg/d H2)developmentforhouse-hold

2. Development of small-scale mobile hydrogen generators for
futuristic applications.
4

Thermochemical cycles

Solar-driven thermochemical cycle hydrogen cost:
USD3.7 per kg (ultimate USD2 per kg)
Solar to Hydrogen conversion efficiency:
20% (ultimate 26%)

14

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Chapter 3: Hydrogen Storage
3.1.

Introduction

Hydrogen has the highest energy per unit mass of any fuel; however, its low-density results in a
low energy per unit volume. Therefore, the storage of hydrogen at high volumetric density is
considered a critical enabling technology for the successful commercialization of hydrogenbased energy applications, including stationary power, portable power, and transportation.
Hydrogen may be stored in the physical form under high pressure at ambient or sub-ambient
temperatures or as a cryogenic liquid near its normal boiling point of 20 K. Additionally,hydrogen may be stored as bonded to other elements as in hydrogen compounds or adsorbed
as the diatomic molecule in porous solids [1]. Large-scale and long-term storage can beachieved through underground storage in various geological structures like salt caverns,
depleted oil and gas reservoirs, and aquifers. However, if the requirement is to store small
quantities and for a shorter duration, either liquified, compressed or solid-state storage can be
the choice. Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages.
The different methods used for hydrogen storage are compressed gas form, liquid hydrogen,and material-based hydrogen storage, i.e., MOF, hydrides, etc. Figure 2:depicts different
methods of hydrogen storage, and the following one shows a comparison of different Hydrogenstorage methods. Annex7 dives deeper into the above-mentioned methods and their benefits
and challenges.

Figure 2:Different Methods of Hydrogen storage [1]15

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Technique

Gravimetric
Capacity(wt%)

Volumetric
Capacity(MJ/l | kWh/l)

Operational
Pressure (bar)Operational
Temperature(K)

Metal Hydrides

7.6

13.2 | 3.66

20

260-425

MOFs
Cryocompressed

4.5
5.4

7.2 | 2.0
4.0 | 1.11

20-100
300

78
40-80

LOHC
ChemicalLiquidCarbon Nanostructures
Metal
Borohydrides

8.5
15.5
7.5
20

7 | 1.94
11.5 | 3.2
6.4 | 1.78
5.0 | 1.39

0
10
0
100

293
298
20
298

14.9-18.5

9.8-17.6 | 2.724.88

105

130

10.5

23.6 | 6.55

120

293

Kubas-type

Table3: Comparison of different Hydrogen storage methods

3.2.

Objectives

 Develop efficient, safe, and cost-effective hydrogen storage methods that enable highdensity storage, reduce leakage, and allow for easy and quick refuelling.
 Ensure the long-term durability and reliability of hydrogen storage, transportation, andcompression systems to promote their widespread adoption.
 To demonstrate distributed aboveground storage solutions available at a capital costlower than INR 30,000 /kg by 2030.
 To undertake research activities on underground storage to validate the performance indifferent geologies, to identify better and more cost-effective materials and to encourage
improved designs.
 Demonstrate the large-scale underground storage across various media at a capital costlower than INR 3000 /kg by 2030.
 Indigenous development of Type III and Type IV compressed hydrogen tanks.
 Developing test facilities for testing of compressed hydrogen tanks.
 Indigenous synthesis of alloys or materials used for solid-state hydrogen storage.
 Materials development with high gravimetric capacity, faster kinetics, the optimum set ofoperating conditions, low cost, and high cycle life.
 Search for novel materials which could satisfy the above-mentioned conditions like highsurface area materials, complex or chemical hydrides, high entropy alloys, composites
etc.
 Indigenous development of solid-state materials-based hydrogen storage canisters/tanks
includes fabrication and materials synthesis, all being done indigenously.

16

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA Demonstration of these tanks on a pilot scale for various stationary applications likeheating & cooling, hydrogen purification, hydrogen compressors, thermal energy
storage, heat transformer, and backup power.
 Demonstration of solid-state hydrogen storage tanks for vehicular applications in the
beginning for the long haul & large distance transport, freight vehicles, train, mining
equipment, submarines, forklifts, construction equipment etc.
 Better materials having low weight and high-capacity demonstration of solid-statestorage canisters for various other vehicles for public and private transport applications.
 Address safety concerns related to hydrogen storage, transportation, and compression.
Develop robust safety protocols, standards, and technologies to prevent leaks, mitigate
risks, and handle potential hazards associated with hydrogen.
 Increasing the scale of deployment & thus, widespread use for both stationary andvehicular applications.

3.3.

National and international R&D activities

International R&D in Underground Storage Projects:
Hydrogen storage in salt caverns is already used in the United States, Britain, and Germany.
The walls of a salt cavern are stable and impervious to gas over the lifespan of the storage
facility. The unit physical volume of salt caverns typically ranges from 100,000 to 1,000,000 m3,
and, depending on the cavern depth, the corresponding working gas volume may range from a
few million to 100 million st-m3.

Figure 3:a). H2 Storage in a salt cavern, b). H2 storage in rock cavern (Source: Google)

From a practical viewpoint, the salt cavern storage solution is highly flexible in terms of storage
volume and in terms of modularity since several caverns can be reached on a single site toadapt the overall storage capacity to changes in demand. Several examples of hydrogenmixtures and pure hydrogen stored underground are given intable 4.
Table 4: Underground storage of hydrogen in Salt cavern worldwide17

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Type

% H2

P, T

Depth (m)150 bars

820

Bad Lauchstadt,
Germany

Salt cavern

Kiel, Germany

Salt cavern

60-64

80-100 bars

1330

Teesside, UK

Salt cavern

95

50 bars400

Texas: Air Liquid, USA

Salt cavern

95

Texas: ConocoPhillips,
USA

Salt cavern

95

850

Texas: Praxair, USA

Salt cavern

Beynes, France

Aquifer50

430

Ketzin, Germany

Aquifer62200-250

Lobodice, Czech

Aquifer

50

90 bars, 34 ᵒC

430

Diadema, Argentina

Natural Gas

10

10 bars, 50 ᵒC

600

National R&D in Underground Storage Projects
The salt cavern site at Bikaner can be studied for its feasibility of storing hydrogen. Besides this,new sites need to be identified and studied thoroughly. Some experimental and demonstrationsites need to be prepared and studied so that these can be used to understand the implications,contaminants in due course, and challenges in storing hydrogen in such underground geologicalstructures. These smaller units can act as case studies for gaining more knowledge about using
underground structures.

18

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Studies conducted include:
1. India Hydrogen Alliance, IH2A[15], a member-driven coalition without a legal entity, led bya steering group and work group led by chart industries, is also said to be working on thehydrogen storage and transport aspect of the green hydrogen value chain.
2. Further, as per a report published by the Department of Science and technology5, many
Indian institutes and organizations are working on Hydrogen storage in India.
Reports of some other studies that were conducted had the following observations:
3. In a publication of the Geological Society of London[16], the potential of geologicalhydrogen storage in India is predicted to be up to 22 610 terawatt-hours (TWh) in deep
saline aquifers. The report further states that the major Indian sedimentary basins, suchas the Mumbai offshore, Krishna–Godavari, Rajasthan, Cauvery and Cambay basins,
have high storage capacities for hydrogen on the order of 2163, 1788.8, 1211.5, 1666.6
and 342.9 TWh, respectively.
4. A study of underground hydrogen storage conducted by Rajeev Upadhyay et al.[17]assesses the possibility of hydrogen storage in India. As per the report, there are several
depleted gas fields in India, and one such field is inthe Tapti daman formation.
5. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)[18], in their report “The Potential Role of
Hydrogen in India”, however, stated that it is unlikely that India has sufficient suitable salt
deposits for this to be an option for large-scale Hydrogen storage.
National and International R&D in Metal Hydride Storage Projects
1. Metal Hydride storage system in electric forklift (STILL Gmbh) equipped with fuel cell
power module from Plug Power Inc. has been demonstrated by HySA system
Competence Centre, South Africa. Materials-based systems like compressors athydrogen refuelling stations and systems to propel two and three-wheelers developed at
HySA.
2. Demonstration of Metal hydride in 2-wheeler at BHU, India, by Prof. Srivastava
3. Vehicle projects LLC demonstrated the world’s first fuel cell-powered locomotive – whichsafely stored hydrogen fuel as a reversible metal hydride [23].
Vehicle projects LLC and its technical consortium developed a 160-kW battery-fuel cell hybrid
mine loader (LHD). Hydrogen fuel was stored in a reversible metal-hydride system capable ofstoring 14 kg of hydrogen [23].
Fuel cell power plants, including reversible metal-hydride storage, for multiple 10-ton mining
locomotives and a dozer, were manufactured by Vehicle projects LLC for demonstration in aSouth African platinum mine [23].
4. Metal hydrides-based system developed by ECD Ovonics and integrated with ICE-based
three-wheeler displayed in SAE annual convention [25]5. Sandia National Laboratory developed the solid-state hydrogen material database under
USDOE. The development of AB2-type metal hydride-based hydrogen storage to power
mining locomotives along with various other stakeholders and its implementation inunderground mining was carried out in the year 2002.
19

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

6. Toyota Motor Corporation used a BCC alloy-based hybrid storage system capable ofstoring 2 kg hydrogen to propel a car up to a range of 250 km with a maximum speed of
100 kmph [26]7. Westinghouse Savannah River Company worked on the development, manufacturing,and testing of the world's first hybrid hydrogen-electric transit bus, also called as
Savannah River Bus Project, funded by USDOE.
8. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), USA, has developed different
mathematical and statistical models for technological and economic assessment ofvarious aspects of the hydrogen supply chain. NREL has a Hydrogen Infrastructure
Testing and Research facility, which consists of a test facility to assess the feasibility ofhydrogen storage, compression, and testing capabilities for various applications.
National R&D in solid-state hydrogen storage
Some of the research work being carried out at different institutions in the area of solid-statehydrogen storage in India is summarized below:
A lot of work has been carried out at IIT Bombay on materials for hydrogen storage. Various
materials, including different metal hydrides, complex and chemical hydrides (catalyst andsupport, reversibility), solid solutions, high entropy alloys and LOHC, are being studied. Metal
hydride-based systems simulation, design, and optimization of geometric and performanceparameters, followed by the development, i.e., fabrication and their performance analysis
experimentally, are being carried out at IIT Bombay. In addition, the Hydrogen Energy Centre,
instituted which was established at Banaras Hindu University, supported with the funding of
MNRE funds,and had several pioneer works in the field of solid-state storage. In BARC, avariety of materials which include main group elements, transition metals/alloys, porous carbon,
carbon nanotubes etc., were investigated in detail to develop efficient technologies for storinghydrogen. A large number of metals hydride-based applications have been demonstrated at IIT
Guwahati, IIT Mumbai and IIT Tirupati, IIT Madras, IIT Delhi, BARC etc. Details of these
activities aredepicted in Annex8.
R&D in MOF materials:


EcoFuel Asia Tour (in 2007): Volkswagen Caddy EcoFuel car was optimized for natural
gas combustion and used MOF-enhanced fuel tanks (sponsored by BASF- Basolite
C300 (HKUST-1)).
BASF has registered prototypes for gas storage (BASOCUBE™ and BASOSTOR™),
which have also been studied for hydrogen storage.
Two patents filed by Ford Global Technologies named: “Hydrogen Storage Materials”(US20110142752A1)211 and “Hydrogen Storage Systems and Method using the same”(US20110142750A1)

20

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Mercedes-Benz: Mercedes-Benz F125® (research) vehicle used hydrogen stored in MOFs.
In all instances, the industrial implementation has been delayed due to technical barriers suchas system weight, volume, cost, efficiency and durability.

R&D in Advance/Novel Materials:
In the context of novel materials, the key aspects being looked into arecost-effectiveness andease of scalable production. Keeping this in view, the focus on research can be the following.


Mg and Mg-based systems wherein nanoscale can be produced and retained (inservice)
Carbonaceous materials doped with elements can increase the enthalpy of adsorption
and invoke spillover mechanism and Kubas interaction. Also, explore Si-based
nanostructures.
System-level hybrid storage methods, wherein the material is filled in a gas cylinder andwhere the overall storage is enhanced at lower pressures (<50 bar).

Indian Institutes/industry initiatives:
Indian Oil R&D Centre is actively working across the Hydrogen value chain (production, storage,
application) and has taken several initiatives to promote hydrogen for automotive and stationary
applications in India. Indian Oil R&D Centre, along with IIT Kharagpur, has successfully
indigenously designed and developed ~60 L Water capacity Type 3 composite cylinder forstorage of compressed Hydrogen gas at 350 bar pressure.

Figure 4: Filament winding machine21

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Figure 5: FEM Simulation results of Type III composite Cylinder

For the composite overwrap, carbon fibre, T700, is used as the reinforcement material, whereas
epoxy resin, LY556, along with hardener XY54,isused as the matrix material. The cylinder isfitted with a PRD valve HTV350 pressure regulators rated 350 bars and an end seal with TPRD
Plug. The design of the cylinders is determined by simulating the burst pressure using an FEA
Software, namely ANSYS Mechanical. The feasible winding angles, optimized tension,
bandwidth, and fibre winding paths are determined by performing dry and wet trials. About
twenty prototypes were manufactured as per the design, materials, and manufacturing
technology developed.

Figure 6: Fabricated Type 3 composite Cylinder prototype by Indian Oil

The prototype has successfully passed the critical hydrostatic pressure burst and ambient
temperature pressure cycling tests as per ISO 15869.

Figure 7: The prototype of Indian Oil (A) before testing, (B) after burst testing, and (C) pressure

It is anticipated that the entire test conducted will meet the requirement of ISO 15869 and, withthis cylinder, will be ready for certification for commercialization as a hydrogen storage vessel.
Initiatives of academic institutes and other organizations in India
The DST – IIT Bombay Energy Storage Platform on Hydrogen has been established with afocus towards the selection, synthesis, and characterization of Metal Hydrides (MH) and othernovel materials. It also will be dealing withthe fabrication of MH-based fast reaction beds andtesting the performances of various MH thermal management systems for various applications.

22

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

The lead organization is IIT Bombay, with four consorting institutions - IIT Guwahati, IIT Kanpur,
IIT Tirupati, and NIT Rourkela.
Synthesis of metal hydrides on a large scale, synthesis from industrial grade materials, effect of
impurities, metal hydride-based systems simulation, design, development, and theirperformance analysis are being carried out at IIT Bombay. Metal hydride canisters for various
applications are being developed at IIT Bombay.
DST has established the DST- NFTDC Energy Storage Platform on Hydrogen at the Nonferrous
Materials Technology Development Centre, Hyderabad, with a core theme of Hydrogen basedmaterials to Energy Devices. TheCentreencompasses scientists from IISc Bangalore, IIT
Madras, IIT Bhubaneswar, and Sri Chitra Thirunal College of Engineering, Thiruvananthapuram.
DST-IIT Hyderabad Integrated Clean Energy Material Acceleration Platform on Bioenergy andHydrogen was recently supported by DST to develop a biomass to H 2 production pilot plant (25Kg size) that will primarily be operational under thermochemical conditions with an appropriate
H2 storage unit. Additionally, this system will be connected to bio electrochemical andphotocatalytic units for improved H2 production.
Department of Science & Technology (DST) has also initiated the Advanced Hydrogen and Fuel
Cell program, which is in line with the National Green Hydrogen Mission and Make in India withan objective to promote and support activities related to the indigenous development of new andexisting material in large quantities, catalysts, membrane, components for fuel cells,
electrolysers, hydrogen storage materials, materials for type IV cylinders and prototypes for
implementation of various applications of hydrogen and fuel cell in the country.
Identification of the gap: Industry needs and proposed recommendations
The needsfora hydrogen systemvary w.r.t. stationary and vehicular applications. For thetransportation sector, the weight and size should be low, refuelling should be fast, and thehydrogen storage system should have most of the characteristics which current fossil fuelvehicles have, like range, passenger space, safety, cost, acceleration/deceleration, start andstop, refuelling time, life, and cost etc. Development of high-pressure Hydrogen compressor
may be identified as a gap to be addressed since high-pressure compressors are not available
from Indian manufacturers. There are several challenges towards storing hydrogen andachieving the above-mentioned criteria.
I.

Compressed storage

FCEVs rely on compressed hydrogen. Common fuel cell vehicles like Honda Clarity and Toyota
Mirai have pressurized composite vessel-based storage. Most of the composite cylinders
currently being used in India are imported and hence are very expensive. Indian Oil R&D has
already made significant progress in this direction through the first indigenous development ofType 3 composite cylinders. As per Indian Oil, if the Type 3 composite cylinders are developed
and manufactured in India, the cost of these cylinders isexpected to reduce dramatically.

23

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

The following are the challenges in the manufacturing of Type 3 composite cylinders in India.
a. Non-availability of raw materials in India
 Liner: Aluminium alloy liners used in Type 3 composite cylinders are mostly imported
as there are no manufacturing facilities forliners in India. As per the study of IOCL,
the liner constitutes around 30-35 % of the cost of the cylinder if imported. If the liner
can be developed and manufactured in India, then the cost of the liner can bebrought down significantly.
 Carbon Fibre:There areno manufacturing facilities forCarbon fibre in India, and it ismostly imported, hence costly. As per the study of IOCL, carbon fibre constitutes
around 20-25 % ofthe cost of a cylinder if imported. If carbon fibre can be developed
and manufactured in India,then the cost can be brought down significantly.
 High-pressure TPRD valves:There is currently no manufacturer of high-pressurehydrogen valves in India, and the imported ones are costly. As per the study of IOCL,
the valves constitutemost of the cost (40-45 % ofthe cost of the cylinder). This is oneof the major bottlenecks in bringing down the cost of the cylinder.
b. Non-availability of testing facilities as per ISO 15869 and other international
standards
As per ISO, the developed composite cylinders are required to go through acomprehensive set of tests (Table 5) as per ISO 15869. Such type of testing facilities is
not available in India, so the composite cylinders developed in India are mostly sent to
USA or Europe for testing. This results in a delay in the overall development cycle ofcomposite cylinders and ultimately results in increasing the overall developmental cost.
Table 5: Cylinder testing requirement as per ISO 15869

Applicable to TypeSr. NoTest

Type 3

Type 4

1

Material Tests for Metal Fuel Tanks andLiners2

Material test for plastic liners

3

Resin Properties

✓

✓

4

Hydrostatic Burst Pressure Test

✓

✓

5

Ambient Temperature Pressure Cycling

✓

✓

6

Leak-before-break (LBB) Test

✓

✓

7

Bonfire Test

✓

✓

✓

✓
✓

24

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Applicable to TypeSr. NoTest

Type 3

Type 48

Penetration Test

✓

✓

9

Chemical Exposure Test

✓

✓

10

Composite Flaw Tolerance Test

✓

✓

11

Accelerated Stress Rupture Test

✓

✓

12

Extreme Temperature Pressure Cycling test

✓

✓

13

Impact Damage Test

✓

✓

14

Permeation test✓

15

Boss Torque✓16

Hydrogen gas cycling✓c. Non-availability of regulations and standards -Presently, regulations and standards
for the development and deployment of hydrogen at high pressure are not available inIndia. Government and industry should work together to formulate and implement
regulations for certification and recertification before the large-scale deployment ofhydrogen in India.
For reference, the activities undertaken by BHEL, a PSU under MHI, for the development,
manufacturing, and testing of Type-IV cylinders may be mentioned. A reference text is
mentioned below:
BHEL has started developing Type-IV hydrogen and CNG cylinders and is making good
progress. BHEL intends to set up dedicated CoEs for the development of Type-IV Cylinders, anational testing facility for Type-IV cylinders, and a manufacturing facility in the country.
II.

Materials based storagea. Non-availability of raw materials
Metals required for the synthesis of alloys are either not available in India and areusually imported from China, or else the materials cost for those available in the
country is high. Since most of the demonstrations and materials used were carriedout with rare earth type, as such it is required to use elements abundantly available
in India.
 As the purity of the material increases, its cost increases, so in order to reducethe cost, industrial-grade raw materials can be used to synthesize alloys.
Modifications or ways to prevent degradation of performance with such low-costmaterials can be studied.
25

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Large-scale materials, which could be either absorption or adsorption based,
need to be synthesized indigenously. The requirement is to develop centralised
facilities for scaling up such high-performing materials in the country
Non-availability of infrastructure for canisters fabrication is another bottleneck.

The economies of scale will work very well when the metal hydride-based canisters
are fabricated in large numbers. But currently, in India, such fabrication facilities are
not there.

3.4.

R&D priorities: Mission Mode Projects

Projects with short-term (0 - 5 years) impact horizon/Early-Stage Research Action
1. Development of materials which could have 4-5 wt% of storage at close to ambient
temperature and moderate pressure conditions, with fast de/hydrogenation and good
cyclability
2. Cost reduction of the alloys with the use of abundant elements available in the country tosynthesize alloys and using industrial-grade materials
3. Indigenous manufacturing of materials-based hydrogen storage canisters anddemonstration for various applications
4. Use of AI/ML to find the high performing materials and optimised canister designs to
reduce the cost and time in experimentation and development
5. Demonstration of developed materials and systems where weight is not a concern, therather higher volumetric density of materials-based storage is an advantage andcanisters can be used for applications like submarines, construction equipment, mining
vehicles, forklifts, freight vehicles or stationary applications like heating & cooling,
thermal energy storage, hydrogen compression and purification etc.
6. Indigenous manufacturing of type III tanks
7. Standards and regulations for compressed hydrogen tanks and material-based storage
tanks

3.5.

R&D priorities: Grand Challenge Projects

Projects with a mid-term (0 - 8 years) impact horizon/ Demonstration Actionsfor encouraging
startups and industries to grow
1. Facilities and infrastructure development for the upscaled synthesis of these alloys andmaterials indigenously
2. Start-ups and Industries can come up with facilities for manufacturing solid-statehydrogen storage canisters
3. Manufacturing of these canisters in large numbers enables commercialization and, inturn, get benefitted with economies of scale
4. Methods to reduce boil-off losses and use the hydrogen which else is lost due to boil-off
in case of liquid state storage
5. Manufacturing of liner, carbon fibre, valves and TPD for type III and type IV tanks
6. Indigenous manufacturing of type IV tanks

26

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

3.6.

R&D priorities: Blue Sky Projects

Projects having a long-term (0 - 15 years) horizon would be taken up with a focus onestablishing global IP and competitive advantage for the Indian industry.
1. Research on novel materials, which could give higher gravimetric capacity, reduced cost
and weight and have faster kinetics and good reversibility
2. Large-scale deployment of materials-based hydrogen storage systems for industries,
domestic and rural areas for both stationary and vehicular applications
3. Better and high-strength materials for compressed hydrogen tanks, which could be costeffective
4. Indigenous manufacturing of type V tanks with all components manufactured in India
5. Indigenous manufacturing of Type IV cylinders
6. National testing facility for Type IV cylinders
During the transition period, applications which are niche markets, such as urban buses,
forklifts, trucks, and stationary applications, can be considered. For India, the transition tohydrogen and fuel cells may happen in cascading steps along 6 major heads: Technology
development, Demonstration programs, Capacity building and Applied Research, Fundamental
research, and Policy Framework. The broad lines under each pillar of change are discussed
below:

27

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Table 6: Mission Mode activities

1.

2.

3.

Technology developmenta. Liner for composite cylinder

Indigenous development for cost reductionand economic viability

b. Carbon fibre

Indigenous development for cost reductionand economic viabilityc. Valve, TPRD

To develop high-pressure valves and TPRD
in a cost-effective way through indigenous
technologies

d. Materials-based storage canisters

Research on
construction

Materials

forcanister

Indigenous development
storage canistersofhydrogen

Demonstrationa. One pilot project for mobility
application

Composite cylinder manufacturers andOEM/vehicle manufacturers are required towork together for the demonstration and useof the developed composite cylinders in thevehicles, as it will also add awareness andaddress safety issues related to the use of
the systems.

b. One pilot project for
stationary/mobility application withmaterials-based storage

Hydrogen storage canisters at some places
have reached higher TRL levels of 5-7;theseneed to be taken up for demonstration for
applications like purification, hydrogencompressors, backup power and mobility
applications.

Capacity building by 2025
Augmenting the storage and supply Developing the ecosystem for composite
chain infrastructure at the identified cylinders through CNG vehicle
location
Proof concepts and demonstrations withmetal hydride-based canisters

4.

Applied research
Pipeline metallurgy compatible withH2 + Critical data to be generated for preparing a
NG and neat H2 Transportation
long-term roadmap

28

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

5.

Fundamental / Academic Research
Development of advanced material for Innovative
liner, fibrechemistry

researchusingmaterial

Indigenous development of composite Higher volume cylinders, i.e., 200-450 Litre,cylinder for 700 bar applications
suitable for heavy-duty vehicles
Development of inexpensive materials Development of metal hydrides-basedwith high capacity from abundant canisters for various stationary andelements
vehicular applications
6.

Policy / Regulation / statutory
Incentives for raw materials of cylinder

Incentivization mechanism
manufacturing of cylinders

for

Taxes on hydrogen

Taxation / fiscal benefits on localized
manufacturing of raw materials, i.e., liner,
carbon fibre, valve etc.

local Accelerating the ecosystem for indigenous
manufacturingofcomponents/subcomponents related to the H2 storage
system
Evolving mechanisms for taxing H2 cylinders
from different types of cylinders

Table 7:Roadmap for R&D on Hydrogen Storage

Short-term (2025)









Indigenous development and manufacturing of composite cylinders
Type 3-cylinder manufacturing for H2 and CNG storage at 350 bars
Demonstration trial of the composite cylinder in vehicles in collaboration with
OEMs
Demonstration trial of metal hydride-based canisters in vehicles in collaboration
with OEMs
Demonstration trial of metal hydride-based canisters for backup power
Development of India-specific codes and standards for Hydrogen storage andsafety (BIS / TERI / ARAI / PESO)
Type IV cylinder manufacturing for H2 and CNG storage.
National testing facility for Type IV cylinders

Medium-term (2030)
Indigenization of raw materials –Liner, carbon fibre, TPRD Valve for composite
cylinderTo set up a facility for manufacturing composite cylinders (up to 700 bar)Creation of a testing facility for Hydrogen/CNG cylinders as per ISO standards (up29

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA






to 700 bar)
To ensure commercial availability of composite cylinders made in India
Indigenization of H2 storage cylinder to store H2 at 700 bars (Type 3 and Type 4).
To set up facilities for large-scale materials synthesis, canisters fabrication andscaling up those canisters for higher capacities of storage
Development of 2 model cities to promote the concept of an H2 economy

Long-term (2050)








Ensuring a mature H2 market for fuel cell grade H2 for a target price of USD 2-3
per kg (delivered).
High-pressure Type I metal tanks up to 1000 bar for bulk storage of hydrogen
Development of matured H2 ecosystem with applications in a variety of sectors,
including stationary, automotive, shipping, aviation, steel, and railways etc
Linking the agrarian economy with various bio-H2 production pathways
Wide deployment of solid-state hydrogen storage canisters for domestic
purification in refineries, light and heavy-duty vehicles, and various places in thehydrogen ecosystem
Development of Type-V cylinders.

30

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Chapter 4: Hydrogen Transport
4.1.

Introduction

Hydrogen can be transported either in gaseous, liquid or solid form. Gaseous hydrogentransportation involves moving compressed hydrogen in pipelines or in tanks/cylinders.
Hydrogen can be blended in natural gas pipelines or transported in hydrogen-only pipelines.
Similarly, hydrogen cylinders are classified into five categories depending on the operatingpressure. Hydrogen can also be liquefied and transported in cryogenic containers. Hydrogencan also be transported under ambient pressure and temperature in liquid organic hydrogen
carriers (LOHCs). LOHCs are organic compounds that can absorb and release hydrogen duringchemical reactions. Todate, only LOHC or Green ammonia are being considered as possible
carriers. It is to be noted that only around 18% of Hydrogen is transported in ammonia, and in
LOHC, organic liquor needs to be transported back to the place of the Hydrogen source. Basedon the studies conducted so far, the cost of Hydrogen may become nearly 2-3 times more, andthereafter cracking of the same ishighly energy sensitive. Moreover, these may not beapplicable for inland transportation within the country. The creation of hydrogen clusters nearhydrogen utilization centres may eliminate transportation issues.
Hydrogen can also be adsorbed over metal hydride and transported. Hydrogen is released frommetal hydride by desorption. Hydrogen can be converted into methanol, ammonia, or synthetic
natural gas (SNG) and transported by using existing infrastructure. These fuels and chemicals
can then be reconverted into green hydrogen by dehydrogenation processes like reforming.

Figure 8: Pathways for hydrogen transport31

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Hydrogen can be locally transported in tube trailers and trains. Transportation of large quantities
of hydrogen over long distances can be done in pipelines. The intercontinental movement ofgreen hydrogen and its derivatives is possible through marine transportation. It should be notedthat marine transportation of hydrogen would also need the development of necessary
infrastructure at ports. Solid-state transport of hydrogen is not covered in this report since it will
be exhaustively discussed in sub-committee II (hydrogen storage).
Marine transport of hydrogen
Shipping is one of the most energy-efficient ways for the transportation of goods. If hydrogen is
cryogenically cooled to -253°C, it changes phase from a gaseous state (GH2) to a liquid state(LH2), shrinking to 1/800 of its original volume. This reduction in volume allows for the transportof larger energy densities, and consequently, transportation efficiency increases dramatically.
Hydrogen-propelled trains
Hydrogen fuel cell-based rail propulsion technologies powered by PEMFC (proton exchange
membrane-based Fuel Cell) along with proportionally sized battery storage systems are being
tested across the world. In order to further the cause of decarbonisation in the railway sector,
Indian Railways plans to convert the existing 1600 hp DEMU 10-car configuration into a hybrid
fuel cell and battery-based distributed power rolling stock (DPRS) with regenerative braking 1.
These futuristic systems are currently in the development phase and are expected to be readyfor demonstration in the near future.
Types of cylinders for hydrogen transport
Hydrogen can be stored in many types of pressure vessels, namely type I, II, III and IV tanks.
As shown in Figure 10, pressure vessels are classified based on the materials used in their
manufacturing. Type I tanks are made of metal, Type II tanks are made of a thick metallic liner
hoop wrapped with a fibre-resin composite, Type III tanks are made of a metallic liner fully
wrapped with a fibre-resin composite and Type IV tanks are made of polymeric liners
fullywrapped with a fibre-resin composite.

32

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Figure 9: Types of cylinders

4.2.










Objective
To increase the efficiency and reduce the costs of hydrogen liquefaction technologies.
To contribute to the upcoming generation of liquefaction technology for new hydrogenproduction plants.
To keep up with the existing research on carrier cycling performance, chemistries,
catalysis and reactors with the potential for enhanced roundtrip efficacy and life cycle
assessment.
Build hydrogen carriers for commercial usage to transport and store hydrogen while
improving their roundtrip productivity and reducingcosts.
To strengthen the pressure and capacity for new builds of 100% hydrogen pipelines
while reducing their cost.
To decrease road transport costs of compressed hydrogen by increasing the capacity oftube trailers.
To enhance the efficiency of road transport of liquid hydrogen while reducing costs.
To enable scale-up for shipping solutions of bulk liquid hydrogen and its
commercialisation.

33

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

4.3.

National and international R&D activities

The sub-committee evaluated the following existing compendium on research and development(R&D) in hydrogen in India.
India country report on hydrogen and fuel cell 2Compendium on hydrogen and fuel cell3

While hydrogen storage is a well-researched area, it was found that very little progress has
been made on the transportation of hydrogen in India.
Table 8shows a comparison of the research status on hydrogen transportation in India andglobally and summarises the key technological developments in India and the world forhydrogen transport. In general, it is seen that hydrogen movement in pipelines, tube trailers andmarine transportation is at a commercial scale globally. In India, pilots are planned for hydrogen
blending in natural gas pipelines, while hydrogen transport in cylinders is limited to Type I and II
due to a lack of safety-related permissions from the concerned agencies.
Ammonia and methanol production from green hydrogen are already demonstrated on acommercial scale around the world. In India, there is a pilot plant for producing ammonia, whilea demonstration plant is in progress. On LOHCs, a commercial scale operation involving
transporting LOHCs over 4000 km has been demonstrated in Japan 4 . There is a lab-scaledemonstration of LOHCs in India, and industry research is in the early phase.
Methanol conversion to hydrogen is a commercially available technology, but the conversion ofammonia to hydrogen and dehydrogenation to extract hydrogen from LOHCs is at a relatively
nascent stage. India can be a first mover in this space to develop technologies forcommercialisation.

34

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Table 8: Summary of technology developments for hydrogen transport

Technology

Technology
readiness

Brief Summary

Hydrogen transport
Pipelines

Global: Commercial
scale

Pipeline-based gaseous hydrogen transport is an approved approach. There is roughly
2570 km of hydrogen pipeline in the United States5.
1. Corinth Pipeworks6, a company headquartered in Attiki (Greece), manufactures
the steel pipes used in the hydrogen pipeline network.
2. Soluforce 7 , based in the Netherlands, manufactures a spoolable Reinforced
Thermoplastic Industrial Piping system (RTP, also known as FCP) for hydrogen
applications.
3. Pipelife 8 , a leading Austrian piping system solution, also manufactures a
Reinforced Thermoplastic Piping system (RTP).

India: Pilot

Gaseous hydrogen transport via existing pipes is a low-cost alternative for transferring
vast amounts of hydrogen. Natural gas companies and pipeline network operators inIndia are currently focusing on the same.
1. GAIL9 has started hydrogen blending as a pilot project to establish the technocommercial feasibility of blending hydrogen in the City Gas Distribution (CGD)
network
inIndore,MadhyaPradesh.
10
Pipeline Infrastructure Limited (PIL) has partnered with DNV , an independent
energy specialist, to integrate hydrogen into PIL's Indian gas network assets.

Tankers

Global: Commercial

There are numerous cylinder/tank manufacturers in India and around the world.

35

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Technology

Technology
readiness/cylinders

scale

Brief Summary
1. INOXCVA 11 , an Indian manufacturer of cryogenic equipment, has supplied theworld's largest liquid hydrogen storage tank (238 m3) to Doosan Crop., which isbuilding a hydrogen plant in South Korea.

India:
Commercial scale(Type I-II)

2. Chart Industries Inc. 12 , an international vessel manufacturing company with amanufacturing facility in India, has constructed over 800 hydrogen tanks.
3. Linde, an international engineering company, provides storage and transportfacilities at various operational sites, ranging from specifically insulated tanks forliquid hydrogen (LH2) to pressure-tight containers (cylinders, cylinder bundles,
tanks, and pipes) for compressed hydrogen (CGH2).

No technology for type
III-V

4. Air Liquide13, the second largest provider of industrial gases after Linde, works
extensively on tank material strength.
5. BHEL, one of India’s largest engineering and manufacturing organizations, isdeveloping Type-IV hydrogen and CNG cylinders and is making good progress.
BHEL intends to set up
dedicated CoEs for the development of Type-IV
Cylinders, a national testing facility for Type-IV cylinders, and a manufacturing
facility in the country
Ships

1. Kawasaki Heavy Industries14, a Japanese multinational company, has constructed
a liquid hydrogen carrier ship capable of transporting 1,250 m3of hydrogen.

Global: Commercial
scale

2. Sirius Design & Integration15, a ship designer and system integrator in Norway, isworking on a hydrogen carrier for Gen2Energy.
India:-

36

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Technology

Technology
readiness

TrainsGlobal: Pilot

1. DB Cargo16, a rail cargo company based in Germany, intends to construct a rail
waggon in the future to transport urgently required hydrogen by a freight train.

India:

1. Since Indian railways were granted permission to transport LNG only in October
2022, a thorough examination of hydrogen transportation is required. The Indian
railways list compressed hydrogen gas in their freight lists, indicated in the 200W
rate class, with a transport cost of INR 5,830 per tonne for a distance of 3,500 km.

Brief Summary

Conversion of hydrogen
Ammonia

Global: Commercial

The process of converting hydrogen to ammonia is already a well-established process. In
all fertiliser plants, hydrogen is converted to ammonia. They employ the Haber-Boschprocess to manufacture ammonia by combining nitrogen (from the air) and hydrogen(from fossil fuel). Furthermore, manufacturers across different industries are attempting to
produce ammonia using renewables since it is a clean fuel and helps decarbonise.
1. CF Industries17 plans to produce 20,000 tonnes of ammonia using green hydrogenat Donaldsonville, United States of America, by 2023.
2. Intercontinental Energy18 is working on one of the world's largest green ammonia
production projects, namely 9 million tonnes of ammonia production utilising greenhydrogen in Australia and numerous other green ammonia projects worldwide.
3. A Saudi Arabian plant, a joint venture of NEOM, ACWA Power, and Air Products,
plans to commission a 1.2 million tonne ammonia production fuelled by greenhydrogen by 202519.
4. Yara International ASA, Aker Clean Hydrogen, and Statkraft ASA formed37

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Technology

Technology
readiness

Brief Summary
HEryaGReen Ammonia (HEGRA) in 2021 20 , which aims to electrify anddecarbonize Yara's ammonia plant in Herya, Porsgrunn, enabling large-scale
green ammonia production.

India: Pilot

1. Avaada Group21 has signed a deal with the Government of Rajasthan for a green
ammonia facility with a production capacity of one million tonnes per annum.
2. ACME Group has established a pilot green hydrogen (314 tonnes per annum) andgreen ammonia plant in Bikaner, Rajasthan22. ACME has also announced plans tobuild green hydrogen and ammonia plant in Karnataka, Odisha and Tamil Nadu
and has signed memorandums of understanding with the state governments. 23

MethanolGlobal: Commercial
scale

Similar to the ammonia production process, hydrogen is also necessary for methanol
production.
1. CRI has started the first commercial CO 2-to-methanol production plant in China.
H2 recovered from existing coke oven gas, and 160,000 per annum 24 CO2
recovered from existing lime manufacturing emissions. This methanol production
contributes to reducing greenhouse gases by replacing coal-based methanal.
2. Inovyn, an INEOS group European firm, unveiled the 'Power to Methanol' projectin Antwerp in 202025, which will manufacture 8000 tonnes of methanol per year
from captured CO2 mixed with hydrogen generated from renewable electricity.
3. Thyssenkrupp 26 , a multinational chemical and process technology company, isemploying its own Uhde Methanol technology to manufacture industrial-scale
sustainable methanol in one of its projects.

38

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Technology

LOHC

Technology
readiness

Brief Summary

India: Early stages forpilot deployment

1. L&T and NTPC have collaborated to build a demonstration plant for CO 2-tomethanol production27, with CO2 captured from power plant fuel emissions and H 2
generated in a more environmentally friendly manner, via electrolysis.

Global: CommercialscaleLiquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC) absorb and release hydrogen through chemical
reactions. Since LOHC does not require compression to carry hydrogen, it is costeffective. Several firms have reached the commercial level.
1. Spera technology28 from Chiyoda Group, based in Japan, has been building the
supply chain to transport hydrogen from Brunei Darussalam to Japan since 2020by storing hydrogen in Methylcyclohexane (MCH) which will be commissioned by2026.
2. Hydrogenious LOHC, a German company, has been developing hydrogen storage
and transportation technology using LOHC. Hydrogenious LOHC uses benzyl
toluene as a carrier medium. The world's largest LOHC plant is being built byHydrogenious LOHC in Dormagen, Germany, with commissioning scheduled in
202329. Vopak, a Dutch tank storage company, has formed a joint venture with
Hydrogenious LOHC Technologies to pave the way for implementing large-scale
pilot projects30.
3. Umicore31, a multinational materials technology firm in Brussels, has announced
an incubation and long-term R&D partnership programme focused on innovative
PGM-based catalyst technologies.

India: Laboratoryscale

1. CSIR-NEERI has a technology transfer plan to transport hydrogen using a catalyst
abbreviated as Hydrogen Storage and Delivery using Catalytic System(HyStoCat)32.

39

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Technology

Technology
readiness

Brief Summary
2. In addition to the hydrogen generating and blending pilot project, OIL established
an incubation centre in collaboration with a startup company Ohm clean tech Pvt.
Ltd., to develop LOHC solutions33.
3. Thermax is also working on a LOHC solution. However, only limited information is
publicly available.

Reconversion to hydrogen
Ammonia

Global: Pilot scale

Ammonia is cracked using an ammonia reformer resulting in 70% H 2 and the rest as
N2/NH3 mixture34. H2 is separated and purified. Pd membrane and Lithium amide-basedammonia decomposition technology areunder research to decompose ammonia.
1. Amogy 35 , a firm based out of the United States, has developed proprietary
technology for splitting ammonia into hydrogen and is scaling up its technology todecarbonise cargo ships and other heavy-duty transportation systems. It is very
close to commercialising its Ammonia-To-Power system. It has formed allianceswith several companies, including Yara, Ballard, and John Deere.
2. TyseleyEnergy36, based in the United Kingdom (UK), in consortium with several
companies, including the UK government (BEIS), has been working on ammonia
cracking technologies since 2020. The project intends to solve issues intechnologies and well-established ammonia supply chains to keep the UK at theforefront of the global market.
3. Siemens Energy, a multinational energy company, is leading a consortium todevelop an ammonia cracker prototype plant in Newcastle, UK 37 , to produce
green hydrogen at an industrial scale.

40

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Technology

Technology
readiness

Brief Summary
4. Northwestern University in the United States has built an electrochemical cell tocrack ammonia38. According to the researchers, the technology uses renewableenergy, is efficient, produces clean hydrogen, and can be scaled up to meet theindustrial need.

India
MethanolGlobal: Commercial
scale

1. Element1 39 , a hydrogen company based in the United States, has developed
commercial and highly scalable hydrogen generators (fuel cell grade) frommethanol. The hydrogen generator developed by Element 1 has been licensed tomany partners for fuel cell applications and is in use worldwide.
2. Blue World Technologies40, a fuel cell company based in Denmark, designed amethanol-reforming process that turns a mixture of methanol and water into ahydrogen-rich gas. They are working with several marine partnerships to create
methanol fuel cell-powered workboats.

India: Laboratory
scale

1. Researchers at IIT BHU 41 built a prototype that can generate 900 litres ofhydrogen per hour from 0.6 litres of methanol. In addition to this technology, IITBHU intends to develop a centre of excellence in collaboration with numerous
stakeholders to promote "Make in India" and scale up the device for diverse
applications, particularly in the transportation and mobility sectors.
2. CSIR-ACRI42developed a method to produce hydrogen with high purity (99.99%)
from methanol by electrochemical methanol reformation (ECMR) at ambientpressure and temperature.

41

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Technology
LOHC

Technology
readiness
Global: Commercialscale
India: Demo stage

Brief Summary
LOHCs act as chemical transporters and can store and release hydrogen under certain
conditions (applying temperatures and pressure). The LOHC cycle governs hydrogen
conversion and reconversion using organic compounds. Companies working on LOHC
technology provide end-to-end infrastructure, including storage and release. Hence, thesame firms listed in the conversion of hydrogen to LOHC are also working on thereconversion.
1. Spera technology, for example, is working on hydrogenation (hydrogen
conversion) in Brunei Darussalam and dehydrogenation (reconversion) in Japan.
Similarly, Hydrogenious LOHC provides end-to-end storage and hydrogen-releasesolutions at project sites.

42

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Identification of the gap: Industry needs and proposed recommendations
Table 9lists the concern areas for transporting green hydrogen in India based on feedback
received from the subcommittee members. The areas are identified based on industry
requirements, the status quo in India, the capability of domestic industry and academia to meetindustry requirements and the potential impact of the R&D intervention.
Table 9: Concern areas for green hydrogen transport in India

Area

Industry
Requirement

StatusQuoCapability

ImpactPotential

Effect of hydrogen transport on
pipeline construction material (e.g.,
embrittlement, seepage)
Testing infrastructure to study
adaptability for domestic conditions
Domestic manufacturing
capabilities for transportinghydrogen and its derivatives
Regulatory issues for transportinghydrogen at pressures greater than
200 bar.
Regulatory and safety issues fortransportation of products derived
from hydrogen.

Transport of hydrogen in cryogenic
conditions

43

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Industry
Requirement

Area

StatusQuoCapability

ImpactPotential

R&D on LOHCs for conversion andreconversion-

Scale-up potential ofLOHCs and theirrepatriation
at dispatch-

Environmental and healthimpact of Liquid Organic
Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC)

Catalyst research for ammonia
cracker technology-

NOx emissions associatedwith ammonia

Research on direct conversion of
methanol to H2 by improving
chemical kinetics
Study on the potential of leakage
during long-haul transport

LegendHighestHigh

MediumLow

44

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

4.4.

R&D priorities: Mission Mode Projects

Projects with short-term (0 - 5 years) impact horizon/Early-Stage Research ActionDeveloping test beds for testing the performance of all types of compressed hydrogen
cylinders.



Indigenous development of type IV and type V compressed hydrogen storage cylinders
for movement of hydrogen in India on trucks.



Pilots and trials for large-scale movement of compressed and liquid hydrogen in trains.



Early-stage research for the development of LOHCs in India.



Early-stage research for conversion of hydrogen into synthetic natural gas.



Early-stage research for the reconversion of ammonia, methanol and SNG to hydrogen.

4.5.

R&D priorities: Grand Challenge Projects

Projects with a mid-term (0 - 8 years) impact horizon/ Demonstration Actions for encouraging
startups and industries to growMarket readiness of type IV and V cylinders developed in India(V)Lab and pilot scale demonstration for movement of hydrogen in LOHCs across the road,rail and marine transport (m)Lab scale prototype and pilots on the reconversion of ammonia, methanol and SNG tohydrogen (M)

Pilots and trials for 100% transportation of green hydrogen in pipelines (V)

4.6.

R&D priorities: Blue Sky Projects

Projects having a long-term (0 - 15 years) horizon would be taken up with a focus onestablishing global IP and competitive advantage for the Indian industry.
The scope of research and development activities can broadly be categorised under threethemes. They are manufacturing, testing, and marketing components regarding the transport ofhydrogen.
The basis of the proposed R&D efforts stems from four broad sources. They are requirementsof the industry at large, the impact potential of research outcomes, the alignment of theseresearch topics with existing competencies of participating institutions and lastly, the technicalmaturity and depth of research in comparison with global peers.

45

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIAThe recommended projects can be classified according to the serviceability of the researchoutcomes. Blue Sky research can include projects that are directly oriented in order topotentially engender ideas and solutions in the future. Mission Mode research can include topics
that are goal-oriented and whose outcomes have practical implications in the near term.
Research topics related to the hydrogen valley could include topics that convene stakeholdersof the entire value chain to set up a hydrogen ecosystem. Lastly, the grand challenge category
could include topics that seek innovation from start-ups and industries to solve targeted
problems.
Proposed recommendations
Table 10lists the various type of R&D approaches and the corresponding projects that can beconsidered within each project. The table also recommends the institutions and organizations
that can contribute to achieving the targets and the corresponding timelines.
Table 10: Targets for green hydrogen R&D in India

R&D
approach
MissionMode

Project title•

Developing test beds for testing theperformance of all types of compressedhydrogen cylinders•

Early-stage research for thedevelopment of LOHCs in India•

Early-stage research for the conversionof hydrogen into synthetic natural gas•

Early-stage research for thereconversion of ammonia, methanol
and SNG to hydrogen•

Lab and pilot scale demonstration formovement of hydrogen in LOHCs
across the road, rail and marinetransport•

Lab scale prototype and pilots on thereconversion of ammonia, methanol
and SNG to hydrogen

Recommended
Institution/
Organization

TargetAcademia/
Research institutes

Short term

Logistics andSupply chain
research institutes

Mediumterm46

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

R&D
approach

Project title

Recommended
Institution/
Organization

Target•Pilots and trials for large-scale
movement of compressed and liquidhydrogen in trains

Industry consortia

Short term•Market readiness of type IV and V
cylinders developed in India•

Pilots and trials for 100% transportationof green hydrogen in pipelines•

Indigenousdevelopment of type IV andtype V compressed hydrogen storage
cylinders for the movement of hydrogenin India on trucks•

Leakage detection in hydrogenpipelines

Blue Sky
Research
HydrogenValleyGrand
Challenge

Short term

Central ministry via
Section 8

Mediumterm

47

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Chapter 5: End-use Applications
5.1.

Introduction

India currently consumes 10,500 TWH annually of energy in all forms and for all applications
from electricity generation, industry, transportation, agriculture, water & wastewater application
and buildings. It is expected to go to approximately 45,000 TWH by 2070 based on estimates ofIndia’s growth and HDI analysis while also coinciding with the nation’s net-zero commitment. If
one assumes that all of this energy that is required for the five big application areas mentioned
above is electricity, which is becoming a dominant form of energy,then massive investment will
be requiredfor building T&D networks across the country. Alternatively, if one assumes thatapproximately 50% of energy will be carried by hydrogen,then about 22,500 TWH or,
equivalently, 500 MMTPA of hydrogen would be required. A more realistic scenario is where allforms of renewable energy will be deployed as dictated by usecases, supply chains andeconomics.
Green Hydrogen, produced using renewable energy, has the potential to play a key role in lowcarbon and self-reliant economic pathways. Indeed, the ultimate deployment of green hydrogenon the ground for a variety of applications is expected to bring down carbon emissions,especially in difficult-to-decarbonize sectors. Green Hydrogen can enable the utilization ofdomestically abundant renewable energy resources across regions, seasons, and sectors,
feedingmultiple usage streams, either as a fuel or as an industrial feedstock. It can directly
replace fossil fuel-derived feedstocks obtained from petroleum refining. For example, hydrogenfuelled long-haul automobiles and marine vessels can enable decarbonisation of the mobility
sector, which today contributes about 9-11% of India’s GHG emissions. Apart from the mobility
sector, green power could be deployed to heat/cool household needs, transport frozen
foods/things, operateforklifts/cranes in large warehouses etc.
Hard-to-abate sectors like steel, fertilizers, and cement, which contribute to about 24% of India’s
GHG emissions,will be immensely benefitted fromthe use of green hydrogen in its
decarbonisation efforts. Production of ammonia and fertilizers consume a large quantity ofhydrogen, and an estimated few hundred of million tonnes of hydrogen per year is required. The
Haber-Bosch process that produces ammonia at high temperature and pressure requires purehydrogen, and water electrolysis gives an edge. Another important sector is the chemicals
sector, including petrochemicals, bulk chemicals, speciality and fine chemicals,and even CO2hydrogenation to methanol.For example, hydrogenation leadsto saturated oils and fats –hydrogenated vegetable products – butter; peroxide production by the well-researched,commercial anthraquinone process; methanol and methane production, though notcommercially very viable at present, require high purity hydrogen. The chemicals sector can besubstantially decarbonized by employing green hydrogen in place of currently used greyhydrogen.
Some of the minor application end-uses include hydrogen balloons for meteorological studies,
carrier gas phase in chromatography, chemical analysis by atomic absorption spectroscopy,

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

high-temperature welding, use as a coolant due to high specific activity and thermal
conductivity, leak detection, etc.[43-44].
Green Hydrogen can be particularly useful as a versatile energy carrier for meeting the energy
requirements of remote geographies, including islands andstrategic locations,in a sustainable
manner.The potential associated with hydrogen is immense, and the right deployment to avariety of applications is the need of the hour. Some of the major and critical areas of hydrogenutilization arelisted in this roadmap and discussed in detail. It is also strongly suggested to
deploy any colour hydrogen for all the applications listedabove, at least in the initial stages ofthe energy transition, so as tobuild the critical infrastructurefor hydrogen storage, distribution,and refuelling, as well as to improve the technology and manufacturing readiness levels ofgreen hydrogen.This transition will enable easier switching over to green hydrogen.

Multiple use cases relevant in India domestic market
Type of opportunity
Green H₂-based alternatives

Industry

1.1 Ammonia production

CO2 Intensive
processes

1.2 Methanol production

Onsite/ Mid-term Merchant Future
potential
Captive growth

1.3 H2 in refineries in HT/HC3
1.4 Direct reduction in steel
1.5 Metal processing
1.6 Other industries 1

Buildings
Central gas based
pipelines for heating

4.1 H2 blend2 in city gas network (domestic)
4.2 H2 blend2 in city gas network (commercial)

Transport

2.1 Fuel cells in passenger cars

Internal combustion
engine running on
fossil fuels

2.2 Fuel cells in comm, vehicles
2.3 Off-highway
2.4 Fuel cells in trains & ships
2.5 HCNG in private vehicles
2.6 HCNG in comm. vehicles

Power
Coal, oil and gas
based power
backups

3.1 Stationary fuel cells
3.3 Decentral energy storage

1. Other industries include Edible oils, electronics, diamond cutting, power plants, glass industry
2. A 5% H2 blend (by energy) with natural gas for city gas distribution
3. HT - hydrotreatment, HC - Hydrocracking

Figure 10: Multiple use cases relevant in India

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Hydrogen storage and distribution is arguably the most difficult challenge in scaling thehydrogen economy. In this context, it is important to recognize that hydrogenmight be carried invarious forms,such as pressurized hydrogen, cryo-cooled hydrogen, ammonia, ammoniaborane and even liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC). At the user end, hydrogen will bereceived in more than one form, and appropriate process equipmentwill have to be incorporated
at the user end to derive hydrogen at the right temperature, pressure, and purity from the stored
forms based on the device connected to it.
As fossil fuel contribution needs to be brought down in India and replaced with renewableenergy while catering for the new growth of energy requirements of the future, hydrogen as a
mediumto store excess renewable energy may gain huge importance. It can be safely estimatedthat about 5000 GWh of solar / wind energy may need to be stored per day in order to cater forthe energy needed during the lean period of the day. The storage requirement may increase
further, considering the excess storage required to overcome the seasonal variation of solar
radiation and wind speed. Such high energy storage through conventional batterieslike Li-ion or
upcoming chemistries such as Na-ion may not be feasible.In view of this, hydrogen generation
through high-efficiency water electrolysis, storing it in suitable forms and reusing it to generate
electricity when required(or as a fuel for other applications) may prove to be a cost-effective
solution that can possibly be employed at mega scale either in a distributed or a centralisedmode.
Hydrogen energy based onsite/centralised power generation is a great opportunity to allow
pollution-free, secure powering for on-grid and off-grid sectors. Various technology
configurations are feasible to deploy; however, those technologies may find alternate green
technologies as competitors. To analyse the performance characteristic of the hydrogen-based
power solutions vis-à-vis other non-hydrogen-based green power solutions, a table is provided
in Annex9.
Utilizing green hydrogen energy for road/marine/air mobility would reduce environmental
pollution in Indian cities and is also a great means for obtaining energy security for the country.
Powering of transport vehicles,however, is highly challenging and depends on the class ofvehicles and its intended duty cycle, availability of infrastructure for refuelling, maintenance etc.
In view of the same, it is essential to further classify the vehicle type and accordingly carry out
the technology suitability analysis vis-à-vis competitive green technologies. A comparison oflight passenger and commercial vehicles is provided in Annex10.
An alternative scenario using an H2 / Br2 fuel cell and HBr-based electrolyser, where the HBrelectrolyser is used to generate H2 and Br and exploitation of the H2 by oxidising the same in an
H2/Br2 fuel cell, could allow about ~80% efficiency. This is a significant improvement which is at
par with the Li-ion cycle (charging by solar power and discharging to user power). Such asystem needs a research focus, especially in the Indian scenario.
Production of iron and steel is one of the vital yardsticks to a country’s economic growth anddevelopment. India is the second largest producer of crude steel and is aiming to produce
around 400 MT of crude steel by 2040, which will generate around 1200 MT of CO 2 along withother polluting gases to the atmosphere. To address this pollution issue, carbon-free futuristic50

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

technology is very important. Hydrogen has the potential to replace coal/coke for reducing iron,and water would be the only by-product in the process. A large-scale demonstration of green
steel will position India amid the global frontrunners.
The major potential end applications for the deployment of green H2pathways include:-

5.2.

Replacing fossil fuel-based grey hydrogen with green hydrogen in petroleum refining andpetrochemicals production
Replacing fossil fuel-based grey ammonia with green ammonia (made from greenhydrogen) in fertilizer production
Replacing coal and coke with green hydrogen and/or natural gas in the production ofiron and steel
Use of green hydrogen and hydrogen-based e-fuels as a transport fuel for speciality &fine chemicals production
Use of hydrogen and hydrogen-based e-fuels as a transport fuelUsing green methanol/ bio-methane as feedstock for petrochemicals
Replacing various fuels used for process heating applications in the industry
Use of green hydrogen/ mixture of hydrogen and natural gas for heating/ cooling andcooking in residential/ commercial buildings
Off-grid power generation for remote geographies such as islands and strategic areas
On-site green hydrogen generation at offshore wind farms and reusing it to generate
electricity as required.

Objectives

Although the production, storage, and distribution of green hydrogen production arecurrently
expensive, economies of scale and a further improvement in technologies across the hydrogenvalue chain are likely to bring down the price of hydrogen at the point of end-use. In order toenable this transition, it is necessary to demonstrate and validate all endapplicationsat pilot
scales across various geographies. Towards this goal, it will also beprudent to employ all typesof available hydrogen for demonstration purposes and make the technology available readily.
This will help to achieve decarbonisation faster and hence,achievethe net zero goal on time. As
far as end-applications are concerned, the key objectives towards improving the technoeconomics of deployment of green hydrogen-based end-applications are listed below:
 Increasing the efficiency of hydrogen-based internal combustion engines and reducing
their NOx emissions.
 Improving the reliability, endurance, and safety of hydrogen-fuelled jet engines.
 Improving overall system performance for fuel cell stack technology in terms of power
density, reliability and durability.
 Reduction or replacement of PGM loadings and development of new materials
advancing the performance of onboard storage technology.
 Improvements in design, health monitoring and manufacturability of core components forfuel cell stacks and onboard storage technology.

51

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA Reducing the cost of core components such as modules and stacks to foster thecompetitiveness of FC heavy-duty applications.
 Reducing the cost of all other components of drive trains of FC heavy-duty applications.
 Improving overall system performance of FC systems to meet the needs of FCH HDV
end users
 Improvements in the design and monitoring procedures of FC systems.
 Supporting and accelerating the wide rollout of FC HDVs through policies, standards,
and regulations.
 Improving technologies for the use of green hydrogen in blast furnaces/ DRI processes
without adversely affecting the quality of steel.
 Designing safe boilers and heat exchangers for using hydrogen/ hydrogen-natural gas
mixtures.
Further research and innovation efforts will entail more efficient and cost-effective fuel cells
and upscaling to the higher capacity; simultaneous vendor development to make criticalcomponents of fuel cells (such as catalysts and membranes) available within India would makethe fuel cells really affordable. Together with efficiency improvements, and capex reduction, theresulting cost reductions should make it possible for wider deployment of fuel cells for many
applications.

5.3.

National and international R&D activities

a. End-use applications for hydrogen as a fuelAs a blend for direct combustion applications – Internal Combustion Engines Hythane-fuelled IC engines potentially present a unique opportunity for decarbonization,
considering that the energy conversion technology is robust, less susceptible to gas
contaminants (relatively) and exhaustive testing has been carried out.
 A number of projects sponsored by the Government of India have resulted in substantial
testing and collection of data. These include 50 hydrogen-enriched CNG (H-CNG) busesin Delhi (by Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. in collaboration with Govt. of NCT of Delhi), 2hydrogen fuelled Internal Combustion Engine buses (by IIT Delhi in collaboration with
Mahindra & Mahindra), fifteen hydrogen fuelled 3 wheelers (by IIT Delhi in collaboration
with Mahindra & Mahindra), 2 Hydrogen-Diesel dual fuel cars (by Mahindra & Mahindra)
and one fuel cell car (by CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, CSIR-Central
Electrochemical Research Institute and CSIR-National Physical Laboratory).
 The end-use technology is at TRL 9 and can potentially accept 20% of the generated
green Hydrogen. The initial emphasis can be on state-run corporations for the operationof bus and truck fleets till 2025/27.
 Standards to be published for quality specifications for Hydrogen.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Development of hydrogen fuel cells for the telecom and automobile sector
 Telecom sector
It is envisaged that in the future energy mix, Hydrogen and Fuel Cells will resent immense
opportunities to address large-and-long term renewable energy storage and on-demand reliablegeneration of electricity for various sectors – commercial, residential, industrial, defence andtransportation, in a distributed manner using highly efficient combined-heat/cooling-and-powersystems that have zero emissions when using green hydrogen. Of the various types of fuelcells, the Low-Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (LT-PEM) provides a solution that ischaracterized by high energy density (as much as 3-kWe/Litre), modular scale-up (few watts tomegawatts), silent and vibration-free operation, compatibility with various primary fuel sources,
and robustness and safety (solid electrolyte membrane) for both stationary and automotive
applications. The backup power requirement of Telecom Towers presents an apt opportunity to
deploy reliable and on-demand renewable energy solutions.
It is estimated that these towers consume about 2 billion litres of diesel per annum, amounting
to an import cost of about USD1 billion and GHG emissions of 5 MTCO 2e[20]. There were an
estimated 400,000 telecommunication towers in India in 2012, and their numbers were expected
to grow at a CAGR of 3% for the next few years [21]. Today there are close to 650,000 towers inIndia. An estimated 85% of telecom towers require 8 hours or more of backup power because of
unreliable grid supply. A significant number of these use diesel generators (DG). Tower
companies are exploring cleaner options for cutting their carbon footprint in line with the “gogreen” initiative of the TRAI [22]. For instance, Reliance Industries Ltd (RIL) has already deployedbattery-based backup power systems on several towers. However, batteries become unviable
for more than 8hours of backup time and still depend on unreliable grids for power backup. In
contrast, Fuel Cell systems generate power continuously if hydrogen is supplied.
Realizing the limitations of battery and DG-based power backup solutions, as mentioned earlier,
RIL has already installed nearly 100 imported LT-PEMFC systems on towers, and the same has
been continuously tested forthe past three years. RIL’s comprehensive on-field experiencesuggests that PEMFC systems satisfy all technical requirements of a power backup system fortelecom towers. However, the Initial Capital investments and the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)
of PEMFC systems are still higher than desired, and this limits the widespread adoption of Fuel
Cell based power backup solutions in Telecom Towers. The only way to reduce the initial capexof PEMFC systems is to develop the technology indigenously and to set up the entire
manufacturing ecosystem in India.
CSIR, together with RIL, has successfully co-developed LT–PEMFC stack know-how up to 3kWe and has validated its durability for long hours in its labs and at RIL’s Fuel Cell Test Facility,
as represented in Figure 12. Local vendors for manufacturing and sourcing various
components, as well as a system integrator, have been identified. However, large-scale, andcommercially viable on-field deployment will require further technological developments in twoareas:

53

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIAi.

development of stacks of increased power density and increased durability, which alsoenable a reduction in the number of components and simpler system-level operationii.

integrating stacks with suitable hydrogen generation systems.

Figure 11: Testing of CSIR-3 kWe Fuel Cell Stack at Industry site (CSIR-NMITLI Program)

The CSIR-RIL team has quantified each of the targets based on the substantial on-field
experience of running PEMFC-based telecom power backup systems. The increased attention
by many telecom companies in India to deploy PEMFC-based backup power supply systems fortelecommunication towers is going to open huge opportunities in this rapidly growing sector in
the country.
 Automobile sector
As mentioned in the FAME scheme document (Faster Adaption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &)Electric Vehicles in India by 2020), 85 % of the crude oil is being imported to meet the current
energy demand. And transportation sector contributes almost one-third of this, and roadtransportation accounts for around 80% of the energy consumption. As India is one of thelargest emerging economies of the world, its primary energy consumption is expected toincrease by 70% in the next ten years, because of which the gap between local crude oil
production and consumption will keep on widening. This requires significant investments ofresources in investigating, developing and launching alternative energy systems.
The most prominent automotive alternatives are electric vehicles – specifically, battery electricvehicles and vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells. Globally, much effort is focused onlithium-ion batteries. India, however, does not possess significant lithium resources.
Additionally, lithium-ion batteries are bulky. To overcome these limitations, work is ongoing on
alternative battery technology. However, for some applications – for instance, where a long
travel range is required – fuel cells are necessary. Also, battery charging takes significant time,
whereas refuelling an FCEV is as rapid as conventional fuel-driven vehicles. In general, energy

54

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

storage technologies, such as advanced batteries and supercapacitors, and hydrogen fuel cells,
are important complements to each other. We, therefore, believe that a combination ofhydrogen fuel cells, advanced batteries and supercapacitors will be key technologies for India inthe coming years.
CSIR’s PEMFC program, beginning in 2003, was driven under NMITLI and aimed at reducing
the capital expenditure of fuel cells through localization, bringing technology readiness, andcreating a platform to drive research and development. CSIR-NCL and CSIR-CECRI wereinvolved in most aspects of developing and testing low-temperature PEMFC stacks. Along theway, it helped to successfully localize the development and manufacture of most components ofthe system while benchmarking the performance of these components with internationallyavailable components. During 2016-2021, CSIR and KPIT collaborated to develop automotivegrade LT-PEMFC using metal bipolar plates, Fuel Cell system architecture, powertrain
integration, control strategy, testing processes, etc. CSIR and KPIT applied this fuel cell
expertise specifically to the automotive trials with 3-wheeler and four-wheeler demonstrations,as represented in Figure 13.
Last year KPIT also launched the first indigenously made fuel cell bus based on this fuel cell
technology. Currently, KPIT is working on the development of fuel cell-powered marine vessels
in collaboration with Cochin Shipyard Ltd. MEA performance is the single most important metricthat can influence the adoption of Fuel Cell Vehicles. The analysis of the current MEA indicatesthat the MEA fabrication approach adopted is not optimal. Even though it achieved the
maximum current density of 1 A/cm2 at the single-cell level in an operating cell voltage of 0.6 V
with optimized testing parameters, the current density lies between 0.5 and 1 A/cm 2 at a cellvoltage of 0.6 V in a multi-cell fuel cell stack. Secondly, a performance of >1.5 A/cm2, as well as
the durability of the stack, is crucial. It is important to achieve the desired power output inminimum fuel cell stack size for the successful deployment of the fuel cell in theautomotive
sector.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Figure 12: Testing of CSIR-10 kWe Fuel Cell Stack for Vehicular platform in collaboration with Industry(CSIR-NMITLI Program) Distributed Power Applications
For applications like residential and small/medium capacity commercial distributed power
requirements, a high-temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (HT-PEMFC) would
be a better candidate owing to its advantage that the system can be conveniently coupled with areformer unit. The better CO tolerance expected from the system due to its high operating
temperature gives HT-PEMFC a clear edge over its LT counterpart. Also, an HT-PEMFC
integrated with the thermal system would be the right choice for realizing better energy-efficientinstallations to simultaneously take care of space cooling and electrical power supply. Whilehigh-temperature SOFC systems can also enable excellent thermal integration at the systemlevel, these systems are difficult to run in start-stop modes due to thermal shocks in cycling
between operating temperature (> 600 oC) and ambient temperature. Since the phosphoric acidin HT-PEMFC is confined in the matrix of the PBI membrane, the system (Figure 14) retains aclear technological advantage compared to PAFC, which is based on liquid phosphoric acid.
Hence, installations and maintenance will be relatively easy in the case of HT-PEMFCs.

Figure 13: Development of CSIR-5 kW HT-PEMFC system for stationary application in collaboration with
Industry

HT-PEMFC has a relatively simple BoP compared to LT-PEMFC due to the absence of thehumidifier and the associated components. This makes the HT system more compact andadaptable to many niche applications where size and weight are going to be the important56

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

governing factors. Like other fuel cells and alternate energy systems, HT-PEMFC also can playa vital role in establishing hybrid and decentralized energy generation systems.
BHEL’s Fuel Cell Research lab is fully equipped with the manufacturing of air-cooled and liquidcooled Proton Exchange membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell Stack and system up to 5 kW, which
Includes:

Bipolar Plate design with gas and coolant flow fields and their Optimization.
Design of End Plates, Copper Plates, and other fixtures.
Design and Development of Sealings for both MEA and Cooling sides of Bipolar plates.
Design and Development of Humidifiers, Coolants, and Thermal Management Systems.

The in-house developed Fuel cell test bench can test the fuel cell stacks and generate theperformance data for the development of fuel cell systems.
BHEL R&D has also developed an electric Golf Cart with a DC motor which has been integrated
with an existing in-house developed PEM Fuel Cell system with onboard Hydrogen Storage anda safety system. The hybrid electric golf cart vehicle demonstrates the technology with apayload of 300 kilograms up to a maximum speed of 20 kmph.
BHEL has also developed a liquid-cooled 5 kW high power density PEM fuel cell stack. Under
this development, new designs of bipolar plates and sealant materials andsealing mechanism
wereadopted to improve the performance of PEM fuel stack significantly.
Currently, BHEL is focusing on the development of a modular 25-kW Fuel cell system, which isinthe advanced stage of development. The 25-kW fuel cell system can address the various
capacities by using multiple modules in series/parallel combinations.
BHEL is also focusing on the development of a modular 60 kW fuel cell system.
 Electrical power generation using Hydrogen fuelled spark ignition engine
generators
Internal combustion engine generators are used in industries, commercial buildings, hospitals,etc., for standby operations, emergencies, meeting peak load demand, etc. The chloralkaliindustries produce hydrogen as a tangible product, whereas surplus hydrogen is available inmany industries, including ammonia, ethylene, oil refineries, etc., as these industries havealready developed the required infrastructure for hydrogen production from natural gas throughsteam reforming method, storage, transportation, internal dispensing, etc. These industries
could generate electrical power using the by-product/surplus available of hydrogen for in-houseplant use. The experience gained by the industries could be useful to scaleup the hydrogen in
our country.
Hydrogen fuel engines emit zero carbonaceous emissions along with high energy efficiency.
However, the major technical challenges in Hydrogen fuel engines are backfiring, oxides ofnitrogen, and power drop compared to gasoline or CNG fuel engines/vehicles. Backfire is apreignition phenomenon occurring during the suction stroke of a manifold-based hydrogen fuel57

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

spark ignition engine as the minimum ignition energy of hydrogen is very low (~0.02 mJ)
compared to hydrocarbon fuels (~20 mJ).
Backfire at high intensity could damage the intake manifold, hydrogen injectors, and injection
system, as well as stall the engine operation. Backfires can be eliminated using different
techniques/technologies such as retarded hydrogen injection, retarding spark timing, exhaustgas recirculation, increased compression ratio, and direct hydrogen injection. Backfire
probability can be decreased with the increase in compression ratio due to the reduction in thetemperature of the residual gas [23]. The backfire limiting spark timing and injection timing were
12 0bTDC and 40 0aTDC [24]. The temperature of any hot spot must be below 900 K for backfirefree engine operation [25].
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) forms at a high in-cylinder temperature in spark ignition engines. The
emissions could significantly be reduced by exhaust gas circulation, spark timing retardation,water injection, and selective catalyst reduction (SCR) / Lean-NOx Trap (LNT). NOx decreased
from 12.1 g/kWh with maximum brake torque (MBT) spark timing (10 °bTDC) to 8.1 g/kWh withretarded spark timing (4 °bTDC) and further decreased to 6.1 g/kWh with 20 % EGR. NOx canbe reduced to 0.1 g/kWh using water injection technology at a water-to-hydrogen ratio (WHR) of
9.25 [26]. Hydrogen instead of ammonia as a reductant can be used in SCR as hydrogen can beused for both the engine and after-treatment device. The main problems of usage of ammonia in
SCR, such as the need for a separate tank, ammonia slip, formation of bisulphates, fouling,odour, etc., can be eliminated while using hydrogen as a reductant instead of ammonia in SCR.
The calorific value of hydrogen is very high (~120 MJ/kg) compared to hydrocarbon fuels (~44).
However, the volumetric heat content of hydrogen is very low (~9.6 MJ/m3), whereas CNG is
about 35 MJ/m3 resulting in a power drop. The power drop could be minimized using
turbocharger/supercharger technologies and enhancement of swept volume of the engine.
A dedicated lubricating oil that must be used for hydrogen fuel spark ignition engines isdeveloped by the oil industry in India. Industries may develop the required infrastructuredevelopments with high safety for the successful implementation of hydrogen. A photographic
view of a hydrogen-fuelled generator developed atIIT Delhi is shown in Figure 15.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Figure 14: A photographic view of a hydrogen-fuelled generator developed in IIT Delhi with MNRE fundsupport.

b. Difficult-to-Decarbonize End-Use Applications
It is envisioned that hydrogen will play a leading role in different aspects of day-to-day life within
the context of a carbon-constrained environment in the future. Experts regularly tout hydrogenas one of the emerging contenders for the leading clean energy source/carrier. There are
myriad application areas for Hydrogen in the chemical, metal and processing industries.Many
chemical industries might need hydrogen for their hydrogenation or experimental needs, andthis is another quick bolt-on use of hydrogen for which we might have to conduct a survey ofsuch users and their current demands. The energy sector is theoretically the primary utilization
avenue for hydrogen. It can be argued that the power industry (including captive power
generation), followed by the transportation sector through the use of fuel cell vehicles, canpotentially be the leading commercial application area and use-cases of hydrogen worldwide.
End fuel processor development from kW to MW scale will be needed depending on whether
hydrogen is transported as high pressure or ammonia or solid form.
In recent years, ammonia has been branded as a leading panacea to the question. Ammonia
liquefies at -33 ºC at atmospheric pressure. The boiling point increases to 25 ºC whencompressed to only 10 bars. Furthermore, the energy density of Ammonia is 15.6 MJ/litre,whichis even superior to that of liquid hydrogen, the corresponding value of which is 9.1 MJ/litre. The
industry is very familiar with the Haber-Bosch process of generating ammonia from hydrogen,and a lot of the infrastructure for handling liquid ammonia already exists, courtesy of the fertilizer
industry. Hence, ammonia can be viewed as an extremely cost-effective, practically feasible,
industry-ready hydrogen vector that can provide a tremendous impetus to eventual hydrogenusage.

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The final piece of the puzzle with ammonia as an energy vector is to use it as a hydrogen
substitute or generate back hydrogen just prior to its consumption/utilization. Hydrogen can findwide applications in gas turbine combustors in power plants, anodic feed in solid oxide fuel cells
for captive power generation or as a fuel in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs)
in fuel cell cars. Research should be conducted on employing ammonia as a feed to thesedevices. As mentioned before, one effective way to approach it is to efficiently decompose
ammonia back to nitrogen and hydrogen just before separating the hydrogen and sending it to
the target device. This technological arrangement, in principle, can greatly enable the wide
adoption of hydrogen in different applications by the industry.
The energy sector alone is responsible for around three-quarters of worldwide CO2 emissions.
According to a recent International Energy Agency (IEA) report, global energy-related CO2
emissions rose to a record high of 36.3 Gt in 2021. Clearly, employing hydrogen as a clean fuelin gas turbine power plants can go a long way in alleviating this monstrous environmental
problem. Employing ammonia as a hydrogen vector in precisely this kind of application can offera practical method of massively using hydrogen in the final application. Some recent patents
have appeared in the literature that provides engineering solutions to use ammonia in gas
turbine power plants. One very recent patent proposes a coupled combustor-heat exchanger
system to provide hydrogen from ammonia within the combustor of a power plant. Anotheraspect that needs to be investigated in detail is the suitability of the existing industrial natural
gas combustors for hydrogen combustors. A successful demonstration of these ideas in real-lifesituations can lead to explosive growth of the use of hydrogen with a corresponding reduction inworldwide CO2 emissions.
Because of the usage of fossil fuels for producing heat and the primary reducing agent being
CO, a significant amount of CO 2 is emitted from steel industries. The steel industry is
responsible for over 6% of the anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Hydrogen metallurgy uses H2 or
H2-enriched gases as the reducing agent instead of fossil fuels to reduce CO 2 emissions.
Moreover, the diffusivity of H2 is considerably higher as compared to CO, resulting in higher
mass transfer rates towards the reaction sites and faster reduction rates. Currently, more than
95% of H2 is produced using fossil fuels as the input in steam methane reforming, coke ovengas (COG, H2+CH4+CO) reforming and coal gasification processes. However, H 2 can beproduced in a more sustainable and carbon-neutral way through thermochemical routes such as
solar water splitting, solar gasification, or solar steam methane reforming. In the steel industry,H2-enriched products are being researched for use in the blast furnace (BF) production process
and direct reduction iron (DRI) process. The BF process does not require high-purity H2, and H2rich gas is acceptable. The DRI process operates with reduction gas having higher H 2
concentration as compared to the BF process. In the BF production process, conventionally,
coke is used as an input. H2-enriched gases such as COG can be injected.However, carbon
remains the dominant element for reducing iron oxides, and it is suggested that H2 can only
partially replace coke in BF. Currently, efforts are being directed towards increasing thehydrogen-to-carbon ratio to decrease CO2 emissions from BF. In the DRI process, both coalbased andgas-based input is used, though gas-based processes are more popular and accountfor more than 90% of the output from all of the DRI processes. In the gas-based60

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

process,usually, natural gas (NG), syngas (H2+CO) or off-gasses from steel plants(H2+CH4+CO) are employed. In the DRI process, the research is targeted towards the usage ofpure H2 or a further increase in the H2 proportion in input gases. The thermodynamics andkinetics of H2-based reduction aredifferent fromCO-based reduction, and detailed investigation
is desirable to investigate the performance of hydrogen metallurgy both at the fundamental andsystem level. In addition to technical considerations, economic factors will also drive thedirection for moving towards hydrogen metallurgy.
Recommendations for research initiatives
The above-mentioned thermodynamically beneficial and environment-friendly LH2-based
Brayton cycle can be explored as a part of futuristic technology. However, the need for research
initiatives is realized. Some examples are as follows:
1. Experimental assessment of such a cycle, using conventional and non-conventional
working primary fluid, e.g., air or other gases. This investigation can be performed in alaboratory, and the developed technology can be scaled up by a suitable industry.
2. Developing novel material for addressing hydrogen-related corrosion, embrittlement,
etc., at a high temperature.
3. Integration of solar energy systems for the pre-heating of working primary fluid before
combustion or for post-combusting heating. This is expected to enhance the system's
efficiency.
4. Assessment and adoption of the conventional sub-systems such as heat exchanger,
combustor, separator, de-humidifier, and even turbine for such a novel system.
5. Assessment of existing gas turbine-based thermal power plants for possible conversion
to hydrogen-based power generation systems. This will enable the re-utilization of widely
available and well-trained manpower.
Production of Green and Clean Steel through Hydrogen Plasma Smelting Technique
In India, the production of iron and steel is one of the vital yardsticks to the country’s economic
growth and development. Our nation is the second largest producer of crude steel and is aiming
to produce around 400 MT of crude steel by 2040, which will generate around 1200 MT of CO 2
along with other polluting gases to the atmosphere and will cause serious environmental
concern. If the environment is not protected from this situation, the time will come when India
faces a temperature rise concern which will adversely impact the water supply, climate andecosystem. To address this pollution issue, the development of futuristic technology for carbonfree iron production using alternate reductants like hydrogen with minimum or no CO 2 Emission’,is important. With the increased production iron, the emission of CO2 is also increasing. The
only way to get rid of greenhouse gas pollution is to go for green technology. Hydrogen has thepotential to replace coal/coke for reducing iron, and water is the only by-product ofreduction withhydrogen. It is a renewable resource, and we can rely on it compared to coal which is nonrenewable. A large-scale (100 kg) demonstration will position India amid the global frontrunners.

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Figure 15:Process flow chart for green steel production
Table 11: Comparison between the Conventional process and Hydrogen Plasma process for clean andgreen steel

Conventional Process

Hydrogen Plasma Smelting Reduction(HPSR)

CO2 emission

No CO2 emission

No. of unit processes are involved in
producing iron through the blast furnaceroute, and the pig iron is processed to makesteel

Single unit for production of steel

36 tons of Carbon is required for the
production of 112 tons of iron

Only 6 tons of Hydrogen is required to
produce 112 tons of iron

CO2 is produced as a by-product gas andmakes the atmosphere polluted

H2O vapour is the by-product and can berecycled during commercial production

Non-eco-friendly technology

Eco-friendly technology

Iron ore fines cannot be used

Iron ore fines can be used

Staging Hydrogen utilization in India under the Hydrogen Mission
India has promised to cut its emissions to net zero by 2070 at the COP26, and under its broad
ambit, the Hydrogen Mission has been launched with the objective of “India the Global Hub for
production, usage and export of Green Hydrogen and its derivatives”. Regarding the use ofGreen Hydrogen, the broad charter of this sub-committee is to suggest a pathway for the usage

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of generated green Hydrogen. It is sought to be emphasized that Hydrogen take remains a key
challenge, and the production side can suffer unless a well-oiled system is put in place on theofftake side. Againstthis backdrop and towards setting the course, some basic information is
consolidated below.


















Current hydrogen utilization in India accountsfor6 million tones
The refinery sector accounts for almost 3 million tonnes of hydrogen demand,
representing 46% of the total hydrogen demand in the country
Ammonia production contributes to 48% of the current hydrogen demand
Steel production via natural gas-based DRI-EAF (Direct Reduced Iron in Electric Arc
Furnace) contributes to 0.3 million tonnes of hydrogen demand currently.
Currently, hydrogen demand for the transport sector is almost non-existent, as no
FCEVs exist (commercial basis) on the market in India. While a large number of groups
are engaged in the research, development and demonstration activities of PEMFC, it
has not reached the stage of commercialization.
o CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune and CSIR-Central Electrochemical
Research Institute, Karaikudi, along with KPIT, have operated a prototype car.
o Last year KPIT also launched an indigenously made fuel cell bus based on this fuelcell technology.
o Currently, KPIT is working on the development of a fuel cell-powered marine vesselin collaboration with Cochin Shipyard Ltd.
o Toyota Kirloskar Motor Pvt. Ltd., along with International Center for Automotive
Technology (ICAT), initiated a Pilot using Toyota Mirai.
The focus of OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) as ofdate in the country
continues to be on Electric / Hybrid Electric vehicles. All efforts related to the adoption offuel cells as prime movers remain restricted to research and development.
Fuel cell vehicles are unlikely to hit the road on a commercial scale, at least until 2030,
subject to the concurrent development of Hydrogen supply infrastructure (under theconsideration of competitive pricing)
The most optimistic scenario for fuel cells in vehicles corresponds to Reliance & Adanigroup partnering with Ashok Leyland for the adoption of Fuel Cells on Diesel Trucks.
Preliminary reports indicate Reliance has contracted the conversion of 45,000 Diesel
trucks into Fuel Cells trucks, with the first rollout around 2025 when Reliance proposesto generate green Hydrogen at its Jamnagar refinery.
Preliminary reports indicate the Adani group is planning to convert mining trucks to fuelcell trucks using 120 kW Ballard PEM fuel cells.
Current interventions into fuel cells pertain to the adoption of imported fuel cell stacks
into existing chassis. The availability of indigenous stacks in the immediate time horizon
is unlikely.
Regarding the use of Hydrogen in conventional engine technology, there are 50 Hythane(18% Hydrogen and 82% Compressed Natural Gas) buses plying on the roads of New
Delhi, and there are plans afoot to expand the footprint of such buses across thecountry.

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Limited work has been carried out by the Metal and Cement sector.

Based on the presented information, from the perspective of the use of generated green
Hydrogen in the country, the following key observations are sought to be made for the threeroutes of Hydrogen utilization: as an industrial chemical with utility as a molecule, as a blend
with CNG in combustion devices and as a pure energetic molecule in electrochemical devices.
As an industrial chemical, including reducing agents and inert media
 Currently, with almost all Hydrogen being used as a molecule in chemical processes,
sectors like ammonia synthesis, desulfurization etc., are the most suited for the adoptionof green Hydrogen.
 For processes involving catalytic synthesis, quality standards would be extremely
stringent and need to be published.
 Sectors, where Hydrogen is used as a reducing agent (steel/cement), can potentially bemore flexible as compared to catalytic processes, and the initial focus should be onthese sectors.
 Mandating guaranteed uptake of green Hydrogen to offset part of grey Hydrogen inconventional industrial processes would be a key requirement.
 Considering that site-specific consumption of Hydrogen is rather substantial, ameaningful offset would require the colocation of green Hydrogen generation plants tominimize transportation cost implications.
 Viability gap funding, if necessary, should be a key point till economies of scale are
realized. The viability gap funding provides an opportunity for resolving potential teethingproblems associated with the blending and utilization of green Hydrogen with grey
Hydrogen.
 Establishing / publishing standards for each of the industrieswould be important toenable producers to target the desired quality of Hydrogen.
 Since the end technology is already at TRL 9, the utilization target for more than 75% of
any green Hydrogen generated till 2025/27 should be directed tothis sector. Around 50%
can be directed at the steel/cement sector, while the balance 25% can be directed at
sectors where Hydrogen enters the process as a molecule.

Utilization of Hydrogen in Automotive Engines / Vehicles
BS VI norms for automotive vehicles wereimplemented on April 01, 2020. To further reduce
emissions to zero levels along with energy efficiency improvements, hydrogen is one of the best
fuel options. The hydrogen blended natural gas (up to 18%) can be used in in-use vehicles. The
current vehicles running with natural gas need minimal or no modifications for use of hydrogenblended natural gas. Hydrogen blended fuel is one of the easiest ways to decarbonize theautomotive sector. In the case of 100% hydrogen, a dedicated engine/vehicle needs to be
developed. A zero-emission vehicle with hydrogen is the next important step beyond BS VI
norms.
Utilization of Hydrogen Use in Compression ignition engines under dual fuel mode64

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Hydrogen can be used in diesel engines under dual fuel mode. Hydrogen will be injected into
the intake manifold of the engine during the suction stroke, and diesel will be directly injected
into the combustion chamber at the end of the compression stroke. The thermal efficiency of theengine would significantly improve along with near zero carbonaceous emissions. The
engine/vehicle with hydrogen can operate in flex-fuel mode, either diesel or dual-fuel mode
(Diesel-hydrogen). Dual fuel technology without major modification can be implemented in-use
vehicles. The hydrogen energy share of about 19% could be possible to achieve near-zerolevels of CO, HC, and smoke emissions.
Hence, hydrogen could be used for the
decarbonization of diesel engines/vehicles.
Further Research and Development on hydrogen internal combustion engines vehicles
Research and Development may further be focused on the development of hydrogen direct
injection technology, technologies for thermal efficiency improvement, high injection pressure
injectors (>50 bar), fuel injection and control systems, hydrogen-SCR systems, etc. Hydrogen
direct injection is a promising technology to improve specific power output and torque, backfire
elimination of a vehicle as manifold-based hydrogen injection suffers power drop problem. A lotof scopes are available to improve the thermal efficiency of hydrogen engines through thetechnologies such as charge boost pressure, detonation combustion at part loads,
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), reduction in irreversibility, including
combustion, waste heat recovery, etc.
Identification of the gap: Industry needs and proposed recommendations
Green hydrogen sustainability as fuel perhaps depends upon its ability to provide a solution to
store the excess of renewable energy dynamically so that supply is maintained even during lean
hours in a cost-effective manner. In view of the same, it is highly important to understand theprimary advantages it offers vis-à-vis other green technology solutions and the manner in which
the shortcomings can be mitigated.
As it is apparent, rechargeable battery-based solutions, although of high efficiency, may haveprohibitive costs for large MWh or GWh installation. Water electrolysis-FC based solution,
however, is still plagued by lack of high-efficiency electrolyser. Even today’s targeted 1.6V
electrolyser, for e.g., can provide only ~50% efficiency, as discussed above. In view of thesame, H2 – Br2 FC and HBr electrolysis can provide a solution towards high efficiency, allowing
lesser installation cost with respect to,e.g., Li-ion system. Another aspect is that of the fuel cell.
Since both PAFC / PEMFC depends on Pt, their installation cost could be a problem.
Additionally, the PEMFC/PAFC stacks havean upper limit of potential (of about 0.8 V) to prevent
carbon corrosion of the electrode, thus limiting the efficiency of fuel cells. Utilizing non-carbon
catalyst/electrode system could be an important research impetus. Alkaline fuel cells, which
possess better features while not needing Pt as the electrocatalyst, can be operated beyond
0.8V, thus breaking the efficiency ceiling. However, the AFC material issues and low life ispreventing unleashing the advantages of AFC; poisoning issues of atmospheric CO 2 also need
to be considered. Such cases, from an Indian perspective, are very important to be investigated,considering the expertise available in India with respect to material science.

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1. For direct industry-supported implementation:a) Deployment of high-capacity electrolyser of about 1.8V operating potential (initiallywith high non-local content) for distribution of green hydrogen connected to solar /wind power plants for GWH storage application.
2. Research & development impetus:a) Development of high-efficiency electrolyser of ~1.6V, both alkaline membrane or acidmembrane-based, along with suitable electrocatalyst development. Preference is tobe given to alkaline systems considering Pt / noble metal-free electrocatalyst
feasibility and better kinetics, thus reducing the cost.
b) H2-Br fuel cells and development of HBr-based electrolyser system. FC system could
be non-regenerative coupled with a separate HBr electrolyser or regenerative, where
both reactions can happen to reduce the cost.
c) Development of high-efficiency power electronics (>95%) for charging (electrolyser
operation) and discharging of FC (to convert FC power to grid quality power)
Inference for Hydrogen energy implementation for onsite power generation
Hydrogen energy based onsite/centralised power generation is a great opportunity to allow
pollution-free, secure powering for on-grid and off-grid sectors. Various technology
configurations are feasible to deploy; however, those technologies may find alternate green
technologies as competitors. To analyse the performance characteristic of the hydrogen-based
power solutions vis-à-vis other non-hydrogen-based green power solutions.
To allow a greater level of implementation of hydrogen fuel for power generation, it is apparent
that the system needs to be efficient, commercially viable and technologically well-proven.
However, there is no hydrogen technology configuration which can meet all the requirements
and alternate green technologies also suffer similar issues. In view of the same, a layered
approach is required to transition from the present fossil fuel-based power generation tohydrogen or other green technology-based power. Accordingly, the following are proposed:
For direct industry-supported implementation:a. Green hydrogen + H2 gas turbine-based power generation for MW to GW level must be
tried as it can eventually be proven to become one of the future primary systems.
However, unless high-temperature tolerant materials are developed, the efficiency will
be low. Round-trip efficiency to improve. Other pollutants like NOx will still be formed,
but the same can be easily filtered from the off-gas.
b. Green hydrogen + PAFC based power plant for 100 kWto several MWlevel as thetechnology is quite mature and the same could be distributed or centralised. Although
this may be costly initially, the same has a very long life and great availability. The life
can be renewed at a fraction of the cost, and Pt can be recycled. Thus, the capital cost
can be subsidised and can be recovered partly during every life renewal. As experienced
by DRDO, there could be at least 5 or 6 life renewals feasible.
c. Green hydrogen+PEMFC for several kWto about 50kWrange as distributed power.
PEMFC technology is growing fast in India and can be implemented easily. The cost of66

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the system is a concern, but the same can be managed through subsidiesand recovery
during renewals. However, the cost of refurbishing is higher owing to the loss of thecostly membrane, although, like PAFC, Pt is always possible to recycle.
d. Carbon neutral, indirect hydrogen sources like biomass gasifier + engine and biomass
gasifier + PAFC of Mw scale as distributed power in support of industry needs to be
implemented. The engine-based systems will suffer from low efficiency; however, once
PAFC or other competitive systems are more available, the engines can be replaced.
The initial high cost of PAFC can be managed through subsidies, as discussed before
e. CO2-sequestrated clean coal-based gasifiers coupled with engine or fuel cells, as
discussed above, can be considered for centralised power. CO 2 management may makeit site-specific, but considering the huge scope, this should also be considered for
implementation.
f. Scale-up of LTPEMFC systems from 10 kW to 100 kW and integration with E-drive/
Storage/ Controls
g. Indigenization and vendor development for all strategic materials and components of
PEMFC, such as catalysts, membranes, bi-polar plates, MEA, and GDL.
Research & development:
a. High-temperature H2 gas turbine research must be on high priority to allow
improvements of the existing turbines so that the systems can be gradually upgraded.
b. Alongsimilar lines, H2 engine upgradation needs to be investigated, maybe by industryacademia interactions. This must include long-hour operation sustaining H2 – fossil fuelblend as well.
c. R&D efforts must synchronize with the industry implementation plan of various
configurations and the technology gaps that need to be filled for gradual upgrades in atimely manner. Moving out of the Pt-based system should be a major focus ofthe
research initiatives.
d. SOFC system that can easily get integrated with gasifiers needs to be focussed on MWlevel system so that they can be used to replace the engines or low temp FCs for better
efficiency. Co-generation to utilize high-quality waste heat of SOFC needs to beinvestigated, and mini turbine-like technologies need to be developed for the same. Thissystem will allow Pt-free power generation and will allow wide implementation once
developed.
e. Highly efficient fuel cells (6 kW/ L)
f. Photoelectrochemical/photocatalytic hydrogen production. Artificial photosynthesis is tobe emphasized along Si-PV lines.

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Inference for Hydrogen energy implementation for light vehicle mobility
Utilizing hydrogen energy for road mobility is highly important towards environmental pollution
prevention in Indian cities and is also a great means for obtaining energy security for thecountry. Powering of transport vehicles, however, is highly challenging and depends on theclass of vehicles and theirintended duty cycle, infrastructure for refuelling, maintenance etc. In
view of the same, Annex10 further classifies the vehicle type and, accordingly,carriesout thetechnology suitability vis-à-vis competitive green technologies.
Annex10 depicts that high-pressure hydrogen with PEMFC is perhaps the most viable option forlight vehicle mobility. The main issue will be Pt availability, and till Pt-free PEMFC is developed,
this technology will have limited use, at least in India, since Pt is mostly imported. Further, thenewer generation Li-ion, Li-metal, and Na-ion batteriesmay prove to be more useful for lightvehicles. In view of the same, the following are proposed.
For direct industry-supported implementation:a. To develop a niche market for PEMFC-based light passenger vehicles and develophydrogen handling infrastructure as the same will be helpful for distributed power using
green hydrogen.
b. Synergistic development of hydrogen infrastructure to support green hydrogen
distribution and storage will be helpful for fuel cell-powered light vehicles (may belimited) but will be enormously helpful for distributed power generation using greenhydrogen. The distributed power stations running on hydrogen can also be used forbattery charging applications to indirectly provide green power for vehicles.
c. Hydrogen-powered ICE power train is worth looking at, considering its quick refilling
option, although the range issues will be there. However, the vehicle power train will belight in weight and reliable, allowing neutralizing the range issue to some extent, and thetechnology cost will be less. This could dramatically change the air quality in themetropolis of India and will also help to kickstartthe hydrogen infrastructure.
Research & development impetus:a. It is totally necessary to invest effort in the development of either Pt-free or very low Pt(5-10gm of Pt per light vehicle against 30 to 60 gm present situation) based PEMFC
catalyst that can be used for the PEMFC since the primary technology is a highly
mature.
b. Research of failure analysis of hydrogen high-pressure vessel storage and its relevant
safety mitigation is another very important aspect that needs to be considered.

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Inference for Hydrogen energy implementation for heavy vehicle mobility
The technologies that can be used for heavy vehicles need to be compliant with long-range (asdepicted in Annex11), technology maturity, safety and low cost. Considering the fact thatalternate green technology like battery-based power trains may not be able to meet the primary
requirement of range and safety, it is worth consideringhigh-pressure bottled H2 coupled with a
PEMFC-like power train. Pt availability limitation may not be so severe aslight vehicles primarily
due to the lesser number of such heavy vehicles. However, for a better range, it may be prudent
to also explore methanol (a renewable fuel that can be made carbon neutral) reformer coupledwith PEMFC or PAFC-like power train. In view of the same, the following is proposed:
For direct industry-supported implementation:a) The bottled H2 + PEMFC power train-based heavy vehicles, forklifts etc., application
developmentb) Bottled H2 + ICE-based forklifts and small range earth moving vehiclesc) Take advantage of the H2 infrastructure developed in a synergistic way for multi-use like
onsite distributed power, light and heavy vehicle power etc., as discussed before.
Research & development impetus:a) Reformer coupled PAFC or PEMFC power train for heavy vehicles.
b) Improved low Pt high power PEMFC / PAFC for heavy-duty application.
Inference for Hydrogen energy implementation for locomotive mobility
Railways play a very important role in India both for passenger as well as goods transportation.
Considering the extended network of railway tracks and its potential to reduce CO 2 emission, it
is quite apparent that a serious focus on hydrogen energy implementation for railways isrequired. In view of the same, various technologies based on hydrogen energy (direct or indirecthydrogen availability) vis-à-vis other possible green technologies are compared in Annex12.
In many countries’ green electric propulsion-based technologies involving Li-ion or fuel cell /bottled hydrogen power train is already implemented in a limited mode. However, on close
examination, most of these locomotives do not have more than 2 or 3 coaches. This is unlike
Indian Railways, where many coaches are connected to cater to the transportation needs bothfor passengers and goods. Further, In India, the typical distance the locomotive has to cover isalso significantly longer. In view of the same, the power and range requirements, along with theduty cycle, are quite unique in nature.
In view of the same, it is quite apparent that purely battery-driven power trains based on Li-ion
or Li-metal may not be quite suitable except for short running like suburban EMUs, shunting
engines etc. However, for such short operations, bottled hydrogen with PEMFC-based power
trains could also be competitive and worth exploring. For all other cases, hydrogen-based
technologies, especially on-board hydrogen generation, that allow longer range and operation
cost reduction arepreferred. Thus, onboard methanol /DME or CNG reformers coupled with
PAFC (a natural choice) or PEMFC with CO and other impurity filters (that may increase the69

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cost and make it complex) need to be considered for development. Issues like Pt availability
etc.,arenot severe in this case owing to lower numbers.
For direct industry-supported implementation:a) High-pressure onboard hydrogen storage with PEMFC system for EMU & shunting
engine applicationsb) Focussed hydrogen transportation, filling, and storage infrastructure (high pressure),
especially for railway-specific use.
c) Railway-specific hydrogen safety regulations and relevant standards are to be arrived at.
d) Synergy should be there for road-based hydrogen infrastructure for onsite distributed
power and automobile powering, along with safety protocols.
e) DME production in refineries instead of methanol to be decided as a policy because allmethanol / DME may not be possible to be completely from renewable sources.
f) Infrastructure for CNG, most preferably in LNG form for the railway, needs to be
developed based on the already developed CNG/LNG infrastructure for transportationand domestic use. The LNG storage and transportation are expected to be more suitable
for railway use considering its storage advantages. Cryogenic LNG storage andtransportation tankers are widely available inIndian industries.
Research & development impetus:a) Focussed research is required for the development of high-capacity PEMFC in the rangeof 500 kW along with PAFC of several MW levels. PAFC technology thru DRDO up to
500 kW is already available, and such know-how can be further scaled up andconfigured for locomotive use. Such development of high-capacity fuel cell packs must
be done in Academia-industry mode considering the development infrastructure it will be
required along with skilled manpower.
b) Packaged methanol/DME and CNG reformers need to be developed again in support of
the academia-industry model. DRDO, for e.g., has developed a 50 kWpackaged
reformer for defence field use, and such know-how can be used as a seeding for the
scaleup. Alternate technologies involving micro channel reformer, deployment method of
distributed reformer catalyst etc., are some of the technologies that need to be
developed to meet the requirement of space and robustness. Thermal systems, namely
burner technology, compact high-temperature heat exchangers etc., are also some of
the technology enablers.
c) The development of packaged reformers will have another spin, especially if required to
be used for long-distance road transport or off-grid distributed power where extending
piped or bottled H2 networks may not be feasible.
d) Govt must make necessary policy correctionsto allow the free use of methanol. If that iscomplicated, then the production of DME either by dehydrating methanol or direct
production of DME needs to be enhanced.

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In addition, the following points are also worth considering for defence applications:(a) primary driver for usage of H2 energy in defence – e.g., energy security, low signature,high efficiency causing lower logistic demand etc.
(b) various defence applications(c) Synergistic development of dual-use technologies that can be used for Hydrogen energy
in civil sectors.
Consolidated focus for short/medium/long term technology deployment plan forhydrogen energy
Based on the detailed technology analysis provided above, it is quite apparent that there arevarious potential technology options that can be considered for different applications.
Considering the resource limitation for a developing country like India, it is important to classify
and prioritize technologydeployment plans.
In view of the same, the following sections define short-term technologies that can be deployedwithin the next 5 years, while the midterm ones should be possible to implement inthe next 10
years and long-term ones to be considered for the next 15 years. The short/mid/long term
technology deployment plan must have both industry/R&D/Academia involvements and thesame will be brought out as well in the following section.

5.4.

R&D priorities: Mission Mode Projects

Projects with short-term (0 - 5 years) impact horizon/Early-Stage Research Action
For Industry
1. Obligatory consumption is to be increased rapidly with green hydrogen in sectors suchas petroleum refineries, fertilizers, and ammonia.
2. Hydrogen-based ICE for the electric vehicle application and development of light vehicle
powertrain and pilot deployments
3. Green Hydrogen generation thru efficient electrolysers (~1.8V or lower) in a distributed
scale and coupling the same with Solar PV plants and linking with developing H 2
infrastructure.
4. Development of high-pressure hydrogen storage tanks like type -III to type IV composite
cylinders of 350 to 750 bar range, compressor systems, and hydrogen piping network
suitable for distributed onsite power/hydrogen filling for vehicles. The technologies to beprioritized are multipurpose.
5. Deployment of distributed power plants
a. Based on Hydrogen & PAFC /PEMFC in the range of 100kW to 500kW range andlinking the same with partly developed Hydrogen infrastructure.
b. Based on CNG reforming / PAFC or PEMFC in the range of 250 to 1MW power
plants using available CNG infrastructure.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIAFor R&D focus
1. Development of high-efficiency electrolysers targeting ~1.6V
2. Development of a biomass-based gasifier/reformer for hydrogen generation with a target
yield of hydrogen per unit of biomass based on the Indian scenario.
3. High temp material/configuration of gas turbines for H2.
4. Development of platform mountable methanol / DME / CNG reformer system for marine
and railways application
5. Very low Pt electrocatalyst – tolerant to polluted air – for PEMFC / PAFC use.
6. Development of high efficiency, safe hydrogen high-pressure compressor technology
like electrochemical compressors, hydride compressors etc.
7. Development of pilot SOFC stacks for coupling with gasifiers

5.5.

R&D priorities: Grand Challenge Projects

Projects with a mid-term (0 - 8 years) impact horizon/ Demonstration Actions for encouraging
startups and industries to growFor Industry
1. Extension of the hydrogen infrastructure with improvements like high-efficiency hydrogencompressors, better safety etc.,
2. Extending green hydrogen generation with improved electrolysers ~1.6V.
3. Deployment of marine vessels powering using onboard H 2 storage / CNG, DME,
methanol-reforming and fuel cell system with low Pt catalyst.
4. Deployment of mini hydrogen-powered power plants.
a. Extended capacity gas turbine based distributed power in the range of several Mw
levels.
b. SOFC / gasifier-reformer (biomass, CNG etc.) power plant of > 100kW range.
5. Deployment of hydrogen-powered locomotives based on stored H2 / onboard CNG(LNG) or methanol/DME reformers
6. Fuel cell-based low Pt light vehicles with onboard hydrogen (<5gm of Pt per vehicle)
7. Employing evaporated H2 from cryo-cooled H2 tanks for operating long-distance marine
H2 shipments with a suitable fuel cell and electrolyser combination.
For R&D focus
1. Pt free or low Pt electrocatalyst for PEMFC / PAFC system.
2. Development of low-cost materials for alkaline fuel cell materials.
3. Development of large-sized low-cost, heavy with Indian component fuel cell stacks of>100 to 200kW.
4. Development of an efficient H2-Br FC-like system for high-efficiency green hydrogenenergy storage and exploitation.
5. Development of prototype-level SOFC stacks for coupling with gasifiers.
6. Multi-fuel processors (for reforming CNG/methanol/DME/ethanol etc.) for onboardhydrogen generation.

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5.6.

R&D priorities: Blue Sky Projects

Projects having a long-term (0 - 15 years) horizon would be taken up with a focus onestablishing global IP and competitive advantage for the Indian industry.
For Industry:
1. Extension of hydrogen infrastructure in a comprehensive manner covering at least 80%of India for onsite power, road/ railway / marine mobility.
2. Extended end-to-end networking of hydrogen infrastructure with solar /wind and otherrenewable power sources with the user endpoints for completion of the hydrogen grid. It
may be required to connect fossil fuel or other H 2 gen sources as well for more efficientmanagement of the hydrogen grid.
3. High-efficiency H2-Br FC cum electrolyser for GWh energy storage.
4. Optimal deployment of Hydrogen-ICE and hydrogen Fuel cell-based light vehicles vis-àvis other battery-driven electric vehicles along with indirect hydrogen (onboard multi-fuelprocessor) based fuel cell heavy vehicles.
5. Deployment of advanced H2high-efficiency gas turbine and fuel cell based
onsite/centralised power stations ranging from several 100 of kWsto 50 -100MW range
power plants. Expected to achieve high round-trip efficiency in the long term, which iscurrently not the case.
6. Deployment of marine hydrogen-fuel cell-based ships and also hydrogen-gas-turbinebased systems for larger marine vessels.
For R&D focus:
1. Low-cost Alkaline fuel cell for domestic and distributed use.
2. Pt-free impurity tolerant (cathode) electrocatalyst for PEMFC / PAFC system and life
estimation.
3. Improvement of H2-Br FC, PEMFC and SOFC system for high power application.

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Chapter 6: Enabling hydrogen framework
6.1.

Hydrogen purification

Hydrogen purity requirements vary significantly based on the end-use application. While mostfuel cells require high purity levels, lower levels suffice for gas turbines, refinery processes andindustrial boilers. Further, the Iron and steel sector and fertilizer sector don’t require high-purity
hydrogen. Concentration levels of many critical hydrogen impurities range from low ppm to low
ppb v/v levels, which is quite challenging to measure. Reliable confirmation of a desired H2grade product requires the use of specialized sampling equipment, site testing for some highly
reactive impurities, and an array of highly sophisticated analytical instrumentation. To address
the quality checks of hydrogen in the refuelling network, both the ISO and SAE hydrogenestablishes a protocol for testing the quality of the hydrogen fuel dispensed at the nozzle to thevehicle.
The relative abundance of contaminants in hydrogen is highly influenced by the production
pathway and the subsequent cleaning steps. Compared to hydrocarbon-derived hydrogenproduction pathways, water electrolysis has the advantage of producing extremely high-purity
hydrogen (>99.9%) and doesn’t require rigorous downstream purification. However, hydrogenobtained from water electrolysis also consists of three main pollutants: nitrogen, oxygen andwater, which are required to be removed to desired levels using subsequent cleaning
processes. Hydrogen generated from the water electrolysis process typically comprises around40 ppm of nitrogen, 0.2-0.6% of oxygen and 2000 ppm of water.
For the production of hydrogen from the reforming and gasification of carbonaceous feedstocks,
the product stream is subjected to a gas purification process for the separation of hydrogen fromother gaseous mixtures. Even after subjecting conventional hydrogen purification process,i.e.,pressure swing adsorption(PSA), hydrogen is usually associated with traces of several
impurities such as CO, CO2, CH4, higher HCs, H2S, NH3 etc. Typical impurities in the hydrogenproduced from different production pathways are given in Table 12. To generate hydrogen fromhydrocarbon feedstock complying with ISO 14687:2019 standard for PEM fuel cell vehicularapplication, either conventional PSA performance is required to be improved or an additional
downstream gas cleaning process to be incorporated.
Table 12: Typical impurities in the hydrogen produced from different production pathways

Production techniqueImpurities

SMR of natural gas/ bio-methane

CO, CO2, CH4, higher HCs, H2S, NH3

Coal and biomass gasification

CO, CO2, CH4, higher HCs, NH3, SO2, NOx,
Na+, K+, Hg, Ar, N2, H2S

ATR of hydrocarbons

N2, CO, CO2, CH4, higher HCs, H2S, NH3

Chlor-alkali process

NaOH, Cl2, Hg

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Water electrolysis

H2O, O2

For the removal of nitrogen from the hydrogen generated by water electrolysis, generally, no
dedicated post-treatment systems are installed; but just venting the initial production generally
allowsfor meeting ISO 14687:2019 levels. Oxygen levels below 4 ppm in hydrogen products are
obtained by catalytic recombination in the de-oxygenation reactor. Due to the exothermic natureof the reaction, subsequent cooling is needed to remove the water produced by the deoxygenation reaction. Water is removed from the hydrogen stream by condensation at lower
temperatures, followed by adsorption using either pressure swing adsorption (PSA) or
temperature swing adsorption (TSA).
Currently, the most commonly used technologies for hydrogen purification are pressure swing
adsorption (PSA), cryogenic distillation and amine-based absorption for CO2 removal from H2.
PSA is the most widely used conventional technique and operates based on the selective
adsorption of impurities from a gas stream. The main advantage of PSA is its ability to remove
all impurities down to parts per million (ppm), producing hydrogen with high purities > 99.999%.
Its main disadvantage is the high H2 loss (~20%) resulting from the pressure release during
desorption (H2 recovery ~80%). From the adsorption process point for H2 purification, N2 andCO are the most problematic impurities of the syngas because of their low adsorption affinity.
The presence of minor quantities of CO and CO 2 in H2 easily poison the Platinum (Pt) catalyst
used in fuel cells.
Hydrogen separation using adsorption is usually carried out in two-layered bed adsorption
columns using activated carbon as the first layer for the adsorption of CO2, CH4 and CO andzeolites as the second layer for N2 adsorption. The application of PSA for the production of fuelcell grade H2 has several limitations, which include lower H2 recovery and productivity, higher
cost of production etc. Vacuum Pressure Swing Adsorption (VPSA or VSA) technology is apromising technology for the production of high-purity H2 because of its high productivity andhigh H2 purity compared to the PSA process. VSA process can produce H 2, meeting fuel cell
specifications at reasonable production costs with optimum recovery and productivity. VSA
technology has better operational performance compared to PSA.
Cryogenic distillation works based on the partial condensation of gas mixtures at low
temperatures and high pressures to be separated by distillation. One major disadvantage of thistechnology is the limited purity levels (~99%) of the extracted hydrogen. In addition, the process
is very expensive as it requires the use of numerous equipment and devices. Cryogenic
distillation is ideal for large industrial scales but unsuitable for small portable applications.
Membrane technology appears to be a promising energy-efficient alternative for producing theultra-pure H2 required for fuel cells. A membrane is a solid physical barrier between two phases(gaseous or liquid), with a certain perm-selectivity towards one or more components of a
mixture. In gas separation applications, the force that normally drives the different species topermeate a membrane is the partial pressure difference between both sides of the membrane.
Compared to traditional separation processes, the advantages of membrane technology aresimpler operation, higher adaptability, compactness and lightweight, modular design with75

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

simpler up and downscaling;lower labour intensity, lower operating and maintenance costs,
higher energy efficiency and a much lower environmental impact. Typical target values ofmembrane performance that are considered necessary for the industrial purification of hydrogenare permeability to H2of more than 1000 Barrer and selectivity (H2/X) of more than 100.
Four emerging technologies that have the potential to become competitive with traditional
technologies are membranes technologies in the near future: Carbon Molecular Sieve
Membranes (CMSM), Poly (Ionic) Liquid Membranes (PILM), Metal Membranes andElectrochemical Hydrogen Pumping Membranes (EHPM). But, currently, membrane
technologies for H2 purification have still not reached the maturity level required for its widescale industrial deployment.
Various promising and widely reported processes for the removal of CO from hydrogen to < 0.2
ppm are Preferential Oxidation (PROX), Selective Methanation (SMET), Selective Membrane
Separation, Metal Hydride Separation, Cryogenic Distillation etc. In PROX, oxygen is supplied
to the hydrogen-rich reformate gas in the presence of a catalyst. Supported Ru and Pt-based
alloy catalysts are mainly used. The main benefit of this is that even a tiny amount of CO reacts
in light of large amounts of hydrogen.
Selective methanation is a promising technology as there is no need for the addition of external
gas for the reaction to take place. Selective Methanation doesn’t relatetothe danger of explosion
and the need for advanced controls that PROX requires. The sidereactions during CO
Methanation are CO2 methanation and reverse WGS. For selective separation of CO fromhydrogen, Palladium and its alloys have been the most widely reported membranes forhydrogen separation. Palladium has high catalytic activity for hydrogen separation and highabsorbency for the diffusion of hydrogen atoms. Considering that the palladium membranes are
susceptible to embrittlement below 300°C and their tendency to suffer sulphur and carbon
monoxide poisoning at low temperatures, Pd-based alloy membranes have been developed toovercome these effects and to enhance the hydrogen permeability. Pd alloy-based membranes
can generate hydrogen with a purity of up to 99.9999% H2.
Metal hydrides (MH) are one of the most favourable materials for effective hydrogenstorage,considering stationary, mobile and portable applications. The procedureconsiders theselective adsorption of molecular hydrogen on the metal or alloy surface under specifictemperatures and pressure. The hydrogen is decomposed into atoms, forming a solid solution
MHx, followed by the formation of the metal hydride MHy. During desorption, the impurity gases
are eliminated first. The most deployed MH for the separation and purification of hydrogen are
the AB5-type. Various benefitsrange from simplicity, low energy consumption, relatively safe
use, straightforward operation, and high purity (up to 99.999%). However, certain roadblocks,
such as the impact of the composition of the fed gas on the final composition, the rate ofabsorption and the long-term stability, hinder the process.
Further, there is a need for the development of cheap materials in place of rare materials like
Palladium etc. Most of the off-gases in Iron and steel have a substantial percentage of
Hydrogen. If cheap membranes or alternative processes are built, large volumes of Hydrogencan be separated and used for Iron making instead of just burning in furnaces or power plants.

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6.2.

Carbon Accounting Methodology

The Life Cycle Assessment or LCA is a method used to quantify the environmental impact of a
product throughout its stages of life, from raw material acquisition through production, use anddisposal. Thus, they offer valuable assessment and identification of the most effective
alternative feedstocks and processes which suits geographical sustainability and reduction ofharmful emissions.
For India to harness the potential of hydrogen, it is imperative to define the contours of greenhydrogen. Many countries are defining these boundaries based on the net carbon footprints
needed to produce hydrogen from various technologies. A reference figure highlighting thepermitted carbon footprints to produce hydrogen can trigger multi-dimensional strategies inaddressing the hydrogen production constraints. This would also prevent the dependency on
one type of solution, thereby insulating ourselves from geopolitical turbulences, raw material
price variations, and supply chain constraints while providing the opportunity to integrate oursocial strengths with the hydrogen economy.

6.3.

Balance of Plant (BoP) component manufacturing and validation

BoP components today are largely imported from other countries. Since the BoP components
contribute significantly to the overall system cost, indigenous development and manufacturing
arenecessary for cost reduction.
Most of the BoP components have some equivalent component being used in traditional,
established sectors in India. Components from the automotive, shipping, and industrial sector
can be adapted with ease for hydrogen applications. India has a large ecosystem of ancillarycomponent manufacturing already, servicing various sectors formany decades. It is essential toapprise the component manufacturing industry of the opportunity in this new market.
The committee should clearly define component specifications for components to be used inhydrogen applications. The requirements for components specific to hydrogen applications mayvary in terms of environment, gas handling, performance, efficiency, safety, lifetime etc.
Before commercialization, these component prototypes also should undergo validation ofenvironmental, shock and vibration, endurance, EMI/EMC and safety compliance. Mentioned
below are key components of BoP.
a. Compressor and Pumps
Air compressors, hydrogenmufflers/silencers etc.

recirculation

pumps,

water

pumps,

air

filtersandb. Valves and piping components
Various valves viz. On Tank Valve (OTV), solenoid valves, 2-way and 3-way valves, checkvalves, Flashback arrestors, proportional control valves, hydrogen fuel ejectors, backpressure and differential pressure valves etc.
Piping and hoses for handling hydrogen, air and coolant.
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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIAc.

Humidifiers and Separators

Gas-to-gas humidifiers, water separators and heaters etc.
d. Sensors
Sensors for measuring various parameters, viz. pressure, temperature, mass flow, Relative
Humidity, hydrogen leak sensors etc.
e. Power Electronics and Switchgear
DC-DC buck and boost converters, motor controllers (inverters), contactors and switchgear.

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Annex
Annex 1 :Target of Key Performance Parameters for sustainable development ofElectrolyser systems
Table 13: Target of Key Performance Parameters for sustainable development of Electrolyser systems
Key
Performance
Parameters
Nominalcurrent density[A/cm 2]Cell pressure[barg]
Load range [%]Short term (0-5years)

Medium Term (0-8years)

Long Term (0-15years)

Alkaline
> 0.7

PEM
>2

AEM
> 0.5

SOEC
> 0.5

Alkaline
> 1.2

PEM
>3

AEM
>1

SOEC
>1

Alkaline
>2

PEM
4-6

AEM
>2

SOEC
>2

> 30

> 40

> 35

>1

> 40

> 50

> 50

>5

> 70

> 70

> 70

> 20

15-100

5-120

5-100

30-125

10-150

5-200

5-150

15-150

5-300

5-300

5-200

0-200

Electricalefficiency(stack)[kWh/Kg H2]
Electricalefficiency(system)[kWh/Kg H2]
Lifetime (stack)[thousandhours]
Cold start (tonominal load)[minutes]
Stack Unit Size

< 55

< 55

< 60

< 50

< 50

< 50

< 50

< 42

< 42

< 42

< 42

< 35

< 65

< 65

< 70

< 55

< 58

< 58

< 60

< 48

< 45

< 45

< 45

< 40

> 60

> 60

>5

> 20

> 80

> 80

> 40

> 50

> 100

> 100

> 100

> 80

< 50

< 20

< 20

< 600

< 40

< 12

< 12

< 450

< 30

<5

<5

< 300

> 2MW

> 1MW

>2.5kW

> 5kW

> 5MW

> 5MW

>500kW> 80kW

10MW

10MW

2MW

200kW

Capital Cost
(stack)minimum 1MW[USD/kW]
Capital Cost
(system)minimum
10MW[USD/kW]

< 270

< 400

NA

< 2000

< 180

< 250

< 200

< 800

< 100

< 100

< 100

< 200

< 800

< 1000

NA

NA

< 450

< 500

NA

NA

< 200

< 200

< 200

< 300

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Annex 2 : Bhabha Atomic Research Centre – R&D activities in hydrogen production
1. Hydrogen production by electrolysis
In alkaline water electrolysis, BARC has successfully developed a complete plant, including thecell module and deployed it in industrial installations. The current plant has 10 Nm3/hr hydrogenproduction capacity, and extensive trials have been done on the system. All the operating
parameters are optimized, and safety systems are in place. The technology has already beentransferred to eight parties, and it is also available for further transfer to other parties.
Indigenous membrane diaphragm has also been developed and transferred to industry forcommercialisation. Scaled-up technology for a 120 Nm3/hr system also has been designed andincubated with the industry for commercialization. 10 Nm3/hr of alkaline electrolyser developedby BARC is very much suitable for chemical industries like fertilizers, pharmaceuticals,
metallurgical operations, and food, telecom, and fuel cell industry [3].
BARC is also carrying out PEM-based process R&D and developed an indigenous membranesuitable for this process. BARC has also demonstrated R&D scale membrane electrodeassembly (MEA) preparation and tested for its performance, which is close to any other MEA
available in the market. BARC has also developed electrode and bipolar plate fabrication andassembly techniques, which can be made commercial for laboratory-scale cell manufacturing
and scaling up further.R&D on electrocatalysts for both alkaline water electrolysis and PEMbased electrolysers are underway [42]. Several low-cost electrocatalysts have been developedon the laboratory scale and havepotential for large-scale implementation.
In BARC, research activities on the development of efficient visible light active photocatalysts forassisting sunlight-driven photocatalytic hydrogen generation areundertaken. Titania and carbon
nitride-based photocatalysts have been developed [50-54]. Incorporation of cationic dopants, p-nheterojunctions, exfoliation, dispersing metal nanoparticles as co-catalysts, etc., are some of thestrategies adopted to improve the photocatalytic properties of parent compounds.
2. Hydrogen production by Thermochemical cycle
In thermo-chemical water splitting, BARC has tested all the reactions present in iodine-sulphur
thermo-chemical water splitting. I-S thermo-chemical water splitting consists of three chemical
reactions: 1) Bunsen reaction, which is the acid production step (exothermic, T=1200C), 2)
sulphuric acid decomposition to produce oxygen (endothermic, T=870 0C), and 3) hydrogeniodide decomposition to produce hydrogen (endothermic, T=450 0C). Suitable iron-based
catalysts were developed to minimize the use of expensive platinum-based catalysts in the hightemperature H2SO4 decomposition reaction step [38-41]. A packed bed membrane reactor for HI
decomposition was demonstrated. A metallic loop comprised of all reaction and recycle/
purification steps was operated successfully, producing hydrogen at 150 Nlph in July 2022.
India is the first country to achieve these feet. Detailed engineering for scaling up the process to3 Nm3/h is in progress.

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BARC has demonstrated two step Hybrid Sulphur process at 10 Nlph hydrogenproduction
capacity using industrial material of construction. Stackedtwo cells, SO2 depolarized electrolyser
was successfully operated. Theprocess was operated in a closed loop by recycling Sulphur
dioxide and water.
Development of a four-step Copper-Chlorine (Cu-Cl) thermochemical cycle has been carried out
at BARC[33-37]. Reaction feasibility has been established in bench-scale reactors for all four
steps, viz. hydrolysis, thermolysis, electrolysis and crystallization. Subsequently, processparametric optimization of multi-phase reactors through kinetic and mechanistic studies
hasbeen completed resulting in enhanced product yield and selectivity. R&D efforts on thethermal steps of the Cu-Cl cycle provided a thermal degradation pathway of Cu2OCl2 and aprobable mechanism of CuCl2 hydrolysis using in-situ XAS and TG-MS studies. Phase pure
Cu2OCl2, which is commercially unavailable, was prepared successfully by alternate methods
and was used for studies on thermal steps. In-house developed MEA was employed in offline
looping and showed performance comparable to the imported one. The cycle has been
integrated in offline mode with the design and development of auxiliary units.Installation,commissioning and demonstration of a metallic integrated facility with reaction and auxiliary
steps for closed-loop operation havebeen completed.Installation of an integrated Cu-Cl facility isin progress for demonstration at 50 NL/h hydrogen production. Further, scale-up to 3000 NL/hhydrogen production is planned for coupling with next-generation nuclear reactors and solar
heat sources. Thrust has also been given at BARC to develop a high-temperature reactor
capable of supplying process heat at a temperature of around 1000°C, which envisage thatbesides electricity, nuclear energy would play a significant role in the production of alternate
transportation fuel such as hydrogen, by splitting of water or steam electrolysis [2].
3. Hydrogen Production by High-Temperature Steam Electrolysis
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited- R&D activities in the hydrogen value chain
1. Coal Gasification: BHEL has successfully developed and established a Coal gasification
combined cycle demonstration plant (CCDP) at Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu. The plant has acoal processing capacity of 168 Tons/day and is capable of generating 6.2 MWe of power.
BHEL's expertise in coal gasification technology, particularly in fluidized bed gasification, hasprovided advantages such as feed size flexibility, high throughput, and no tar formation. The
successful demonstration of this technology showcases BHEL's commitment to clean andefficient energy generation.
2. Methanol Production: BHEL has developed indigenous technology to convert high-ash Indiancoal into methanol. The establishment of India's first pilot plant in Hyderabad is a significant
achievement in this area. The pilot plant, with a capacity of 0.25 TPD, utilizes BHEL's fluidized
bed gasification technology to produce syngas and convert it into methanol with 99% purity.
This breakthrough technology enables the country to utilize its coal reserves efficiently andpromotes the adoption of clean and sustainable energy sources.

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3. Fuel Cell Research: BHEL has developed air-cooled and liquid-cooled Proton Exchange
Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell Stack and systems upto 5kW. BHEL focuses on optimizing various
components of fuel cells, including bipolar plates, end plates, sealings, humidifiers, coolants,
and thermal management systems. BHEL has also developed a hybrid electric golf cart
integrated with a PEM fuel cell system, showcasing its capabilities in real-world applications.
Ongoing developments include the design of a modular 25 kW fuel cell system, which can bescaled up to meet various energy demands. BHEL is also focusing on the development of amodular 60 kW fuel cell system
4. Center of Excellence for Hydrogen Systems: BHEL intends to establish a Centre of
Excellence (CoE) for Hydrogen Systems at Varanasi. The CoE aims to enhance domestic
engineering and designing capabilities in the hydrogen value chain for the critical components,
specifically in the areas of electrolysers and type IV cylinders. BHEL recognizes the potential of
emerging markets and seeks to indigenize the production of hydrogen systems. The CoE will
focus on the development and production of high-quality type IV cylinders, establish a dedicatedtesting facility for cylinders, develop advanced Electrolyser systems, and serve as a knowledge
hub for the hydrogen value chain. By establishing this CoE, BHEL aims to contribute to India's
self-reliance and promote the adoption of hydrogen as a clean and abundant energy carrier
High-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) uses solid oxide cells to split steam into hydrogenand oxygen at an operating temperature in the range of 750 – 850oC. The high-temperature
operation decreases the electricity demand (cell voltage), thereby improving the overall
efficiency of the process. To realize hydrogen generation through HTSE, a tubular cell approachhas been followed in which a porous Ni-YSZ support tube acts as a cathode. The cathode iscoated with a thin impervious YSZ electrolyte layer followed by a suitable porous oxygen
electrode (anode) layer. Fabrication technology of tubular HTSE cells has been developed. The
steady performance of a single tubular cell has been demonstrated for a continuous operation of
150 h at a current density of 0.17 A/cm2 generating hydrogen at a rate of 4 Nlph at 800oC.
Selection of suitable high-temperature sealant and oxidation resistant interconnect materials
have been found to be crucial to realize hydrogen generation through HTSE, and R&D efforts
are in progress to resolve these issues. In order to demonstrate HTSE technology, theintegration of single cells to make a multi-cell stack hydrogen generator of higher capacity andperformance evaluation of the stack for a long duration have been planned. The HTSE
technology is promising as it can be coupled with high-temperature nuclear reactors / thermal
plants from where high-temperature steam can be made available.

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Annex 3 : ONGC Energy Centre (OEC) – R&D activities in hydrogen production
1. Closed-loop Cu-Cl cycle in collaboration with ICT, Mumbai
The proof of concept of the Cu-Cl cycle was established, and the laboratory-scale engineering
metallic set-up for hydrogen generation at 25 LPH is operational at ICT, Mumbai. The
electrodes, molten salt system for subsequent solar thermal storage, materials selection
facilities, etc., have been successfully developed. The performance checks of existing systems
for a prolonged period, separations, purifications, and integration of molten salt media as solar
thermal heat storage are in progress now. Further work on scale-up to 12 MT/year hydrogenproduction is in progress[5].
2. Closed Loop I-S Cycle in collaboration with IIT, Delhi
R&D on hydrogen production through the iodine sulphur (I-S) thermo-chemical cycle wasinitiated, and a closed-loop process in quartz set-up was recently demonstrated. Process
improvements with modification in electrochemical systems, purification of acids, minimizing
cross-contamination, heat integration & process control, etc., are in progress now to plan for the
metallic system at 15 bar pressure and 300 LPH hydrogen generation capacity [5].
3. Open Loop I-S cycle in collaboration with CSIR-IIP, Dehradun
The open-loop I-S cycle is an offshoot of the closed-loop I-S cycle that aims at developing a
low-temperature alternative route for hydrogen production utilizing H2S that is produced inrefineries/ gas processing facilities. The project has the dual benefit of minimizing the release of
H2S into the atmosphere as well as the generation of hydrogen. The proof of concept in quartz
systems has been established recently, and integration of various sub-sections is in progress
now, based on which a pilot scale metallic system to produce 10-12 MTD H2SO4 is planned.

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Annex 4 : Indian Oil R&D Centre, Faridabad – R&D activities
Oxy-steam biomass gasification in collaboration with the Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore
Indian Oil R&D and the Indian Institute of Science are jointly working on the development anddemonstration of oxy-steam biomass gasification-based hydrogen generation technology. Proofof Concept of oxy-steam biomass gasification for hydrogen generation was demonstrated. An
Indigenous vacuum pressure swing adsorption system (VPSA) was developed for the
separation of fuel cell grade hydrogen from other gases at low pressure. Both oxy-steam
biomass gasification and VPSA systems were extensively tested. Gas analysis methods havebeen developed for the quantification of the impurities present in bio-hydrogen to meet
ISO:14687 specifications. Fuel cell grade hydrogen generation in a 5 kg/h hydrogen plant using
a slipstream has been demonstrated. A small PEM fuel cell system has been extensively tested
using bio-hydrogen generated from biomass gasification and ultra-high pure (UHP) hydrogen.
Test results indicate that fuel cell system performance using bio-hydrogen exactly matches theperformance using UHP hydrogen. Currently, preparation of the basic design and engineering
package for the demo plant is in progress, based on which a 10 kg/h hydrogen generation demo
plant will be set up at IOC-R&D.
Solar-based green Hydrogen production and dispensing facility
This project involves the design, manufacturing, integration, supply, installation &commissioning of the solar-powered electrolyser-based green hydrogen production system anddispensing station for refuelling hydrogen. The proposed facility consists of a Solar PV plant,
Alkaline Electrolyser, Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Electrolyser, Solid Oxide Electrolyser
Cell (SOEC) for Hydrogen production, Hydrogen compressors, Storage tubes (Type I, III & IV) &dispensers. A solar PV plant (1 MWp) will power the whole Hydrogen infrastructure facility
producing green Hydrogen. Alkaline Electrolyser ~4.25 Kg/hr, PEM Electrolyser ~4.25 Kg/hr,
SOEC ~0.5 Kg/hr production capacity will generate fuel cell grade Hydrogen at 10 bar pressure,which is compressed using Hydrogen compressors (total ~9 kg/hr) to 500 bar pressure andstored in high-pressure storage tubes of total 7000 L water Capacity (Type I- 3000 L, Type III1500 L, Type IV- 1500 L) at 500 bar pressure. The Hydrogen stored in the High-pressurehydrogen storage tubes will be dispensed in the demo Fuel Cell vehicles (both heavy-dutybuses and light-duty vehicles) at 350 bar pressure using the Hydrogen dispensers (2kg/min).
Bio-CNG reforming-based hydrogen generation and dispensing infrastructure
Natural gas and bio-CNG reforming-based hydrogen generation plant is being set up for the
production of hydrogen for undertaking fuel cell buses demonstration trials. This plant shall havethe flexibility to operate with 100% natural gas; 50% natural gas and 50% bio-CNG; 50% naturalgas; and 50% bio-CNG. The plant generates hydrogen, meeting ISO 14687:2019 - Hydrogenfuel quality specification. The proposed infrastructure includes a 20 kg/h steam methane
reformer, two hydrogen compressors (capacity of 10 kg/h each) to compress hydrogen from 7
bar to 500 bar, and Type-I hydrogen storage tubes to store 200 kg hydrogen at 500 bars. A

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hydrogen dispenser is also available to dispense hydrogen at a refuelling rate of 2 kg/min toboth heavy-duty buses and light-duty vehicles.
Aqueous Phase Reforming (APR) is a low-temperature catalytic reforming process for the
production of higher quality hydrogen (with less CO) from weak solutions of bio-carbohydrates
in a single reactor at low temperatures. In this process, reacting solution is kept in the liquid
phase by using pressures slightly higher than the saturation pressure. IOC-R&D and theInstitute of Chemical Technology (ICT), Mumbai, earlier worked jointly on the development of
catalysts for APR of methanol and bio-oil. Out of the various catalyst systems tested for APR of
methanol, Ni-CuAl hydrotalcite outperformed the rest. For the APR of bio-oil, Pt-NiMgAl (Nibased hybrid materials from hydrotalcite, promoted with Pt) was very active, selective tohydrogen, and stable under APR conditions. Developed catalysts were scaled up by IOC-R&D
and extensively evaluated in a reformer plot plant. Based on the in-house developed process for
APR of methanol, BDEP for 5 Nm3/hr hydrogen generation capacity compact methanol reformer
has been developed jointly with L&T, Mumbai.
IOCL R&D is also pursuing research on photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting, Proton
Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolysis, and Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) electrolysis.

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Annex 5 : KPIT Technologies – R&D activities
Microbial dark fermentation process in collaboration with Agharkar Research Institute,
Pune
KPIT has developed a microbial dark fermentation process for Hydrogen generation incollaboration with the Agharkar Research Institute from Pune, which is an autonomous instituteof the Department of Science and Technology (DST). This is a unique two-step process thatuses a novel microbial consortium to produce Hydrogen directly from biomass and Methane
thereafter – which can also be converted into Hydrogen through Steam Methane Reforming.
Along with the Hydrogen, the process also generates other valuable, recyclable products suchas organic manure and CO2.
The process is suitable for cellulosic biomass such as rice straw, wheat straw, Napier grass,energycane, etc.
The technology provides at least 25% more yield than conventional biomethanation processes.
Being the first globally, a patent has been filed for the technology.
Currently, KPIT is working on the scale-up of the technology. A pilot plant with a total reactor
volume of 15,000 litres will be commissioned in the next two months.
Hydrogen generation by gasification of biomass in collaboration with Ankur ScientificTechnologies Pvt Ltd.
The other technology developed by KPIT for generating Hydrogen is based on biomass
gasification. KPIT has partnered with Ankur Scientific Technologies, Vadodara – a company
which has strong expertise in biomass gasification - to develop this technology. The technology
is better suited for woody biomass and MSW. In this technology, the biomass is gasified to form
producer gas which is treated further to generate pure Hydrogen. The process produces biochar
and CO2 as by-products which can be used for various commercial applications. Recently a pilot
plant with a Hydrogen generation capacity of 125 kg/day has been commissioned fordemonstration of the technology. A patent has been filed for this technology as well.

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Annex 6 : Hydrogen production at different institutions in India
Table 14: Hydrogen production-related work at different institutions in India [11]Sl
No.

Institution

Nature of work

1

IIT Delhi Studies on the catalytic decomposition of sulfuric acidin the I-S process for hydrogen production
 Studies on Bunsen reactor for the production of sulfuric
acid and HI using electrochemical cell, theconcentration of HIx solution using electrodialysis,
catalytic decomposition of Hydrogen Iodide (HI) into I2
and H2, development of hydrogen transport membranereactors for hydrogen iodide decomposition followed byhydrogen removal.
 Modelling of a membrane electrolysis cell for Bunsen
reaction and electro-electrodialysis unit for theconcentration of HIx solution
 Mechanistic studies on the catalytic decomposition of
sulfuric acid in the I-S cycle for hydrogen production
 Areas of design of nanostructured materials withapplications in water purification, hydrogen generation,
photoelectrochemical
studies,superconducting
materials (oxides, oxypnictides and oxychalcogenides)

2

IISc, Bangalore Hydrogen and liquid fuels from biomass gasification
 Hydrogen generation using biomass gasification for afuel cell application, multi-fuel gasification system toaccept woody biomass or biomass briquettes,
 Development of semiconductor nanocomposites forphoto-catalytic water splitting into H2 and O2 undersolar light irradiation, TiO2-based photocatalysts fororganic waste degradation

3

IIT Madras Electrocatalysis and photocatalysis for
production, generation of solar hydrogen

4

IIT Guwahati

 Optimized production of bioethanol and biohydrogenfrom lignocellulosic biomass in a fluidized-bed reactor

hydrogen87

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Sl
No.

Institution

5

IIT Kharagpur

6

IIT Kanpur Photoelectrochemical water splitting and fuel cells

7

IIT Hyderabad

 Non-thermal plasma assisted direct decomposition of
H2S into H2 and S

Nature of work
 Mission Mode project on hydrogen production throughbiological routes, maximisation of gaseous energy
recovery from organic wastes through bio-hythaneprocess, pilot scale packed bed reactor configuration
for a high rate of hydrogen production, biologicalhydrogen production using distillery effluent andkitchen waste.

 Transformation of greenhouse gases like methane andCO2 into syngas/H2 by low-temperature plasma
catalysis
8

IIT Indore Hydrogen generation through catalytic route

9

CSIR-NEERI Development of an efficient hydrogen supply systemthrough liquid organic hydrides

Banaras Hindu

 Photocatalysis for water splitting

University

 Conversion of methanol to hydrocarbons, catalytic
cracking of Methane

UPES, Establishment & demonstration of hydrogen production
and utilisation facility through photovoltaic-electrolyser
system at NISE located in Gwalpahari.

10

11

New Delhi Survey on inventory and quality of by-producthydrogen potential in selected major sectors in India
12

IICT, Hyderabad

 Methanol reformer to produce 10kL/hour hydrogencoupled with 10kW fuel cell, 50kL/h reformer for 50kW
fuel cell.
 Catalysts for reformation of glycerol, generation ofhydrogen from biomass-derived glycerol

13

C-MET, Pune

 Hydrogen generation by photocatalytic decompositionof toxic hydrogen sulphide, development of prototype88

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Sl
No.

Institution

Nature of work
 Photo-reactor for hydrogen production from hydrogensulphide under natural sunlight, photocatalysts
development

14

NIT, Calicut

15

IACS, Kolkata

 Investigation
ofbio-hydrogenproduction
bythermochemical method in fluidized bed gasifier undercatalytic support and its utilisation
 Bio-inspired catalysts for the reversible conversion
 H+ + e- → ½ H2

16NIT Rourkela

 Production of hydrogen gas from biomass and wastes
 using fluidized bed gasifier

17

CSIR-IMMT,
Bhubaneswar

 Development of transition metal tantalates andoxynitrides for water splitting and pollution abatement
 Functional
hybridNanostructures
photoelectrochemical water splitting

18

ICT, Hyderabadfor Generation of hydrogen from biomass-derived.
 Glycerol

19

ICT, Mumbai

 Process analysis for copper-chlorine(Cu-Cl)thermochemical hydrogen production process, ICT–OEC
Processforcopper-chlorine(Cu-Cl)thermochemical hydrogen production
 The reaction of metals with HI, decomposition ofcertain transition metal iodides and biomass
conversions

20

CECRI, Karaikudi

 Oxidation of CuCl and recovery of Cu, CuCl& recovery
of Cu – energy optimisation, electrolysis of CuCl – HClsystem for the preparation of CuCl2& H2, electrodes Electrolytes for water electrolysis to generate hydrogenand hydrogen

21

ARCI-CFCT, Chennai

 Novel electrocatalysts, depolarisers
electrolysis, seawater electrolysis

for

water

89

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Sl
No.
22

Institution

Nature of work

Tata Energy Technology packages for woody and briquetted
biomass using a throat-less gasifier with a closed top,large-scale bioreactor facility for bio-hydrogenproduction.

Research
Institute
23

Naval Material
Research Bio-hydrogen with chemical fuel cells for electricity
generation, hydrogen generation by autothermal
reforming

Laboratory(NMRL), Mumbai
24

25

26

27

NIT Raipur Design of electrolytic cell for economic and energy
efficient biohydrogen production from leafy biomass byelectro-hydrogenases

NIT Tiruchirappalli Combined pyrolysis and steam gasification to establish
multifuel Quraishy production with a maximum
hydrogen yield

CSIR-IIP, Dehradun Open loop thermochemical S–I cycle of H2S split for
carbon-free hydrogen production in petroleum refinery

OEC, Mumbai

 Thermochemical hydrogen production, iodine-sulphur & copper-chlorine cycle for hydrogen production

28

29

CIMFR, Dhanbad

 Production of hydrogen from renewable and fossil fuelbased liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons by nonthermal
plasma reforming

Sardar Patel
Renewable Dual fuel and thermal application, forced and natural
drafts biomass gasification processes.

Energy ResearchInstitute, Vallabh
Vidhya-Nagar, Gujarat
30

IACS, Kolkata

 Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) by the [Fe-Fe]hydrogenase enzymes, graphene oxide modified aza
terminated ITO supported graphene as electrodematerial, catalyst development

90

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Sl
No.
31
32

33

Institution

Nature of work

ONGC

 Thermochemical hydrogen generation

University ofRajasthan CNT-doped
purificationJNTU Hyderabad

 Hydrogen production through biological routes

polymericmembranesforhydrogen PEM-based water electrolysis, catalysts for hydrogenfrom glycerol Studies on novel ways of enhancing CO 2 utilization in
catalytic oxidative dehydrogenation reactions
34

SPIC Science
Foundation, Chennai

35

Shiksha ‘O’
Anusandhan PEM methanol electrolyser for the production of 1
Nm3/hour of hydrogen Porous graphene-modified metal oxide photoanode forelectrochemical water splitting

University,
Bhubaneswar
36

37

Thapar university, Reforming of biogas for hydrogen production and its

Patiala utilization in CI engine under dual fuel mode

DEI, Agra Synthesis and characterization of nanostructured metaloxides and quantum dots for solar hydrogenproduction,
 Photoelectrochemical generation of hydrogen

38

BARC, Mumbai

 Thermochemical Hydrogen Generation by I-S process:Development of materials, and reactors for closed loop
operation of I-S thermochemical closed loop.
 Thermochemical Hydrogen Generation by Cu-Cl
process: Development of materials and reactors for
closed loop operation of Cu-Cl thermochemical closed
loop Electrolysis: Hydrogen Generation by Alkaline waterelectrolysis

91

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Sl
No.

Institution

Nature of work
 Hydrogen production by High-Temperature SteamElectrolysis
 Hydrogen production by Photocatalytic water splitting:
Sunlight-driven hydrogen generation using low cost,visible light active photocatalysts in the presence of cocatalysts and sacrificial agent.

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Annex 7 : Indian Patents in Multiple Hydrogen Production Pathways and Key Institutes
Table 15: Indian Patents in Multiple Hydrogen Production Pathways and Key Institutes

Pathways

No of Patents in
Indian Jurisdiction

Electrolysis

322






PEM
AEM
Alkaline
SOEC

Fossil fuel conversion








 Council of Scientific & Industrial
Research (CSIR) Shell International Research
MaatschappijB.V

28

 Praxair technology inc University of Southern California

Coal gasification
Pet cokegasification
Naturalgas/Methane
reforming
Methanol reforming
Other hydrocarbon
reforming
Pyrolysis

Biomass and waste
conversion

Key Institutes

53 Shell International Research
Maatschappij B.V Indian Institute ofTechnology, Guwahati
 NTPC limited
 KPIT Technologies, Ankur ScientificTechnologies

Thermal water splitting17

 Council of Scientific & Industrial
Research (CSIR) International Advanced ResearchCentre for Powder Metallurgy and
New Materials

Biological hydrogenproduction375

 Council of Scientific & Industrial
Research (CSIR)

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Pathways

No of Patents in
Indian Jurisdiction

Key Institutes
 Bayer
 KPIT Technologies, Agharkar
Research Institute

Photochemical andphotocatalytic

2

Nuclear170-

 Indian Institute of Science Jawaharlal Nehru Centre forAdvanced Scientific Research94

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Annex 8 : Methods for Hydrogen Storage
1. Underground Storage:
Hydrogen can be stored in large quantities and for longer duration in underground geologicalformations like salt caverns, depleted oil and gas reservoirs and aquifers. Storage of hydrogenin salt caverns is a relatively mature technology, while aquifers-based storage will require much
more research before these can be used for storing hydrogen. Underground storage in salt
caverns and salt domes are large volume, low-cost, natural storage options, but local availability
can be a challenge. Indeed, underground hydrogen gas storage is about two orders ofmagnitude cheaper than tank storage when applied to volumes of several million Nm 3 ofhydrogen [4].
As stated in the National Hydrogen Roadmap 2006, depending on the geology of an area,
underground storage of hydrogen gas may be possible. For underground storage of hydrogen, alarge cavern or area of porous rock with an impermeable cap rock above it is needed to containthe gas. A porous layer of rock saturated with water is an example of a good cap rock layer.
Other options include abandoned natural gas wells,solution-mined salt caverns, manmade
caverns and depleted or abandoned coal or mineral mines.
The Hydrogen Technology Collaboration Program (Hydrogen TCP) [5] (part of the International
Energy Agency) states that subsurface reservoirs such as gas fields, aquifers and solutionmined salt caverns represent proven and mature options for large-scale storage of natural gas
and its components carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
In many places in the world, these gases have been trapped in porous and sealed reservoirs
over geological time intervals of millions of years. Even though hydrogen is the most abundantelement inthe universe, natural accumulations in the subsurface are rare. Hydrogen could be
stored in gas fields, but there is little experience with this option.

How does it work?
Engie[6]explains that Salt caverns are artificial cavities which are created in geological salt
deposits, generally located at a depth of 500 to 1,500 metres. To create such a cavern, it is firstnecessary to drill into the salt. The second stage consists in injecting water into the salt todissolve it. The resulting brine (water mixed with salt) is extracted and leaves room for a large,
tight cavern where hydrogen can be stored under pressure.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Figure 16: Depiction of Salt Caverns for Hydrogen Storage.

The advantages of hydrogen storage in salt caverns are as under: Vital chain link: Underground hydrogen storage will support the development of therenewable hydrogen sector by ensuring the security of renewable hydrogen supply.
 Flexibility: Salt cavern offers flexibility regarding itsinjection and withdrawal cycles to
respond to the needs of the hydrogen market. Depending on their depth, salt caverns
may be operated at pressures up to 200 bars and allow for large-volume hydrogenstorage (from 9 to 6,000 tons).
 Safety: Due to their tightness, salt caverns allow for the safe storage of large quantities
of hydrogen under pressure. The first hydrogen storage cavern, which was built in the
United Kingdom in 1972, is still in service.
 Resilience: It is reported that Engineers India Limited 8 has a strategic Alliance with M/sDEEP.KBB GmbH, Germany, for salt cavern projects to jointly pursue basic design,detail engineering, project management and construction supervision services forunderground and above-ground salt cavern storage facilities for hydrocarbons and otherproducts like hydrogen & carbon dioxide for Indian and international clients. Based on
the discovery and suitability, caverns could be converted into a cost-effective hydrogenstorage facility to achieve the desired scale.
 Economical: Due to the low capital cost of the cavern, underground storage is among
the cheapest methods, especially for very large quantitiesof storage.
 Large Quantity Storage: A very large quantity of Hydrogen can be stored inunderground storage, which may be a constraint in above-ground storage options due toinherent safety concerns in above ground storage systems.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Some of the disadvantages of hydrogen storage in salt caverns are as under: Under the developmental stage: Engie[6] report highlights that there are 4 hydrogenstorage sites in salt caverns existing in the world. These storage facilities are strategicreserves for use in hydrocarbon refineries. The frequencies and quantities used are low.
For energy uses, injection and withdrawal cycles will have to be quicker and offer greater
amplitude. Experimental evaluations of the consequences of such more intensive modesof operation would be required to confirm the concept and viability of future salt cavernhydrogen storage projects.
 Purity of the hydrogen: Another potential problem linked to the operation of a cavernwith hydrogen is the development of the composition of hydrogen contained in the
cavern. If the hydrogen is expected to absorb moisture (as is the case for natural gas), it
is also possible that bacteriological and chemical reactions take place, thus transformingsome of the hydrogen and modifying the overall composition of the gas. A specifictreatment to purify the hydrogen at the cavern outlet could thus be necessary (in addition
to dehydration).
 Geographical scarcity: The issue with salt caverns is the relative scarcity of salt
deposits. In India, there are salt caverns available in Bikaner, which areunutilized until asolution for the disposal of the brine is found [7]. Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves
Limited (ISPRL)[8],whichoperates storage facilities of strategic significance, hascommissioned crude oil storage at three locations, namely, Visakhapatnam, Mangaloreand Padur (near Udupi). Notably, the crude oil storages are constructed in undergroundrock caverns and are located on the East and West coast of India.
Areas of Investigation:
Bringing together national and international research projects creates a need to answer
questions such as: how does hydrogen interact chemically with the rocks it is stored in? Will
microbes in the underground reservoirs consume the hydrogen, introducing impurities? How
does the hydrogen move in the pores of the underground reservoir? How much hydrogen is lostwhen it is injected and extracted?
Apart from the above, broadly, the investigations should be carried out on the following
categories: H2 Conversion & Contamination: Impacts of reservoir and fluid processes on quality andrecovery ability of stored H2
 Storage Integrity: Integrity and stability of subsurface reservoirs and seals under H 2
storage operations
 Storage Performance: Estimation, ranking and optimization of H 2 injection, production
and storage capacities in subsurface reservoirs
 Surface Facilities & Wells: Concepts, designs and materials for safe and effective
storage of H2
 Economics & System Integration: Pathways and business models for Commercialization
and Integration of H2 storage in the future energy system

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

 Planning, Regulation & Safety: Tools, guidelines, and best practices for safe andresponsible subsurface H2 storage development and operations
The next most cost-effective options to Salt Caverns are either rock cavern storage or reusing
depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs tend to be larger than salt
caverns, but they are more permeable and contain contaminants that would have to be removed
before the hydrogen can be commercially used [9].
2. Physical Hydrogen storage
When the stored hydrogen doesn’t interact with the storage medium, then this is a physicalmethod of storage, while in the chemical method of storage, the hydrogen interacts with thestorage medium. The current near-term technology proven and being demonstrated for onboard
automotive applications is the physical storage at 350 and 700 bar workingpressure incompressed gas vessels- "tanks." While low-pressure liquid hydrogen is used for bulk hydrogenstorage and transport. "Cold" (sub-ambient but > 150 K) and "cryogenic" (150 K and below)
compressed hydrogen storage are being investigated due to the higher hydrogen densities thatcan be achieved at reduced temperatures [2].
a. Compressed Hydrogen
Compressed hydrogen storage is one of the most established, technically viable and maturehydrogen storage technology. Compressed Hydrogen storage vessels can be classified into fourstandard types: Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV.

Figure 17: Different Types of Cylinders

Type I is an all-metal vessel (usually steel) and hence the heaviest, typically employed inindustry for stationary use. Type II is a metal liner hoop-wrapped composite cylinder weighing
less than a Type I cylinder. However, both Types I and II vessels are unsuitable for vehicle andtransportation applications due to their weight. Type III vessels comprise a fully wrapped98

R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

composite cylinder with a metal liner made of Aluminium alloy. The composite overwrap (usuallycarbon fibre embedded in resin) acts fully as the load-bearing component. Type III vessels offer
a 25%–35% mass reduction over Type I and II hence more suitable for vehicle andtransportation applications; however, they are more costly. Type IV vessels comprise a fully
wrapped composite cylinder with a plastic liner (typically high-density polyethylene), which acts
solely as the hydrogen permeation barrier. The composite overwrap serves as the load-bearing
structure and is typically made up of carbon fibre or carbon/glass fibre composite in an epoxy
matrix. Type IV vessels are the lightest of the pressure vessels, making them most suitable forvehicle applications;however, they are too costly.
Presently the largest manufactured compressed hydrogen tanks in the world (about 15000 m 3)
can be pressurized only up to 12-16 bar. These tanks can be buried to save ground space andto provide improved protection against radiation from adjacent fires or damage caused by
explosions. However, this is rarely used as it makes inspection of the vessels andinterconnection of pipes less easy, and it requires a preventive measure to prevent corrosion.
Nevertheless, to overcome the difficulty of inspection and pipe interconnection, it has been
proposed to place the tanks in a basin and submerge them afterwards with a liquid such as
water so that tank protection from heating and explosion is compatible with an easy inspection
simply by lowering the water level in the basin.
For transportation applications, compressed Hydrogen types III and IV could be considered dueto their comparatively lightweight, but the cost of the storage system is also important; hence
there is an urgent need to bring down the cost of these cylinders for widespread adoption of
Hydrogen fuel in India.
b. Liquid Hydrogen
The liquefaction of hydrogen is much more energy intensive than compression. The liquefiedhydrogen storage suffers fromboil-off losses, and the evaporated hydrogen is released tomaintain the tank pressure. Therefore, liquid hydrogen storage is impractical for hydrogenvehicles because of unavoidable losses [20]. However, this method of storage can be used fortransporting hydrogen in larger volumes due to increased volumetric density. The requirementof super-insulated vessels is to maintain the temperature of 20K for the entire duration ofstorage and avoid any heat inflow leading to boil-off losses are the major concerns. Besides,
around 30-40% of the energy content of hydrogen goes into liquefaction since the pressure ofstorage is ambient. As such, these tanks are designed to hold cryogenic hydrogen but nothigher pressure.
c. Cryo-compressed hydrogen storage
To combine the advantages of compressed gas (in order to reduce the storage pressure) andliquid hydrogen storage (to improve the volumetric density), cryo-compressed hydrogen storageis used. In this method, the tanks store hydrogen gas at cryogenic temperatures under 250 –350 bar pressure. The storage density is ~15% higher than liquid hydrogen storage.
Nevertheless, this technology requires thorough research and development as the boil-off

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

issues and expensive materials usage is inevitable. Thus, the tanks are made to hold both highpressure and cryogenic temperature liquids[21].
3. Material based Hydrogen storage
In this method of hydrogen storage, hydrogen either gets absorbed chemically or gets adsorbedon the surface of various materials. The advantage of this method of storage as against
compressed storage is the operating conditions are quite moderate. In compressed-statestorage where hydrogen is compressed to high pressures, e.g., Type III (350bar) or Type IV(700bar), the operating pressures in the solid-state storage materials can be ambient or close toambient. The release temperature can vary depending upon the choice of the materials selected(again can be ambient or higher). Further, if we compare with liquid state storage, then theoperating temperature, in this case, is close to ambient, while in liquid state storage, it’s at 20K,
and the boil-off losses are inevitable. The major advantages of solid-state storage methods arehigh volumetric density, moderate operating temperatures (room temperature to 800C
depending on application) and pressure (ambient to 30 bar or more depending upon theapplication), and safe to operate. Safety is a prime advantage in the case of hydrides since thehydrogen release reaction is endothermic. If there is any hydrogen leakage, the reaction stallson its own, making the system safe.
Based on the mechanism of hydrogen uptake, the materials can be broadly classified into
physisorption-based or chemisorption-based materials. The different high surface area materials
which can store hydrogen include zeolites, metal-organic frameworks, covalent organic
frameworks, carbon-based materials etc. Since the bond formed in these materials is a weak
Van der Waals bond as these materials have high capacity at low temperatures (preferably
77K), and at room temperature, the storage capacity is low. Although the kinetics andreversibility of these materials aregood, the storage capacity under NTP is low.
Another class of materials include materials where hydrogen uptake or release takes placechemically. These chemisorption-based materials can again be metal hydrides, chemical
hydrides, complex hydrides, high entropy alloys etc. The bonding of hydrogen with the host insuch materials is comparatively stronger than the physisorption-based materials. Metal hydrides
are being widely studied and have the advantage of reversibility, better thermodynamics, andkinetics. Chemical and complex hydrides suffer from the challenges like high desorption
temperature, sluggish kinetics and poor reversibility or irreversibility. Hydrogen is chemicallybonded in the metal hydrides. These bonds are much stronger than the bonds involved in theadsorption of hydrogen. Consequently, more energy is needed to release the chemicallybonded hydrogen. On the other hand, the stronger bonding allows hydrogen to be stored at highdensity even inambient conditions. This is an attractive alternative because of its versatility andbecause solid compounds can store more hydrogen per unit of volume than liquid hydrogen,and the biggest advantage is that it is a safe method of storage.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIAa.

Metal Hydrides

Almost all the elements of the periodic table form hydrides;depending on the nature of the bond,these can be either ionic, covalent, or metallic hydrides. Metal hydrides have been specificallyshown to be used for various applications like thermal applications, heating and cooling, heatpump, heat transformer, hydrogen compressors, for hydrogen purification systems.
There are several exhaustive reviews available in which the different types of hydrides,
including the intermetallic, BCC solid solutions, and complex and chemical hydrides, have been
discussed in detail.

Figure 18: Different classes of materials for solid-state hydrogen storage [22]The requirements forthese materials are quite different for stationary and vehicular applications.
For vehicular applications, the weight and size should be low, refuelling should be fast, and thehydrogen storage system should be able to provide most of the characteristics which current
fossil fuel vehicles have, like range, passenger space, safety, cost, acceleration/deceleration,
start and stop, refuelling time, life and cost etc. when used in an FCEV. While for stationary
applications, size and weight are not the major constraints, the cost, safety, stability, and life
cycle are the main requirements.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIAb.

Hydrogen storage in adsorption-based materials

Storage of hydrogen via adsorption exploits physical Van der Waals bonding between molecularhydrogen and a material. Due to the weakness of the van der Waals bonding, low temperaturesand elevated pressures must typically be applied to achieve significant hydrogen storage
densities. Most developed adsorption-based storage vessels have yet only been on thelaboratory scale. The most significant challenges of an adsorption-based hydrogen storage
system are heat management. While the interaction between the adsorbent and the adsorbedhydrogen is weak, typically 3–10 kJ/mol (hydrogen), the adsorption process is still exothermic.
This produced heat must be removed efficiently to ensure that an adequate degree ofadsorption can be reached.
c.

Metal Organic Frameworks (MOF) & Covalent Organic Frameworks (COF)

These materials, which are based on the physisorption of molecules, remain more of a scientificcuriosity and widespread applications are not expected soon. Some MOFs (like MFM-132a) canstore a good amount of hydrogen >6 wt.% at 77 K and 20 barbut typically suffer from low
storage capacity under ambient conditions. Synthesis methods of many of these MOFs arenot
easily scalable, and hence their use is currently limited. Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs)
are also being investigated currently,but exciting results are awaited. Hybrids based on MOF
have been synthesized (e.g., Pd-MOF hybrid), but these materials have not demonstrated any
significant utility so far.
d.

Advanced/Novel Materials

Advanced and Novel materials include non-conventional materials for hydrogen storage, manyof which are still in the research stage and have not found widespread use. Their importancestems from the fact that some of these investigations may provide acritical breakthrough, whichis urgently needed in the area for widespread applications. In this class, traditional materials innovel forms may also be included, e.g., Mg/MgH2 in nanoscale form or hybrids based oncarbon. Complex hydrides, Amides, Imides (& their Mixtures), Ammonia Borane and Related
Compounds, and Aluminium Hydride (Alane) are some other materials which have been
investigated in the context of hydrogen storage and may provide solutions to the existing
requirements.
Nanomaterials and clusters rely on a high surface/volume ratio for good kinetics and, in thecase of hydriding materials, to lower the activation barrier for hydride formation. These include
unsupported clusters, nanoparticles, nanostructures, and 3D-supported (or scaffolded)
nanomaterials. Typically, the crystallite size of the materials discussed is below 10 nm. Sandia
National Laboratory developed a 3 kg NaAlH4-based hydrogen storage system for vehicularapplications with General Motors in 2012.

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Carbonaceous materials

These include graphene-based materials (reduced graphene oxide, Boron-doped rGO, etc.),
carbon nanotubes (including those decorated with catalysts like Ni), activated carbon, etc.
Carbon in various forms, including mesoporous and nano hollow sphere forms, can be dopedwith nitrogen, boron and other elements to increase the binding energy and hence improve thestorage capacity under ambient conditions. To improve the storage capacity of carbonaceous
materials, hybrids have been synthesized (with Ni, Co, etc.),wherein the spillover mechanism
and Kubas interaction effects are invoked.
In spite of some encouraging results published in recent times, intense research is required to
produce these materials in large quantities for hydrogen storage applications.
Novel forms of Mg/MgH2 and other nanostructures
In nano-form, researchers have shown that Mg can absorb hydrogen close to ambientconditions. Mg-C and Mg-Ni composites have also shown promise. In spite of the nanoscale
structure, good cyclability has been demonstrated by some investigators. Some of the methods
proposed seem amenable to scaled-up production, and hence the traditional material Mg (whichin bulk form suffers from the high temperature of operation and slow kinetics) seems to be
making a comeback and may be worthwhile investigating further (given that system is simple
and inexpensive). One of the most significant results is by Hongge Pan and co-workers, wherein
they have demonstrated a high storage capacity at 30 C along with good cyclability in a sample
with non-confined Mg nanoparticles. Hollow nano and microstructures have also been used forthe storage of hydrogen. These have so far been limited to the research level. Si-based
nanostructures may offer exciting possibilities, and intense research is required in this area.
It is noteworthy that none of the materials iscurrently in large-scale production or widespread
use.
System-level hybrid storage strategies
Currently, the three main hydrogen storage strategies are storage as compressed gas, storageas liquid (cryogenic) and storage in a material (solid-state). The higher the pressure of storage,
the higher the volumetric (and gravimetric) capacity, and hence cylinders up to 700 bar are
being used currently. High-pressure cylinders require high energy for compression andadditionally pose a safety risk. The materials involved in the construction of the cylinders arealso costly. A hybrid approach may yield good results, wherein moderate pressures (<50 bar)are used for the storage of hydrogen in a cylinder filled with a material. Herein, the molecularform of hydrogen is stored along with other adsorbed and absorbed forms of hydrogen to yield
the desired capacity.

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

Chemical Hydrogen
Ammonia (NH3) is an attractive hydrogen storage medium, it has a very high hydrogen storage
density, 17.7% (wt) gravimetrically and 123 kg/m 3 volumetrically for liquid ammonia at 10 bars,
and its synthesis, handling, and transportation is very mature. The most challenging technicalaspect of using ammonia as a large-scale hydrogen storage medium is the dehydrogenation
process. Ammonia starts to decompose spontaneously at temperatures exceeding 200 0C. Heatat high temperatures, typically above 650 0C must be supplied to achieve complete conversion.
The most active catalysts for ammonia decomposition are based on ruthenium (Ru) that
unfortunately, is likely to be too expensive for large-scale use, leading to catalysts based on
cobalt, nickel, or iron being explored.
Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier
One of the promising hydrogen storage techniques relies on the reversibility and high selectivityof liquid organic hydrides, in particular, methylcyclohexane (MCH). The use of liquid organic
hydrides in hydrogen storage provides high gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen density, lowpotential risk, and low capital investment because it is largely compatible with the current
transport infrastructure. The concept of MCH (methylcyclohexane) and LOHC (Liquid Organic
Hydrogen Carrier) has been explored since long back in 1979. The concept of hydrogen storage
in liquid organic carriers has not been commercially established because of technical limitations
related to the amount of energy required to extract the hydrogen from LOHC and the insufficientstability of the dehydrogenation catalyst, added cost and energy required to hydrogenate thespent carrier molecule to get back the parent LOHC

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Annex 9 : National R&D in solid state hydrogen storage
Some of the research work being carried out at different institutions in the area ofsolid-statehydrogen storage in India is summarized below:
A lot of work has been carried out at IIT Bombay on materials for hydrogen storage. Various
materials, including different metal hydrides, complex and chemical hydrides (catalyst andsupport, reversibility), solid solutions, high entropy alloys and LOHC, are being studied. Metal
hydride-based systems simulation, design, and optimization of geometric and performanceparameters, followed by the development, i.e., fabrication and their performance analysis
experimentally, are being carried out at IIT Bombay. In addition, the Hydrogen Energy Centre,
which was established at Banaras Hindu University with the funding of MNRE, had several
pioneer works in the field of solid-state storage. In BARC, a variety of materials which include
main group elements, transition metals/alloys, porous carbon, carbon nanotubes etc., were
investigated in detail to develop efficient technologies for storing hydrogen [38-40]. A large numberof metals hydride-based applications have been demonstrated at IIT Guwahati, IIT Mumbai and
IIT Tirupati.
Studies on materials like TiVCr-based solid solutions o with Zr and Ni additives resultedinaround 3.8wt% of storage capacity. Studies on the impact of heat treatment, particle size
reduction, cooling rate during synthesis, the effect of additives, thermodynamics studies,kinetics and cyclability of metal hydrides like BCC solid solutions TiVCr with different additives,
AB type alloys with additives Zr, V and Mn. Various low-cost and efficient catalysts and support
materials were developed for complex hydrides like NaBH4, which have a high hydrogengeneration rate (approx. 16.8 L/min-g) and good cyclability. Chemical hydrides like ammonia
borane with high storage capacity, reversibility, suppression of undesired product species withthe use of catalyst and support and with an 85% reversible capacity achieved (showing >16wt%
storage). The synthesis of metal hydrides on a large scale, synthesis from industrial grade
materials and the effect of impurities is being carried out, and it is found that the use of industrial
grade materials reduced the cost by 83% as compared to the commercially available materials.
Other materials like hollow glass microspheres have been studied, and ways to improve theirpore size, pore density, thermal conductivity to enhance their hydrogen storage capacity
havebeen studied and, with dopant 3.3 wt% hydrogen storage capacity reported for 10 bar and
200 ⁰C.
Metal hydride-based systems simulation, design, and optimization of geometric andperformance parameters, followed by the development, i.e., fabrication and their performance
analysis experimentally, are being carried out at IIT Bombay. Large-scale canisters for hydrogenstorage have been developed and are at TRL 6, which can store upto 100 kg of alloys. The
canisters have been developed for applications like backup power, heating & cooling, thermalenergy storage and for vehicular applications and can be stacked to achieve higher capacity.
Currently, canisters which can store 100g, 700g and 1 kg of hydrogen have been demonstrated
and integrated for various applications. Also, studies on Mg-based hydrides and theircomposites are being carried out at IIT Bombay.

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Hydrogen Energy Centre which was established at Banaras Hindu University with the funding of
MNRE, had several pioneer works in the field of solid-state storage. This Centre, under theguidance of the late Dr O. N. Shrivastava, has worked extensively on various novel materials,
carbon nanotubes/nanofibers, graphene and composites. Extensive studies were carried out on
several hydrides, including the Mg-based hydrides for reducing the desorption temperature withthe use of Mm or Fe3O4 on graphene sheets.
In BARC, a variety of materials which include main group elements, transition metals/alloys,
porous carbon, carbon nanotubes etc., were investigated in detail to develop efficienttechnologies for storing hydrogen. Based on these studies, transition metal-based ternary alloy,
Ti2CrV, is found to be quite promising for developing hydrogen storage modules for vehicularapplications. The alloy absorbs around 4 wt.% hydrogen under ambient temperature and subatmospheric pressures, while hydrogen desorption starts around 70°C.
Detailed costcalculations using the IAEA-developed Hydrogen Economic Evaluation Program (HEEP) also
confirm the cost-effectiveness of the alloy-based hydrogen storage technology compared to theone based on gas storage cylinders.
On the applications side, the group demonstrated hydrogen-fuelled Internal Combustion (IC)engine-based two-wheelers, which was further extended to three-wheelers and small cars. The
hydrogen-fuelled vehicles were developed at Hydrogen Energy Center, BHU, and those were
demonstrated. The developed vehiclespl had a range of ∼60–80 km for two-wheelers and ∼60
km for three-wheelers (at a top speed of ∼50 km/hr) for single charging.
In the metal hydride-based storage systems, the reactor design is very crucial because of theexothermic and endothermic absorption and desorption processes resp. As such, the design
requires efficient thermal management to ensure better performance, fast charging/discharging
and achieving close to the theoretical capacities. A lot of system-level simulation andoptimization work has been carried out at IIT Madras, IIT Guwahati and IIT Tirupati.
On metal hydride-based systems side thermal modelling to study the effect of various
parameters on absorption rate in a cylindrical reactor with finned tube heat exchanger made ofcopper pin fins and tubes, also a single stage four bed cooling system was studied at IIT
Mumbai.
Thermal conductivity studies required for thermal management in metal hydride systems arecarried out for a wide range of materials at IIT Tirupati. Novel concepts of metal hydridecompact with the incorporation of graphite flakes and heat enhancement surfaces have beendeveloped and tested for improving effective thermal conductivity and achieving better heattransfer. Synthesis, characterization and thermodynamic studies of different intermetallic
compounds and their utilisation in the development of solid-state hydrogen storage systems for
combined heating and cooling systems, compressors, and thermal energy storage has been
carried out at IIT Tirupati.
The DST – IIT Bombay Energy Storage Platform on Hydrogen has been established with an aim
to carry out materials and systems research, prototype demonstration, technology development,
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incubation of innovative ideas, industry interactions, collaborations, manpower development andinformation dissemination in the field of hydrogen. The focus of the Centre is towards thesynthesis of large-scale materials, i.e., Metal Hydrides (MH) and other novel materials,
fabrication of MH-based fast reaction beds and testing the performances of various MH thermal
management systems for various applications. The lead organization is IIT Bombay and has
four partnering institutions,includingIIT Guwahati, IIT Kanpur, IIT Tirupati, and NIT Rourkela.
Metal hydrides, including AB2, AB5 and other alloys synthesis and their characterization
work,havebeen extensively carried out at the University of Rajasthan. The analysis has beenutilized in the development of large-scale hydrogen storage systems such as compressors.
At IIT Delhi Microgrid powered by an MH-based hydrogen storage system (5000 litres) has been
installed in the Centre for Energy Studies IIT Delhi. The 5kW PV works as the primary power
generation unit. The institute is involved in active research in the field of hydrogen storage
materials at the atomic level using first principal methods, development and detailed study ofdifferent classes of hydrides.
At IIT Kanpur, development of various classes of hydrogen storage materials ranging fromintermetallic compounds, high entropy alloys and nanohybrids are being carried out at Hydrogen
Energy Systems Lab. The utilization of this form of hydrogen storage system hasbeen
demonstrated for applications such as refrigeration and compressors.
Studies on borohydrides, intermetallic compounds and high entropy alloys, experimental studies
on the determination of thermal conductivity of hydrogen storage alloys and the development ofmetal hydride-based cooling systems and hydrogen storage systems have been done at IIT
Indore.
Synthesis, characterization, and thermodynamic studies of hydrogen storage materials such as
MOF, intermetallic compounds, etc., studies on the hydrogen embrittlement on various materials
and development of Type III and Type IV tanks arebeing carried out at IIT Ropar. At IIT Ropar,
the focus is on in-house manufacturing of all major components of these tanks, such as a plastic
liner using a rotomolding process, metallic boss using hydrogen embrittlement-resistant metals
and precise carbon fibre winding using a robotic fibre winding system.
Together with IOCL, a lot of work towards manufacturing Type III and Type IV tanks is being
carried out, especially the design and development of the compressed gaseous cylinders at IIT
Kharagpur, which is mentioned in the section below. Besides, research on adsorption-basedgas storage systems was done at IITKGP.
Numerical and experimental analysis on solid-state hydrogen storage systems has been carriedout at IISc Bangalore for hydrogen storage, thermal energy storage systems, etc.The group at
IISc is working on analysingthe performance of solid-state hydrogen storage-assisted
standalone polygeneration microgrids for various climatic zones of India. The components of apolygeneration stand-alone microgrid are optimized in a way to utilize the maximum electricity
generated by solar PV to meet the electrical load demand.

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A lot of studies on Engines at the Unconventional Fuels laboratory of IIT Delhi werecarried out,
and the use of hydrogen for both the spark ignition as well as compression ignition engines
without any major modifications in the existing systems was demonstrated. A novel manifold
injection system to address undesirable combustion phenomena such as backfire and rapid rateof pressure rise in the case of hydrogen was demonstrated.
Hydrogen storage in silicon-based materials is being carried out at NIT Rourkela.

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Annex 10 : Overview of technologies with their respective power generation capacity
Table 16: Overview of technologies with their respective power generation capacity

Technology

Power generation
capacity

Distributed
centralised

Remarks

Hydrogen based technologies
Green Hydrogen /other sources
generated cleanhydrogen / PEMFC
systemkW to MW level

Distributed
centraliseduse& Cost of PEMFC is an issue
considering Pt availability. BoP,
like Power electronics, control
systems etc., needs customization– expertise widely available inIndia.
Low life (<6000 hrs) of PEMFC is aconcern.
Govt policy required for stackrenewal.
Tank-to-wheel efficiency is ~4555%.

Green Hydrogen /other sources
generated cleanhydrogen / PAFC
systemkW to GW level

Distributed
centraliseduse& Cost of PAFC is an issue
considering Pt availability. BoP,
like Power electronics, control
systems etc., needs customization– expertise widely available inIndia.
High life (> 60,000 hrs) of PAFC isan advantage. All technology
available in India thru the DRDO
initiative.
Govt policy required for capitalbuild-up.
Overall tank/wheel efficiency ~ 4555%

Green Hydrogen /other sources
generated cleanhydrogen / SOFC
system

MW to GW level

CentraliseduseTechnology maturity is low, andmore research initiatives required.
Cost of present system ishigh but
canbebrought
down;life
expectancy is moderate,
Tank-to-wheel efficiency ~60%.
Do not require Pt

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Technology

Power generation
capacity

Distributed
centralised

Green Hydrogen /other sources
generated cleanhydrogen / AFCsystemGreen Hydrogen /other sources
generated cleanhydrogen / ICE
engineGreen Hydrogen /other sources
generated cleanhydrogen / H2 gas
turbine engines

Remarks
Technology less mature. Research
initiative required.
Cost of the present system could
be low;life expectancy is low,
Tank-to-wheel
efficiency
high~60%. Do not require Pt.

kW to MW

distributed

Low cost,
Easily configurable by Indianindustries, poor tank-to-wheel
efficiency ~25-30%.

MW to GW

centralised

High-temperaturematerial
required, new technology,Hightank-to-wheel
efficiency
possible ~45-50%
Academia-industry model can be
deployed. Various technology
developed by DRDO for jet
engines can be useful for the same

Non-hydrogen green technology alternatives
Direct solar PV / Liion battery storage

kW level

distributedHighbattery
cost,
maturedtechnology,
onlyfor
small,
distributed power

Direct solar PV /Na- ion battery
storage
Air-borne tetheredwind mail / Li-ion
battery storage

kW level

distributed

new technology to be developed,
only for small, distributed power

kW level

distributed

Site limitations, technology to be
developed directly thru industries,
and DRDO Aerostat technologies
may be useful.
Low power use

Biomass gasifiers /Fuel cell

kW-MW

Distributed

High potential technology, carbon
neutral, FC type selection critical:a) PAFC: very well suited due
to CO tolerance and very
long life. Cost is high, Ptavailability an issue110

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Technology

Power generation
capacity

Distributed
centralised

Remarksb) PEMFC: lower life and low
CO tolerance, requires gas
cleaning technologies that
increase costc) SOFC: technology well
suited and overall efficiency
increase if coupled with cogeneration to utilize thewaste heat. Technology
needs development. Pt free
option.

Biomass gasifiers /EnginekW-MW

Distributed

High potential technology, carbon
neutral, mature technology since
the engine can be easily
configured. Low efficiency ofengines makes the process lessviable however can be introducedin the initial phase in support of theindustry.

Green coal gasifier
technology +engineMW-GW

centralisedHigh potential technology, maturetechnology since the engine canbeeasilyconfigured.
Low
efficiency of engines makes theprocess
lessviable.
CO2sequestration can be an issue
causing
low
implementation,
however, can be introduced in theinitial phase in support of industry.

Green coal gasifier
technology + fuel
cells

MW-GW

centralisedHigh potential technology, CO2
sequestration can be an issue
causing low implementation, FC
type selection critical:a) PAFC: very well suited due
to CO tolerance and very
long life. Cost is high, Ptavailability an issueb) PEMFC: lower life and low
CO tolerance, requires gas
cleaning technologies that111

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Technology

Power generation
capacity

Distributed
centralised

Remarks
increase the costc) SOFC: technology well
suited and overall efficiency
enhances if coupled withco-generation to utilize thewaste heat. Technology
needs development. Pt free
option.

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Annex 11 : Technology comparison for light passenger/ commercial vehicles
Table 17Technology comparison for light passenger/ commercial vehicles

Technology

Remarks (considering power generation capacity of 50 to 200kw

Hydrogen based technologies
High-pressure
bottled H2 +PEMFC

Cost of the PEMFC drive is an issue. Pt availability for even 50 lakhs car
may be an issue considering about 30 to 50 gm of Pt requirement per
vehicle. BoP, like Power electronics, control systems etc., needs
customization – expertise widely available in India.
Tank-to-wheel efficiency is ~45-55%. Safety protocols for operation andmaintenance and regulation procedures with respect to hydrogen storage
need to be arrived at.

High-pressure
bottled H2 +PAFC system
High-pressure
bottled H2 + ICE
engineCost of PAFC is an issue considering Pt availability. Too heavy and notsuitable for light vehicles.
Simple technology but low tank-to-wheel efficiency of ~18-22% may limit
the range and cost of operation owing to the high H2 need per km of travel.
The safety protocol forH2 storage needs to be developed. NOx pollution isstill possible.

Onboardgenerated hydrogen-based technologies using fossil fuelMethanol / DME
onboard reformer+ PEMFC /PAFC

Complicated technology, high cost and not flexible for short irregular use.
Tank-to-wheel efficiency is ~37-42%, and overall suitability not existing.

CNG onboard
Complicated technology, high cost and not flexible for short irregular use.
reformer +High temp process not suitable for quick start-up etc.
PEMFC /PAFC
Non-hydrogen-based green technologies
Li-ion battery

Highly matured technology already implemented. Range of operation andadditional charging time, charging infrastructure needs to be developed.
Future will depend upon the reduction of Ni, Co type metal requirements
along with the availability of Li to allow heavy scale deployment.

Na-ion battery

High potential, especially with respect to lower cost possibility and highavailability of Na metal. New technology and also need reduced use of Ni
and Co.

Al/air battery

Single-use primary batteriesmay not be cost-effective for general-purpose
use. Continuous battery replacement after a short span of time may cause
supply chain problems as well.

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Annex 12 : Technology comparison for heavy commercial vehicles, special purpose
vehicles like material moving vehicles, e.g., cranes, forklifts, etc., light passenger/
commercial vehicles
Table 18Technology comparison for heavy commercial vehicles

Technology

Remarks (considering power generation capacity 300kW to 1MW

Hydrogen based technologies
High-pressure
bottled H2 +PEMFC

Cost of PEMFC, along with Pt, could be an issue. BoP like Power
electronics, control systems etc., needs customization – expertise
widely available in India.
Tank-to-wheel efficiency is ~45-55%. Safety protocols for operation andmaintenance and regulation procedures for hydrogen storage need to
be arrived at.

High-pressure
bottled H2 +PAFC system

Cost of PAFC is an issue considering Pt availability. Although heavy
compared to PEMFC, however owing to its long life and considering
regulated use, this is worth considering for the higher power end
requirement.

High-pressure
bottled H2 + ICE
engineSimple technology but low tank-to-wheel efficiency of ~18-22% may
limit the range and cost of operation owing to the high H2 need per kmof travel. Safety protocol forH2 storage needs to be developed. NOx
pollution is still possible. Considering the dramatic increase inH2 storage
requirement and the longrange required for such vehicles, this may not
be a feasible option. However, for short-range use like forklifts, cranesetc., this may be useful.

Onboard generated hydrogen-based technologies using fossil fuelMethanol / DME
onboardreformer +PEMFC /PAFC

Complicated technology, high cost but good Tank to wheel efficiency~37-42% may be attractive for regulated use vehicles like buses andlong-range heavy trucks. Pt availability will be an issue.

CNG onboard
reformer +PEMFC /PAFC

Complicated technology, high cost but good tank-to-wheel efficiency~37-42% may be attractive for regulated use vehicles like buses andlong-range heavy trucks. Pt availability will be an issue.

Non-hydrogen-based green technologies
Li-ion battery

Highly matured technology, however, considering the high-power need,
the range may be an issue since the weight of the battery will also behigh. Safety concern for high-capacity battery, especially when parked
in a crowded area, needs detailed study and safety adaptations.

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Annex 13 : Different technologies considering the power generation capacity
Table 19Different technologies considering the power generation capacity

Technology

Remarks (considering power generation capacity 500kW to several
MW

Hydrogen based technologies
High-pressure
bottled H2 +PEMFCLimited range, more suitable for shunting engines and other EMU
coaches etc. Cost of PEMFC, along with Pt, could be an issue. BoP, like
Power electronics, control systems etc., needs customization – expertise
widely available in India. Tank-to-wheel efficiency is ~45-55%. Safety
protocols for operation and maintenance and regulation procedures forsuch hydrogen storage, both for onboard and land storage, need to bearrived at.

High-pressure
bottled H2 + PAFC
systemSimilar issues like PEMFC, although heavy compared to PEMFC,
however owing to long life and considering regulated use this is worth
considering for the higher power end requirements.

High-pressure
bottled H2 + ICE
engineSimple technology but low tank-to-wheel efficiency of ~18-22% may limit
the range and cost of operation owing to the high H2 need per km oftravel. May not be very suitable owing to the low range.

Onboard generated hydrogen-based technologies using fossil fuelMethanol / DME
onboard reformer +PEMFC /PAFC

High cost but good Tank to wheel efficiency ~37-45%. Considering therenewable methanol /DME fuel that could be carbon neutral as well, thismay be an attractive proposition for locomotives of any type. Considering
regulated use, this system is highly feasible. Cost issues of
PAFC/PEMFC need to be managed thru appropriate govt subsidies, as
discussed before.

CNG/LNG onboard
reformer + PEMFC/PAFC

High cost but good Tank to wheel efficiency ~30-37%. Considering thehigh availability of CNG, which is less polluting in nature and for FC
power trains, actual CO2 is further lowered owing to better efficiency;thismay be an attractive proposition for locomotives of any type. Considering
regulated use, this system is highly feasible. Cost issues of
PAFC/PEMFC need to be managed thru appropriate govt subsidies, as
discussed before.

Non-hydrogen-based green technologies
Li-ion battery

Highly matured technology;however, considering the high-power need,
the range may be an issue since the weight of the battery will also behigh. Safety concern for high-capacity battery, especially when parked in115

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Technology

Remarks (considering power generation capacity 500kW to severalMWa crowded area, needs detailed study and safety adaptations.

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Annex 14 : Literature review
Summary of Global WTT Studies
The comprehensive analysis reveals that the findings vary from region to region and are
extremely influenced by other factors like the primary energy basket of that region/country,
electric grid efficiency, feedstock availability and prices, distance between the production anddemand centres and purity requirement for end-use application.
Koroneos et al. reported a study on the comparison of WTT emissions of various hydrogenproduction pathways, including SMR and other renewable options like solar PV, wind,hydropower and solar thermal energy. The analysis reported H 2 from solar PV as the mostenvironmentally hazardous solution in the renewable category owing to its higher (50-80%) CO2,
SO4, PO4 and SPM equivalent emissions. Centinkaya et al. compared WTT emissions andenergy usage for five H2 production processes-SMR, coal gasification, water electrolysis via
solar and wind, and thermochemical water splitting with the Cu-Cl cycle with Canada-specificconsiderations. The study revealed wind electrolysis as the most environmentally benign
method of H2 production, followed by solar PV power. Studies conducted in different parts ofworld-China, Spain and the EU concluded that WTT CO2 equivalent emissions for grid electricity
are 7-10 times more intense than conventional diesel. When compared with H 2 from NG, diesel
was reported to be less emission-intensive by 70-80% at the WTT stage. These studies also
reported that the CNG fuel pathway is 30-50% less emission-intensive than diesel.
Hwang et al. compared WTT emissions of various conventional and alternate fuels for coastal
ferriesin the Republic of Korea. The work reported NG to be less emission-intensive than Marine
Gasoil (MGO) and H2 from SMR in the WTT phase. It also reported that H2 from renewableenergy is at par in terms of CO2 emissions when generated through the nuclear route. However,the H2 produced via coal gasification or grid electricity was concluded to be 25-45% more
emission-intensive than renewable-based H2.
Wong et al. presented that WTT emission for conventional gasoline is 50% lower than H 2 from
SMR based on data in UK, Germany and Denmark, whereas H 2 becomes an attractive solution
if routed through wind electrolysis as it reduces GHG emissions by 60-70% when compared toconventional gasoline at WTT stage. Ozawa et al. compared different renewable H 2 supply
chains originating in Australia and Norway. The study concluded that wind or solar-based liquidhydrogen (LH2) is less emission-intensive compared to reference SMR-based H2 by 50-60%.
Analysis by Schönsteiner et al. on alternative marine and aviation fuels in Singapore inferredthat WTT energy consumption of LNG is similar to conventional bunker fuels, and LH2 based on
renewable energy sources would lead to near complete avoidance of GHG emissions.
As apparent from the above-cited literature survey, there is a wide variation in the outcome ofseveral studies conducted in different parts of the globe to compare a variety of energy
pathways at the WTT stage.

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Summary of Indian WTT Studies
In India, a limited number of studies have been reported comparing hydrogen fuel cells withother mobility options. Also, such analysis was restricted to only the passenger car segment.
Patil et al. presented well-to-tank energy and emission analysis for gasoline, diesel, CNG, LPG,
electricity, and H2 from NG from the Indian perspective. The data indicated that the WTT
efficiency of conventional gasoline, diesel, CNG and LPG (>70%) is much higher than H2(~45%) and electricity pathways (~20%). The study further inferred higher WTT emissions forelectricity mix (20 times than conventional diesel) in India due to the larger pie of coal.
Chugh et al. investigated well-to-tank energy consumption and CO2 emissions for hydrogenproduction using multiple pathways and its transportation to the point of use. It was found thatout of all pathways investigated for hydrogen production, minimum energy consumption (220MJ/kg) is reported for the Solar to hydrogen pathway, followed by natural gas reforming (267
MJ/kg). Air gasification of biomass process consumes 367 MJ/kg and while 478 MJ/kg is
required by the bio-methanation process.
While Solar based H2 generation pathway emits 18 kg of CO2 /kg of H2,equivalent emissions forsteam methane reformed H2 pathway wasreported to be 24 kg/kg of H2. Biomass gasification
technology emits 13 kg/kg of H2 of emissions, followed by biomethane reforming.
The above investigation highlights the potential of biomass as a promising alternative to fossil
fuels along with solar energy for the Indian scenario.
In the Indian context, where multiple alternatives are emerging to address the energy
conundrum, it is imperative to present a fresh outlook by comparing such potential pathways forhydrogen production for well-to-tank emissions and energy consumption, which can be further
extended to include the CO2 footprints and energy consumption from end use application toderive an overall well to wheel landscape.
In order to realize a hydrogen-based economy, hydrogen needs to be produced on a massscale in a sustainable way. To achieve this, hydrogen needs to become cost-competitive withconventional fossil-based fuels, and its technologies need to be scaledup. Challenges and gap
areas for large-scale sustainable hydrogen production and proposed short-term, mid-term andlong-term initiatives

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Annex 15 : Hydrogen safety: focused Research areas
Investing in research and development in the areas mentioned below is crucial to ensure thesafe and effective use of hydrogen in various applications, ultimately leading to a sustainable
future.

I. Potential Research Topics based on knowledge gaps



















Hydrogen explosion modelling refinement: There is a need for more accurate modellingof hydrogen explosions to better understand blast waves, flame speeds, and otherexplosion characteristics.
Development and evaluation of wide-area hydrogen sensing technology: Current
sensing technology is limited in its ability to detect hydrogen leaks, especially in large
areas such as refuelling stations.
Hydrogen effects on materials, specifically fatigue loading: The long-term effects ofhydrogen exposure on materials, including fatigue loading, need to be better understoodto ensure the safe use of hydrogen in various applications.
Hydrogen gas cabinets: There is a need for more information on the design andoperation of hydrogen gas cabinets to prevent hydrogen leaks and ensure safe storage.
Hydrogen deflagrations in partially enclosed areas: The behaviour of hydrogendeflagrations in partially enclosed areas is not well understood, which is critical for
designing safe hydrogen storage and transportation systems.
Pressure relief device reliability: There is a need for more reliable pressure relief devices
to prevent overpressure and potential explosions.
Confined release mitigation strategies: There is a need for more effective strategies tomitigate the consequences of confined hydrogen releases.
Design, installation, testing, and maintenance of hydrogen detection systems: There is aneed for standardized guidelines for the design, installation, testing, and maintenance ofhydrogen detection systems.
Ignition limits/criteria for large leak (dynamic) scenarios: There is a need for more
information on ignition limits and criteria for large hydrogen leaks to prevent explosions
and ensure the safe use of hydrogen.
Hydrogen safety study on infrastructure: There is a need for a comprehensive study ofhydrogen safety in infrastructure, including fuelling stations, storage facilities, andtransportation systems.
Fire barrier effectiveness: The effectiveness of fire barriers in preventing the spread ofhydrogen fires needs to be better understood to ensure the safe use of hydrogen invarious applications.

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II. Broad research areas








Review of the risk assessment tools for predicting and preventing process accidents in
the hydrogen industry
Approaches to managing human factors in hydrogen production, transmission andapplication - Human reliability analysis, Human factors lab
Recent advancement of experimental techniques and measurement diagnostics for risk
and reliability analysis of hydrogen handling
Advanced computational simulations and modelling software for hydrogen accidents’consequence modelling (e.g., fire, explosion, thermal radiation) - predicting leakfrequencies and ignition frequencies allow for estimating risks and comparing those toacceptance criteria.
Sensing and monitoring advancement toward hydrogen safety
Machine learning applications and data-driven models in risk assessment andmanagement of hydrogen process(i) Blending Hydrogen into Natural Gas Pipeline Networks: addressing Key
Issues and challenges










Lifecycle assessment
Impact on End-use System
Safety assessment
Leakage assessment
Material compatibility and durability assessment
Material Embrittlement
Modelling of Hydrogen injection into NG pipelines
Codes and Standards Assessment for Hydrogen Blends into the Natural Gas
Infrastructure
Current Status and Novel Approaches(ii) Safe storage of hydrogenFor gaseous hydrogen (GH2)
o
o
o
o
o



gas cloud build-up in ventilated rooms
a study on the properties of GH2 jet fires
spontaneous ignition and flame propagation in congested environments, including
deflagration-to-detonation transition
tunnel safety
explosion mitigation

For liquefied hydrogen (LH2)oo

BLEVEs of storage vessels
releases of LH2 on and underwater120

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o
o
o
o



combustion and dispersion of clouds developing from LH 2 pools
ignition by electrostatic charging during releases of LH 2 andeffect of temperature on combustion properties of H 2 and
LH2 jet fires

Determination of the Safety Integrity Level of hydrogen systems todetermine the requirements for instrumented risk reduction measures(iii) Safe generation of hydrogenElectrolyser and component performance, quality, manufacturing, and safetyGreen H2 production project design, construction, and operation (including Ventilation,
Leak Detection: H2 sensors, Electrical Equipment Consideration, Outdoor separation andvarying pressure, and Selection of materials)



Hydrogen uses in Industrial applications

Green H2 certification and trade-related regulation(iv) Safe transport/utilization of hydrogenMeasurement of Green H2 production and utilization

Safety response due to normal and hazardous environmental conditions

Emergency Response

Safety requirements for retrofitting green hydrogen in the existing infrastructure ofrefineries and the fertilizer sector



Safety aspects (fire explosion hazards, QRA, impact radius, hazardous areaclassification, etc.) for blended hydrogen for transportation, utilisationPrinciples and approaches for the safety assessment of Hydrogen vehicle

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R&D ROADMAP FOR GREEN HYDROGEN ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

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