公立鳥取環境大学紀要第15号（2017．３）pp.109-120〔報

告〕Extensive Reading in the Language Classroom: A literature review
語学授業における多読：研究レビュー

Bettina Begole Tremain Xenos
べゴール・ベッティーナ

ゼノス・トレメイン

Abstract：This paper reviews recent research into the efficacy of extensive reading in the language classroom. The
introduction defines extensive reading, and contrasts it with intensive reading. Subsequent sections are devoted to theeffectiveness of extensive reading in relation to specific cognitive skills such as vocabulary acquisition, grammar,
comprehension, and fluency. We also explore the affective benefits of extensive reading on motivation. The discussion section explicates the balance between costs in time and the benefits of utilizing extensive reading in language
classes in Japan at the secondary and tertiary level. Suggestions are offered to improve the current situation in language classrooms in Japan, and directions for future research.
【Keywords】extensive reading, reading comprehension, vocabulary acquisition
要旨：本論文は、語学授業における多読（extensive reading）の効果に関するこれまでの研究についてレビューするものである。序章では多読について定義し、精読（intensive reading）と対比する。続く章
では、特定の認知能力（語彙習得能力・文法・理解力・流暢さ）との関連における多読の有効性について、
及び、動機面での多読の情動的効果について検討する。考察では、日本における中高等レベルの語学授業
での、時間コストと多読活用効果のバランスについて詳論する。最後に、日本の語学授業の現状改善のための提案及び今後の研究の方向性を示す。
【キーワード】 多読、読解力、語彙習得

1．Introduction

program in Fiji widely cited as the pioneering ER

The term extensive reading in the context of foreign

study（de Burgh-Hirabe, 2011）.

language learning dates back to at least 1969, when

Today, extensive reading usually refers to a specificHarold Palmer used it to describe the reading of large

program in which learners select reading materials in-amounts of text quickly（Iwahori 2008; Day 2015）.The

dividually, read autonomously, and consume a wide

concept, however, is older than the term; Day（2015）

range of text（Day & Bamford, 1998 ）. Learners com-cited research as early as 1955 on the respective de-prehend texts at the discourse level, and continue

grees of linguistic progress made by learners who readreading regularly over a long period of time（Waring

large amounts of text over a long period compared to& McLean, 2015）. Day & Bamford（as cited in Waring

those who did not. The concept was refined in the in-& McLean, 2015）devised the following list of princi-

tervening decades and studied under such terms asples for extensive reading programs which their re-supplementary reading, free voluntary reading, andsearch showed to be successful, and which are now“book flood.” Book flood was the term used in 1981

termed the Ten Principles of Classical ER（Waring &― 109 ―

公立鳥取環境大学紀要

第15号

studied the effect of extended repeated reading in

McLean 2015）:

Mandarin, while Leung（2002）studied ER teaching
１． The reading material is easy.

Japanese as the L2. The cognitive benefits of extensive

２．	A variety of reading material on a wide range ofreading include improvements in vocabulary（Horst,
2005; Peyreya, 2015; Pigada & Schmitt, 2006）, grammar

topics is available.
３． Learners choose what they want to read.

and comprehension）（Bell, 2001; Iwahori, 2008; Lee,

４． Learners read as much as possible.

Schallert & Kim, 2014; Nation, 2015; Pulido, 2009）, flu-

５．	The purpose of reading is usually related to plea-ency（or reading speed）（Sakurai, 2015; Taguchi,

sure, information, and general understanding.

Takayasu-Maass & Gorsuch, 2004）, and writing

６． Reading is its own reward.

（Janopoulos, 2009; Mermelstein, 2015）. The affective

７．	Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower.

benefits include broader cultural knowledge（Cirocki,

８． Reading is individual and silent.

2009）and greater motivation and satisfaction with lan-

９． Teachers orient and guide their students.

guage study（Taboada & McElvany, 2009; Takase,

10． The teacher is a role model of a reader.

2005）. Sivabramaniam（2009）makes the point thatmultifaceted meanings encountered at the discourseDay（2015）later conceptualized a system for ranking

level cannot be approached at comparable depth withany program with ER-like components according tointensive reading or translation exercises.

the number of the above principles to which it ad-

As noted above, research supports the conclusion

hered.

that reading large amounts of comprehensible L2 text

Extensive reading is also defined in contrast to inten-

over long periods of time leads to measurable gains insive reading, the deliberate study of a specific passage

proficiency. It should be expected, then, that ER would

for the purpose of uncovering grammar, lexis, or se-

be a fundamental component of all foreign language or

mantics（Gorsuch & Taguchi, 2008）. Intensive reading

second language learning programs. However, it is un-

involves a much greater teacher role in selection ofderutilized in English language education programs intexts and direction of the course and pace of study

Japan. This paper highlights recent research into the（Loucky, 2009）. Waring and McLean（2015）wrote

effectiveness of ER, with attention to barriers to its im-that ER referred specifically to “the type of processing

plementation, particularly in Japanese universities. We

students do that allow them to focus on developing flu-

hope that educators and administrators will weigh theent comprehension of text for meaning, and not on lan-benefits against the temporal and financial costs, andguage features exclusively”（p. 164）
. Stated simply, ex-consider incorporating ER into L2 programs as a long-tensive reading stresses volume and comprehensibility,

term strategy for maximizing gains in proficiency.

while intensive reading stresses concentration and deconstruction. Some researchers have indicated skepti-

2．Methodcism concerning the degree to which either component

In order to find and select the necessary data, weby itself is responsible for L2 progress in any program

conducted exhaustive online and manual searches. The

under study（Pulido, 2009）.

educational databases included Educational Resources

The effectiveness of ER in both the cognitive（com-Information Center（ERIC）, Research Informationprehension, grammar, vocabulary acquisition, writing）

Sharing Service（RISS）, and the resources of theand affective dimensions of learning is well document-

Walden University Library（EBSCO, JSTOR, etc.）. To

ed. This research has not been limited to the study ofobtain as complete and comprehensive a picture asextensive reading in English. Arnold（2009）, Maximpossible of extensive reading as a pedagogical tool in（2002）, and Rankin（2005）documented the benefits

language education we examined research from sixof extensive reading in German L2, while Pigada andcountries（U.S., China, Japan, India, Vietnam, and Ger-

Schmitt（2006）cited the benefits of extensive readingmany）. To view the effectiveness of extensive reading

in a French L2 context. Han and Cheng-ling（2010）

in other languages we also read papers on ER in― 110 ―

べゴール

ゼノス

語学授業における多読：研究レビュー

French L2 （Pigada & Schmitt, 2006）, German L2

Several variables affect vocabulary acquisition. Ac-（Maxim, 2002; Rankin, 2005）, Japanese L2（de Burgh-cording to Restrepo Ramos（2015）, repeated exposure

Hirabe, 2011; Hitosugi & Day, 2004; Leung, 2002）, andto words in meaningful collocations is the key to suc-

Mandarin Chinese L2（Han & Cheng-ling, 2010）.

cessful vocabulary acquisition. The difficulty of theThis paper weaves these diverse threads into a cohe-text has a direct affect（Coady, 1997）.It is not compre-

sive whole that supports the use of extensive reading

hensible, but comprehended input that is importantin foreign language education.

（Coady, 1997）. A number of researchers havereached the conclusion that no more than 2% of the

3．Results

lexical items on a page should be unknown to the

3-1

reader（Coady, 1997; Hsueh-Chao & Nation, 2000; Na-

Vocabulary acquisition

Recent research shows extensive reading to be antion, 2015, Schmitt, Jiang & Grabe, 2011）.

effective tool to enhance vocabulary acquisition in the

The pace of vocabulary acquisition and the amount

L2. Although this section explores research into theof reading are related. According to Nation, the mini-

relationship between vocabulary acquisition and exten-

mum amount of reading is one book each two weeks,

sive reading, it is first necessary to define the meaning

and the minimum amount of time needed to meet theof vocabulary acquisition in the context of both exten-

first 1000 words 12 times is 33 minutes per week for asive reading and this paper. Acquisition of a vocabu-

year, at the minimum speed for comprehension（150lary item comprises three parts; form, meaning, andwords per minute）（Nation, 2015）.As shown in Saegu-

use. One word family contains a number of forms/

sa’s research on TOEIC, additional gains at higher skill

spellings, and each of these forms has a different mean-levels require increasing time commitments（Saegusa,

ing. Waring（2009）has compiled extensive data on1985）. In the case of vocabulary acquired through ex-

word frequency and the volume of text reading need-tensive reading, to acquire the second thousand words

ed to give learners adequate exposure to acquire newrequires a commitment of 50 minutes a week for a

vocabulary. Learning one dictionary meaning of a sin-year（Nation, 2015）.

gle word does not demonstrate acquisition in this con-Both Coady and Nation stress the importance oftext. In addition, the use of the vocabulary item, in-structure in an extensive reading program. Althoughcluding collocations, is an important part of acquisition.

the basic principle of extensive reading is reading

Readers acquire vocabulary when they focus on thelarge amounts at a comprehensible level, that does notmeaning of the text they read, not when focusing on

obviate the need for structure in the extensive reading

unknown words（Ponniah, 2011）.

program. According to Coady（1997）, an effective pro-

A number of researchers have explored vocabularygram consists of reading that is comprehensible andacquisition results of extensive reading（Coady, 1997;

interesting. He also stresses the importance of theMeng, 2009; Nation, 2015; Pigada & Schmitt, 2006;

teacher as a motivator, providing encouragement andReynolds & Bai, 2013; Waring & Takaki, 2003）. As

feedback. According to Nation（2015）, an effective pro-with other extensive reading components, this re-gram stresses the quality of reading: Does the reading

search has not been limited to the study of English asprovide sufficient repetition of language items, and in

the L2. In 2006, Pigada and Schmitt specifically studied

sufficient variety? That is, is the reader able to build

the acquisition of French vocabulary through exten-

word families, rather than memorize discrete vocabu-

sive reading in French. At Princeton University,

lary items? In Ponniah’s study in 2011, post-test results

Rankin（2005）explored vocabulary acquisition andbetween students who learned the vocabulary set inci-

lexical chunks in extensive reading of German L2. Han

dentally and those who learned the same set by using

and Cheng-ling（2010）found that extensive repeatedtheir dictionaries to look up the meaning demonstrated

reading resulted in vocabulary gains that would not

the difference between the ability to use the new vo-

have been possible through conventional reading or

cabulary between the two groups. The post-test con-vocabulary instruction.

sisted of writing down the definition of the vocabulary― 111 ―

公立鳥取環境大学紀要

第15号

item and using it in different sentences and confirmed

tensive English Program, Tottori University of Envi-that learners who used dictionaries were unable to useronmental Studies, 2015）. Items such as this focus en-

the consciously learned words in sentences（Ponniah,

tirely on form, or sentence pattern, while ignoring

2011）
.

meaning and use. This item may in fact confuse fluent

Familiarity with word families affects reading com-readers because it appears on the test without context,

prehension. The generally accepted level is knowledge

and contains three pronouns without antecedents. Out-of at least 3000 word families, consisting of a base formside of East Asia, neither EFL students nor nativeand its derived and inflected forms, for comprehension

speakers learn English sentence patterns, but both

（Coady, 1997; Restrepo Ramos, 2015）. One problem isgroups are able to read and comprehend English texts.

how to get beginning readers to this level, when they

It can be inferred that if a student understands the

do not yet have the vocabulary to read well enough totext, they understand the grammar contained in it, at

acquire more vocabulary - the so-called beginner’s par-least in context.

adox. Coady’s solution to this problem is concomitantly

Cirocki’s（2009b）detailed analysis of the results oftrain new readers in sight words（1997）. Graded read-an ER program for Polish secondary students demon-

ers provide another solution, books with controlled vo-

strated clear and measurable gains in “reading skill,cabulary and grammar to allow beginning readers tovocabulary growth, productive skills,（inter）cultural

read extensively. Hill’s assessment of graded readers

competence and secondary learners’ overall gains”（2001）provides a comprehensive overview of the（256）. All students evinced improvement in reading

practical use of graded readers in class.

and vocabulary and there were gains in reading, writ-

Although the numerous research articles cited alling, vocabulary, and grammar measured as a whole.

make claims for vocabulary acquisition through exten-

As in this instance, although testing can illuminate

sive reading, the quantitative measurement of vocabu-

general improvement, it is difficult to isolate grammar

lary gains is problematic. A test that only measuresfrom other skills.
Similarly, in their study of ER for adolescent EFL

the meaning of discrete items will fail to measure other significant gains in the form-meaning-use structure

students in South Korea, Lee, Schallert, and Kim（Webb, 2005）. The sensitivity of the measurement in-（2014）highlighted the intrinsic link between knowl-

strument itself affects results, and various studies

edge of grammar and skill in reading, asserting thatshow gains of between 6.4 and 20%（Waring &Takaki,“grammar knowledge is a significant predictor of

2003）
.

reading comprehension”（39）. These authors admit,“there have been few empirical studies that have ex-

3-2

Comprehension（grammar）

plicitly examined incidental L2 grammar learning from

For the purpose of acquiring or improving L2 gram-reading”（40）. In analyzing aspects of grammar not

mar skills, the intensive approach is used more fre-overtly dependent on context, such as knowledge ofquently than the extensive. Gorsuch and Taguchi

combined articles + prepositions, however, the per-（2009）described “the prevailing attitude towards

centage improvements on grammar test scores did in-reading merely as a means of introducing L2 grammar

dicate that, per unit of study time, gains from exten-

and lexis” rather than as an exercise in fluency bysive reading were similar to those made throughwhich grammar and other skills might be allowed to

traditional classroom translation exercises（Lee, Schal-develop incidentally（251-252）.

lert & Kim, 2014）.

As noted in section 3-1, because reading comprehension is a holistic skill, measurement of grammar gains

3-3

Fluency（reading rate）

by testing is difficult. One example of the difficulty in-

There is wide acceptance of the positive relationshipherent in “testing” grammar proficiency is the test

among reading comprehension, reading rate（fluency）

item, “What happened to the country which I visitedand vocabulary（Jeon & Day, 2015）. Although fluency

last year?”（pre- and post-test, sentence patterns, In-and comprehension are closely interrelated, they will

― 112 ―

べゴール

ゼノス

語学授業における多読：研究レビュー

be examined separately in this paper. It is first neces-

posed to a regime of graded readers while the “inten-

sary to define reading fluency. Fluent reading is whatsive” group studied short texts followed by compre-

good readers（of any language）do, most of the time,hension questions. Bell found that subjects exposed towhen they read. Particularly in the L1, reading com-“extensive” reading achieved both significantly faster

prehension assumes reading fluency. According toreading speeds and significantly higher scores on mea-

Fuch（Fuch, et al., 2001）, correlations between fluency

sures of reading comprehension（2001）. In anotherskills and reading comprehension have been reported

study, university level EFL students in Hong Kongas high as r= .81 to .90 between oral passage reading

who participated in a popular literature class that em-

fluency and reading comprehension. Reading rate, thephasized reading for content and enjoyment, including

number of words read per minute, is one measure ofsome self-selected reading, made superior gains on

fluency. Fluent native readers usually read between

measures of vocabulary and reading rate, when com-

250 and 300 words（lexical units）per minute（Grabe,

pared to students enrolled in a traditional academic

2010）
.

skills class（Lao & Krashen, 2000）.

However, L2 readers seldom achieve a speed of 250
words per minute. Slow readers are unable to hold3-4

Writing（fluency）

enough detail in short term memory to permit decod-

Han（2010）observed that reading and writing wereing of the overall message of the text（Bell, 2001）.

disconnected in education until the 1980s, when re-Agreement has not been reached on the minimum

searchers began to study their reciprocal benefits. Cit-

rate needed for comprehension. Some researchers

ing recent efforts to combine ER with English writing

have cited 180 words per minute, claiming that speeds

coursework in South Korea, he observed that ER has

below this are too slow for efficient comprehension

increased students’ familiarity with English and ability（Anderson, 1999）. Grabe suggests that 150 words is

to express their ideas in it （Han, 2010）. In 2009,

the minimum rate required（2010）. In the case of first

Janopoulos observed that considerable literary expo-

year Japanese university students, the average read-sure is required for “sensitivity to text features anding rate hovers around 100 words per minute, well be-those writing conventions that will carry over to the

low the level necessary for comprehension（Takeuchi

act of writing”（p. 431）, claiming a direct connection& Begole, 2015）. Carver suggests that the minimum

between quantity of reading for pleasure and quality

acceptable level of comprehension of text content isof writing. Janopolous added that improvements in

64%（2000）.

writing directly attributable to ER require daily com-

First year university students in Japan can be con-mitment over a sustained period, teacher encourage-

sidered beginning readers, although they have studied

ment, absence of interruptions, and avoidance of test-

English for six years. According to Sarich（2014）, Ja-ing（2009）.

pan test scores of reading proficiency as measured by

Cirocki’s 2006/2007 Polish secondary school study

standardized tests such as TOEIC and TOEFL remaindemonstrated measurable gains in productive skills

among the lowest in Asia. Japanese high school “read-

within six weeks to three months of an English lan-ing” classes focus on language development and trans-

guage program in which two-thirds of class time, plus

lation rather than reading（Sakurai, 2015）. A number

additional time outside of class, was dedicated to ex-of specialists have commented on a common practicetensive reading（Cirocki, 2009）. In addition to marked

in intensive reading lessons, where texts are often

elevation of confidence and fluency in speaking, thetreated as vehicles for the presentation, practice, ma-students “were able to write different types of texts

nipulation, and consolidation of language points, rather

with ease, without committing serious grammar mis-

than the encouragement of reading itself. In Bell’s 2001

takes. Also, less L １ transfer in structures was noted”

study, students were divided into two groups. One（Cirocki, 2009, p. 538 ）. Cirocki（2009）contrasted thisgroup practiced intensive reading, while the otherwith learners whose study did not include ER: Whilegroup read extensively. The “extensive” group was ex-these learners showed gains in ease of production, he― 113 ―

公立鳥取環境大学紀要

第15号

found no significant improvement in their style orfor student anxiety and reticence, demotivating stu-

grammar.

dents and frustrating teachers. Although students

Mermelstein（2015）found gains in fluency, content,

have had years to develop habits and methods anti-organization, language use, vocabulary, and mechanics

thetical to ER, the act of ER itself helps teach them toin descriptive writing assignments in five studies onprocess new concepts, which can in turn motivate

ER programs of various lengths. Mermelstein’s find-them to read more（Sivasubramaniam, 2009）. Throughings demonstrated that the pleasure component of

exercises in breaking down L2 learner aliteracy during

reading was a key factor in improvement, with limited

programs of several months, Fujigaki（2009）suggest-

selection of reading materials and shorter program

ed that students have latent motivation, which ER

lengths detrimental to overall progress（2015）. Similar-

awakens; stimulating dormant motivation requires thatly, Janopoulos（2009）admitted to problems measuring

ER be an integral part of coursework sustained over

the amount of reading students actually did when not

the long term.

supervised, and posited that evidence is insufficient for

Taboada and McElvany（2009）contrasted the depth

the proportion of gains due to ER alone, much less forand frequency of students’ reading from intrinsic moti-

the ideal proportion of course time that should be de-vation with that done simply for the requirements of

voted to ER if improvement in writing is the primarycoursework. It is important to allow students access togoal .

texts in genres and fields that interest them. In his experiments with ER in New Zealand classrooms, Macali-

3-5ster writes, “Well-chosen books can, therefore, encour-

Motivation（affect）

According to Widodo（2009）, one barrier to effective

age students to read, perhaps even the reluctant andimplementation of ER in secondary and tertiary curri-

poorly motivated ones”（211）. This is why researcherscula is low student motivation and autonomy. Cirocki

such as Loucky have accorded a high priority to indi-（2009）observed that learners rarely undertake L2 ofvidualized instruction: “Only by careful individual diag-

their own volition, but usually because outside agentsnosis of each student’s…total estimated reading grade

force L2 on them; this necessitates the teacher’s rolelevels can ESL/EFL teachers really help their students

as a motivator, whose task is to make the material in-

to improve as fast and as much as possible. Otherwise,

teresting. Curricula often leave little room for leisurely

no one will ever really know their levels, or their rates

reading, and some researchers have indicated that theof improvement”（Loucky, 2009, p. 65）. Taboada andrise of screen-based media has fostered the develop-

McElvany（2009）added that for ER to be most effec-

ment of reading habits appropriate to web browsing

tive, teachers must foster classroom cohesion andbut detrimental to ER（Ariyanto, 2009）. To counterknow students’’ individual areas of interest as well as

this trend, some educators advise physically demon-

their level.

strating the act of reading during class in order to be

Kirchhoff（ 2015 ）experimented with several strate-

a role model for students who may not have had any

gies for building and maintaining student motivation,

experience with this reading, as opposed to translating.

such as student reading teams and oral book evalua-

The absence of motivation and autonomy is a barrier

tions called “book talk.” Students’ enjoyment of thesethat must be overcome for ER to be effective.

activities, which required them to read extensively,

This barrier is obvious when ER is attempted withproduced the stimulus to continue with ER, with face-students whose study habits have been highly struc-to-face student collaboration being the biggest motiva-

tured with clear teacher-enforced goals. In contrast totor.

the virtuous circle noted later in section 4.1, a vicious

Taboada and McElvany（2009）described five moti-

circle is created when learners have unpleasant associ-vational processes: interest, autonomy support, self-effi-

ations with L2 reading and would prefer to do as little

cacy, social collaboration, and mastery goals. Masteryof it as possible（Coady, 1997, p. 273）
. Sivasubramani-goals are an important aspect of ER, in that motivation

am（2009）called EFL classrooms breeding grounds

is enhanced because the reading is not tied to any spe-

― 114 ―

べゴール

ゼノス

語学授業における多読：研究レビュー

cific curriculum goal, but instead allows language skills

tensive Reading in Kyoto, noting that a reader can en-

to develop as a natural side effect of extensive L2 ex-

ter the circle at any point（W. Pennington, personal

posure in fields of students’ interest. These authors

communication［email］, 2011）. In another study of stu-

contend, however, that ER done in the classroom may

dents’ reactions to extensive reading, student reaction

be counterproductive due to time constraints and in-

was very positive; students reported gaining confi-

terruptions, making it all the more important that stu-

dence in reading, and expressed enthusiasm about

dents are able to manage their own time. Chief amongcontinuing to read in English（Lao & Krashen, 2000）.

means of developing time management skills is the

However, in a survey of 36 New Zealand-based ESL

idea of teacher intervention as a kind of scaffolding,teachers, although 34 teachers responded that they

which can provide copious support in the initial stages.

thought students could learn English through exten-

Support is removed gradually as student motivation issive reading, only 11 of them included extensive read-cultivated through habitual ER. Sivasubramaniam

ing as part of the curriculum（Macalister（2010）. Ma-（2009）advocates initial teacher mediation to avoid stu-

calister further argued that “Extensive reading needs

dent selection of inappropriate or unchallenging texts.

to be promoted through teacher education, new re-This support should be phased out.

search, changes in course design, raising awareness    Finally, the consensus appears to be that for the af-

among administrators and managers, and improved re-

fective benefits of ER to be realized, it is crucial thatsource provision”（p.59）. Jeon and Day（2015）in their

ER be maintained as a longitudinal strategy and funda-

meta-analysis of 71 extensive reading research samples

mental facet of EFL and ESL curricula, rather than afound that found that ER programs resulted in greater

single semester or year. Jeon and Day（2015）empha-

reading proficiency than intensive or traditional read-

sized the importance of sustaining ER programs overing approaches. In another study of students’ reactions

the long term, insisting, “teachers and policy makers

to extensive reading, student reaction was very posi-need to realize that it takes time to see the benefits oftive; students reported gaining confidence in reading,an ER program” in student motivation（306）.

and expressed enthusiasm about continuing to read in
English（Lao & Krashen, 2000）.

4．Discussion and suggestions
4-1

Effectiveness

4-2

Limitations

The numerous studies cited in this paper support

Although it is obvious that extensive reading is ef-

the use of extended reading as an effective part of an

fective, it is necessary to understand the limitations of

L2 program. Why is it not made better use of in Ja-

extensive reading. For example, researchers have not-pan? As Macalister（2010）said, teachers’ intuition

ed that the benefits of ER take time to appear（Grabe,h as been backed by research and there is no2010; Yamashita, 2008）. Although increases in vocabu-

shortage of evidence that extensive reading con-lary have been noted in studies as short as one monthtributes to successful language learning. The im-（Pigada & Schmitt, 2006）, increases in comprehension

pact of extensive reading on different skill areas

and fluency take longer to appear. Takeuchi and Be-

including listening, reading comprehension andgole（2015）tracked students through a three-semester

speed, writing, vocabulary, examination perfor-

course, but found only a 20% average increase in read-mance, and attitudes to reading in the target lan-ing rate, from 100 to 120 words per minute, still below

guage has been well documented（p. 60）.

the threshold for easy comprehension. Yamashita

Coady（1997）described the virtuous circle engen-（2008）noted that comprehension gains in a 15-week

dered by extensive reading: the reader reads

course were greater than gains in vocabulary andfaster → understands better → reads more → enjoys

knowledge of syntax. Because the results of extensive

reading → reads faster（p. 273）
. Pennington, Yukimaru,

reading take time to appear, it is feared that ER may

and Tanoue described the same virtuous circle in their

be dropped from the curriculum when “results” are2011 presentation at the First World Congress on Ex-

not immediately apparent.

― 115 ―

公立鳥取環境大学紀要

4-3

第15号

will take away limited class time. However, most ex-

Practical considerations

If both teachers and students feel that extensive

tensive reading programs use class time only for docu-

reading is useful and effective, what are the barriers tomentation, discussion, and guidance, while students do

implementation of ER programs? Some teachers may

most reading outside of class. Documentation of books/

feel unsure of what extensive reading is, or may not

pages read can be accomplished with simple reading

feel confident about setting up an extensive reading

logs, supplemented by short book reports（Macalister,

program. Online resources are available from the Ex-

2010; Takeuchi, & Begole, 2015）. The problem of re-tensive Reading Foundation in English（http://erfoun-sources can be overcome by using online sources fordation.org/ERF_Guide.pdf）, Korean（http://erfounda-

both books and assessment.

tion.org/ERF_Guide-K.pdf）, and Japanese（http://

For teachers who prefer to give quizzes, quizzes are

erfoundation.org/ERF_GuideJ.pdf）. The Japan Exten-

now available online for most graded readers available

sive Reading Association（日本多読学会）has informa-in Japan via MReader（http://mreader.org/index.php）,

tion available at http://jera-tadoku.jp/ in Japanese.

an online placement test is available from the Exten-

Another practical consideration is access to thesive Reading Foundation（http://erfoundation.org/

number of books, preferably graded readers, needed towordpress/the-erf-placement-test/）and multiple-choice

allow for the variety and self-selected reading that arecloze quizzes are available from Oxford（https://elt.

hallmarks of extensive reading（Waring & McLean

oup.com/student/bookwormsleveltest/?cc=us&selLang

2015）. The cost of purchasing a library can be a signifi-

uage=en）.Another simple option is to link the number

cant hurdle to implementing an ER program. However,of words read to the final grade as Sakurai（2015）

there is no rule that books must be printed on paper.

demonstrated. In short, neither time nor resources are

In this era of e-books and online readers, it is possible

insurmountable obstacles to adding extensive reading

to design a program without purchasing a great num-

to the curriculum.

ber of books. Arnold（2009）has designed and docu-

A more difficult problem is student and teacher ex-

mented an extensive reading program in German done

pectations. One preconceived notion is the idea thatentirely online. He reported both affective and linguis-

extensive reading is only effective for “good” students;

tic gains. As a resource, Maruzen has recently madethat low-level or unmotivated students will not re-available graded readers from at least two publishers

spond. This has been shown to be a fallacy by a num-

online（https://elib.maruzen.co.jp/app/eguide/informa-

ber of studies（Fujigaki, 2009; Nishizawa, Yoshioka, &tion.html）. This commercial service is already in use at

Itoh, 2006 & 2008; Mason & Krashen, 1997）. In addi-

Chuo University, Kyushu University, Morioka Univer-tion, both teachers and students in Japan expect teach-sity, and Tottori University of Environmental Studies.

ers to “teach”（Matikainen, 2015; Sakurai, 2015）. The

A third potential barrier is the lack of textbooks

traditional high school English class is teacher-cen-that incorporate extensive reading. There are a few

tered. Moving to a student-centered method, wherebooks, notably the Reading Power series published by

students choose what to read and the teacher’s prima-

Penguin/Longman, but the lack of textbooks makes itry responsibility is to create the right conditions fordifficult to convince teachers and administrators of thereading（Arnold, 2009）, goes against this cultural ex-legitimacy of extensive reading. Brown（2009）makes

pectation. In addition, teachers are constrained bya strong case for creating a greater variety of text-

MEXT guidelines. The way that high stakes assess-books incorporating ER.

ment measures such as the Center Test（for potential
university students）and TOEIC have been construct-

4-4

Resistanceed, used, and interpreted, exerts an enormous impact

In Macalister’s survey of teacher attitudes（2009）,

on English education（Sarich, 2009）.

teachers cited time, resources, student expectations,and curriculum changes as barriers to including exten-

5．Conclusion

sive reading. Some teachers feel that extensive reading― 116 ―As shown in the more than 80 articles read for this

べゴール

ゼノス

語学授業における多読：研究レビュー

literature review（not all of them cited in this paper）,

teaching（pp. 295-310）. Muenchen, Germany: Lin-

extensive reading is an effective tool that should becom.
Bamford, J., & Day, R. R.（1998）.Teaching reading. An-

used to enhance students’ learning.
Returning to the ten principles cited in the introduc-

nual review of applied linguistics, 18, 124-141. doi:tion, we have shown that “easy” materials（compre-

10.1017/S0267190500003512

hensible materials）are most suitable, and that these

Bell, T.（2001）. Extensive reading: Speed and compre-

materials on a wide variety of topics are readily avail-1 1）
hension. The Reading Matrix, （. doi: 10.1.1.466.3793

able in Japan. Reynolds and Bai（2013）found that

Brown, D.（2009）. Why and how textbooks should en-

reader choice made a significant difference in vocabu-

courage extensive reading. ELT Journal, 63（3）, 238-

lary acquisition. Learners should read as much as pos-245. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccn041

sible, at least 30 minutes a week, and should read more

Carver, R. P.（1992）. Reading rate: Theory, research,

to make further gains（Grabe, 2010; Kirchhoff, 2009;and practical implications. Journal of Reading, 36（2）,84-95.

Takeuchi & Begole, 2015）. Several studies demonstrated that reading motivation is improved by successful

Carver, R.P.（2000）. The causes of high and low reading

extensive reading（Coady, 1997; Kirchhoff, 2015; Taboa-

achievement. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum As-

da & McElvany, 2009）. Studies cited in this paper alsosociates.

showed that faster reading is more effective（Ander-

Cirocki, A.（2009a）. Implementing the ER approach toson, 1999; Bell, 2001; Grabe, 2010）. All variations of ex-

literature in the EFL secondary school classroom:

tensive reading, including assisted reading（Taguchi,

An action research study. In A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Ex-

Takayasu-Maass, & Gorsuch, 2004）, free voluntarytensive reading in English language teaching（pp. 157-

reading（Lao & Krashen, 2000）, and sustained silent

179）.Muenchen, Germany: Lincom.

reading（Gorsuch & Taguchi, 2008; Takase, 2009）are

Cirocki, A.（2009b）. The place and role of literary texts

individual and silent. In all studies cited, the teacher

in language education: A historical overview. In A.

was a guide to students, helping students to selectCirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading in English language

books at the correct level（Sivasubramaniam, 2009;teaching（pp. 157-179）. Muenchen, Germany: Lin-

Takeuchi & Begole, 2015）, and tracking reading prog-

com.

ress.

Coady, J.（1997）.L2 vocabulary acquisition through ex-

In addition, we found that extensive reading is effec-

tensive reading. In J. Coady & T. Huckin（Eds.）

tive in any language, examining studies of English,

Second language vocabulary acquisition（pp. 225-

French, German, Japanese, and Mandarin L2 reading,237）. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
Press.

and that extensive reading improves vocabulary, comprehension, fluency, and motivation. We believe that

Day, R. R.（2015）. Extending extensive reading. Read-

greater use of extensive reading at the university level
in Japan would improve students’ English proficiency.

ing in a Foreign Language, 27（2）,294-301.
de Burgh-Hirabe, R.（2011）. Extensive reading and L2
reading motivation in Japanese as a foreign language: A
case study of New Zealand high school students.（Doc-References
Anderson, N.（1999）. Improving reading speed. English
teaching forum, 37（2）, 2-5.

toral dissertation, University of Otago）.
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. R.

Arnold, N.（2009）. Online extensive reading for ad-（2001）. Oral reading fluency as an indicator ofvanced foreign language learners: An evaluation

reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, andstudy. Foreign Language Annals, 42（2）, 340-366. doi:historical analysis. Scientific studies of reading, 5（ 3）,

10.1111/j.1944-9720.2009.01024.x

239-256.

Ariyanto, S.（2009）. Encouraging extensive reading toFujigaki, E.（2009a）. Extensive reading for weak read-

improve academic literacy in the EFL class. In A.

ers: Developing reading fluency in the EFL/ESL

Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading in English language

context. In A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading in― 117 ―

公立鳥取環境大学紀要

第15号

English language teaching（pp. 273-294）. Muenchen,

English language teaching（pp. 429-438）. Muenchen,

Germany: Lincom.

Germany: Lincom.

Fujigaki, E.（2009b）. Addressing students’ output in

Jeon, E-Y., & Day, R. R.（2015）. The effectiveness ofthe extensive reading class: A qualitative study. In

core ER principles. Reading in a Foreign Language,

A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading in English lan-27（2）,302-307.

guage teaching（pp. 577-590）. Muenchen, Germany:

Karlin, O., & Romanko, R.（2010）. Examining Multiple
Variables within a Single ER Setting. The Reading

Lincom.

Matrix, 10（2）.

Gorsuch, G., & Taguchi, E.（2008）. Repeated reading fordeveloping reading fluency and reading comprehen-

Kirchhoff, C.（2015）Extensive Reading in the EFL

sion: The case of EFL learners in Vietnam. System,

Classroom: Benefits of a Face-to-Face Collabora-

36（2008）, 253-278. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2007.09.009

tion Activity. Reading Matrix: An International Online

Gorsuch, G., & Taguchi, E.（2009）Repeated reading
and its role in an extensive reading programme.

Journal, 15（1）,pp. 54-65
Kirchhoff, P.（2009）. Extensives lesen in der unterstufe

In A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading in English language teaching（pp. 249-272）. Muenchen, Germany:des gymnasiums. ForumSprach, 2, 105-111.
Lao, C. Y., & Krashen, S.（2000）.The impact of popularliterature study on literacy development in EFL:

Lincom.

More evidence for the power of reading. System, 28

Grabe, W.（2010）. Fluency in reading--Thirty-five years（2000）, 261-270. doi: 10.1016/S0346-251X（00）later. Reading in a foreign language, 22
（1）
, 71.

00011-7

Han, J-E.（2010）. Extensive reading conjoined with writing
activities as an effective component of English as a sec-

Lee, J., Schallert, D. L., & Kim, E.（2014）. Effects of ex-

ond/foreign language programs（Master’s thesis）. Re-

tensive reading and translation activities on gram-trieved from minds.wisconsin.edu

mar knowledge and attitudes for EFL adolescents.
System, 52, 38-50. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2015.04.016

Han, Z., & Cheng-ling, A. C.（2010）. Repeated-readingbased instructional strategy and vocabulary acqui-

Leung, C. Y.（ 2002 ）. Extensive reading and language

sition: A case study of a heritage speaker of Chi-learning: A diary study of a beginning learner ofnese. Reading in a Foreign Language, 22（2）, 242.

Japanese. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14（1）, 6681.

Hill, D. R.（2001）. Graded readers. ELT journal, 55（3）,Lewis, M.（1993）. The lexical approach: the state of300-324.

ELT and a way forward Hove. UK: Language

Hitosugi, C. I., & Day, R. R.（2004）. Extensive readingin Japanese. Reading in a Foreign Language, 16（1）,Teaching Publications.
Loucky, J. P.（2009）. Enhancing skills essential for exten-

20-39.
Horst, M.（2005）. Learning L2 vocabulary through ex-sive reading. In A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading intensive reading: A measurement study. The Cana-

English language teaching（pp. 47-82）. Muenchen, Germany: Lincom.

dian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne deslangues vivantes, 61（3）, 355-382. doi: 10.3138/

Macalister, J.（2009）. “But my programme’s too full already”: How to make a good thing happen in the

cmlr.61.3.355
Hsueh-Chao, M. H., & Nation, P.（2000）. Unknown vo-

academic purposes classroom. In A. Cirocki（Ed.）,

cabulary density and reading comprehension.

Extensive reading in English language teaching（pp.

Reading in a foreign language, 13（1）, 403-430.

203-218）.Muenchen, Germany: Lincom.

. Developing reading fluency: A
Iwahori, Y.（2008）

Macalister, J.（2010）. Investigating teacher attitudes tostudy of extensive reading in EFL. Reading in a

extensive reading practices in higher education:

Foreign Language, 20（1）, 70-91.

Why isn’t everyone doing it? RELC Journal, 41（1）,59-75. doi: 10.1177/0033688210362609

Janopoulos, M.（2009）. Pleasure reading and writing ina second language:（How）Can we make the con-

Mason, B., & Krashen, S.（1997）. Extensive reading in

nection? In A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading in

English as a foreign language. System, 25（1）, 91-― 118 ―

べゴール

102. doi: 10.1016/S0346-251X（96）00063-2

ゼノス

語学授業における多読：研究レビュー

ture review. Issues in Teachers’ Professional Develop-

Matikainen, T.（2015）. Cultures of learning in Japanesement, 17（1）,157-166. doi: 10.15446/profile.v17n1.43

EFL classrooms. In S. Horiguchi, Y. Imoto, & G. S.

Reynolds, B. L., & Bai, Y. L.（2013）. Does the freedom

Poole（Eds）. Foreign language education in Japan: Ex-of reader choice affect second language incidental

ploring qualitative approaches（pp. 103-117）. Rotter-vocabulary acquisition? British Journal of Education-

dam, The Netherlands: Sense.

al Technology, 44（2）, E42-E44. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-

Maxim, H. H., II.（2002）. A study into the feasibility

8535.2012.01322.x

and effects of reading extended authentic dis-Saegusa, Y.（1985）. Prediction of English proficiency

course in the beginning German language class-progress. Musashino English and American Literature,room. The Modern Language Journal, 86（1）, 20-34.

18, 165-185.
Sakurai, N.（2015）. The influence of translation on

doi:10.1111/1540-4781.00134
Meng, F.（2009）. Developing students’ reading ability

reading amount, proficiency, and speed in exten-

through extensive reading. English Language Teach-sive reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 27（1）,ing, 2（2）, 132-137.

96-112.

. Improving EFL learners’
Mermelstein, A. D.（2015）

Sarich, E.（2014）. Obstacles to English education re-writing through enhanced extensive reading.

form in Japan. Shizuoka University of Art andReading in a Foreign Language, 27（2）, 182-198.

Culture Bulletin, 14, 65-70.

Nation, P.（2015）. Principles guiding vocabulary learn-

Schmitt, N., Jiang, X., & Grabe, W.（2011）. The percent-ing through extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign

age of words known in a text and reading compre-

Language, 27（1）, 136-145.

hension. The Modern Language Journal, 95（1）, 26-43.

Nishizawa, H., Yoshioka, T., & Itoh, K.（2006）.苦手意識
を自信に変える、英語多読授業の効果. 高専教育 ,doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4781.2011.01146.x. Anchoring literature inSivasubramaniam, S.（2009）
extensive reading programmes: Issues and in-

30, 439-440.
Nishizawa H., Yoshioka, T., & Itoh, K.（2008）. ３年間の継

sights for promoting intersubjectivity in the class-

続授業で明らかになった英語多読授業の効果と成功要

room. In A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading in Eng-因 . 工学教育 （JSEE）, 56（1）, 72-76. doi: 10.4307/

lish language teaching（pp. 409-428）. Muenchen,jsee.56.1_72

Germany: Lincom.

Pereyra, N.（2015）. Extensive reading in enhancing

Taboada and McElvany.（2009）. Between the skill andlexical chunks acquisition. The Reading Matrix: An

will of extensive reading: L2 learners as engaged

International Online Journal, 15（2）.

readers. In A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading in

Pigada, M., & Schmitt, N.（ 2006 ）. Vocabulary acquisi-

English language teaching（pp. 179-202）. Muenchen,
Germany: Lincom.

tion from extensive reading: A case study. Reading

Taguchi, E., Takayasu-Maass, M. & Gorsuch, G.（2004）.

in a Foreign Language, 18（1）, 1-28.
. Incidental acquisition of vocabuPonniah, R. J.（2011）

Developing reading fluency in EFL: How assistedlary by reading. The Reading Matrix, 11（2）,135-139.

repeated reading and extensive reading affect flu-

Pulido, D.（2009）. Developing reading skills in a for-ency development. Reading in a Foreign Language,16（2）,70-96.

eign/second language. In A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading in English language teaching（pp. 27-46）.

Takase, A.（2009）. The effects of SSR on learners’
reading attitudes, motivation, and achievement: A

Muenchen, Germany: Lincom.
Rankin, J.（2005）. Easy reader: A case study of embed-

quantitative study. In A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive

ded extensive reading in intermediate German L2.

reading in English language teaching（pp. 547-560）.

Die Unterrichtspraxis / Teaching German, 38（2）, 125-

Muenchen, Germany: Lincom.
Takeuchi, H. & Begole, B.（2015）. 多読による英語教育

134.
Restrepo Ramos, F. D.（2015）. Incidental vocabulary― そ の 効 果 と 今 後 の 課 題（Extensive reading inlearning in second language acquisition: A litera-

English education: Efficacy and future challenges）.

― 119 ―

公立鳥取環境大学紀要

第15号

Bulletin of Tottori University of Environmental Studies,Webb, S.（2005）. Receptive and productive vocabulary
learning: The effects of reading and writing on

13, 119-127.

word knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisi-

Waring, R.（2009）. The inescapable case for extensivetion, 27, 33‒52.

reading. In A. Cirocki（Ed.）, Extensive reading in
English language teaching（pp. 93-112）. Muenchen,

Widodo, H.（2009）. Implementing collaborative exten-

Germany: Lincom.

sive reading in an EFL classroom. In A. Cirocki

Waring, R. & Takaki, M.（2003）. At what rate do learn-（Ed.）, Extensive reading in English language teaching（pp. 231-248）.Muenchen, Germany: Lincom.

ers learn and retain new vocabulary from readinga graded reader? Reading in a Foreign Language, 15

Yamashita, J.（ 2008 ）. Extensive reading and development of different aspects of L2 proficiency. System,（2）, 130-163.
Waring, R., & McLean, S.（2015）. Exploration of the36（2008）, 661-672. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2008.04.003

core and variable dimensions of extensive reading
research and pedagogy. Reading in a Foreign Language, 27（1）, 160-167.

― 120 ―

（受付日2016年８月18日

受理日2016年10月26日）