103

Changes in the Environment and User Preferences in Oze Wetland asa Mountain Tourist Destination and Response to Them
Kiyotatsu YAMAMOTO
Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
E-mail: kiyo@fr.a.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract
This paper takes Oze Wetland as a case study area known as a mountain tourist destination and outlines thecharacteristics of the natural environment of the Oze Wetland and the history of its use. It then clarifies how to
respond to shifts in user preferences. The history and environment of Oze reveal the geological value of Oze asa wetland facing a rapid decline in its wetland environment and has come to symbolize the nature conservation
movement in Japan. In addition to this, various efforts such as programs to educate visitors to carry their wastewith them have been developed as a response to changes in the natural ecosystem and changing user
preferences. In recent years grazing damage to vegetation and destruction of floor vegetation due to an increasein Japan’s sika deer population has become a serious issue and this paper examines the possibility of
establishing a fund to protect the wetland.
Key words: fund, nature conservation movement, Oze National Park, sika deer, user preference, wetland

1. Introduction
National Parks of Japan are designated as outstanding
natural scenic areas. Their beauty attracts many tourists,
resulting in problems such as the destruction of
ecosystems in water and land areas, and the deteriorationof visitors’ experience due to a sense of overcrowding andbad manners. For example, Kamikochi and Mt. Fuji,
which are located in national parks and considered“mountain tourist destinations,” have welcomed many
climbers. On the other hand, the environmental damage
caused by overuse was reported in newspapers and othermedia, becoming a social problem, and measures were
promptly taken. Kamikochi is a part of Chubu-Sangaku
National Park, where visitors can enjoy the magnificent
scenery of a series of steep mountains reaching up to
3,000 m. More than a million tourists visit Kamikochi
every year (the number decreased by about 70% in 2020
due to the COVID-19 pandemic). Historically, Kamikochi
introduced Japan’s first traffic restrictions for private carsin 1975 to cope with the rapid increase in private car
access (Kato, 2008). As another example, Mt. Fuji is thehighest mountain in Japan at 3,776 m asl and is located in
Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park. It receives not only
200,000 to 300,000 climbers to the summit annually, butalso more than 2 million tourists at the fifth station
Global Environmental Research
27/2023 103-110
printed in Japan

halfway up the mountain. The problem of garbage andhuman waste has been widely discussed, and a campaign
to encourage visitors to take their garbage home waslaunched earlier here than at most of Japan’s nationalparks. After being inscribed in the World Heritage List in
2013, succession of cultural traditions and visitor
management have become major issues. Thus, various
visitor management measures have been introduced in
mountain areas with large numbers of visitors in order toconserve resources.
The environment surrounding national parks haschanged dramatically in the 90 years since theestablishment of Japan’s national park system. One ofthese changes is a shift in user preferences. Park visitors
are switching from a “circular touring andsightseeing-type” use, in which they see and enjoy thenatural environment, to a “staying and experience-basedlearning-type” use, in which they stay in the parks for alonger period of time and enjoy experiencing nature.
Another is a shift in management methods from static todynamic, from artificial exclusion through regulation toadaptive management. In recent years, cooperation andcollaboration between the national government and local
communities managing national parks has also been
discussed (Ministry of the Environment, 2007, 2014). In
particular, the expansion of wildlife habitat poses a threat©2023 AIRIES104

K. YAMAMOTO

to the management of park resources. Furthermore, asJapan faces a shrinking population, there is a need toaddress issues such as a decrease in the number of people
assigned to resource management and a lack of financial
resources for park resource management.
As described above, mountain tourist areas, including
national parks, face many challenges closely related tohuman society, typified by climate change (Steiger et al.,2022) and a conflict between the need to generate
economic growth and the need to protect environmental
resources (UNWTO, 2018). To develop plans andstrategies for promoting environmental conservation andappropriate use, it will be necessary to adapt to dynamicchanges in the social environment, including shifts in user
preferences. This paper takes Oze Wetland as a case study
area which is also known as a mountain tourist destination,
as are the aforementioned Kamikochi and Mt. Fuji, andoutline the characteristics of the natural environment ofOze Wetland and the history of its use, and then clarify
how to respond to shifts in user preferences. As describedlater, Oze is the birthplace of Japan’s nature conservation
movement and has been taking a leading role such as the“take back your own garbage” program. Thus, the historyof the changes in the environment and the user
preferences in Oze Wetland could inform us on how weshould respond to natural and social changes.

Japonolirion osense Nakai (indigenous to Mt.
Shibutsusan) and popular flowering plants such as
Lysichiton camtschatcense Schott (Asian skunk cabbage;a plant that is almost symbolic of Oze) that blooms inJune, Hemerocallis middendorffii var. esculenta (daylily)
that blooms in early July, and several broad-leaved tree
species known for their fall colors (Natural Parks
Foundation, 2009).
A geographical characteristic of Oze is that thewetland is located in a comparatively high-altitude area ofHonshu Island, Japan and supports a large number ofnative species. The easy accessibility of Oze from Tokyo
means it is visited by large numbers of tourists throughout
the year. This in turn creates overuse pressure on alandscape that is an important habitat for rare species. The
most notable threats to the wetland, apart from tourism
related overuse (Nakajima, 1998) are: damage to plants
due to trampling, sewage problems, invasive species andovergrazing by sika deer (Cervus nippon) (Natural Parks
Foundation, 2009).

2. Geological Features of Oze Wetland
Due to the topography of the Japanese Islands,
low-lying lands are sparse and for this reason, marshes or
wetlands have been subjected to reclamation andcultivation from ancient times. Among the remaining
wetlands, Oze Wetland (Fig. 1) is among the largest, apartfrom those found on Hokkaido Island. A list of 20 large
wetlands of Japan reveals that most of the large wetland
areas are located in Hokkaido and the only entries fromoutside Hokkaido are Watarase (20 km2) and Oze. During
the Meiji (1868−1911) and Taisho (1912−1926) periods
the total area covered by wetlands in Japan was 2,111 km2
but that area had dwindled to only 821km2 by 1999
(Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, 2023). Due tothis rapid decline in the wetland environment,
conservation of Japan’s wetlands is of special value forconserving
thearchipelago’s
biodiversity
andgeomorphological diversity.
Within the area known as Oze, Ozegahara (literally,Oze plain) is the actual wetland (Fig. 2). It is the largest
high altitude wetland on Honshu Island and is flanked by
two peaks, the 2,356 m asl Mt. Hiuchigatake and 2,228 m
asl Mt. Shibutsusan. The mean elevation of the wetland is
1,400 m asl, and it has a total area of 7.6 km2 with aneast-west spread of 6 km and a north-south spread of 1 km
(Fukada, 1982). A large number of endangered and rarevegetation species inhabit this area. These include Nuphar
pumilum var. ozeense (Oze yellow pond-lily),Fig. 1Oze Wetland.

Shibusawa
Hot Spring

Miike

Sanjo-no-Taki Fall
Mt.
Hiuchigatake

Hiraname-no-Taki Fall
Akatashiro

Numayama
Pass

Ozegahara
Highland Marsh

Ohe
Highland Marsh

Ushikubi

Miharashi

Loop Trail

Lake
Ozenumai
OzenumaVisitor Center

Ryugu
i

Yamanohana
Visitor Center
Fujimi
Pass

Mt.
Shibutsu

SanpeiPasswetland

Hatomachi
Pass

1km
Fujimishita

Fig. 2

Oshimizu

Overall map of Oze Wetland.

NChanges in the environment and user preferences in Oze wetland

3. History and Changes in the Environment ofOze Wetland
3.1 Birthplace of Japan’s Nature Conservation
MovementOze National Park itself is relatively new (Tables 1 and
2). It came into existence in 2007 as the 29th national parkof Japan, when the area was separated from the Nikko
National Park. The hallmarks of this national park include
landscapes of exceptional beauty and high biodiversity.
However, Oze had played a major role in shaping thenature conservation movement in Japan for a long timeprior to its listing. It is also referred to as the “birthplaceof nature conservation movement in Japan” by many. Thisis because of the activities of the Oze Hozon Kisei Domei(Association for the Preservation of Oze) that began in1949 as a protest movement against a planned dam at thesite; this organization was the predecessor to the Nature
Conservation Society of Japan (NACS-J) which currently
spearheads nature conservation movements at the national
Table 1Chronological table of Oze Wetland.

105level (the NACS-J was born in 1951, after the Kisei
Domei was dissolved that year) (NACS-J, 1985). The
main objective of the Kisei Domei was to preserve thenatural environment of Oze from the threat of ahydroelectricity project. The issue of energy development
and the conservation of a landscape of outstanding beauty
became a highly contentious one, and along with similar
problems surrounding the development schemes of the
Kurobe and Kitakami river valleys, it reverberated incontemporary society and affected the politics of that time
(Tamura, 1954). Thus, the movement has a relatively longlegacy as a nature conservation scheme in Japan.
According to Hatakeyama (2001) the movement topreserve the Oze Wetland from being submerged in a dam
reservoir became a key connecting factor to the nature
conservation movements of post WWII Japan.
Hatakeyama points out that the nature conservation
movement took shape as a protest movement against thecomprehensive hydroelectricity development plan in thepost WWII period, and that the formation of the Kisei
Domei as an organization devoted to this cause was a key
feature in the history of nature conservation movements.
Murakushi (2005), on the other hand, points out the key
roles played by people such as Chozo Hirano who is often
credited as one of the pioneers of nature conservation in
Meiji Era Japan; several scholars, educators,

Era

Year

Related Events in Oze Wetland

Meiji

1868

Meiji Restoration

1868-1911

1889

Chozo Hirano becomes first settler in Oze

1895

Oze featured in a magazine (Taiyo)

1903

First Oze dam project made public

1912

Petition for establishment of Nikko Imperial Park
(including Oze) granted at Imperial Diet

Table 2Chronological table of Oze Wetland.

1914

Landscape plans for Hakone, Nikko and Onuma
proposed by Dr. Seiroku Honda

Era

Year

Related Events in Oze Wetland

Showa

1960

Petition for protection of landscapes around Ozenuma
pond submitted by Chozo Hut; 840 ha of forst
designated as forest reserve

1926-1988

Number of tourists using automobiles increases rapidly
in national park areas (1960s)

Taisho1912-1925

1920

Showa

1927

Power generation plan for Ozegahara highland marsh
comes to light1931

1926-1988-the end of 1934
the WWII

Showa
1926-1988

Nikko National Park office establishedOze designated a special natural monument

after 1960s
1962

Visitors to Nikko National Park (including Oze area)
exceed 10 million for the first time

National Park Act promulgated in Japan

1965

Setonaikai, Unzen, Kirishima, Akan, Daisetsuzan,
Nikko, Chubu-Sangaku and Aso designated firstnational parks in Japan

Council for Tourism Promotion in Oze and Oku-Tadami
created, 3 prefectures (Gunma, Niigata, Fukushima)
participate

1966

Committee for Nature Conservation in Oze
inaugurated in Gunma Prefecture Project for restoring
vegetation starts in Oze marsh (Ayamedaira)1935

Dam plan for Oze highland announced by Tokyo Dento(electric power company)

1938

Oze highland marsh designated as a strictly controlled
special conservation area within Nikko National Park1967

Oze conservation plan approved by the Ministry of
Welfare1939

Second World War (1939-1945)

1970

Plan for paved road for motorized access approved

1948

General development plan including a dam project
revealed (in Tokyo)

1971

Environment Agency established1949

NHK’s morning TV show series “Summer Memories”
televises and publicizes Oze
Oze March Conservation Union formed and public
interest in Oze rises
First Oze Scientific Project (1950-1952)
Nature Conservation Society of Japan (NACS-J)
established
Wooden walkway constructed in Oze marsh
One of 6 national park rangers assigned to Nikko
Yumoto. Oze designated a special protection zone
Oze designated a natural monument (national
designation)
National Park Act abolished and Natural Parks Act
promulgated
Oze Ringyo Corp. starts constructing wooden paths in
Oze marsh
First national parks congress held in Nikko

after WWII
1950
1951
1952
1953
1956
1957
1958
1959

NB: revised to Yamamoto (2017)

Chosei Hirano successfully petitions first Director
General of the Environment Agency to stop road
construction
Network for nature conservation in Oze established
1972

Campaign for visitors to take their garbage home
beginsOze Charter approved

1974

Private car restriction begins in Hatomachi andNumayama Pass access routes

1995

Oze Preservation Foundation established2005

Oze registered as a Ramsar Convention site

2007

Oze area separated from Nikko National Park andbrought into existence as Japan’s 29th national park

2008

Oze Certified Guides Association established2017

Fourth Oze Scientific Research Project (2017-2019)

NB: revised to Yamamoto (2017)
NB revised to Yamamoto (2017)

106

K. YAMAMOTO

mountaineers and publishers who followed Hirano;
enlightened bureaucrats from the internal affairs,
agriculture and forestry, and culture ministries; as well as
the contributions from national-park-related organizations,and the committee for ascribing historical and natural
landmarks, as key factors behind the success of the nature
conservation movement. According to Numata (1994) thefact that the Kisei Domei was a private organization was
key for nature conservation at that time to promote nature
conservation actions such as submission of requests fornature conservation to the national government. The
famous mountaineer and botanist of that generation,
Hisayoshi Takeda, mentioned that the Japanese Alpine
Club had also played a pivotal role in the formation of theconservation agenda in Oze (Ishikawa, 2001). There is
one point that ought to be mentioned, however, withregard to Numata (1994)’s claim: it is that the Kisei
Domei was not a completely private organization. The
contemporary Ministry of Education, Science, Sports andCulture and Ministry of Health and Welfare had two andthree representatives, respectively (NACS-J, 2002).
Because the Kisei Domei was related to the birth of
NACS-J, which became the main nature conservation
association in postwar Japan, Oze can be considered the“birthplace” of such activities (Hatakeyama, 2001;
Numata, 1994; Ishikawa, 2001). Based on this logic it isacceptable for us to recognize Oze as a pioneering placethat shaped the post WWII nature conservation movement
and its discourse.
3.2 Designation as a National Park
Although Oze is a highland marsh and the Japanese
Alpine Club played an important role in the conservationof this area; Oze does not have a particularly long historyof association with mountaineers. Furthermore, the region
was made accessible only after the famous alpinist andnature conservationist Chozo Hirano opened a mountainhut there in 1889. Oze does not have the long history ofpilgrimage visits of faith either, which puts the area incontrast with other popular destinations. It is also thoughtthat the area was virtually unknown before it was featured
in the magazine Taiyo (Sun) in 1895 (Kikuchi and Sudou,
1991). Oze became widely known only when thehydroelectricity development plan was formulated in
1903 and the struggle between the developers and thenature conservation activists was reported in thecontemporary media. On the other hand, Oze enjoyed aswift transformation as a national park. A petition for
designating the area (the Nikko area) was presented to theimperial parliament in 1912 (Bansho, 2013). This
indicates that the conservation values of Oze and Nikko
had been recognized at that point. The area was eventuallydesignated as a national park in 1934; following the Seto
Naikai, Unzen and Kirishima national parks along with
the Akan, Daisetsuzan, Chubu Sangaku, and Aso nationalparks.

3.3 Changes in the Environment and Use after WWII
In 1949, NHK aired a program on the area that led toa rapid rise in the popularity of Oze. This rise in its
popularity was reflected in the increase of visitor numbers
and the Ministry of Health and Welfare—the principalorgan behind national parks designation—also recognized
the value of Oze along with other major tourist
destinations such as Nikko, Fuji-Hakone and Seto Naikai(inland sea). This combination of various factors paved
the way for the recognition of Oze’s landscape within thebureaucracy.
Thus, it is important that we emphasize the events
that immediately preceded or followed the 1949
announcement of the hydroelectric dam project. In
February 1947, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry
passed a unilateral order to build the hydroelectric dam
without referring to the opinions of the relevant
ministerial organs such as the ministries of the interior,education, and health and welfare. This development
immediately met with opposition; at a meeting on 4 July
1949, opposing views were expressed centered around theopinion of Masayoshi Takeda at the Ministry of Education.
Tsuyoshi Tamura, the most influential figure behind thedesignation of Japan’s national parks, also weighed inwith his negative observations at the Ministry of Healthand Welfare. On 23 July 1949, a verbal pledge wassecured from the developers, who agreed not to disturb
the natural environment of Oze in return for access to thewater resources from the marsh. However, on 19 February1949 a proposal to build an 80 m tall dam that would havetransformed the entire wetland into a big reservoir cameto light; this implied that the developers never consideredthe verbal pledge as binding. The ministries of educationand health and welfare joined hands to stop the projectand started raising awareness about Oze through apamphlet entitled On the Scientific Value of the Oze
Wetland. On the other hand, the developers invited experts
from the US to implement a feasibility study regardinghydroelectric generation at Oze. The Kisei Domei wasborn at this juncture on 27 October 1949. The list of the
27 initial members included scientists, agricultural experts,
mountaineers, artists, photographers, and managers of the
Chozo Hut (set up by Chozo Hirano). The organization
subsequently grew and played a role in opposing thedevelopment project by raising signatures. In 1951, after
its immediate goal had been achieved; the Kisei Domei
was dissolved and NACS-J was born with a wider
mandate for nature conservation across Japan.
In the years that followed, the number of visitors to
Nikko National Park increased steadily. In 1952 theYamaguchi Forestry Office undertook a project toconstruct wooden walkways. However, some problems
remained, such as the contrast between the approaches ofFukushima and Gunma prefectures. Whereas in
Fukushima Prefecture there was an early effort to develop
trails for safeguarding plant colonies with Forestry

Changes in the environment and user preferences in Oze wetland

Agency funding because the land had been designated anational property, such efforts did not materialize inGunma Prefecture, where the land belonged to private
operatives, leading to problems of unregulated tramplingof plants by visitors (The Asahi Shimbun, 1957). This
indicates that at that initial stage, the planning andmanagement styles of the national and prefectural organs
were poorly coordinated and the management structure
was still at its infancy. In 1953, the first “ranger,” whowas one of six initial rangers assigned to national park
management that year, was stationed at Nikko Yumoto. Inthat same year Oze was designated a specially protectedarea within the national park. Nature conservation andmanagement efforts were further strengthened as Oze
became a natural monument in 1956, and a special naturalmonument, which has more stringent regulations, in 1960.
However during this period so many visitors flocked toOze that the modest mountain huts could not handle thepressure, and serious problems due to trampling andlittering of waste arose. This led to a clean-up drive,
which was another pioneering activity as far as managing
national parks is concerned.
From 1960, most visitors started traveling to Oze by
car and the Oze-Oku Tadami Tourism Association was
created in 1965 jointly by Fukushima, Gunma and Niigata
prefectures. Although this was an effort to promote
tourism and local development, the environmental
problems at Oze were also highlighted in this process. In
1965 the Committee for the Protection of Cultural
Properties began considering whether to restrict access tosome of the preserved area (The Asahi Shimbun, 1965).
The Ministry of Health and Welfare, which was in chargeof national park management, added that it would notallow cable car lines to be constructed at Oze, and astatement from that ministry proposed doubling the extent
of walkways to protect plant colonies (The Asahi
Shimbun, 1966). In 1966, a committee for conserving thewetland came into existence in Gunma Prefecture; thiscommittee highlighted the denudation of vegetation in the
Ayamedaira area, and began efforts for landscaperestoration.
In 1970, a second threat appeared: in response to therapidly growing tourist numbers a plan to construct a
roadway adjacent to the special protection zone wasmooted. In 1971 the director general of Environment
Agency, Buichi Oishi, conducted a spot survey anddemanded either the plan be scrapped or the road be
redirected to a different location (Hirano, 1972). This wasreported in the media and soon momentum for protectionof the natural environment built up across the country.
Finally, in August 1971 the road construction plan was
officially scrapped after a direct petition was submitted to
Oishi by the then Chozo Mountain Hut owner and nature
conservationist Chosei Hirano, and a signature campaign
against the project was held. In 1972, a program to
educate visitors to carry their waste out with them was

107

launched, and in the same year Gunma Prefecture
formulated the Oze Charter, a pledge to protect the area
(Oze Preservation Foundation, 2002). In 1974 car access
restriction was brought into effect in the Hatomachi andNumayama Pass areas (Furuya et al., 2001); this wasanother pioneering initiative at the national level. In thisway, several conservation initiatives were launched; but in
effect, the waste problem could not be remedied swiftlyand several years were required to gradually phase out thelitter bins. From the 1980s, water quality standards were
established, and in the years that followed restrictions on
using soap and shampoo were introduced in the mountainhuts (The Asahi Shimbun, 1983).
In 1988, efforts to address the problem of visitor
overuse began, and demands were soon made for swift
implementation of user restrictions and payment of accessfees. From this time, local administrative units also started
collaborating on management, and a collaborative
management framework came into existence. In 1988 theCommittee for Conservation of the Oze Area of Nikko
National Park was formed with participants from the
Bureau of the Environment, and Fukushima, Gunma andNiigata prefectures. In 1989 sensors to count visitors on
the trail were established. However, the proposed fee
collection scheme could not be implemented due toopposition from the Japan Workers’ Alpine Federation andlocal administrative bodies. In 1992 an ‘Oze Summit’ washeld at the Ozenuma Mountain Hut, and in 1995 the Oze
Preservation Foundation was launched (Oze Presevation
Foundation, 2002). In 1996 a total of 647,523 visits wererecorded in Oze, this was a record number (Oze
Presevation Foundation, 2023). At this point, the Oze
Preservation Foundation began performing surveys tograsp visitor impacts and control those by dispersing
visitors through schemes such as differentiating weekend
and weekday lodging costs, and implementing ‘no bathing’days, in coordination with the mountain huts.
3.4 Recent Environmental Changes and Responses
The annual number of visitors to Oze National Parkhas been steadily decreasing since 1996, when it reached
an all-time high of about 650,000. In particular, the
COVID-19 pandemic had such a severe impact that the
number of visitors in 2020−2021 fell to about 110,000,
threatening the mountain lodges’ operations.
The natural and social environmental changes at
Japan’s natural tourist attractions, including national parks,
are presented above in Section 1. In the Oze region, thefollowing six changes have also been considered:(1) depopulation and industrial decline due to Japan’s low
birthrate and aging society, (2) a shift away frommountain hiking due to changes in lifestyles,
diversification of leisure activities, and aging of users,(3) increases in the number of foreign tourists, (4) dryingof the wetlands, shrinking of areas of plant distribution
and changes in species composition due to climate change,

108

K. YAMAMOTO(5) grazing damage to vegetation and destruction of floor
vegetation due to the increased population of Japanesedeer, and (6) difficulty in securing funds for maintaining
the wooden trails due to the financial decline of thenational and local governments, and financial difficulties
in operating mountain lodges due to decreased numbers ofmountain climbers (Oze National Park Council, 2018). In
this way, the circumstances surrounding Oze have beenchanging drastically with decreased numbers of visitors incontrast with the overtourism occurring elsewhere in theworld (Dodds and Butler, 2019; Sharpley, 2020), and Oze
has come to be faced with new challenges.
In particular, the deer problem has become one of themost serious issues not only in Oze but throughout Japan.
As the deer population increases and its habitat changes
and expands, the damage is becoming more serious inmany areas. For example, the damage to agriculture andforestry in the eastern part of Hokkaido has been reported
to be 1.5 billion yen. In the Kushiro Marshland, thedensity of Yezo sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis)
increased rapidly in the five years from 2004, causing
them to form wallows in the meandering parts of rivers in
the wetland. In addition, the Yamanakatoge wetland in
mainland Japan has experienced a decline in Asian skunk
cabbage, which has been attributed to foraging anddigging by Japanese deer and wild boars. However, given
the difficulty of surveying the wetland, it is likely that
there is considerable unreported damage. On the other
hand, the Senjogahara moor is taking successful measuresagainst deer. Although the effectiveness of installing
anti-intrusion fences on public rivers and gratings onroads has been verified, the installation of a 900-hectare
fence alone has had a limited effect. There have also beenreports of vegetation recovery through additional
measures such as trapping, suggesting that comprehensive
measures are needed to protect the wetlands.
According to our postal questionnaire survey ofvisitors to Oze National Park in 2018, a certain percentageof visitors had witnessed the impacts of deer on thewetlands (Fig. 3), and the impacts were strongly
perceived as severe. They also strongly affirmed thescenic, recreational and ecological values of Oze,especially its cohesive and spectacular landscape. When
asked what areas they would like to have protected fromdeer impacts, the respondents were more likely to choose
large areas than specific localities. Therefore, maintaining
the integrity of the continuous wetland landscape of Oze
while preserving the natural environment was considered
an important issue. In terms of deer control measures, themajority of the respondents supported the construction of
fencing to prevent encroachment, and they placed thehighest importance on management measures that could
preserve the integrity of the continuous wetland landscapeof Oze. At the same time, the respondents were lesssupportive of passive conservation measures that would
allow some deer impacts, and were more supportive ofactive conservation measures overall (Fig. 4) (Yamamoto,2019).
However, the cost of installing and maintaining
fences on a large scale to protect wide areas of thewetlands is expected to be substantial. Raising funds for
active deer management would also be a challenge.
Therefore, a survey was conducted in 2019 to assess theneed for and willingness to pay for an environmental
conservation fund. There were 461 respondents to thesurvey, with 95% in favor of establishing anenvironmental conservation fund and only 5% opposed.
The ratio of willingness to pay, by amount, was 96% for
300 yen, 90% for 500 yen, 74% for 1,000 yen, 37% for
2,000 yen, and 17% for 5,000 yen, from which we derived
a willingness to pay curve as a theoretical value (Fig. 5).
Compared with other national parks, the medianwillingness to pay of 1,439 yen in Oze National Park ishigher than the 723−781 yen in the Aso area of Aso-Kuju
National Park, 756−770 yen in the Toba-Shima area of
Ise-Shima National Park, and 601 yen in the Okunikko
area of Nikko National Park, indicating that the value of
the Oze Wetland is highly evaluated. In the 2018 survey,
Oze was regarded as having value not only for its
magnificent
landscapeandoutdoorrecreation
opportunities but also for its rare wetland environment
and indigenous plants and animals, and this awarenesswas thought to contribute to the greater willingness to pay.
Additionally, as to the method of collecting money,
charging as much as possible from all visitors was
supported by 76% of the respondents, followed by0
wild Japanese deer

respondent
200
300

100
15

footprints of Japanese deer

41

wallowing place of Japanese deer

34

none
(N=335)200

others29

no responese

16

Fig. 3 Observations of the impact of Japanese deer by Oze
Wetland visitors.
0100

extermination with guns

200

respondent
300

128

deer-proof fencing（small size）

110

anti-intrusion fence（big size）

154

grating for prevention of seasonal migration149

to allow limited deer impact

55

no countermeasure1

no idea0

the others

4

no response

9(N=335, multi-answer)

Fig. 4 Countermeasures expected by visitors for Oze Wetland
conservation.

Changes in the environment and user preferences in Oze wetland
2019, Aso
(Autumn, N=381)

Probabilityof YES

2020, Aso
(Autumn, N=452)

Probabilityof YES

300 yen：0.90

300 yen：0.89

500 yen：0.74

500 yen：0.71
Median= 723 yen

Median= 781 yen

1,000 yen：0.32

1,000 yen：0.36

2,000 yen：0.08

2,000 yen：0.10

yen2019, Shima & Toba
(Autumn, N=385)

Probabilityof YESyen
Probabilityof YES

2020, Shima & Toba
(Autumn, N=406)

109
2020, Okunikko(Autumn, N=991)

Probabilityof YES
Yes確率

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

300 yen：0.79
500 yen:0.59
Median= 601 yen
1,000 yen：0.27
2,000 yen：0.08

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500
yen

Probabilityof YES

2019, Oze (Autumn)(N=421)300 yen：0.97

300 yen：0.87

300 yen：0.87
500 yen：0.93

500円：0.70

500 yen：0.70

Median= 756 yen

1,000 yen：0.70

Median= 770 yen
Median= 1439 yen

1,000 yen：0.36

1,000 yen：0.37

2,000 yen：0.12

2,000 yen：0.13

yenFig. 52,000 yen：0.29

yen

yen

Visitors’ willingness to pay for nature conservation in four national parks in 2019 and 2020.

providing discounts for children, the elderly and thedisabled at 31%. The most common response to thedesired use of the fund was the preservation andrestoration of natural landscapes such as the wetlands(86%), followed by removal of trash and human waste(75%). In summary, the majority of Oze National Park
visitors were positive about establishing a fund forenvironmental conservation and would accept acontribution of up to about 500 yen. They also expectedthat the visitors as a whole would bear the contribution toand support for the fund system and its use for theconservation and restoration of the wetland (Yamashima
et al., 2021).

Acknowledgement

4. Conclusion

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Edition, June 9. (in Japanese)
The Asahi Shimbun (1965) Oze ni Hogoku (A project to establish a
new protected area in Oze) The Asahi Shimbun, Morning Edition,
August 5. (in Japanese)
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Shimbun, Evening Edition, June 23. (in Japanese)
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This paper takes Oze Wetland as a case study,
outlines the features of its natural environment and thehistory of its use, and clarifies how it has responded toshifts in user preferences. In addition to that, Oze Wetland
has a unique history as the birthplace of the nature
conservation movement in Japan. Various efforts havebeen developed in response to changes in the natural
ecosystem and changing user preferences. Oze Wetland isa symbol of the nature conservation movement among
Japan’s national parks. The discussions and efforts in theregion are considered to be at the forefront of Japan’senvironmental efforts, and the sharing of experience there
will provide inspiration to other national parks.

This study is part of the results of my participation in
the “National Park Appropriate Use Promotion Project”
commissioned by the Ministry of the Environment to theOze Preservation Foundation in the 2000s, the 4th Oze
Scientific Research Project in 2018−2019, and a survey
funded by the Environment Research and Technology
Development Fund (Assignment No. 4-1906) from 2019
to 2021. I would like to express my gratitude to all parties
involved for their understanding and cooperation.
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Kiyotatsu YAMAMOTO
Kiyotatsu Yamamoto is currently an associate
professor at the University of Tokyo in LandscapePlanning and Tourism. He also works part-time asa senior researcher at the National Museum of
Ethnology, in Osaka, Japan. He completed
research for his PhD at the University of Tokyo,
where he specialized in forest landscape planning and design. He has
conducted special research in planning and management in national parks
and protected areas, behavioral psychology of tourists, and eco-based
disaster risk reduction, and is interested in teaching these subjects. Since
the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami on 11 March 2011, he has
been tackling reconstruction with the aim of creating communities,
conserving regional resources and promoting tourism along the coasts of
Iwate and Aomori prefectures.

(Received 28 June 2023, Accepted 13 October 2023)