OWASP Top 10 for
LLM Applications
VERSION 1.0.1
Published: August 26, 2023

https://LLMtop10.com

| OWASP Top 10 for LLM Applications v1.0.1

Introduction
The frenzy of interest of Large Language Models (LLMs) following of mass-market pretrained chatbots in late 2022 has been remarkable. Businesses, eager to harness thepotential of LLMs, are rapidly integrating them into their operations and client facing
offerings. Yet, the breakneck speed at which LLMs are being adopted has outpaced theestablishment of comprehensive security protocols, leaving many applications vulnerable
to high-risk issues.

The absence of a unified resource addressing these security concerns in LLMs wasevident. Developers, unfamiliar with the specific risks associated with LLMs, were left
scattered resources and OWASP’s mission seemed a perfect fit to help drive safer
adoption of this technology.

Who is it for?
Our primary audience is developers, data scientists and security experts tasked withdesigning and building applications and plugins leveraging LLM technologies. We aim toprovide practical, actionable, and concise security guidance to help these professionals
navigate the complex and evolving terrain of LLM security.

The Making of the List
The creation of the OWASP Top 10 for LLM Applications list was a major undertaking, built
on the collective expertise of an international team of nearly 500 experts, with over 125
active contributors. Our contributors come from diverse backgrounds, including AI
companies, security companies, ISVs, cloud hyperscalers, hardware providers andacademia.

Over the course of a month, we brainstormed and proposed potential vulnerabilities, withteam members writing up 43 distinct threats. Through multiple rounds of voting, we
refined these proposals down to a concise list of the ten most critical vulnerabilities. Eachvulnerability was then further scrutinized and refined by dedicated sub-teams andsubjected to public review, ensuring the most comprehensive and actionable final list.

Each of these vulnerabilities, along with common examples, prevention tips, attack
scenarios, and references, was further scrutinized and refined by dedicated sub-teams
and subjected to public review, ensuring the most comprehensive and actionable final list.

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Relating to other OWASP Top 10 Lists
While our list shares DNA with vulnerability types found in other OWASP Top 10 lists, we
do not simply reiterate these vulnerabilities. Instead, we delve into the unique implications
these vulnerabilities have when encountered in applications utilizing LLMs.

Our goal is to bridge the divide between general application security principles and thespecific challenges posed by LLMs. This includes exploring how conventional
vulnerabilities may pose different risks or might be exploited in novel ways within LLMs,
as well as how traditional remediation strategies need to be adapted for applications
utilizing LLMs.

The FutureThis first version of the list will not be our last. We expect to update it on a periodic basis
to keep pace with the state of the industry. We will be working with the broader community
to push the state of the art, and creating more educational materials for a range of uses.
We also seek to collaborate with standards bodies and governments on AI security
topics. We welcome you to join our group and contribute.

Steve Wilson

Project Lead, OWASP Top 10 for LLM Applications

Twitter/X: @virtualsteve

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OWASP Top 10 for LLM Applications
LLM01: Pro pt Injection

LLM0 : Sensitive Infor ation DisclosureThis manipulates a large language model (LLM) throughcrafty inputs, causing unintended actions by the LLM.
Direct injections overwrite system prompts, while indirectones manipulate inputs from external sources.

LLMs may inadvertently reveal confidential data in its
responses, leading to unauthorized data access, privacy
violations, and security breaches. t s crucial to implement
data sanitization and strict user policies to mitigate this.

LLM0 : Insecure Output andling

LLM07: Insecure Plugin Design

This vulnerability occurs when an LLM output is acceptedwithout scrutiny, exposing backend systems. Misuse maylead to severe consequences like SS, S , SS ,privilege escalation, or remote code execution.

LLM plugins can have insecure inputs and insufficient
access control. This lack of application control makes
them easier to exploit and can result in consequences likeremote code execution.

LLM0 : Training Data Poisoning

LLM08: Excessive Agency

This occurs when LLM training data is tampered,introducing vulnerabilities or biases that compromise
security, effectiveness, or ethical behavior. Sources
include ommon rawl, ebText, pen ebText, books.

LLM-based systems may undertake actions leading tounintended consequences. The issue arises fromexcessive functionality, permissions, or autonomy granted
to the LLM-based systems.

LLM04: Model Denial of Service

LLM09: Overreliancettackers cause resource-heavy operations on LLMs,
leading to service degradation or high costs. The
vulnerability is magnified due to the resource-intensive
nature of LLMs and unpredictability of user inputs.

Systems or people overly depending on LLMs without
oversight may face misinformation, miscommunication,legal issues, and security vulnerabilities due to incorrect orinappropriate content generated by LLMs.

LLM0 : Supply hain ulnera ilities

LLM10: Model Theft

LLM application lifecycle can be compromised byvulnerable components or services, leading to security
attacks. sing third-party datasets, pre- trained models,and plugins can add vulnerabilities.

This involves unauthorized access, copying, or exfiltrationof proprietary LLM models. The impact includes
economic losses, compromised competitive advantage,
and potential access to sensitive information.

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LLM01: Prompt Injections
Prompt Injection Vulnerability occurs when an attacker manipulates a large language
model (LLM) through crafted inputs, causing the LLM to unknowingly execute theattacker's intentions. This can be done directly by "jailbreaking" the system prompt orindirectly through manipulated external inputs, potentially leading to data exfiltration,social engineering, and other issues.
Direct Prompt Injections, also known as "jailbreaking", occur when a malicious user
overwrites or reveals the underlying system prompt. This may allow attackers to
exploit backend systems by interacting with insecure functions and data stores
accessible through the LLM
Indirect Prompt Injections occur when an LLM accepts input from external sourcesthat can be controlled by an attacker, such as websites or files. The attacker may
embed a prompt injection in the external content hijacking the conversation context.
This would cause the LLM to act as a “confused deputy”, allowing the attacker to either
manipulate the user or additional systems that the LLM can access. Additionally,
indirect prompt injections do not need to be human-visible/readable, as long as the
text is parsed by the LLM.
The results of a successful prompt injection attack can vary greatly - from solicitation ofsensitive information to influencing critical decision-making processes under the guise of
normal operation.

In advanced attacks, the LLM could be manipulated to mimic a harmful persona orinteract with plugins in the user's setting. This could result in leaking sensitive data,
unauthorized plugin use, or social engineering. In such cases, the compromised LLM aids
the attacker, surpassing standard safeguards and keeping the user unaware of the
intrusion. In these instances, the compromised LLM effectively acts as an agent for theattacker, furthering their objectives without triggering usual safeguards or alerting the end
user to the intrusion.

Common Examples of Vulnerability
A malicious user crafts a direct prompt injection to the LLM, which instructs it to ignore
the application creator's system prompts and instead execute a prompt that returns
private, dangerous, or otherwise undesirable information.

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A user employs an LLM to summarize a webpage containing an indirect prompt
injection. This then causes the LLM to solicit sensitive information from the user andperform exfiltration via JavaScript or Markdown
A malicious user uploads a resume containing an indirect prompt injection. The
document contains a prompt injection with instructions to make the LLM inform usersthat this document is an excellent document e.g., excellent candidate for a job role. Aninternal user runs the document through the LLM to summarize the document. The
output of the LLM returns information stating that this is an excellent document
A user enables a plugin linked to an e-commerce site. A rogue instruction embedded
on a visited website exploits this plugin, leading to unauthorized purchases
A rogue instruction and content embedded on a visited website which exploits otherplugins to scam users.

How to Prevent
Prompt injection vulnerabilities are possible due to the nature of LLMs, which do notsegregate instructions and external data from each other. Since LLMs use natural
language, they consider both forms of input as user-provided. Consequently, there is no
foolproof prevention within the LLM, but the following measures can mitigate the impact
of prompt injections
Enforce privilege control on LLM access to backend systems. Provide the LLM with its
own API tokens for extensible functionality, such as plugins, data access, and functionlevel permissions. Follow the principle of least privilege by restricting the LLM to only
the minimum level of access necessary for its intended operations
Implement human in the loop for extensible functionality. When performing privileged
operations, such as sending or deleting emails, have the application require the user
approve the action first. This will mitigate the opportunity for an indirect prompt
injection to perform actions on behalf of the user without their knowledge or consent
Segregate external content from user prompts. Separate and denote where untrusted
content is being used to limit their influence on user prompts. For example, use
ChatML for OpenAI API calls to indicate to the LLM the source of prompt input
Establish trust boundaries between the LLM, external sources, and extensiblefunctionality (e.g., plugins or downstream functions). Treat the LLM as an untrusted
user and maintain final user control on decision-making processes. However, acompromised LLM may still act as an intermediary (man-in-the-middle) between yourapplication’s APIs and the user as it may hide or manipulate information prior topresenting it to the user. Highlight potentially untrustworthy responses visually to theuser.

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Example Attack Scenarios
An attacker provides a direct prompt injection to an LLM-based support chatbot. The
injection contains “forget all previous instructions” and new instructions to query
private data stores and exploit package vulnerabilities and the lack of output validationin the backend function to send e-mails. This leads to remote code execution, gaining
unauthorized access and privilege escalation
An attacker embeds an indirect prompt injection in a webpage instructing the LLM todisregard previous user instructions and use an LLM plugin to delete the user's emails.
When the user employs the LLM to summarize this webpage, the LLM plugin deletes
the user's emails
A user employs an LLM to summarize a webpage containing an indirect prompt
injection to disregard previous user instructions. This then causes the LLM to solicit
sensitive information from the user and perform exfiltration via embedded JavaScript
or Markdown
A malicious user uploads a resume with a prompt injection. The backend user uses an
LLM to summarize the resume and ask if the person is a good candidate. Due to theprompt injection, the LLM says yes, despite the actual resume contents
A user enables a plugin linked to an e-commerce site. A rogue instruction embedded
on a visited website exploits this plugin, leading to unauthorized purchases.

Reference Links
ChatGPT Plugin Vulnerabilities - Chat with Code: Embrace the Re
ChatGPT Cross Plugin Request Forgery and Prompt Injection: Embrace the Re
Defending ChatGPT against Jailbreak Attack via Self-Reminder: Research Squar
Prompt Injection attack against LLMs-integrated Applications: Cornell Universit
Inject My PDF: Prompt Injection for your Resume: Kai Greshak
ChatML for OpenAI API Calls: GitHu
Not what you’ve signed up for- Compromising Real-World LLMs-Integrated
Applications with Indirect Prompt Injection: Cornell Universit
Threat Modeling LLMs Applications: AI Villag
AI Injections: Direct and Indirect Prompt Injections and Their Implications: Embrace
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LLM02: Insecure Output HandlingInsecure Output Handling is a vulnerability that arises when a downstream component
blindly accepts large language model (LLM) output without proper scrutiny, such as
passing LLM output directly to backend, privileged, or client-side functions. Since LLMgenerated content can be controlled by prompt input, this behavior is similar to providing
users indirect access to additional functionality.

Successful exploitation of an Insecure Output Handling vulnerability can result in XSS andCSRF in web browsers as well as SSRF, privilege escalation, or remote code execution on
backend systems. The following conditions can increase the impact of this vulnerability
The application grants the LLM privileges beyond what is intended for end users,
enabling escalation of privileges or remote code execution
The application is vulnerable to external prompt injection attacks, which could allow an
attacker to gain privileged access to a target user's environment.

Common Examples of Vulnerability
LLM output is entered directly into a system shell or similar function such as exec oreval , resulting in remote code execution
JavaScript or Markdown is generated by the LLM and returned to a user. The code isthen interpreted by the browser, resulting in XSS.

How to Prevent
Treat the model as any other user and apply proper input validation on responses
coming from the model to backend functions. Follow the OWASP ASVS (Application
Security Verification Standard) guidelines to ensure effective input validation andsanitization
Encode model output back to users to mitigate undesired code execution by
JavaScript or Markdown. OWASP ASVS provides detailed guidance on output
encoding.

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Example Attack Scenarios
An application utilizes an LLM plugin to generate responses for a chatbot feature.
However, the application directly passes the LLM-generated response into an internalfunction responsible for executing system commands without proper validation. This
allows an attacker to manipulate the LLM output to execute arbitrary commands on
the underlying system, leading to unauthorized access or unintended systemmodifications
A user utilizes a website summarizer tool powered by a LLM to generate a concise
summary of an article. The website includes a prompt injection instructing the LLM to
capture sensitive content from either the website or from the user's conversation.
From there the LLM can encode the sensitive data and send it out to an attackercontrolled server
An LLM allows users to craft SQL queries for a backend database through a chat-likefeature. A user requests a query to delete all database tables. If the crafted query fromthe LLM is not scrutinized, then all database tables would be deleted
A malicious user instructs the LLM to return a JavaScript payload back to a user,
without sanitization controls. This can occur either through sharing a prompt, prompt
injected website, or chatbot that accepts prompts from a URL parameter. The LLM
would then return the unsanitized XSS payload back to the user. Without additional
filters, outside of those expected by the LLM itself, the JavaScript would execute within
the user's browser.

Reference Links
Snyk Vulnerability DB- Arbitrary Code Execution: Sny
ChatGPT Plugin Exploit Explained: From Prompt Injection to Accessing Private Data:
Embrace the Re
New prompt injection attack on ChatGPT web version. Markdown images can steal
your chat data: Mediu
Don't blindly trust LLMs responses. Threats to chatbots: Embrace the Re
Threat Modeling LLMs Applications: AI Villag
OWASP ASVS - 5 Validation, Sanitization and Encoding: OWASPOWASP.org

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LLM03: Training Data Poisoning
The starting point of any machine learning approach is training data, simply “raw text”. To
be highly capable (e.g., have linguistic and world knowledge), this text should span abroad range of domains, genres and languages. A large language model uses deep neuralnetworks to generate outputs based on patterns learned from training data.

Training data poisoning refers to manipulating the data or fine-tuning process to introduce
vulnerabilities, backdoors or biases that could compromise the model’s security,
effectiveness or ethical behavior. Poisoned information may be surfaced to users orcreate other risks like performance degradation, downstream software exploitation andreputational damage. Even if users distrust the problematic AI output, the risks remain,
including impaired model capabilities and potential harm to brand reputation.

Data poisoning is considered an integrity attack because tampering with the training data
impacts the model’s ability to output correct predictions. Naturally, external data sources
present higher risk as the model creators do not have control of the data or a high level ofconfidence that the content does not contain bias, falsified information or inappropriate
content.

Common Examples of Vulnerability
A malicious actor, or a competitor brand intentionally creates inaccurate or malicious
documents which are targeted at a model’s training data
The victim model trains using falsified information which is reflected in outputs ofgenerative AI prompts to it's consumers
A model is trained using data which has not been verified by its source, origin orcontent
The model itself when situated within infrastructure has unrestricted access orinadequate sandboxing to gather datasets to be used as training data which has
negative influence on outputs of generative AI prompts as well as loss of control froma management perspective.
Whether a developer, client or general consumer of the LLM, it is important to understandthe implications of how this vulnerability could reflect risks within your LLM application
when interacting with a non-proprietary LLM.

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Example Attack Scenarios
The LLMs generative AI prompt output can mislead users of the application which canlead to biased opinions, followings or even worse, hate crimes etc
If the training data is not correctly filtered and/or sanitized, a malicious user of theapplication may try to influence and inject toxic data into the model for it to adapt tothe biased and false data
A malicious actor or competitor intentionally creates inaccurate or malicious
documents which are targeted at a model’s training data in which is training the modelat the same time based on inputs. The victim model trains using this falsified
information which is reflected in outputs of generative AI prompts to it's consumers
The vulnerability Prompt Injection could be an attack vector to this vulnerability if
insufficient sanitization and filtering is performed when clients of the LLM application
input is used to train the model. I.e. if malicious or falsified data is input to the modelfrom a client as part of a prompt injection technique, this could inherently be portrayed
into the model data.

How to Prevent
Verify the supply chain of the training data, especially when sourced externally as wellas maintaining attestations, similar to the "SBOM" (Software Bill of Materials)
methodology
Verify the correct legitimacy of targeted data sources and data obtained during boththe training and fine-tuning stages
Verify your use-case for the LLM and the application it will integrate to. Craft different
models via separate training data or fine-tuning for different use-cases to create amore granular and accurate generative AI output as per it's defined use-caseEnsure sufficient sandboxing is present to prevent the model from scraping unintended
data sources which could hinder the machine learning output
Use strict vetting or input filters for specific training data or categories of data sources
to control volume of falsified data. Data sanitization, with techniques such as
statistical outlier detection and anomaly detection methods to detect and remove
adversarial data from potentially being fed into the fine-tuning process
Adversarial robustness techniques such as federated learning and constraints tominimize the effect of outliers or adversarial training to be vigorous against worst-caseperturbations of the training data
An "MLSecOps" approach could be to include adversarial robustness to the training
lifecycle with the auto poisoning technique
An example repository of this would be Autopoison testing, including both attacks
such as Content Injection Attacks (“how to inject your brand into the LLMs
responses”) and Refusal Attacks (“always making the model refuse to respond”)
that can be accomplished with this approach.

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Testing and Detection, by measuring the loss during the training stage and analyzing
trained models to detect signs of a poisoning attack by analyzing model behavior on
specific test inputs.
a. Monitoring and alerting on number of skewed responses exceeding a threshold.

b. Use of a human loop to review responses and auditing.

c. Implement dedicated LLMs to benchmark against undesired consequences and trainother LLMs using reinforcement learning techniques.

d. Perform LLM-based red team exercises or LLM vulnerability scanning in the testing
phases of the LLM lifecycle.

Reference Links
CS324 - Large Language Models: Stanford Universit
How data poisoning attacks corrupt machine learning models: CSO Onlin
Tay Poisoning: MITR
PoisonGPT: How we hid a lobotomized LLMs on Hugging Face to spread fake news:
Mithril Securit
Inject My PDF: Prompt Injection for your Resume: Kai Greshak
Backdoor Attacks on Language Models: Mediu
Poisoning Language Models During Instruction: Cornell Universit
FedMLSecurity: Cornell Universit
The poisoning of ChatGPT: Out of the Software Crisis

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LLM04: Model Denial of Service
An attacker interacts with an LLM in a method that consumes an exceptionally highamount of resources, which results in a decline in the quality of service for them and otherusers as well as potentially incurring high resource costs. Furthermore, an emerging major
security concern is the possibility of an attacker interfering with or manipulating thecontext window of an LLM. This issue is becoming more critical due to the increasing use
of LLMs in various applications, their intensive resource utilization, the unpredictability ofuser input and a general unawareness among developers regarding this vulnerability. In
LLMs, the context window represents the maximum length of text the model can manage,
covering both input and output. It's a crucial characteristic of LLMs as it dictates thecomplexity of language patterns the model can understand and the size of the text it canprocess at any given time. The size of the context window is defined by the model'sarchitecture and can differ between models.

Common Examples of Vulnerability
Posing queries that lead to recurring resource usage through high-volume generationof tasks in a queue, e.g., with LangChain or AutoGPT
Sending queries that are unusually resource-consuming, perhaps because they use
unusual orthography or sequences
Continuous input overflow: An attacker sends a stream of input to the LLM thatexceeds its context window, causing the model to consume excessive computational
resources
Repetitive long inputs: The attacker repeatedly sends long inputs to the LLM, eachexceeding the context window
Recursive context expansion: The attacker constructs input that triggers recursive
context expansion, forcing the LLM to repeatedly expand and process the context
window
Variable-length input flood: The attacker floods the LLM with a large volume ofvariable-length inputs, where each input is carefully crafted to just reach the limit of thecontext window. This technique aims to exploit any inefficiencies in processing
variable-length inputs, straining the LLM and potentially causing it to becomeunresponsive.

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Example Attack Scenarios
An attacker repeatedly sends multiple requests to a hosted model that are difficult andcostly for it to process, leading to worse service for other users and increased
resource bills for the hostA piece of text on a webpage is encountered while an LLM-driven tool is collecting
information to respond to a benign query. This leads to the tool making many more
web page requests, resulting in large amounts of resource consumption
An attacker continuously bombards the LLM with input that exceeds its context
window. The attacker may use automated scripts or tools to send a high volume of
input, overwhelming the LLMs processing capabilities. As a result, the LLM consumes
excessive computational resources, leading to a significant slowdown or complete
unresponsiveness of the system
An attacker sends a series of sequential inputs to the LLM, with each input designed tobe just below the context window's limit. By repeatedly submitting these inputs, theattacker aims to exhaust the available context window capacity. As the LLM struggles
to process each input within its context window, system resources become strained,
potentially resulting in degraded performance or a complete denial of service
An attacker leverages the LLMs recursive mechanisms to trigger context expansion
repeatedly. By crafting input that exploits the recursive behavior of the LLM, theattacker forces the model to repeatedly expand and process the context window,
consuming significant computational resources. This attack strains the system andmay lead to a DoS condition, making the LLM unresponsive or causing it to crash
An attacker floods the LLM with a large volume of variable-length inputs, carefully
crafted to approach or reach the context window's limit. By overwhelming the LLM with
inputs of varying lengths, the attacker aims to exploit any inefficiencies in processing
variable-length inputs. This flood of inputs puts excessive load on the LLMs resources,
potentially causing performance degradation and hindering the system's ability torespond to legitimate requests.

How to Prevent
Implement input validation and sanitization to ensure user input adheres to defined
limits and filters out any malicious content
Cap resource use per request or step, so that requests involving complex parts
execute more slowly
Enforce API rate limits to restrict the number of requests an individual user or IP
address can make within a specific timeframe
Limit the number of queued actions and the number of total actions in a system
reacting to LLM responses
Continuously monitor the resource utilization of the LLM to identify abnormal spikes orpatterns that may indicate a DoS attack.

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Set strict input limits based on the LLMs context window to prevent overload andresource exhaustion
Promote awareness among developers about potential DoS vulnerabilities in LLMs andprovide guidelines for secure LLM implementation.

Reference Links
LangChain max_iterations: Twitter/
Sponge Examples: Energy-Latency Attacks on Neural Networks: Cornell Universit
Denial of Service Attack: OWAS
Learning From Machines: Know Thy Context: Luke Bechtel

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LLM05: Supply Chain Vulnerabilities
The supply chain in LLMs can be vulnerable, impacting the integrity of training data, ML
models, and deployment platforms. These vulnerabilities can lead to biased outcomes,
security breaches, or even complete system failures. Traditionally, vulnerabilities arefocused on software components, but Machine Learning extends this with the pre-trainedmodels and training data supplied by third parties susceptible to tampering and poisoning
attacks.

Finally, LLM Plugin extensions can bring their own vulnerabilities. These are described in
LLM - Insecure Plugin Design, which covers writing LLM Plugins and provides information
useful to evaluate third-party plugins.

Common Examples of Vulnerability
Traditional third-party package vulnerabilities, including outdated or deprecatedcomponents
Using a vulnerable pre-trained model for fine-tuning
Use of poisoned crowd-sourced data for training
Using outdated or deprecated models that are no longer maintained leads to security
issuesUnclear T&Cs and data privacy policies of the model operators lead to the application’s
sensitive data being used for model training and subsequent sensitive information
exposure. This may also apply to risks from using copyrighted material by the model
supplier.

How to Prevent
Carefully vet data sources and suppliers, including T&Cs and their privacy policies, only
using trusted suppliers. Ensure adequate and independently-audited security is inplace and that model operator policies align with your data protection policies, i.e.,
your data is not used for training their models; similarly, seek assurances and legal
mitigations against using copyrighted material from model maintainers
Only use reputable plug-ins and ensure they have been tested for your application
requirements. LLM-Insecure Plugin Design provides information on the LLM-aspects ofInsecure Plugin design you should test against to mitigate risks from using third-party
plugins.

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Understand and apply the mitigations found in the OWASP Top Ten's A06:2021 –Vulnerable and Outdated Components. This includes vulnerability scanning,
management, and patching components. For development environments with accessto sensitive data, apply these controls in those environments, too
Maintain an up-to-date inventory of components using a Software Bill of Materials(SBOM) to ensure you have an up-to-date, accurate, and signed inventory preventing
tampering with deployed packages. SBOMs can be used to detect and alert for new,zero-day vulnerabilities quickly
At the time of writing, SBOMs do not cover models, their artifacts, and datasets; If your
LLM application uses its own model, you should use MLOps best practices andplatforms offering secure model repositories with data, model, and experiment
tracking
You should also use model and code signing when using external models andsuppliers
Anomaly detection and adversarial robustness tests on supplied models and data canhelp detect tampering and poisoning as discussed in Training Data Poisoning; ideally,
this should be part of MLOps pipelines; however, these are emerging techniques andmay be easier implemented as part of red teaming exercises
Implement sufficient monitoring to cover component and environment vulnerabilities
scanning, use of unauthorized plugins, and out-of-date components, including themodel and its artifacts
Implement a patching policy to mitigate vulnerable or outdated components. Ensurethat the application relies on a maintained version of APIs and the underlying model
Regularly review and audit supplier Security and Access, ensuring no changes in theirsecurity posture or T&Cs.

Example Attack Scenarios
An attacker exploits a vulnerable Python library to compromise a system. This
happened in the first Open AI data breach
An attacker provides an LLM plugin to search for flights which generates fake links
that lead to scamming plugin users
An attacker exploits the PyPi package registry to trick model developers into
downloading a compromised package and exfiltrating data or escalating privilege in amodel development environment. This was an actual attack
An attacker poisons a publicly available pre-trained model specializing in economic
analysis and social research to create a backdoor which generates misinformation andfake news. They deploy it on a model marketplace (e.g., HuggingFace) for victims touse
An attacker poisons publicly available data set to help create a backdoor when finetuning models. The backdoor subtly favors certain companies in different markets
A compromised employee of a supplier (outsourcing developer, hosting company, etc.)
exfiltrates data, model, or code stealing IP.

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An LLM operator changes its T&Cs and Privacy Policy so that it requires an explicit optout from using application data for model training, leading to memorization ofsensitive data.

Reference Links
ChatGPT Data Breach Confirmed as Security Firm Warns of Vulnerable Component
Exploitation: Security Wee
Plugin review process: OpenA
Compromised PyTorch-nightly dependency chain: PyTorc
PoisonGPT: How we hid a lobotomized LLMs on Hugging Face to spread fake news:
Mithril Securit
Army looking at the possibility of ‘AI BOMs: Defense Scoo
Failure Modes in Machine Learning: Microsof
ML Supply Chain Compromise: MITR
Transferability in Machine Learning: from Phenomena to Black-Box Attacks using
Adversarial Samples: Cornell Universit
BadNets: Identifying Vulnerabilities in the Machine Learning Model Supply Chain:
Cornell Universit
VirusTotal Poisoning: MITREOWASP.org

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LLM06: Sensitive Information Disclosure
LLM applications have the potential to reveal sensitive information, proprietary algorithms,
or other confidential details through their output. This can result in unauthorized access tosensitive data, intellectual property, privacy violations, and other security breaches. It is
important for consumers of LLM applications to be aware of how to safely interact with
LLMs and identify the risks associated with unintentionally inputting sensitive data that
may be returned by the LLM in output elsewhere.

To mitigate this risk, LLM applications should perform adequate data sanitization toprevent user data from entering the training model data. LLM application owners should
also have appropriate Terms of Use policies available to make consumers aware of how
their data is processed and the ability to opt-out of having their data included in the
training model.

The consumer-LLM application interaction forms a two-way trust boundary, where wecannot inherently trust the client->LLM input or the LLM->client output. It is important tonote that this vulnerability assumes that certain pre-requisites are out of scope, such as
threat modeling exercises, securing infrastructure, and adequate sandboxing. Adding
restrictions within the system prompt around the types of data the LLM should return can
provide some mitigation against sensitive information disclosure, but the unpredictable
nature of LLMs mean such restrictions may not always be honored and could becircumvented via prompt injection or other vectors.

Common Examples of Vulnerability
Incomplete or improper filtering of sensitive information in the LLM responses
Overfitting or memorization of sensitive data in the LLM training process
Unintended disclosure of confidential information due to LLM misinterpretation, lack ofdata scrubbing methods or errors.

How to Prevent
Integrate adequate data sanitization and scrubbing techniques to prevent user datafrom entering the training model data
Implement robust input validation and sanitization methods to identify and filter out
potential malicious inputs to prevent the model from being poisoned
When enriching the model with data and if fine-tuning a model: (I.e. data fed into themodel before or during deployment)

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a. Anything that is deemed sensitive in the fine-tuning data has the potential to berevealed to a user. Therefore, apply the rule of least privilege and do not train themodel on information that the highest-privileged user can access which may bedisplayed to a lower-privileged user.

b. Access to external data sources (orchestration of data at runtime) should be
limited.

c. Apply strict access control methods to external data sources and a rigorous
approach to maintaining a secure supply chain.

Example Attack Scenarios
Unsuspecting legitimate User A is exposed to certain other user data via the LLM wheninteracting with the LLM application in a non-malicious manner
User A targets a well crafted set of prompts to bypass input filters and sanitizationfrom the LLM to cause it to reveal sensitive information (PII) about other users of theapplication
Personal data such as PII is leaked into the model via training data due to either
negligence from the user themselves, or the LLM application. This case could increaserisk and probability of scenario 1 or 2 above.

Reference Links
AI data leak crisis: New tool prevents company secrets from being fed to ChatGPT:Fox Busines
Lessons learned from ChatGPT’s Samsung leak: Cybernew
Terms Of Use: Coher
Threat Modeling Example: AI Villag
OWASP AI Security and Privacy Guide: OWASPOWASP.org

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LLM07: Insecure Plugin Design
LLM plugins are extensions that, when enabled, are called automatically by the model
during user interactions. They are driven by the model, and there is no application control
over the execution. Furthermore, to deal with context-size limitations, plugins are likely to
implement free-text inputs from the model with no validation or type checking. This allows
a potential attacker to construct a malicious request to the plugin, which could result in awide range of undesired behaviors, up to and including remote code execution.

The harm of malicious inputs often depends on insufficient access controls and thefailure to track authorization across plugins. Inadequate access control allows a plugin toblindly trust other plugins and assume that the end user provided the inputs. Such
inadequate access control can enable malicious inputs to have harmful consequences
ranging from data exfiltration, remote code execution, and privilege escalation.

This item focuses on the creation of LLM plugins rather than using third-party plugins,which is covered by LLM Supply Chain Vulnerabilities.

Common Examples of Vulnerability
A plugin accepts all parameters in a single text field instead of distinct input
parameters
A plugin accepts configuration strings, instead of parameters, that can override entire
configuration settings
A plugin accepts raw SQL or programming statements instead of parameters
Authentication is performed without explicit authorization to a particular plugin
A plugin treats all LLM content as being created entirely by the user and performs any
requested actions without requiring additional authorization.

How to Prevent
Plugins should enforce strict parameterized input wherever possible and include typeand range checks on inputs. When this is not possible, a second layer of typed callsshould be introduced, parsing requests and applying validation and sanitization. When
freeform input must be accepted because of application semantics, it should be
carefully inspected to ensure that no potentially harmful methods are being called
Plugin developers should apply OWASP’s recommendations in ASVS (Application
Security Verification Standard) to ensure effective input validation and sanitization.

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Plugins should be inspected and tested thoroughly to ensure adequate validation. Use
Static Application Security Testing (SAST) scans as well as Dynamic and Interactive
application testing (DAST, IAST) in development pipelines
Plugins should be designed to minimize the impact of any insecure input parameter
exploitation following the OWASP ASVS Access Control Guidelines. This includes
least-privilege access control, exposing as little functionality as possible while still
performing its desired function
Plugins should use appropriate authentication identities, such as OAuth2, to apply
effective authorization and access control. Additionally, API Keys should be used toprovide context for custom authorization decisions which reflect the plugin routerather than the default interactive user
Require manual user authorization and confirmation of any action taken by sensitiveplugins
Plugins are typically REST APIs, so developers should apply the recommendations
found in OWASP Top 10 API Security Risks – 2023 to minimize generic vulnerabilities.

Example Attack Scenarios
A plugin accepts a base URL and instructs the LLM to combine the URL with a query toobtain weather forecasts which are included in handling the user request. A malicious
user can craft a request such that the URL points to a domain they control, whichallows them to inject their own content into the LLM system via their domain
A plugin accepts a free-form input into a single field that it does not validate. An
attacker supplies carefully crafted payloads to perform reconnaissance from error
messages. It then exploits known third-party vulnerabilities to execute code andperform data exfiltration or privilege escalation
A plugin used to retrieve embeddings from a vector store accepts configuration
parameters as a connection string without any validation. This allows an attacker toexperiment and access other vector stores by changing names or host parameters andexfiltrate embeddings they should not have access to
A plugin accepts SQL WHERE clauses as advanced filters, which are then appended to
the filtering SQL. This allows an attacker to stage a SQL attack
An attacker uses indirect prompt injection to exploit an insecure code management
plugin with no input validation and weak access control to transfer repository
ownership and lock out the user from their repositories.

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Reference Links
ChatGPT Plugins: OpenAChatGPT Plugins - Plugin Flow: OpenAChatGPT Plugins - Authentication: OpenA
Semantic Search Plugin Sample: GitHu
Plugin Vulnerabilities: Visit a Website and Have Your Source Code Stolen: Embrace
the ReChatGPT Plugin Exploit Explained: From Prompt Injection to Accessing Private Data:
Embrace the Re
5 Validation, Sanitization and Encoding: OWAS
4.1 General Access Control Design: OWASOWASP Top 10 API Security Risks – 2023: OWASPOWASP.org

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LLM08: Excessive Agency
An LLM-based system is often granted a degree of agency by its developer - the ability tointerface with other systems and undertake actions in response to a prompt. The decision
over which functions to invoke may also be delegated to an LLM 'agent' to dynamicallydetermine based on input prompt or LLM output.

Excessive Agency is the vulnerability that enables damaging actions to be performed in
response to unexpected/ambiguous outputs from an LLM (regardless of what is causing
the LLM to malfunction; be it hallucination/confabulation, direct/indirect prompt injection,
malicious plugin, poorly-engineered benign prompts, or just a poorly-performing model).
The root cause of Excessive Agency is typically one or more of: excessive functionality,
excessive permissions or excessive autonomy.

Excessive Agency can lead to a broad range of impacts across the confidentiality, integrity
and availability spectrum, and is dependent on which systems an LLM-based app is able
to interact with.

Common Examples of Vulnerability
Excessive Functionality: An LLM agent has access to plugins which include functions
that are not needed for the intended operation of the system. For example, a developer
needs to grant an LLM agent the ability to read documents from a repository, but the
3rd-party plugin they choose to use also includes the ability to modify and delete
documents. Alternatively, a plugin may have been trialled during a development phaseand dropped in favor of a better alternative, but the original plugin remains available to
the LLM agent
Excessive Functionality: An LLM plugin with open-ended functionality fails to properly
filter the input instructions for commands outside what's necessary for the intended
operation of the application. e.g., a plugin to run one specific shell command fails toproperly prevent other shell commands from being executed
Excessive Permissions: An LLM plugin has permissions on other systems that are notneeded for the intended operation of the application. e.g., a plugin intended to readdata connects to a database server using an identity that not only has SELECT
permissions, but also UPDATE, INSERT and DELETE permissions
Excessive Permissions: An LLM plugin that is designed to perform operations onbehalf of a user accesses downstream systems with a generic high-privileged identity.
e.g., a plugin to read the current user's document store connects to the document
repository with a privileged account that has access to all users' files.

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Excessive Autonomy: An LLM-based application or plugin fails to independently verify
and approve high-impact actions. e.g., a plugin that allows a user's documents to bedeleted performs deletions without any confirmation from the user.

How to Prevent
The following actions can prevent Excessive Agency
Limit the plugins/tools that LLM agents are allowed to call to only the minimum
functions necessary. For example, if an LLM-based system does not require the ability
to fetch the contents of a URL then such a plugin should not be offered to the LLM
agent
Limit the functions that are implemented in LLM plugins/tools to the minimum
necessary. For example, a plugin that accesses a user's mailbox to summarize emails
may only require the ability to read emails, so the plugin should not contain otherfunctionality such as deleting or sending messages
Avoid open-ended functions where possible (e.g., run a shell command, fetch a URL,etc.) and use plugins/tools with more granular functionality. For example, an LLMbased app may need to write some output to a file. If this were implemented using aplugin to run a shell function then the scope for undesirable actions is very large (anyother shell command could be executed). A more secure alternative would be to build
a file-writing plugin that could only support that specific functionality
Limit the permissions that LLM plugins/tools are granted to other systems to theminimum necessary in order to limit the scope of undesirable actions. For example, an
LLM agent that uses a product database in order to make purchase recommendations
to a customer might only need read access to a 'products' table; it should not haveaccess to other tables, nor the ability to insert, update or delete records. This should be
enforced by applying appropriate database permissions for the identity that the LLM
plugin uses to connect to the database
Track user authorization and security scope to ensure actions taken on behalf of auser are executed on downstream systems in the context of that specific user, andwith the minimum privileges necessary. For example, an LLM plugin that reads a user's
code repo should require the user to authenticate via OAuth and with the minimum
scope required
Utilize human-in-the-loop control to require a human to approve all actions before they
are taken. This may be implemented in a downstream system (outside the scope of
the LLM application) or within the LLM plugin/tool itself. For example, an LLM-based
app that creates and posts social media content on behalf of a user should include auser approval routine within the plugin/tool/API that implements the 'post' operation
Implement authorization in downstream systems rather than relying on an LLM to
decide if an action is allowed or not. When implementing tools/plugins enforce thecomplete mediation principle so that all requests made to downstream systems via
the plugins/tools are validated against security policies.

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The following options will not prevent Excessive Agency, but can limit the level of damage
causedLog and monitor the activity of LLM plugins/tools and downstream systems to identify
where undesirable actions are taking place, and respond accordingly
Implement rate-limiting to reduce the number of undesirable actions that can takeplace within a given time period, increasing the opportunity to discover undesirable
actions through monitoring before significant damage can occur.

Example Attack Scenario
An LLM-based personal assistant app is granted access to an individual’s mailbox via aplugin in order to summarize the content of incoming emails. To achieve this functionality,
the email plugin requires the ability to read messages, however the plugin that the systemdeveloper has chosen to use also contains functions for sending messages. The LLM isvulnerable to an indirect prompt injection attack, whereby a maliciously-crafted incoming
email tricks the LLM into commanding the email plugin to call the 'send message' function
to send spam from the user's mailbox. This could be avoided by: (a) eliminating excessivefunctionality by using a plugin that only offered mail-reading capabilities, (b) eliminatingexcessive permissions by authenticating to the user's email service via an OAuth session
with a read-only scope, and/or (c) eliminating excessive autonomy by requiring the user tomanually review and hit 'send' on every mail drafted by the LLM plugin. Alternatively, thedamage caused could be reduced by implementing rate limiting on the mail-sending
interface.

Reference Links
Embrace the Red: Confused Deputy Problem: Embrace the Re
NeMo-Guardrails Interface Guidelines: GitHu
LangChain: Human-approval for tools: LangChai
Dual LLMs Pattern: Simon Willison

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LLM09: Overreliance
Overreliance occurs when systems or people depend on LLMs for decision-making orcontent generation without sufficient oversight. While LLMs can produce creative andinformative content, they can also generate content that is factually incorrect,
inappropriate or unsafe. This is referred to as hallucination or confabulation and can resultin misinformation, miscommunication, legal issues, and reputational damage.

LLM-generated source code can introduce unnoticed security vulnerabilities. This poses a
significant risk to the operational safety and security of applications. These risks show theimportance of a rigorous review processes, with
Oversigh
Continuous validation mechanism
Disclaimers on risk

Common Examples of Vulnerability
LLM provides inaccurate information as a response, causing misinformation
LLM produces logically incoherent or nonsensical text that, while grammaticallycorrect, doesn't make sense
LLM melds information from varied sources, creating misleading content
LLM suggests insecure or faulty code, leading to vulnerabilities when incorporated intoa software system
Failure of provider to appropriately communicate the inherent risks to end users,
leading to potential harmful consequences.

How to Prevent
Regularly monitor and review the LLM outputs. Use self-consistency or voting
techniques to filter out inconsistent text. Comparing multiple model responses for asingle prompt can better judge the quality and consistency of output
Cross-check the LLM output with trusted external sources. This additional layer ofvalidation can help ensure the information provided by the model is accurate andreliable
Enhance the model with fine-tuning or embeddings to improve output quality. Genericpre-trained models are more likely to produce inaccurate information compared totuned models in a particular domain. Techniques such as prompt engineering,parameter efficient tuning (PET), full model tuning, and chain of thought prompting canbe employed for this purpose.

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Implement automatic validation mechanisms that can cross-verify the generated
output against known facts or data. This can provide an additional layer of security andmitigate the risks associated with hallucinations
Break down complex tasks into manageable subtasks and assign them to different
agents. This not only helps in managing complexity, but it also reduces the chances ofhallucinations as each agent can be held accountable for a smaller task
Communicate the risks and limitations associated with using LLMs. This includes
potential for information inaccuracies, and other risks. Effective risk communication
can prepare users for potential issues and help them make informed decisions
Build APIs and user interfaces that encourage responsible and safe use of LLMs. Thiscan involve measures such as content filters, user warnings about potential
inaccuracies, and clear labeling of AI-generated content
When using LLMs in development environments, establish secure coding practices andguidelines to prevent the integration of possible vulnerabilities.

Example Attack Scenario
A news organization heavily uses an AI model to generate news articles. A malicious
actor exploits this over-reliance, feeding the AI misleading information, causing the
spread of disinformation. The AI unintentionally plagiarizes content, leading tocopyright issues and decreased trust in the organization
A software development team utilizes an AI system like Codex to expedite the coding
process. Over-reliance on the AI's suggestions introduces security vulnerabilities into
the application due to insecure default settings or recommendations inconsistent withsecure coding practices
A software development firm uses an LLM to assist developers. The LLM suggests a
non-existent code library or package, and a developer, trusting the AI, unknowingly
integrates a malicious package into the firm's software. This highlights the importanceof cross-checking AI suggestions, especially when involving third-party code or
libraries.

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Reference Links
Understanding LLMs Hallucinations: Mediu
How Should Companies Communicate the Risks of Large Language Models to Users?
Tech Policy PresA news site used AI to write articles. It was a journalistic disaster: The Washington
Pos
AI Hallucinations: Package Risk: Vulca
How to Reduce the Hallucinations from Large Language Models: The New Stac
Practical Steps to Reduce Hallucination: Designing With Machine Learning

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LLM10: Model TheftThis entry refers to the unauthorized access and exfiltration of LLM models by malicious
actors or APTs. This arises when the proprietary LLM models (being valuable intellectual
property), are compromised, physically stolen, copied or weights and parameters are
extracted to create a functional equivalent. The impact of LLM model theft can include
economic and brand reputation loss, erosion of competitive advantage, unauthorizedusage of the model or unauthorized access to sensitive information contained within themodel.

The theft of LLMs represents a significant security concern as language models become
increasingly powerful and prevalent. Organizations and researchers must prioritize robust
security measures to protect their LLM models, ensuring the confidentiality and integrityof their intellectual property. Employing a comprehensive security framework that includes
access controls, encryption, and continuous monitoring is crucial in mitigating the risks
associated with LLM model theft and safeguarding the interests of both individuals andorganizations relying on LLMs.

Common Examples of Vulnerability
An attacker exploits a vulnerability in a company's infrastructure to gain unauthorizedaccess to their LLM model repository via misconfiguration in their network or
application security settings
An insider threat scenario where a disgruntled employee leaks model or related
artifacts
An attacker queries the model API using carefully crafted inputs and prompt injection
techniques to collect a sufficient number of outputs to create a shadow model
A malicious attacker is able to bypass input filtering techniques of the LLM to perform
a side-channel attack and ultimately harvest model weights and architecture
information to a remote controlled resource
The attack vector for model extraction involves querying the LLM with a large numberof prompts on a particular topic. The outputs from the LLM can then be used to finetune another model. However, there are a few things to note about this attack
The attacker must generate a large number of targeted prompts. If the prompts are
not specific enough, the outputs from the LLM will be useless
The outputs from LLMs can sometimes contain hallucinated answers meaning theattacker may not be able to extract the entire model as some of the outputs can be
nonsensical
It is not possible to replicate an LLM 100% through model extraction. However, theattacker will be able to replicate a partial model.

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The attack vector for functional model replication involves using the target model via
prompts to generate synthetic training data (an approach called "self-instruct") to thenuse it and fine-tune another foundational model to produce a functional equivalent.
This bypasses the limitations of traditional query-based extraction used in Example 5
and has been successfully used in research of using an LLM to train another LLM.
Although in the context of this research, model replication is not an attack. The
approach could be used by an attacker to replicate a proprietary model with a publicAPI.

Use of a stolen model, as a shadow model, can be used to stage adversarial attacks
including unauthorized access to sensitive information contained within the model orexperiment undetected with adversarial inputs to further stage advanced prompt
injections.

How to Prevent
Implement strong access controls (e.g., RBAC and rule of least privilege) and strong
authentication mechanisms to limit unauthorized access to LLM model repositories
and training environments
This is particularly true for the first three common examples, which could cause
this vulnerability due to insider threats, misconfiguration, and/or weak security
controls about the infrastructure that houses LLM models, weights and architecturein which a malicious actor could infiltrate from inside or outside the environment
Supplier management tracking, verification and dependency vulnerabilities areimportant focus topics to prevent exploits of supply-chain attacks
Restrict the LLMs access to network resources, internal services, and APIs
This is particularly true for all common examples as it covers insider risk andthreats, but also ultimately controls what the LLM application "has access to" andthus could be a mechanism or prevention step to prevent side-channel attacks
Regularly monitor and audit access logs and activities related to LLM model
repositories to detect and respond to any suspicious or unauthorized behavior
promptly
Automate MLOps deployment with governance and tracking and approval workflows totighten access and deployment controls within the infrastructure
Implement controls and mitigation strategies to mitigate and/or reduce risk of prompt
injection techniques causing side-channel attacks
Rate Limiting of API calls where applicable and/or filters to reduce risk of data
exfiltration from the LLMs applications, or implement techniques to detect (e.g., DLP)
extraction activity from other monitoring systems
Implement adversarial robustness training to help detect extraction queries and tighten
physical security measures
Implement a watermarking framework into the embedding and detection stages of an
LLMs lifecycle.

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Example Attack Scenario
An attacker exploits a vulnerability in a company's infrastructure to gain unauthorizedaccess to their LLM model repository. The attacker proceeds to exfiltrate valuable LLM
models and uses them to launch a competing language processing service or extract
sensitive information, causing significant financial harm to the original company
A disgruntled employee leaks model or related artifacts. The public exposure of this
scenario increases knowledge to attackers for gray box adversarial attacks oralternatively directly steal the available property
An attacker queries the API with carefully selected inputs and collects sufficientnumber of outputs to create a shadow model
A security control failure is present within the supply-chain and leads to data leaks ofproprietary model information
A malicious attacker bypasses input filtering techniques and preambles of the LLM to
perform a side-channel attack and retrieve model information to a remote controlled
resource under their control.

Reference Links
Meta’s powerful AI language model has leaked online: The Verg
Runaway LLaMA | How Meta's LLaMA NLP model leaked: DeepLearning.a
I Know What You See: Cornell Universit
D-DAE: Defense-Penetrating Model Extraction Attacks: IEE
A Comprehensive Defense Framework Against Model Extraction Attacks: IEE
Alpaca: A Strong, Replicable Instruction-Following Model: Stanford Universit
How Watermarking Can Help Mitigate The Potential Risks Of LLMs?: KD Nuggets

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Core Team & Contributors
Core Team Members are listed in Blue

Adam Swanda

Emanuel Valente

Manjesh S

HackerOne

McMaster University

Mike Finch

HackerOne

Mike Jang

Forescout

Adesh Gairola

AWS

Ads Dawson

CohereEugene Neelou

Adrian Culley

Trellix

Eugene Tawiah

Complex Technologies

Aleksei Ryzhkov

EPAM

Gaurav “GP” Pal

stackArmor

Gavin Klondike

AI Village

Alexander Zai

Aliaksei Bialko

EPAM

Amay Trivedi

Ananda Krishna

Andy Dyrcz

Astra Security

Idan Hen

Pynt

Nathan Hamiel

Nipun Gupta

Kudelski Security

BearerNir Paz

Otto Sulin

Nordic Venture Family

GoogleParveen Yadav

HackerOne

Microsoft

Patrick Biyaga

Thenavigo

Itamar Golan

Priyadharshini Parthasarathy

Coalfire

Klavan Security GroupJames Rabe

IriusRisk

Rachit Sood

Linkfire

Jason Axley

AWS

Rahul Zhade

GitHub

Jason Haddix

BuddoBot

Reza Rashidi

HADESS

Jason Ross

Salesforce

Rich Harang

NVIDIA

Jeff Williams

Contrast Security

Ross Moore

Andy Smith

Ashish Rajan

Golan Yosef

Guillaume Ehinger

Andrea Succi

Andrew Amaro

Emmanuel Guilherme JunioriFood

Cloud Security Podcast

Autumn Moulder

Bajram Hoxha

Databook

Johann Rehberger

Bilal Siddiqui

Trustwave

John Sotiropoulos

Bob Simonoff

Blue Yonder

Jorge Pinto

Stefano Amorelli

KainosSantosh Kumar

Cisco

Sarah Thornton

Red HatBrian Pendleton

AVID

Joshua Nussbaum

Steve Wilson

Brodie McRaeAWS

Kai Greshake

Talesh Seeparsan

Bit79

Vandana Verma Sehgal

Snyk

Cassio Goldschmidt

ServiceTitan

Dan Frommer

Dan Klein

Accenture

Ken Arora

F5

Ken Huang

DistributedApps.ai

Kelvin Low

aigos

David Rowe

Larry Carson

David Taylor

Leon Derczynski

U of W, IT U of Copenhagen

Leonardo Shikida

IBM

Dotan Nahum

Dr. Matteo Große-Kampmann

OWASP.org

Check Point

AWARE7

Contrast Security

Vinay Vishwanatha

Sprinklr

Vishwas Manral

Precize

Vladimir Fedotov

EPAM

Will Chilcutt

Yahoo

Lior Drihem

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