Chapter 5

Africa: Private waste service failure
and alternative vision
By Vera Weghmann

Effective waste management is essential for public health and formaintaining a sustainable environment. If not properly managed, waste
can pose serious health problems and pollute our waters, soils and air.
Figures from 2012 reveal that the waste collected in Africa was only 55
per cent of the total waste generated.1 Consequently, residents are forced
to deal with the waste themselves, often through illegal dumping andopen burning. Open burning is a major contributor to high levels of air
pollution in Africa. In 2013 an estimated 712,000 people in Africa died asa consequence of dirty air, which was a 36 per cent increase from 1990.2
Illegally dumped waste clogs rivers and drains, which causes floods.
Stagnant water is also a breeding ground for mosquitos and other insects
that can spread malaria, the Zika virus or the dengue fever. A lot of wasteends up in the sea via rivers, which carry trash over long distances.
According to Greenpeace, 12 million tonnes of plastic are entering theworld’s oceans every year. Ten of the most polluting rivers in the world
are responsible for 90 per cent of plastic in the oceans, and two of theserivers are located in Africa, namely the Nile and the Niger.3
Even if the waste is collected, many African countries struggle toeffectively deal with it. Many cities have only one official landfill site forthe whole city, which often overflows and poses serious health and safetyconcerns. For instance, Nairobi, Kenya has only one legal dumpsite,
Dandora, which was declared full in 1996. More than 30 years later it
is still operating. Dandora is an open landfill, surrounded by residential
areas. The dumpsite puts the health of nearby residents at risk. The
Nairobi River, running right across the dumpsite, carries polluted water79

Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

Open dump

47

Sanitary landfill

29Open burning

9

Recycling

Incineration

Other

4

2

9

Waste disposal (percentage)

Source: Hoornweg, D.; Bhada-Tata, P. ( 2012) What a Waste : A Global Review of Solid Waste Management.
World Bank. In: UNEP (2018) Africa Waster Management Outlook.P.37

downstream where it is used for irrigation of food products and as
drinking water. But most of the waste in Nairobi does not even end up in
the official landfill.4 Instead, private waste collectors dump the collected
waste at one of the over 70 illegal dumpsites scattered throughout thecity.5
Overwhelmed by the size of the waste problem, many African countries
have turned to the private sector. However, as this essay will outline indetail, privatisation is not the solution for effective waste management.
The essay will thus illustrate how workers and communities successfully
resisted the privatisation of waste management in Egypt, leading toremunicipalisation of waste management in its three biggest cities,
namely Cairo, Alexandra and Giza. Subsequently, we point to Africa’s zerowaste potential. The next section reflects on the valuable contributionof the informal sector to waste management, and on the potential andchallenges of formalising the informal sector. Finally, the advantage of
publicly run waste management services is outlined. We conclude bydrawing out the main lessons learned from Africa’s experiences with
waste management privatisation and its alternatives.

80Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

The failure of privatisation
Right from the beginning, the experiences with privatised waste
management in Africa demonstrated its failure. Cameroon was among thefirst countries in Africa to privatise part of its waste management services.
Already in 1969, Douala outsourced the management of its municipal
waste and Yaoundé followed 10 years later. In its evaluation of the waste
management privatisation, the United Nations Environment Programme
classified it as a ‘failed PPP’.6 The performance of waste company Hygiène
et Salubrité du Cameroun (HYSACAM) had been poor and eventually thecompany withdrew entirely in 1991 when economic crises and structuraladjustment destabilised the country.7 The waste catastrophe perpetuatedand in 1994 the World Bank intervened with an emergency programme
to clean up the two cities and especially the open dumps. However,despite these problems, HYSACAM was contracted again in 1998 andpublic-private partnership (PPP) was expanded to 17 more cities acrossthe country. Yet again, HYSACAM’s performance remained wanting.
Five years into the contract the company still could not access 60 per
cent of the neighbourhoods, as the pathways were too narrow for theirequipment and informal workers continued to serve these areas.8 Afternearly 50 years of privatised waste services, an efficient and effective
waste management system has yet to be introduced in Cameroon.9
A major problem with privatised waste services is that the privatisation is
only taking place in areas deemed profitable. Poorer urban areas as wellas rural areas see waste piling up. For example, Tunisia has a long historyof privatised waste services, strongly promoted by the World Bank andother development institution. In 2010, UN-Habitat praised Tunisia forits ‘successful experience with [waste management] privatization’.10
However, if the service functioned well in the city of Sousse only 10 per
cent of rural areas’ waste was being collected. This is very significant
given that in 2018 over 30 per cent of Tunisia’s population lived in rural
areas.11 Similarly, in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania the privatisation of waste81Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

services has improved coverage in the capital, but poorer neighbourhoods
are left out. Consequently, 70 per cent of the waste in Dar es Salaam iseither disposed informally, illegally dumped into waterways and fields,
or burned.12
Another common side effect of privatised waste management is the
side-lining of informal waste workers. Informal waste workers arecontributing significantly to waste management in Africa by doing mostof the recycling. For example, in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania’s informal waste
workers are estimated to recycle 80 per cent of plastic bottles, which arethen sold to national factories for processing and sale to national andinternational markets.13 In South Africa, approximately 80 to 90 per centof the paper and packaging waste are recovered by the informal sector,
thereby saving municipalities millions of dollars every year in freed
landfill space. Despite the fact that the informal waste workers deliver
such a vital environmental service, when the private company Averda
took over the Genesis landfill near Johannesburg in September 2016
it attempted to exclude them. Many of the informal workers had beenworking at the landfill for 17 years. The company used intimidation toprevent the informal workers from accessing the grounds. In June 2018
Averda hired a private security company, called the Red Ants, whichraided the homes of the informal workers outside of the landfill andviolently attacked them, resulting in 19 people hospitalised, four withserious injuries.14

The struggle against privatised waste management inCairo
In Egypt, in the 1940s the Zabaleen Christian community on the outskirtsof Cairo set up a very sophisticated waste management system. Consistingof approximately 70,000 people, this community is believed to sort
15,000 tons of waste daily, which represents two-thirds of Cairo’s overall
waste. Over time, this waste management system has achieved recycling82

Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

rates of 85 per cent.15 By means of comparison, the average recycling rateof municipal waste in the EU-27 and Norway in 2014 was 43 per cent,with Germany achieving the highest rate with 64 per cent.16 Pigs are an
essential component of the Zabaleen recycling and sorting system, as
they feed on the food waste. The Zabaleen community consumes someof the pigs themselves, and others are sold to hotels and other touristic
locations in Egypt. This serves as a source of extra income and a form ofsavings.17 The Zabaleen waste management system demonstrates that it
is possible to create a circular economy even in megacities such as Cairo.
Despite the effectiveness of the Zabaleen waste management system,
the government decided to privatise waste management in Cairo in theearly 2000s following privatisations in Alexandria and Giza (see Table 1).
The privatisation efforts came as part of a wider gentrification process
as the government pursued a hidden agenda in terms of securing accessto land for urban development projects and land speculation activities.
The Zabaleen settlement, which became known as ‘Garbage City’, wasseen as a lucrative urban investment opportunity due to its geographicalproximity with Cairo’s historical – and hence touristic – quarters. As
such, the privatisation reflects the government’s ambition to relocate theZabaleen out of the city centre and into new suburban settlements.18
The private companies were only able to recycle some 20 per cent of
the waste,19 compared to the Zabaleen’s earlier 85 per cent.20 Unlike
the Zabaleen, the private companies did not collect the waste from thenarrow streets or tall buildings. Instead, they set up central collection
points and expected residents to deposit their waste into large bins atthese points. Residents were charged for the waste collection service
through their electricity bills, effectively giving the private companies‘ownership’ over the collected waste. Most of the companies promised
to give the Zabaleen some 50 per cent of the garbage in return for their
help in sorting. However, this represented only a fraction of the income
the Zabaleen had earned before. In other words, through the privatisation

83

Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

the Zabaleen lost their livelihood. Some Zabaleen saw as much as a 75 percent drop in earnings as a result.21
Residents and the Zabaleen resisted the privatisation. In Giza, hundredsof Zabaleen demonstrated in February 2003 to campaign against the
influx of foreign companies. In Cairo, just six months after starting
operations, the private companies Urbaser and FCC incurred municipal
fines of US$2 million due to citizen complaints of irregular collection andinadequate street sweeping. Moreover, hundreds of citizens in Cairo andGiza filed lawsuits against the government for adding the collection fees
onto their electricity bills. Consumers won the case and the ruling ended
the billing system in Giza, Cairo and Alexandria. Eventually, the Egyptian
government was forced to accept that their privatisation experiment had
failed.22 When the 15-year contracts with the private companies cameto an end in 2017 and 2018 the government chose not to renew them.
Instead, a ‘new’ system drawing on Zabaleen door-to-door collection was
gradually implemented.23 In all three cities, the waste collection services
were remunicipalised. Alexandria was the first city to remunicipalise thewaste service as the private company Veolia terminated the contract in2011, four years earlier than planned (see Table 1). Public company Nahdet
Misr, a subsidiary of the state enterprise Arab Constructors, started tooperate the waste management services in Alexandria in December 2011.
Nahdet Misr partnered with the informal sector, officially subcontracting
them for the waste collection services.2484Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

City

Year ofprivatisation

Value ofcontract

Length ofcontract

Company

Remunicipalisation

Alexandria

2000

$446
million15 years

CGEA Onyx, a divisionof Vivendi, which
later became Veolia
Environment

In 2011 Veolia terminated thecontract (4 years early).
The public sector company Nahdet
Misr which is a subsidiary of
the state owned enterprise ArabContractors is now in charge of
the waste management

Giza (Dokki,
Agouza and
Imbaba districts

2002

$7.6
million15 years

FCC and Urbaser

Cairo (eastern andwestern zones)

2003$25 million
a year15 years

FCC and Urbaser

Contract terminated and was notrenewedCairo (North)2002$11.5 million
a year15 years

AMA Arab Environment Company(AAEC)

Contract terminated and was notrenewedTable 1. Waste remunicipalisation in Egypt
Source: Van Niekerk, S. and Weghmann, V. (2019) Municipal Solid Waste Management in Africa and ArabCountries. Ferney-Voltaire, France: PSI.

Africa’s zero-waste potential
The Zabaleen demonstrate that there is a huge potential for zero-waste
programmes in Africa, as the waste composition is characterised by ahigh percentage of organic waste due to the preparation of fresh food,and the limited use of packaging in sold goods. The World Bank estimatesthat in Africa 57 per cent of waste is organic, 13 per cent is plastic, 9 percent is paper or cardboard, 4 per cent is glass, 4 per cent is metal, and theremaining 13 per cent is other materials.25 This is very different from thewaste composition in high-income countries, where only 28 per cent of
the waste is organic (see Graphs 1 and 2). Organic waste has been reusedfor centuries. Like the Zabaleen in Egypt, the method of feeding organic
waste to animals has been applied in other cities, for example in Sousse
in Tunisia, Moshi in Tanzania and, to a lesser extent, in Nairobi, Kenya.
Also, in the Ugandan capital Kampala, the Kasubi-Kawala neighbourhood
set up a waste management system for 75 per cent of organic waste,
which involves feeding animals, composting and making biofuel out of85

Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

Waste compositions in High-Income countries

Waste Composition in Africa

Others
17%

Metal
4%

Organic
28%

Metal
6%

Other
13%

Glass
4%

Glass
7%

Organic
57%

Plastic
13%

Plastic
11%

Paper
9%

Paper
31%

Source: Hoornweg, D.; Bhada-Tata, P. ( 2012) What a Waste : A Global Review of Solid Waste Management.
World Bank. Page 20 and 21

municipal organic waste. Most strikingly, Bamako, Mali has managed toachieve an estimated 85 per cent municipal waste valorisation rate byfeeding waste to animals and by reusing it through a traditional method
called ‘terreautage’, whereby unprocessed waste is sold to crop farmers
and partially composted waste is sold to vegetable farmers.26
The island of Zanzibar in Tanzania is also currently piloting an integrated
municipal waste management system with the aim of becoming a zerowaste island. In Zanzibar more than 80 per cent of the waste is of thewet organic type, so composting is key. The pilot programme started in
September 2017 in a low-income area of Zanzibar called Shauri Moyo,where 200 households are participating. Selected households received
bins and plastic bags to sort the waste into wet, dry and hazardous waste.
Eight workers – mostly women – from the local Shauri Moyo Waste
Management Society were given the responsibility of educating thehouseholds on waste segregation, collection and processing. This local
partner is an informal worker-led organisation, but salaries are paid by
the Zanzibar Urban Municipal Council.27 The workers receive a monthly
salary and they can make extra income from selling the compost as well86Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

as dry waste such as metal, plastics, glass and carton paper. The project
was launched by the Zanzibar Environmental Management Authority andthe public interest research and advocacy organisation Centre for Scienceand Environment in India, together with the local municipal councils ofZanzibar.28

Formalisation of waste services
The work that informal waste workers do is unhygienic, it bears severe
health and safety risks and is severely precarious; yet they make asignificant – but rarely recognised – contribution to waste management
systems in Africa. There is no reliable data on the number of informal
waste workers on the continent and there are great variations between
countries. In South Africa, there would be at least 90,000 informal waste
workers.29 In Nigeria, roughly 10,000 informal waste workers would beworking in Lagos alone.30 In comparison, Morocco’s figure would be much
lower with only 7,000 informal waste workers in the whole country.31
The example of Egypt shows that the failure of privatised waste
management services led to the inclusion of informal waste workers
into the formal economy. This formalisation of an already establishedand highly sophisticated waste management system represents anopportunity to enhance working conditions and pay for the informal
workers while also increasing the satisfaction of residents with the service.
Likewise, Zanzibar’s attempt to become a zero-waste island through an
integrated waste management system builds on the integration – andthus formalisation – of the informal economy.
However, formalisation becomes a problem when informal workers areincorporated into the formal system at lower wages and with poorer
working conditions than municipal waste workers. This happened, forinstance, in Dakar, Senegal. By the late 1990s waste services had begun tocollapse and rubbish began to accumulate in the streets and public spaces87Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative visionof Dakar. In reaction to this, a youth movement called Set/Setal (‘Be Clean/
Make Clean’) emerged. This movement involved youth cleaning andbeautifying their own neighbourhoods in Dakar. By 1990, the Set/Setal
youth had been recruited into a city-wide participatory system. Theseyouth were incorporated into the city waste management system but ata lower rate of pay and without benefits. The youth became responsible
for collecting and loading garbage onto the dump trucks bound for thecity’s outskirts. Although paid a daily rate, they were not given otherprotections and benefits, despite becoming the backbone of the waste
management system for the city at that time.32
Another problem with the formalisation of informal workers arises when
only a fraction of the informal waste workers gains formal employment.
This poses the question of what happens to the other informal waste
workers, whose livelihoods are at risk if they lose access to the waste. As
such, formalisation can deepen inequalities between a formally employed
workforce and informal waste workers.

Public alternatives
Algeria is demonstrating what can be achieved through a publicly run
waste management system. There is very little private sector involvementin the waste management system in Algeria, with only parts of a few cities
having chosen to privatise their waste collection. Since 2002, Algeria has
adopted an integrated waste management programme that is part ofits wider commitment to sustainable development. Algeria is a country
where climate change has been high on the agenda for decades because
of increasing desertification due to climate change. Algeria’s waste
infrastructure is financed by the central government and the managementof waste collection and disposal is funded by the ‘junk removal tax’,
whereby each household pays a fee to the municipality.33 The waste
collection rate is among the highest in Africa. In urban areas, roughly
90 per cent of the waste is collected while this rate is at 65-70 per cent88Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative visionin rural areas, which is extraordinarily high for Africa (e.g. as comparedwith 10 per cent rural waste collection in neighbouring Tunisia). Despite
the success of its publicly run waste management programme, Algeria
is planning to open to the way for more private sector involvement, asstrongly suggested by the international donor community.34
Rwanda is routinely praised for its cleanness. At the 2018 World Economic
Forum, UN Environment Programme Head Eric Solheim called the capital
Kigali the ‘cleanest city on the planet’ in terms of lack of rubbish on
the streets and green initiatives.35 Umuganda – the one–day-a-monthtradition of compulsorily community work – is the secret behind Kigali’s
cleanness. The communal labour of Umuganda has a long tradition in
the region that is nowadays Rwanda. Umuganda has been practiced
since pre-colonial kingdoms and it was an integral part of the patron–
client relationship.36 Literally translated, it means ‘coming together incommon purpose to achieve an outcome’. Residents pick up rubbish,
clear land for community gardens or help to build new roads, classrooms
or residential toilets for families that lack them. It is a day of cleaning up
but also an opportunity to catch up with the community. Umuganda iscompulsory: At least one person over 18 years of age per household must
attend. Residents are divided into neighbourhood work teams, with 20
to 150 families in each group. Non-attendance at Umuganda, without anapproved excuse from the local council, can lead to fines of RWF 5,000(US$6), which is a significant amount of money for most people in Rwanda
but an insignificant sum for the rich.37 Following Kigali’s example, Dar
es Salaam has also held a once a month cleaning day campaign in 2016.38
The initiative requires all Tanzanian citizens to participate in regularcleaning activities of public spaces. While some observers see Umuganda
as a creative contribution to a functioning public waste management
system based on traditional methods, others see it as a form of forced
labour.

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Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

Conclusion: lessons learned
The privatisation of waste management only perpetuates the difficulties
in delivering effective waste services: i) it leaves most residents excluded
from the service (as the private companies usually only cover thewealthier areas in cities where people can afford to pay for the service);ii) it puts profit before the environment; and iii) it is a very expensive way
to run the service.
Africa has a great zero-waste potential by way of establishing a circular
economy, because a large proportion of the waste is organic. In fact,
traditional methods such as feeding waste to animals or using it to fertilise
the soil have been used for centuries. This type of local knowledge should
be encouraged. Unfortunately, as the experience of waste privatisation in
Egypt demonstrates, privatisation discourages local and integrated waste
management mechanisms.
Informal waste workers make a significant but rarely recognised
contribution to waste management systems in Africa. Privatisation ofwaste management often leads to informal waste workers losing accessto the waste – in other words, they lose access to their livelihoods. A
publicly owned and managed waste management system bears theopportunity to enhance circular-economy waste management byformalising the informal waste workers and by building upon theirknowledge and expertise. The Zabaleen’s circular economy system that
achieved a recycling rate of 85 per cent in Egypt or Zanzibar’s efforts tobecome a zero-waste island are cases in point.
An integrated and publicly owned and managed waste management
system can achieve great results. Algeria has achieved one of thehighest collection rates in Africa in the virtual absence of private sector
involvement. It established an integrated waste management system thatserves the entire population, and in particular the rural population. This90

Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

stands in stark contrast to private waste management systems known tocream off profitable city areas while neglecting the rest of the population.
Note: This chapter is based on a recent 2019 report published by Public Services
International entitled ‘Municipal Solid Waste Management Services in Africa
and Arab Countries’ written by Sandra Van Niekerk and Vera Weghmann.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Vera Weghmann is a Research Fellow for the
Public Services International Research Unit
(PSIRU) at the University of Greenwich, UK. She
is also a member of the Centre for Research on
Employment and Work (CREW). Before joining
the University of Greenwich in September 2017,
she completed her PhD at the Centre for Studyof Social and Global Justice at the University of
Nottingham, UK. Her research focuses on public
services, in particular waste management,
energy policy, energy democratisation,
remunicipalisation and public ownership as wellas independent trade unionism.

Endnotes
1

United Nations Environment Programme (2018) Africa Waste Management Outlook. Nairobi:
UNEP.

2

OECD (2016) The cost of air pollution in Africa. Available at: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/
development/the-cost-of-air-pollution-in-africa_5jlqzq77x6f8-en

3

Greenpeace (2017) ‘How does plastic end up in the ocean?’ 22 August. Available at:https://www.greenpeace.org.uk/plastic-end-ocean/

4

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources and UNDP (2016) A Circular Economy Solid
Waste Management Approach for Urban Areas in Kenya, p. 28. Available at: http://www.undp.
org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/environment-energy/mdg-carbon/NAMAs/nama-on-circular-economy-solid-waste-management-approach-for-urb.html

5

UNEP (2018) Africa Waste Management Outlook. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP.

6

UNEP (2018) Africa Waste Management Outlook. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP, p. 169.

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Africa: Private waste service failure and alternative vision

7

Achankeng, E. (2003) Globalization, Urbanization and Municipal Solid Waste Management in
Africa. Available at: http://www.wiego.org/sites/default/files/publications/files/Achankeng_Globalization_Urbanization_MSWMgmt_Africa.pdf

8Achankeng, E. (2003) Globalization, Urbanization and Municipal Solid Waste Management in
Africa. Available at: http://www.wiego.org/sites/default/files/publications/files/Achankeng_Globalization_Urbanization_MSWMgmt_Africa.pdf

9

UNEP (2018) Africa Waste Management Outlook. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP, p. 169.

10

UN-Habitat (2010) Solid Waste Management in the Worlds Cities. Available at:https://unhabitat.org/solid-waste-management-in-the-worlds-cities-water-and-sanitation-in-theworlds-cities-2010-2

11

Statistics available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS?locations=TN

12

UNEP (2018) Africa Waste Management Outlook. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP, p. 81.

13

Oyake-Ombis, L. (2017) Awareness on environmentally sound solid waste management bycommunities and municipalities in Kenya, p. 34.

14

See: https://globalrec.org/2018/07/07/violent-assault-of-waste-pickers-near-genesis-landfill-johannesburg/

15

UNEP (2018) Africa Waste Management Outlook. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP.

16

Egyptian Streets (2016) ‘Cairo Leads European Cities in Recycling’, 27 July. Available at:https://egyptianstreets.com/2016/07/24/cairo-leads-european-cities-in-recycling/ (accessed
17/04/18).

17

RT Documentary (2016) ‘Zabbaleen: Trash Town. A whole community in Egypt that lives on
rubbish’, 15 May. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D0s7WsoC528 (accessed
17/04/18)

18

Fahmi, W. and Sutton, K. (2019) ‘Cairo’s Contested Garbage: Sustainable Solid Waste Management and the Zabaleen’s Right to the City’. Sustainability, 2: 1765-1783.

19

Brinkley, H. (2019) Hardin’s imagined tragedy is pig shit: A call for planning to recenter thecommons. Planning Theory. Vol. 19, iss. 1, pp. 127-144.

20

Egyptian Streets (2016) Cairo Leads European Cities in Recycling, 27 July. Available at:https://egyptianstreets.com/2016/07/24/cairo-leads-european-cities-in-recycling/

21

NewsWeek Middle East (2017) ‘Cairo’s Treasures of Trash’, 24 May. Available at:
http://newsweekme.com/cairos-treasures-trash/ (retrieved 17 April 2018).

22

Wael Fahmi, W. and Sutton, K. (2010) ‘Cairo’s Contested Garbage: Sustainable Solid Waste
Management and the Zabaleen’s Right to the City’. Sustainability, 2 (6).

23

Egypt Today (2017) ‘Cabinet allocates LE 300 million for Cairo waste collection’, 5 October.
Available at: https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/26112/ Cabinet-allocates-LE-300-million-for-Cairo-waste-collection (retrieved 17 April 2018).

24

Elgazzar, R., El-Gazzar, R. and El-Gohary, M. (2017) Understanding the Dilemma of theMunicipal Solid Waste Management System in Alexandria, Egypt: Could ICT Improve the
System? International Federation for Information Processing, pp. 816–822.

25

Hoornweg, D.; Bhada-Tata, P. (2012) What a Waste : A Global Review of Solid Waste
Management. Urban development series. Knowledge papers no. 15. World Bank. Washington,DC

26

Wilson, D., Rodic, L. et al. (2012) ‘Comparative analysis of solid waste management in 20
cities’. Waste Management & Research, 30(3): 237 –254.

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National, regional and local moves towards public ownership in the UK

27

Magazeti ya Tanzania (2018) ‘Zanzibar has become the first island in East Africa to have adecentralised waste management model’. Magazeti ya Tanzania, 3 July.

28

Centre for Science and Environment (2019) Pilot Project Decentralized Solid Waste Management. Available at: https://www.cseindia.org/pilot-project-decentralized-solid-waste-management-9604

29

WIEGO (2018) ‘WIEGO strongly condemns violent assault of reclaimers near Genesis landfill’.
Available at: https://www.wiego.org/resources/wiego-strongly-condemns-violent-assault-reclaimers-near-genesis-landfill30

Sesan, T. (2018) Inside the Cleaner Lagos Initiative. Lagos, Nigeria: Heinrich Boll Stiftung.
Available at: https://ng.boell.org/2018/01/15/inside-cleaner-lagos-initiative

31

See: https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/analysis/waste-not-international-financing-supportsmodernisation-waste-management-infrastructure-and32

See: https://lematin.ma/journal/2018/chiffonniers- inconnus-luttent-discretementcontre-changements-climatiques/286324.html

33

See: https://www.retech-germany.net/fileadmin/retech/05_mediathek/laenderinformationen/
Algerien_RA_ANG_WEB_0_Laenderprofile_sweep_net.pdf

34

See: https://www.retech-germany.net/fileadmin/retech/05_mediathek/laenderinformationen/
Algerien_RA_ANG_WEB_0_Laenderprofile_sweep_net.pdf

35

IPPmedia (2018) ‘Kigali rated the cleanest city in Africa’, 27 April. Available at:https://www.ippmedia.com/en/features/kigali-rated-cleanest-city-africa

36

Bates, S. (2012) From the Ground Up: The Historical Roots of Umuganda in Rwandan Economic
and Political Development. Master of Arts in Liberal Studies. Skidmore College. Paper 83.

37

See: http://perilofafrica.com/umuganda-rwandas-day- community-cleaning/

38

UCL (2017) Transforming Solid Waste Management in Dar es Salaam. Available at:https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ bartlett/development/sites/bartlett/files/2017_swm_ report.pdf

93