newsletter
newsletter
Vol 2004 / 1
February 5, 2004

E UROPEAN F USION DEVELOPEMENT AGREEMENT

News
Issued by the EFDA
Close Support Unit
Garching

Roadmap on ITER negotiations
The recent ITER Ministerial Meeting, which took place in Washington the 20th of December 2003
resulted in a Joint Communiqué which, amongst other matters, asks “...the ITER Team in conjunction with the ITER Parties to conduct a rapid exploration of the advantages of a broader projectapproach to fusion power.” (see text below)
Consequently, to address this request in a timely fashion, the ITER team is organising meetings
with the parties to come, at the end of January, with a proposal that will be then considered by theParties, possibly mid February.

Contents

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Interview:
Prof. Sir Christopher
Llewellyn Smith
page 2
Associations:ÖAW – Association
Day on Fusion
page 3
Associations:
ECRH on TCV tokamak- an ITER relevant
systempage 4/5
Associations:
Lower Hybrid
Launcher Prototype
tested at FTU
page 6
Energy:Fusion in Developing
Countries
page 7JET:
CVD diamond detector
installed
page 8

http://www.efda.org

JOINT COMMUNIQUE
From the Ministerial Meeting for ITER
The Six Parties have reached astrong consensus on a number ofpoints.
We have two excellent sites for
ITER, so excellent in fact that we needfurther evaluation before making ourdecisions based on consensus.
We have agreed to provide theremaining questions to the candidate
host parties by the end of December
for their answers by the end ofJanuary.
We will ask the ITER Team in conjunction with the ITER Parties to conduct a rapid exploration of the advantages of a broader project approach tofusion power. This work will be doneon the same schedule.
With all this information, we plan
to hold a follow-up Ministerial meeting
to reach consensus as quickly as possible, likely to be in February.

Timetable to ITER implementation
1) The ITER Parties must first reach a consensus on the preferred site for ITER
2) The draft agreement must then be completed, and submitted to the Parties authorities
3) In Europe, the Council of Ministers must approve conclusion of the agreement followed with theCommission signing the agreement.
4) When all the ITER Parties have concluded their constitutional requirements, the ITER agreement comes into force.

EFDA Fusion Newsletter

page 2

Interview
Persuading other governments to take fusion more seriously
EFDA Newsletter (EN): Prof. Llewellyn Smith, you were awarded a knighthood in 2001- canwe expect you now to be something like a “white knight” for nuclear fusion after being
successful in particle physics?
Chris Llewellyn Smith (CLS): I’m new to fusion, of course, but I bring with me from particle
physics knowledge of very similar technologies and of some of the political problems that
fusion is facing in trying to make a co-ordinated programme on the European and world
scale. I hope to harness the support of the British Government, which is convinced of theimportance of fusion as a potential source of environmentally friendly energy. I’m hoping,with Sir David King, the UK’s chief scientific advisor, to play a role in persuading othergovernments to take fusion and the need for fusion more seriously.
EN: You served 5 years as Director General at CERN,
which has an excellent reputation for public educationand technology transfer, two items which are almost
missing in the fusion programme. How do you think that
this aspect of fusion research can be improved?
CLS: CERN has certainly invented some wonderful technologies, such as the World Wide Web, but that was not
the result of a deliberate technology transfer effort.
CERN has had a big indirect effect on European industry by often asking industry to build things that are at or
beyond the limit of their capability. When companies
have got into difficulties, CERN engineers have gone inand helped them, and they have reaped future benefits
from what they have learned. I think that similar things
happen in fusion. There is a need to interest industry
more in the long term prospect of a fusion industry, andthe Euratom is taking steps to do so.
Turning to public education, one important step - in the
UK guest at EFDA CSU Garching (Germany):
UK at least - is for the fusion scientists to develop betProf. Sir Chris Llewellyn Smith (right) welcomed by Prof. Minh Quang Tran
(EFDA leader).
ter relations with the university-based scientists. Fusion
research in the UK has been rather isolated at Culham.
If you ask most university professors - ‘What do you think of fusion?’, you may get anegative reaction based on information which is 20 years out of date. We will have problems convincing the general public of the potential of fusion if we have not convinced
Prof. Sir Christopher
other scientists.
Llewellyn Smith FRS
is Director of the UKAEA
Culham Division, which is
responsible for the UK’s
thermonuclear fusion programme. He succeeds thelate Derek Robinson FRS.
Find a short CV of Chris
Llewellyn Smith on our
website:http://www.efda.org> Additional information> Interviews

EN: Do you see any particular feature missing from the fusion programme – at the Culham
level or in the European programme?
CLS: The European programme is very strong: I think we lead the world. At Culham the UK
programme is relatively small, but of very high quality, and of course we host JET which iscurrently the world’s most advanced fusion device. However, world-wide there is currently
not enough work on the materials that will be needed to build a reliable fusion reactor. We
must intensify the work in this area – on the plasma facing components, the structuralcomponents, and the divertor for a fusion power plant, as well as just simply for ITER.
EN: The US participates at CERN in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) project. What important conclusions would you derive from your experience of collaboration with the US for
their participation in the ITER project - as ITER tops the DoE list of their facility priorities?
CLS: My main regret is that their contribution to the funding of ITER is not larger, although it
is of course pleasing that ITER heads the DoE’s priority list. The US has the largest
economy in the world and it’s a great pity that they are not prepared to contribute morethan 10%, which is not commensurate with their scientific strength, and even less with
their economic strength. Another point is that the Americans have a different way ofpage 3

EFDA Fusion Newsletterworking, and tend to reach decisions by “shoot-out”, rather than by consensus. In international collaborations, reaching consensus, in a way that leaves everybody happy andfeeling that they have gained, is essential in order to keep political support. It took time for
the Americans who work at CERN to get used to working in this way.
EN: Replacing Derek Robinson, what spirit do you take over from him into your new position?
CLS: I think that Derek did a fantastic job. In a very difficult period when the budget had
been cut very strongly in the 1980s and the early 1990s in the UK, and during a time
when the British Government was rather negative about fusion, he and his colleagues
took some very clever decisions, such as building START, followed by MAST. So he is avery difficult act to follow, especially for somebody who comes from a completely different
background.
Interview and Photo: D. Lutz-Lanzinger

For more information on
UKAEA Culham, JET and
MAST, please see:
http://www.ukaea.org.uk/culham
http://www.fusion.org.uk/
http://www.jet.efda.org/

CERN is represented on :http://public.web.cern.ch/pub

Associations
ÖAW: 14th Association Day on Fusion Technology
On 28th November 2003 the Association Euratom-ÖAW (Österreichische Akademie
der Wissenschaften – Austrian Academy of Sciences) organised its annual Association
Day on Fusion Technology, which was hosted by the Austrian Research Center
Seibersdorf. At this meeting current contributions to the EFDA Technology Work
Programme and Underlying Technology Programme were presented and discussed byjunior and senior scientists currently active in this field.
Dr. Rainer Lässer (EFDA Garching, Germany) gave a lecture on recent and future
developments in the field “Tritium breeding and materials”. Dr. Ettore Salpietro (EFDA
Garching) presented developments and results within the field “Magnetic structure andintegration”.
The presentations focussed on materials research (investigation of tungsten alloys,
neutron-radiographic examination of SiCf / SiC ceramic composites, impurity transport inberyllium) and testing of insulation materials for the ITER magnet system. Guests werealso welcomed from the EFDA Close Support Unit Culham (UK) and the IAEA
Department of Nuclear Science and Applications and from Austrian companies.

For more information onÖAW see:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/

EFDA Fusion Newsletter

page 4

Associations
TCV:“Tokamak à Configuration
Variable” is the main experimental facility on the
Lausanne (Switzerland)site of the Association
Euratom CRPP (“Centre
de Recherches en
Physique des Plasmas”).

ECRH on TCV tokamak – an ITER relevant system

Electron cyclotron (EC) heating in a magnetised plasma is performed by launching aradio-frequency (RF) wave which is resonant with the plasma electrons having a cyclotron
frequency, f cycl, (or integer multiple of f cycl) equal to the RF. The cyclotron frequency is proportional to the local magnetic field amplitude (f cycl = 28 [GHz]/[Tesla]). The resonant natureof the interaction, together with the space dependent magnetic field in a fusion device, creates a situation in which extremely localised power deposition can be achieved. This proFor more information
perty can be used either for localised electron heating (ECH) or for generating non-inducplease see:tive current drive (ECCD). Compared to other RF auxiliary heating systems EC waves have
http://crppwww.epfl.ch/crpp_tcv.
the additional advantage that the radiation propagates in freehtm
space, which significantly simplifies the launching system.
TCV Parameters:
andMulti-megawatt ECH and ECCD system exists on several
http://crppwww.epfl.ch/of today's toroidal magnetic fusion devices. In ITER, ECH and
Plasma height:
Plasma width:
ECCD is foreseen not only as a principal auxiliary system for
Plasma major radius:
plasma heating and for plasma start-up, but is considered
NTM:
Plasma current:
The magnetic island proessential in meeting the key requirement of neoclassical tearduced by a tearing mode
Plasma elongation:
ing mode (NTM) stabilisation by localised current drive. The
perturbs the bootstrap curAspect ratio:
EC system is therefore distributed between a main horizontal
rent, which further ampliToroidal magnetic field on theport, through which 20 MW of EC power at 170 GHz can befies the island and degramagnetic axis:
launched, and three upper ports, also operating at 170 GHz,des confinement or leads
Additional heating (ECRH):
which are to be used principally for the stabilisation of NTMs.
to a disruption. This instaTransformer flux:
The recently completed ECH system installed on the TCV
bility is the neo-classicalLoop voltage:
tokamak, with a total of 4.1 MW of injected power, and with atearing mode.
Plasma duration:highly flexible launching mirror system allowing real-time conVessel width:
trol of the toroidal and poloidal mirror angles, is, at present, theGyrotron:
Vessel height:
most relevant ECH systems for ITER. It is made up of 9 gyroDevice used for generating
Vessel ohmic resistance:trons grouped in three "clusters" of three gyrotrons. Two of thehigh power microwaves inTime constant of the vessel:clusters operate at 82.7 GHz (0.5 MW/gyrotron, 2s) and are
the electron cyclotron
range of frequencies
used for heating and/or current-drive, coupling to the X-mode(≈ 50 – 200 GHz).
plasma wave from the outboard (low field side) of the machine and being absorbed at the
2nd harmonic resonance (X2). The third cluster operates at 118 GHz (0.5 MW/gyrotron, 2s),
couples to the X-mode from the top of the machine and provides the ECH power which isabsorbed at the 3rd harmonic resonance (X3).
Each gyrotron RF output is connected to an RF conditioning unit (RFCU) whose optics
is designed both for adapting the RF beam to the evacuated waveguide and for controllingthe wave polarisation. The required polariser
angles are calculated for the target plasma equiX3-Top Launch
librium and desired heating/current-drive sceX3-Cluster C
nario and then remotely set to these values using
118 GHz / 3 x 0.5 MW
a motorised system. Each RFCU is connected to~30 m of a 63.5 mm diameter evacuated waveguide, the reference transmission system for
ITER. For the X2 gyrotrons each wave guide isconnected to a low-field side launcher, which has
TCV
two angular degrees of freedom. One degree of
freedom has real-time steering capability with amaximum angular mirror sweep rate of 48 °/sec.
The mirror orientation can be such as to
X2-LFS Launch
sweep either the poloidal or the toroidal injection
X2-Cluster A
angles during the plasma shot. The 3 wave
82.7 GHz / 3 x 0.5 MW
Evacuated TL
guides from the X3 gyrotrons converge to a sinHE11, 63.5 mm
gle top-launch mirror which has radial-position
X2-Cluster B
RFCU
and poloidal-angle degrees of freedom. The X3
82.7 GHz / 3 x 0.5 MW
mirror angle has real-time steering capability of
20 °/sec. With the very flexible position and shape
Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating System layout

EFDA Fusion Newsletter

page 5More information:

control capability of the TCV poloidal field coil system, the real-time steering capabilities ofthe launching angles both for the X2 and X3 have proven to be essential. During a plasma
discharge, the real-time steering of the RF beams primarily permits experiments to be performed that would be significantly more difficult to analyse and interpret if performed on a shot
to shot basis. It also opens the door to the implementation of a feedback system for real-time
control of the power deposition location and/or driven current, which are essential for ITER.
A variety of plasma heating and current drive experiments have been carried out inrecent years. With the X2 gyrotrons, fully sustained non-inductive discharges are routinely
achieved by replacing the inductively driven current with CO-ECCD. These discharges havebeen extended to the study of advanced tokamak regimes, specifically to the formation ofa steady state electron internal transport barrier (e-ITB) in conjunction with alarge bootstrap fraction (up to 80% of the total plasma current). The stabilisation of local MHD instabilities, such as the sawtooth instability by ECCD at the
q=1 surface has also been extensively studied. The developed tools may be
used to prevent long sawtooth periods, which have been shown to trigger the
onset of NTMs in low beta discharges on JET, which are similar to the operating regimes planned for ITER.
The X3 system broadens the operational space of TCV with the possibilityof heating plasmas at high density, well above the cutoff density of the X2 system (ne = 4.2 x 1019 m-3). In recent experiments with a target plasma density of
ne = 4.5 x 1019 m-3 and 1.35 MW of X3 injected from the top launcher, full single-pass absorption has been achieved, with the total plasma energy increasing by a factor of 2.5.
In parallel to the physics studies with the ECH system installed on TCV,
within the frame of EFDA, the Association Euratom-CRPP is strongly involvedin the European gyrotron development programme, which is, from its inception,
focused on the development of sources having high unit power. Within this programme, the technical development by industry (gyrotrons for TCV, Tore-Supraand W7-X) aims at gaining all the necessary knowledge to build a high power
Continous Wave (CW) tube. The European community is now engaged in the
joint development by Associations and industry of a 2 MW, CW, coaxial cavity gyrotron at
170 GHz, its test stand (including the power supplies, series switch, transmission line, RFload) and a prototype upper launcher for the ITER EC system. Contributions to the gyrotron
development come from the
Euratom Associations CRPP,FZK and TEKES, with the participation of CEA, and from theindustrial partner THALESElectron Device. The test
stand involves a collaboration
betweenthe
Euratom
Associations CNR, CRPP,
ENEA, and FOM while CEA,
CNR, CRPP, FOM, FZK, IPP,
IPF and UKAEA are collaborating on the development of
the upper launcher and themodeling. These activities arepreparing for high power tests
to be carried out at CRPP
once a suitable gyrotron isavailable.

General view of the
gyrotron platform

FZK, Karlsruhe(Germany)
http://www.fzk.de/

TEKES, Helsinki (Finland)
http://www.tekes.fi/

CEA (France)
http://www-fusionmagnetique.cea.fr/

THALES Electron Device
http://www.thalesgroup.com/ho
me/home/index.html

CNR, Milano (Italy)
http://www.ifp.it/

ENEA (Italy)
http://www.frascati.enea.it/

FOM, Utrecht (TheNetherlands)
http://www.rijnh.nl/n0/f1234.htm

IPF, Stuttgart (Germany)
http://www.uni-stuttgart.de/ipf/
index_e.html

IPP, Garching (Germany)
http://www.ipp.mpg.de

UKAEA, Culham (UK)
http://www.ukaea.org.uk

EFDA Fusion Newsletter

page 6

Associations
Successful test of the ITER lower hybrid launcher prototype on FTU
The Frascati Tokamak Upgrade (FTU) at the Association Euratom - ENEA in Frascati(Italy) has successfully tested a prototype of the Lower Hybrid wave launcher presently considered for ITER: the Passive-Active Multijunction (PAM). The PAM is a slow-wave structure in which the active waveguides (which transmit the RF power) are separated by passive waveguides (which transmit no power, but contribute to the launched wave spectrum)that allow enough space for the cooling system (see photo) and neutron shielding. Lower
Hybrid waves could contribute significantly to the production of externally driven current insteady-state (“advanced”) scenarios in ITER, so that the PAM test is crucial to test the viability of Lower Hybrid waves for such operational regimes. The FTU prototype, developed
within a collaboration between ENEA and CEA, is aimed at testing the concept.
The power density achieved on the FTU experiment in almost steady state conditions
has been 75 MW/m2, close to the design value of 80 MW/m2, and approximately 50%
greater than the value required for ITER when allowance is made for the difference in RF
frequencies between FTU (8 GHz) and ITER (5 GHz).
An important feature of the PAM is the good coupling capability at low density (below
the cut-off value at the waveguide mouth), as will be the case in ITER. This feature has
been successfully tested on FTU by coupling LH power with the PAM located close to (even75

Fig.1 – Reflection coefficient and injected power
in quasi steady state conditions.

For more information on
FTU see:
http://www.frascati.enea.it/FTU

Fig.2 – Effects of the PAM power on the plasma (Ip=0.35MA, n=5 x 1019m-3)
compared with a conventional grill launching a similar N|| spectrum

2 mm behind) the vacuum chamber inner surface: the reflected power in these conditions is
below 1.6%, as shown in Fig. 1 for a discharge where the PAM grill was flush to thevacuum chamber wall, well behind the limiter.
Current drive effects are evidenced in Fig. 2, where a clear decrease in the loop voltage
can be seen. A comparison is made between the PAM powered on its own, a conventional
grill excited to launch about the same power with a quite similar spectrum of modes propagating in the plasma (as defined by their parallel refractive index, “N||”), and with a combined
PAM and conventional grill. From the dash-dotted horizontal lines indicating the averagevalue of Vloop during the different phases of the discharge, it can be seen that the current
drive efficiency, characterised by the decrease in loop voltage, is comparable for the PAM
and a conventional launcher. A more detailed analysis using a camera which measures
Bremsstrahlung radiation from fast electrons is underway.

page 7

EFDA Fusion Newsletter

EnergyInvited experts:

Workshop: What role can fusion energy play in developing countries?
The development of nuclear fusion is expected to reach new dimensions with the construction of the ITER experiment, which will be able to demonstrate the proof of principle fornuclear fusion. The question then arises as to what benefits and what kind of problems
would be connected to the widespread use of nuclear fusion. Numerous studies predict thatthe increase in energy demand will occur mainly in countries as Asia, South America andAfrica. Only technologies which can be applied in these recently emerging markets will beable to have an impact on the overall global development.
The joint IPP-EFDA-JIEE Workshop organised by Dr. T. Hamacher took place at the
Association Euratom-IPP in Garching (Germany) on December 10th – 12th 2003 andaddressed this question with particular reference to developing countries, such as India andChina. On the first day invited experts from China, Korea, the US, Germany, as well as fromIIASA and IEA discussed the global and regional energy scenarios and the perspective for
R & D for nuclear fusion. Prof. N. Nakićenović presented the energy development dilemma of China and India between economically and environmentally driven scenarios. Regarding the future environmental commitments of transition countries, the presentation prepared by Prof. R.P. Shukla pointed out that only in the case of carbon restrictions fusion will make it into the scenarios. Prof. Y. Huo also referred to the massive use ofcoal in China. However, to avoid future environmental damage, nuclear energy – fission andfusion – is and will become a very important component in the rapidly evolving chinese
energy system. Dr. J. F. Clarke presented nuclear pathways to a carbon-free future.
On the second day resource availability and technological capabilities were discussed. Dr.
J.-H. Han presented the Korean fission programme and Dr. H. Kato showed recently elaborated scenarios on the availability of gas and oil in the world. Dr. J. Sheffield also focussed on
world oil use as a central theme, presenting the analysis made by Greene et al. (ORNL/TM2003/259). Other topics addressed included energy and geopolitics in Asia in the 21st century, presented by Dr. F. Müller, and the problem of proliferation, presented by Dr. B. Richter.
It was concluded that the future world energy demand, driven mainly by the need toraise standards of living across the world and constrained by climate change considerations, will require the introduction of new energy technologies on a massive scale, so thata global development effort in deploying new technologies is required. All energy sources
will be required to meet the varying needs of the different countries and to enhance thesecurity of each one against the kind of energy crisis that has occurred in the past. In fact,
fusion energy is viewed as an important potential option in the latter half of this century fortransitional and developing countries, including China, India and Korea – countries which
are home to more than a third of the world’s population.

Prof. N. Nakićenović,
International Institute forApplied Systems Analysis(IIASA), Technical University,
Vienna (Austria)
Prof. R.P. Shukla,
Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ahmedabad (India)(not participating)
Prof. Y. Huo,
Zheng Zhou University, Zheng
Zhou (China)
Dr. J.-H. Han,
Korea Basic Science Institute,Daejeon (Korea)
Dr. J. Sheffield,
Joint Institute for Energy andEnvironment (JIEE), Universityof Tennessee, Knoxville (USA)Dr. H. Kato,
Energy Analyst, International
Energy Agency (IEA), Paris(France)
Dr. J. F. Clarke,
Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory, Richland (USA)Dr. F. Müller,
Stiftung für Wissenschaft und
Politik, Berlin (Germany)
Dr. B. Richter,
Forschungszentrum Jülich,Jülich (Germany)

The presentations and asummary of the workshop
will be available by theend of February on:
http://www.efda.org

EFDA Fusion Newsletter

page 8JET
Artificial diamonds for neutrons
A successful test on JET of artificial diamonds as a neutron diagnostic for ITER

For more information
see our EFDA website:

Relative Counts

The high neutron fluxes of burning plasmas will be an essential source of informahttp://www.efda.org
tion to assess the performance and properties of ITER discharges. Therefore, neutron
and additionallydiagnostics are expected to play a key role in ITER and the possibility of testing them
http://www.jet.efda.org
in advance is one of the reasons for the great
http://www.iter.org
emphasis placed on them during the recent JET
Campaign which used trace levels of tritium indeuterium discharges. In the area of neutron
counters, a significant effort is being devoted tothe search for good detectors which can survive
the harsh environment of a fusion device. This
involves an international co-operation between
EFDA parties and Russian Federation Institutes.
Silicon detectors provide accurate information
on neutron fluxes but show severe limitations intheir operational life when
Fig. 1: Picture of the CVD diamond detector
operating in the harsh enviinstalled at JET during the Trace Tritium
Experiments of 2003.
ronment present in a tokaDimensions are in centimetres.
Temporal behaviour for Pulse 61352
mak. This is a matter of concern for their use as 14 MeV neutron monitors in ITER, due to the
0.028
0.026
expected high neutron fluences.
Fis. Ch.
M-diode0.024
There are several approaches which could be alternatives to
CVD-Thr/1
0.022
the more standard silicon technology. The large band gap energy
0.020(5.5 eV) and the high breakdown voltage (≈ 10 7 Vcm-1) make dia0.018
mond the most promising among the different proposed alterna0.016
tives to silicon for fast and low-noise sensors. In the past, and also
0.014
in the Trace Tritium Experiments (TTE) of 2003, Natural Diamond
0.012
0.010
Detectors (NDD) have been used as 14 MeV neutron detectors.
0.008
During these experiments Chemical Vapour Deposited (CVD) dia0.006
mond detectors were also tested successfully (Figure 1 shows the
0.004
diode installed on JET). A particular advantage of the CVD dia0.002
monds with respect to natural diamonds is their low cost and the
0.000
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
possibility of producing large surfaces of variable thickness rangTime (sec)ing from a few microns up to more than 1 mm.
For several years high quality polycrystalline CVD diamondfilms have been produced at the Faculty of Engineering, Rome
Fig. 2: Example of CVD diamond detector temporal response“Tor Vergata” University. Since 1998 collaboration with(blue line) compared to Fission Chamber (dashed line) and
Association Euratom-ENEA Frascati (Italy) has been establishedsilicon detector M-diode (red line)
to study the use of CVD diamond films as fast neutron detectors.
The comparison between CVD diamond and standard silicondetectors shows an excellent correlation (Figure 2).
In the future, it is proposed to install new and more sensitive detectors to be used during the JET Experimental Campaigns of 2005 for the measurement of the total neutron
flux and to provide additional information for the design of a neutron camera for ITER.
This work shows yet again that the tritium capability of JET is a key asset for progressing reactor relevant issues on the route to ITER.

EFDA Close Support Unit - Garching
Boltzmannstr. 2
D-85748 Garching / Munich - Germany© M.Q. Tran (EFDA Leader) 2004.

phone: +49-89-3299-4237
fax: +49-89-3299-4197
e-mail: federico.casci@efda.org
editors: Federico Casci, Doris Lutz-Lanzinger
graphic design: Karen Jens

The EFDA Parties are the European Commission and the Associates of the European
Fusion Programme which is co-ordinated and managed by the Commission.
Neither the Commission, the Associates nor anyone acting on their behalf is responsible
for any damage resulting from the use of information contained in this publication.

This internal newsletter or parts of it may not be reproduced without permission.
Text, pictures and layout, except where noted, courtesy of the EFDA Parties.