An Analysis of the Current State of
the Romanization of Japanese
Especially the Representation of Long Vowels

Jiro Numano
Michael Sullivan

Two distinct types of characters are used to write Japanese． One
type， called hanji， are ideographs； i． e． they represent an idea or a thing

but give no clue as to how the word ，is pronounced．' The other type ofcharacters， called hana in Japanese， are phonetic and represent the soundsof syllables． These play a secondary role to those of kanji， being used for

inflections of verbs and adjectives， and for prepositions， conjunctions，particles， and interjections．

Two forms of kana are used to write the Japanese syllabary．
Katahana is simple and angular in form， while hiragana is more fluid andcursive． The order of these characters is organized into 50 sounds， called
go‑J'uu‑on in Japanese， and shown in the following table．

TABLE1 Go‑Juu‑On Chart
a あ ア

i い イ

u う ウ

? え

，工

o お オ

kaか カ

ki き キku く クke け ケko こ コ

sa さ サshiし シsu す スse せ セso そ ソta た タchiち チtSUつ ツte て テto と トna な ナni に 二nu ぬ

ヌne ね ネno のha は ハhi ひ ヒfu ふ フhe ヘ へho ほ ホmaま マ．miみ ミ

ノ

muむ ム

meめ メ

moも モ

yaや ヤ

（i）

yu ゆ ユ（e）yo よ ヨ，ri り リru る ルre れ レro ろ ロ

（i）

（u）

（e）

woを ヲ

一

窒?り フ

waわ ワ
n'

@ん ン

Hiragana symbols are shown in the left column， katakana in the right． Bold
print represents problem areas in Romanizing Japanese．
一199‑
tTokuyama Univ． Ronso

No． 45， 1996

Japanese was first written in alphabetical form in the 16th century

with the arrival of Portuguese missionaries． Francisco Xavier of theJesuit Society， who is credited with being the first to alphabetize theJapanese language， landed at Kagoshima in 1549． The following year the

first Japanese literature written with Roman characters appeared． The
alphabetizing of Japanese became known as rorna‑」'i， since Roman script

was first used． At first， this was based on the pronunciation of
Portuguese ； however， Dutch， German， and French systems later appeared

as other foreign missionaries and merchants arrived in Japan． But after

the publication of James Curtis Hepburn's Collected Collation ofJapanese‑English Vocabulary in 1868， an English style of romanization
came into general use．

Three major styles of romanization were widely used． The first was
based on the style Hepburn used in his Collected Collation of Japanese‑
English Vocabulary and was adopted as a model to be followed in 1885 by

the Rornoji‑Kai （Roman Character Society）， a society promoting theromanization of Japanese． This style was revised again in 1905 by an‑other society promoting the romanization of Japanese which became
known as耳：yq1'un‑shihi。

Immediately after the Hepburn Style was announced by the Rornoji‑
Kai in 1885， Aikitsu Tanakadate proposed a contrasting system based on
the chart of fifty sounds （the go‑juu‑on table shown above）． This second

style became known as Nihon‑shihi． Later， various organizatiOns pro‑
posed their own styles of romanizing Japanese． lt soon became'

曹浮奄狽?con‑fusing； howeVer， each group supporting its own style， would not make any

concessions to any other group， and controversies ensued．

Those who supported the Nihon‑shihi style were equipped with thephonological theories of the Prague School and pointed out some contra‑
dictions of the Hebon‑shiki style， which backs the spellings of shi andchi． They argued that if the presence ofhin shi is to show‑the presenceof ［j］， which is detected on an oscillograph's electrical wave ； why not
spell ni and hi also with an h where ［j］ is also detected on the oscillo‑graph？ Furthermore， they indicated that chi is pronounced differently in
different languages ： ［Si］ in French， ［hi］ in German， and ［ki］ in lta1ian．

Therefore， why not adopt ti， they argued， for Japanese ［tSi］， instead of一200一Jiro Nurnano ' Michael Sullivan ： An Analysis of the Current State of the
Romanization of Japanese

following English pronunciation；'）
Demands to unify the styles came from both within Japan and with‑out． Consequently， in 1930， the Japanese government set up a committee

under the Ministry of Education to examine the matter． ln 1937， aCabinet lnstruction published Romanized Spelling which became known as
Kunrei‑shihi， Actually， however， this was a revised version of the Nihon‑

shiki． But since it was a Cabinet lnstruction， the national railway
adopted it to represent the names of train stations． lt was also used in

English textbooks of junior high schools． ln spite of the Cabinet
Instruction， all three systems continued to co‑exist． However， as WorldWar ll drew near， the use of the Kunrei‑shihi waned， leaving only the
Hebon‑shiki and the Nihon‑shiki．

Tamotsu Koizumi regards the Kunrei‑shiki style as a victory of pho‑nology over phonetics， as a practical aspect of spelling． While some may
think Kunrei‑shihi is a product of political， eclectic compromise， Mr．

Koizumi asserts that it was never an eclecticism of Nihon‑shihi andHyoJ'un‑shiki but is almost overwhelmingly Alihon‑shihi by itself‑even a

step further in an advanced system of representation in the eyes ofphonologians． lt is closer to ，the actual sounds in some cases， as zi and zu

than as di and du and as the sounds in the wa column of the Nihon‑
shihi． 2）

After the war， the Ministry of Education wanted to adopt the Kunrei‑

shiki ； however， the occupational forces， composed mainly of American
forces， did not implement this plan． lnstead， they allowed the use of the

Hebon‑shihi as the standard for Romanized spelling． ln September 1945，
the Headquarters of Allied Nations issued the following ：Transcriptionof names into English shall be in accord with the Modified Hepburn（Romoji） system．

Thus， a very intricate compromise stemming frompolitical decisions can be found in the current version of RomanizedSpelling， which was issued as a Cabinet lnstruction in 1954．
This version consists of two charts ： the first， the main standard， ispractically the same as the Kunrei‑shiki． The second chart employs the
Hebon‑shiki in its first five lines and the Nihon‑shiki in the rest． The

preface to these two charts allows both the Hepburn and Nihon Styles tobe used， depending on what they are being used for： whether for
二 201一No． 45， 1996

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

conventional use at home or for the system that is preferred abroad． A
case in point would be how to represent the particle wo that shows direct
object．

Bernard Bloch divided Japanese verbs into two groups： vowel verbs

and consonant verbs． Vowel verbs correspond to Kamiichidan andShimoichidan inflection verbs such as

okiru

and

taberu，nant verbs to Godan inflection verbs liketatsu．

consonant verb， e． g．

are 'as follows：

tatsu

and

ohosu

and conso‑

The inflection of the

Mizen 1
Mizen 2tat‑analokos‑anai

tat‑oookos‑oo

Renyoo 1

tat‑lmasu

okos‑imasu

Renyoo 2

tat‑taokos‑ita

Shuushi
Katei
Meireitat‑uokos‑utat‑ebaokos‑ebatat‑eokos‑eThus he shows that consonant verbs have very stable verb stems end‑
ing in a consonant， like tat一 and ohos一 as shown above， which is contrary

to the conventional concept of Japanese．3） From these linguistic and edu‑
cational points of view， we must admit that Kunrei‑shiki is more consis‑

tent and reasonable than Hebon‑shiki．
By far， the Hepburn Style， or Hebon‑shihi， is more widely used inJapan． The Japan Railway adopts this style for its signs and billboardsof train stations． For a long vowel sound it writes a line above thevowel， such as the o of Osaha． But other institutions or organizations

do not． The Kyoto Municipal Subway， for example， writes the names of
its stations without the overline ： Kyoto， Gojo， Kujo， etc．

And herein lies the problem． Mr． Yasushi Amanuma states that
there are cases in which a person cannot understand the intended message

without knowing the referent， since the pronunciation could be different

from its original sound．

） For example， in the name NIPPON KOTSU，

the latter is read ［ko： tsu ：］． Since we know the company， we do notread it to mean kotsu ［kotsu］ ， a knack or trick of doing things．

The importance of this problem is further illustrated by Mr． Takao・

Umezawa， an advisor to the National Anthropological Museum， whotouches on the urgent need of completing the system of Romanization of

一202一Jiro Numano ' Michael Sullivan ： An Analysis of the Current State of the
Romanization of Japanese

the Japanese language． He says it is time for Japan to prepare for this，

if the nation is to survive in the international information‑race．
Although Japan might be able to retain the level of hardware productionin the information area， it must fully equip itself with an efficient meansof communication， in other words， a system of letters （characters） thatconvey information．5）
It was to see just how widespread and profound the confusion between
the two main styles of Romoji is， or if there is any confusion at all， thatthe writers undertook this project． We investigated actual applicationsof romanized writing of Japanese． First， we will look at how Japanese is

written in Roman alphabet in Japanese textbooks and treatises on
Japanese． Then， in the next section we will examine how signboards andother notices throughout Japan deal with this matter．

We examined fifty Japanese textbooks and twenty monographs on
Japanese， housed in the libraries of Tokuyama University and James Cook
University in Queensland， Australia． The classified table of the seventy

books is as follows． We divided them according to the systems ofromanization， Kunrei‑shiki or Hebon‑shihi， and according to the methodof writing long vowels， whether by doubling the vowel alphabet or putting
a small diacritical mark （一） over the vowel alphabet．

Hebon‑shiki

0

9
只U
‑り4

TEXTBOOKS

0にU‑⊥

Kunrei‑shiki0ーー

Hebon‑shiki0

06 0δ 06

TREATISES

0一〇

Kunrei‑shiki

41⊥︵Uにり一

Table2 Representation of Long Vowels

Thirty percent of the books in the table adopt Kunrei‑shilei， the ma‑

jority of which， 71 percent， are scholastic．treatises on Japanese． On theother hand， seventy percent of the whole adopt Hebon‑shihi， of which

一203一

No． 45， 1996

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

ninety percent are Japanese textbooks． （See Appendix A） Many of thescholastic books and research works， we observe， use Kunrei‑shihi as it ismore consistent in representing kanas and can show the forms of
consonant‑ending verb stems accurately． The majority of textbooks， on
the other hand， use Hebon‑shiki． Kunrei‑shiki is quite exceptional， six
out of fifty． We can infer'狽?≠?it is because Hebon‑shiki is quite practicalwhen we consider the fact that Hebon‑shihi spelling is familiar to learners
who know English． However， Kunrei‑shiki is still suited as textbooks forstudents majoring in Japanese and who need scholastic training．
Examples are ： Beginning Japanese， by Eleanor H． Jordan， and Modern

Japanese for University Students， prepared by the Japanese Departmentof lnternational Christian University．
We then examined the problem of representing long vowels using theRoman alphabet． The

Spelling of Roman Alphabet，

published in 1954，

instructs writers to put a macron on a long vowel， e． g． J'ido‑sha． Thirty‑

eight books out of the seventy we examined， however， adopt the method of
duplicating a vowel to represent a longマowe1， e．9． tesuur：ソoo． And inter‑estingly， vowel duplication is predominant among scholastic treatises，

reaching seventy percent． Among textbooks， the macron ． method （26books） slightly outnumbers the vowel‑duplication method （24 books）．
But， if we look at the distribution in the last fifteen years， we can see theincrea'sing tendency of the latter．

Table3 Textbooks Using Hebon‑Shiki
80

00

1

6

1

90

00
6

1

81

82

83

84

85

1

1

1

4

1

1

86

1

91

92

93

94

95 tota1

1

2

2

1

6

87

88

89 tota1

1

2

1

2

4

3

The foregoing is interesting， and may even prove useful to students

and scholars of Japanese language． However， how does any confusion
一 204 一810

Jiro Numano ' Michael Sullivan ： An Analysis of the Current State of the
Romanization of Japanesethat may exist between the main styles of Romoji affect the average per‑son who either lives in， or is visiting， Japan ？ To find out， the writers ex‑

amined Romanized descriptions of Japanese words‑mainly proper nouns
found in newspapers， magazines， on TV， and signboards at train stations
and in town．

We discovered that Hebon‑shiki is overwhelmingly predominant， andlong vowels［o：］and［u：コare represented， in the majority of cases， by one
letteroandurespectively as in Tokyo， Osaka， and Kyushu． The use・of a macron ［一］・is rather rare． The long vowels ［i：］ and ［e：］ are mostly
represented by the spelling of

ii

and

ei．

As for ［a：］， it seldom oc‑

curs ； we have not come across any example since we started our researchin March 1995， except for the expression

ah

for

ああ

in the novel

Sh6gun by James Clavell．
Typical examples are as follows ：Newspapers and magazines（Hebon‑shihi is italicized ； long vowels are underlined．）

Tokyo， Osaka， Kobe
（Asahi Evening News， Time and others）

Shoko Asahara， Teikyo University， Tohoku Region， Koriyama，
Eisaku Sato
（Asahi Evening News）

Kenzaburo Oe， 」'usen， Nihon Keizai Shimbun， Shinshinto Party，
MeiJ'iera， Asahi Juken， Koichi Kato（Time）

Shuzo Matsuoka（British TV）

Juzo Itami， karoshi， Hakuhodo， S枷kan Gendai， Hacん

q／i， Hibiya

Kokaido（Newsweek）

Hankyu， ichiro Ozawa， Ryutaro Hashimoto， Toru Takemitsu（Economist）

Kyushu， Nintendo， Shiseido， shosha， sogo shosha， ltochu， Nissho
Iwai， Sanyo Electric（Far Eastern Economic Review）

一205一

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso No． 45， 1996

Komeito， Zenko Suzuki， domo arigato（The Japan Times）

Shinshinto， Hyogo， Great Kanto Earthquake（The Daily Yomiuri）

Kyoto， Dai‑iehi Kangyo Bank Ltd．， RAFU SHAV［PO（Los Angeles Japanese Daily News）

Books
daimyo， bushido， ronin， kufuku， Domo arigato， tsuyaku， Sho‑gun，Taik‑o， do itashimashite'（Sh‑ogun， by James Clavell， 1975）

Tennoheika Banzai， ozoni， Oto‑chan（

Hiroshima，andHiroshima ： the Aftermath，by John Hearsey）

Sobetsukai， Keio University， Jiyugaoka（

Totto‑chan，by Tetsuko Kuroyanagi）

k‑okogaku， yakyti， sumHo， d6bun‑d6shu（

The Japanese，．by Edwin O． Reischauer）

foMruri， n6， S6seki Natsume， Mori Ogai（

1 am a Cat，

translated by Aiko lt6 and Graeme Wilson，

1972． The list includes examples from the introdUction．）

hyoshi（拍子），ノ。 c勧ge（上，中，下）（Japanese Music and Musical lnstruments，

by William P． Malam， 1959）

Names of Train Stations
YUrakuchσ， Ome（青梅），Keiy6（京葉），Shin‑nan‑y6（新南陽）（JR）

Ry耐8πCenter， Sh6waj●ima（Monorail， Tokyo）

Ookayama， Kami‑ooka， Jiyrtgaoka， Denench‑ofu（TokyotKyuko Dentetsu）

Kiyoshi‑Kojin， Juso， Rokko（Hankyu Railway）

一206一

．J'「o@Numano●M'chae1 Su11'van：食濃艦溜f詳h錦思瀦State of the

Kyoto， Kyobashi（Keihan Railway）

T6bu‑D6butsu K6en
（Subway， Tokyo）

Shin‑Osaka， Ryokuchi‑Koen（Subway， Osaka）

Road Signs
Hofu， Ogori， Shunan Green Park
（National Road）

Ono／o（大野城）．

'（Municipal Road）

Osa（大佐）， Shoo（勝央）， Kozuki（上月）， Okubo（大久保）， Oita（大分），Kongozan（金剛山）（Japan Road Corporation）

Computer Communication， lnternet
Taro， Taroh， nisikido， OhKUMA HaJ'ime， Sigematu（names for identification）

Chitose， Hokkaido ； shinshu（part of WWW address）

Bekkoame（name of a provider or access point）

Company， lndividual， et． al．

Toshiba， Seino（西濃），Sanyo， Showa Bus， Toa Corporation， Fuso，

Bo‑ch6 Kotsu， Ohtsu Tire； Saga Kousoku， Houtnei Gakkan，Kyocera（names of companies）

Kaiwo maru（海王丸）（name of a ship）

Koban（交番）（sign at police box in Kitasenri， Osaka， and Tokuyama，
Yamaguchi）

一207一

No． 45， 1996

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso
Kudoh， Oh（baseball players' names on their uniforms）

Kenichi Ohmae（individual）

In the practice of electronic media such as the lnternet， which has be‑come widespread， Hebon‑shiki and the substitute use of an

o

and a

u

for ［o ：］ and ［u ：］ are predominant， as expected． However， Kunrei‑shihi

spellings of tu， ti and si forっ，ち，しare found on rare occasions， proba‑

bly because keyboard combinations of t十u， t十i， and s十i represent thosehanas， as do t'十s十u， c十h十i， and s十h十i and it is easier and faster totype two keys than three． Also， the cases of an additional
to show the lon'

short

o．

h

after

o

?vowel are found occasionally to differentiate it from

These are the practices in which we take an interest． Apattfrom the present study， there remains the problem of whether or not to
put the family name first or the given name first in writing the names ofJapanese people．

．

At first， the writers aimed to find which system of writing Japanesein the Roman alphabet is most appropriate． The writing of Japanese‑
mainly proper nouns‑in Romoji is increasing rapidly， in printed media
as well as electronic media． ln conclusion， however， we can not help
admitting the current eclectic state of things， in which each party con‑cerned adopts what system it regards most appropriate according to its
purpose‑whether it be education， academic study， or communication．
In the field of education， Hebon‑shihi is predominant and representing
long vowels is divided into both

一〇一style

andoo‑style，of which the． lat‑ter is increasing in recent years． Nozomu Tanaka， a staff member of theJapanese Language Education Center， National Japanese lnstitute， writes
about this ：Duplicating a vowel to represent a long vowel is more widelyused in Japanese education． lt is a representation in cohformity with ac‑tual pronunciation and a proper way of implanting rhythmic sense ofJapanese which counts a long vowel as two measures．

6）

The writers agree with Tanaka， as we both have had experience ofteaching Japanese at the University of Maryland and know the appropri‑
ateness of theoo‑style．

The reason Hebon‑shihi is widely adopted is一208一Jiro Numano ' Michael Sullivan ： An Analysis of the Current State of the
Romanization of Japanese

the overwhelming spread of English and the knowledge of English spelling
sh

［S］，

ch

［tS］，andts［ts］ among learners of Japanese． This is amatter of efficiency．
In scholastic treatises Kunrei‑shihi is dominant． lt is due to the factthat Kunrei‑shiki retains systematic alphabet combinations of gyo（行）
and dαn（段）in the fifty‑sound table（Go‑iuu‑on）． Another factor is that

Kunrei‑shiki is capable of representing verb stems of consonant ending
verbs． Therefore， the Kunrei‑shiki system is superior to Hebon‑shihi indealing with scholastic studies and more serious education．
As for the writing of Japanese names and words in alphabet in news‑

papers， magazines， on TV and on signboards at train stations， and intown， Hebon‑shiki is overwhelmingly predominant ； and the way of repre‑
senting long voWels ［o ：］ and ［u ：］ by single letters such as

o

and

u

is

almost here to stay， e． g． Tokyo， Osaka， Kyushu． This is understandable

when we notice that
English anduoitself is pronounced as a diphthong ［ou］ inas ［ju ：］ with a lengthening mark ［：］． The use of Hebon‑

shiんi is also predominant in the electronic media of computer communica‑
tion， notably on the lnternet． By the way， the long vowel ［a ：］， which
occurs quite rarely， is represented by bothpractice of expressing ［i ：］ by

ii

aa

， and

， and ［ei］ by

ei

ah．

However， theseems to be fixed．

Examples are okaasan， kawaii， ii desu， sensei， gakusei， and eiga． The
practice of using a single

o

or

u

for the long vowels ［o ：］ and ［u ：］has the problem of not being able to tell if

or小判， or if

shugyokobanmeans交番［ko：ban］

means修行［∫ugjo：］qr終業［∫u：gjo：］． This isa major problem which calls for a solution．

The writers believe that mistaking the meaning of one word for an‑other does not occur very often， sihce romanized representation ofJapanese in English is all but restricted to proper nouns and occasionaltransliterations of a single spotlighted or well‑known word， such as
jusen（住専），or

dango（談合），both of which are possible to be iden‑tified from context．
As a matter of contrast， Chinese romanization， Pin‑yin， is not al‑

mighty either；it is true that it has a unified spelling system which isadopted in English writing， but it does not have the tone marks．

Examples are：Beijing（北京）， Shanghai（上海）and diannao（電脳）．

一209一

No． 45， 1996

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

Here， too， knowledge of the context by the reader helps to establish accu‑

rate understanding． A name is， in most cases， given by the person
himself or herself， or a corporation itself， and so there are persons andcorporations that add an

h

after

o

，1ike Mohri（毛利）to differentiate

from Mori（森）．
Lastly， there might come a time when macron‑added vowels like

and

ti

6

would be incorporated into both printed mass‑media and elec‑

tronic media， just like German 6， U， and French e， 6， g， are curreritly ob‑

servable in printed English material． But the possibility of its
realization is very small and would be far in the future， if that time wereever to come．

Footnotes
1）小泉 保「日本語の正書法」，大修館書店，1978年，218頁。
2）小泉，上掲書，219‑220頁。
3）Miller， Roy A．編林栄一監訳「ブロック日本語論考」，研究社，
1977年，9‑11頁。

4）武部良明編「日本語の文字・表記」上，明治書院，1989年，321頁。

5）1995年1月4日，朝日新聞。
6）田中 望「外国人に日本語を教える本」，明日香出版，1984年，120頁。

一210一

Jiro Numano ' Michael Sullivan ： An Analysis of the Current State of the
Romanization of Japanese

APPENDIX A

Books on Japanese language ： particularly textbooks andscholastic treatises

1 Scholastic treatises
1 Martin， Samuel E．， A Reference Grammar of Japanese， Charles E．

Tuttle，1975． KUNREI‑SHIKI．

2 Martin， Samuel E．， The Japanese Language Through Tirne， Yale
University Press， 1987． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo， uu for long vowels，（hereafter oo‑style） ．

3 Martin， Samuel E．， and Chaplin， Hamako lto， Character Dictionary

accornpanying 'Japanese． A Manual of Reading and Writing．'
Charles E． Tuttle，1987． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

4 Lange， Roland A．， Japanese Verbs， Barron's Educational Series，Inc．，1988． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

5 Matsuo， Soga， Tense and Aspect in Modern Colloquial Japanese，
University of British Columbia Press， 1983． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

6Shibatani， Masayoshi， The‑Lαn8uα8'es（ゾJap anese， Cambridge
University Press，1990． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

7・ Takao， Gunji， Japanese Phrase Structure Grammar， D． Reidel
Publishing Co．，1987． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．
8 Aoki， Haruo， and others， Basib Structures in Japanese， Taishukan
Publishing Co．，1984． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

9 lde， Sachiko， and McGloin， Haraoka， ed．， Aspects of Japanese

Women's Language， Kuroshio Publishers，1991． KUNREI‑SHIKI．
oo‑style．

10 lmai， Takashi， and Saito， Mamoru， ed．， lssues in Japanese
Linguisties， Foris Publications，1987． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

11 Bloc， Bernard， Studies in Cblloquial cJapanese， Yale University
Press，1969． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

12 Nakau， Minoru， Sentential Complementation in Japanese， Kaitaku‑
sha，1973． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．
13Kluno， Susumu， TんθS伽伽rθ（）f the Jaρ anese五αn8uαge， The MIT
Press，1973． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

14 Kuroda， S． Y．， Japanese Syntax and Semantics， Kluwer Academic

一211一Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

No． 45， 1996

Publishers，1992． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

15 Teramura， Hideo， Syntax and meaning of Japanese， Kuroshio
Shuppan，1982． KUNREI‑SHIKI． 'o‑style．

16 Miller， Roy A．， Japanese and the Other AZtaic Languages， The
University of Chicago Press，1971． HEBON‑SHIKI． Mo‑style．
17 Habein， Yaeko Sato， The History of the Japanese Written Language，
University of Tokyo Press，1984． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

18Suzuki， Takao， Reflections on Japαnese五αnguαgeαn（i CuZture， The
Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies of Keio University， 1987．
HEBON‑SHIKI， 一〇一style．

19 Miller， Roy A．， The Japanese Language， The University of Chicago
Press，1967． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

20 McClain， Yoko Matsuoka， Handbook of Modern Japanese Gram‑mar， The Hokuseido Press，1981． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

ll Textbooks
21 Jorden， Eleanor Harz， Beginning Japanese， Yale University Press，
1963． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．
22 Martin， Samuel E．， and Chaplin， Hamako lto， Japanese． A Manualof Reading and Writing， Charle．s E． Tuttle Co．， 1987． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

23 Martin， Samuel E．， and Chaplin， Hamako lto， Character Dictionary

accompanying 'Japanese． A ManuaZ of Reading and Writing'，
Charles E． Tuttle Co．，1987． KUNREI‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

24 Japanese Department of lnternational Christian University， Modern
Japanesefor Universitor Students， lnternational Christian University
Bookstore，1966． KUNREI‑SHIKI． ob‑style．

25 Masuoka Takashi， Takubo Yukinori， Basic Grarnrnar of Japanese，
Kuroshio‑Shuppan，1989． KUNREI‑SHIKI． ．oo‑style．

26 Takahashi‑Kenzi， Grimm D‑owasN‑u， Romazi ky‑oikukai， 1960．
KUNREI‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

27 Young， John， and Nakajima‑Okano Kimiko， Learn Japanese，
University of Hawaii，1967． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

28 Mizutani Osamu， Mizutani Nobuko， An lntroduction to Modern
Japanese， The Japan Times，1977． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

29 Japanese Section of Center for Linguistic and Cultural Research，
University of Nagoya， A Course in Modern Japanese， University of

一 212 一Jiro Numano ' Michael Sullivan ： An Analysis of the Current State of the
Romanization of Japanese

Nagoya Press，1983． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．
30 Alfonso， Anthony， Japanese ．' A Basic Course， Sophia University，
1970． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

31 McGown， V．， others， Japanesefor the Tourist lndustry， Hospitality
Press，1988． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

32 Miyakawa， Agnes M．， Minimum Essential Politeness． A Guide to
the A Japanese Honorific Language， Kodansha lnternational， 1991．
HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

33 De Mente， Boye， Japanese in Plain English， Passport Books．
HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

34 Tohsaku Yasu‑Hiko， YOOKOSO ！ An lntroduction to Contemporary
Japanese， McGraw‑Hill， Inc．，1994． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

35 Sakamoto Kikuko， Japanese． VVhat do ovou do in this case 9，
Bonjinsha，1992． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

36 McGloin， Naomi Hanaoka， A Students' Guide to Japanese Gram‑mar， Taishukan Publishing Co．，1989． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．
37 lnamoto， Noboru， Colloquial Japanese， Charles E． Tuttle Co．， 1972．

HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

38Hijirida，：Kyoko， Jap anese五αnguαgeαn（i Culture for Businessαn（iTravel， University of Hawaii Press，1987． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

39 Chamberlain， F．， Japanese for Busy Australians， Moreton Bay
Publishing，1992． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

40 Pinkerton， Yoko， and others， Japanese IVow！for Tourism and
Hospitalitbl， Hospitality Press， 1993． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

41 Ashworth， David， and Hitosugi lkumi， 12Vritten Japanese． An
Introduction， Japan‑America lnstitute of Management Science， 1993．

HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

42 Public Relations ＆ Advertising Department of lshikawajima‑Harima

Heavy lndustries Co．， Ltd．， Japanese Language KnoLv‑how，
Gakuseisha，1985． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．
43 Alfonso， Anthony， Japanese Language Patterns， Sophia University，
1980． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

44 Tanaka Nozomi， A Booh for Teaching Japanese to Foreigners，Asuka‑Shuppan，1984． HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

45 Mizutani Osamu， Mizutani Nobuko， Japanese Language Notes：
Answers to Questions from 170reigners， The Japan Times， 1988．
HEBON‑SHIKI． oo‑style．

一213一

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

No． 45， 1996

46 Smith， Richard， and Parry， Trevor Hughes， Japanese Language andPeople， BBC Books，1991． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

47 Bowing， Richard， and Laurie， Haruko Ury‑u， An lntroduction toModern Japanese， Cambridge University Press， 1992． HEBON‑SHIKI． 6‑style．

48 Higurashi Yoshiko， Current Japanese‑lntercultural Communi‑
cation， Bonjinsha，1987． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

49 Nagasaki Takeaki， Let's Learn Japanese‑from the series on ABC‑TV， Japan Foundation，1986． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

50 The Japanese Language School of the lnternational Student lnstituteJapan， How to Use Good Japanese， The lnternational Student
Institute，1973． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．
51 Martin， Samuel E．， Essential Japanese， Charles E． Tuttle， 1954．

HEBON‑SHIKI． 6‑style．

52 The Association for Overseas Technical Scholarship， The Basis of
Netv Japanese， Three A Network，1990． HEBON‑SHIKI． Mo‑style．
53 Sakade， Florence， ed．， A Guide to Reading and VVriting Japanese，Charles E． Tuttle Co．，1959． HEBON‑SHIKI． Mo‑style．

54 Yoshida Yasuo， and others， Japanese for Beginners， Gakken， 1976．
HEBON‑SHIKI． No‑style．

．55 Association for Japanese‑Language Teaching， cfapanese for Busy
People， Kodansha lnternational，1984． HEBON‑SHIKI， Mo‑style．

56 Association for Japanese‑Language Teaching， Reading Japanese
Finaneial Newspapers， Kodansha lnternational， 1991． HEBON‑SHIKI． 6‑style．

57 Miller， Roy Andrew， A Japanese Reader， Graded Lessons in theMo（iern五αnguαge， Charles E． Tuttle Co．，1962． HE：βON‑SHIKI． 6‑
style．

58 Sugawara Makoto， Nihongo， The East Publications， lnc．， 1985．
HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

59 Braden， John， Read Practical Japanese， Kenkyusha， 1976． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

60Kuratani Naoomi， A Nθω1）ictionαr：ソ（ゾKαηノi〔］sαge， Gakken，1982．
HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

61 Naganuma Naoe， and Mori Kiyoshi， Naganuma's Practical Japa‑
nese， Chofusha，1962． HEBON‑SHIKI． 6‑style．
62 Vance， Timothy J．， An lntroduction to Japanese Phonology， State一214一

University of New York Press，1987． HEBON‑SHIKI． 6‑style．
63 Suzuki Shinobu， ed．， Nihongo Hatsuon， Bonjinsha， 1978． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

64 Hadamitzky， Wolfgang， and Spahn， Mark， A Guide to Writing Kanji
and Kana， Charles E． Tuttle Co．， 1991． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

65 O'Neill， P． G．， A Reader of Handwritten Japanese， Kodansha
International，1984． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

66 Nelson， Andrew Nathaniel， The Modern Reader's Japanese‑English
Charaeter Dictionary， Charles E． Tuttle Co．， 1962． HEBON‑SHIKI．
一〇一style．

67 Defense Language lnstitute， Japanese Headstart， Defense Language
Institute，1980． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

68 Schwarz， Edward A．， and Ezawa Reiko， cJapanese lllustrated，
Shufunotomo Co．， Ltd．，1974． HEBON‑SHIKI． Ho‑style．
69 Seton， Alistair， and others， Japanese Vocabularor for Speahers andReaders， Hokuseido Press，1984． HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

70Mori Arimasa，五econs l）θJaponαis， Libraire Taishukan，1972．
HEBON‑SHIKI． 一〇一style．

一215一