Helping Japanese ESL/EFL Learners Overcome Difficulties inIntercultural Communication
Pino CUTRONE

Abstract
This paper examines some of the potential difficulties Japanese ESL/EFL speakers
experience when conversing across cultures. This paper explores how some of thecharacteristics researchers have ascribed to the Japanese communication style may
influence spoken encounters in English. Considering some of the fundamental issues
underpinning cross-cultural misunderstandings, this paper offers foreign EFL/ESL
teachers of Japanese students some practical suggestions and activities designed to help
their learners achieve more fruitful cross-cultural conversations.
Keywords: Intercultural Communication, Misunderstanding, Backchannel, Wa, Reticence

Introduction
In my experiences teaching EFL and living in Japan, I have experienced firsthand how
culture plays such a vital role in intercultural communication (ICC) and language learning.
Following Haslett’s (1989: 20-21) definition, culture is defined in broad terms as a ‘shared,
consensual way of life’ which ‘provides the shared tacit knowledge that enables members tounderstand and communicate with each other’. In this way, this paper deals with certain aspectsof Japanese culture that may influence Japanese EFL/ESL speakers (JESs) to varying degrees.
When I asked seventeen students at my school if they are ever uncomfortable when speaking
English to native English speakers (NESs), fifteen of them said that they were. When I asked
them why, the most cited reason (fourteen times) was something to the effect that they felt
incompetent because they were unsure of how to behave in situations unfamiliar to them.
Although many of these learners may have the linguistic competence necessary to communicate,many are uncomfortable and unable to communicate with people from cultures very different
from their own. This dilemma provides the impetus for writing this paper.
This paper will be divided into three parts. In the first part, I provide a brief review of someof the research which has studied the sociolinguistic competence of JESs. In the second part, I
describe how some of the difficulties JESs experience when speaking English may be due to an
instinct to adhere to the Japanese cultural concept Wa (harmony) in conversations. Some of thespecific areas which researchers have reported to cause misunderstandings in ICC involve the―１１―Journal of the Faculty of Global Communication, University of Nagasaki No．
１
１
（２
０
１
０）

Japanese tendency to avoid plain and direct statements, an inclination to reticent behavior, and thediffering use of backchannels in conversations. Consequently, in the third part of this paper, I
offer some suggestions which may help teachers to better prepare Japanese EFL students for ICC.

Part 1: A Review of the Literature
In my review of the research, I address two main questions: (1) what are the maindifferences between the Japanese communication style from that of NESs, and (2) how can thesedifferences (as they pertain to JESs) be explained? Much of the research centers on particularspeech acts and is cross-sectional in design. In an article in which he discusses Japanese learners’
failure to acquire sociolinguistic competence in English, Ellis (1991) provides us with a starting
point. By drawing on considerable research (Clancy 1990; Graham 1990; Hill 1990; Beebe et al.
1990; Beebe and Takahashi 1989; Wolfson 1989; Tanaka 1988; Locastro 1987; Takahashi and
Beebe 1987; Fukushima and Iwata 1985; Wolfson 1983; Loveday 1982; and Barnlund 1974),
Ellis (1991: 116) offers the following generalizations of the Japanese communication style ascompared to NESs (Australian and American):
1. Japanese are less verbal, more inclined to use silence in intercultural interactions.
2. Japanese are inclined to use more back-chanelling devices.
3. Japanese can be more direct in some situations, in particular those where a lower-status
person is being addressed, and less direct in others.
4. Japanese may lack the politeness strategies needed to successfully perform face-threatening
speech acts such as invitations and requests.
5. Japanese are less explicit in giving reasons for their verbal behavior.
6. Japanese tend to be more formal.
7. Japanese tend to give recognition to status relationships between speakers rather than to levelof familiarity. (Ellis 1991: 116)
From this list, it is plain to see that many differences exist between the communications styles ofJapanese people and native speakers of English from the west. Several of the differences in Ellis’
list are consistent with my own observations of the Japanese communicative style; however, it isimperative that any researcher and/or teacher proceed with extreme caution in arriving at any
conclusions and/or generalizations where culture is concerned, so as to not fall into the culturist
trap of reducing individuals to less than they are. Clearly, even within cultural parameters, there
will be a great deal of individual variation caused by such factors as the speakers’ personality,
age, the context of the conversation, status of interlocutor, etc. This paper is not meant to simplify
the complex dynamics involved in human communication. Rather, it has the minimal goal ofraising teachers’ consciousness towards potential origins of cross-cultural miscommunication, so
as to give them an increased tolerance and acceptance of behaviour that may be different fromwhat they are used to, as well as a better understanding of how they might approach instruction
related to these areas.

―１
２―

Pino CUTRONE：Helping Japanese ESL/EFL Learners Overcome Difficulties in Intercultural Communication

1.1 Harmony in Japanese Society
One of the common descriptions of the Japanese communication style involves a need tokeep conversations harmonious and avoid confrontations. This concept is referred to as Wa or
Omoiyari in Japanese, and like so many other of Japan’s cultural concepts, it is especiallydifficult for Westerners to grasp because it does not have an English equivalent. According to
Lebra (1976, referred to in White 1989: 67) and Matsumoto and Boye Lafayette (2000: 193), thisis a key concept to understanding Japanese people. In a study in which he used questionnaires toelicit students’ views, Barnlund (1974, cited in Ellis 1991: 112) confirms that the participants in
his study emphasize the need to keep a conversation pleasant by avoiding disagreement andmaking concessions to ensure smooth communication.
Loveday (1982: 12) and Hill (1990: 70) report on the Japanese tendency to favor indirect
and suggestive comments, rather than direct and plain statements. According to Elwood (2001:20) and Matsumoto and Boye Lafayette (2000, 23), Japanese do this to avoid hurting someone’s
feelings, as well as to maintain harmony. Similarly, Matsumoto and Boye Lafayette (2000: 13)
contend that Japanese are inclined to silence because they are afraid that their words may hurt
someone’s feelings. In addition, the Japanese also use backchannelling devices to maintainharmony (Kenna and Lacy 1994: 19). White (1989: 73) and Locastro (1987: 112) report that JESs
tend to use backchannelling devices more frequently than NESs, and often feel uncomfortablespeaking in English because they are unable to use the appropriate backchannelling devices.

Part 2: Examining some of the Difficulties JESs Experience in ICC
This section attempts to describe how various manifestations of the Japanese culture concept
Wa can possibly influence intercultural communication in English. These manifestations include
a communication style that has sometimes been described by NESs as indirect or ambiguous,
reticent, and containing backchannel behaviour that may sometimes be deemed unconventional or
awkward in English.
2.1 Ambiguity
There has been much written regarding the Japanese tendency towards favoring vague andsubjective statements in their conversations as a way to maintain harmony. This concept is called
Aimai in Japanese and does not have an equivalent in English. According to Kagawa (1997: 59),
Japanese tend to view ambiguous behavior as savvy and intelligent, while in stark contrast, NESs
generally view ambiguity as illogical, irrational, and even dishonest or unintelligent. Although
Kagawa’s (1997) analysis seems to run the risk the risk of falling under the culturist trap
described above, it does provide readers with a sense of where miscommunication could possibly
occur.
An example of a misunderstanding occurring due to Aimai may be shown in myconversation with a proficient JES (Mr. X) several years ago. When Mr. X said he did not like big
cities, I asked him Why? I could see by the stressed look on Mr. X’s face that this question made―１
３―

Journal of the Faculty of Global Communication, University of Nagasaki No．
１
１
（２
０
１
０）

him uncomfortable. Pausing for several anxious moments before speaking, Mr. X went on to
discuss his aspirations of visiting many large cities in the world. While I wanted to ask him why
he wanted to visit large cities when he said earlier that he did not like large cities, I chose not tobecause of what happened the last time I asked him to explain his answer. Instead, I withdrew
from the conversation feeling bewildered. I have since learned that some JESs, when confronted
with the Why question, may become ambiguous if they feel that their interlocutor is disagreeing
with them (Kagawa 1997: 71).
2.2 Silence is Golden
Much has been written about the Japanese EFL learners’ disposition towards taciturn
behavior (Greer 2000; Townsend and Danling 1998; Anderson 1993; Nozaki 1993; Ellis 1991).
There seems to be two primary reasons for this. First, it appears that Japanese culture has agreater acceptance of silence as it is generally considered an admirable trait in Japanese society(Townsend and Danling 1998; Kenna and Lacy 1994). This can be attested to by the widely
acclaimed Japanese proverb chinmoku wa kin nari (silence is golden), which conveys a Japanesetendency to be suspicious of words because words have the power to hurt people’s feelings.
Second, the use of silence by JESs in conversations is sometimes the result of rule-conflictin English and Japanese conversations. That is, JESs, when confronted with questions which theycannot answer (for any number of reasons) may resort to silence as a face-saving measure. They
do this because saying I don’t know X does not connote the same things to a Japanese person thatit does to a NES. Noguchi (1987: 22) provides us with a useful example when he describes acommon scenario of a Japanese speaker (called Mr. Suzuki) who is proficient in English andsome of his friends engaged in a conversation with a visiting American businessman (called Mr.
Jones) who speaks no Japanese. During the conversation, Mr. Jones asks Mr. Suzuki what his
occupation is and Mr. Suzuki discovers that he cannot answer the questions because he does notremember the words quality control. Instead of answering I don’t know X or I don’t know how to
say X, a long silence ensues with everyone growing more uncomfortable with every passing
moment until Mr. Jones changes the topic. Noguchi (1987) describes the possible interplay in themind process of Mr. Suzuki:
From his Japanese language experience, he knows the conversational rule that if an appropriatequestion is addressed to him, he must provide an appropriate answer in the next speaking turn.
Yet, try as he might, he can not (sic) recollect the needed English words. At the same time, herealizes that he cannot admit this lapse of memory in front of the group, for he fears his Japanese
friends and Mr. Jones may belittle his intelligence or, perhaps, even begin to think that he really
does no work at all on his job. Thus, the face-protecting rule takes effect on Mr. Suzuki. (Noguchi
1987: 22)

This example seems to indicate that, in Japanese, I don’t know X often presupposes that the
speaker lacks knowledge of X because of a lack of intelligence or lack of interest in X.
In contrast, the expression I don’t know X in English would seem to carry the presupposition―１
４―

Pino CUTRONE：Helping Japanese ESL/EFL Learners Overcome Difficulties in Intercultural Communicationthat the speaker lacks knowledge of X but does not presuppose that the speaker lacks theintelligence to acquire knowledge of X. Further, the expression is neutral with regards to the
speaker’s interest in X as a topic. The dynamics of rule-conflict in English and Japaneseconversations leading to uncomfortable silences as shown by the example above are common in
EFL teachers’ everyday interactions with their Japanese learners. While this paper focuses on
JESs, it is important to note that these types of miscommunications and misunderstandings are
not limited to this context, and can even occur in conversations between NESs.
2.3 Backchannel Functions across Cultures
The functions of backchannels are somewhat different in Japanese and English. According toWhite (1989: 59), Locastro (1987), Blundell et al. (1986: 222), and Yngve (1970: 574),
backchannels in English such as Mmm, Yeah, and Uh huh, as well as non-verbal backchannels
such as head nods are indications that the listener agrees with what the speaker is saying and thatthe speaker may continue his speaking turn. Comparatively, Schegloff (1982: 80), Locastro(1987: 105), and White (1989: 63) report that backchannels by Japanese people (or Aizuchi as itis referred to in Japanese) are not only used to confirm agreement, but have a more importantfunction of showing empathy to the primary speaker. Japanese EFL speakers, in an effort to bepolite, have been shown to be more likely to use backchannels even if they disagree with orcannot understand their interlocutor (Cutrone 2005). Furthermore, as indicated above, Japanese
speakers tend to use frequent backchannels because it is considered polite in Japanese culture toactively show interest in what their interlocutor is saying (White 1989; Locastro 1987).
Concerning the functional differences in backchannels across cultures, there are several
situations in which miscommunication could occur. For instance, Blanche (1987) and Cutrone(2005) have shown that misunderstandings due to differing uses of backchannels across cultures
can have a detrimental effect on the EFL classroom in Japan. In a commonly described scenario,
native English speaking teachers sometimes have reported misinterpreting students’ nods coupledwith vocalizations of Yes and Mhm at seemingly appropriate times as displays of understanding,rather than simply polite expressions of attending. When teachers discover much later on thatstudents have not understood them, they have reported feeling perplexed and/or even slightly
annoyed by what they perceive to be mixed signals, or in extreme cases, deceptive messages,
resulting in the squandering of valuable class time.
Sometimes these misunderstandings can have dire consequences as was the case in the
Hitachi-Mitsubishi trial (The Japan Times 1983). One of the defendants in the case, Mr. Ishida of
Mitsubishi claimed that he had not agreed with the FBI undercover agents when they told him he
had to steal some information/documents. His defense counselor argued that Mr. Ishida’s
responses of Yeah and Uhuh were not to show agreement, but rather to indicate he was listening
and to allow the other person to continue. Another potential misunderstanding involving
backchannels in ICC is the more frequent use of backchannels by JESs. JESs, consistent with
their native linguistic environs, tend to backchannel three to four times more than NESs, andmany of these backchannels are sent while their interlocutor is engaged in a primary speaking―１
５―

Journal of the Faculty of Global Communication, University of Nagasaki No．
１
１
（２
０
１
０）

turn at talk creating simultaneous speech (Cutrone 2005; Maynard 1997; White 1989). While the
JESs frequent use of backchannels are, by all accounts, intended to show support and interest in
the conversation, it is conceivable that some NESs may take such interjections as a sign of thelistener’s impatience and demand for a quick completion of the statement (Cutrone 2005; White
1989).

Part 3: Strategies for Teaching Culture in ELTIn an attempt to relate the discussion above to the language classroom, this part considers
pedagogical strategies. First, Section 3.1 deals with the sensitive nature of addressing culturalissues in the language classroom. Subsequently, in Section 3.2, practical suggestions andactivities to assist teachers are provided.
3.1 How to Approach the Teaching of Culture in EFL Classrooms(i) Exercise Caution When Teaching Culture in ELT
I begin my recommendations section of this paper with some ideas on how to approach theteaching of culture in EFL classrooms. Native English speaking teacher’s pedagogical attempts tomodify the cognitive and affective behavior of their students with a view toward making theirstudents bicultural are often met with reluctance by their students (Alpetkin and Alptekin 1984:
Brumfit 1980). Kramsch (1998: 65) explains that this may be due to the strong and inextricablelink between culture and identity. People forge their identities and beliefs through their culture;
hence, any attempts by teachers to disrupt this relationship may be met with resistance. L2
learners may feel that by embracing the target culture, they are in effect renouncing their own
culture (Ellis 1994: 234).
Due to these complexities, EFL teachers have to exercise great caution when teaching
culture in Japan or any other country for that matter. They would be well served in not pushing or
forcing their students to conform to the target culture if they do not want to. Moreover, teachers
would also be well served to remember that English is representative of many different countries
and cultures; therefore, teachers should be aware of their own cultural baggage and not impose
their cultural values on their students. In Japan, as there is evidence showing that Japanese people
may be quieter than other cultures by nature (Zimbardo 1977, referred to in Doyon 2000), there isalways the danger of Westerners trying to force their students to be more outspoken. Teachers
would be well advised to extend their own tolerance of silence, and not show annoyance when
students do not speak as this will only exacerbate the problem by adding to the students’apprehension. Besides creating a comfortable atmosphere and offering positive encouragement,
there are only a limited number of things that teachers can do to help students overcome silence
when they do not know the cause of the silence. However, in cases like the one Mr. Suzuki
experienced where he did not know what to say in a particular situation, there are some things, as
we will discuss below, that teachers can do to help their students.

―１
６―

Pino CUTRONE：Helping Japanese ESL/EFL Learners Overcome Difficulties in Intercultural Communication(ii) The Failings of EFL Teachers
In some cases, foreign EFL teachers in Japan may not have the impetus to affiliate with theirhosts linguistically and culturally. This may be because they are conscious of the temporary
nature of their sojourn to Japan, and also because Japanese language will unlikely be useful tothem when they return home. EFL teachers would be well advised to show interest and learn asmuch as they can about their students’ language and culture. This would accomplish two goals.
First, it would facilitate ICC in the language classroom, and second it would offer students a
successful example of acculturation and thus provide encouragement for L2 learners inacculturating to the target culture.
3.2 Practical Suggestions(i) Using Video Techniques
In this subsection, some practical suggestions that may help Japanese EFL learners become
more aware of these issues affecting IC. Due to the complex nature of these areas, activities
designed with them in mind may best be suited to intermediate and advanced level students. Oneof the ways which EFL teachers can improve their learners’ English in these areas is by using
video techniques (Cullen 2000; Murphy and Woo 1998). For instance, a teacher can raiselearners’ awareness by having students watch videos and observe particular features. Teachers canthen engage their students in discussions comparing how the observed features are useddifferently in Japanese and English. Video techniques can also serve as a means for students to
self-evaluate (Murphy and Woo 1998). This has two main benefits. First, students and teachers
can pinpoint areas to be worked on by going over the students’ videotaped performance several
times and comparing it to models of the target language, and second, students are able to seethemselves improving in the target language.
(ii) Explaining Oneself More Clearly
While using video techniques is also useful in helping students explain themselves moreclearly, students can practice this in any activity in which they disagree and have to persuade eachother into agreeing with their opinion (such as ranking and rating activities). One of the activities
I use is called Time Capsule (Nolasco and Arthur 1987: 99). For this activity, I explain to students
that they must choose five objects to be buried in a time capsule, which will represent everyday
life today when it is opened in five hundred years time. Once the students have done that, I divide
them into pairs, then fours, and then eights (depending on the size of the class). At each stage
they should reach a consensus about which five items should be included in the time capsule. Bymaking them reach a consensus each time, students are encouraged to justify and explain theirchoices explicitly in efforts to persuade others to agree with them.
(iii) Overcoming Problems with Silence
As I alluded to above, there are some situations that a teacher can help learners overcome
problems with silence. These situations are mainly when the students do not speak because they
do not know what to say. I believe that a good way to prevent communication breakdown is toteach conversational repair strategies from the start (see appendices, part 1). Students, upon using―１
７―

Journal of the Faculty of Global Communication, University of Nagasaki No．
１
１
（２
０
１
０）

phrases like Pardon me, I don’t know, and What does X mean? naturally in the classroom,
subsequently realize for themselves that these repair strategies are beneficial in allowing theconversation to resume with no harm done (or no face lost to anyone).
(iiii) Backchannels
As I described in Section 2.3, Japanese English speakers tend to use backchannels
differently than native speakers of English. In most cases, they are not consciously aware of this,and it may need to be brought to their attention. One of the ways I demonstrate this is through arole-play with another teacher or a dialogue focusing on this feature. I give my students a list of
expressions and actions, which feature backchannels and other paralinguistic devices and ask
them to check which ones they heard (see appendices, part 2). Once they have completed this we
discuss their answers and the possible functions of these devices.
Another issue, which needs to be addressed concerning backchannels, is that JESs often use
them when they do not understand or when they disagree with their interlocutor. In order to assist
our learners in communicating more effectively, we need to help them develop alternative
strategies in these situations such as how to interrupt, how to disagree, and how to ask for help.
Some of the alternative conversational repair phrases, which can be pointed out to students, areincluded on the help sheet in the appendices (part 1).

Conclusion
Clearly, the relationship between English language and Japanese culture is complex andmultifaceted and cannot be sufficiently outlined and described in a paper of this size. In my
discussion, I have focused mainly on the skill of speaking in ICC, and, in particular, how JESs
may experience difficulties due to their predisposition to adhere to the Japanese cultural concept
Wa. Attempting to describe the effects of Wa on JESs is also a broad and diverse task, and it too is
an issue worthy of more extensive investigation. In my paper, I ascertained three areas from theresearch, as well as from my own personal observations which seemed to indicate how Wa may
affect JESs. These areas include the Japanese tendency to avoid direct and plain statements, their
inclination to silence, and the different way they use backchannels in conversation. I haveprovided explanations and examples to support my claims and illustrate potential pitfalls in ICC. I
feel the information presented in this paper demonstrates the need for teaching these aspects ofculture to JESs. With this in mind, I have included some suggestions and activities that I hope
will help EFL teachers in Japan raise their learners’ awareness regarding some of the culturaldifferences that can exist in ICC, as well as make them feel more comfortable when they are
speaking to NESs. However, activities alone are not the answer. More importantly, teachers haveto work to create an atmosphere in which learners feel comfortable and uninhibited when theytake that great leap into the unknown.

―１
８―

Pino CUTRONE：Helping Japanese ESL/EFL Learners Overcome Difficulties in Intercultural Communication

AppendicesPart 1
Help Sheet
Finding out about meaning
What does
mean?
What’s another word for?
What’s the opposite of?
What’s the difference between
and
Does
mean
?
Finding out about appropriateness
What should I say when
When can say?
In what situation could I?

?

?

Asking someone to repeat something
Could you repeat that more slowly please?
I beg your pardon.
Pardon me.
Saying you don’t know
I’m sorry I don’t know.
I’m not sure.
I have no idea.
Saying You don’t UnderstandI can’t understand. (Could you give me an example?)
I’m not sure what you mean.
I’m not quite with you.
Asking about Pronunciation
How do you say(in English)?
How do you pronounce?
Asking for the written form
Could you write
down please?
How do you spell
please?
Finding about the correctness
Is it correct to say?
Can I say?
Is this sentence correct:
Which sentence is correct

?
or

?

―１
９―

Journal of the Faculty of Global Communication, University of Nagasaki No．
１
１
（２
０
１
０）

Giving yourself time to think
Just a moment please.
May I think about it for a moment.
Part 2
Listen to the conversation. Please mark the actions/expressions you see/hear whenever you see/hear them in the conversation. N.B. Actions shown in (brackets).
(Nod)
Really?
Does he?
I’m not really sure about that.
Yeah.
(Shakes his head)Uh huh.
That’s nice.
Do you really think so?
Is it?
Mmmm.
I see.
But what about Bob?
How interesting.
Is that right?
Listen to the conversation again and mark off which expressions encourage the speakers tocontinue speaking. Please consider what the other expressions do to the conversation.

References
Alptekin, C. and M. Alptekin (1984) ‘The question of culture: EFL teaching in non-English
speaking countries’ ELT Journal. 38:1, 14-20.
Anderson, F. (1993) ‘The enigma of the college classroom: Nails that don’t stick up’ in Wadden,
101-110.
Barnlund, D. (1974) ‘The public self and the private self in Japan and the United States’ inCondon and Sato., 27-96.
Beebe, L. and T. Takahashi (1989) ‘Do you have a bag? Social status and patterned variation insecond language acquisition’ in Gass et al., 103-125.
Beebe, L. et al. (1990) ‘Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals’ in Scarcella et al., 55-74.

―２０―Pino CUTRONE：Helping Japanese ESL/EFL Learners Overcome Difficulties in Intercultural Communication

Blanche, P. (1987) ‘The Case for a Pedagogy of Pragmatics in Foreign or Second Language
Teaching’ RELC Journal 18:1, 46-71.
Blundell, J. et al. (1982) Function in English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brumfit, C. (1980) Problems and Principles in English Teaching. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Chicago Linguistic Society (1970) Papers from the Sixth Regional Meeting. Chicago: Chicago
Linguistic Society.
Clancy, P. (1990) ‘Acquiring communicative style in Japanese’ in Scarcella et al., 27-44.
Condon, G. and M. Sato, eds., (1974) Intercultural Encounters with Japan. Tokyo: Simul Press.
Cullen, B. (2000) ‘Practical techniques for teaching culture in the EFL classroom’ The Internet
TESL Journal 6:12 (online). Available:
http://www.aitech.ac.jp/˜iteslj/Techniques/Cullen-Culture.html
Cutrone, P. (2005) ‘A case study examining backchannels in conversations between JapaneseBritish dyads’ Multilingua: Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication 24:3,
237-274.
Doyon, P. (2000) ‘Shyness in the EFL class: Why it is a problem, what it is, what causes it, andwhat to do about it’ The Language Teacher 24:1 (online). Available:
http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/00/jan/index/html
Ellis, R. (1991) ‘Communicative competence and the Japanese learner’ JALT Journal 13:2, 103127.
Ellis, R. (1994) The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Elwood, K. (2001) Getting Along with the Japanese. Tokyo: Ask.
Fukushima, S. and Y. Iwata (1985) ‘Politeness in English’ JALT Journal 7:1, 1-14.
Gass, S. et al., eds. (1989) Variation in Second Language Acquisition 1: Discourse andPragmatics. Celevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Graham, J. (1990) ‘An exploratory study of the process of marketing negotiations using a crosscultural perspective’ in Scarcella et al., 239-270.
Greer, D. (2000) ‘The eyes of Hito: A Japanese cultural monitor of behavior in thecommunicative classroom’ JALT Journal 22:1, 183-195.
Haslet, B. (1989) ‘Communication and language acquisition within a cultural context’ in TingToomey and Korzenny, 19-34.
Helgeson, M. (1993) ‘Dismantling a wall of silence: The “English conversation” class’ in
Wadden, 37-49.
Hill, T. (1990) ‘Sociolinguistic aspects of communicative competence and the Japanese learner’
Dokkyo University Studies in English 36:1, 69-104.
Kagawa, H. (1997) The Inscrutable Japanese. Tokyo: Kodansha.
Kenna, P and S. Lacy (1994) Business Japan: A Practical Guide to Understanding JapaneseBusiness Culture. Lincolnwood: Passport Books.
Kramsch, C. (1998) Language and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lebra, T. (1976) Japanese Patterns of Behavior. Honolulu: The University of Hawaii Press.
LoCastro, V. (1987) ‘Aizuchi: A Japanese conversational routine’ in Smith, 101-113.
Loveday, L. (1982) The Sociolinguistics of Learning and Using a Non-native. Oxford: Pergamon.
Matsumoto, M. and D. Boye Lafayette (2000) Japanese Nuance in Plain English. Tokyo:―２
１―

Journal of the Faculty of Global Communication, University of Nagasaki No．
１
１
（２
０
１
０）

Kodansha.
Maynard, S. K. (1997) ‘Analyzing interactional management in native/non-native English
conversation: A case of listener response’ IRAL 35:1, 37-60.
Murphy, Y and L. Woo (1998) ‘Video conversation for student evaluation: Educational video’s
diamond in the rough’ The Language Teacher 22:8 (online). Available:
http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/98/aug/woo.html
Noguchi, R. (1987) ‘The dynamics of rule conflict in English and Japanese conversations’ IRAL
25:1, 15-24.
Nolasco, R. and L. Arthur (1987) Conversation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nozaki, K. (1993) ‘The Japanese student and the foreign teacher’ in Wadden, 27-33.
Scarcella, R. et al., eds. (1990) Developing Communicative Competence in a Second Language.
Rowley: Newbury House.
Schegloff, E. (1982) ‘Discourse as an interactional achievement’ in Tannen, 71-93.
Smith, L., ed. (1987) Discourse Across Cultures: Strategies in World Englishes. London: PrenticeHall.
Takahashi, T. and L. Beebe (1987) ‘The development of pragmatic competence by Japaneselearners of English’ JALT Journal 8:1, 131-155.
Tanaka, N. (1988) ‘Politeness: Some problems for Japanese speakers of English’ JALT Journal 9:
1, 81-102.
Tannen, D., ed. (1982) Analyzing Discourse: Text and Talk. Washington: Georgetown University
Press.
The Japan Times (1983) ‘Japanese mannerism is a key point in IBM case’ The Japan Times, 23
January, p.2.
Ting-Toomey , S. and F. Korzenny, eds. (1989) Language, Communication, and Culture: Current
directions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Townsend, J. and F. Danling (1998) ‘Quiet students across cultures and continents’ English
Education 31:1, 4-25.
Wadden, P., ed. (1993) A Handbook for Teaching English at Japanese Colleges and Universities.
New York: Oxford University Press.
White, S. (1989) ‘Backchannels across cultures: A study of Americans and Japanese’ Languagein Society 18:1, 59-76.
Wolfson, N. (1983) ‘An empirically based analysis of complimenting in American English’ in
Wolfson and Judd, 82-95.
Wolfson, N. (1989) Perspectives: Sociolinguistics and TESOL. Rowley: Newbury House.
Wolfson, N. and E. Judd, eds. (1983) Sociolinguistics and Language Acquisition. Rowley:
Newbury House.
Yngve, V. (1970) ‘On getting a word in edgewise’ in the Chicago Linguistic Society, 567-577.
Zimbardo, P. (1977) Shyness: What it is-What to Do About it. Reading: Wesley.

―２２―