THE STATE OF ERITREAMINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
DEPARTMENT OF REGULATORY SERVICES
PLANT HEALTH DIVISIONAGRONOMYINSPATE IRRIGATED AREAS OF ERITREA
Bereke Ogba­MichaelTABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE
I. Introduction
ClimateLand use
Agro­ecological zones
Characteristics of the area
II. Crop Production System in Traditional Spate irrigation farms
Crops and cropping system
Types of crops grown
III. Current cropping system
Cropping system
Crop management practices
Land preparation
Sources of seeds, seed rate and sowing time
Method of sowing crops
Insect pests and diseases
Harvesting
Crop productivity and use of products
IV. Livestock Pr oduction System

Livestock population & types of Eritrea
The range lands
Other feed resources
Range resource management among pastoral communities
V. Conclusion & Recommendation
VI. A Way Forward
VII. Literature Cited

2

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I. Introduction
Eritrea is located in the northeastern part of Africa along the Red sea to theeast, Sudan to the west north, Ethiopia to the south and Djibouti at the extreme
southeastern tip. The over all size of the country is about 125,000 square km
and the coastline is around 1,000km.

ClimateEritrea is a country with a complex series of landscape and climatic features,
which give to a wide variety of agro­ecological zones. Climate in Eritrea range

3

from hot arid, adjacent to the Red Sea, to temperate sub­humid in isolated
micro­catchments within the eastern escarpment of the highlands (Figure 3).
According to temperature, around 72% of the country is classified as very hot or
hot (with mean annual temperature exceeding 24oC) while not more than 14%
is classified as mild or cool (with mean annual temperature below 21.5oC)(Table, 1.2).

4

Land use
About 3.6 percent of the total land area in Eritrea is presently cultivated. Most of
this is found in the highlands where population density per cultivated area isvery high and localized scarcity of arable land occurs. Meanwhile large tracts ofland, mostly in the lowland areas remain under utilized, which is a natural
resource base for agricultural development.
The Main land uses in Eritrea
Land uses

Hectares

Cultivated land rain fed
Irrigated landDisturbed forest
Forest plantations
Woodland and scrublandBrowsing and grazing land
Barren land
Potential irrigated land
Potential rain­fed land
Total

417,000
22,00053,00010,000673,000
6,967,000
4,047,000
600,000
1,050,000
12,189,000

Percentage
of total
3.42
0.18
0.43
0.08
5.52
57.16
33.21
4.92
8.61
100.00Source: Government of Eritrea 1996

AGROECOLOGICAL ZONES OF THE COUNTRY
Agro­ecological zones and their landforms (adapted from Ministry of Land,
Water and Environment, 1997)
Agr­ecological zone
Moist highland

Arid highland

Moist lowland

Arid lowlandSub­humid
escarpment
Semi­desert zone

Dominant crops
Barley, wheat, teff,sorghum,maize,
finger millet, pulses
Sorghum,
pearl
millet, barleyLand form
Area %
Undulating to rolling plateau,
7,4
partly dissected, with hills,
valleys, ridges and escarpments.
Steepescarpments
and2,5
mountains,withdissected
plateau and rolling hills
Sorghum, sesame, Undulating to rolling plains with
16,2
cotton, finger millet, outlying hills: lower part ofpearl millet, maize
western escarpment with ridges
and valleys.
Sorghum,
pearl Flat to rolling plains with outlying
34,3
millethills and mountains.
Maize,
sorghum, Steepescarpment
with
0,8
coffee, barley
mountains and valleys.
Sorghum and maize Flat to rolling plains with outlying
38,8
under
spate hills and mountains, islands,
irrigation
volcanic calderas, dunefields,
and evaporite basin.

5Eritrea is a land of highly varied topography, climate and rainfall. Six main agro­
ecological zones are generally identified in the country, covering a broad
spectrum of agricultural conditions (FAO, 1994; Bojo, 1995).
1. The “central highland zone” (CHZ): over 1,500m in altitude; over 500mm ofannual rainfall and enjoying for the most part a warm to cool semi­arid
climate. Potential evapo­transpiration ranges from 1,300 to 1,800 mm. This
zone comprises three sub­zones that have many common features, inparticular the major crops, but are distinguishable by differences in altitude,
annual precipitation, relief, soils, population pressure and degree ofenvironmental degradation. The sub­zones are: (1) Highland (h) over
2,000m, 500 to 600 mm of rain and generally a high population pressure
except in the limited high elevation areas of the north; (2) Southern
Midlands (SM) 1,500­200m with generally lower population pressures andmore favorable rainfall (700 mm or more in the extreme south) and (3)Northern Midland (NM) 1,500­200m; but arid with less than 400 mm ofrainfall and consequently very low population pressure.
2. The “western escarpment zone” (WEZ): from about 600m to 1,500m with awarm to hot semi­arid climate. Its soils and relief are determined by thephysiography and geology of the central highlands, but in terms of climate,
cropping, and population pressure it has much in common with thesouthwestern lowlands, which it borders.
3. The “south­western lowland zone” (SWLZ): 600­700 m, with a hot semi­arid
climate. Rainfall is in excess of 400 mm. Soils are quite different from thoseof the highland and WEZ, most common are vertisols that require a different
management. Topography is flat and population pressure generally verylow.
4. The unique “green­belt zone” (GBZ) of the eastern escarpment of the CHZ:
750 to over 2,000m. Rainfall is very high and often in excess of 1,000 mm.
Encompasses numerous micro­ecological zones that are determined by theinter­relationships of altitude, rainfall, aspect, exposure and soils at different
sites. The microclimate range from sub­humid temperate to humid tropical,
the relief is precipitous and comprehensive terracing is required. It differs

6from all other zones in being able to support permanent crops such as
coffee and tea without irrigation.
5. The “coastal plains zone” (CPZ: below sea level to 600 m; a hot desert­likeclimate with less than 200 mm of rainfall. Potential evapo­transpiration inexcess of 2,000 mm. Crop production is impossible without irrigation, thepasture resources are poor; but extensive pastoralism occurs.

6. The “north­western lowlands zone” (NWLZ): 400 to 1,500 m, a hot arid
climate with at most 300 mm of rainfall, and in the extreme NW below
2000mm. Evapo­transpiration 1,500 to 2,000 mm. Sustainable crop
production is not possible without irrigation, but some niche cropping isfeasible. Poor to moderate pasture resources.
As indicated in the agro­ecological zones of Eritrea western lowland andeastern lowlands are in comparable to one another for the following reasons.
For the sake of the guideline, it is preferable to prepare it is a tabular way sothat one can compare and contrast the two regions and select the best practicewhich fits to the development of crop production for the respective areas.

7

Characteristics of the area
SN

Description

1

ClimateWestern lowland
South western lowland No North­western
lowland
Hot semi­arid
Hot arid

2

Elevation

600­700m

3

Rainfall

400mm

4
5

Evapo­
transpiration
Soil

6
7

Topography
Pasture Resource

8

Population

Low pressure but now it isincreasing

9

Farming system

10

Production

Sedimentary & agro­
pastoralist
Rain feed, shift­ agriculture

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

Eastern lowland

Desert­likeclimate400­1500m
Below see level­
600
300
extreme <200mm
north­ west below
200mm
1500­200mm
Excludes2000mm

Vertisols that requires adifferent management
Flat
Good

Flat
Flat
Poor to moderate Poor
extensive
pastoralism
Low pressure
Extensive
pastoralism low
pressure
Agro­pastoralist
Agro­pastoralist

Irrigation
Spate irrigation
supplements but
not practiced
Major pests & Chaffer, beetles, grass­ Grass­hoppers
Locust, stinking­weeds
hopper, birds, stregabag, Aphides
Fertilizer
Limited in use
Not usedNot used
Source of seeds
Land of diversity
LimitedLimitedRange land status Extensive galley erosion, Relatively scarce Low productivity
less damaged
Animal breeds
Barka
Arado
Arebo, Afar
CattleArado
Goats
Barka, Shukurya, Hassani, Maria, Barka
Rura, Shukurya
Beledi, Lange
Sheep
Barka
Hamale, Barka
Rashaida
DonkeyRifa and Highland
Rifa and Highland Rifa andHighland
CamelsBisharri, Arrir
Bisharri
Afar

8

II. CROP PRODUCTION SYSTEM IN TRADITIONAL SPATE IRRIGATED
FARMS

1. CROPS AND CROPPING SYSTEM
1.1 Types of Crops Grown
The soils and climatic conditions in the spate­irrigated areas are very conducive
to grow different types of cereal crops, oil crops and vegetable crops, mainly ofsemiarid in nature, which have been adapted to the climate for many years.
The major crops grown in the spate irrigated areas are sorghum and maize.
Sorghum is the most preferred crop and it is widely grown in the northern partof the eastern lowland, which is north of Massawa port. Maize ranks second
and is widely grown in the southern part of the eastern lowlands like in Foro,
Afta and Zula.
Other types of crops grown in the spate irrigated farms include pearl millet,
cotton, sesame, groundnut, tomato, pepper, okra, kerkede and watermelon.
These crops are not widely and continually grown year after year like sorghum
and maize, but occasionally and usually in small quantity for homeconsumption. Some 20­30 years ago cash crops like cotton, sesame andwatermelon used to be grown on a large scale in some farms, but because of
war and the recurrent drought in the country they are now grown in small
quantities. The spate­irrigated farm of Marsa­Gulbub was one of the majorcotton growing area in the country, but now the farmers are growing only
sorghum.
The common types of land races of sorghum grown in the spate­irrigated areas
vary in their characteristics. These landraces can be distinguished from eachother by grain color, shape of the head, height and tillering capacity of the plant.
Hejeri is a high yielding, short stalked, good ratoonability, has white grain andwhite flour, and compact head. Most likely birds less attack it.

9Feterita (Wedi Aker) is second to Hejeri in preference by farmers for its shortgrowing season and short stalks. Less preferred for human consumption andhas less bird problems. Has a white grain, which forms darker flour whenmilled.

Hartsetsa has an intermediate stalk, compact head and high yielding and poor
ratoon ability. Good for human consumption has red grain and grayish color
when milled. It matures within three months.
Durra is a tall, low yielding; open headed, good ratooning ability and earlymaturing variety with a red seed coat. It has vigorous vegetative growth and isgrown more as animal feed than for human consumption. It matures earlier
than the above­mentioned types of sorghum.
Maize varieties grown in the spate­irrigated area are highly heterogeneous
landraces, which are broadly classified into white and red maize based onkernel color. Various local names are given to these indigenous landraces.
"Shagai", Wedilebab and "Merora" (Tigre, Saho) are types of white maize. They
are late maturing, taking up to four months from sowing to harvest and require
more irrigation water than the red types. The most common type of red maize is
Chenger, Asa Elbo and Berih (Tigre, Saho), which mature in two and half tothree months.
There are two types of pearl millet (Bultug: Tigre, Tigigna) varieties hairy(bristle) and hairless. Both types of pearl millet tiller more vigorously and haveshort growing season in the range of two and half to three months. Hairy type
pearl millet has long panicle covered with a sort of hair like material and creamy
colored grains. Even though it is less attacked by birds and highly preferred by
farmers nowadays this variety is abandoning due to its low yield. Hairless typeof pearl millet has the same characteristics like the hairy cultivar except it has
white grains. It is grown in shallow and/or coarse soils near Wadi course, in thecanal beds in the down stream.
Keren type groundnut (Ful: Tigre, Tigigna) used to be grown in large areas
when the landholdings were bigger before the redistribution. Necessity to allot alarge proportion of the smallholdings to cereal food crops and inability to market
groundnut as a profitable cash crop as well as termite and high labour demand
restricted the area under groundnut.
Black and red colored sesame (Simsim: Tigre, Tigigna) types are only used asseeds. The susceptibility of sesame to termites is the other reason for this crop
being grown on small areas.
Watermelon (Berchik: Tigre, Tigigna) is another crop grown in spate­irrigatedfields. The farmers also plant in a small area Kerkede (Hibiscus sabdariffa) thatis used as a beverage like tea after drying the flower. These crops are grown
mainly for home consumption only.

10Table 1: Varieties of various crops under use in the spate irrigated areas
Crop
Sorghum

Variety
Hejeri

Characteristics
High yielding, short statured,
white grain and compact
head. Not preferred by birds.
Drought resistant.

Remarks

Highlysusceptible
tostinkbug that is currently themost serious pest. Most
preferred variety but has lostits purity due to out crossing.
Used for porridge, Tandoori
and Ingera.
Lowyielding,
very
tall,
open
Main variety of the area
Durra (Alihiya)
headed and grain is red before the introduction ofcolored. Stalks are very Hejeri. Less prone tosweet so preferred as animal damage by birds, however,feed. Short duration (planted used for nesting because of
10­15 days after Hejeri but its height. Used for porridge
matures at the same time). and Ingera.
Drought resistant.
characteristics
are Flour darker. Not preferred
Feterita, Odaka, Most
intermediate
betweenHejerieither by farmers or birds.
orDumburi
But it can be used for Ingera
andDurra.
Shorterstalkand(Wedi Aker)
grain is white.
making.
Intermediatestatured, Not affected by stinkbug,
Hartsetsa
compact head and high needs more moisture, grain
yielding like Hijeri. Has poor tasty but hard to process.
Used for porridge, Tandoori
ratoonability.
and Ingera.
Maize
Berih
Late maturing, cobs are big Only sown as first crop whenand seeds are bold and sorghum cannot be grownwhite.
due to late floods. Resistantto water logging, does not
growvegetative
underconditionsofabundant
moisture.
Wedilebab
Shorter in duration and Grown as second crop after
stature than Berih. Cob size sorghum.
and seed quality are notfavorable.
Chenger
Short in duration and has Highland variety, planted ifvery small cob.
the floods are late.
Pearl millet Dukun
Very high tillering capacity. Susceptible to mildew.
Shootsproducenewbranches when panicles are
removed. Tall statured andresistant to stink and ear
head bug.
SesameBlack and Red Tall and branched typeRed
colored
type
is
color
susceptible to diseases
Groundnut Keren Type
Bunchy type of character andsmall seed.
Okra and kerkede have no specific varieties.

Source: Field Survey, 2002

11

III. Current Cropping System

1. Cropping System
The cropping system is very flexible; because it is largely determined by theamount of floodwater and rainfall received, which vary from year to year.
Crops failures due to shortage of water is very common, thus the farmers havedeveloped a copping mechanism (a cropping system) to deal with crop failures.
At the beginning of a cropping season, a late maturing crop is planted. If thiscrop fails due to over flooding or shortage of water or insect attack, it isreplaced by early maturing variety or by different type of crop (Feterita &Dumburi/Wedi Aker). If crop failure is repeated a number of times, droughttolerant sorghum variety like Durra is planted mainly for the production ofanimal feed for their livestock but not for crop production.
The most common cropping system followed is to plant sorghum as the firstcrop, followed by maize and watermelon is planted as a third crop. During thattime the farm areas used to get enough rainfall to allow good germination of the
newly sown maize. But, gradually it become difficult to plant maize, because ofdrought, enough rainfall is not received to allow good germination of the crop.
These days, the main crop of sorghum is followed by its first and some times by
the second ratoon. Except in areas where maize is planted as the first crop, in
the other farms, the growing of maize as a second crop has been stopped. In
the southern parts of the eastern lowlands where the evaporation rate is very
high and the annual rainfall is very low, only one crop, maize is usually planted
per year.
In the last 15­25 years, significant changes have been observed in the cropping
system. Except in the farms where maize is grown as the only crop, thegrowing of maize as a second crop decreased significantly. Because ofrecurrent drought, relatively very small rainfall is received that it becomesdifficult for the newly sown maize to germinate. As a result of drought acropping system ratooning become the common practice.
In the sorghum ratooning system, the first sorghum crop is harvested and its
stalks are cut and removed. Then the first ratoon is let to grow and harvested ina similar way as the first crop. Depending on the rainfall or floodwater or theamount of residual moisture on the soil, a second ratoon may grow to maturity
and harvested. Usually, the second ratoon doesn’t grow and produce seed,thus it is usually harvested for animal feed.
Watermelon is sown during the hot season, when the soil is dry, thus, one tothree watering is required for successful germination of the plant. The growingof watermelon is not popular in many of the spate­irrigated farms.

12

Farmers who have easy access to the market only grow it. Crops like tomato,
pepper, okra, etc are not planted as major crops, but in small quantities at open
areas or along field boarders.
Crop rotation, inter cropping and planting of leguminous crops to improve soil
fertility is unknown in the spate­irrigated farm. Crop residue which can be asource of organic manure and which can help to improve the physical structureof the soil are removed from the fields to be used for animal feed or forconstructing the local farmhouses.
2. CROP MANAGEMENT PRACTICESThe traditional spate irrigation is a profitable agricultural activity under thefollowing circumstances.
a) Farming practices are improved, permanent diversion structures andcanals, field bunds or embankments are constructedb) Pests are control are controlled on time andc) Fodder for animal feed is produced sufficiently.
There are many uncertainties in the system. Very important of all, theoccurrences and magnitude of spate flood is unpredictable. The irrigation
structures are temporary and are easily washed or damaged by floods. The
safety of irrigation structures is dependent on the magnitude of the spate flood.
Maintenance and repair of the spate irrigation system is quite frequent andlaborious, because of which the farmers have little time for other agriculturalactivities. Weed and pest infestation are common problems.
2.1 LAND PREPARATIONIn the spate­irrigated farms, land preparation is carried out for the following
objectives.
a. To minimize soil moisture loses by evaporationb. To prepare good seed bed and to sow crops
c. To control weeds
Based on the above objectives, land preparation activities can be classified into
two major parts.
Ø Pre – Irrigation ploughing (Nekli) andØ Post – irrigation ploughing§ For soil moisture conservation (Mekemet) and§ For seed bed preparation and weed control

13

2.1.1 Pre – Irrigation ploughing, “ Nekli
Pre–Irrigation ploughing, locally known, as “Nekli” is a primary tillage, whereby
a field is ploughed when soil surface is dry, that is before they receive the firstirrigation water. The soil is ploughed to break the dry and usually compacted
soil surface. The purpose of the pre­irrigation ploughing or Nekli is to break thehard and dry soil surface, so that the floodwater will infiltrate the soil quickly
before much of it is lost by evaporation or by draining through broken fieldbunds. After irrigation every deposits of sediments seal the soil surface. Thus, if
a field receive very small mount of floodwater and some more irrigation water is
expected, the ploughing may be repeated for the second time.

2.1.2 Post – Irrigation ploughing
When a field receives sufficient irrigation water or when no more floodwater is
expected, a conservation tillage known locally as “ Mekemet” is done. Mekemet
is practiced after the field receives irrigation water and when the soil surface isjust dry enough to allow ploughing. The land is first ploughed to break the
crested and compacted soil surface. A cylindrical or flat wooden log, which ispulled by a pair of oxen, is then run over the whole field. The operator standson the log as the oxen pull it. By this operation the soil is further broken into
smaller pieces and at the same time the loose soil is compacted.
The objective of this operation is to minimize soil moisture by evaporation. First,
the dry and lose soil at the surface acts as a cover against the excessive heatof the sun thus reduce evaporation from the soil. Secondly it breaks thecapillary movement of the water inside the soil. The loose soil acts as a buffer
between the inside part of the soil and the atmosphere. If planting must be
done without much delay, this conservation tillage or “Mekemet” is not done.

142.1.3 Ploughing for sowing and weed control
When crops are sown, normally the land is ploughed in order to soften the soil
and prepare a good seed bed. By this operation, weeds are destroyed. After
this, no weeding is done manually or by cultivation.
3. SOURCE OF SEEDS, SEED RATE AND SOWING TIME
3.1 Source of Seed
Most farmers prefer to produce and keep their own seeds for next cropping
season, but only few are successful in producing their own quality seed. Seeds
are carefully selected before or after the crop is harvested. Few farmers collectseeds before the standing crop is harvested.
Panicles of sorghum and pearl millet and cobs of maize are collected
separately during or after harvesting and stored in a place safe from insect andbirds attack.
The panicles or cobs are tied in bundles and hanged, some times, over firing
stoves and let them to dry. These practices creates unfavorable situation for theinsect pests and thus minimize the damage caused by the insects. These are
not threshed until about a week before planting. The threshed seed is thenstored separately in woven baskets made of doum palm leaves (Laka) or sacks
made of sisal.
There are also farmers who do not spent much efforts and simply use whatever seed is available at hand or buy seed from the market or obtain it fromfriends and families.
The criteria used for selecting a crop variety in all the major spate irrigatedfarms are the same. Variety with high ratooning ability, short statured, earlymaturing and high yielding and tolerant to birds and insect attack are selected.
Tall with high vegetative growth and early maturing varieties are selected if they
are grown for animal food.
Vegetable and oil crop seeds are usually obtained from markets. Farmers whoplant watermelon, kerkede and/or okra on regular bases some times use seedfrom previous harvest.
3.2 Seed Rate
Seed rate used in the spate­irrigated farm varies from one area to another area.
In the entire spate Irrigated farms, high seed rate is commonly used for the
major crops like sorghum, maize and pearl millet.

15

Table 2. Varieties and seed rate
Varieties

Seed rate kg/ha

Sorghum
Maize
Pearl millet

24­30
18­45
8

Recommended
value kg/ha
6­10
25
3­5

The use of high seed rates resulted in a very dense plant population. This
creates a high competition among the plants for moisture, nutrient and light. As
a result of these competitions, the plants, especially sorghum, grow very thinand tall and the yield will be low. Some of the reasons given by the farmers forusing a high seed rate are as follows.
Ø Densely grown crop can be thinned and used to feed their animals that do
not have any other source of feed. However, the use of plants is not done
systematically at appropriate the time when thinning is required. But at thetime where feed is required. Generally, it acts, as store where feed isnecessary to feed their animals.
Ø Lack of proper drainage and flooding can kill young plans, and there can beinfestation of insects like locust and heavy attack by birds. These problems
reduce the plant population as well as the yield. So to cope with suchproblems a high density plant is preferred.
Ø Densely grown plants suppress weeds. The majority of the farmers do notpractice weeding.
However, thinning is not done at one time, but it is systematically done in such
an amount that it is distributed through out the growing period and availability ofanimal feed is assured through out the growing period
3.3 Planting time
Planting time varies from sub­zoba to sub­zoba. A field survey conducted in
2002 indicates that each locality has its own planting time for it is determined by
the availability of soil moisture, feed requirement for animals, and probability ofpest infestation. The climate is also given due consideration in selecting thetypes and varieties of crops to be grown
Most commonly practiced planting and harvesting calendar followed for
different crops grown in the spate­irrigated area of Sub Zobas of Sheeb, Foroand Ghelalo are given in table 9­11.

16

4. Methods Of Sowing Crops
A local plough made of wood with a metal tipped ploughshare, pulled by a pairof oxen is used for ploughing as well as for sowing the seed. The local plough
is called “Jihaz” When sowing the seed, a simple tube, called “Jeleb”, isattached to the handle of the plough. Jeleb is a tube about 70cm long and 6­
10cm in diameters. It can be made of plastic, metal or wood. The seed is hand
dropped through the tube to the ground in front of the plough shear.
The seeding rate within a field is not uniform either, because there is no
mechanism to control the flow of the seed from the hand to the ground. It all
depends on the individual farmers experience. In some areas maize is sown by
broadcasting. The seed is broadcasted by hand and then covered by ploughing
under.
Pearl millet and sorghum is planted by a special method of drilling, known as “Seluka”. Seluka is a conservation tillage method, practiced when it is required
to plant crops without disturbing the soil so that the soil moisture is conserved.
A Seluka (planting stick) is shown in Fig? At its bottom part it has a special
attachment for applying pressure by the foot. Stepping one foot on the stick
makes a hole. The stick is then given 1800 rotation to open the hole wider.
In Seluka system of planting pearl millet, a hole is drilled using a special stick.
The spacing of the holes is usually kept at 1m x 1m. 4­6 seeds are dropped inevery hole and are immediately covered by knocking the soil around the holeby foot.
Watermelon, okra, tomato, pepper and kerkede are directly planted in rows by
digging holes (Angesh) with hoes in the soil right up to the moist zone. Then theseeds are placed and covered with thin layer of soil by knocking the soil by foot.
Farmers soak seeds of watermelon and okra in water for overnight before
planting in order to enhance germination. Thus shortens the time of seed
emergence.
Sesame is planted in two ways i.e. broadcasting and row planting. The row
planting is also carried out with the help of Jeleb. Similarly Groundnut andcotton are also planted in rows with Jeleb.
5. Insect pests and Diseases
The entire spate irrigation farms are a good habitat for insects and it is the main
breeding area for locust in east Africa. Their intensity and their rate ofmultiplication are tremendous. The hot climate and high humidity of the spate­irrigated farm areas favor the development of many insects and diseases. Most
farmers are very familiar with most of the insects, even though they seem tohave very limited knowledge about diseases. In both cases they are very
helpless when it come to controlling them. The use of chemicals to control or
eradicate insect pests is practiced in a limited scale.

17

According to the farmers interviewed in this study, the yield loss due to insects’
attack is estimated to be not less than 25%. In the case of locust, stinkbug,
aphids and stem borer outbreak, the losses can go up to 70­80% andsometimes more.
The important insects are locust, stinkbug, termites, lopidepteras andhemipterous insects, stem borers, aphids and whitefly. Out break of locust isusually associated with good rainy seasons.
The farmers are familiar to head smut. However there are also many types of
diseases, which are not well known to most of the farmers.
5.1 Birds
Birds are one of the major pest problems in the spate­irrigated farms. The mostimportant birds are weaverbirds like quelea­quelea, Shika and Wed­Gebu.
Yield losses due to birds’ attacks, as estimated by the farmers, can be as highas 20% of the total yield. In isolated fields, where the crops mature either earlyor later than the surrounding crops, the yield losses can go up to 70­80%.
Some of the methods of controlling yield losses due to birds’ attack are thefollowing.
It is very important that similar crops are sown at the same time so that crop
maturity is reached at the same time. By doing this, birds’ attack is minimized
on individual farmer’s crop, but the losses are shared among the entire farmer
more or less equally. If a crop matures earlier or later than the surrounding
crops the birds’ attack will be more serious.
Farmers also try to scare birds by throwing stones with the help of a sling or
beating old tins to make frightening sound. Some time small watchtowers andraised beds are constructed in the middle of the field. Farmers presently areprotecting their crops from birds with traditional techniques such as trying tofrighten birds by constructing scarecrows, shouting, using noise making devises
such as cans or cracking slings and by throwing mud or stones.
6. Harvesting
Most crops, like sorghum, maize and pearl millet are harvested after threemonths on average. It is important that similar crops are harvested in one area
are harvested at the same time. Crops that mature late are likely to be attacked
by birds and stray animals. The first shower of rain usually comes when the firstcrops are quite mature. This rain initiates the seed to germinate before it isharvested or cause it to route. Delayed harvesting influences adversely theperformances of ratoon particularly under shortage of moisture stress.
6.1 Harvesting of Sorghum
Sorghum is harvested when the crop is matured, but not necessary when it isfully dry. This is done to allow enough time for the ratoon crop to develop. So

18

those farmers who want to grow the first ratoon, they harvest the main crop 10­
15 days ahead of the normal harvesting time.
When harvesting, the plant is cut at ground level and is laid on the groundbetween the rows. It is left there for four to five days to dry up.
According to the farmers, by letting the cut plant for some days, it initiates the
ratoon crop to grow quickly and produce a good yield. If the plant is left on the
ground for longer period, the grain started to change its color and develop an
unpleasant smell and test.
Four to five days after the whole plants are cut, then the ear heads are cut off
and are transported to threshing ground. It is left there for one to two weeks
until it is dry enough to be threshed easily. Threshing used to be done bytrampling the crop with oxen. Nowadays, because of lack of oxen, threshing isdone through beating the ear heads using a stick. A farmer working alone canthresh about 50kg per day. The husk and stalks is also brought home foranimal feed. Camels and donkeys are used for transportation of cut heads andstalks from the field to the Danda or threshing ground, threshed grains andstalks for home as well as to market areas.
6.2 Crop Ratooning
Crop ratooning is highly practiced in the spate irrigation system. Crop ratooning
is an intensive crop production system where more than one harvest is
obtained from one sowing. It has also a relatively short growing periodrequirement for a two­crop system because the ratoon crop can mature in up to
20 to 25 days less than the first crop. But typically their ratoon yields are much
lower and more variable than the first crop, especially when pest and disease
carry over is a problem.
Farmers used to grow varieties of sorghum and pearl millet that have highratooning capacity than others. For example, Hejeri and Durra variety ofsorghum have a high ratooning capacity and Feterita has a low ratooning
capacity.
In ratooning system, the stalk of the main crop is cut at ground level. The cut
material is placed on the ground between the rows and is left there for three tofive days. According to the farmers this is done to promote re­growth of theplant and to conserve soil moisture. Re­growth of the plant started after lessthan a week and more than 4 tillers are produced from one plant.

19

According to farmers interviewed in Shi’eb and Bada, when there is adequate
soil moisture, a first good ratoon crop can produce as much as 50% of the main
crop and a second ratoon crop can produce up to 30% of the main crop.
However a second ratoon is normally harvested, before it matures, for animal
feed. And another reason for harvesting the stalk of the second ratoon before it
produce seed is that by such time animals are allowed to graze freely over the
farm, thus, the farmers are forced to cut the crop and remove it from the field.
6.3 Harvesting of Maize
When the maize crop is ready for harvest, it is cut at the base and tied inbundles. The bundles are left standing in he field for drying. When it is dry, thecobs are detached and the husks are removed manually. The cobs are broughthome for further drying and shelling. Cob shelling is also done manually or bybeating the cobs with big stick. The farmers form small groups of 5 or 6 men
when shelling by beating. The husk and stalks is also brought home for animal
feed.

20

6.4 Harvesting of Groundnut
Groundnut is also lifted by pulling the plant with hand or sometimes using lifting
fork. Then the crop is left in the field for further drying by putting the harvests oneach other to protect from sun damage. The pods are collected by detachingthem from the plant by hand. The seeds are taken out from the pods either bybeating them on the threshing floor or individually by hand.

7. Crop Productivity and Use of Products
Yields of crops grown in the spate­irrigated areas vary depending on theavailability of moisture, varieties of planting material, insect and disease control.
The crop yields in the spate­irrigated areas are fairly high compared to the rain
fed agriculture elsewhere in the country. The average yield of sorghum, maizeand pearl millet varies from year to year depending on the availability ofdiverted floods and measures taken to control pests.
In the spate­irrigated areas, farmers collect all straws from their fields forfeeding their livestock and temporarily for roofing of dwellings. Those farmers
who do not own animals sell the straw. The removal and uses of the plantmaterial for feeding animals is practiced during the season of crop growth aswell as after harvesting of the crops are completed. The uses can be green(tillers of sorghum, maize and pearl millet crops) and dry plant material, which
is obtained after the harvest of the crops. This implies that there is noreplenishment of fertility into the soils except from the deposition of sediments
by the floods.
Crops like beans, watermelon, groundnuts, pepper, okra and tomatoes aregrown at the one side of a field where (wet spots of a field) excess water isaccumulated to sustain the growth of the plants. However, it is planted only insmall plots for seasonal household consumption and to some extent for local
market.
Table 3. Productivity of various crops under spate­irrigated areas (qt/ha)

Crop
Sorghum
Maize
Pear millet
Ground Nut
SesameCottonOkra
Watermelon
TomatoHot Pepper

Good
38
20
9
25
8
10
15
35
20
40

Seasons
Medium
18
10
5
15
3
4
11
20
15
16

Bad
8
5
2
7
1
2
5
10
5
9

Source: Field survey 2002. (The data need further Verrification)

21

Average
21
12
5
16
4
5
10
25
13
22

7.1 Storage System
There are a number of storage systems in use. They are all traditional ones.
Storage facilities are mostly sacks and baskets made of different materials,
under ground stores (pits) and tikuls. So far, no studies have been conducted
about the effectiveness of the different storage system, but all of them are
believed to be ineffective to protect the stored crop against rodents, pests andlivestock.
The most important storage problems are rodents like rats, and pests like birds,
weevils, beetles and termites. Livestock like donkeys and goats are problems incarelessly stored crops.
Farmers believe that thoroughly drying of the grain both under field condition
and in house reduces the infestation of storage pests. Then the threshed grains
are stored in various on farm storage conditions. Crops to be stored are firstsun dried and are then put in various storage systems. Unshelled maize cobs
and sorghum heads are put in raised beds (Tsehwet) constructed of wood andlocated adjacent to the farmers’ house for further drying and storage. This way
the maize cobs and sorghum heads can stay for a year with out much damage.
Under ground storage (pit) and tikul are preferred by farmers for storing theirharvest to escape the risk of weevils and rats. In tikul, the grain is dispersed on
the floor and this system makes the temperature a bit cooler than the others.
Storing grain in boreholes has the advantage of avoiding attack of weevils andrats. The mouth of the pit is sealed with a lid made of mud and the wall isplastered with a mixture of mud and cow dung. As a result the temperature
within the pit is raised which causes suffocation for the developing of weevils
thus protecting the grains from attack. The grains stored under this systemproduce unpleasant smell that discourage their use for food and thegermination is also affected that discourage their use as seed. This could be
due to boreholes airtight that kills embryo of the seed. However, the grains canbe used for human consumption after well ventilation of the produce.

22IV. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Livestock production is practised in a number of different farming systems. No
estimate can be made at present on effective numbers within each farming
system. However, pastoralism and agropastoralism are the main production
systems. Qualitatively, the Afar, Rashida, Hidareb and Saho are almost purely
pastoralists; the Tigrygna and Bilen are sedentary mixed farmers; the Kunama,
Nara and partly Tigre and Tigrygna are agropastoralists.
Most livestock producers in Eritrea are subsistence farmers. Their primaryobjective is to produce enough food to feed their family and to maintainsufficient reserves to see them through drought years. Cash income from salesof livestock is a secondary consideration and mainly directed to household
necessities such as sugar, coffee, salt school fees and medicines. Production
strategies are directed more at minimizing risk than at maximizing profit.
Pastoralism
Pastoralism is any production system that relies for substantial amount of its
output on livestock. Although it is difficult to tell how much is substantial, adefinite prerequisite for a system to qualify as pastoral is that it must involvesome degree of mobility. Essentially, pastoralism denotes economies thatderive the bulk of the food supply from livestock using a great variety of herding
practice on natural pasture. Pastoralism usually consists of highly
heterogeneous groups in their objectives, strategies, needs, management styleand degree of mobility, hence, the basis for classification. In Eritrea we havenomadic pastoralism and transhumance with full mobility and agro­pastoralismwith partial or no mobility.
Nomadic Pastoralism
Nomadic pastoralism essentially revolves around the husbandry of livestockand the utilisation of natural vegetation as fodder. Such an economy requires
the availability of suitable domestic animals and of pastureland adequately
large for sustaining the animals, because their livelihoods are totally dependent
on the utilisation of marginal resources. Nomadic pastoralists are forced toconstantly migrate by the need to maintain their source of subsistence, namely
livestock. In its purest manifestation, nomadic pastoralism is characterised by
the absence of cultivation even as a supplementary income (Khazanov1983).
Typical nomads are found in the Sahel where large tracks of relatively
unoccupied land allow free roaming. In Eritrea the Afar, Rashida and the
Hedareb are typical examples of nomadic pastoralists.
Transhumance
Transhumance involves regular seasonal migrations between, say dry season
and wet season pastures, upland and lowland pastures, upland and lowland
cultivation, or pastures and salt. Probably a major difference between

23

transhumance and nomadic pastoralism is that in transhumance the patterns of
migration are more or less predetermined under normal circumstances.
Nevertheless, predetermined migration does not in any way imply rigidity in
traditional resource use by transhumants. These patterns are subject tosubstantial deviations in times of resource scarcity such as during drought. In
general, the pattern of transhumance in East Africa is usually between
highlands/plateaux and lowlands/flood plains. In Eritrea the Saho, Tigre, andTigrigna practise this between the Eastern coastal plains and the Eastern
escarpments and the central highlands. The Tigrigna and Tigre are sometimes
called opportunistic farmers, as often practised in the Sahel. They plant crops;
usually sorghum and maize on their way East to wet season pastures andharvest them on their way back west in the dry season. In between there aremany different degrees of transhumance depending on the number and kind of
livestock raised, type of crops planted and distance travelled. Each of thesegroups has distinct production systems and set of strategies that have evolved
through generations.
Agropastoralism
Agro­pastoralism is another important type of pastoralism accounting, in manycases, for the bulk of total livestock populations. It is perhaps the most highly
diverse form of pastoralism, with agriculture as the main subsistence activity,
but where animal husbandry is an integral part of the household economy. The
availability in agro­pastoral systems is essentially due to the recurrent drought
and markets for crop and livestock, which are characterised by huge
fluctuations in price and volume. Tigrigna, Kunama and Nara in the South
Western lowlands mainly practise Agropastoralism.
The pastoralists of the Western Lowland Zone are predominantly transhumantsas they retain campsite inhabited by women and children, while livestock
migrate for forage and water elsewhere. There is a greater degree of agro­
pastoralism in the south west of Western Lowland Zone than in the northwest,
reflecting the lower rainfall and consequent less reliable crop production of thelater. Lack of water supply is the primary reason for the migration of pastoralists
from the northern part of Western Lowland Zone with a shortage of feed also
occurring in drought years.
Pastoralists of the Eastern Lowland Zone have shorter distance to migrate thanthose in Western Lowland Zone as the dry season camps for Eastern Lowland
Zone are on the eastern escarpment.
In Central Highland Zone farmers use the areas that cannot be farmed(because of lack of soil or extreme slope) as rangeland. After harvest, thecropping lands are available to all stock in the community for communal
grazing. Some opportunistic farmers, as often practised in the Saheliancountries, also practise a sort of transhumance. They plant crop, usually maize,on their way East to wet season pasture and harvest them on their way backWest in the dry season.

24

1. Livestock Population & Types of Eritrea

1.1 Livestock Population
Reliable statistics are lacking on current livestock populations as demonstrated
by cattle vaccination figures, which are often more than double registeredpopulation. No livestock census has been carried out since 1978, and thecurrent livestock figures are based on estimates. At present there are 1.9
million cattle, 2.1 million sheep, 4.7 million goats, 318,914 camels, 518,459
equine and 1.1 million poultry.
1.2 Livestock Types
Cattle: The known zebu cattle breeds or types of Eritrea are:Begait (Barka):
Barka is dominant in the Gash­Barka Region. They rank first in population sizeas compared to the other types. Milk and meat are the main products of thisbreed. The Barka is a long legged black and white breed originating in the
Barka region. It has been spread to many areas on account of its milking
qualities: daily yields of 6 to 8 litres are reported as general. They are relatively
resistant to diseases and are also known for thei high feed conversion rate
making them good meat producers. Mature body weight ranges from 267 to
316 Kg.
Arado:
The central highlands of the country are home for this breed and they aresecond to Barka in population. The main purpose of rearing is for meat anddraft power; their milking potential is about 1 to 2 litres per day. Their maturebody weight ranges from 205 to 300 Kg.
Arebo:
The coastal plains of Northern Red Sea are home for this breed of cattle,
although numerically less important than the other breeds, it reportedly has asimilar milking capacity and crossing potential as the Barka. Their mature bodyweight does not exceed 250 Kg.
Afar:
The coastal plains of Southern Red Sea are home for this breed of cattle. This
breed has compact body size and is few in number compared to the Barka andArado. Their milking potential is almost similar to that of Arado. Their maturebody weight ranges from 220 to 250 Kg.
Goats:
Most of the Eritrean goats are unidentified and several types and strains areseen in the country.
The most notable is the Rora goat: it is similar in appearance to the Nubian withdrooping ears and a milking capacity of more than one litre per day. Average
live body weight ranges from 24 to 31 Kg.

25

The Barka is the preferred breed in the Gash­Barka region. Average milk
production is estimated at1 to 1.5 litres per day.
The Shukria are mainly found in the western lowlands. This strain reportedly
produces 1.5 to 2.5 litres per day and their milking potential warrants their trial
introduction to other areas.
The Hassani is well known for its milk production: it was introduced from theSudan and is characterised by long hairs. Average body weight ranges from 30
to 34 Kg.
The Maria is found in Anseba region and has short, round ears. Average milkyield is 1 to 1.5 litres per day. Average body weight ranges from 27 to 30 Kg.
The Lange is a milk producer found in Gash­ Barka region. It is similar in bodyweight as the Hassani.
The Beledi is a cross breed of Lange and Hassani.
There are also unidentified mountain type goats in the central highlands.
Sheep:All breeds are hairy types. Although all the breeds are primarily for meatproduction, they are also often milked for subsistence consumption.
The Shimezana type of southern highland breed is fat­tailed and small. The
body weight ranges from 21 to 24 Kg.
The Rashaida type of Northern Red Sea is short thin­tailed and small. The bodyweight ranges from 30 to 32 Kg.
The Barka type of the Western lowlands zone is the most commonly known
type of sheep in Eritrea. It is long thin­tailed. The body weight ranges from 42 to
47 Kg.
The Hamale is similar to the Sudan Desert sheep and prevalent in the Western
Lowlands. The body weight ranges from 37 to 40 Kg.
Donkeys:
They are of two types. The highland donkeys and the lowland­riding donkeys
commonly called the Rifa’i.
Camels:The most common ones are the Bisharri, Arrir and Afar camels. There are also
unidentified camels in the Gash­Barka and Anseba regions. The Arrir is thepreferred type in the southwestern lowlands due to its high milk yield, goodmarket price and high transportation value.
2. The Rangelands

Rangeland is a kind of land characterised by native vegetation (climax ornatural potential), which is predominantly composed of grasses, grass likeplants, forbs, or shrubs suitable for grazing and/or browsing. It includes land re­vegetated naturally or artificially to provide a forage cover that is managed likenative vegetation. Rangeland includes natural grasslands, savannahs, shrub
lands, most deserts, tundra, alpine communities, coastal marshes and wet
meadows.

26

Generally, rangelands are frequently characterised as receiving less than 750
mm average rainfall, but also include areas with higher amounts where soil andtopographies are unsuitable for cultivation.
Rangelands cover over half of the total land area and are mostly distributed
below 1500 m in the lowlands, foothills of the highlands, in the arid, semi­arid,
humid and sub­humid regions. In Eritrea the rangelands constitute about 49%of the total land area suitable for this use and that further 33% is barren, due todesert and steep slop.
Rangeland is more suited for livestock production than for any other forms ofagriculture i.e., they are limited with regard to agricultural production, but they
are capable of producing a great variety and quantity of herbage plants thatserve as the basis for the extensive types of livestock Industry.
The status of the different rangelands can be stated as follows:
Central Highlands: The rangelands in the Central Highland Zone are
generally infertile and usually extremely sloping, making them extremely fragile
under any continuous grazing. Many show irreparable damage from erosion
down to bed­ rock due to constant grazing and removal of the woody overstory. The grazing area has been shrinking over years because of cultivationand deforestation. Attempts to allow regeneration by closing rangelands andforest areas have shown promising results and are becoming models for therecovery of the rangelands. The recovery rate of some of the closed rangelands
and forest areas is remarkable and this is making people think in terms ofintroducing the cut and carry system.
.
Western Lowlands: The southwestern part of the western lowlands appears tobe less damaged, except in those areas adjacent to population centres wherebare soil with extensive gully erosion is common. There is still grass cover withstable browse over story. But in the northwestern lowlands the grass cover
becomes relatively scarcer. The intensity of use of forage in the Western
Lowland Zone increases to the northeast, leaving little grass and showing
consequent erosion. Land degradation under cropping follows the same patternin this zone with least damage on the flat vertisols of the southwest. The
extensive and migratory system of animal husbandry allows the rangelands torecover, unlike in the highlands. But it is common to observe overgrazing inareas where there are watering points and under grazing in areas where there
are no watering points.
Eastern Lowlands: In this area, rangelands are of low productivity and not ingood condition in terms of ground cover, as rangelands are limited within a vast
desert. Generally, the rangelands are not in good condition in terms of theground cover of vegetation.
3. Other Feed Resources
After the rangelands, crop residues are the most important feed resources.
Almost every farmer in the highlands and the agro­pastoralists in the lowlands,

27

store straw mainly of barley, wheat and taff and Stover mainly of sorghum tofeed their animals during the dry season.
The aftermath grazing of harvested fields also give the animals a chance tosupplement their grazing and browsing in the rangelands and enable therangelands to rest for some weeks.
4. Range resource management among pastoral communities
4.1 Traditional Adaptive Strategies
The pastoralists derive more than 50% of their total food energy intake fromlivestock in the form of meat and milk. Milk is the most important animal productin pastoral societies and is needed every day. Most cows conceive usually
once every two to three years and provide little milk during the dry season.
Females comprising more than 75% of the livestock number always dominate
the herd size. This reflects the pertinence of milk as the major end product of
pastoral production systems. The herd also enables the production of revenue
for the subsistence of the family.
Increased herd size and milk production, maintenance of an appropriate andviable herd structure and prevention of animal loss to disease have always
been the core objectives of pastoralism. These are some of the reasons whylarge number of animals must be maintained.
As an insurance against drought, pastoralists strive to increase stock numbers,in order to provide security in case of losses, to leave a remainder of feasible
size, to re­built their herd. Thus the expansion of herd sizes in “normal” times,
not stricken by drought, disease or unrest, is a rational strategy and not a
projection of prestige, social status and wealth. Although it is true, that parallel
to increased numbers of animals, an increased social standing for the ownerwill develop, this has to be seen as a favourable by­product of an effort tosafeguard future survival.
Traditionally, risk­reducing adaptive strategies are, herd diversification and herd
dispersion. Herd diversification is practised as an insurance against majordisease outbreaks since the different domestic species are generally notsusceptible to the same pathogens. Beside this, the different dietary
preferences of the various domestic species also allows for a better utilisationof pastures that may not be suited for one or the other domestic herbivore
species.
Herd dispersion is a second risk­reducing strategy, which is frequently
practised in traditional systems. Stockowners separate their herds and havethem herded in areas sometimes up to several hundred kilometres apart; this is
primarily a measure against forage shortages and raiding. If the family is large
enough, its members manage the different herding units, and family reunions
and rearrangements of the different stock sections take place either during therainy season or during certain ritual occasions.

28

A related form of dispersion, although of a different significance is the formationof stock alliances and stock patronage that is independent of family size andsocial status. Individual animals or groups of animals are given out to otherstockowners who are either needy or in some way entitled to compensatory
claims. Often the original owner never recovers the animals, but in times ofhardship the son or even grandson might reclaim some or even all of theloaned stock from the recipient’s heirs. This risk reducing strategy is common
among all pastoralists whose social organisation is based on clan and age set
structures and should be regarded as a system of social security rather than an
actual management tool.
The most conspicuous strategy of migratory pastoral production system was,and still is, the mobility of households and herds. The migrations, which are
dictated by the availability of forage and water, can follow various patterns but
are always characterised by the combination of individual stock ownership andcommunal land use. This combination does not usually promote sustained­yield
resource exploitation whenever land becomes scarce, and in particular whendry­season grazing reserves are no longer accessible. If confined to rainyseason pastures throughout the year, the mobility of pastoral households andherds will be reduced to only minor moves, for hygienic or ritual seasons, sinceenergy expenditure for a majority move is not compensated for by a significant
improvement of pastures.
4.2 Modern Adaptive Strategies
At this point it should be noticed, that the term “modern” does not apply solely
to recent or present developments, though for most African pastoralists it
coincides with the respective dates of independence.
Particularly those pastoralists that become impoverished after devastating
droughts may be able to re­establish themselves in the pastoral sector throughvarious social mechanisms (stock alliances, stock patronage), will turn toirrigation agriculture, where development projects are in operation, seek wage
labour (usually in low income brackets) or attempt to live on famine relief.
These alternatives, especially the latter two, are of steadily increasing
importance since the recuperative potential of the traditional livestock
economies is declining for the already indicated reasons. On the other hand,
many wealthy pastoralists are successfully investing in non­pastoral sectors byengaging themselves in trade and business using the structure of the remnant
economy to stimulate local markets for foreign goods (petty trade). Formal
education and training is also seen as another form of capital investment as itincreases the chance for jobs in the higher income brackets, that in turn are theonly ones to allow reinvestment in the pastoral sector. Thus, the recuperative
potential of the pastoral sector is augmented by non­pastoral activities, though
limited to small portions of the population. Today, roughly most of thepastoralists are living below the poverty line, that is to say, are not self reliant interms of food production. Only a very small minority of the pastoral population
are able to diversify their economic activities into non­pastoral sectors.

29

V. Conclusion & Recommendation

Summary of the current cropping practices their gaps andrecommendations
Cropping
practice

Pro and cons

Recommendation

Irrigation­ Structures are temporary­ Frequent maintenance and laborious­ Little time for agricultural activities­ Good experience that meet the objectivesof land preparation.
­ The selection practice is excellent but thequality is not maintained.
­ Use high seed rates­

Land preparation
Source of seed

Reduce the effort bycontracting waterway.
­ More time for agriculture.
­ Need to be adapted­ Quality seed development
and introduction of new.
Seed rate­
Populationmust
bemaintained
Planting time
­ It is flexible which meets the situation, and ­Some adjustment in Ratonis based on the experience of the farmers
and maize.
Methodsof ­ The local flow and seeding tools Jeleb and ­ Improving the existing andsowingSeluka are favorable means
introduction of newtechnologies
Fertilization­ Any kind of fertilization is not applied­ Introduction of fertilization­ Yield loss is estimated 30­50% and underPlant protection
severe condition total crop losses­ Plant protection systema. Weeds­ High weed infestation, no weeding ismust be in placeb. Insects
practiced.
­ Net­working
c. Birds­ Yield loss not less than 25% ­ some times ­ Training of farmers
the losses can go up to 70­80%­Organization­ Yield lose up to 20% in isolated fields up
to 70­80%

30

Croppingpractice
Crop ratooning

HarvestingThreshingCrop­residue

Storage system

Pros and cons

Recommendation­ First good rotoon can produce as much as
50% of the main crop and second ratoon can
produce up to 30% of the main crop.
­ Threshing is done by beating the earheads damage.
­ Their experience is time taking and thegrain started to change its color anddevelop an unpleasant smell and test insorghum, pearl millet is not matured at
the some time.
Laborers, time consuming 50kg per day insorghum and a group of 5­6 men whenshelling­ It needs an investigation on
the benefit verse growing
other crops.
­ Adoptionofnewtechniques.
­ Introductionofnewvarieties, which mature at
the same time.

The husk and stalks are well collected andused for animal feed and for constructing
temporary farmhouses
Crops are sun dried and are put in different
storage facilities under ground storage (pit)and tickles are preferred.

­

Introduction of new
intermediate technologies,
which can be adapted
easily.
­ Introduction of wisely use of
the remains such as urea
treatment, urea block... etc­ Conduct studies on theeffectiveness of thedifferent storage systems.
­ Introduction of

VI. A Way Forward
In traditional spat irrigation system, there exists tremendous opportunities forincreasing crop production by more than 100%.
Based on the information collected and the recommendation set, there is aneed for developing a guideline on each aspect so that one can have a whole
picture of the spate­irrigation system to be developed in Eritrea. The focus will
be on the most important issues and constraints of crop production in the spate
irrigation areas.
1. Preferred water management strategy and number of irrigation foreach crop.
2. Recommended varieties
3. Improving the existing cultural practice.
4. Increase soil fertility
5. Major pests and diseases and control measures.
6. Link with livestock keeping
1. Preferred water management strategy and number of irrigation foreach crop
A crop failure due to shortage of water is very common. The preferred water
management strategy is to maximum and efficient use of the flood until

31adequate amount of moisture is stored in the soil. In the spate irrigation it isdifficult to set frequency and time of irrigation, for it is not under full control.
Putting into consideration the high rate of evaporation it is recommended to use
all the floods.
In order to achieve permanent structures of diversion structures must be inplace.

­ Primary, secondary and traisery irrigation structure must be maintained.
­ Field embankments must be maintained and improved every year for there
is high sedimentation of soils.
­ Standby heavy machinery will be necessary for maintenance and timely
construction of the main diversion structures....
­ During the month of June to August there is high temperature and scorchingsun, thus most of the farmers migrate to the cooler highland part of Gheleb
and Ghizghiza where they can pass the harsh weather. These months arealso critical period for the main activities, hence there is a need ofintervention to word permanent settlement of the people by constriction
permanent houses that are suitable for the environment and water
reservoirs shall be constructed to solve or improve the livelihood of thepeople.
­ Promote private sector machinery service for land leveling, tillage and post
harvesting operation, motor power and animal traction.
­ Promote animal traction (training, credit , etc.).
­ Promote blacksmith services for simple tools

2. Introduction of Improved Seeds
Research station for eastern lowlands is located in the spate­ irrigated area andin the western lowlands. Here are the recommended varieties for both agro­
ecological regions.

32

Recommended Research output Varieties
Recommended varieties as a priorities the research out put are listed below, it
is advisable also to put into consideration the land races for they well adopted
to the environment and had been accepted by the farmers for their performanceand passed through many screenings and existed for the past years.

PP­290Western lowland
1CSV­210
Macia

1500
450­850
vertisoil

Gedam
Hamam
1400
400­650
verti­soil

Eastern lowland
89MW 5003 89MW5
056
Laba
Shiba

Shambko

Bisuka

2. Elevation
3. Rainfall
4. Soil

1500M.
350­650mm
Vertisoil

1500
450­650
vertisoil

1500
Irrigation
Loom soil

5. Characteristics

Easy maturity
combinableLatematuring

Easy maturity
combinable

6. Seed rate .kg/ha
7. Fertilizer DAP
kg/ha
Urea
kg/ha

8­12

8­12
­ 100
­ 50

8­12
100
50

Short
Easy
combinab maturity
lesuitable to
birds
8­12
8­12
100
­ 100
50
­ 50

8. Time ofgermination
9. Inter cultivation

5­7 days

5­7

6­8

5­7

5­7

5­7

After a month

One month

One month

One month

10. Weeding­ After 3
weeks­ After 35­40
days
140­160
110­118
White
2000­3000

3 weeks
35­40 days

3 weeks
40 daysOne
month
3 weeks
40 daysOne
month
3 weeks
35­40
days

180­200White
3000­3600

120­140
116­125
Dark white
1700­4500

205­300cm
110­115White
3000­3600

250­270112­117White

Enjera, Suwa
Animal feed

Enjera,Suwa
Animal feed120­140
116­125
White
2500­
3500
Food andfeed

Food andfeed

Food andfeed

1.NameLocal name

11. Height
12. Maturity date
13. Color
14. Yield kg/ha
15.Uses

­ 100

­ 50

33

Feed andfeed

3 weeks
35­40 days

1500
Irrigation
Loom
soil
Easy
maturity

8­12
­ 100
­ 50

Sorghum varieties for Western lowlands

34

Sorghum varieties for Eastern lowlands

35Hot pepper, Pearl millet and Sesame for both agro­ecological zones

36Sesame Abunam introduced by extension

37

Land Race Varieties
The land race varieties had not been studies but for many advantages such as
early maturity, less suitable to bird, damage and performance in terms of yields
and tillaring capacity, adaptability to an area and rainfall situation the following
can be recommended to the specific agro­ecological zones.
VarietyWestern low­land

Dura
Sorghum

Abuseba
Harirai
Hegertai
Wediaker
Wediferej
Bazenai
Letemhret
Gumbilu
Koden
Amal

Maize
Pearl­millet
SesameGround nut
CottonEastern low
land
Alihiya
HejeriFeterita
Odaka
Dumburi
Hartsetsa
Berih
Wedilebabe
Chenger
Dukum
Blak & White

Alwa, Deda, Shila,
Tosho and Zubeidi
Abunam, Herher
Abdurezak,
Abuleben
Keren

Keren

Exotic seeds introduced by extension
Varieties
Eastern and Western lowlands
Sorghum­ Wedi­Ahmed­ Arfa­Gedemek­ Tabat­ Mailo­ Tetron
Maize

­
­
­

38

katonomi
H 511
Awassa4.3 Improve the existing cultural practices
Rate of seed need to be improved and plant population maintained. Thesecan be improved by the improvement their tools and introducing

Row planting
The system of row planting exists but it is not done in an efficient way. The row
is normally not strait and the spacing between rows is not uniform. Oxen driven
row planters (drillers) can be introduced and can even be produced locally.

Reduce plant Density
One of the practices requiring improvement is the maintenance of proper plantdensity in sorghum, which is the most important crop in spate­irrigated fields.
The rows are not equally spaced in general, and quite often they tend to be
narrow. Within row seeding is too dense to permit the plants to perform to theirbest potential. The farmers do some thinning of the plants for forage but it isdone so late that it cannot minimize the effects of intense intra crop competition
within the sorghum stand. As a result, the panicles produced are small in size
and the shoots are thin and weak. However, farmers defend dense planting due
to a number of reasons and one of which is that dense planting suppresses
weeds and farmers also need fodder for the animals.
If forage requirement or weed suppression are the reasons for dense planting,they can be better achieved by having properly spaced rows of sorghum(75x10cm) with an intercropping crop of fast growing legume in the inter row
spaces. Such a system would provide forage of greater nutritive value thansorghum, and may enrich the soil with atmospheric nitrogen as well as
suppress the weeds similar priorities can be followed in maize also. Moreover,the inter­plant competition between sorghum and legumes would be much lessthan the interplant competition among the plants of densely sown sorghum.

Inter cultivation
Currently no operation is performed either manually or with implements
between planting and harvest. While the weed problems are relatively low inthe plots in which "Mekemet" is done, it does not mean that the fields arecompletely free from weeds. Use of multi tine seed drill with proper spacing ofrows can facilitate intercultural operations with equally simple harrows as usedin the dry land area of the world. Traditionally, the labour force of the household
is relatively idle during the time between planting and harvesting. Therefore,possibility exists for better crop management through intercultural operations.

39

4.4 Increase soil fertility
Farmers in the spate­irrigated area do not apply any manure or chemicalfertilizer. Bearing in mind those factors that affect the growth of plants, theagricultural profession requires that all farmers fulfill the following conditions.
­­

Supply the soil with adequate plant nutrients. There are five ways ofaccomplishing this.
a. Prevention soil erosionb. Letting the farm lie follow for one or more years during which time
the soil nutrients will increasec. Good crop rotationd. Planting legumes systematicallye. Applying fertilizers to the soil

Good preparation of the planting site.
­

Planting good quality seeds or better yielding plants that have suchcharacteristics as resistance to disease and pests.

­

Proper planting of seed with adequate spacing in between, with amoderate number of crops per hectare of land­ not too many and not tofew. Planting in row is preferable as it facilitates the easy application ofother principles of modern agriculture.

­

Provision of adequate water. The supply may be through rainwater or by
irrigation providing shades in the farm reduces the evaporation of waterand raises the moisture content of the soil.

­

Protecting the plant by
f. Cultivation, uprooting weeds on applying herbicides
g. Prevention of disease by planting disease­resistant plants orapplying relevant pesticides
h. Prevention or control of destructive insects, birds or animal.

­

Proper soil management by
i. Preventing soil erosion,
j. Remove of excess water from the farm;
k. Maintaining of soil structure by applying fertilizers or byseasonally leaving the farm uncultivated­Crop rotation assists in reducing destructive insects, diseases andweeds.

­

Giving incentives to farmers such as good prices for their crops, goodmarketing arrangement, etc. This motionless the farmers to redouble
their efforts and expertise in farming.

40

A well­fertilized soil is one that has all the nutrients for optimum plat growthorganic matter is the principal source of elements in the soil. The role of it is toprovide the soil with some plant nutrients and give the soil good structure,facilitate air circulation in the soil, enable the soil to absorb sufficient water andto hold and retain essential nutrients. The amount of elements available for use
by plant depends on whether the decomposition on organic matter results in
microlisation or not.
There is one component, which is lacking in the spate­irrigation farms; crop
residue is generally removed from the fields for feed for animals and also for
constructing temporary farmhouses. These means there is no return of nutrient
removed by plants back to the soil. Hence, these gap need to be adjust by theapplication of artificial fertilizers on it is recommended by to the new varieties.

Commonly used fertilizers
Nutrient
NitrogenPhosphate

Potash (k2o)Compoundfertilizers
e.g 10­10.20

Fertilizer
Urea
Ammonium sulfate
Ammonium phosphate
Ammonium nitrate
Super phosphate
Triple phosphate
Ammonium phosphateBi­calcium phosphate
Natural phosphate
Potassium chloride
Potassium sulphateEachelement
tocalculated separately

beContent %Quantity of fertilizer (kg)for 1 unit of fertilizer

45­46
20­21
17.5­20
35
14­20
40­50
40­52
36­40
25­35
60
48
10 Nitrogen
10 Phosphoricacid
20 Potash

2.2
5
5­5.2
3.3
5­7.2
2­2.5
2­2.5
2.5­2.8
3­4
1.7
2.1
10
10
5

Caution­ The farmer must be very careful in using the fertilizer because it may burnseed, roots or stems on direct contact with them.
­

Farmers needs to consider several factors before starting the use aparticular type of fertilizer such as the amount of fertilizer needed and thetime of application.

­ The amount of fertilizer required will depend on one or more of the following
factors
1. Climate41

2. Examination of soil
3. Crop rotation
4. Weed germination
5. Analysis of the plant
6. Use of natural fertilizers on the farm
­ Application of artificial fertilizers.
1. Sprinkling
2. Prior application of fertilizers in pits or furrows
3. Applying the fertilizers in circular form
4. Applying the fertilizers in circular farm
5. Spraying the fertilizer in a planted farm
4.5 Major pests and diseases and control measures
Major pests and disease and control measures weed, pests and disease aremajor problems of crop production in the spate­irrigated farms yield losses dueto these problem is estimated at 30% to 50% and under sever condition there
can be a total crop losses.
In order to have a broader view we will see them separately.

Weeds
Various weed species are widespread in the area. According to the survey
carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1998, broad leaved and grass
weeds commonly affect the crop production under the spate irrigation. The
most common broad leaved weed species found in the spate­irrigated fields are
Heliotropium spp. (Tsada Rusu), Datura spp. (Mezerba), Argemone spp.,
Echinocloa spp., Euphorbia spp, Solanum spp (Fenchuch) and Cucumis spp(Hafafulo), and the common grass weed types are Cynodon dactylon (Romadi)
and Echinocloa spp (Halawat).
As a result of the flood a very high weed infestation is prevailing, besides thefarmers in the spate irrigated farms do not weed their fields.
Weeds are one of the main factors reduced yield and are often responsible forthe very low productivity of certain tropical crops.
The depressing effect on yield is exerted in various ways.
· Direct competition for plant growth substances, or antagonism.
· Light weeds often grow faster than cultivated plants and can overtook themshade them.
· Water: competion for unter between crops and weeds is a mater of life anddeath.
· Fertilizer: since weeds grow rapidly and vigorously, they use a large
proportion of the fertilizer intended for the crop, particular nitrogenous
fertilizer.
· It is a breeding and harbours area for pests

42

Methods of weeding
The hest strategy is often integrated weed management, employing a
combination of methods.
Choosing a method
1. Accurately identify and map the location of the major weed problems ineach crop.
2. Investigate reasons for the problems, could the farming or planting
technique be altered to give the crop a greater competitive advantage?
3. Consider cultural methods of control first, since these are most sustainablewith local resources of low cost technology.
4. Where necessary, select chemicals those are both safe and effective.
5. Compare alternative methods on the basis of the optimum timing needed forbest effect, cost, lese of application least damage to the environment
6. Any one­weed control treatment must fit into a longer­ term weed
management strategy.

Manual and mechanical weeding
Until recently, weed control consisted of hand weeding, hoeing, harrowing,
ploughing and other farms of tillage.
Hand method
Hand weeding is the cheapest method of control for the small farmers andhis/her family simply pulling or rouging trouble some weeds can be done
without equipment.
The disadvantage is that the work is seldom done before weeds are large andalready seriously competitive with the crop.
¨ Pulling weeds is hard and tiring work and the area covered per person per
day is limited. Hand tools used in weeding is not yet introduced in the spate
irrigation farm such as­ cutlass or machete­ small hoe­ hand hoes of different shapes of plades­ spade­ sharma hand hoes
­ long –handled hoe­ different shapes of blades.
These can be cheap and there fore available to all a most members of thefamily or community. Hand tools may be made locally rather than imported.
Hand wheel hoes with adjustable blades and hands can also be introduced forthey are proved useful. They leave smaller weeds as mulch between the croprows and are easier to use.

43

Animal powered weeding
Animal powered system offer the only possible alternative cultural means ofcontrolling weeds. The animal­powered weeding can be carried out usingwhatever animal is most appropriate to the environment and culture of thepeople.

Tractor system
Four­wheeled tractors can increase weeding rates around one hundred foldover hand weeding and can, like animals, be made to pull a variety of types oftime, attached to multi­purpose toolbars.

Cultural method
1. Burning: ­ It is widely used especially for destroying scrub on clearing
forest for cultivation. It is also used in order to regenerate
pastureland.
2. Crop rotations: ­ it is adopted aimed primarily at maximizing weed
control.
3. Covering the soil (mulching): ­ this technique is practiced with highyielding crops

Herbicides
A distinction is drawn between total herbicides and selective herbicides. Total
herbicides, such as sodium chlorate and divron, destroy all vegetation without
discriminating, between species. Selective herbicides destroy certain weeds but
leave the crop unharmed.

Time of application­ Pre­sowing on pre­planting treatment.
­ Post­emergence treatment­ is applied after the crop and the weeds haveemerged.
There are many compounds of herbicides to use them always check local lowsin clearance and use (based on safety and efficacy of the chemicals)

The various types of equipment required for applying herbicides are as
follows.
a. Hydraulic sprayers
b. Air­assisted sprayerc. Ultra­low volume (ULV) sprayer

44

Chemical weed control in the most important cereals can besummarized as follows.

Variety
Maize

Sorghum

Characteristic
It is extremely sensitive to competition fromweeds because it emerges more slowly
than weeds and doesn’t completely cover
the soil until two to three months aftersowing.
Competition from weeds is made worse by
the fact that sorghum grows slowly at first

Groundnuts

In the early stage, they are slow–growing
plants the soil is not completely covered by
the crop until late on, about two months
after sowing. Pods are formed in the soil,
makes weeding difficult.

Cotton

It is during the early stage of theirdevelopment that cotton plants suffer most45

TreatmentPre­sowing using paraquat or
glyhphosate.
Postemergencetreatmentatrazine, paraquat or 2,4­DInter­row treatment when sorghum
is 30­40 heights.
Post­emergence 2,4­D
Sowing in rows can enable trailed
hoes, or chisel ploughs.
­ Groundnut should be sown only
on perfectly clean land.
­ weeding must be done during
the crop cycle­ ­ 2­4­D B(2­3 kg ci/her) may be
used post emergency.
­ .
­ Prior to planting the crop
­ Before the weeds emerge
pendimethalin, Dipropetryn

Insect pests and diseases
The important insects are locust, stinkbug, termites, lopodopters andhemipterous insects, stembovers, aphids and whiteply.
Description

Cereals
pulsesVegetables

FruitsOut breakCereals

Pests

Bugs, ballwarm
Aphider,
Ballwarm,
cut warm
White fly
­ Locust­Grass­hoper
Army warm
Stinking bag
Chaffer beetles­ Locust

Area
Pesticide
Farmerinfested
Treate Liquid
Powde participati
(ha.)
on
d
r
242.5
111.0
66
72
121
278.5

248

212.5

34

72.5

48.5

48.5

48

9152
500
231
1020
25
5
10,933

5087
450
231
1020
25
5
6818

3776
50
231
1020
20
5
5102

6
400
231
20
25
10

Vegetable
Total
Source: Report of the MoA, 2003 on crop protection activities.
Updated report can show us the extent and intensity of pest outbreaks in theregion. The climate of the spate­irrigated area is favorable for breeding various
insect pests, diseases.
So establishment of crop protection system is import.
· Easy warning and prevention system must be in place· Integrated pest management (IPM) shall be introduces· Training of farmers to increase their awareness on the major pests· Farmers have to be organized in a network of plant protection groups.
· Scouts of farmers with special training is essential for continues surveyingof the pests· Farmers must be equipped with equipment used for applying pesticides,
which are almost similar for applying herbicides.
· In an outbreak of locust, which is usually associated with good rainyseasons, special contingency planning must be in place. For these
purposes all need pests and equipments must be ready a head of time.
· Air runways need to be developed in strategically areas such us Mai­
himet and Sheab.
· At the pick producing time stand by of pilots and Aircraft need to bearranged.
· FAO, Desert locust guidelines on­ Biology and behavior.
­ Survey­ Control­ Campaign organization and execution­ Safety and environmental precaution must be followed.

46

44

Equipments needed
1. Micro­ulva + handheld spinning disc sprayer
2. Micro vlva + spray head and optional backpack tank
3. Knapsack misblower fitted with Moromair AV 8000 retary cage.
4. Vehicle­mounted ULV air blast sprayers of different types.
5. Aircraft­ mounted sprayers.
Does rates and speed of action of different insecticides for which verified dose
rates have been established for the Desert Locust.

Insecticide

Over all(blanketClass

Bendio cards
Chlorpyrifos
Delkamethrin
Diflubenzuron
Fenitrothion
Fibronil
Lambda­cyhalothrim
Malathion

Treatment
Barrier(hoppers)

Hopper

Adults

CA
OP
PY
BU
OP
PP
PY

100
225
12.5
60
450
4
20

100
225
12.5
n.a
450
4
20

OP

925

925

Within100
12.5

Speed of

OverallActionF.1­2h.
M 3­48h
F 1.2h5 S>48h
M 3­480.6 M 3­48
F 1­2hM 3­48h

4. 6 Linking with livestock keeping
Animal feed in the spate irrigated areas is one of the problems that limit the
keeping up of the amount of livestock during the dry season. Stalks are used
for house construction whereby it will also aggravate the shortage of animal
feed. This is mainly happening in the Sub Zobas of Sheeb and Afabet. To avoid
the shortage of fodder during construction of diversion structures, canals, andother farming activities, farmers grow early growing varieties of sorghum (e.g.
Dura). However, this may not sustain for the whole year. Other measure as ameans of alleviating the shortage of fodder, migration of livestock takes place.
For example:
Sub Zoba Ghelalo (Bada Area):
Cattle migrate seasonally to the southern part of Dankalia and to the highlandsof Ethiopia (Tigray), but camels, sheep and goats stay in the surrounding area.
Since Regali River has year round stream there is no shortage of water both for47

domestic and livestock. Since there is year round water, animal fodder withearly growth and adaptable variety for the area shall be introduced.
Sub Zoba Sheeb and Afabet:
Another drain of resources and time is to rebuild habitations (agnet) each year
after returning from highlands. The migration itself is for grazing the animals, tosave them and the family from harsh weather, to avail cactus fruits, which areused as food supplementation, and to cultivate small landholdings that somehave in the highlands or eastern escarpments.
When the grazing in the non­arable lands becomes scarce, and stock of crop
residues, on which the livestock basically subsist, is getting exhausted (April),and when temperature becomes too hot, the households migrate to highlands.
All livestock migrate except the hardy breed of oxen, which are required for field
operations ranging from flood diversion to tillage and planting. Introduction ofdifferent agro forestry practices relevant to the local environment is vital. Such
practices would include establishment of shelterbelts and wind breaks at rightangle to the wind direction, since wind carrying fine soil particles (kemsin) is the
major problem in the coastal areas including Sheeb. In addition, substitutes ofwood and agricultural residues for house construction shall be also introduced.
Sub Zoba Foro:In the Sub Zoba Foro, migration of farming community to other areas ispracticed with the exception of Zula, Afta and Unga villages. However, during
the dry season July to December, animals typically cattle and camels are sent
off to Hazemo and highlands of Deot area in search of feed and water, because
this is the period when most of the crop cultivation activities are undertaken.
Some milking cows and oxen used for land preparation are left behind. Drinking
water, school and health centers are under construction. What has beensuggested for Sub Zobas of Sheeb and Afabet are relevant for this Sub Zoba
also.
Management of livestock and forage resources is an import aspect of animal
production. Forage and animals can be brought together in five main ways.
· Free ranging· Herding· Pad docking· Tethering· Zero grazing
Free ranging, herding and tethering is practiced in the spate irrigation farms.
The reasons why farmers choose to herd or to tethering animals must be
understood before a change to other farms.
Farmers can take the following strategies to obtain forage for their animals inorder of increasing intensity of forage management.
· harvesting by grazing or cutting natural forage· influencing growth of natural vegetation

48

auxiliary use of cultivated plants or plots
cultivating perennial forage species that persist for several years or even
decades· cultivating animal forage species that must be re­sown each year.
· conservation of forage··

Farmers rarely rely on only one of these strategies. They may combine grazingof natural pasture with grazing or feeding of crop residues, use of forage trees,and small areas of planted annual forage crops.
In the spate irrigation forage cultivation must be integrated with crop production.
The benefit of forage cultivation includes higher milk and meat production (peranimal or per hectare), more manure and possibly better soil fertility for
subsequent cropping. Forage crops may also be sold to other livestock
keepers, in such case, the procedure for economic calculation does not differ
from that for other cash crops.
­ Optimizing the use of available forage.
­ Optimizing forage use in grazing systems­ Forage conservation practices must be improved and supplementation isnecessary for meeting the animal nutritional needs.
­ At last is recommended that the output of the research finding of integrated
nutritional feeds must be introduced. The research department of the
Ministry of Agriculture had already developed 2 formulas for eastern lowlandand 2 formulas for western low lands.
Last not list all the recommended activities technologies be implemented needs
an efficient extension system. It would be better to build up an extension
networks on the existing farmers organization, such as crop and livestock
production, and plant and animal health services. A net­work of contact farmers
as facilitators in conveying messages to and for concerning farmers issues on
different developmental problems.

49

VII. Literature Cited
1. K.C.Lai, 1996. Special Programme on Food Production (SPFP/ERI/4501),
Report of Monitoring and Evaluation consultant, Asmara August 1996.
2. Mehretab Tesfai Hdera 2001. Soil and Water Management in Spate
irrigation Systems in Eritrea. Tropical Resource Management Papers.
Wagenningen University and Research Center, The Netherlands. 211 pp.
3. Spate Irrigation: Proceedings of the Sub regional Expert consultation on
Wadi Development for Agriculture in the Natural Yemen. 6­10 December
1987. Aden, PDRY Yemen. PP 51­57.
4. Poverty in an area of plenty: A baseline study development planning in the
Zula plain of Eritrea. Norwegian Church Aid­Eritrea. Working Report No.
1/94: Project ERI­001­02 "Zula Plain Baseline Study". PP 20­36.
5. I.C.Onwueme and T.D. Sinha, 1999. Field Crop Production in Tropical
Africa Principles and Practice. Michael health ltd, Reigate, Surrey England.
PP 480.
6. Adhanom Negassi, Kidane Negasi and e.tal. 1998. Weed Survey report on
Integrated Farming Scheme (IFS) on the different Agroecological Zones ofEritrea. Ministry of Agriculture, Asmara, Eritrea. PP 74­81.
7. M. Natarajan, 1999. Strengthening the agricultural research and extension
in Eritrea, GCP/ERI/001/ITA. Report of the consultation on
Production/Farming Systems Agronomy. State of Eritrea Ministry ofAgriculture, Department of Agricultural Research and Human Resources
Development and FAO. PP 48
8. M. Natarajan, 1998. Strengthening the agricultural research and extension
in Eritrea, GCP/ERI/001/ITA. Report of the consultation on
Production/Farming Systems Agronomy. State of Eritrea Ministry ofAgriculture, Department of Agricultural Research and Human Resources
Development and FAO. PP 77
9. J.W. Purseglove, 1992. Tropical Crops: Monocotyledon. Longman, London.
PP 147­300.
10. Sorghum in the Eighties, 1981. Proceedings of the International
Symposium on
Sorghum. Volume I. ICRISAT Center Patancheru, A.P., India. PP 81­313.
11. Sorghum in the Eighties, 1981. Proceedings of the International
Symposium on
Sorghum. Volume II. ICRISAT Center Patancheru, A.P., India. PP 475­527.
12. M.J.T. Norman, C.J.Pearson and P.G.E.Searle, 1984. The Ecology ofTropical Food Crops. Cambridge University Press. PP 103­163.

50

13. Tesfay Haile, 1996. Baseline survey report of the Bada irrigated agriculture
project. Consultancy report for: USAID­Eritrea, Africare­Eritrea and theMinistry of Agriculture, Asmara­Eritrea.
14. World Bank. (2001) Eritrea: Agricultural Sector Review (third draft). MOA
15. DANIDA, Watershed Development, Proceeding of Fourth International
Danida Workshop on watershed development, pp.44
16. Government of Eritrea, 1995 National Environment Plan for Eritrea (NE MP­
E) Agency for the Environment Asmara, Eritrea.
17. Pius B.Ngeze, 1998, Artificial Fertilizers and how to use them Nairobi,
Kenya pp.2
18. Guy Rouanet, 1987, The Tropical Agriculturalist
19. Wolfagong Bayer and Ann Water­Bayer, 1998, Forage Husbandry. The
Tropical Agriculturalist series pp.52­63
20. E.M.Lavobre, 1998 Weed control. The Tropical Agriculturalist Series.
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5152