霊長類の自己治療行動—予防と治療
Self-Medication in Primates- Prevention and Cure
京都大学霊長類研究所 准教授・ハフマン A. マイケル

Michael A. Huffman, PhD, Associate Professor
Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University
Good morning everybody. First of all, I would like tothat have a lot of nutritional value, such as the leaves,

express my thanks to all the people who have been

are also the parts that get eaten by animals. Plants are

involved in planning and hosting this highly significant

considered to employ two strategies in order to defendinternational conference, beginning with Prof. Murata.

themselves against being eaten. Their first defense

Yesterday, I heard a lot of talks, and although theystrategy is to produce various chemical substances.

addressed fields somewhat different to my own, I still

Due to the presence of toxic secondary metabolites,

found them very interesting and informative. I enjoyedimportant parts of many plants are rendered distastefulthem a great deal.

to animals. Many of these substances are bitter to thetaste. For instance, if a predator overeats a certain kind

I would like to talk to you now about my own research.

of leaf and the animal develops a disorder (such as bad

My talk will overlap to some extent with what Prof.

digestion, etc.) it will, as a result, tend to avoid feeding

Murata was talking about earlier so let me introduce

on the species of plant in question. The second strategy

that part from now.

is a physical defense. Some plants grow large burs or
thorns, while others have almost invisible small, hard

Today I am going to talk on the subject of “Self-

projections that are closely packed on the surface ofMedication in Primates - Prevention and Cure”. To

their leaves. These small projections, which make thebegin with, there is one point on which I must insist.

rough textured surface of the leaves, are made of a

Many people may think that primates are capable

glassy substance called silica which is very difficult toof self-medication because they are clever. But I

digest. So if an animal eats such leaves, it will develop

personally don’t think this reasoning is correct. As

indigestion.

Prof. Murata stated earlier, we humans too are animals.
We shouldn’t forget that just like us, plants and other

This is a photograph of the surface of such a leaf taken

animals are living things, and that we all live together

though an electron microscope. It gives a good idea ofin one world. With regard to self-medication, I don’how many tiny burs cover the leaf surface.

t believe that primates lead a particularly special kindof existence. On the contrary, I believe that all living

In short, third parties have taken over these twothings must perform self-medication in some way or

methods of defense, which originally evolved in orderanother. Because unless organisms - whether they be

to protect plants, for use in protecting their own bodies.

primates, birds, fish, or even insects - have some means

There are reports that many kinds of animals use theseof maintaining their own health when facing disease or

two plant defense methods as “medicines”. Insects arestress, then they would not be able to continue to exist

considered to have been the first animals to begin self-

on Earth.

medication as an evolutionary process. Around the time
the first flowers and fruit began to grow, there was also

14

Probably, the first living things to begin practicing self-

an explosive increase in the number of insect species.

medication were the plants, because predators eat

In the course of that process, insects began using theplants if they can’t protect themselves. Plants rely onplants for purposes other than nutrition. Plants were

their leaves to collect energy yet the parts of plants

also co-evolving with insects, and relationships of deep

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

mutual dependence developed between the two.

I’d like to introduce you to how chimpanzees maintaintheir own health using the two kinds of plant defense

This figure illustrates such close relationships between

systems I mentioned earlier, as well as to various otherspecific plants and insects. Some species of plants andkinds of behavior they engage in to maintain health.

insects have co-evolved into relationships of mutual

Roughly speaking, these behaviors can be considereddependence such that neither would be able to continue

as operating on three levels.

existing without the other. Ecosystems in which a single
species of plant and a single species of insect function

Level 1 is behavior aimed at avoiding becoming

as a single unit have formed.

infected with disease-causing agents and at reducing
contact with such agents.

Within these relationships, insects play a role inmaking plant reproduction possible by carrying pollen.

Two examples of this behavior are shown in these

Of course, from the insects’ standpoint, they are using

photographs. The one on the left shows olive baboons

the plants as a source of nutrition. And they also usethat live in the savanna on the Serengeti Plain.

the plants as “natural medical foods”, which means
they literally ingest medicinal plants. While on the

There are four individuals and at dawn they go out

one hand the insects help the plants, after ingesting

foraging. Overnight, they stay in different trees,

the nutrition of the plant, they also use them tomoving from one to another every few days. At times

stimulate various functions by accumulating the plants’

when food is plentiful they may remain on the same

secondary metabolites within their own bodies. Thesetree for a number of consecutive days. When they dosecondary metabolites serve a variety of functions.

this, a parasitic infection begins to break out from theFor example, insects use them to stimulate various

excrement they leave beneath the tree. Sometimes

interactions between individuals of the same species,

it takes a few days for the infection to begin, but if

such as their function as precursors in the formation of

the baboons climb the same tree everyday or carry

pheromones. These help the sexes come together forout activities on the ground beneath the tree, themating. Some insects also use secondary metabolites

probability that they will contract the infection becomesas social communication tools or for defense againstvery high. It is said that the baboons change the placenatural enemies. They make themselves unpalatable

where they stay overnight periodically in order toto predators by accumulating large amounts of theseminimize that risk.

substances in their bodies. So if a predator puts an
insect (such as a butterfly, which has adopted the

The other example I want to show you is the method

defense strategy) into its mouth, the presence of

illustrated in the photograph on the right. Thesethe substance will cause the predator to spit out themonkeys are hamadryas baboons that live on theinsect. In that way, the insect can avoid being eaten.

Arabian Peninsula. Their habitat is a desert area that

In addition, some insects use secondary metabolites

doesn’t have an abundant supply of water all year

for their anti-parasitic effects. Poisonous substancesround. When water levels become very low, all thecreated in plants and ingested by the insect cananimals in the area gather close to the limited water

function to destroy parasitic infections.

sources. Due to the small volume of the water, thetemperature of the water rises, creating a perfect

From insects to primates, many animals have beenenvironment for disease-causing agents (carried by theobserved to practice self-medication. Animals try tovarious animals in the area) to propagate. By drinking

protect themselves and maintain their health on several

this water, animals have a very high probability oflevels when they come into contact with diseases. Now

coming into contact with a wide range of pathogens.

I am going to change the subject to the self-medicative

These baboons do a very clever thing in order to avoid

behavior of primates, and in particular, of chimpanzees.

the problem. In this photograph, you can see green

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201215

water flowing slowly at the bottom of the picture. The

people in Africa use many other plant parts such as

baboons are digging a hole in the sand at a place someleaves and leafy stems, trunks, seeds, etc., as medicinal

distance from this stream. The groundwater emerges atplants.

the place where the baboons dig their hole. By making
something like a well they are able to obtain cleaner

Now, I will show the situation with another primate

water.

species, the gorillas. In the same way as I did withchimpanzees, I surveyed how much overlap there was

Through these two examples, we can ascertain thatbetween the plant parts that gorillas eat and the plantsmonkeys know some ways of avoiding being infectedthat local people use for medicines, with reference toby disease and of reducing the risk of coming intoa list compiled of all the foods known to be eaten bycontact with pathogens.

the three sub-species of gorillas. Surprisingly, I foundthat the plan parts taken by both gorillas and humans

At level 2, animals eat foods that are nutritious andcontain substances that have a variety of effects. For

produce medicinal effects. In terms of the way humans

example, some of them contain factors that inhibit thelook at the world, these foods fall into what we call thegrowth of cancers, promote cardiac function, work as‘supplements’ and ‘spices’ categories.

stimulants, boost the immune response, etc., in addition
to working as antiseptic, anti-parasitic and antiviral

As you can see from this photograph, chimpanzees

agents. Unfortunately, it has not yet been observed how

follow a largely frugivourous diet and they can quickly

much, in what way, or in what situations gorillas use

gain energy this way. The sugars contained in fruits canthese plant parts.

be used as an immediate energy source. Many fruits
are also rich in protein and provide the animals with

The next level up is Level 3. At this level, primatesnecessary fiber and minerals too.

are using medicinal plants precisely as humans use
medicines. This is self-medicative behavior in which

On the other hand, chimpanzees also eat plants

primates are observed to use medicinal plants whenthat contain various other ingredients in addition tothey are sick or when disease symptoms appear. In

nutrients at certain times of the year. These plants

cases where large amounts of the plants are poisonous,

are classified as medicinal foods. Some plants containthey use limited amounts and employ special methods

substances that have bactericidal effects or whichto treat disease. Even if their health condition

inhibit parasitic infections.

deteriorates, they only use limited small amounts ofthese plants.

For example, for many years I have been conducting
research on chimpanzees in the Mahale Mountains

Now, let me explain how this works in the case of

National Park in Western Tanzania. In that park, I have

chimpanzees. They have two ways of self-medicating

focused on a group called the M Group and researchedthat I would like to introduce.

how much of these medicinal foods are included in thefood they actually eat. In the course of this research,

In the photograph on the left side of the slide, you

I have found that approx. 22% of the 172 kinds of

can see a chimpanzee named Linda, who is about tofood they usually eat coincide with natural medicines

put a leaf into her mouth. The plant is of the genus

that humans use to ward off parasitic infections. More

Aspilia, which has leaves with a roughly textured

generally, it has been established that throughout Africa

surface similar to the one I showed you in the electron

both chimpanzees and humans use the same parts of

microscope photograph earlier.

the same plant species for easing specific symptoms

16of specific diseases such as parasitic infections or

Chimpanzees put the leaves into their mouth one bygastrointestinal diseases. Interestingly, apart from fruit,

one, rolling each leaf around in their mouth and then

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

swallowing it without chewing it. Sometimes they may

the chimpanzee intestinal wall and produce nodules.

swallow up to a hundred leaves in this way at a single

After an incubation period of about one month,sitting. As I mentioned earlier, such leaves are difficult

the negative effects of the infection appear in theto digest. Chimpanzees eat things that are hard to digest

chimpanzees. If the degree of infection (the number

in order to promote the body’s rejection responses.

of adult worms infecting the host) becomes very highWhen the leaves pass through the digestive system,

this leads to symptoms such as intestinal inflammation,

they act as a de-worming agent, helping to remove thediarrhea, stomach pain, etc. If the infection isparasitic nematode worms that infest the chimpanzees’

particularly heavy, it may even kill the host chimpanzee.

intestines. This self-medication method involves a

In the period from the beginning to the middle of thephysical effect, and the chimpanzees’ are engaging inrainy season, infected chimpanzees frequently engage

what is known as “leaf swallowing behavior”.

in both bitter pith juice ingestion behavior and leaf
swallowing behavior.

Another method is to use Vernonia amygdalina, a plantin the family Asteraceae. The chimpanzees chew on the

Sick individuals carry out these two act ivit ies

bitter pith of the plant aggressively and suck out its

frequently and interchangably. Though as I mentioned

juice. This is known as “bitter pith chewing behavior”.

above, because Veronia is toxic, they do not practiceThis pith juice doesn’t contain anything of nutritional

this behavior as much as leaf swallowing. Now, I willvalue, but it is effective for treating oesophagostomiasis,

introduce the behavior in more detail.

an illness resulting from a parasitic nodular worm
infection. This infection is quite a serious disease, butThis photograph shows a chimpanzee putting a leaf

based on my own observations, by drinking the bitter

into its mouth, rolling it around and trying to swallow it

juice of the pith of this plant, visually confirmablein a gulp.

symptoms such as fatigue, decreased appetite andabnormally colored urine disappeared within 24 hours,

I once rolled up such a leaf and attempted to swallow

and the parasites’ egg laying activities also ceased.

it in the same way as the chimpanzees do, but it was

I have reported this observational data in scientificextremely difficult. The burs grow downward, so thejournals.

leaves tend to stick in the throat and will not travel
down smoothly. It was a thoroughly unpleasantIn the Mahale Mountains National Park, there are clear

experience for me. However, chimpanzees casuallydifferences in how the nodular worm infection rates

swallow up to a hundred of these leaves on occasion.

wax and wane between the rainy and dry seasons.
Within the approximately six months when the region

The chimpanzee in this photograph is again Linda.

receives heavy rain, these parasites actively and

She is about to swallow the leaf she is holding in her

repeatedly infect chimpanzees.

hand. The other photograph shows a leaf on which
you can see an adult modular worm of the species

This figure shows the life cycle of the nodular worms.

Oesophagostomum stephanostomum, which is about

When the chimpanzees excrete the eggs of these

3cm in length. Fighting infestations by this parasite isworms, they remain in the soil or on the surface of

one of the aims of this particular form of chimpanzee

low plant leaves until they reach the L3 stage. At

self-medication.

this stage they become larvae capable of re-infecting
chimpanzees. About the time when the rains start, theOn average, two leaves is effective in expelling one

environment becomes favorable for the development

worm. Sometimes, 20 to 30 adult worms are forced outof the eggs and young larvae excreted in chimpanzee

from a single ‘dose’ of 40~60 leaves. The de-worming

feces. When chimpanzees unknowingly take in theeffect is not due to the plant’s secondary metabolites

infectious L3 stage larvae, these parasites burrow into

but the result of transient diarrhea simply increasing

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201217

movements of the intestines, which rapidly expel theIt has been demonstrated to lower malarial fever,leaves and worms with them. Even if the chimpanzees

blood cholesterol and blood sugar levels, and is very

ingest the leaves every day, it doesn’t seem to cause

effective against parasitic infections. People are widelythem any problems. During the rainy season, there

reported to use it for their own livestock. However,is a high possibility that individual chimpanzees will

although this plant has been studied for a century,

be infected by parasitic worms many times, but thisthe fact that primates use it as a medicine for treating

method seems to be sufficient for controlling theparasitic infections was not discovered until 1987. It

number of worms. Looking at the infection rates data,

was in fact myself who made the first observation andthe treatment seems to have this effect.

reported about this behavior. Interestingly, I foundthat both humans and chimpanzees exhibit the same

Chimpanzees engage in this behavior frequently at thesymptoms after ingesting Vernonia amygdalina. The

beginning of the rainy season when each individual’

plant is very bitter. When people use it, they first beat its modular worm infection burden increases. Not every

and then soak it in water until the water becomes deep

individual chimpanzee becomes infected, and thisbrown, which doesn’t take very long. Then they drink

behavior is not observed everyday in the rainy season.

the water down all at once. This is said to result in an

But in the dry season it is hardly observed at all.

improvement in their condition within 24 hours.

However, from about one month into the rainy season,a marked increase is observed in bitter pith chewing

In the case of chimpanzees also, within about 24 hours

behavior.

of drinking the bitter juice from the pith of the plant,
their body condition shows clear signs of improvement.

As research into the African great apes - chimpanzees,

By observing their behavior we can clearly see

bonobos and gorillas - has progressed over the past

improvements in their appetite and physical strength.

20 years, this leaf swallowing behavior has been

The fact that humans and chimpanzees have thisobserved at 16 research sites, not only at Mahale.

response in common is very interesting.

The same behavior has also been noted at many sites
being used to counter infection by the nodular worm

People have been researching Vernonia amygdalina as a

Oesophagostomum stephanostomum. Yet anothernatural compound for over a hundred years. A long list

target of the same behavior is the tapeworm Bertiellaof compounds have been extracted from the plant, withstuderi. Leaf swallowing behavior has a similar de-many kinds of sesquiterpene lactones among them.

worming effect on both infections. The adult stage

Every report without exception mentions the powerfulworms and the tapeworm proglottids are excreted

activity and poisonous ingredients of the plant.

together with the leaves. In the case of the nodular
worm, the number of adult-stage worms is clearly

However, until 1987, nobody had paid attention to the

reduced, so there seems to be a definite effect. As forplant pith, the part that is used by chimpanzees, so thethe tapeworm nodule excretion effect, there has notchemical composition of the pith was unknown. To

been much discussion on the subject. Up to now, it

remedy this situation, I carried out joint research withhas been established that chimpanzees engage in leaf

Prof. Koshimizu and Prof. Ohigashi of the Faculty ofswallowing behavior while making use of the leaves ofAgriculture at Kyoto University regarding the chemical

about 40 different species of plants. All of these species

analysis of Vernonia amygdalina and its bioactivity. One

have similarly rough textured leaves.

of the results of the research was that we discovered
13 new chemical compounds. These were identified to

Next, let’s take a closer look at the chimpanzees’ bitterbe steroid glucosides and were named Vernonioside A1,

pith juice ingestion behavior. The plant they use at

2, 3, 4, B1, 2, 3, etc.

Mahale is Vernonia amygdalina. This plant is very wellknown in both folk medicine and in pharmacognosy.

18

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

In summary, chimpanzees engage in leaf swallowing

and bitter pith juice ingestion behaviors as self-

noticed a weak porcupine digging up and eating the

medication during the rainy season when infection

root of a plant his tribe called mulengelele which herates of the no dular worm Oesophagostomum

recognized as being highly poisonous. Babu Kalunde

stephanostomum and the tapeworm Bertiella studeri

knew there must be a reason behind the behavior so he

are high. Other medicinal plants are also usedbrought a few roots back to his village and used themintensively throughout the rainy season when parasite

to treat some seriously ill patients. Mohamedi and otherinfection rates peak. The chimpanzees appear to use

healers still use this root today to treat infections forthese plants from time to time up until the end of thewhich western doctors would use antibiotics.

rainy season.
The next speaker, Prof. Tsuda, will be talking about
In the dry season, leaf swallowing and bitter pithmalaria, so I’m going to end my talk by giving a brief

juice ingestion behavior are rarely observed. And theintroduction to primate malaria. There is no doubt thatchimpanzees reduce their intake of natural medicinal

malaria has had a huge effect on primates as well as on

foods too. When the season changes, the animals

humans. It is an established fact that all four malariachange their food menu and employ more direct

species infecting humans are derived from strains thattreatment methods.

infect non-human primates. Recently, in Southeast
Asia, the simian malaria parasite Plasmodium knowelsi

Lastly, I would like to talk about ethnopharmacognosy,(which usually only infects macaques) has begun

which is another of my research themes. In thisinfecting humans too. Since this is an infectious diseaseconnection I would like to introduce you to Mohamedithat the local monkeys have been living with for a long

Seifu Kalunde, with whom I cooperate on chimpanzee

time, it does not represent a major problem for the

research in Tanzania. Mohamedi is very knowledgeablemonkeys. But as an emerging disease in humans, it

about medicinal plants and he works actively as acauses serious symptoms in people who contract it.

traditional healer treating the diseases that affect the
local people. He was born and raised in the forests ofAt present, there are no effective medicines for treating

the Mahale Mountains, and has a wealth of knowledge

the disease but in the course of recent research it

about local medicinal plants that has been handed

has been found that chimpanzees are also infected

down for generations in his family. I’ve walked aroundby malaria. As part of our 1990s research into thethe forest together with Mohamedi for almost 20 years

ingredients within the medicinal plant Vernonia

and he has taught me a great deal about chimpanzees

amygdalina - as used by chimpanzees - we haveand plants. For example, he has told me that among

discovered that chemical compounds have a strong

his own relatives there are people who tell how theyanti-malarial action. More recently, another chemical

obtained many new medicines by observing how sickcompound has been reported which also has anti-

animals act. Even while we were working together, hemalarial parasitic action. It was isolated from a species

discovered a new antidiarrhetic medication. Havingof plant called Trichilia rubescens and it is a plantseen a sick chimpanzee with diarrhea practicing self-that chimpanzees in Uganda use. So there is great

medication he correctly surmised that the plant being

anticipation that this discovery can be turned into aused might be effective for people too. So he tried it out

new medicine for people.

on himself and found that it did work well. It is widelyused nowadays.

Several years ago I checked out the latest reports about
Vernonia amygdalina (using Google) and found that theI have another interesting story to relate, this time

University of Missouri had obtained a patent to use aabout Babu Kalunde, Mohamedi’s grandfather, whosubstance obtained from this plant as a medicine for

was a traditional healer. He discovered a new drug justtreating breast cancer. Animals and humans have been

by watching the strange behavior of a porcupine. He

living together for a long time in one world but since

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201219

we humans have come to live in modern societies wehave gradually lost touch with nature. As a result wehave started to lose the natural knowledge that we had
previously gathered. I believe there is a link between
preserving the natural environment and biodiversity
and protecting our own health. We need to reconsider
the importance of the global environment and our
position in nature. In closing I would like to thank youvery much for listening.

20

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

レベル 1

感染を避けることや病原体との接触を低減する。
level 1
optimal avoidance or reduction of the possibility for disease transmission,
such as the avoidance of feces contaminated food, water or substrates

Michael A. Huffman
Primate Research InstituteKyoto University, JAPAN【Slide 1】

Anubis baboons in the Serengeti, Tanzania

Hamadryas baboons in Taif, Saudi Arabia【Slide 5】�������
Plant self-defense mechanisms��������������������������
�������

level 2the dietary selection of items with a preventative or health maintenanceaffect, such as items eaten routinely in small amounts or on a limited basis�����������
Chemical feeding
deterrent���������
physical feeding deterrent�【Slide 2】

chimpanzees in the Mahale Mountains, Tanzania【Slide 6】��������������������	

Potential anti-parasitic properties in the dietof Mahale chimpanzees������������������	��������������������
����������� !
22% used by humans for treatment ofparasite infection or stomach upset.�

����	

pharmacophagy

fruit 5%!
seeds 5%!
bark 15%!

������������!
Plant food spp. ��������

leaves & stems 75% !

������������!
Parts used in traditional medicine �【Slide 3】【Slide 7】������������������������
����	

Oesophagostomiasis, chimpanzee foraging and self-medicative behavior

栄誉補給以外を目的とした、特殊な	成分を含む植物の摂取と体内蓄積	

The non-nutritional ingestion of plants containing
particular secondary compounds that areabsorbed and stored in the body.

性フェロモンの先駆物質	

sexual pheromone precursor

社会的伝達	

social communication

抗寄生虫作用	����

prepatent period
ca. 1 monthanti-parasitic action

天敵防衛	

predator defense【Slide 4】【Slide 8】

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201221

������������������������

������������	

Oesophagostomiasis, chimpanzee foraging and self-medicative behavior

MEDICINAL FOODS�Rough, whole leaf swallowing

MEDICINE�

【Slide 9】【Slide 13】�����������������������	���������������������!

Pharmacological properties in the gorilla diet

The effect of leaf swallowing on parasite infections����������	����������	���������
��������…	

Recognized pharmacologicalproperties: stimulant, cardiotonic,
hallucinogenic, immuno-stimulant,
tumor growth inhibitor, bactericide,fungicide, anti-parasitic, antiviral…
Analysis based on published feeding lists of all long-term
gorilla study field sites in Africa and pharmacologicalliterature search. N = 118 spp. 59 plant Families
Cousins & Huffman 2002 African Study Monographs

1.早朝や空腹時に葉を呑み込むと、腸のぜん動運動が活発になり、成虫体が駆虫される。

	 	 Swallowed on an empty stomach, intestinal activity
increases and worms are expelled.

��呑み込む葉２枚あたり成虫一匹が排泄される。

Average of 1 worm expelled / 2 leaves	 (mean 19.8, range 1 – 55 leaves per bout)

�����
���
Oesophagostomum and whole leaf�

【Slide 10】����

病気やその症状を治療するため、生理活性のある植物部位の少量を限定した回数で利用する。栄養価値が低い。

level 3
ingestion of a substance for the curative treatment of a disease or the symptoms
thereof: use of toxic or otherwise biologically active items at low frequency or in small
amounts, having little or no nutritional value

�� 雨期に葉呑み込み行動を度々行うことによって、!
腸結節内の寄生虫感染を抑制する効果が期待できる。!
Frequently performed during the rainy season, leaf
swallowing effectively suppresses level of
Oesophagostomum infection.	
 Huffman et al., 1996; 1997; Huffman & Caton, 2001 !

【Slide 14】�����������������������������
Sites where whole leaf swallowing is seen in the African Great Apes

17�Over 40 plant species known to be swallowed and all are rough & hispid!

【Slide 11】���������������������������

【Slide 15】��������������

Oesophagostomiasis- infection intensity and rainfall  

Huffman et al. 2009

【Slide 12】22

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

【Slide 16】���������������	New compounds isolated from Vernonia amygdalina�
vernonioside: !
������������!
Newly discovered class ofcompounds!

STEROID GLUCOSIDES!
vernonioside!

�������

�������

Human Malaria Ape

Macaque Malaria

Plasmodium falciparum <------------(�������gorilla origin)

P. reichenowi, P. gaboni

P. vivax<------------- P. simium(��������� Indian - Asian primate origin)
P. ovale<------------- P. ovale variant type(���������chimpanzees origin)
SESQUITERPENE LACOTONES!
vernodaline!����hyrdroxyvernolide
vernolide!

��vernolopin!
vernodalol! �vernomenin !!

sesquiterpene lactones: !
����������������
�������!
Widely reported in Vernonia�ssp. !

【Slide 17】����������������������

P. malariae<------------(����� Macaque origin)

P. knowlesi

P. knowlesi����������������������������������

【Slide 21】

����?�

Anti-malarial properties of Vernonia

Human see, human do?

【Slide 18】【Slide 22】�������������

タンザニアの伝統医が野生動物の行動観察から新薬の発見をする。

Anti-malarial properties of Trichilia

Traditional healers in Tanzania acquire new medicines fromthe observation of wild animals
Babu Kalunde and the!
crested porcupine & elephant!
Mohamedi Seifu
Kalunde!
and the chimpanzee!

Joha Kasante !
and the snake!
‘mulengele’ Aeschynomene nyassana!

【Slide 19】‘mhefu’ Trema orientalis!

【Slide 23】

サルマラリア ヒトマラリア【Slide 20】【Slide 24】

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201223

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In 2004, a patent was registered in
the US by researchers at JacksonState University, Missouri for thephytochemotherapeutic applicationsof Vernonia amygdalina. Plant
extracts demonstrated inhibitive
activity against growth of neoplastic
cells, including those of human breast
cancer.

【Slide 25】

24

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012