208

Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2006;15 (2): 208-216

Original Article

Differences in nutrient intakes and physical activity
levels of Japanese and Australian Caucasian males livingin Australia and Japanese males living in Japan
Masaharu Kagawa PhD1, Yoko Saito MHSE2, Deborah Kerr PhD1, Hayato Uchida PhD2,
and Colin W Binns MBBS MPH PhD1
1
2

School of Public Health, Curtin University of Technology, Australia
School of Human Science and Environment, University of Hyogo, JapanThe aim of the study was to determine the nutritional status and nutrient intakes of young Japanese males livingin Australia and compared with Japanese males living in Japan and Australian Caucasian males. Four-day
dietary records were obtained from 65 Japanese living in Australia (JA), 81 Japanese living in Japan (JJ), and
70 Australian Caucasian males (AA) aged 18-30 years old, together with body composition and physicalactivity level assessments using anthropometry and the questionnaire. Australian males were significantly taller
and heavier than the Japanese counterparts and also showed a greater percent body fat (%BF) and heightcorrected sum of skinfolds compared with Japanese males living in Japan (%BF: JJ = 16.6 ± 5.2, AA = 18.7 ±
5.6; height corrected sum of skinfolds: JJ = 78.8 ± 37.3, AA = 96.0 ± 39.5) (P <0.05). A greater proportion ofAustralian Caucasian males (98.6%) were involved in vigorous physical exercise than Japanese males (JA =72.3%; JJ = 85.2%). The JA group consumed a greater amount of energy from protein and fat sources as wellas greater calcium, iron, dietary fibre and niacin equivalents intakes than the JJ group (P <0.05). The results
suggest that Japanese males living in Australia consumed more energy-dense westernised diet than Japanesemales living in Japan. Because of lower physical activity level than Australian males, consumption of energydense diet may increase the risk of weight gain among Japanese males who stay in Australia for a long-term.

Key Words: nutrient intakes, energy contribution, physical activity, Japanese males, Australia.

Introduction
In the past 50 years Japan has experienced rapid changes intheir food supply and nutrient intakes. The National Nutrition Survey of Japan (NNS) is undertaken on a regularbasis, and has shown significant increases in protein and fat
consumption, while carbohydrate intake has fallen (Fig.
1).1-3 The change in diet and nutrient intakes has resulted
in changes to the physical and health status of the Japanesepeople, including decreased mortality rate from infectious
diseases and malnutrition. The stature and body mass of
the Japanese have shown a steady secular trend in all age
groups during the 20th century and a progressively earlier
onset of the adolescent growth spurt.3 These changes inbody size and physiques overlap the periods of rapidchanges in Japanese diet after recovery from World War II
and the remarkable growth of Japanese economy. In
addition, the life expectancy of the Japanese has increased
from 46.9 years for males and 49.6 years for females in
1935-364 to 78.4 years for males and 85.3 years for females
in 2003.5 In the most recent World Health Report, Japan isreported to have the longest life expectancy (at birth) of
81.9 years (male: 78.4 years; females: 85.3 years) as well as
the longest healthy life expectancy (HALE) of 75.0 years(males: 72.3 years; females: 77.7 years) among the 192
member states of the World Health Organization (WHO).6

While changes in diet and nutrient intakes have improved
growth and reduced premature mortality from infectious
diseases, increased energy and fat intakes have caused anincrease in morbidity and mortality from chronic lifestylerelated diseases7 and the proportion of overweight andobese individuals is increasing in Japan.8 Using the WHO
classification of obesity, Japan has higher proportions ofoverweight and obese individuals than other Asian countries, including South Korea, China, and Philippines.9 Japan has gone through the epidemiologic transition in only amatter of decades, from the 1930’s when the leading causesof death were infectious diseases and malnutrition to thelifestyle-related health problems, including cancer, andcardiovascular diseases, of today.7 While these dietaryassociated changes in physique, causes of death, and theincrease in life expectancy have been observed in Japaneseliving in Japan, changes in eating patterns and associatedhealth risks have also been reported in studies assessing
Japanese-descendants living overseas.
Correspondence address: Professor Colin W. Binns, School of
Public Health, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U1987
Perth WA 6845
Tel: +61-8-9266-2952; Fax: +61-8-9266-2958
E-mail: c.binns@curtin.edu.au
Accepted 17th August 2005

M Kagawa, Y Saito, D Kerr, H Uchida and C W Binns

209

90.0

79.1

Energy contribution (%)

80.0

76.1

67.4

70.0

61.5

60.0

59.2 57.5
Protein

50.0

Fat

40.0
30.0

23.6

25.3

14.9

15.5

18.7

20.0

13.0

10.0

7.9

13.3
10.6

26.5

Carbohydrate

15.9
13.9

0.0
1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

Year
Figure 1. Secular trend of major nutrient
intakes between 1950 and 2000 in Japan.
(The data between 1950-1970 were adopted from the reference3 and the data after 1980
were adopted from the reference1)

Studies on Japanese living in Hawaii and JapaneseBrazilians indicated changes in eating patterns and energy
contributions that are even more westernised than the Japanese data.10,11 Studies of Japanese living in Hawaii alsosuggested that those who consumed a more western dietare more likely to gain body mass12 and are at higher riskof developing chronic health problems, such as type II
diabetes, coronary heart disease, and atherosclerosis13-15
compare to those living in Japan or those who consumed
a more traditional diet. These findings support the hypothesis that Japanese living in foreign countries for a long
period will shift their diet toward a more western style.
Previous studies were however, mainly focused on theelderly or females and were lacking in information on
young adults, particularly of young males. A small number of studies have been reported on the immediate impact of immigration to eating pattern or nutrient intakes.
One study focused on Asian students (aged above 18
years old) living in the US and observed changes in dietand eating behaviours three months after immigration.16
However, more than half (54%) of the subjects in the
study were females and the majority (89%) were fromeither Taiwan (49%) or China (40%). Because of differences in traditional meal preparation methods and thediffering rates of westernisation that are occurring in
Asian countries,9 it may not be appropriate to extrapolate
from other Asian studies to Japanese subjects. Also
males are expected to have a lower frequency of meal
preparation by themselves compared to females. Hence,
there is a need for a study that is specific for Japanesemales in order to determine changes in nutrient intakes
after their emigration to the foreign country.
There have been no studies reported of diet or nutrient
intakes of Japanese living in Australia, even though the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan reported an increasein the number of Japanese immigrants to the Oceanic
region, which include Australia.17 Australia is one of themost culturally diverse countries in the world and consequently a variety of cuisines and food ingredients areavailable. A recent study suggested that while an increased variety in food has a beneficial impact on Australian populations, there is a potentially increased risk ofmorbidity and mortality among Asian migrants because ofchanges in their physical activity level and diet. 18

In addition, while previous cross-ethnic studies conducted in the US and Brazil used 24-hour recall14,19 or
food frequency questionnaire11,20 there have been fewerstudies that have used a three or a four-day dietary record21 to obtain details of their diets. In comparison witha 24-hour recall or food frequency questionnaires, dietary
record does not rely on memory and it is possible to obtain accurate information of portion size.22 The objectiveof this study was to examine differences in nutrient intakes of Japanese males living in Australia using a fourday dietary record and to compare this with Japanesemales living in Japan as well as that of Australian Caucasian males living in Australia. The study also measured
body composition and lifestyle factors of the participants.
Subjects
Three study groups were recruited; 1) Japanese males
living in Australia (JA), 2) Japanese males living in Japan(JJ), and 3) Australian Caucasian males living in Australia(AA). The inclusion criteria were young males aged
between 18 and 30 years old, who have no chronic healthproblems that interfere with their daily lifestyle. The
Japanese subjects were also required to hold a Japanesepassport and to consider themselves to be “Asian”. Australian subjects were included if they had an Australianpassport and recognized themselves as “Caucasian”. The
recruitment processes for the JA and the AA were conducted in Perth, Western Australia and the JJ group was
recruited at Himeji city in Hyogo Prefecture, Japan. The
JJ and the AA subjects were recruited from universities
and the JA subjects were recruited from educational institutions in Perth, including universities, TAFE, andlanguage institutions. The numbers who completed theassessments were 68 JA, 82 JJ, and 72 AA respectively.
After exclusion of over- or under-reporters of dietary
record based on criteria explained in the methodology
section below, 65 JA, 81 JJ, and 70 AA subjects were included in the analysis. Among the 65 JA individuals, 32
had spent more than three months in Australia (49.2%)
and 33 had spent less than three months (50.8%). A majority of subjects in each group lived either with theirfamily (JJ = 53.1%, AA = 44.3%) or with a host family(JA = 46.2%), followed by living with roommates for JA(41.5%) and AA (27.1%). Unlike the groups recruited inAustralia, more of the JJ individuals lived by themselves(44.4%).

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Differences in nutrient intakes and physical activity levels of Japanese and Australian Caucasian males

Methods
The study was approved by the Human Research Ethics
Committee of Curtin University of Technology and thestudy adhered to the principles of medical research established by the National Health and Medical ResearchCouncil.23 Informed consent was obtained from each subject prior to his involvement in the study. Subjects wereasked to complete the following:
Questionnaire
Information on lifestyle variables, and physical activity
level (frequency and intensity of exercises) were obtainedusing a questionnaire of which questions were adopted
and modified from the Australian National Nutrition Survey (ANNS), the Japanese National Nutrition Survey(JNNS), and the Hawaii’ Cancer Research Survey. Questions were translated and back-translated into Japanese
until the translated questions had equivalent meaning tothe original questions. The translation process was confirmed with two additional Japanese (one of whom is anaccredited interpreter) prior to its distribution.
Anthropometry
Anthropometry was conducted according to the protocolof the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK).24 Stature, body mass, eight skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, biceps, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh, and medial calf), fivegirths (arm [relaxed], arm [flexed and tensed], minimum
waist, gluteal, and maximum calf) and two bone breadths(humerus, and femur) were measured. Subjects were
measured with light clothing, such as shorts and T-shirt.
Stature and body mass were measured without shoes.
From the measurement, percent body fat (%BF), the bodymass index (BMI; body mass (kg)/stature (m)2), waist to
hip ratio (WHR; waist circumference (cm)/gluteal circumference (cm)) were calculated. The body density
equation by Durnin and Womersley25 and Siri’s body fat
prediction26 equations were used to estimate %BF of thesubjects. Technical Error of Measurement (TEM) of
anthropometric measurements was within the range ofintra-tester error for a level three anthropometrist (within
5% for skinfolds and within 1% for other measurements)
as recommended by ISAK.27
Dietary assessment
Each subject was asked to complete a four-day dietary
record. This was modified from the diet record method of
Geekie et al.,28 and included food photographs to assist in
portion size description. Detailed instructions were given
to each subject at the time of recruitment and an instruction paper was also attached in the diary for theirguidance. Each subject was allocated at least one weekend day as well as weekdays to enable differences ineating behaviours on different days to be studied. To
include Japanese dishes, photographs with known ingredients and nutritional values from the Japanese nutrition
education package “Sonomanma ryouri cards” (mealplanning real-size cards) (1994, Adachi, Tokyo) were
scanned into the dietary record booklet. Pictures of foods
included in the booklet were those commonly seen in Japanese and Asian restaurants in Perth, such as katsudon(rice with deep fried pork), curried rice, and steamed rice,

were selected and scanned. All scanned images were
adjusted to 25% of the real size. Utensils such as chopsticks and spoons were also scanned and adjusted to thesame 25% ratio to assist subjects in comparing the dishsizes. The information obtained from the diary was reviewed in a face-to-face interview setting in order to confirm the items recorded in the diary and to identify any
missing information. Food Works® Professional edition(version 3.01.472, 2003, Xyris Software, Brisbane) wasused for dietary analysis of groups living in Australia.
Foods were selected from a list available in the program
and those with no exact products were replaced with similar nutritional values. A new meal list was created forany mixed meal with a detailed recipe recorded by subjects. Average nutrient intakes of the recorded days were
calculated using the program. The same procedure wasconducted for the JJ group using a Japanese dietary
analysis program; Eiyo-kun® (version 3.01, 2001, Kenpakusha, Tokyo). Prior to the analysis, the presence ofunder- and over-reporters was examined. Over-reporters
were defined as consumption of energy more than 1.6MJ/
day based on the previous study results.29 To determine
under-reporters, the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of subjects was calculated by the Harris-Benedict equation. The
values were then multiplied by the cut-off value of 0.88
according to the Goldberg critical evaluation of energy
intake data using 99.7% confidence interval.29
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS® statisticalpackage for Windows (version 10.0.7, 1999, SPSS inc.,
Chicago). Obtained categorical results were assessedusing the ANOVA method. In order to adjust ethnic differences in energy intakes, nutrient intakes were expressed as per 1000kJ energy intake. Their intakes werealso compared with the appropriate age groups of the National Nutrition Survey results obtained in each country.
Results
Physical characteristics of the study groups are shown in
Table 1. Australian males were significantly taller, heavier, and had greater BMI and sum of skinfolds values
Table 1. Physical characteristics of study groups
Japanesemales livingin Australia
Mean ± SD
Number of subjects
Age (years) b,c
Stature (cm) a,b
Body mass (kg)a,b
BMI (kg/m2)a,b
WHRb,cWaist girth (cm)a,b
Gluteal girth (cm)a,b% body fatb
Sum of eightskinfolds (mm)a,b
Height-corrected
sum skinfolds (mm)ba

6523.6 ± 2.9
171.8 ± 5.1
64.3 ± 7.6
21.8 ± 2.3
0.81 ± 0.04
74.8 ± 5.4
92.4 ± 4.7
17.0 ± 5.2
82.0 ± 34.1

Japanese
males
living inJapan
Mean ± SD
81
20.4 ± 1.7
173.0 ± 5.3
64.2 ± 9.1
21.4 ± 2.8
0.79 ± 0.04
73.0 ± 6.4
92.1 ± 5.5
16.6 ± 5.2
80.1 ± 38.5

Australianmales livingin Australia
Mean ± SD
7023.1 ± 3.2
182.2 ± 6.8
80.1 ± 11.5
24.1 ± 3.0
0.82 ± 0.04
82.9 ± 7.5
100.8 ± 6.2
18.7 ± 5.6
102.9 ± 42.5

81.4 ± 34.4

78.8 ± 37.3

96.0 ± 39.5

= Significant difference between AA and JA at the 0.05 level.
= Significant difference between AA and JJ at the 0.05 level.
c= Significant difference between JA and JJ at the 0.05 level.
bM Kagawa, Y Saito, D Kerr, H Uchida and C W Binns

211

Table 2. Differences in physical activity levels between the study groups
Questions

Response

Hours involved instrenuous exercise(per week)a,b

None
0.5-3 hours
4-10 hours
11-30 hours
31 hours or more
None
0.5-3 hours
4-10 hours
11-30 hours
31 hours or more
None
0.5-3 hours
4-10 hours
11-30 hours
31 hours or moreNever
1-3 times
4-6 times
7 or more times

Hours involved in vigorous
exercise(per week)a

Hours involved in moderate
exercise(per week)a,b

Frequency of vigorous
exercise(per week)a,bacJapanese males
living in Australia

Japanese males
living in Japan

(%)
33.8
41.5
21.5
1.5
1.5
47.7
38.5
9.2
4.6
0.0
35.4
33.8
21.5
3.1
6.2
27.7
41.5
21.5
9.2

(%)
23.5
48.1
19.8
8.6
0.0
35.8
43.2
17.3
3.7
0.0
24.7
37.0
30.9
6.2
1.2
14.8
60.5
16.0
8.6

Australian
Caucasian males
living in Australia
(%)

5.7
48.6
35.7
8.6
1.4
21.4
48.6
25.7
4.3
0.0
2.9
55.7
32.9
8.6
0.0
1.4
50.0
37.1
11.4

= Significantly different between JA and AA at the 0.05 level. b = Significantly different between JJ and AA at the 0.05 level.
= Significantly different between JA and JJ at the 0.05 level.

Table 3. Energy and nutrient intakes per 1000kJ and the energy contributions from major nutrients and fat types of thestudy groups
Japanese males living inAustralia
Mean ± SD
Total energy (total/1000kJ)

a,b

Protein (g/1000kJ)b,c
Total fat (g/1000kJ)b,c

Calcium (g/1000kJ)

11.1 ± 2.44
10.14 ± 2.19
8.26 ± 1.55

28.00 ± 4.03

31.52 ± 3.81

28.64 ± 4.27b,c37.01 ± 13.18

44.41 ± 13.59

31.87 ± 15.74

76.80 ± 27.64

54.15 ± 18.98

92.29 ± 27.97

1.19 ± 0.31

0.91 ± 0.19

1.32 ± 0.33

1.21 ± 0.33

1.06 ± 0.18

1.24 ± 0.25

2.07 ± 0.55

1.14 ± 0.32

2.42 ± 0.79

82.38 ± 35.38

88.57 ± 116.63

104.50 ± 108.71

b,cZinc (g/1000kJ)

a,b,c

Vitamin A equivalent (µg/1000kJ),a,b,c0.14 ± 0.04

0.12 ± 0.03

0.19 ± 0.07

Riboflavin (mg/1000kJ)a,b

0.16 ± 0.11

0.16 ± 0.05

0.23 ± 0.09

Niacin equivalent (mg/1000kJ) a,b,c

Thiamin (mg/1000kJ)

Vitamin C (mg/1000kJ)

4.09 ± 0.84

1.96 ± 0.58

4.63 ± 0.97

a,b

11.18 ± 6.83

8.79 ± 4.20

14.23 ± 8.34

a,c

24.00 ± 5.64

32.73 ± 16.69

29.64 ± 8.38

16.3 ± 3.1
47.3 ± 6.7
32.3 ± 5.7

14.4 ± 2.0
50.4 ± 6.1
28.1 ± 5.0

17.1 ± 3.7
47.9 ± 6.0
30.6 ± 5.7

12.3 ± 2.6
4.5 ± 1.2
12.5 ± 2.7

9.7 ± 2.2
5.6 ± 1.5
7.9 ± 2.0

11.0 ± 2.3
4.0 ± 1.1
12.8 ± 3.3

Total folate (µg/1000kJ)
Energy contribution fromProtein (%)b,c
Carbohydrate (%)b, c
Fat (%) b,c
Energy contribution fromMonounsaturated fat (%) a,b,c
Polyunsaturated fat (%)b,c
Saturated fat (%)b,cc9.17 ± 2.19
8.50 ± 1.19
7.60 ± 1.35

Iron (g/1000kJ)a,b,c

a8.53 ± 1.87
9.62 ± 1.81
8.73 ± 1.54

a,b,c

Dietary fibre (g/1000kJ)

Mean ± SD

Australian Caucasianmales living in Australia
Mean ± SDb,cCarbohydrate (g/1000kJ)
Cholesterol (mg/1000kJ)

Japanese males living in Japan= Significant difference between AA and JA at the 0.05 level; b = Significant difference between AA and JJ at the 0.05 level.
= Significant difference between JA and JJ at the 0.05 level.

212

Differences in nutrient intakes and physical activity levels of Japanese and Australian Caucasian males
160.0

*

140.0
Percent intaked (%)

120.0

*

*

*

*

*
*

*

100.0

*

80.0

Japanese in Australia
Japanese in Japan

60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
Energy

%kJ
%kJ
from
from Fat
P rotein

%kJ
from
CHO

Calcium

Iron

Fibre

Nutrients
Figure 2. Nutrient intakes of Japanese groups compared with the National Nutrition Survey#
Adopted and modified from the 2002 National Nutrition Survey for Japan1, males aged 20-29 years old.
Energy value originally in kcal was converted by multiplying 4.184kJ. * = Significantly different with thevalues of the National Nutrition Survey at the 0.05 level.

than their Japanese counterparts (P<0.05). Japanese males
in Japan were younger than their counterparts but there
were no differences in stature and body mass between the
two Japanese groups studied. While the JA group did notshow significant differences with the JJ and the AA, theJJ group significantly differ in the WHR, total body fat(expressed as %BF), and height-corrected sum of skinfolds values (P <0.05) from that of the AA group. The
level of physical activity was compared between the study
groups (Table 2). Australian males were involved in
more exercise than Japanese males. About 95% ofAustralians are involved in strenuous exercise for at least
30 minutes a week, while only 50 to 60% of Japanese
were at this level. Similar results were observed fromquestions on involvement in vigorous and moderate
exercises (vigorous exercise: JA = 52.3%, JJ = 64.2%,
AA = 78.6%; moderate exercise: JA = 64.6%, JJ = 75.3%,
AA = 97.1%). In addition, while 27.7% of the JA groupand 14.8% of the JJ group reported that they do notundertake any vigorous exercises during the week, only
1.4% of the AA group reported the same. These results
indicate that Japanese males were not as physically active
as the Australian Caucasian males. There were no differences in the proportion of Japanese males who engaged
in exercise (length and frequency) by their place of residence.
Dietary intake results obtained from four-day dietary
record were compared with the appropriate age categoriesof the National Nutrition Surveys (NNS) from Australia
and Japan for each study group (Fig. 2,3). The JJ results
showed almost identical results to the 20-29 years oldmales in the Japanese National Nutrition Survey (JNNS),
except for energy intake from carbohydrate sources anddietary fibre intake. Nutrient intakes of the JA groupwere significantly different from the JNNS results. The
Japanese living in Australia had a significantly (P<0.05)

lower total energy intake and energy contribution fromcarbohydrate. The JA group consumed a greater amountof energy from protein and fat sources and also consumed
a greater amount of calcium, iron and dietary fibre incomparison with the equivalent age group reported in the
JNNS (P<0.05). Australian males had similar energy
contribution from protein and intakes of calcium and dietary fibre to the 19-44 years old cohort results of theAustralian National Nutrition Survey (ANNS) results(Fig. 3). The energy intake in relation to the basal
metabolic rate (EI/BMR) ratio was calculated for eachstudy group (Fig. 4). The EI/BMR ratios of the JA, JJ,
and AA groups were 1.24, 1.32, and 1.39 respectively.
This indicates the JA group consume lesser amount ofenergy in relation to their calculated basal metabolic rate.
Australian Caucasian males showed significantly higher
energy intake in relation to their calculated basal
metabolic rate than the EI/BMR ratio obtained fromJapanese males living in Australia (P<0.05).
Table 3 shows results of energy and nutrient intakes
per 1000kJ energy intake that were obtained from the
dietary record. It illustrates significant ethnic differencesin nutrient intakes. The Australian Caucasian males consumed significantly (P<0.05) greater amounts of totalenergy, calcium, iron, dietary fibre, thiamine, riboflavin,niacin equivalent and vitamin C than their Japanese counterparts. The Japanese groups differed in their nutrient
intakes, depending on their place of residence. In comparison with the JJ group, the JA consumed significantly
higher amounts of protein, total fat, calcium, iron, zinc,dietary fibre, thiamin and niacin equivalent. By contrast,
the JJ consumed greater amounts of carbohydrate andtotal folate than the JA. In addition, the JJ group consumed the greatest amount of cholesterol of the threegroups. The energy contributions from major nutrients (i.eprotein, carbohydrate and fat) and energy contributions

M Kagawa, Y Saito, D Kerr, H Uchida and C W Binns

213

Percent intaked (%)

120
*

100

*

*

*

80

*

*
*

Australian males

60
40
20

br
e
Fi

n
Iro

O
CH

M

Sa

tu

m

m
%

kJ

fro

fro
kJ

Pr
%

m
fro
kJ
%

ra
on
te
ou
d
ns
fa
t
atu
ra
Po
ted
ly
un
fa
sa
t
tu
ra
te
d
fa
t
Ca
lc
iu
m

t
Fa

in
ot
e

En
er

gy

0

Figure 3. Nutrient intakes of Australian Caucasian males compared with the Australian National Nutrition Survey. # Adopted andmodified from the National Nutrition Survey of Australia (1995)30, males aged 19-44 years old. * = Significantly different with thevalues of the National Nutrition Survey at the 0.05 level.

from different types of fat were also significantly different between the Japanese males who reside in Australia
and Japan (P <0.05). Apart from the energy contribution
from monounsaturated fat, the JA group showed a similarenergy contribution pattern to the Australian Caucasianmales. Both JA and AA groups reported greater energy
contributions from protein (JA = 16.3%, AA = 17.1%)
and fat (JA = 32.3%, AA = 30.6%) but lower contribution
from carbohydrate (JA = 47.3%, AA = 47.9%) than the JJ
group (protein = 14.4%, fat = 28.1%, carbohydrate =50.4% respectively). With regards to energy contribution
from fat types, both JA and AA groups consumed greater
amount of monounsaturated (JA = 12.3%, AA = 11.0%)
and saturated (JA = 12.5%, AA = 12.8%) fat but smaller
amount of polyunsaturated fat (JA = 4.5%, AA = 4.0%)
than the JJ group (monounsaturated = 9.7%, saturated =7.9%, and polyunsaturated = 5.6%).
1.5

EI/BMR ratio

1.45
1.4
1.35

*

1.3

EI/BMR ratio

1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
JA

JJ

AA

Study groups* = Significantly different with AA at the 0.05 level.

Figure 4. Differences in energy intake to the basal
metabolic rate (EI/BMR) ratio between the study groups
Discussion
This study aimed to compare and determine any differences in nutrient intakes of Japanese young adult males
living in Japan (JJ) and Australia (JA) and young Australian Caucasian males (AA). The nutrient intakes of the JJ

subjects in the current study were comparable to the results of the same age category of the Japanese National
Nutrition Survey (JNNS)1, suggesting that the JJ grouprepresent the norm of the study population. The AA
group showed lower total energy intakes compared to theresults of the comparable age group (19-44 years old) of
the Australian National Nutrition Survey (ANNS).30
The lower energy intake of the AA group may be becauseof lower fat intakes compared to the ANNS result. In
comparison to the JNNS, the nutrient intakes of Japanesemales living in Australia showed greater energy intakes
from protein and fat as well as calcium and iron intakes.
In addition, the JA group reported significantly lower
energy intake than the JNNS result. These differences inenergy and nutrient intakes obtained from the JA group
may indicate a change in diet, including meat and dairy
products consumptions, of Japanese males living inAustralia.
The EI/BMR ratios of each study group were calculated in order to determine the balance between energy
intake and energy expenditure. A low EI/BMR ratio value may indicate low energy consumption due to dietingor inadequate access to food, and also a possible underreporting of dietary intake by the subjects. After excluding suspected over- and under-reporters, the study
found no significant difference between the JA and the JJ
groups but showed that the JA has the lowest EI/BMR
ratio among three groups. Considering the significant
difference in total energy intake between the JA groupand the JNNS results, the result may indicate a decline in
the total energy intake among the JA group. The low
energy intake by the JA group may be because of1) missing meals, most often breakfast 2) small mealsizes, as reported the dietary diary, and 3) the poor meal
preparation skills of Japanese males. In addition, the JA
subjects may have more financial constraints than their JJ
counterparts because many JA subjects were holders ofworking holiday visas, which restrict their working hours
compared to the AA subjects and Japanese live in Japan.
In this study, Australian Caucasian males consumed agreater amount of energy than Japanese males in relation
to their BMR. At the same time, the study found that

214

Differences in nutrient intakes and physical activity levels of Japanese and Australian Caucasian males

greater proportion of the AA group was involved with
exercise more frequently than Japanese males. The greater energy consumption among Australian Caucasianmales may be a consequence of their effort to balance out
their “expected” energy expenditure.
Significant differences in nutrient intakes between ethnic groups may be explained by differences in body size
and their energy requirements related to their BMR andexercise level. However, significant differences in energy
contributions from major nutrients, such as protein, carbohydrate, and fat across study groups may indicate
differences in their diet. The JA group consumed a greater proportion of energy from protein and fat but consumed lower amount of energy from carbohydrate thanthe JJ group. The energy contributions from protein, fat,and carbohydrate among the JA group were similar to thatof Australian Caucasian males. This difference in energy
contribution of the JA group from the energy contributionof the JJ group may also indicate a change in food consumption.
Most of the nutrient intakes of the JA group lay in the
middle of intakes by the JJ and AA groups. The JA groupconsumed a significantly greater amount of calcium, iron,dietary fibre, and niacin equivalent than the JJ group.
Calcium and dietary fibre are two of the major nutrientsthat Japanese consume less of than the Recommended
Dietary Allowance (RDA) of Japan (700mg calcium and20-25g dietary fibre intakes for Japanese male aged 18-29
years old).31 Although they did not consume 100% of allof the Japanese RDA values, the JA group achieved better
intakes than the JJ group. The increase in calcium anddietary fibre could be due to increased intakes of dairy
products as well as cereals, fruits and vegetables, which
are common meal pattern of Australian households.
The changes in nutrient and energy intakes by the JA
group are similar to the findings of a previous study that
documented the westernisation of dietary habits among
overseas students, predominantly from China and Taiwan,
when they moved to the US.16 Acknowledging that the
food supply in Japan has become more westernised andincreased protein and fat consumptions in recent years,
the current study show that further westernisation isevident in the diet of Japanese males living in Australia.
Improvement in some nutrients, including calcium anddietary fibre may have some benefit to the JA group.
However, the increased energy contribution from fat has
potential health concerns as it could lead to the development of health problems in the long-term if theyremain in Australia or their dietary change becomes permanent.
Both JA and AA groups consumed more energy fromsaturated and monounsaturated fats than the JJ group.
The average energy contribution of fat in the JA groupwas 32.3%, which was greater than the recommended
range of 20-25% suggested by Japanese RDA and theintake recorded in the JNNS (27.9%).1 Continuation of ahigh fat diet and low intensity and frequency of physicalactivity could increase chronic disease rates in the JA
group in the longer term. A study by Ferreira et al.,32
using 530 Japanese-Brazilians (aged 40-79 years) reported that groups of obese subjects and those with central adiposity consumed more energy from fat than non-obese subjects. In addition, while the results on Asianmales vary between the studies, recent studies using thedata from the National Surveys conducted in Canada andthe US reported that immigrants will often experience
unnecessary weight gain and the amount of weight gain
positively correlates with the duration of residence in theforeign country.33,34 Continuation of increased energy intake from fat and low level of physical activity of the JA
group may increase weight gain or increased abdominal
fat accumulation in long-term. As obesity and abdominal
fat deposition are correlated with a number of healthproblems, continuation of the lifestyle that the JA groupreported in the current study may increase health risks ofthis specific population living in Australia.
In order to prevent avoidable health consequences JA
individuals need a greater awareness of the diet they consume. When Japanese students move to western countries they need to be given advice about how to obtain or
prepare an appropriate diet while they are overseas. Further health promotion is needed to increase their awareness of exercise levels in order to maintain their own fitness and appropriate body composition.
The current study is the first report on nutrient intakesof Japanese males who are living in Australia and the obtained data may be useful to understand the effect ofliving environment on diet and lifestyle of Japanese males
living overseas. There were a few limitations that need tobe considered when interpreting the findings of this study.
While the current study examined the nutrient intakes of
the JA group by cross-sectional design, future studies
should conduct longitudinal follow-up assessments inorder to determine the changing patterns of eating behaviours and the associated nutrient intakes of subjects
living overseas. In addition, this study included the sample size which was not sufficient enough to analyse according to their living conditions (eg, living with host family,share mates, or living by themselves alone).
Conclusion
The study examined differences in nutrient intakes between three groups of males; 1) the Japanese males livingin Australia, 2) the Japanese males living in Japan, and 3)
the Australian Caucasian males in Australia. Japanesemales living in Australia consumed a diet that is higher incalcium, iron, dietary fibre, niacin equivalent intakes andhas higher energy contributions from protein and fat, thanJapanese males living in Japan. The study showed thatthe energy contribution pattern obtained from Japanesemales living in Australia was similar to that of theAustralian Caucasian males, which indicate further shift
in the diet of the JA group toward a western diet compared with the JJ group. It is important to provide adequate health information to promote healthy eating behaviours among Japanese males living in Australia to avoid
unnecessary increase of health risks during their stay inoverseas.
Acknowledgements
Researchers would like to acknowledge Janine Wright for
guidance on dietary assessment tools and provision of the sevenday food and drink dietary which was modified for this study.
We would like to thank the students in Japan and Australia who
made this study possible.

M Kagawa, Y Saito, D Kerr, H Uchida and C W Binns

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Differences in nutrient intakes and physical activity levels of Japanese and Australian Caucasian males

Original Article

Differences in nutrient intakes and physical activity
levels of Japanese and Australian Caucasian males
living in Australia and Japanese males living in Japan
Masaharu Kagawa PhD1, Yoko Saito MHSE2, Deborah Kerr PhD1, Hayato Uchida PhD2,
and Colin W Binns MBBS MPH PhD1
1
2

School of Public Health, Curtin University of Technology, Australia
School of Human Science and Environment, University of Hyogo, Japan比较居住在澳大利亚的日本男性和澳大利亚白种男性及居住在日本的日本男性他们摄入的营养素和身体活动性水平的差异
本文研究的目的是测定居住在澳大利亚的年轻日本男性的营养状况和营养素的摄入，及与居
住在日本的日本男性和澳大利亚白种男性作比较。选择年龄在 18-30 岁之间的 65 个居住在澳
大利亚的日本人（JA），81 个居住在日本的日本人（JJ），和 70 个澳大利亚白种男性并记录
四天的饮食，用人体测量学和问卷评估人体内各种组成成分和身体活动性水平。结果显示，澳大利亚男性比与之配对的日本人显著性地高和重，并且与居住在日本的日本男性相比显示
更大的体脂百分数（%BF）和高度-校正皮肤褶总数(%BF: JJ = 16.6 ± 5.2, AA = 18.7 ±
5.6;: 高度-校正皮肤褶总数 JJ = 78.8 ± 37.3, AA = 96.0 ± 39.5)(P<0.05)。澳大利亚白种男性比日本男性有更大的涉及健壮的体育运动的比例(AA=98.6%; JA = 72.3%; JJ=85.2%)。JA 组消耗更大的来源于蛋白质和脂肪的能量， 并且比 JJ 组摄入更多的钙，铁，膳食纤维和尼亚辛等价物(P<0.05)。结果提出居住在澳大利亚的日本男性比居住在日本的男性
消耗更多的高能西方饮食。因为比澳大利亚男性较低的身体活动性水平，消耗高能的饮食可
能对长期居住在澳洲日本男性有提高体重增加的危险。
关键词：营养素摄入、能量贡献、身体活动性、日本男性、澳大利亚。
关键词