POLICY BRIEF//
THE IMPORTANCE OF ECOSYSTEM-BASED
ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION ACTIONS IN
THE NATIONALLY DETERMINED CONTRIBUTIONS

01/ INTRODUCTION TO NATIONALLY

DETERMINED CONTRIBUTIONS (NDCs)

Policy makers are increasingly recognising the importanceof nature in mitigating and adapting to climate change. In
this briefing, the role that nature plays in climate change
mitigation and adaptation is explored further to enable
policy makers to enhance the inclusion of Ecosystem-based
Adaptation (EbA) (the use of nature to adapt to climatechange) and Ecosystem-based Mitigation (EbM) (the use ofnature to reduce greenhouse gas emissions) mechanisms
in South Africa’s revised Nationally Determined Contribution(NDC). Policy makers should harness EbA and EbM toraise climate action ambitions, set more robust targets fornature-based goals and recognise the important role oceanand coastal ecosystems can play in responding to climatechange.
In accordance with the 2015 Paris Agreement objectives,
all signatory countries are required to outline andcommunicate their intended actions to address climatechange in what is known as a Nationally Determined
Contribution (NDC). These actions take into consideration acountry’s circumstances and priorities in contributing to theworldwide effort to limit global temperature increase to well

below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. Intended Nationally
Determined Contributions (INDCs) contain voluntary climate
actions communicated by signatory countries prior to theadoption of the Paris Agreement. Following the adoption of
the Paris Agreement, signatory countries could choose torevise their INDCs before submitting them as NDCs.
Informed by findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), South Africa submitted its INDC in
2015, which outlines the national action plans for adaptationand mitigation, as well as the funding and investment
requirements. In 2016, the INDC became South Africa’s
official NDC. It is currently under revision in preparation for
the UNFCCC COP 26 in Glasgow. A recent review from the
Climate Action Tracker (CAT) has revealed that, although
the updated NDC enhances South Africa’s climate-related
ambitions, the goals are still considered insufficient withregards to the Paris Agreement temperature targets. The
updated draft is out for comment until April 2021 (DEFF,
2021), which provides stakeholders with an opportunity toemphasise the need to look at other means of adaptationand mitigation that could enhance the NDC ambition.

PHOTO BY CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL

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Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

KEY CONTRIBUTIONS
1Harness nature to achieve the 1.5°C goal /Enhance overall ambition of the NDC towards achieving the 1.5°C global goal by harnessing
the mitigation potential of including nature as part of the solution, through both the GHG
emissions reductions of Ecosystem-based Mitigation (EbM) and co-benefits of Ecosystembased Adaptation (EbA). We encourage the adjustment of the lower limit to meet the 1.5°C
temperature goal globally and the upper limit at least the 2°C goal. Nature has the potential
to contribute cost-effective mitigation potential of at least 73 million tonnes of carbon
dioxide equivalents (Mt CO2e) per year through 2030, with maximum emissions reductionsof up to 109 Mt CO2e per year. If integrated into the NDC revision, GHG reductions throughEbM could assist South Africa in further raising its ambition level to be consistent with thegoals of the Paris Agreement, specifically enabling a target of 344-414 Mt CO2e emissions
in 2030. In order to achieve this, it is critical to incorporate the Energy and AFOLU sectors
into EbM approaches within the NDC.

2

Include the Agriculture, Forestry and other Land Use(AFOLU) sector /Building on the inclusion of the AFOLU sector in the revised NDC as part of South Africa’s
GHG inventory, use available tools, such as the soil carbon map and carbon sink atlas,to set sector-specific targets for South Africa in the land use sector, such as for hectares
conserved and restored and/or carbon sequestered, to show ambition, with an aim toincrease the overall mitigation target.

Click below to view
Soil Carbon Map

Soil Carbon Map

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Include the Agriculture, Forestry and other Land Use(AFOLU) sector /Include specific Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) projects, such as land restorationand stewardship programmes, and the restoration of marine and coastal ecosystems into
sectoral targets and activities in South Africa’s revised NDC.

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Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

02 / THE ROLE OF NATURE IN THE NDC

The Paris Agreement emphasises the importance of naturein achieving global climate goals, and the need to protect
vulnerable ecosystems. South Africa’s 2016 NDC does notmake explicit reference to the use of terrestrial ecosystems,
such as grasslands, or coastal ecosystems, for instancemangroves, in climate change adaptation. However, theadaptation section does prioritise programmes, such as
Working on Wetlands, Working for Water, and Working on
Fire that require scaling up beyond 2020. These programmes
present opportunities to scale the use of nature as a solution
to reduce the risk of climate-related disasters and adapt toclimate change, while generating a range of co-benefits
for people, nature, and climate – an approach known as
Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA). See Box 1 for South
Africa’s vision for EbA, as expressed in national policy andstrategy. The 2016 NDC and 2021 revisions also recognise
the role that nature can play in mitigating climate change –an approach known as Ecosystem-based Mitigation (EbM).
EbM refers to the use of ecosystem services and biodiversity
to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Globally, below and above ground the carbon storage
potential from vegetation offers over 30% of the solution
to mitigating climate change. Ecosystems such as
wetlands and rangelands act as carbon sinks and restoringand sustainably managing these systems enhances

37%

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their capacity to absorb carbon emissions. Grassland
and rangelands can store more carbon if grazing andherd structures are managed properly. Healthy coastal
ecosystems also absorb and store carbon from theatmosphere and oceans.

BOX 1: Setting South Africa’s vision for
Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA)
through policy and strategy
The implementation of Ecosystem-based Adaptation(EbA) in South Africa is supported through policies
and strategies, such as the National Climate
Change Response White Paper (2011), Strategic
Framework and Overarching Implementation Planfor EbA 2016 – 2021, Guidelines for EbA (2017),
the National Development Plan 2030, and Climate
Change Sectoral Adaptation Plans. South Africa’s
vision for EbA, as expressed in policy and strategy,
is to use nature to transition to an economy thatis able to withstand climate shocks, and secure
the livelihoods of vulnerable people, while making
a fair contribution to the global effort to reducegreenhouse gas emissions.

Ecosystem-based Mitigation (EbM) can
provide up to 37% of the greenhouse gas(GHG) reductions needed by 2030 to keep
global temperature increases well below 2°C.
Plants and soils in terrestrial systems
annually absorb 20% of anthropogenic GHGs
however, this sink is offset by emissions fromland use change, agriculture and mining.

Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

Through EbM, South Africa has a costeffective mitigation potential totalling 73
million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents(Mt CO2e) per year through 2030,
with maximum emissions reductions of up to 109
Mt CO2e per year. If integrated into the NDC revision,

In South Africa, important pathways to cost-efficient
EbM approaches include nutrient management throughconservation agriculture, as well as rangeland restoration
to optimise grazing and livestock management. Improving
land stewardship is a successful approach to enhancesequestration from soils and plants while reducing landdegradation. Another important potential pathway for
EbM is appropriate reforestation and activities to reduce
deforestation and forest degradation.

GHG reductions through EbM could assist South
Africa in further raising its ambition level to beconsistent with the goals of the Paris Agreement,
specifically enabling a target of 344-414 Mt CO2eemissions in 2030. In order to achieve this, it iscritical to incorporate the Energy and AFOLU sectors
into EbM approaches within the NDC.

South Africa’s 2016 NDC and 2021 revision specificallyrefer to the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use(AFOLU) sector in national GHG accounting, however, no
explicit targets for GHG mitigation have been set in the land
use sector.
See Box 2 for EbM potential pathways.

BOX 2:EbM potential pathways.
Natural climate solutions (NCS) have been defined as “Conservation, restoration, and/or improved land management
actions that increase carbon storage and/or avoid greenhouse gas emissions across global forests, wetlands,
grasslands, and agricultural lands” (Griscon, et al., 2017). NCS can provide over one-third of the cost-effective
climate mitigation needed between now and 2030 to stabilise global warming to below 2°C. Alongside aggressive
fossil fuel emissions reductions, NCS offers options forcountries to deliver on the Paris Climate Agreement while
improving soil productivity, cleaning our air and water, andmaintaining biodiversity.
The NCS pathways that Conservation South Africa(CSA) is currently prioritsing for forests and rangelands(grasslands and savanna) include: reforestation, naturalforest management and avoided deforestation, grazing
management and intensity, animal management andimproved feed, grassland fire management, conservation
agriculture, native species restoration, avoiding grassland
conversion, and controlling woody species encroachment
in savanna.

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Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

03/ UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE NATURE CAN

PLAY IN THE CLIMATE CHANGE RESPONSE

3.1 WHAT NATURE CAN DO / Nature can help people
withstand climate shocks like droughts and floods, acrossdiverse landscapes and seascapes. Healthy rivers andwetlands can store water for longer during periods of drought
and buffer the effects of floods. Rangelands are better able
to provide fodder for livestock during extended dry periods
if they have been rested and well managed. Managing
animals by changing the herd age structure and animal
types as well as choosing better genetics can also decrease
GHG emissions from enteric fermentation (a natural partof the digestive process in ruminant animals). There isevidence that the amount of carbon stored in soil decreases
under the encroachment of invasive aliens such as wattle,
and it can continue to decrease for 50 years (Oelofse, et al.,2016). Clearing woody alien invasive vegetation like wattle
provides long-term carbon sequestration benefits. Once
restored, rangelands in grasslands and savanna biomes
can sequester between 0.8-2.5 tons of carbon per hectare
per year for 10 years (conservatively), but possibly up to
30 years. Peatlands, a type of wetland ecosystem found on
peat soils, act as the globes largest natural terrestrial storesof carbon, sequestering up to 0.37 gigatonnes of CO2 peryear (IUCN). In addition, the natural ecosystems provide
critical ecosystem services and protection from climate-

PHOTO BY CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL

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related hazards such as flood and drought resilience andseawater intrusion.
Marine and coastal ecosystems offer vast opportunities
to tackle climate change, however, their EbA, and EbM
potential is widely overlooked. In fact, South Africa’s current
NDC does not mention oceans or coastal ecosystems
at all. Well-functioning coastal ecosystems made ofmangroves, seagrasses, and marshes (also known as blue
carbon ecosystems) can protect communities from storm
surges, salt water intrusion and coastal erosion. They also
provide nursery grounds for fish, and other organisms, aswell as livelihoods for coastal communities. In addition
to the critical roles that they play in supporting a range of
threatened organisms, promoting biodiversity, buffering
against ocean acidification, and sheltering coastlines byreducing wave power, coastal ecosystems act as carbon
sinks. Seagrasses store 18% of global oceanic carbon.
Mangroves and salt marshes also play a valuable rolein carbon sequestration. It is estimated that the soils inmangrove forests store approximately 6.4 billion tonnesof carbon globally. Additionally, coastal ecosystems
contribute to enhanced water quality by filtering, cycling,and storing nutrients, and other pollutants.

PHOTO BY EROL ERIKSSON

Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

3.2 NATURE IS ALSO VULNERABLE / Nature often
falls victim to inappropriate management practices, as wellas the impacts of a changing climate – one with warmer
temperatures, unpredictable rainfall and more frequentand intense storms. Limited economic opportunities
and worsening poverty place further stress on natural
resources as people become increasingly dependent
on them. Intensive grazing patterns and overstockingof livestock damage the integrity of rangelands andwetlands and threaten the biodiversity supported by theseecosystems. About 15% of the world’s peatlands have been
overexploited and damaged by being drained and converted
for agricultural use or mined for fuel, among others uses.
It is estimated that 1.3 gigatonnes of CO2 is emitted fromdamaged peatlands annually (IUCN, 2017). In addition,
warmer temperatures, unpredictable rainfall and more
frequent and intense storms are expected to affect thehealth of terrestrial ecosystems. Increasing temperaturesand evaporation rates are expected to place further
stress on already sparse water resources and exacerbate
degradation of rangeland and wetland habitats.
Coastal and ocean ecosystems are also vulnerable to theimpacts of climate change and inappropriate land uses.
Longer dry periods reduce the flow in estuaries, resulting
in prolonged and more frequent river mouth closure which
negatively affects salt marsh habitat. Eutrophication inrivers is becoming an increasingly severe threat to seagrassecosystems, as algae outcompetes the native species.
More severe flooding events cause inundation leading toloss of mangrove forests. In addition, coastal development,such as bridge and harbour construction, the resulting
pollution thereof, and poor land use practices, such as
dredging, have detrimental impacts on coastal habitats.
According to the National Biodiversity Assessment (NBA)(2018), 60% of South Africa’s coastal ecosystems are
threatened. In South Africa, 30% of salt marshes havebeen destroyed. Mangrove habitats are facing a significant
decline and no longer occur in 10 out of 26 subtropicalestuaries (NBA, 2018). Several seagrass species have been
listed as vulnerable in the Red Data List of Species.
Ecosystems also rely on wildlife, and in many cases
naturally occurring fires, to maintain, and regenerate soilorganic carbon (SOC) (the carbon component of organic
compounds in soil). The loss of terrestrial and coastal
ecosystems and the services they provide due to poor
management and inappropriate land uses will causesignificant cascading effects for both people and nature. Ifthey are not sufficiently protected, they will become more
vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Therefore, thepotential of these systems to act as carbon sinks, provide
ecosystem services and support EbA and EbM measures
will be jeopardised.

PHOTO BY KHALIPHA SEMKELO MBANGWA

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Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

3.3 PROTECTING NATURE AND ITS POTENTIALFOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND
MITIGATION / The Marine Protected Area system is an
important mechanism for ensuring coastal ecosystems are
not degraded and that mitigation and adaptation potential
thereof is maximised. A number of tools and platforms
that can be used to determine the potential of coastal
ecosystems to mitigate and adapt to climate change
exist, including Global Mangrove Watch (Global Mangrove
Alliance, 2011), Mangrove Restoration Potential Map (ThePHOTO BY EROL ERIKSSON

Nature Conservancy, University of Cambridge, & IUCN, n.d.),Global Map of Marshes (UNEP WCMC Global, 2018), Global
Map of Seagrass (UNEP WCMC Global, 2018), and CI’s Blue
Carbon Ecosystem Map (for access contact CI).
Conservation South Africa (CSA) has also recently
published a soil carbon map (Venter, Hawkins, Cramer,& Mills, 2020) based on long-term data for below groundsoil carbon from a variety of sites nationally. This is a highresolution map (30m spatial resolution) that can provide
detailed information about the potential across South
Africa to sequester and store carbon whilst restoring
our rangelands and accumulating both adaptation andmitigation benefits from nature. The map highlights
national, and global areas that should be prioritised for
repeat sampling. Information from the map is currently
being integrated into the revision of the carbon sink atlas(DEFF, n.d.).
GHG emissions reduction potential of rangeland restoration
approaches needs to be explored further through longterm monitoring of its impact on soil, and above groundcarbon, as well as emissions from livestock, and potential
re-wilding as part of natural climate solutions (Sitters,
Kimuyu, & Young, 2020).

PHOTO BY KHALIPHA SEMKELO MBANGWA

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Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

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CONSERVATION SOUTH AFRICA’S STEWARDSHIPPROGRAMME AS AN EXAMPLE OF EBA AND EBM

Most people are aware of changes in their environment,
but some need support to understand how their actions
affect the natural resources that they rely on, and what they
can do to help nature help them adapt. Non-governmentalorganisations, such as Conservation South Africa (CSA), an
affiliate of Conservation International (CI), in collaboration
with communities, play a central role in protecting nature,and implementing EbA and EbM projects, be it to recognise
the potential of coastal ecosystems, such as seagrasses
and mangroves, or biodiversity conservation throughstewardship programmes for example Stewardship inrangelands as an EbA and EbM approach, as described
below.

4.1 HOW IT WORKS / One approach that CSA uses toimplement EbA in rangelands is to engage in Conservation
Agreements (CAs) with communal farmers to support themin protecting nature in return for incentives. Conservation
actions and incentives are identified with participating
farmers (called stewards) based on what they can do toimprove their farming, particularly their grazing practices,and what is needed to support them. For example, in
Namaqualand, in the Northern Cape Province, planned
grazing is needed to rest rangelands and restore wetlands,

and farmers need livestock medicines, more climateresilient breeds of sheep and goat, better access to markets
and training, to help farmers become more resilient toclimate change. As part of the stewardship approach,youth empowerment, and employment programmes areunder way as well as enterprise development, mentorshipand funding.
During the Conservation Agreements process, CSA
unlocked opportunities for innovative financing
mechanisms to ensure that stewardship was impactful
and long lasting. The innovative financing mechanisms
enabled communal farmers, including women, and youth,
to overcome barriers in accessing funds for conservation.
The mechanisms also enabled them to properly govern
the Steinkopf-Bulletrap Cooperative (SBC) (Box 3), develop
enterprises (for example, Robert Richards’ handmade
Kraalbos soap (Box 4)), and access markets without
further intervention from CSA, in the form of funding. Allof these approaches, support these communities to haveaccess to additional opportunities that can also buffer
them from impacts of climate change and enhance theirability for sustainable production.

PHOTO BY JESSICA LEAS

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Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

4.2 IMPACT / After implementing the CAs, most stewards 1
noted an observable improvement in the condition ofrangelands 2 because they planned their grazing and kept
their livestock numbers at or below the recommended
threshold. Their livestock were free of internal and externalparasites. Grazing became greener and more abundant.
Livestock became healthier and heavier. The more resilient

BOX 3: An example of a co-operative as avehicle for implementing EbA
In 2018, CSA facilitated the registration of theSteinkopf-Bulletrap Cooperative (SBC) as aformal organisation. The SBC assists communal
farmers (including those that are not participantsof the stewardship programme) to keep theirlivestock healthy through vaccinations, andbetter access to medicine. This has given themthe opportunity to sell their livestock to formal
markets at better prices. It also brought farmers
together to learn from each other, and learn
through training, to become more aware of what
they can do to protect their rangelands, andadapt to climate shocks such as droughts.

1

breeds reached market ready weights earlier 3. Stewards
had better market access to sell their livestock at better
prices (particularly the more resilient breeds 4), andgenerated an income 5 which catered for their families.
They saved money on livestock medicine, so had money
to put away for emergencies or spend on other expenses.

BOX 4: An example of an enterprisedeveloped through CSA’s stewardshipprogramme
Robert Richards’ handmade Kraalbos soap began
after the SKEPPIES fund (established in 2006 toprovide small scale funding for businesses thatvalue conservation) helped him to buy machinery.
Kraalbos is the first of all shrubs to grow on bareland that has been left exposed by overgrazing. It
helps nature come to life again, but is poisonous
to livestock so farmers used to remove the whole
shrub. Robert’s successful soap enterprise has
shown farmers the economic value of Kraalbos,
if they only harvest the tips of the shoots to sellto Robert as one of the main ingredients for his
soap.

To collect data and assess the impact of the stewardship programme, socio-economic surveys were conducted in 2017, 2018

(after two years of implementation of the CAs), and 2020 (two years after the CAs ended).
2

When participating stewards were asked how they knew that their rangelands were in better condition they gave one or more of thefollowing responses: livestock condition; more grazing available; the veld is greener; growth of plants improved; and/or more flowers.

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3

In 2017, semi-indigenous lambs were sold after 6 months, whereas commercial lambs were sold after 8 months.

4

In 2017, semi-indigenous lambs were sold at R32.00 per kilogram, whereas commercial lambs were sold at R29.00 per kilogram.

5

Between 633 stewards, across the three landscapes that CSA works in, R10 824 052 was earned through livestock auctions.

Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

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CALL TO ACTION
Actions for policy makers to integrate nature into South Africa’s revised Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDC), and enhance ambition for climate change adaptation, and mitigation throughnature include the following:

1

2

Harness nature to achieve the 1.5°C goal /Enhance overall ambition of the NDC towards
achieving the 1.5°C global goal by harnessing the
mitigation potential of including nature as partof the solution, through both the GHG emissions
reductions of Ecosystem-based Mitigation (EbM)
and co-benefits of Ecosystem-based Adaptation(EbA). We encourage the adjustment of the lower
limit to meet the 1.5°C temperature goal globallyand the upper limit at least the 2°C goal. Nature
has the potential to contribute cost-effective
mitigation potential of at least 73 Mt CO2e per
year through 2030, with maximum emissions
reductions of up to 109 Mt CO2e per year. If
integrated into the NDC revision, GHG reductions
through EbM could assist South Africa in further
raising its ambition level to be consistent withthe goals of the Paris Agreement, specificallyenabling a target of 344-414 Mt CO2e emissions
in 2030. In order to achieve this, it is critical toincorporate the Energy and AFOLU sectors into
EbM approaches within the NDC.

Include specific Ecosystem-based
Adaptation (EbA) projects /Include specific EbA projects such as land
restoration and stewardship programmes in
the revised NDC. Stewardship activities include
working with farmers, and other land stewards
to enhance their resilience to adverse climate
impacts, boost rural livelihood development, andreduce GHG emissions from rangelands andagriculture, through incentivising and providing
training to implement approaches such as
improved grazing practices, reducing emissions
from enteric fermentation, rewilding and restoring
rangelands, avoiding the conversion of grasslands,
and building alternative economies from forexample alien invasive value chains (wattle,
biochar etc.). Other land restoration projects
should focus on re-establishing, conserving
and protecting marine and coastal ecosystems
including the three blue carbon ecosystems(mangroves, salt marshes and seagrass) andcoral reefs. NDCs should include reference to
National EbA priority maps for setting of targets
for achieving EbA action.

3
Enhance ambition in existing national priorities, policies, and programmes /Enhance ambition for climate change adaptation, and mitigation reflected in existing national priorities, polices,and programmes such as Working on Wetlands, Working for Water, and Working on Fire, for long-term efforts toreach their full climate change adaptation, and mitigation benefit. Recommendations for this have been provided
in a recent case study by CSA (IIED, n.d.), including the need for long-term biophysical, and socio-economic
monitoring for EbA, as well as inclusion of EbA, and EbM training in the Natural Resource Management (NRM)
programmes.

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Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

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Include ocean, and coastal ecosystemss /Include the conservation, restoration andprotection of marine and coastal ecosystems into
sectoral targets and activities in South Africa’s
revised NDC, focusing on carbon sinks suchas mangroves, saltmarshes, and seagrasses
that provide both mitigation and adaptation
benefits. Include actions and targets, such as
the restoration, conservation and sustainable
management of seagrass forests and mangrovesin South Africa’s revised NDC. The following
tools and platforms can provide guidance ontargets that can be set for carbon sequestration
through these actions Global Mangrove Watch,
Mangrove Restoration Potential Map, Global
Map of Marshes, and Global Map of Seagrass. In
addition, marine ecosystems such as coral reefs
should be conserved, restored and protected,
for their adaptation value among many otherco-benefits.

5

Building on the inclusion of the AFOLU sector in
the revised NDC as part of South Africa’s GHG
inventory, use available tools such as the soil
carbon map to set sector-specific targets forSouth Africa for the land use sector, such as forhectares conserved and restored and/or carbon
sequestered, to show ambition, with an aim toincrease the overall mitigation target.

7

Consider adding cross-sectoral climate
actions to the NDC / Examples of taking across-sectoral approach include: integrating
infrastructure planning with conservation goals;
promoting sustainable landscape programs
between rangelands, forestry and agriculture;developing policies for compensating impacts
of infrastructure development on rangelands
or wetlands; combining natural and built
infrastructure for coastal protection (or green-grey
infrastructure), implementing land use planningwith ecosystem disaster risk management; orensuring tree cover for hydropower efficiency.

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Include the Agriculture, Forestry and otherLand Use (AFOLU) sector /Enhance the National Forests Act andWoodlands Strategy Framework /Enhance the National Forests Act andWoodlands Strategy Framework to better
incorporate climate adaptation and mitigation
approaches in South Africa’s rangelands andwoodlands. These policies should encourage
development of adaptative management
capacity among forest and land managers, aswell as incentivise approaches to increase theresilience of these lands to climate impacts,
while reducing GHG emissions arising fromcurrent land management practices, such as
reducing deforestation and protection andrestoration of rangelands with irreplaceablecarbon values (Goldstein, et al., 2020; Noon,2021), especially along the Eastern Cape.

Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

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Provide long-term monitoring /As part of the National Monitoring and Evaluation
framework, provide long-term monitoringof ecosystem restoration and stewardshipapproaches(including
rangelands,
andwatersheds) across south Africa’s biomes(grasslands, thicket and savanna) for soil carbon
benefits to ensure data is continuously updated
for future target setting, and to show impact of
the land use sector on reducing South Africa’s
emissions. Emissions from cattle should also bemonitored through these stewardship approaches.

913

Support innovative financing
mechanisms /Support opportunities for innovative financing
mechanisms for EbA, such as market access,enterprise development, and co-operative
development, to ensure that EbA implementationand EbM co-benefits are enabled to build a stronger
restoration economy through funding, technology,
and capacity building support. Recommendations
for this have been provided in a recent case study
by CSA on innovative financing (for access to thecase study contact CSA).

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Build the capacity of District
Municipalities /Capture the cost of adaptation,and mitigation /Support activities to build capacity of District
Municipalities to not only support implementationof EbA and EbM actions, but to also effectively
monitor these activities and feed into the National
Monitoring and Evaluation system (National
Climate change information system) and refer tothis system in the NDC revision.

Ensure true costs of adaptation and mitigation
action are reflected in the revised NDC, and if
not available, ensure that we work towards costeffectiveness and cost benefit assessments ofthese actions.

Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

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Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

Oelofse, M., Birch-Thomsen, T., Magid, J., de Neergaard, A., van Deventer, R., Bruun, S., and Hill, T., 2016. The impact of black wattle
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PHOTO BY CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL

15

Policy Brief: The Importance of Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined Contributions

SOIL ORGANIC CARBON STOCKS AND TRENDS
Two new high-resolution maps for South Africa
Soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks and trends maps for topsoil in natural areas ofSouth Africa used machine learning and three decades of satellite imagery to
predict SOC at 30 m spatial resolution. Products were developed in a partnership
between The Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Conservation South Africa(CSA), University of Cape Town, and C4 EcoSolutions. Maps are informing natural
climate solutions and the latest revision of the national carbon sinks atlas.

Publication freely available to public
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2021.145384
Downloads for mapping software
http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4384692

First national-scale map of SOC
stocks at 30-m resolution.
Total national SOC stock of
5.6 Pg C in natural areas.
Per biome stocks varydepending on climatic,morphometric and biologicalvariables.

First national-scale map of SOC
trends between 1984 and 2019at 30-m resolution.
Small net national 0.3% SOC
sequestration over 35 year
period.
Habitat loss may drive both
SOC increase, e.g., woody
plant encroachment ordecrease, e.g., vegetation loss.
Image source: Venter et al 2021, see publication link above.

IMPORTANCE AND FUTURE NEEDS
Landscape-scale planning, policy and repeat samplingHigh resolution maps of SOC stocks and trends can inform land management andpolicy decisions aimed at climate mitigation and biodiversity conservation (natural
climate solutions), remembering that SOC increases are limited by local climate
and soils. This SOC mapping approach has less uncertainty and bias compared
to any previous maps, allowing formerly unavailable landscape-scale analyses.
While the SOC trend map is an estimate requiring verification, it highlights thenational and global priority for repeat sampling (SOC time-series).
At the landscape scale,
SOC changes of up to 25%
were visible at fence-line
contrasts, likely due tolocal management effects,
e.g., decreases in SOC due
to overgrazing (top) andvegetation clearing(bottom).

The global literature
indicates that our unique
African ecosystems are
dependent on wildlife andfire to maintain andregenerate SOC.
CSA works with local
communities to restore
habitat throughshepherding, sustainablegrazing and fire practices.
Image source: Venter et al 2021 (above); Adobe Stock (below).

For more information, contact Julia Levin or Heidi Hawkins:
jlevin@conservation.org; hhawkins@conservation.org