Journal of College Access
Volume 6

Issue 1

Article 4

2021

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color: The
Importance of Academic, Transitional Adjustment, and Mental
Health Supports
Sophie W. Schuyler
University of Massachusetts Boston, sophie.schuyler001@umb.edu

Jonique R. Childs
University of Massachusetts Amherst, jrchilds@umass.edu

Timothy A. Poynton
University of Massachusetts Boston, Tim.Poynton@umb.edu

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jca
Part of the Counseling Commons, Counseling Psychology Commons, and the Higher Education
Commons

Recommended Citation
Schuyler, Sophie W.; Childs, Jonique R.; and Poynton, Timothy A. (2021) "Promoting Success for FirstGeneration Students of Color: The Importance of Academic, Transitional Adjustment, and Mental HealthSupports," Journal of College Access: Vol. 6 : Iss. 1 , Article 4.
Available at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jca/vol6/iss1/4

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by
the Western Michigan University at ScholarWorks at
WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal ofCollege Access by an authorized editor of ScholarWorksat WMU. For more information, please contact wmuscholarworks@wmich.edu.

Promoting Success for First-Generation
Students of Color: The Importance of Academic,
Transitional Adjustment, and Mental Health
Authored by
Supports
Sophie W. Schuyler (University of Massachuse s Boston)
Jonique R. Childs (University of Massachuse s Amherst)
Timothy A. Poynton (University of Massachuse s Boston)ethnic minorities (U.S. Department of
Education, 2014), with Black and Latinx racial
identities being the most represented (Fischer,2007; Engle & Tinto, 2008). In other words,
nearly 1 in 3 college students (30%) are both
first-generation college students and racial
minorities, possessing the intersectional
identity of first-generation student(s) of color(FGSOC).

ABSTRACT
Nearly 1 in 3 college students (30%) are first‐genera on
students of color (FGSOC), possessing the intersec onal
iden ty of being both a first‐genera on college student anda racial minority. FGSOC face increased psychological andsocial diﬃcul es in college when compared to students inother groups, resul ng from cultural diﬀerences, lack ofacademic preparedness, s gma surrounding socioeconomic
status, racial discrimina on, and marginaliza on. This ar cle
summarizes peer‐reviewed literature related to three typesof supports that can improve the college experience andpromote the academic success of FGSOC: academic
supports, transi onal adjustment supports, and mental
health supports. The reviewed literature is framed by asocial jus ce perspec ve. Implica ons for future research,
policy, and prac ce by educators, administrators, and staﬀ
working with this popula on of students are discussed.

The theory of intersectionality (Crenshaw,
1991) asserts that individuals experience life
events and are perceived by others throughthe intersection of the different identities theyhold (e.g., race, gender, sexual orientation).
Thus, individuals and groups who possess
multiple privileged identities will experiencegreater advantages in society, while those
who possess multiple marginalized identities
will experience greater disadvantages(Crenshaw, 1991). FGSOC are academically,socially, and psychologically at-risk (Gray,2013) due to their multiple marginalized
identities (low SES, person of color, firstgeneration college student), highlighting theneed for an increased understanding of theunique challenges they face.

Keywords: first‐genera on college students, students ofcolor, academic success, mental health, supportsA

pproximately 56% of all college
students are from families withparents or guardians who havenot earned a Bachelor’s or higher
degree (U.S. Department of Education, 2014),
commonly referred to as first-generationcollege students (Higher Education Act of1965). First-generation college students are
more likely to come from families with lower
socioeconomic status (U.S. Department of
Education, 2014). Further, among all firstgeneration college students, 54% are racial/
Volume 6 | August 2021 | Issue 1

The influence of college-going generation
status or racial identity on measures of college
12Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color
enrollment, persistence, and academic
performance) is relatively well described. For
example, previous research demonstrates thatcompared to continuing-generation students,
first-generation college students have lower
college GPAs (e.g., Chen, 2005), are more
likely to withdraw from or repeat college
courses (e.g., Martinez et al., 2009), and areless likely to earn a college degree (e.g.,Cataldi et al., 2018). Black and Latinx students
also have lower college GPAs and lower
college graduation rates (e.g., Bowan & Bok,
1998; Fischer, 2007; Slaughter, 2009).

This literature review is informed andorganized by the domains of social justiceadvocacy as outlined by the AmericanCounseling Association: empowerment,
collaboration, and action (Toporek & Daniels,
2018). Using a social justice framework
involves actively addressing the dynamics ofpower, oppression, and privilege, recognizingthat people have been socially stratified andmarginalized based on race, class, gender,
sexual orientation, ability, and other identities
throughout societal history (Toporek &Daniels, 2018; Prilleltensky & Prilleltensky,2003). Further, a social justice framework
involves advocating on behalf ofmarginalized populations to challenge theway services are provided in order to meettheir unique needs (Fondacaro & Weinberg,
2002; Kiselica & Robinson, 2001). As such, theimplications for research, policy, and practiceincluded in this review focus on actions that
institutions can take to improve the college
experiences and academic outcomes of
FGSOC.

Attention to the intersection between racial
identity and college-going generation statuson college success metrics is less voluminous,
although a few studies do specifically address
the experiences of FGSOC (McCoy, 2014;
Tello & Lonn, 2017; Havlik et al., 2020; Dennis
et al., 2005; Wang & Castañeda-Sound, 2008;
Ellis et al., 2019). Given the significance of thebarriers to success experienced by firstgeneration college students, and thepercentage of first-generation college students
who are in racial minority groups, the focus of
the current article is to review empirical, peer
reviewed research regarding three types of
supports that influence FGSOC college
success: academic supports, transitional
adjustment supports, and mental healthsupports. Building on literature regarding
first-generation college students, college
students of color, and FGSOC, we discuss theexperiences and importance of engaging withthese supports to promote success in college.

Volume 6 | August 2021 | Issue 1

Challenges Faced by FGSOC
Research focused on the first-generation
aspect of the FGSOC identity indicates thatfirst-generation college students tend to face
increased psychological and social difficulties
that impact academic outcomes. These
challenges include having lower academic
and career related goals and standards forthemselves, possessing decreased criticalthinking skills, and receiving less social andintellectual support (McCarron & Inkelas,13

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Colorassociated with high achievement and social
status (Bourdieu, 1986; Saunders & Serna,
2004; Dumais & Ward, 2010; Richards, 2020).
As a result of these factors, FGSOC are lesslikely to participate in activities that lead toacademic and social success, such as studying
in groups, using campus support services,
and interacting with faculty (Engle & Tinto,2008).

2006), which can negatively impact theiracademic preparation (Lohfink & Paulsen,
2005; Pike & Kuh, 2005), persistence to degreecompletion (Burgette & Magun-Jackson, 2008;
Engle & Tinto, 2008), and performance in theircollege courses (Stephens et al., 2012). The
individualistic culture of U.S. universities
tends to discount first-generation college
students’ academic achievement, as thesestudents struggle to integrate their own
cultural values with the environment of their
institution (Stephens et al., 2014).

Focusing on the racial aspects of the FGSOC
identity, research demonstrates that college
students of color face additional barriers,
including racial discrimination and racialethnic microaggressions (Ellis, et al., 2019;
Bui, 2002; Davidson et al., 2004; Cataldi et al.,2018; Solorzano et al., 2000). Theseexperiences can create feelings of alienation,
isolation, and invisibility, and contribute toincreased mental health difficulties (Cerezo etal., 2013; Pérez Huber & Solorzano, 2015;
Reynolds et al., 2010; Pieterse et al., 2010).
They may also contribute to the lower college
matriculation rates and prolonged degreecompletion times observed in students ofcolor (Fischer, 2007; Museus et al., 2008;
Slaughter, 2009). Discrimination andmarginalization are even more pronouncedfor FGSOC who attend Predominately White
Institutions (PWIs), resulting in a college
experience that is challenging and highly
stressful (McCoy, 2014; Havlik, 2020).

First-generation college students of lower
socioeconomic status face additional barriers
to success, including stigma, marginalization,and hardship that is related to their social
class identities (Stephens et al., 2012). For
example, first-generation college students
report higher levels of classism on campus
from peers, professors, and the institution as awhole than continuing generation students(Allan et al., 2016; Rice et al., 2017). Some
FGSOC report feeling invalidated andembarrassed due to stereotyping andmisinterpretations by instructors or peers thatare linked to their socioeconomic realities(Havlik et al., 2020). Due to having limited
financial resources, many FGSOC work fulltime while earning their degrees and rely
disproportionately on financial aid (House etal., 2019; Page & Clayton, 2016; Pratt et al.,2019). In addition, FGSOC are less likely thanstudents from economically advantaged
backgrounds to possess traditional forms ofcultural capital, including the education,knowledge, and academic skills typically

Volume 6 | August 2021 | Issue 1

Supporting FGSOC
The next section of this article reviews
literature that focuses on academic supports,
transitional adjustment supports, and mental

14

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color(McCoy, 2014). School counselors are
therefore a crucial source of college and career
information for first-generation and lowincome students during the high school years(Owen et al., 2020). Once enrolled in college,
FGSOC remain at a disadvantage by not being
able to benefit from parental knowledge andguidance related to the college experience,such as advice related to study skills andassignments, time management, and theimportance of utilizing campus resources(McCarron & Inkelas, 2006; Davis, 2010; Ward
et al., 2012). As the number of meetings withan academic advisor increases, however,academic retention and performance improvefor first-generation college students (Swecker
et al., 2013). Therefore, consistent andspecialized academic support from school
counselors, advisors and mentors may lead togreater academic success for FGSOC.

health supports for FGSOC on college
campuses. We focus on these three areas asthey are places institutions can tangiblyintervene to impact the success of FGSOC
within a social justice framework. For
example, college self-efficacy (the level ofconfidence in one’s ability to effectively
complete tasks related to college success;Solberg et al., 1993) has been positively linked
to academic progress, college outcome
expectations, the ability to cope with college
related barriers, and career aspirations (Raque-Bogdan & Lucas, 2016). FGSOC have lower
academic self-efficacy than white firstgeneration students (Wang & CastañedaSound, 2008), but when colleges provide
adequate academic, transitional adjustment,
and mental health supports for FGSOC theirself-efficacy is likely to improve (McCoy,
2014). The provision of such supports is an
example of an equity-driven and socially justendeavor aimed at increasing a sense of
empowerment among FGSOC.

In addition, providing information to firstgeneration college students about how theirunique backgrounds may inform their college
experiences increases their utilization ofcollege resources (e.g., meeting withprofessors) and improves their academic
performance (Stephens et al., 2014). Further,
employing creative pedagogical approaches
that emphasize multiculturalism, such as
collaborative learning groups, team-basedlearning, and peer-instruction, can lead tomore positive educational experiences for
FGSOC (Jehangir, 2010; Roberson &Kleynhaus, 2020). These pedagogicalapproaches illustrate and emphasize thesocial justice advocacy principles ofAcademic Supports
Starting in K-12 education, FGSOC are at an
academic disadvantage due to systemic
inequities, such as higher rates of poverty andlower quality classroom instruction (Bui,
2002; Ward et al., 2012). These disparities later
result in lower college entrance exam scoresand decreased academic preparedness forcollege (Bui, 2002). In addition, many FGSOC
receive very little support from parents/
guardians during the college application
process (Pascarella et al., 2004), resulting in achallenging and frustrating experience
Volume 6 | August 2021 | Issue 1

15

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color(Conrad & Gasman, 2015).

collaboration, empowerment, and action(Toporek & Daniels, 2018), which may
promote identity development and a sense of
belonging for FGSOC.

Transitional Adjustment Supports
The transition to college, marked by academic
and social integration into the college
environment during the first year of study,
plays a crucial role in the retention andachievement of all college students (Tinto,1993). Such integration is often evidenced byliving away from home, dedicating
substantial amounts of time and effort tocollege related activities, building close
relationships with college peers, fulfilling
academic responsibilities, and returning tocollege the following year (Inkelas et al.,2007). Receiving transitional adjustment
support from one’s parents/guardians (i.e.,
encouragement and advice), college peers(i.e., affirmation and solidarity), andinstitutions (i.e., campus resources andprograms), is an important factor in
determining a successful transition to college(Ward et al., 2012), particularly for firstgeneration college students (Pascarella et al.,
2004; Ward et al., 2012) and college studentsof color (Hinton, 2008; Locks et al., 2008).

Another source of potential support for
FGSOC includes attending Minority Serving
Institutions (MSIs), which include HistoricallyBlack Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) andPredominantly Black Institutions (PBIs).
These institutions, which are often located inurban areas of the South, Midwest, and East,
provide access to postsecondary education for
millions of students of color, low-income
students, and first-generation college students(Espinosa et al., 2017). The majority of PBIs
have student bodies that are 50 to 75 percent
Black, while White and Latino/a/x students
are the second largest racial groups enrolled.
National Student Clearinghouse (NSC) datashows that these institutions can positively
impact persistence and performance incollege, as the overall graduation rate forstudents of color at MSIs is much higher than
the federal graduate rate, particularly at
public universities (51.5 percent vs. 16.6
percent; Espinosa et al., 2017). The successexperienced by students who attend MSIs canbe attributed to the creation of safe andempowering environments that recognize
individual and collective achievement innumerous ways (Conrad & Gasman, 2015).
Not only are faculty and administratorsfamiliar with the unique backgrounds andacademic support needs of non-traditional
students, they embrace and celebrate
students’ diverse cultural and racial identities

Volume 6 | August 2021 | Issue 1

Compared to continuing-generation students,
first-generation college students tend to feelless supported by parents, peers, and faculty
members in their college transition (Garriott
et al., 2017). Further, FGSOC report lower
perceived support during their college
transition than white first-generation college
students (McCoy, 2014; Wang & CastañedaSound, 2008). Due to a lack of transitional

16

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color
receive instrumental support from family
members, peers, and institutions during thecollege transition feel more empowered, havegreater opportunities for collaborative
learning, and experience improved academic
performance and adjustment to college life asa result.

adjustment supports, FGSOC often experience
difficulty adapting to the college environment
and feel disconnected from their institutions(Covarrubias et al., 2020; Terenzini et al.,1994). As a result, they are less likely tosocialize with college peers or to participate in
extracurricular activities on campus(Pascarella et al., 2004; Terenzini et al., 1994)
and more likely to experience low GPAs
during their first semester of college (Dennis
et al., 2005). Greater support from parents/
guardians or peers during the transition tocollege can lead to improved academic selfefficacy, greater academic satisfaction, higher
college outcome expectations, and increased
retention for FGSOC (Havlik et al., 2020).

Mental Health Supports
Access to emotional support is important for
the well-being of college students, as thetransitional nature of college and young
adulthood can contribute to increased
psychological difficulties, including
depression, anxiety, and stress (Beiter et al.,2015; Stallman, 2010). College students ofcolor are particularly vulnerable to thestressors of being a minority within a majority
culture and the acculturation process that
accompanies this experience (Mayorga et al.,2018; Sanchez et al., 2018; Reynolds et al.,2010). Acculturation, or “...the internal
negotiation over the degree to which a
student’s personal attitudes and behaviors
conform to both the norms of the dominantculture and their culture of origin” (Mayorga
et al., 2018, p. 247), can negatively impact themental health and well-being of FGSOC. For
example, FGSOC have lower self-esteem andlife satisfaction and higher levels of stressthan white first-generation college students(Wang & Castañeda-Sound, 2008). Further,stress related to acculturation has been foundto increase symptoms of depression andanxiety in students of color, as well as
decrease the ability to cope with these
symptoms (Mayorga et al., 2018).

Institutional supports, such as academic andsocial programs that provide specialized
guidance and mentorship from college faculty
and staff, also improve the transition tocollege for FGSOC (McCoy, 2014; Tello &Lonn, 2017). For example, McCoy (2014)
found that FGSOC who enrolled in a summer
bridge program felt much better prepared tostart college. This program provided an
opportunity for FGSOC to gain familiarity
with the campus, connect with other students
and faculty of color, and increase theirconfidence before the school year began.
Another study discovered that FGSOC who
participated in a living- learning program—aunique residential community for students
with similar academic goals or sharedinterests—felt more integrated into theircollege campus than FGSOC who lived in a
traditional dormitory (Inkelas et al., 2007).
These findings suggest that FGSOC who
Volume 6 | August 2021 | Issue 1

17Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color
decreased psychological distress (Sanchez et
FGSOC may also experience racial-ethnical., 2018). In addition, college students who
microaggressions, or “subtle statements andreceive the amount of emotional support thatbehaviors that unconsciously communicate
they perceive themselves to need are moredenigrating messages to people oflikely to experience a decrease in depressive
color” (Nadal, 2011, p. 470), which have been
symptoms than those who receive more or
linked with greater psychological distressless support than they perceive themselves toamong both Latinx and Asian college
need (Rankin et al., 2018). These findings
students (Sanchez et al., 2018). It may feelsuggest that mental health support isdifficult for FGSOC to speak about theirimportant for the well-being of FGSOC andexperiences of discrimination or their feelings
that it is crucial to carefully assess the amountof distress and isolation (Banks, 2018; McCoy,of support that is needed before intervening.
2014; Havlik et al., 2020). However, McCoy(2014) found that the
Implications for Research,
multicultural student center
Policy, and Practiceon one campus wasperceived as a safe space by“Educators, researchers, school and The purpose of this literature
FGSOC to be their authentic
college counselors, and mental
review was to examine threeselves, voice theirhealth clinicians working inchallenges, and build
college counseling centers have an types of supports that
influence the college success
important role to play incommunity.
identifying and advancing effortsof FGSOC: academic
to decrease racism and other forms supports, transitional
Despite their potential forof marginalization and oppression
adjustment supports, andincreased mental healthto improve the college experiences
mental health supports.
issues, FGSOC are unlikely
and outcomes for FGSOC.”
When considering theseto seek psychologicalsupports from a social justicesupport through counselingperspective, it is imperative to recognize that
centers on campus (Stebleton et al., 2014;
success in college is not solely the individualBanks, 2018). Further, all first-generation
student’s responsibility, but a collective social
college students are more likely thanresponsibility that is shared by educational
continuing-generation students to view
institutions themselves. Educators,
themselves negatively if they do seek
researchers, school and college counselors,
professional mental health services (Garriottand mental health clinicians working in
et al., 2017). When counseling services arecollege counseling centers have an importantutilized by students of color experiencing racerole to play in identifying and advancing-based stressors, however, they tend to viewefforts to decrease racism and other forms ofthe mental health support positively (Banks,
marginalization and oppression to improve2018; Hook et al., 2016) and to experience

Volume 6 | August 2021 | Issue 1

18

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color
self-efficacy.

the college experiences and outcomes for
FGSOC. Thus, promoting success for FGSOC
entails creating a smoother transition intocollege, increasing engagement in bothacademic and social activities on campus,
encouraging holistic growth anddevelopment, and preparing students for ameaningful life and career after graduation(Ward et al., 2012). As noted by the researchstudies reviewed in this article and by Ward
et al. (2012), it is important for colleges to
examine their recruitment and orientation
programs, learning environments,
interactions between students and faculty,
and their beliefs and biases about students to
help FGSOC succeed on campus.

Further, there is a scarcity of research that
focuses on first-generation students who do
graduate from college and go on to start
careers (Ward et al., 2012). It is therefore
recommended that future research explores
the impact of services and collaborative
learning environments on the careerdevelopment of FGSOC, with the goal ofgaining a better understanding of the factorsthat contribute to their preparation for andexperiences of post-graduation success. For
example, it would be helpful to know more
about the experiences of FGSOC in graduate
and professional schools, as well as the steps
taken by FGSOC who become faculty
members. The lack of research related to
FGSOC translates into a lack of guidance for
institutions to follow. It would be relatively
easy to remedy this lack of guidance if
researchers included the FGSOC identity as
another demographic variable in theiranalyses. By identifying effective, evidencebased interventions and policies designed tosupport FGSOC, opportunities to achievesocially just college and career success and topromote inclusiveness will be enhanced.

Research
Based on the research currently available andreviewed in this article, it is unclear whether
or not the majority of difficulties faced by
FGSOC are related to their ethnic minority
identity, lower socioeconomic status, collegegoing generation status, or interactions
among these variables. Therefore, additional
research that examines how first-generation
status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic
status as separate and interrelated variables
may impact the mental health and academic
performance of FGSOC is needed. Moreresearch that examines various aspects of thecollege experience for FGSOC is also needed
to better understand their experience oncollege campuses, identify strategies to reduce
the occurrence of racial-ethnic
microaggressions, and increase their college

Volume 6 | August 2021 | Issue 1

Policy and PracticeConsistent with a social justice framework,
the recommendations for policy and practiceincluded in this review focus on ways that
institutions can address systemic inequities
that contribute to inadequate academic,transitional adjustment, and mental health19

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Colorencouraged to promote help-seeking to
FGSOC as a form of cultural capital (Richards,2020).

supports for FGSOC. Supporting andempowering FGSOC early and often,
beginning in the high school years, is likely to
improve their transition to college. Increasing
focused advising and mentorship for FGSOC
during the first year of college may also be
particularly important. It is essential that
institutions, specifically PWIs, hire more
faculty and staff of color and require whiteand nonminority faculty and staff to attend
training related to cultural sensitivity, such as
seminars aimed at reducing the occurrence of
racial-ethnic microaggressions. Further, given
the financial hardship faced by FGSOC,
strategies to reduce this burden, such as
tuition caps and special scholarships or
grants, are needed.

Cross-divisional collaboration is anotherpractice that could improve the experiences of
FGSOC, as the infrastructure of an institution
can greatly impact student success, retention,
and well-being (Ward et al., 2012). College
campuses are often organized in ways thatcreate separation between student affairs andacademic affairs and between staff and facultyof different disciplines, which can inhibit the
teamwork, interdisciplinary learning,support, and development of all students, and
FGSOC in particular. It is crucial for
institutions to better integrate campus offices
and departments and to implement
approaches to serving FGSOC that place
equal value on intellectual and psychosocial
development (Swecker, 2013). Such actions
would result in increased academic and social
support for FGSOC.

Addressing mental health issues andimproving overall well-being are important
for all college students. For FGSOC, it is
crucial for higher education institutions to not
only ensure that adequate social andpsychological supports are available, but toincrease access to and engagement with these
supports. For example, psychotherapists
working on college campuses should have apresence beyond the counseling center, suchas helping to develop and facilitate initiatives
directed toward the psychosocial needs of
FGSOC (Tello & Lonn, 2017). An example ofsuch an initiative would be designing andtesting a new support program that focuseson academic achievement and social
interaction within the context of being a
FGSOC (Ward et al., 2012). In addition,
instructors, staff, and administrators are

Volume 6 | August 2021 | Issue 1

Further, intentional and collaborative effort
by campus departments and organizations to
acknowledge, embrace, and empower thedifferent cultural traditions, values, and assetsof students could lead to improved learning
environments for FGSOC. Along with using
collaborative learning groups, it isrecommended that institutions host eventsand programs on campus that aim to expand
our understanding of cultural capital bypromoting acceptance and celebration of
students’ diverse identities, knowledge, skills,
and achievements. Such programs could
facilitate an increased sense of belonging and20

Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color
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