Macroprudential Policy Tools and Frameworks
Progress Report to G20

27 October 2011

Table of contents

1.

Key aspects of macroprudential policymaking..................................................................42.

Identification and monitoring of systemic risk ..................................................................5

3.

2.1.

Key methodologies ........................................................................................5

2.2.

Identifying risks in the broader financial system...........................................7

2.3.

Improving data and information to support macroprudential policymaking .8

The macroprudential policy toolkit....................................................................................9
3.1.

Country experience in the use of macroprudential instruments...................10

3.2.

International regulatory developments: new macroprudential instruments.12

3.3.
Other international regulatory developments supporting the effective
conduct of macroprudential policies........................................................................144.

Institutional arrangements and coordination of policies..................................................15

5.

International consistency in macroprudential policy .......................................................192

Macroprudential Policy Tools and Frameworks
Progress Report to G20
In November 2010, G20 Leaders “called on the FSB, IMF and BIS to do further work on
macroprudential policy frameworks, including tools to mitigate the impact of excessive
capital flows, and update Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors at their next
meeting.” They noted that “these frameworks should take into account national and regionalarrangements” and looked “forward to a joint report which should elaborate on the progressachieved in identification of best practices, which will be the basis for establishing in the
future international principles or guidelines on the design and implementation of theframeworks.”
This report responds to this call and follows an earlier update to the G20 in February 2011. It
traces the progress in implementing macroprudential policy frameworks along three broadlines: (i) advances in the identification and monitoring of systemic financial risk; (ii) the
designation and calibration of instruments for macroprudential purposes; and (iii) building
institutional and governance arrangements in the domestic and regional context. Given theinterlinkages with other spheres of public policy, the main message of the report is that
effective macroprudential frameworks require institutional arrangements and governancestructures, tailored to national circumstances, that can ensure an open and frank dialogue
among policymakers on policy choices that impact on systemic risk, resolve conflicts among
policy objectives and instruments and mobilise the right tools to limit systemic risk.
While recognising that no one size fits all, the report explores some of the common
challenges that arise in developing effective frameworks.
The report notes that although the development and implementation of macroprudential
frameworks is still at an early stage, important steps have been taken, both nationally andinternationally. In the area of systemic risk monitoring, efforts have focused on closing data
gaps and on developing better indicators and models to assess systemic risk both within andoutside the banking system (the so-called ‘shadow banking system’). There has also been
progress in developing new macroprudential tools – international agreement has been reachedon the introduction of countercyclical capital buffers and additional loss absorbency for
global systemically important banks – and in assessing the effectiveness of existing ones. On
the governance front, a number of jurisdictions have been adjusting institutionalarrangements to support macroprudential policy, and international workstreams haveexamined key characteristics of these arrangements.
That said, the report also highlights the scope for further progress. First, the identification ofsystemic risk is a nascent field. No common paradigms as yet exist. Further fundamental andapplied research is needed, not least to better inform the collection and analysis of data
underway. Second, newly introduced tools will need to be tried out in different circumstances
and their performance evaluated against expectations. Finally, many jurisdictions still lackspecific institutional arrangements for the conduct of macroprudential policy and those thathave recently introduced them will need to gather experience on their performance.

3

1.

Key aspects of macroprudential policymaking

The debate in policy circles about the definition of macroprudential policy is ongoing. Overthe past several months a number of conferences and meetings have devoted time to theseissues, to review different perspectives and identify points of convergence.1 This report
adopts the following characterisation of macroprudential policy, which outlines the main
points of agreement.
Macroprudential policy is characterised by reference to three defining elements:(i)

Its objective: to limit systemic risk – the risk of widespread disruptions to the provisionof financial services that have serious negative consequences for the economy at large.

(ii)

Its scope: the focus is on the financial system as a whole (including the interactions
between the financial and real sectors) as opposed to individual components (that takethe rest of the system as given).

(iii) Its instruments and associated governance: it uses primarily prudential tools calibrated
to target the sources of systemic risk. Any non-prudential tools that are part of theframework need to clearly target systemic risk.2
Views still vary as to whether macroprudential is a particular perspective of prudential policy
or a new policy area in its own right. At one end of the spectrum, some argue that prudential
policy (without making a distinction between micro and macro) has always sought tostrengthen the stability of the financial system as a whole. Many others emphasise that thephilosophies behind micro and macroprudential policies differ, noting the possibility ofoccasional tensions between them. The difference between these two perspectives, however,is largely semantic as long as existing prudential policy frameworks address explicitly
systemic risk, adopt a system-wide analytical perspective, and target tools at systemic risk.
Importantly, there is now a consensus that having a system-wide perspective is a fundamental
attribute of a well-specified prudential set-up. The main disagreement is on the importance ofcarving out a specific macroprudential framework.
Macroprudential policy also interacts closely with other spheres of public policy because:

Other policies have an impact on systemic risk. For example, the stance of monetary
policy can affect risk-taking incentives. Similarly, fiscal policy and public debt levels
can be an important source of vulnerability for the financial sector.



Macroprudential policy interventions, in turn, have macroeconomic effects. For
example, raising capital requirements in a credit boom may to some extent dampen
aggregate demand and, hence, influence the macroeconomic policy environment.

1This report draws inter alia on the discussions form two workshops organised by the three organisations—a High-Level
Conference in Macroprudential Policy Frameworks (Washington, 17 April 2011) and a Roundtable on Macroprudential
Frameworks and Policies (Basel, 21–22 June 2011).

2

Even this set of criteria does not eliminate all ambiguities from the scope of macroprudential policy. An obvious case inpoint relates to the role of financial infrastructure policies. A broad definition of macroprudential policy could include
such policies. However, since their importance and role in addressing systemic risk has never been questioned, thisreport focuses primarily on prudential standards (see below).

4

Given these interlinkages, effective macroprudential frameworks require institutionalarrangements and governance structures, tailored to national circumstances, that can ensure
an open and frank dialogue among policymakers on policy choices that impact on systemic
risk, resolve conflicts among policy objectives and instruments, and mobilise the right tools
to limit systemic risk.

2.

Identification and monitoring of systemic risk

Pre-emptive policy action needs mechanisms for the early identification and assessment ofsystemic risks. Substantial work is underway to develop stronger analytical tools that canhelp to identify and measure systemic risk in a forward-looking way, and thus support
improved policy judgements. The difficulty of this task should not be underestimated and thisremains very much work in progress. Our understanding of systemic risk and of the fault
lines in the structure of the financial system that makes it prone to instability or failure isincomplete. In addition, there are still important limitations in the analytical toolkit. For
instance, current models do not adequately link real and financial sectors and significant data
gaps remain. Initiatives set out below are attempting to address these limitations.
2.1.

Key methodologies

To inform and guide timely policy decisions, systemic risk measures should be able tocapture the time and cross-sectional dimensions of systemic risk. This means that they should
signal the gradual build-up of imbalances and vulnerabilities, including providing
assessments of likelihood and potential impact of shocks, but that they should also flag
concentrations of risk within the system. As a result, policymakers need to monitor a variety
of metrics, each providing a different perspective on system-wide risk.
Countries have used a wide range of indicators and models to assess systemic risks.3 National
and international efforts have redoubled in the wake of the global crisis. The main
measurement approaches can be categorized as follows:

Aggregate indicators of imbalances: These indicators use macroeconomic data orbalance sheet indicators (e.g., of bank credit, liquidity and maturity mismatch,currency risk, and sectoral or external imbalances) to signal the build-up of risks inthe financial system and the economy at large.4 Increasing attention is being paid tomeasures of leverage in the financial, household and corporate sectors. The gap
between the credit-to-GDP ratio and its long-term trend has been proposed as anindicator of systemic risk build-up in the banking system, and hence as a guide to set
the countercyclical capital buffer for banks. Measures of credit growth can becomplemented by other indicators, for example unusually rapid asset-price growth, to3This information is based on a survey conducted by the IMF in December 2010. For details of survey responses, see
IMF, Macroprudential Policy: An Organizing Framework – Background Paper, March 2011.

4

See Borio and Drehmann “Assessing the risk of banking crises – revisited,” BIS Quarterly Review, March 2009.

5

form indicators of systemic risk build-up that reflect the characteristics of individual
economies.5
Indicators of market conditions: These indicators focus on developments in financial
markets that may lead to generalised distress. They are typically observed at higher
frequencies than the aggregate indicators mentioned above and behave more likecoincident indicators of financial stress. Indicators of risk appetite (e.g., spreads, risk
premia), and of market liquidity conditions (e.g., the liquidity risk component of 3month LIBOR–OIS spreads) are used extensively in some jurisdictions.



Metrics of concentration of risk within the system: These metrics relate to the crosssectional dimension of systemic risk and focus on the channels of contagion andamplification. Beyond basic measures of size and concentration, they capture more
specifically common exposures and interconnectedness among financial institutions(including non-bank financial institutions), sectors (e.g., public and private), markets(e.g., funding and credit markets), and countries.6 For instance, network models are
increasingly used to measure interconnectedness and potential direct contagion acrossintermediaries. Standard setting bodies are also developing indicators, assessment
methodologies, and data collection processes to identify global systemically importantfinancial institutions (G-SIFIs, see below) in the banking and insurance sectors. The
indicator-based approach proposed by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision(BCBS) for the identification of global systemically important banks is a case inpoint.7



Macro stress testing: national authorities and international institutions are improving
tools to stress test the financial system as a whole. Tools that have been developed totest the resilience of individual institutions are being adapted to stress test financial
systems by augmenting the methodology in order to: (i) incorporate market dynamics
under extreme (tail-risk) scenarios and the amplification arising from network effects;and (ii) better assess the interactions between financial system distress and the real
economy, including through multi-round adverse feedback effects. The importance ofconducting top-down and bottom-up stress tests simultaneously to cross-check results
is increasingly recognized.



Integrated monitoring systems: While the metrics and approaches described above areuseful on their own, they can often be combined into comprehensive monitoring
systems (dashboards, heat maps, etc.), and sometimes into composite indicators. Thiscan provide a more coherent picture of conditions across the financial system, tailored5

The ratio of core to non-core liabilities appears to have significant predictive power (including in combination with thecredit-to-GDP ratio) for currency crises. Credit growth (the annual growth of credit-to-GDP ratio) and asset price (equity
or real estate) growth, combined, can reliably signal systemic risk build-up as early as two to four years ahead of crises.

6

Approaches include: (i) network analyses based on balance sheet cross-exposures; (ii) contingent claims analyses;(iii) joint probabilities of default and other measures of distress dependence using both equity returns and CDS spreaddata; and (iv) other market-based indicators of spill-over risks.

7

See BCBS, Global systemically important banks: assessment methodology and the additional loss absorbency
requirement, July 2011.

6

to specific domestic circumstances. Various institutions have developed or are in theprocess of developing such frameworks for the analysis of systemic risk.8
In general, the usefulness of specific metrics and indicators depends on a range of countryand context-specific factors. Hence, countries are choosing the set that is most appropriate intheir domestic circumstances and there is no single framework in use. The analysis of signals
provided by the indicators needs to take account of the broader economic context. For
example, the policy response to a credit boom would differ if strong growth is attributable toproductivity gains in the corporate sector or to a relaxation of lending standards.9
Quantitative indicators are often combined with qualitative information and intelligencegathered through regular contacts with market participants. Such information can provide
timely insight into trends and point to areas that deserve a more systematic investigation.
2.2.

Identifying risks in the broader financial system

Because of its system-wide perspective, macroprudential policy requires an ability to capture
the build-up of systemic risk also in the shadow banking system – defined broadly as ‘thesystem of credit intermediation that involves entities and activities outside the regulatedbanking system’. At the request of G20 Leaders the FSB, in collaboration with standard
setting bodies, has recently set out proposals to strengthen oversight in this area.10 Capturing
the risks in the shadow banking system may require regulatory action or even legislation to
enable collection of relevant data.
The proposals are an important component of a stronger macroprudential policy framework.
They centre on a three-step monitoring process. The first step comprises a broad review of
non-bank credit intermediation that aims to identify the main trends and areas where
additional scrutiny is warranted. In the second step, the authorities narrow down the focus
onto the areas where systemic risks are most likely to be building, by drawing on a set of‘risk factors’ that highlight incipient problems. The set may include indicators of rising
maturity and liquidity transformation, measures of increasing leverage, and signals ofimperfect credit risk transfer practices. The authorities must also be alert to signs ofregulatory arbitrage, which adds to systemic risk by undermining the effectiveness offinancial regulation. The third step involves a detailed assessment of the potential systemicrisks identified, through an analysis of the possible impact on the system as a whole of severe
distress or failure of the most vulnerable shadow banking entities and/or activities.11
In developing an enhanced monitoring framework, the authorities need to apply high level
principles that are relevant for systemic risk monitoring more broadly. In particular, it isimportant that the oversight framework be sufficiently comprehensive to assess risks to the8

For instance, the IMF has proposed, and aims to further develop, “systemic risk dashboards”. See IMF, Macroprudential
Policy: An Organizing Framework, Box 1, March 2011.

9

IMF, Global Financial Stability Report, Chapter 3, September 2011.

10

FSB, Shadow Banking: Strengthening Oversight and Regulation, October 2011.

11

The FSB has tested this framework by reviewing the latest trends in shadow banking activity, and has refined therecommendations in the light of this experience. Drawing on this enhanced monitoring framework and the lessons fromthe current review, the FSB will conduct regular annual assessments of global trends and risks from shadow banking.

7

entire financial system. Monitoring should be regular, so that nascent risks are identified intime. Ready access to the necessary data is essential and so it is important that the relevant
authorities have the requisite powers to collect information from market participants. The
monitoring system must also be flexible enough to respond to innovation and mutation in thefinancial system, not least given incentives for regulatory arbitrage. Although many features
are likely to be common across jurisdictions, the monitoring framework must also take into
account country-specific characteristics. Finally, it is vital that national authorities work
together closely and effectively to assess the potential for cross-border spillovers andcontagion of shadow banking risks, including by regularly exchanging information andassessments.
2.3.

Improving data and information to support macroprudential policymaking

The identification and availability of relevant data is critical for an effective macroprudential
policy framework. The crisis revealed major gaps in the information available to theauthorities to assess and monitor systemic risk. These gaps need to be addressed.
A number of initiatives are underway to enhance the data infrastructure and to addressmaterial gaps. In particular, progress is being made to implement the 20 recommendations in
the report “The Financial Crisis and Information Gaps” endorsed by the G20 Finance
Ministers and Governors in November 2009.12 The main aim is to create better information
on risks to the system as a whole. This calls for a clearer picture of the principal
interconnections and common exposures to shocks within the financial system.
Priorities include:13
Improving information on maturity and liquidity mismatch, and on leverage, for boththe banking and shadow banking systems.



Improving information on common risk exposures and interconnections through:o Granular information on major international banks’ main exposures to, andsources of funding from, key markets, sectors and instruments;o Consistent data on the principal bilateral exposures of the large systemicallyimportant banks and on their main individual funding providers;o Enhancements to data on sectoral balance sheets, international banking, portfolio
investment and capital flows.

Strengthening data on credit default swaps (CDS), over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives
and complex structured products, and facilitating the reporting and aggregation ofdata collected by trade repositories. Introducing a common global system to uniquely
identify parties to financial transactions is under active consideration – the so-called

12

See The Financial Crisis and Information Gaps: Implementation Progress Report, prepared by IMF staff and the FSB
secretariat, for a detailed update, June 2011. See also the October 2010 FSB consultation paper Understanding Financial
Linkages: A Common Data Template for Global Systemically Important Banks.

13

Clear timelines and project plans for the various statistical enhancements have been agreed and set out in the annual
progress reports to the G-20.

8

Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) initiative14 – to support this process and to enhance data
integrity and reporting more broadly.
Improving data for systemic risk analysis will necessitate improvements in data collection
frameworks in some cases, especially to provide the authorities with sufficient powers tocollect the requisite data. One initiative underway refers to substantial enhancements to the
BIS international banking statistics that improve their ability to capture aggregate assetliability mismatches in terms of currency and maturity profiles of internationally active
banks.15 Moreover, changes in the arrangements for information exchange may also beneeded to promote effective data sharing among key authorities, so as to strengthen theassessment of system-wide risks at the national, regional and global level. This will be
subject to the introduction of suitable arrangements to protect sensitive information, which
need to be considered carefully. A strong data governance framework is also important toensure that requests for additional data from firms are integrated to minimise compliancecosts, that there are clear policies governing access and data sharing, and that data aremaintained to a suitable standard.
One objective of improved data collection is to provide additional information on systemwide risks to market participants by suitable aggregation and publication. Strengthening
disclosures at the firm level on a consistent basis should also help systemic risk analysis andfinancial market functioning.16
As the financial system innovates and adapts so must the collection of data and information.
Developing new analytical tools for systemic risk may well also require further changes in
information and data needs over time. Because producing data is costly, it is important thatnew requests are justified on cost-benefit grounds. In addition, while better data are an
essential component of the macroprudential toolkit, they are not a substitute for strong
analysis and good policy judgment.

3.

The macroprudential policy toolkit

Developing an effective macroprudential policy framework requires identifying anddeveloping a set of policy tools and operational guidelines for their use, including for theircalibration. Operational guidelines should ideally include effective mechanisms to solve
coordination problems and risks of arbitrage, not least internationally. As prudential tools are
the key instrument in the framework, where tensions exist between their use from a micro andmacroprudential perspective, mechanisms need to be in place to assess and ensure theirconsistency.
There is as yet no widely agreed and comprehensive theoretical framework for the optimal
choice and calibration of macroprudential policy tools. And while progress is being made in a

14

The FSB held a workshop in September 2011 to discuss the issues that will need to be addressed by financial regulatorsand industry to establish such an LEI.

15

For a description of these enhancements see BIS, Annual Report, Chapter VI, June 2011.

16

See Thematic review on risk disclosure practices, FSB, March 2011.

9number of areas, it is still too early to provide a definite assessment of the set ofmacroprudential tools that will prove most useful further down the road – in part because
financial innovation and change within the financial system will give rise to new risks in due
course. Flexibility is therefore required in national regimes and legislation to enable thislearning process to take place – acknowledging, of course, that optimal choices are likely to
be partly country- and context-specific.
While a broad range of policy instruments is potentially available to address macroprudential
risks, those most commonly used or proposed include:(i)tools to address threats to financial stability arising from excessive credit expansion andasset price booms, particularly in real estate markets, both residential and commercial(e.g., dynamic capital buffers, dynamic provisions, loan-to-value (LTV) and debt
service-to-income (DTI) ratios), but also the terms and conditions of transactions inwholesale financial markets (e.g., margins);(ii)

tools to address key amplification mechanisms of systemic risk linked to leverage (e.g.,capital tools) and maturity mismatches (e.g., market and funding liquidity tools),
including adjustments to take into account the prominent role played by ballooning
intra-financial system exposures in the run-up to the current crisis (e.g., risk weights orlimits on intra-financial system exposures); and(iii) tools to mitigate structural vulnerabilities in the system and limit systemic spillovers intimes of stress, such as additional loss absorbing capacity for SIFIs. Disclosure
requirements that target common exposures, common risk factors andinterconnectedness (rather than the risk profiles of individual institutions on a standalone basis), and specific requirements for SIFIs in the context of effective resolution
framework are also key supportive instruments in this area.
Infrastructure policies (robust payment and settlement systems, including CCPs; trading
infrastructures, etc.) are systemic by definition and have always been a core policy strand,
well before the crisis. Measures to enhance robustness of financial market infrastructure canhelp especially helpful in addressing the cross sectional dimension of systemic risk, and areconsidered complementary macroprudential tools for the purposes of this report, which
focuses on changes in prudential standards.
What follows describes how these tools have been used so far, first focusing on experience
with tools employed purely at the national level, and then turning to those that have been
agreed or proposed at the international level.
3.1.

Country experience in the use of macroprudential instruments

An IMF survey of country practices reveals that a number of countries have used policy
instruments (mainly prudential) to address aspects of systemic risk for quite some time. The
recent crisis has prompted more countries to use such instruments, with a growing emphasison rapid asset growth and the build-up of leverage. The macroprudential instruments mostcommonly employed are reported in Box 1. As noted above, the nature of the tools alone is
not sufficient to characterise them as macroprudential. They also need to have a systemicorientation in terms of objective, calibration and governance.

10

Work by the IMF on the application of instruments designed to address the time dimension ofsystemic risk highlights how the choice is clearly influenced by country- and context-specificfactors. These include, for instance, the degree of financial development, the type of balancesheet vulnerabilities (such as the composition of liabilities, including cross-border), theexchange rate regime and the prevailing sources of risk. Nevertheless, the diversity ofcountry experiences points to some common features:17
Box 1. Commonly used macroprudential instruments
Tools to address threats from excessive credit expansion in the system
 Time-varying capital requirements (e.g., risk weights)
 Dynamic provisions
 Ceilings on credit or credit growth Caps, possibly time-varying, on loan-to-value (LTV) ratio Caps, possibly time-varying, on debt service-to-income (DTI) ratio Minimum, possibly time varying, margin requirements
 Reserve requirements
Tools to address key amplification mechanisms of systemic risk
 Limits on maturity mismatches Caps on foreign currency lending Limits on net open currency positions or mismatches Levy on non-core funding
Tools to mitigate structural vulnerabilities and limit spillovers from stress Additional loss absorbency related to systemic importance Disclosure policy for markets and institutions targeting systemic risk
 Resolution requirements for SIFIs

17



The instruments are often used in combination (e.g., some countries have varied LTV
and DTI ratios jointly to tame real estate booms). The use of multiple instruments has
advantages (it provides greater assurances of effectiveness by addressing different
sources of risk) but may be difficult to coordinate and also harder to communicate
than single tools.

Instruments to address excessive credit expansion in the system tend to target specifictypes of exposure, such as real estate (see next bullet). Differentiation by currency has
been used in jurisdictions where growth in foreign currency-denominated lending wasof concern. The flexibility of a more tailored and targeted approach is self-evident,
but there are also limitations. For example, it requires more granular data, has higher
administrative costs, may be more susceptible to circumvention and, if taken too far,could inadvertently result in intrusive credit allocation.

See Lim, Columba, Costa, Kongsamut, Otani, Saiyid, Wezel and Wu, Macroprudential Policy: What Instruments and
How to Use Them? Lessons from Country Experiences, IMF working paper, October 2011. See also Borio,“Implementing a Macroprudential Framework: Blending Boldness and Realism,” Keynote address for the BIS-HKMA
conference on Financial Stability: Towards a Macroprudential Approach, 5–6 July 2010.

11

To contain the risk of unsustainable real estate booms, a number of jurisdictions havetaken actions to restrict mortgage credit. In addition to LTV and DTI (sometimes
applied based on loan size and property value), other instruments include, forinstance, changing the terms on mortgage insurance.18

Calibrations are often based on discretion and judgment rather than rules, althoughsome countries have used rule-based instruments. While rules have merits – they canhelp to overcome policy inertia, enhance accountability, and create greater certainty
for the industry – designing them may be difficult, especially when multiple
instruments are being used in combination. This is why rules are often complemented
with discretion.

While the effectiveness of macroprudential instruments is difficult to assess empirically,
country experiences can help shed some light. In particular, the empirical literaturetentatively supports in some cases the effectiveness of macroprudential tools in dampening
procyclicality, notably LTV and DTI caps to tame real estate booms,19 but also ceilings on
credit or credit growth, reserve requirements, and dynamic provisioning. The effectivenessdoes not seem to depend on the stage of economic development or type of exchange rate
regime, suggesting that macroprudential instruments can potentially be useful in a wide rangeof countries.
Some countries have used macroprudential instruments to address financial stability risks
associated with large capital inflows. Tools in this category would typically, but not always,
differentiate transactions on the basis of currency, and may include for example higher capitalcharges, tighter LTV and DTI ratios, and restrictions on foreign currency mismatch.
Residency-based capital flow management measures (often referred to as capital controls),
however, are not per se macroprudential instruments as they typically have macroeconomic
objectives. In some countries, though, the introduction of capital controls was primarily
motivated by the desire to address systemic vulnerabilities associated with rapid domestic
credit growth that was fuelled by capital inflows, making a classification difficult in thesecases.
3.2.

International regulatory developments: new macroprudential instruments

In response to the financial crisis, the international community has agreed on new instruments
designed to address the time and cross-sectional dimensions of systemic risk.
Concerning the time-dimension of systemic risk, the Basel III framework puts in place threeelements to address procyclicality: a maximum leverage ratio, a capital conservation buffer
and a countercyclical capital buffer. This last element, in particular, is designed to accumulate
capital in boom times, when systemic risk builds up, so that it can be used when risksmaterialise, thereby acting as a stabiliser during both the expansion and contraction phases of18

The FSB is developing mortgage underwriting principles that should provide for more prudent property valuations,hence give more teeth to tools based on LTV and debt servicing ratios (as banks can be unduly optimistic in respect of
the “V” or the value of the property).

19

See in particular Crowe, Dell’Ariccia, Igan and Rabanal, How to Deal with Real Estate Booms: Lessons from Country
Experiences, IMF Working Paper 11/91, April 2011.

12

the financial cycle.20 National authorities activate the countercyclical capital buffer when theyjudge that vulnerabilities are building up. The deviation of the credit-to-GDP ratio from its
long term trend, a signal of build-up of imbalances in the banking system, can act as a guideto activate the buffer.21 Authorities would then release the buffer based on incipient signs ofstrains, such as aggregate losses or tighter credit terms. In both the build-up and release phaseof the buffer, the exercise of judgment remains critical. Implementation features specificallyaddress the potential for cross-border spillovers and arbitrage: the jurisdictional reciprocity
principle is designed to protect banks from credit cycles outside the home country, andaddresses incentive challenges to circumvention.22 It represents an important step towards
achieving a better coordination between home and host authorities in the deployment ofmacroprudential tools, and might serve as a model for international coordination ofmacroprudential policies more generally.
Additionally, the CGFS has recommended for consideration by the relevant standard-setters aseries of policy options for haircuts and margining practices aimed at limiting the build-up ofleverage in good times and soften the system-wide impact of deleveraging (including firesales) during a market downturn. The recommendations aim to promote margining practices
that are relatively stable across the cycle and calibrated to include periods of stressed market
conditions, thereby reducing financial system procyclicality. A number of theserecommendations are being implemented, some by inclusion in the Basel III accord, andsome in various jurisdictions in connection with ongoing work on OTC derivatives markets(see below).
Concerning the cross-sectional dimension of systemic risk, the policy development on criticalparts of the FSB’s framework to address the risks posed by SIFIs has now been finalised. It
includes: (i) a methodology for assessing the global systemic importance of banks based on
five broad sets of indicators (size, interconnectedness, lack of substitutes, cross-jurisdictional
activity and complexity); (ii) additional loss absorbency capacity for banks that is in line withthe degree of global systemic importance; (iii) a new international standard for resolution
regimes and additional measures to improve the authorities’ capacity to resolve SIFIs;23 and(iv) measures for more intensive and effective supervision.24
20

The buffer must be made up of to Common Equity Tier 1 (CET 1) and fully loss-absorbing capital and ranges from 0 to
2.5% of risk-weighted assets, but national authorities can implement a buffer in excess of 2.5% if deemed appropriate intheir national context. The build-up of the buffer is encouraged through restrictions on capital distributions.

21

For a discussion, see BCBS, Guidance for national authorities operating the countercyclical capital buffer, December
2010, and for analysis, see Drehmann, Borio, Gambacorta, Jimenez and Trucharte “Countercyclical capital buffers:
exploring options” BIS Working Paper 317, July 2010.

22

The principle requires that banks with credit exposures to several jurisdictions hold a buffer that reflects the compositionof a bank’s domestic and international exposures; the host authority activates the buffer for the international exposures,and the home authority has the option of imposing a higher buffer but should not impose a lower one.

23

Effective resolution frameworks reduce moral hazard and ex ante risk taking and therefore support macroprudential
objectives. The framework for SIFI resolution has four building blocks: (i) strengthened national resolution regimes;(ii) cross-border cooperation arrangements; (iii) improved recovery and resolution plans by financial institutions; and(iv) resolvability assessments.

24

BCBS, Global systemically important banks: Assessment methodology and the additional loss absorbency requirement consultative document, July 2011; and FSB, Effective Resolution of Systemically Important Financial Institutions,
Recommendations and Timelines, July 2011. A similar methodology is being developed for insurance companies; work
will begin to extend the SIFI policy framework to other global SIFIs as well as to domestic SIFIs.

13

Given that they seek to limit the systemic risk posed by SIFIs, some elements of the SIFI
framework can be thought of as macroprudential tools. These include the additional loss
absorbency requirements for systemic institutions and the potential deployment bysupervisory authorities of measures to address overly complex organizational structures basedon resolvability assessments and the feasibility of recovery and resolution plans. In addition,
the framework can serve as a useful starting point for dealing with domestic systemicallyimportant financial institutions. For example, national authorities could refer to international
requirements and develop country-specific prudential requirements for their domestic SIFIs
based on national country-specific circumstances and sources of risk.
To promote effective implementation of the SIFI framework by national authorities, a Peer
Review Council for global SIFIs will be established. The objective is to ensure that thesources of systemic risk related to interconnectedness or correlated exposures are addressedin a globally consistent manner, and that adequate attention is given to level playing field
considerations.
3.3.

Other international regulatory developments supporting the effective conduct ofmacroprudential policies

Other policy developments are also intended to strengthen the functioning of the financial
system and support the effectiveness of macroprudential policy, in both its time and crosssectional dimensions. In particular, structural policies that promote robust market operations
and resilient market infrastructures are aimed at reducing the risks associated withinterconnectedness and contagion. If properly designed, these policies can also limit
procyclicality. More generally, they provide tools that facilitate more effective monitoringand managing of systemic risk. The performance of macroprudential frameworks depends
crucially on how well structural policies are designed.
International work is well underway to strengthen financial market infrastructures andimprove market practices. CPSS and IOSCO have recently published a consultative report on
harmonised principles for financial market infrastructures, covering payment systems, central
securities depositories, securities settlements systems and central counterparties (CCPs),
including guidance on trade repositories.25 This work is aimed at reinforcing oversight andregulation of CCPs and other core financial market infrastructures. Efforts are also continuing
to implement the 2010 FSB recommendations designed to promote international consistency
in the commitments to standardisation, central clearing, and organised platform trading, andreporting to trade repositories of OTC derivatives contracts.26 Other areas of analysis aimed atbest configurations of financial market infrastructures to address systemic risk or addressing
potential unintended consequences for systemic stability of market or regulatory
developments are the following: central bank liquidity access for CCPs; macrofinancial
implications of alternative CCP access configurations; international standards on margining

25

CPSS-IOSCO, Principles for Financial Market Infrastructures – Consultative Report, March 2011.

26

Work is in progress to assess obstacles to implementation and differences in approaches that could weaken theeffectiveness of the reforms in these markets, create potential opportunities for regulatory arbitrage, or subject market
participants and infrastructures to conflicting requirements.

14requirements for non-centrally cleared OTC derivatives; review of the securitisation
framework (including calibration, reliance on ratings and identifying arbitrage opportunities);
development of recommendations on re-launching sound securitisation markets.
With respect to shadow banking activities (see Section 2.2), policy measures are being
developed to better ensure that economically similar financial activities are regulated in asimilar way, whatever form they take. The FSB is currently developing recommendations tostrengthen the regulation and oversight of the shadow banking system, including proposed
work plans on (i) regulation of banks’ interactions with shadow banking entities (indirect
regulation); (ii) regulatory reform of MMFs; (iii) the regulation of other shadow banking
entities; (iv) regulation of securitisation; and (v) regulation of securities lending/repos.

4.

Institutional arrangements and coordination of policies

Institutional arrangements for macroprudential policymaking should be conducive toeffective mitigation of systemic risk. This involves several aspects: having a clear objective;
providing incentives and tools for authorities to act commensurate with that objective;
supporting accountability and transparency of decisions; and ensuring effective coordination
across policy areas that have a bearing on financial stability.
There is a wide variation in national institutional designs. A number of factors influence theapproaches adopted. In particular, institutional frameworks draw extensively on pre-existing
coordination arrangements and may serve additional objectives in such areas as crisis
management and financial sector development.27
A useful way of reviewing the existing institutional design of macroprudential policy is bydiscussing a set of common elements: (i) mandate; (ii) powers and instruments;(iii) accountability and transparency mechanisms; (iv) composition of the decision-making
body; and (v) arrangements for domestic policy coordination. The rest of this section draws
on current and planned institutional arrangements to highlight how each of these issues arebeing approached in different jurisdictions.
MandateViews currently differ on the case for an explicit mandate for macroprudential policy. Less
than half of the jurisdictions surveyed by the IMF stated that they had a specific (formal)
macroprudential mandate in place at the time of the response. A review of financial stability
law in various countries by a BIS Committee Report examining central bank governance andfinancial stability found that a statutory foundation for such a mandate is even lesscommon.28 Many jurisdictions are in the process of developing such mandates while someothers do not intend to do so.

27

A recent IMF study explores stylized institutional models to identify relative strengths and weaknesses. Nier, Osiński,Jácome and Madrid, Towards Effective Macroprudential Policy Frameworks – An Assessment of Stylized Institutional
Models, IMF working paper, October 2011.

28

BIS, Central Bank Governance and Financial Stability, May 2011 (‘Ingves report’).

15

Those in favour of developing macroprudential mandates, beyond generic financial stability
ones, point to the merits of providing clear objectives, responsibilities, and powers for theagency (or agencies) involved in macroprudential policy. A formal mandate can improve theclarity of decision making, help contain the incentives for inaction, and avoid policy paralysis
when views differ. To be sure, some note the challenges of writing explicit mandates given
the difficulties in defining the policy goal precisely. But others observe that the lack of aquantifiable goal for macroprudential policy need not be a major problem, since many otherfields of public policy face similar challenges.
Powers and instruments
The recent IMF macroprudential survey suggests that emerging frameworks highlight theimportance of information collection and decision-making powers. The power to request
information directly from private firms is critical when relevant information is not readily
available to the macroprudential authority through other means. When information is alreadycollected through other reporting channels (e.g., regulatory returns, on-site examinations, orinformation from payment and settlement system operators), the framework typically governs
the access rights for the macroprudential authority. The arrangements for sharing thisinformation are often complex, as some may be confidential and market sensitive.
Powers to communicate risk warnings and to recommend or direct the adjustment ofregulatory instruments are quite common in existing and emerging frameworks. Examples
include the ability to issue non-binding recommendations to other authorities—as established
for the ESRB in the European Union, the Financial System Stability Council (FSSC) in
Mexico, the Financial Policy Committee (FPC) in the United Kingdom, and the Financial
Stability Oversight Council (FSOC) in the United States. The recommendations are often
subject to a “comply or explain” mechanism (e.g., in EU, UK and US), sometimes
strengthened by an ability (or requirement) to publish recommendations.
Powers to set and adjust instruments directly are most common where the macroprudential
mandate and control over instruments fall under the same authority (such as a central bankserving as financial services supervisor). Mechanisms to assign specific instruments to a new
macroprudential body (e.g., a committee) are also being developed in some cases but remainless common.29 Where responsibility for the operation of the new macroprudential tools
remains ill-defined, clear assignments will be needed. For example, the smooth operation of
the countercyclical buffer in Basel III calls for such an assignment.
Accountability arrangements
An institutional design challenge is to establish accountability in the absence of an easilymeasurable metric of success. This challenge is often compounded by the presence ofmultiple agencies in macroprudential policymaking that may differ in their primaryobjectives. The case for clear accountability arrangements is strengthened given that ‘costs’of macroprudential measures (restrictions on certain activities) are felt immediately while

29

Under the new UK arrangements, the FPC will be able to issue binding directions on specific macroprudential
instruments (still to be determined).

16‘benefits’ (lower incidence of financial distress) accrue over the long-term and are hard tomeasure. In turn, this asymmetry between the visibility and time profile of costs and benefits
puts a premium on ensuring that the authorities in charge of macroprudential policy enjoy thenecessary degree of insulation from pressures linked to the political cycle.
Transparency and clear communication of policy decisions to the public are central elementsof accountability and have been embraced in a number of countries. This can include ex ante
statements of strategy, publication of records of meetings, Financial Stability Reports andannual performance statements with an ex post assessment of policy effectiveness.
In many cases accountability is also to Parliament. For example, the EU establishes
accountability for the ESRB to the European Parliament. In the UK, the FPC’s Financial
Stability Report will be laid before Parliament and meeting minutes will be published. The
US structure combines both strong reporting requirements to Congress and FSOC members’
obligation to individually attest that they believe that the proper actions are being taken to
support financial stability.
Composition of the decision-making body
In many countries, especially when the number of relevant authorities is large,
macroprudential policy is conducted through committee arrangements. The creation of suchcommittees is most obviously desirable when multiple bodies have a financial stability
mandate, or where there is separation between bodies with decision-making and policy
implementation powers. Inter-agency committees can bring together different perspectives on
the sources of systemic risk and the potential for regulatory arbitrage, as well as identifying
the most appropriate tools (which may be housed in different agencies).
However, different domestic circumstances often lead to different institutional arrangements
across countries, recognizing that it is important to capitalise on existing institutions andgovernance structures if they are working well. For instance, informal arrangements may beeffective when a small group of agencies is involved.
Central banks are always represented and often play a leading role. This reflects both theirexperience and expertise in the assessment of financial and macroeconomic developments aswell as their role in payment systems and as lender of last resort. The recently released Ingves
report discusses the way in which central banks fulfil their macroprudential functions
alongside their other roles. The central bank may have clear responsibility for both
macroprudential and microprudential policy (as in Malaysia and, prospectively, the UK), or
account for a large share of the votes in the committee (as in the ESRB). In the US
arrangements, the Federal Reserve is one of 10 voting members of the FSOC, but it ischarged with the regulation of systemically important banks and non-bank financial
institutions, as designated by FSOC.
The role of the finance ministry is more diverse in current frameworks. In part this may
reflect differences in national legal frameworks as well as in the range of objectives assigned
to inter-agency committees – which may extend beyond limiting the build-up of systemic risk

17and into crisis management and other responsibilities.30 Finance ministries are often involved
in setting objectives and priorities for macroprudential policy, and have an important role ifchanges in legislation are expected to be needed to mitigate systemic risk, for instance withrespect to expanding the perimeter of regulation. A possible risk associated with a central
involvement of finance ministries in the operation of macroprudential frameworks is areduced degree of insulation from pressures linked to the political cycle.
Regulatory and supervisory agencies play a key role in macroprudential policy by adjusting
the prudential tools under their control to meet macroprudential objectives, and byintensifying microprudential supervision in particular of systemic institutions. The role ofsecurities and market conduct regulators in monitoring and addressing systemic risk in capital
markets should also be recognised. Such regulators, through their traditional focus ontransparency and disclosure, are well placed to work towards an appropriate flow of
information to market participants, investors and other regulators, and can also play a role via
their direct authority over a wide cross-section of market participants (especially in terms ofbusiness conduct), financial market infrastructures, and trading venues and via their market
surveillance function.31
Mechanisms for domestic policy coordination and consistency
Coordination mechanisms need to recognise that no matter how different policy mandates are
structured, financial stability – and in particular the mitigation of systemic risk – is a common
responsibility, given the far reaching consequences of financial crises. An essential functionof any institutional arrangement is therefore to promote coherence in the application of allpolicies that have a bearing on financial stability.
Committee-type arrangements can help to address possible frictions between the objectives ofdifferent policies, promoting the resolution of conflicts. For example, tension may arise overwhen to draw countercyclical buffers down. From a countercyclical point of view,supplementary buffers built during an upswing should be released in a downturn, to reduce
impediments to the flow of credit to the economy, but banking supervisors, wearing a
microprudential hat, may prefer to keep an increased capital buffer to guard against
heightened risks to individual institutions. In such circumstances, it is important that there bea clear assignment of decision-making responsibilities and explicit mechanisms to resolve thetensions involved.
Although monetary and fiscal policies remain formally outside the macroprudential policy
framework, there are nevertheless potential benefits in coordinating these and other policies
with macroprudential policy. Policy coordination typically relies on the overlapping
membership of policy committees.
30

Finance ministries have traditionally played a strong role in committees with a role in crisis management, given their
responsibility over the use of public funds. For instance, the US Secretary of the Treasury has veto power overemergency measures that might involve public money.

31

The IOSCO Objectives and Principles of Securities Regulation (July 2010) were recently revised to enhance the focus on
systemic risk as one of the three key objectives of securities regulation, together with investor protection and ensuringthat markets are fair, efficient and transparent. See also IOSCO Technical Committee, Mitigating Systemic Risk. A Rolefor Securities Regulators (February 2011).

18

Coordination arrangements also need to recognise that macroprudential policy clearly cannot
be a substitute for sound macroeconomic policy. Monetary and fiscal policies need tocontinue to focus on correcting macroeconomic imbalances, with macroprudential policy
focused on ensuring that systemic risk is well-contained. Such a clear division of labour helps
protect the independence arrangements for monetary policy that are needed for maintaining
price stability.
These issues are particularly important for jurisdictions where the macroeconomic andfinancial stability consequences of surges in capital inflows can be difficult to manage.
Countries have been using a range of policy measures to address these challenges, including
macroeconomic policies (e.g., exchange rate appreciation, fiscal tightening and foreignexchange intervention). Macroprudential policies have also been used to address financial
stability risks associated with capital inflows (see section 3.1), but their effectiveness will
depend on the coordinated and coherent use of different policy tools, notably soundmacroeconomic policies.32

5.

International consistency in macroprudential policy

Because of the close integration of global capital markets and the high risks of spillovers andregulatory arbitrage, it is important to consider the multilateral aspects of macroprudential
policymaking. Cooperation on macroprudential policies requires (i) strong institutional
mechanisms to promote a common understanding of threats to global financial stability andadequate policy actions; and (ii) steps to ensure that macroprudential frameworks inindividual countries are mutually consistent.
In the area of system-wide global monitoring, significant progress is already being made.
International efforts include those of the FSB Standing Committee on Assessment ofVulnerabilities, the IMF’s regular bilateral and multilateral surveillance, the IMF-FSB Early
Warning Exercise, the G20 Mutual Assessment Process, and various workstreams at the BIS,
notably the regular monitoring by the CGFS that informs regular discussions among central
bank Governors. These efforts focus on the identification of common exposures, risk
concentrations and interlinkages within and across financial systems, and of the build-up of
macroeconomic and financial imbalances, both domestically and globally.
Some progress is also being made towards the international consistency of national
macroprudential frameworks. A key concern is that macroprudential tools may create thepotential for cross-border regulatory arbitrage. The principle of reciprocity embedded in the
new BCBS countercyclical capital buffer, and the FSB’s arrangements for global SIFIs, bothof which are described above, provide useful examples of how to address the cross-border
aspects of macroprudential policies. Effective coordination mechanisms and/or instrument
design features would also be needed in those instances in which specific macroprudential
tools are used in response to sources of vulnerabilities that impact across national32

See conclusions of the G20 International Monetary System Sub-Working Group on Capital Flow Management. For the
IMF’s views see IMF, The Fund’s Role Regarding Cross-Border Capital Flows, November 2010; and IMF, Recent
Experiences in Managing Capital Inflows—Cross-Cutting Themes and Possible Guidelines, February 2011.

19

jurisdictions. However, the goal of limiting spillovers and arbitrage has to be balanced
against the aim of providing jurisdictions sufficient flexibility to tailor policies to national
financial conditions and circumstances. It must also not subordinate the need for countries toact when required. A clear lesson from the crisis is that the largest spillovers occur whencountries fail to act promptly to head off problems – given the interconnectedness of the
global banking system, systemic risk in one country can rapidly become a problem for othercountries.
Coordination in other areas that are supportive of macroprudential goals, such as for instancestrengthening financial infrastructure, is also important to ensure international consistency
and avoid regulatory arbitrage across jurisdictions.
Further international guidance on macroprudential policy frameworks would support
international consistency. Progressing toward such guidance will be a gradual process. As
highlighted earlier, there is more to be learned on designing and implementing
macroprudential tools to address identified systemic stress in a national context. At theinternational level, these challenges are compounded by the need to better understand thechannels of international transmission of risks and financial instability, and the interactions
between domestic and global stability. Further work will also be needed on the interactions
between macroprudential and other policies (notably monetary policy), and on the effects of
exchange rate arrangements, tax provisions, and different levels of international financial
integration, on the desirable degree of coordination across countries.

20