DOCUMENT NESONEBC 102 460

ID 145 66i.
AUTHORTITLE

INSTITUTIONSPONS AGENCY

PUB DATENOTEEDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

Kline, Donald F.
Child Abuse and Neglect: A Primer for School
Personnel.
Council for Exceptional Children, Reston, Va.
Information Services and Publications.
National Inst. of Education (DREW), Washington,
D.C.
77
58p.

MF-$0.83 Plus Postage. BC Not Available from EDRS.
Check Lists; *Child Abuse; Definitions; Early
Childhood Education; Elementary Secondary Educatiob;
Etiology; *Guidelines; *Identification; Incidence;
Legal Responsibility; *Neglected Children; Parent
Child Relationship; Parent Bole; *Prevention; School
Policy; *School Responsibility; Teacher
Responsibility; *Teacher Role

ABSTRACT

Intended for such school personnel as teachers,
administrators, school board emb:rs, school bus drivers, cafeteria
workers, and parent-teacher organizations, the volume provides basic
information on child abuse and neglect. Sections cover the following
topics: child abuse and neglect as an historical phenomenon, causes(including characteristics of abusers), incidence, legal andprofessional responsibilities of school personnel, definitions ofchild abuse and neglect, identification (covering physical abuse,neglect, sexual molestation, revealing parental behaviors, revealing
children's behaviors, and emotional maltreatment), guidelines forschool policies, reporting procedures (including a sample reportform), approaches to primary prevention, and a checklist for rating
school involvement. Appended are a concept analysis model of theabused child a flow chart of school personnel reporting procedures,
and a glossary of approximately 50 terms related to child abuse andneglect. (IN)*************************************************#********************#
Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished* materials not availableefrOm other sources. ERIC makes every effort ** to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal ** reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality *** of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC sakes available* via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). EDRS is not* responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions *** supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original.
***********************************************************************

C)
4:1
111

.1*

Child Abuse and Neglect:
U s DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.

gm"'

EDUCATIONS WELFARENOTIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEluED FROMDONALD F. KUNE THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN-

ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE.
SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE ')F
EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICYThe Council for Exceptional Children

A Primer for
SchoolPersonnel"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

MATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLY
HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

Donald F. Kline

2

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER IERIC AND
USERS OF THE ERIC SYSTEM "A product of the ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted Children.

Published in 1977 by The Council for Exceptional Children, 1920 1.ssociation Drive,
Reston, Virginia 22091

Library of Congress Number 77-89278

The material in this publication was prepared pursuant to a contract with the National Institute of
Education. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Contractors undertaking such projects
under government sponsorship are er.cou raged to express freely their Judgment in professional andtechnical matters Prior to publication the manuscript was submitted to The Council for Exceptional
Children for critical review and determination of professional competence. This publication has met
such standards. Points of view, however, do not necessarily represent the official viewor opinions ofeither The Council for Exceptional Children or the National Institute of Education.
Printed in the United States of America,)0Contents
introduction

1

Child Abuse and Neglect:
A Phenomenon,of Mankind's Existence4

Causes of Child Abuse and Neglect

7

Incidence of Child Abuse and Neglect

9Legal and Professional Responsibilities

11

Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect

14

Recognizing the Problem: Identification

17

School Policies

26

Reporting Procedures and, Report Form

31

Primary Prevention

35

School Quality Checklist for Appropriate
Involvement in Child Abuse and Neglect

37

Summary and Concluding Statement

40-

Appendix A: A Concept Analysis of the Abused Child

41

Appendix B: Flow Chart of School Personnel
Reporting Procedures

46

Glossary of Terms

48

References

51

4

About the Author
Donald F. Kline, Ph.D., is Professor and Head, Department of Special
Education, Utah State University, Logan. He knows education from theperspective of the classroom, the university, the stateboard of education,and the US Office of Education. In teaching, administrative, consultant,and supervisory roles, Dr. Kline has worked in Nebraska, MissoUri, Idaho,
Utah, and Washington, DC. He has edited a series of teaching guides for F.
E. COmpton and Company of Chicago. For the Bureau of Education for theHandicapped, Dr. Kline and his colleagues, Dr. Mark Hopper, Dr. James
Christiansen, Steve Krantz, and Lionel Brady, wrote an integration of theresearch related to child abuse. He and his colleagues also reported on therelationship between abuse and neglect and children handicapped as aresult of child abuse. Major findings of the research include the fact that a
preponderantly large number of sexually abused children are in special

education classes for the emotionally disturbed, and conversely, high,incidences of retardation, neurological problems, and impaired emotional functioning are found among physically abused children.
Dr. Kline's work in this area has led him to believe that academic andpersonality deficits resulting from abuse and neglect tend to become
more severe with the passage of time, and social and psychologicalproblems continue long after the physical evidence of abuse or neglecthas vanished.

5

Introduction
American educational systems and'educational personnel can no longer
avoid involvement in the growing problem of child abuse and neglect.
History records that when society becomes sufficiently aware of a majorsocial concern, it turns to the schools for solutions. The schools are theone institution that touches the lives of many adults and has more contact
over longer periods of time than any other social structure except thehome. The schools have a significant impact upon the lives of all who hive

not attained an age that exempts them from the state's compulsory
education laws.
Even though the medical, legal, and social welfare aspects of child abuse
and neglect have dominated both the professional and popular literature,
it is becoming increasingly apparent that both primary and secondary
prevention of child abuse and neglect is a socioeducational problem.
While the schools should not be expected to provide solutions to all of
the social, economic, andtultural variables that clearly impinge upon theenvironments wnere child abuse and neglect appear to bemost preva-

lent, they can provide some measure of primary prevention throughinstruction on appropriate parenting behaviors and knowledge of child
growth and development. They can also provide a substantial measure ofsecondary prevention by identifying abused and neglected children at an
early stage and soliciting the assistance of other institutions and agencies
in preventing the recurrence of abusive and neglectful behaviors on thepart of parents or other caretakers.
Recent legislative trends have left educators with only two basic alter-

natives: to develop policies and programs dealing with the problem ofchild abuse and neglect or to wait until policies are imposed through legislative or funding requirements. In short, education 'must either act orreact,An example of the legislative and funding requirements already
imposed is the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (Public Law
93-247y. This act illustrates the imminence of education's choice to act or
to react.

6

To qualify for funding under the act, a state or its political subdivisions
must meet several specific requirements. At least three of the requirements in the e:,isting legislation directly involve education:

1. The state must have administrative procedures, trained personnel,
training procedures, institutional and other facilities, and multidisciplinary programs and services sufficient to assure that child abuse andneglect are reported.
_.-

Note: All states have mandatory reporting laws, and 36 specificallyname teachers, school administrators, or other school personnel
among those required to report suspected cases of -hild abuse andneglect.

2. The state must provide for cooperation among law enforcement
officials, courts of competent jurisdiction, and all appropriate stateagencies providing human services for the prevention, treatment, andidentification of child.abuse and neglect.
_

Note: The schools are institutions that provide human services, andagain, the requirement of identification dearly involves schools andschool personnel.

3. The state must provide for public dissemination of information on
child abuse and neglect. as well as list facilities and prevention andtreatment methods available to combat this problem.

Note: Whenever a state is charged with disseminating information,
sooner or later the schools almost always become involved.
Another indicator of society's increasing demand that schools become
involved is seeptin the rules and regulations of state and federal agencies.
Personnel engaged in the operation of Head Start programs, for examples ,ate required by fderal regulation to report child abuse and neglect.
Some workers in the field of child abuse and neglect argue that these regulations are redundant since state laws already require such a report. It
should be remembered, however, that state laws focus on professionalgroups and institutions, and failure to report a case of child abuse orneglect is i misdemeanor offense. However, failure to comply with afederal regulation carries the threat of loss of funds for the program.
If further evidence of society's interest in involving schools is required,it can be safely predicted that all local education agencies complying with
the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, Public Law 94-142, willundoubtedly find abused and neglected children as their "child find"programs become fully operational since research has establishedia clear

relationship between handicapping conditions and child .abuse. Whilecause-effect relationships are still to be established, there is no question
about the coexistence of these phenomena.
lazti
Leading workers in the field of child abuse and neglect will applaud this2

unexpected benefit of Public Law 94-142 when it begins to occur since
they have long sought ways of providing services to children who have noaccess to society from the time they leave the hospital after birth until they
become school age. If parents fail to take advantage of-private or publichealtkservices and programs, such as well baby clinics, the child's first
access to society may be denied until the age of compulsory school
attendance. Unfortunately, those preschool children most urgently inneed of services are often the least likely to receive them.
Even though re:7onsible and knowledgeable writers have called for asignificantly greater involvement of the schools in the area of child abuse
and neglect (Ferro, 1975; Shanas, 1975; Education Commission of theStates, 1976), available reSearch-siiggests that personnel currently staffing
the schools are not adequately trained for such an increased involvement(Riddle, 1975).
To make matters worse Report No. 99 of the Education Commission of

the StateS (1977) presented' data leading to the conclusion that teacher
preparatiOn institutions are providing only superficial instruction in thearea of child abuse and neglect.

'"---,:. The training of teachers and those preparing to teach is not an
overwhelming task. Teachers already have knowledge of child growthand devefopment. They are familiar with children's interpersonal andintergroup interaction patterns. Teachers and those preparing to teachhave been given instruction in educational psychology and are capable-ofmeasuring achievement as well as uriderstandirig the limitations imposedby the child's intellectual potential. Moreover, teachers are familiar withand regularly use the disciplines of medicine, psychology, social work,...--

optometry, and a wide variety of other profession* to assist in the
diagnosis of problems that may inhibit the child's academic success. To

provide basic information regarding the medical, sociological, andpsychological signs and symptoms of child abuse and neglect is not only
relatively easy, but it also builds upon what teachers already know.
The purpose of Child Abuse and Neglect: A Primer for School
Personnel is to provide teachers, administrators, school board members,school bus drivers, cafeteria workers, parent-teacher organizations, andother concerned citizens with basic information regarding child abuse
and neglect. It is hoped that the information contained within these pages
will be of value to those who have both a legal and professional obligation
to report suspected cases of child abuse and neglect.

,..,......,

41.

Child Abuse and Neglect:
A Phenomenon of Mankind's History..7

Accounts of cruelty to children are recorded throughout every phase ofman's history (Radbill, 1974). According to deMause (1975), "the humantrack record of child raising is bloody, -nay, and mean" (p. 85).
Scholars of the classic?' period reflected the attitudes of their times, andPlato, Aristotie, and Seneca all maintained that killing defective children
was a wise custom (Bakan, 1971). Russell quoted Aristotle, who said:
The justice of a master or a father is a different thing from that of a citizen, for

3 son or a slave is property, and there can be no injustice to one's own
property. (Russell, 1945, p. 174)

The teachings of the Old Testament, which greatly influenced Western
Christianity, embraced the r.oncept that the infliction of pain upon children was necessary if they were to develop properly. Far example,
Deuteronomy 21:18 -21 clearly instructs a father to put a wicked son todeath. The book of Proverbs admonishes the following:
He that spareth the rod hateth his son; but he that loveth him chasteneth him
betimes. (13:24)

Chasten thy son while there is hope, and let not thy soul spare from his
crying. (19:18)

Withhold not correction from the child; for if thou beatest him with the rod,he shall not die. (23:13)

Thou shalt beat him with the rod, and shalt deliver his soul from hell. (23:14)

These and similar teachings were brought by our forefathers to thiscountry, and early colonial America was founded on strict religious
principles that adopted stringent measures for governing children. in 1646
the Massachusetts courts adopted the old Mosaic law, which imposed thedeath penalty on unruly children, and in 1651 Connecticut followed theexample.
During the Industrial Revolution, children as young as 5 years were put
49to work under dreadful conditions. Many were chained to their posts forlonghours during the day, and many succumbed to occupational diseases
and factory hazards.
With the passage of child le 'or laws in the late 1800's children were nolonger a source of cheap IA - and were abandoned in great numbed s. In
1847 the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was successful inremoving a little girl, Mary Ellen, from a home where she was, being
beaten daily, seriously malnourished, and neglected. The Society won thecase on the grounds that Mary Ellen was a part of the animal kingdoM andwas, therefore, entitled to "at least the same justice as a common cur"t

(Bremmer, 1971).

Gradually, and largely through the efforts of both the Society f r thePrevention of Cruelty to Animals and the Society for the Prevent qn of'Cruelty to Children, some states began to expand their interests n thewelfare of children. The idea that the state might have the right an duty
to be concerned with cases of parental neglect or cruelty and abu e developed slowly and was based not only on moral issues but on ecorlomIc
issues as well. The costs to society for the care of an individual in acustodial institution for the major portion of his or her life can olceed$20,000 per year. Projected over an expected life span of only 40 years, thecost per individual can be $800,000 or more.

Within this context, the beginning of the modern period of recognition that c!tild abuse exists came in the mid 1940's. Articles publishedfirst in medical jouf.nals (Caffey, 1946a, 1946b) clearly suggested intentional parental injury. Then another 7 years lapsed before the issue wasaddressed directly by Silverman, who wrote.
It is not often appreciated that many individuals responsible for the care of
infants and children . . . may permit trauma and be unaware of it. May
recognize trauma but forget or be reluctant to admit it, or may deliberately
injure the child and deny it. (Silverman, 1953, p. 424)

It was not until 1961 that the first relatively public acknowledgm6t of
the problem of child abuse and neglect was tnade in a manner thaticould
generate some consequences. In 1961 ata seminar sponsored by theAmerican Academy of Pediatrics, a presentation of the problem o childcfabuse was made by Dr. C. Henry Kempe and his colleagues fr m the
University of Colorado's School of Medicine. It was here that the term
battered child syndrome was first used and tht problem of physical abuseof children was identified as a medical syndrome, a childhood disease in
its own right with a set of symptoms and named by its cause (Kempe,
Silverman, Steele, Droegemueller, & Silver,962).
After a decade the efforts of those concerned with the health andwelfare of children led to the passage of national legislationthie Child
Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (S. 1191,93rd Congress, 1st Session).

Senate Bill 1191, now known as Public Law 93-247, has done Much to5

10

stimulate a widespread awareness of the problem of child abuse andneglect. Research has been stimulated somewhat but much remains to be
done. America's schools are just now beginning to become meaningfully
involved, and there remains the task of developing a knowledgeable

profession capable of working effectively with other disciplines in thebattle against one of America's greatest problemsthe physical abuse,neglect, sexual molestation, and emotional and psychological maltreatment of children.

<.

11
6

Causes of Child Abuse and Neglect
0

There are as many specific causes of child abuse and neglect as there areabused and neglected children. No single cause can be identified
although the notion long held by most societies that a child is the propertyof the parent and that "there ca.: be no injustice to one's own property"

has been one of the major contributors to the problem throughout
history.

Some students o' the phenomena a c;ue that- the problem is only
symptomatic of greater social and economic problemm. Poverty,
breakdown of the' nuclear family, drug ano alcohol abuse, increasing
mobility of individual family members and job related work away from thehome for extended periods of time, and cultural and ethnic differences
are all associated with the physical abuse, neglect, sexual molestation, andpsychological and emotional abuse of children.
While the situations noted above may contribute substantially to the
problem in any given case, it is impossible to attribute child abuse andneglect to the abuser's level of income (abusers are both rich and poor);
residence (abusers live in both rural and urban areas); use of alcohol ordrugs (abusers may or may not use alcohol or drugs); family relationships(abusers are found in single parent, two parent, foster parent, and other

home and family configurations); ethnic and/or cultural differences(abusers are found among all groups); or religious preference (abusers are
Jewish, Protestant, Catholic, Mormon, atheist, and agnostic).

Child abuse and neglect knows no boundaries and may occur andreoccur from conception (if the mother uses drugs excessively) throughadolescence. Handicapped children or children who are seen as "different" seem to invite abuse more frequently, than "normal" children, butthere is no way to identify which one among several children in a family
wit be abused. In some cases, a single child in a family is the recipient ofabuse wh ile the brothers and sisters are relatively free from.ha rm. in otherfamilies, all of the children are abused and/or neglected. If one views
neglect as an actof omission and physical 3bul'e as an act of commission, asimilar pattern may be seen not only in neglect cases but also in cases
7

12

involving emotional or psychological maltreatment.
Whili the causes of abuse ..annot be identified with any specific social,economic, religious, ethnic; or geographic factors, the abuser usuallyexhibits three characteristics in common with other abusers. They are theinability to cope with the complex problems of modern life; unrealistic
expectations of children, usuey with little or no accurate knowledge ofchild growth and development; and an urgent need for help.
Most abusers are individuals who are unable to deal effectively with
their own problems, to seek help from others, or to respond realisticallyAand appropriately to crisis situations such as the loss of a job, a death in thefamily, or an unwanted transfer.
In many cases the abusers have learned whatever they might know
about parenting from poor modeli. That is, they were themselves abused
as children and have had no opportunity to learn appropriate
behaviors and skills. Having experienced abuse as children. _ . ,sting
parents engage in the only behaviors they know, and which for them are

the eixpected or "normal" approach to child rearing. Thus, what waslearned as a child is repeated as an adult and the cycle of child abuse andneglect begins anew.

1:3
8

U

Incidence of Child Abuse
and Neglect
The exact incidence rate of child abuse and neglect is not known. Gil(1969) reported that less than 7,000 cases occur annually, while Light (1973)
presented a figure of 1,175,000. Lebsack (1976) reported the highlights ofdata gathered by the National Clearinghouse on Child Neglect and Abuse

operating under the auspices of the Children's Division of the American
Humane Association. Based on data collected during 1975, he reported a

total of 307,778 children involved. These data were a composite of
information drawn from reports submitted by states participating in the
National Study project as well as from states not curc_mtly included in the
project. A similar report on the incidence of child abuse and neglect wasreported by the editors of Child Protection Report (1977) quoting
University of Rhode Island sociologist Richard J. Gelles. Based on 1975
data, Gelles estimated that between 1.4 million and 1.9 million children 3

to 17 years of age and living with both parents were "vulnerable tophysical injuries and violence." The report continued:
The indicated number of children exposed to dangerous modes of violencein 1975 is a "low estimate" Gelles said because only intact families weresurveyed (the risk of abuse is believed to run higher in single parent families)
and no children under three years were included. Thus he considers that 1.4
to 1.9 million estimate to be a base-line figure; if all children were included it
would be much higher. (p. 1)

Assumptions regarding the magnitude of the problem based on theseor any other data 2 or more years old should be made with caution. Itshould be remembered that Public Law 93-247 was just becoming
operational and the nation's social consciousness was just beginning toawaken to the seriousness of the problem.
Finally, it should be pointed out that the National Center for Child
Abuse and Neglect (NCAN) has repeatedly stressed.the fact that thereported cases are only the tip of the iceberg. Estimates from NCAN andother sources such as the National Committee forthe Prevention of Child

14

Abuse) rather consistently use the figure 1,000,000 when asked how many
children are'abused, neglected, and sexually molested each year.

In addressing the question of whether or not the nation has a serious
problem of child abuse, Zig ler (1976) stated:
There is no question that we do have a national problem of child abuse. The

real question has been made murky by a iailure to state whether one ismaking judgments on the basis of absolute or relative numbers. Certainly
one can point to other negative events experienced by children such as falls,

which occur more frequently than does child abuse. Thus speaking relatively, one can argue that child abuse is not as large a problem as arechildhood accidents.
It is my view that such a reiative approach to designation of social problems
has serious dangers. Taken to its extreme, the comparative approach would
lead to total inaction in most of these problem areas in which child advocatesare currently working to improve the status of America's children. I therefore
support the absolute approach to the problem of child abuse and argue thatwnether there are one-thousand or one-million abused children, childabuse constitutes a real social problem that merits our society's concern andintervention. (p. 1)

1015

Legal and Professional
Responsibilities

Until recently, child abuse and neglect was not thought to be a concern of

the schools. Most of the literature prior to Gil's 1969 report strongly
suggested that abused and neglected children were of preschool age. In
1969, however, Gil reported that 47.6% of the reported cases of childabuse were of school age. More recently, Lebsack (1976), reporting on thedata coll-icted by the American Humane Association's National Clearing-house an Child Neglect and Abuse noted that 40% of all cases werereported from "public and private social agencies, schools and school
personnel, law enforcement, courts, (and]-hotlines." Unfortunately, thenumber of cases specifically reported by schools and school personnel is

not included in Lebsack's data. The data are supportive of Gil's 1969
findings, however, and tend to confirm the many recommendations for
significantly greater involvement of the schools in the area of child abuse
and neglect (Ferro, 1975; Shan-s, 1975; Education Commission of theStates, 1976).

Because of the compulsory atf -ndance laws, school personnel come indaily contact with almost half of the abused and neglected population(Education Commission of the States, Report No. 85, 1976; Shanas, 1975).

And, once in school, a child's appearance and behavior are observed
regularly by a number of people (Broadhurst, 1975). In brief, the teacher
may well be the first line of defense for the child against child abuse(Fontana, 1965; Shanas, 1975).

There are-a-number of reasons, both legal and professional, for school_pers-onnei to be involved in the battle against child abuse and neglect. By
definition a profession is a vocation requiring knowledge of a departmentof learning,or science. A professional, as distinguished from an amateur,engages in activities pertaining or appropriate to that profession. Sinceteachers and other professiona' school personnel have been trained as
observers of child growth and development and are aware of behaviors

that interfere with academic achievement, it follows that professional
school personnel have a professional responsibility to observe behaviors
that interfere with a child's academic success and to seek the assistance of
11

16

t"

,-

other professionals whenever they suspect '.a .case of child abuse andneglect. Hence, if a teacher suspects child abuse or neglect, it should be aperfectly professional response for that teacher to make a formal request(via reporting) for an examination of the child by a physician and an
inquiry into the child's environment by a child protective service worker.

Sufficient evidence is now available to show that teachers, when
following school policies and procedures or when appropriately trained,
have become effective participants in the referral process. After teachers
were informed of their legal responsibility in Syracuse, New York, theschool system became "the greatest single source of uncovering these
problems in Syracuse" (Murdock, 1970, p. 105). Project PROTECTION, afederally funded project in Montgomery County, Maryland, has brought
about a steady increase in child abuse referrals (Broadhurst, 1975). In the

Bedford-Stuyvesant area of Brooklyn, the SCAN (School Children
Abused and Neglected) project produced over 170 referrals in its firstmonths of operation. In the first 25 days of operation, a team in the
Jefferson County Public Schools in Colorado reported 22 cases (Education
Commission of the States, Report No. 85, 1976). In all of these instances,teachers were involved in reporting suspected cases of abuse and neglect.

In addition to the professional responsibility, there is also a lealresponsibility to seek further assistance when child abuse and neglect issuspected. Currently, 36 states specifically name teachers or school
personnel among those required by state statute to report suspectedcases. The balance of the states have mandatory reporting laws and list

"any person" or "institution providing social services" (or similar
language) in their state statutes.

Not only do the states require reporting on the part of schools(institutions providing social services) and school personn'el, but thesesame statutes also provide immunity from civil or criminal liability when
the report is made in good faith. At present, only Oklahoma makes po
specific reference to immunity for reporting in good faith.
In addition to requiring the reporting itself, nearly half of the states
provide a penalty for failure to report. If it can be established that ateacher or otl ler professional school employee had knowledge of abusive
or neglectful behavior on the part of the caretaker and failed to report tothe designated authorities (usually the state's social service agency or thepolice), he or she is subject to charges of a misdemeanor. n some states
and local school,districts. school board policies state that the employee issubject to disciplinary a, on by the board if he or she fails to follow thepolicies and procedures adopted by the board.
There is still another reason for making a formal request for further

investigation if child abuse and/or neglect is suspected. Abuse andneglect are seldom isolated occurrences, and usually abusive andseverity (Fraser, 1974).
neglectful behaviors recur both in frequency a
Since abuse and neglect tend to recur and in li t of the growing body of
1217

knowledge regarding the coexistence of abuse with both educational andpsychological problems, the professional responsibilities become
increasingly apparent.
In one study (Kline & Christiansen, 1975) it was found that 27% of thechildren adjudged abused or neglected were subsequently enrolled in
special education classes. It was also determined that these children

exhibited behaviors indicative of psychological problems; they were
fearful, shy, immature, withdrawn, depressed, aggressive; destructive, or
excessively absent from school, or they engaged in stealing behaviors.
While no one would suggest that all children in special education or all
children who exhibit behaviors indicative of psychological problems areabused and neglected, school personnel cannot discard the possible
diagnosis of abuse and/or neglect for some of these cases if they are to
represent themselves as professionals.
In the study just noted as well as studies done by Oates (1976) and Kent

(1976) it was found that abused and neglected children tended to be
substantially below grade level in reading, math, and spelling. Again, theprofessional educator must consider the possibility of abuse and neglect
as a contributing factor in much the same way as physicians consider aretinal hemorrhage as the result of abuse rather than as a "spontaneous
retinal hemorrhage," which was the diagnosis for many years prior toresearch findings indicating the contrary.
If the school is to carry out its primary task of transmitting knowledge,
skills, and abilities to realize the full potential of each child, it beciimes
necessary that early intervention in cases of child abuse and neglect takeplace. Early intervention in cases of abuse and neglect is as important as

early intervention in cases where a child cannot achieve because hecannot hear or because he cannot see, or because he has other physical,handicaps, regardless of etiology.
In view of current knowledge about the coexistence of educational andsopsychological problems with child abuse and neglect, it becomes theprofessionally responsible response to seek further assistance by reportinksuspected cases.

Society's intervention on behalf of handicapped children via theschools has become an expected part of the professional educator'sfunction. Child abuse and neglect is a serious handicapping condition thatclearly impinges on the professional educator's ability to successfully
carry out the mission with which he is charged. and for which he is
responsible. Child abuse and neglect can no longer be excluded from thelist of handicapping conditions with which educators must deal.

13

18

Definitions of Child Abuse
and Neglect
One of the major problems facing those who work in the area of childabuse and neglect is the problem of definition. The literature reflects a va-

riety of definitions which vacillate between a very narrow definitionemphasizing serious physical abuse to a very broad definition emphasizing maltreatment or circumstances in which a child's health or welfare isthreatened.
Among the definitions that emphasize serious physical abuse are:Any willful or grossly careless act on the part of parents or designatedcaretaker which resulted in overt physical injury to the child in question.
(Morse, Sahler, & Friedman, 1970)

Non-accidental physical attack or physical injury, including minimal as well
as fatal injury, inflicted upon children by persons caring for them. (Gil, citedin Kempe & Helfer, 1968)
Children with significant physical trauma unexplained by history or admitted
to by parents; repeated unexplained physical trauma; and neglected children who are seriously suspected of being physically abused and who havesiblings with documented abuse. (Martin, 1972)

Physical injury to the child, willfully inflicted. (Spinetta & Rigler, 1972)

Child abuse refers to children who show evidence of physical injury or
physical neglect by the parents. (Tracy 8t Clark, 1974)

Among the definitions that emphasize maltreatment are:Child abuse can be defined formally as a situation in which a child is sufferingfrom serious physical injury inflicted upon him by other than accidentalmeans; is suffering by reason of neglect, malnutrition, or sexual abuse; isgoing without necessary and basic care; or is growing up under conditioqs,
which threaten his physical and emotional survival. (Light, 1973)

A syndrome with or without inflicted injury, in which a child's survival isthreatened in his home (Newberger, Hagenbuch, Eberling, Colligan, Sheehan, & McVeigh, 1973)
14

19

Any act of commission or omission by individuals, institutions, or society as awhole, and any condition resulting from such acts or inaction, which deprivechildren of equal rights and liberties and/or interfere with their optimal development. (Gil, 1973)

In an attempt to provide a comprehensive definition, the Child Abuse
Prevention and Treatment Act (Public Law 93-247), passed by the 93rd
Congress, defined the phenomenon as follows:Child abuse and neglect: means the physical or mental injury, sexual abuse;
negligent treatment, or maltreatment of a child under the age of eighteen bya person who is responsible for the child's welfare under circgmstances
which indicate that the child's health or welfare is harmed or threatened
thereby. (Sec. 3)This definition should have considerable appeal to educators since it
ws frcim a sense of what children are, what they need, and what they
may become. Moreover, this definition suggests changes for improving
the lives of many vulnerable children who are at risk, not only from abuse
and neglect but also, from a wide variety of socially sanctioned practices
which hinder or prohibit the full development of each individual.
The examples just noted illustrate the wide variety of definitions in theliterature. Many students of the phenomenon popularized by Kempe andHelfer's (1968) term battered child syndrome have reached the conclusionthat polar definitions that tend to describe children at opposite ends of acontinuum have been pressed about as far as they can. What is needed is aconcept of the abused, neglected, and sexually molested child thatprovides a basis for identification, a framework for curriculum development, and parameters for research.

The- need for a conceptually based classification system has beenrecognized for some time. Zigler (1976) has stated the need as follows:"Related to this perplexing problem [of definition] is our lack of differentiated and conceptually-based classification system for child abuse"(P. 3).

Somewhat earlier, Kline and Hopper (1975) had reached the sameconclusion and set about the task of developing a concept analysis of theabused child. It should be noted that Zigler called for a conceptuallybased classification system for the processchild abusewhile Kline andHopper attempted to arrive at a conceptual definition descriptive of the
productthe abused child.
Based on an extensive review of the then available literature in the fieldsof law, medicine, social work, education, psychology, and the allied
health fields, only three distinguishing attributes must be identified inevery case. The abused child (a) is under the age of 18, (b) is under the
charge of a caretaker, and (c) has suffered nonaccidental physical or
psychological injury.
Obviously, each abused and/or neglected child will exhibit different
15

'' 0

and sometimes multiple manifestations of abuse and/or neglect. The vastarray of attributes that can be found in the abused child is displayed in aschematic drawing in Appendix A. Also, a brief narrative interpretation of
the conceptually based classification system is presentee. for those who
may be interested in research or curriculum development.

For purposes of this discussion any of the definitions noted in thischapter wilicuffice since it is not the function of educational personnel tomake a definitive diagnosis prior to reporting. It is both the legal andprofessional responsibility of school personnel to recognize the signs andsymptoms of abuse, neglect, and sexual molestation and to make a forma(
request for further investigation.

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21

e.

--'

----

Recognizing the Problem:
Identification
Teachers, unlike many professionals, have a unique opportunity toobserve children over extended periods of time. Not only do they see thechild during the regular school day, but they also have a panoramic viewof the child based on weeks and months of observation. Most professionals see only a "still life" picture of the child during the child's brief visit tothe office or during a brief visit in the home. The fact that teachers andother school personnel see the living, moving, developing, acting, andreacting child over time places them in a unique position to identify theabused, neglected, and sexually molested child.

Identification and early referral is important for two reasons: First,
existing injuries may be treated, and second, the child may be protectedfrom further maltreatment.
It should be remembered that reporting a case of child abuse, neglect,or sexual molestation as required by law is not "putting the finger" onanyone. In making a report, the teacher is engaged in the most appropriate behavior of the true professional. Seeking the assistance of professionals

in other areas of specialization is one of the highest forms ofprofessionalism. No one professional should be seduced into thinking
that he can handle child abuse and neglect problems alone. Identification, assessment, and treatment of the abused child and his or her family isa multidisciplinary enterprise, and anything less may serve only to put thechild in further jeopardy.
It .must also be remembered that it is not the responsibility of school
personnel to prove that a -child has been the victim of maltreatment. A
suspicion of abuse, neglect, or sexual molestation is all that is required. If a
repOrt is made in good faith, most state statutes protect the reporter fromivil or criminal liability, and if the state law fails to provide such immunity,

duly adopted school board policies and procedures have I--, force andeffect of law until changed by the courts or the legislature.
Providing proof of neglect, abuse, and/or sexual molestation is the
responsibility of the agency designated to receive the report. Usually, thechild protective service worker in the division or department of social ser17

22

vices, the police, and/or the county attorney (or another attorneydesignated to handle such matters) must provide proof in those few casesthat reach the court of appropriate jurisdiction.
Physical Abuse

As noted earlier, physical abuse of children began to awaken the social
conscience in the 1940's. Today, those who consider themselvesprofessionals engaged in the delivery of services to children should know
the signs and symptoms of physical abuse.

The basic concept underlying the identification of a nonaccidental
injury is relatively simple. Whenever an injury is inconsistent with thehistory given of it, a nonaccidental injury (physical abuse) must be conside. ;,d. A good example of an injury that is nonaccidentally induced
would be multiple cigarette burns. It is highly unlikely that a child would
accidentally suffer such a burn and certainly not more than one. Hence,
any explanation of the injury suggesting that it was accidentally induced
must be suspect.

Some of the more common indicators of nonaccidentally acquired
physical injuries include:,

1. Evidence of repeated injurysigns of new injuries are evider* before
old injuries are healed.
2. Frequent complaints of abdominal pain.
3. Evidence of bruises, especially bruises of different ages; welts; wounds,

cuts, or punctures; scalding liquid burns, especially those with welldefined parameters; caustic burns; frostbite; and burns, especiallyapparent cigarette burns on the back of the neck, head, or extremities.

Neglect

School personnel frequently accept the fact that a child comes from apoverty environment as a rationale for failing to report suspected neglect.

Some definitions of neglect try to accommodate the fact that a child's
physical well being must be considered in relation to the culture of which
he is a part.

Neither of these conditions provides justification for failing to reportsuspected cases of neglect. In light of the many programs available to chil-dren of poor families, suspicion of neglect should be reported without
regard to socioeconomic status of the family, ethnic background, or cultural factors. By reporting suspected neglect of a child, a teacher may begiving_that child access to society and the services society provides. That
teacher may be opening the door to social services needed by the childand his or her family even though neglect on the part of the child's parents

or other caretakers has not been an overt act of omission of the carerequired.
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23

Some of the more commonkindicators of neglect include evidence of

inappropriate clothing for the weather; torn, tattered, or Unwashedclothing; poor skin hygiene (unbathed); rejection by othei children
because of.offensive body odor; need for glasses, dental work, or other
health services; lack of proper nourishment; listlessness or lethargy;

consistent tiredness and sleeping in class; frequent absenteeism or
chronic tardiness; consistent, very early school arrival; and a consistenttendency to hang around school after school has been dismissed.
Sexual Molestation
A thorough discussion of sexual molestation and the psychosocial effects
upon the victims, their families, the dynamics of the offense,;and the after-

effects are too complex for adequate *atment in a primer. Readersinterested in amore complete discussion of the subject Should refer to
Schultz (1971), Sgroi (1975), or Martin (1976). A good basic t eatment of thesubject and additional references are available in these urces.

Even though a complete discussion of sexual m estation is not
attempted here, there is a need for some disco ion since bothprofessionals and the general public suffer from a lack of understanding.of this area of child abuse. For whatever reasonsbeause of a sense of
the old Puritan morality or because it is too Freudian,/too close to home,or too repugnantthe subject has received relativel9ittle attention in theliterature of child abuse. When the subject has beery treated, the authors
have approached it as if sexual abuse were distinctly different fromphysical abuse. Martin's (1976) discussion of the difference is a mostinteresting one; he argued convincingly that, "tht relationship between
physical abuse and sexual abuse has been neither clarified nor documented. The two are rarely discussed together, rather as if they are quite
separate entities" (p. 151).
The separation of these two entities may be the result of feelings thatphysical abuse is predominantly a problem associated with the very young
while sexual abuse has been thought to be associated more closely withpreadolescent and older children. As will be seen from the discussion,
which follows, physical abuse, neglect, and' sexual abuse seem to havemore similarities than differences. At least, the three phenomena seem tocoexist if, jndeed, there are three phenoMena as'opposed to a single
entity which manifests itself differently at different times.

The indicators of sexual abuse and Molestation will, however, bepresenled separately because the indica/tors are usually more subtle asviewed-by school personnel. When indic4tors of sexual abuse are present,
it should be remembered that there is strong likelihood that physicalabuse and neglect may also be present
Sexual abuse of a child is a reportable situation under child abuse andneglect statutes, sexual statutes, or both. Nonetheless, the recognition
and reporting of sexual molestation of a child is dependent to a great
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24

extent upon the individual's inherent willingness to entertain the possibility that the condition may exist (Sgroi, 1975, p. 21). Our rapidly changing
attitudes toward sex and rapid value change regarding sexuality and what
constitutes a sexual offense seems destined to complicate matters evermore.
Most of the literature about sexual abuse or sexual molestation is basedon clinical evidence or case studies rather than on data based research.
The data that are available are reported differently and, again, there is noagreed on definition.
Some data regarding sexual molestation are found in a report by Sgroi(1975). In brief, Sgroi's report indicates:

1. No one knows the true incidence of child molestation in the UnitedStates. It must be assumed that only ,a small fraction of the cases arereported.

2. The total number of suspected sexual abuse cases increased in one
state (Connecticut) when a toll free hotline was established.
3. The most frequently named perpetrator in cases of sexual abuse was
the father, or a male relative or boyfriend. Nearly always the perpetrator
was someone who had ready access to the child at home.
4. Ages of victims ranged from 1 or 2 months to 17 or 18 years.

Earlier investigations conducted locally disclosed that in a one year
period, "75% of the cases involved children 12 years or under, 95% of

which were girls, and 65% of which were assaulted by relatives orneighbors" (Gorham, 1966, p. 3431.

These data tend to agree with DeFrancis's (1969) findings, whichindicate that sexual offenders were members of the household in 27% of
the cases and 37% were friends or known to the family. It is interesting tonote that Def rancis's eata also showed,that in 11% of the families involvedin the study phys7-al abuse other than sexual was directed toward thevictim or other family members. Child neglect was reported in 79% of thefamilies.
More current data regarding sexual abuse of children comes from theChildren's Division of the AmericarrHurnane Association (Lebsack, 1976).
Of the 307,778 cases reported during the 1975 year, 10.7% of the identified
and validated abuse cases were sexual abuse cases.

In all of the reports just n.oted two caveats are always included. Eachwriter has noted (a) that more than one category of abuse may have beenreported for each child and (b) that underreporting is highly likely. Also,
the 10.7% figure in the American Humane Association's report relates toabuse cases only. Neglect cases were reported separately.
These data complement those reported by Sgroi (1975) for the state ofConnecticut. Here 11.4% of the cases reported were sexual abuse cases
during 1973, and 8.8% of cases reported for 1974 were related to sexualzo

25

abuse. Again, there is the caveat. In all probability sexual abuse is seriously

underreported.
On the basis of the clinical evidence and the somewhat limited data
available regarding sexual abuse, one conclusion is obvious. The phenomenon asexual abuse and molestation remains largely unexplained.
Even though the studies relating abuse and neglect (including sexual
abuse) and educational and pyschological problems are limited (Kline &, Christiansen, 1975; Oates, 1975; Kent, 1976), we know the dynamics, theeffects, and the aftereffects upon the child present significant problems.
Behavioral indicators that reveal that sexual molestation may bede:occurring include:

1. Unwillingness to participate in physical activitiesYoung children
who have had forced sexual intercourse may find it painful to sit during
school or to play active games.

2. Indirect allusionSometimes sexually abused children will confide inteachers with whom they have a good rapport and feel may be helpful.

The confidences may be veiled and vague but allude to a homesituation by indicating, "I'm going to find a foster home to live in," "I'dlike to live with you," or "I'm afraid to go home tonight."

3. RegressionSome sexually abused children, especially young children, will retreat into a fantasy world or revert to infantile behaviors.
4. Aggression and/or delinquencyThe anger, hostility, and fear of the-consequences of sexual abuse, especially in adolescents, may prompt

delinquent, hostile, and/or'aggressive behavior toward both people
and property.
5. Status offensesRunning away from home may be used by children to

escape a situation over which they feel they have no control. The
runaway child is asking for help and/or acting out hostile andaggressive behaviors as previously noted.

6. Poor peer relationshipsIsolation may follow feelings of guilt or
serious emotional problems. Children seem unable to form stable andcontinuing relationships with others of their own age group.

7. Seductive behaviorsff children identify sexual contact as a positive
reinforcer for attention, they may adopt seductive behaviors with both,tpeers and adults.

8. Drug use /abuse Use of alcohol and/or drugs may be the children's
avenue for handling guilt and anxiety about having been _sexually
abusedor perpetrating sexual abuse upon younger childreri.
Parental Behaviois That May Be Revealing
Since teachers and other school personnel often come in contact with one
or both parents during teacher-parent conferences, it is wise to be aware
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26

k

of parental behaviors which tend to suggest a "stronger than usual"capability to abuse, neglect, or.sexually molest a child.
Although no two abusive parents are exactly alike, all of them share, insome measure, a variety or co...oination of characteristics, which Steele.
(1976, p. 15) summarized as follows:

1. "Immaturity . . . aid associated dependency."
2. "Tragically low self-esteem and sense of incompetence."

3. "Difficulty in seeking pleasure and finding satisfaction in the adultworld."
4. "Social isolation."
5. "Significant misperceptions of the infant."
6. "kear of spoiling infants."
7. "Strong belief in the value of punishmit."

8. "Serious lack of ability to be empathically aware of the infant's
condition and 'needs and to respond appropriately to them."
On the basis of these characteristics, driawn largely from clinical experience; and on the basis of years of research from the fields of psychology,social work, education, and health, it becomes relatively easy to identify

bc-19,ii...c ,...)-iih parents may exhibit if they have a high potential for
abusing their children. Some of these indicators are:
1. Expressing fear and/or showing evidence of losing control.

2. Showing detachment from the child.
3. Giving evidence that he or she is misusing drugs or alcohol.
.

4.. Stating that a child is "injury prone" or has repeated injuries.
5. Comp!aining that he or she has no one to "bail" him or her out when

"up tight" with the child.
6. Being reluctant t9 give information.
7. Appearing to be psychotic or psychopathic.

8. Stating that he or she has 'been reared in a "motherless" environment.

9. Having unrealistic expectations of the child.

10. Having an inappropriate awareness- or concern for the child's
academic success and social relationships with other children or
adults.
1.

Exhibi ii 6ellaviors that indicate r,"^irvil intmlQr tf Pal Pr_p_lipment for
dealing with the child.

22

27.

12. Being generally irrational in manner regarding the child's failures.

13. Appearing to be cruel, sadistic, or lacking in remorse when talking
about injuries the child has sustained.
Whenever behaviors on the part of parents similar to those listed above
ate observed, teachers and other school personnel should include themas a basic part of the panoramic picture being developed about the childand his environment.

Children's Behaviors Indicative of Abuse, Neglect,
and/or Sexual Molestation

All childra) exhibit some aggression, shyness, disruptive, or otherbehaviors indicative of temporary problems. When a child displays
ant sual and rapid changes in behavior like the ones that follow, teachersand school personnel should be alert to the possibility of abuse, neglect,
and/or sexual molestation. The problems include:

1. Unusually aggressive, disrupjive, or destructive behavior.

2. Unusually shy, withdrawn, or passive behavior or overly compliant
behavior.

3. Unusual apprehension and an atypical curiosity when other childrencry.

4. Unusual apprehension when adults approach a crying child:
5. Co isistent alertness for danger.
6. Frequent and severe mood changes.

Emotional Maltreatment
Historically the term maternal deprivation has been used to describe children who have been emotionally neglected by the important figures intheir lives, i.e., mothers, fathers, or other caretakers. As noted earlier, no
two abusive parents are exactly alike. Similarly, the mothering behaviors
of parents differ markedly. The behaviors with which teachers and school
personnel should be most concerned ,re those where rejection, anger,
strong ambivalence, and out and out dislike for the child are evidenced.
When there is an indication that parents have very little affection for thechild, eachers and school personnel must consider the possibility thatthese ch:!;:, en will be kept in their rooms for long periods of time, are apt
to be poorly fed, will present unkempt appearances, and will generally
have poor hygiene. Any serious student of child development, is wellaware of the serious effect such treatment has on the child.

Clearly, institutionalization of a child carries with it the danger of
emotional deprivation, Even though the physical needs of the child areprovided, the lack of appropriate parenting behaviors (i.e., love, affec-

4_

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25

detion, concern, warmth, cuddling, attention to vocal play and languageforadequatedevelopment) leaves a grim, even frightening, prognosis
velopmental growth.
Even though the legal concept of irk loco parentis (in the place of theparent) is vanishing from both the public and private school scene, in one
sense the psychological need for the concept remains. School personnel
should develop an awareness of the importance of their own behaviorof theupon the develOpmental patterns and personality characteristics
child. Even though teachers cannot be expected to undo all of the damage an emotionally deprived child may have suffered, they can present.the child with behaviors that demonstrate that all adults are not unfeeling,
unloving, and uncaring.
.,There is substantial evidence in the literature which indicates thatcertain values and beliefs are learned by individuals early in life andremain with them throughout their adolescence and adulthood. Studies.which compare the values of adolescents to those of their peers and theparents show that male adolescents see themselves as similar to theirfathers in theoretical, social, political, and religious values.
Transmission of values and attitudes from adult to child has relevant
implications for teachers, especially teachers who interact pn a daily basiswith young children. Teachers transmit information and inculcate values.
Emotional maturity, self respect, and respect for others are some of thevalues transmitted by teachers to their students.
Teachers engage in emotional maltreatment of children when they depict them as unusually dumb, stupid, or incompetent. Certainly statements to or about a child of this caliber do little more than encourage negative feelings of self, stimulate feelings of low self image, and reinforce forthe emotionally deprived child feelings that have been too long a part ofhis developmental experiences.
Verbal abuse, which this writer equates with emotional maltreatment,of cnildren by school personnel seems to apply all too frequently in our
educational system from kindergarten through graduate school. Toomany teachers seem to be unaware of their value as models. This isunfortunate, to say the least, in light of the major role school personnel
among ailserve in presenting appropriate and healthy interactions.
dren, youth, and adults.
Finally, in a d;scussion of emotional maltreatment of children it seems
appropriate to point out the potential danger to a child's emotional
stability and personality development that may be caused by society itself.
Whenever cases of child abuse, neglect, or sexual molestation are brought
to the attention of the court, care must be taken to protect the children
from serious emotional conflict regarding their ideas about the offense
and the offender. What could have been a short-lived traumatic eventwith few or no permanent consequences in the child's mind might bedrawn out of proportion and could force the child into serious emotional
-!.

24

29

/
conflict. It cannot be stressed too strongly or too often that intervention
must be nonpunitive whenever possible, and it is possible in the vast

majority of cases.--

r

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25

School Policies

There are 36 states that currently name schools and/or school personnel
among those specifically obligated to report suspected cases of childabuse and neglect. The balance of the 'statutes identify personnel serving

in-specified institutions or indicate that "any person" suspecting childabuse and neglect shall report. And, as noted earlier, only Oklahoma
makes no provision in the statutes to provide immunity from civil andcriminal liability for those who report in good faith.
In spite of the fact that all states have child abuse andneglect reporting
laws, few schools have established policies and procedures under which

the employees of the school shall report. Even though the number ofschools throughout the country which have recently adopted school
policies and procedures is rapidly increasing, only 17% of the states havepolicies adopted by a state school board regarding the reporting of childabuse (Education Commission of the States, 1976).
According to the Education Commission of the States Report No. 85(1976), 84% of the state departments of education, 56% of the largest
school districts in each state, 71% of the smallest school districts in eachstate, and 90% of the largest private schools in each state have no policies
regarding the reporting of child abuse and neglect.
On the surface, the data suggest that state and local boards of educationand trustees for private schools have been relatively inactive or disinter-

ested in the problem of child abuse and neglect. Remembering, however, that no social reform has ever swept the country as rapidly as stateand national legislative reform regarding child abuse and neglect, it isunlikely that the data reported by the Education Commission of the Statesis still accurate. Since the report of the Education Commission of the States

was made in April 1976, two states (Nevada and Utah) have adopted
statewide policies regarding the reporting of child abuse, and, there are
increasing numbers of local and State school boards that have adopted
policies and procedures of their own volition.
Since a policy regarding child abuse and neglect is a commitment by thei- "Mknr e."1",,;esr% non. ort% to r""raar-ste. .,4k
"IV ,rinr
26

31

staffed by other professional personner in the identification, treatment,
and prevention of the phenomenon, anything less than 100% is unacceptable.
The guidelines that follow are practical suggestions to help education
policymakers develop and implement effective policies suitable to theirparlicular circumstances and state laws. The guidelines presented here
were first developed by a task force of the Education Commission of the-States' (1976) Child Abuse and Neglect Project.,
Some general suggestions regarding school policies andprocedures forreporting child abuse and neglect are:.,1. Since all states require or encourage school personnel to reportsuspected cases, every school system should adopt and issue .to allschool personnel and the constituents of the district a child abuse andneglect policy, particularly a policy on reporting.

2. The adopted policy should inform school personnel of their legal andprofessional obligations regarding child abuse and neglect.
3. The policy should inform all school personnel of immunities from civil
and criminal liability provided in state laws when the report is made ingood faith.
4. The policy should provide for periodic inservice education designed toassist school personnel in the identification of suspected cases of childabuse and neglect.
The critical elements of any school reporting policy (according to the,task force of the Education Commission of the States) and sample wordingfor each critical element follow:

Elements To Be Cited

Sample Wording

1. A brief rationale for involving

Because of their sustained contact
with school-age children, school
employees are in an excellent posi-

school personnel in reporting.

tion to identify abused or neglectchildren and to refer them for treatment and protection.

To comply withMandatory
Reporting of Child Abuse Act {Sec-2. The name and appropriate section numbers of the state report--thetion 350-1 through 350-5) Hawaii

ing statute.

Revised Statutes (1968), as amended(Supp. 1975), ...

report and (if applicable) who

it is the policy of the
School Diitrict that any teacher or

may report.

,other school employee

3. Who specifically is mandated to

.

.

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32

Sarnordirfg (coiffinued)

Elements role Cited (continued)
4. Reportable conditions as definedby state law.

. . .

who suspects that a child's physi-

cal or mental health or welfare may
be adversely affected by abuse orneglect . . .

5. The person or agency io receive
reports.

.

.

: shall report to the departnient ofsocial services . . .
OR
.

. .

shall report to the pqricipal, whoshall then call the department ofsocial services . . .

6. The information required of `thereporter.

. . .

and give the following infor-

mation:name, address -and ageof student; name and address ofparent or caretaker; nature andextent of injuries or description ofneglect; any other information thatmight help establish the cause of the
injuries or condition.

School employees shall not contact
the child's family or any other persons

to determine the cause of the suspected abuse or neglect.
It

is not the responsibility of theschool 'employee to prove that thechild has been abused or neglected,
or to determine whether the child isin need of protection.
_._.

7. Expected professional conduct
by school employees.

Any personal interview or physicalinspection of the child should be
conducted- in a professionalmanner . . .

8. The exact language of the law todefine "abuse" and "neglect"; ifnecessary. explain, clarify, or
expand.

"Abuse" means the infliction byother than accidental means, of phys-

ical harm upon the body of a child.
"Neglect" means the failure to provide necessary food, care, clothing,shelter or medical attention for achild.

9. The method by which school
personnel are to report (if ap-

An oral report must be made as soon
as possible by telephone or otherwise

propriate, list telephone number

and may be followed by a written

for reporting) and the time inreport.

which to report.

33

Sample Wording

Elements To Be Cited (continued)

10. Whether or not there is immunityfrom civil liability and criminal
penalty for those who report orparticipate in an investigationor judicial proceeding; andwhether immunity is for "goodfaith" reporting.

In Illinois, anyone making a report inaccordance with state law or participating in a resulting judicial proceeding is presumed to be acting in goodfaith and, inrdoing so, is immune fromany civil or criminal liability thatmight otherwise be imposed.
OR

In Maryland, there is no immunityfrom civil suits for untrue statements
made by one citizen against another.

11. Penalty for failure to report, if

Failure to report may result in a
misdemeanor charge: punishment by
a fine of up to $500, imprisonment up
to one year or both.

established by state law.

12. Action taken by school board for
failure to report.

Failure to report may result in disciplinary action agai: st the employee.

13. Any provisions of the law regarding the confidentiality of recordsof suspected abuse or neglect.

All records concerning reports ofsuspected abuse or neglect are confidential. Anyone who permits, assists,
or encourages the release of informa-tion from records to a person or
agency not legally permitted to haveaccess may be guilty of a misdemeanor.

(Reprinted from Education Commission of the States, 1976.)

The simple process of articulating a clear position on child abuse andneglect can go a long way in establishing the educator's role in themultidisciplinary fight against the maltreatment of children. It canenhance the public's awareness and encourK;e primary prevention
efforts. Certainly, a school policy regarding child abuse and neglect willencourage school employes, who have heretofore been reluctant toreport suspected cases, to partiCipate more willingly, in the legal, and* While every state provides immunity for those reporting child abuse, many do notprovide immunity for reporters of child neglect. School systems in these states may beable to extend immunity to school personnel via the state public school laws. Many ofthese laws grant immunity to educators who act under a requirement of school law,rule or regulation. By enacting a regulation requiring school personnel to report%may iu ineil
susvected abuse and nciik-ct,
3j31Citis tall
employees who report.
29

34

professional obligations which they accept, not only at;Narofessionals but
also as employees of an educational agency that has enunciated a clear
policy on behalf of abused and neglected children.

A Word about Privacy and Reporting

Many educators have been concerned about violation of privacy if theyreport suspected cases of child abuse and neglect. This concern stems
from the Buckley Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act passed by
Congress in 1974. This act requires consent from parents before schools
can share with a third party any information in the child's school record.
The Buckley legislation, however, makes an exception for informationthat involves health or safety; and the Department of Health, Education,and Welfare has stated that this includes child abuse. Moreover, appro-

priate policies and procedures will exclude child abuse and neglect
reports frond the individual child's educational record. (See the sample
reporting procedures and report form in the next chapter.)A Word about Failure To Report

Even though most professionals are aware of the immunities provided

under state statutes against civil or criminal liability, not all school
personnel know that the majority of the states have enacted either civil br
criminal penalties for failure to report suspected cases of child abuse andneglect. State imposed criminal penalties range from $25 and 10 days
imprisonment to $1,630 and 1 year imprisonment. Civil penalties extend-

ing the common law of negligence give any person the right to sue
another person for damages resulting from negligence. If it can beestablished that any teacher or other professional school employee had
knowledge of abuse and/or neglect and tailed to report it, the child (orsomeone functioning in the child's behalf) could conceivably bring suitfor damages.

30

Reporting Procedures andReport' Form
It is not the responsibility of the school employee to prove that the childhas been abused or neglected or to determine whether the child-is inneed of protection.
In gathering information, any personal interview or physical exam-

ination of the child should be conducted in the highest professionalmanner. School employees shall not make contact with the child's family_or other persons (relatives. friends, neighbors, etc.) for purposes ofdetermining the cause of the injury and/or apparent neglect. To makesuch a contact for the purposes of determining the cause of the injury orapparent neglect could easily place the child in further jeopardy.
The Reporting Procedures

While procedures may vary from school to school or from district todistrict, the usual procedures generally include the following:

1. khool personnel shall be familiar with the possible signs and symptoms of abuse or neglect and may refer to lists of descriptive indicators
as noted elsewhere in this book or developed and distributed as a partof the policies and procedures statement.
2. If school employees know or reasonably suspect that a child's'health or
welfare has been or appears to have been harmed as a result of abuse orneglect, they shall immediately make an oral report to the school
principal or the principal's designee. In the absence of such school
authority, the school employee shall make an oral report to the agency
designated by state law to receive such reports (usually the local city

police or county sheriff or the child protective service office in the\.

slate's social service agency).

3. To support the suspicion of abuse or neglect, professional school
employees may gather intormation by interviewing the child. However, an interview with the child is not necessary. Recognizing thati,chcr_cl-,;;;; intc;act;ons are nit only within the areas of professional
31

36

.Competence but a routine part of the teaching-learning environment,
the following suggestions are offered:a. For the interview with the child, a place should be sought that will
maintain privacy and make the child feel comfortable.

b. When the interview is conducted, the professional school
employee who suspects child abuse or neglect and a c (league
should be present. School personnel of the same gendershould always be used.

he childc. The school employee having the best rapport with the child shouldtake the responsibility for conducting the interview. Every effort
should be made to make the child feel at ease, and the child should
be made to realize that he or she is notin any trouble or subject toany punishment )r discipline from school personnel.

d. The interviewer should not press for answers.
e. The interviewer should not accuse anyone as being the perpetrator, of the suspected abuse or neglect.

4.

f.

Questions that suggest answers to the child should be avoided.

g.

The child being interviewed may indicate having injuries as a resultof physical abuse and may want to show the injured areas. In suchcases, the interviewer should ask the child to show the abused area
but not force the child to remove his or her clothes if the child isunwilling. The interviewer should avoid touching the child unnecessarily (basically only to improve the view of the abused area). The
clothing designed specifically to cover the genital area of the childand the breasts of females should not be removed.

If, after the interview, it is determined that the child is in need of
immediate medical attention, the school's procedure for dealing withinjuries or illnesses should be followed. Contact with the parents or
guardian for purposes of determining the cause of the injury should be
avoided.

5.

If the information (observations) with or without an interview supports
suspected child abuse or neglect:a. The principal or principal's designee should immediately report thecase by telephone or other oral communication to the agency,
designated to receive such reports.

b. Within 24 hours after making the oral report, the school employee
initiating the report should complete and give to the principal or
principal's designee the school's child abuse-neglect reporting
form
32

37

6. Upon receiving the school's, child abuse-neglect reporting form, theprincipal or principal's designee should:

a. Mail within 24 hours, one copy, which will be placed in the central
fileusually, the file of the director of pupil personnel services orthe director of counseling services or any other appropriate office
file.

b. Mail within 24 hours one copy to the agency receiving the oral
report.
c. Place one copy in a separate file maintained oy the principal or
principal's designee for all reported cases of suspected child abuse
and/or neglect. The child abuse-neglect reporting form shall not be

placed in the child's personal school record. (Note: The childabuse-neglect reporting form is not considered an "educational"
record. As such it should not be filed in the child's educational
record.)A flow chart of these proceduresis shown in Appendix B.
Reporting Forms

Reporting forms are important for a number of reasons. Among thereasons every school system should have an official reporting form are:1.

2.

It provides evidence that the individual school employee as well as theschool has complied with the law in reporting suspected cases of childabuse or neglect.

It provides the child protective service worker with information
sometimes difficult or impossible to obtain from other sources.

It provides some degree of tangible evidence that may be critical in theevent of a dispositional hearing before a court of appropriate jurisdiction.
4. It establishes that the policies and procedures of the school board (orboard of trustees) have been carried out.
An example of a report form that has been field tested and proved to beappropriate is shown on page 34. This report form was developed by
London (1976) for use by Utah school personnel.

3.

38

33

Child Abuse-Neglect Reporting Form
Oral Report made to principal or designee

Date

Time

Child's nameLast name (legal)

Age

MiddleFirst

Birthdate

Sex

Child's address

Names and addresses of parents or other person(s) responsible for the child's care.
FatherMother

Guardian or caretaker
Address

TelephoneqitiP

Observ.ations leading to the suspicion that the child is a victim of abuse or neglect. (UseAppendix A when answering this question.) Supply time and date of observation(s).

Additional information Interview with the child and name of other school employees
involved.

Written report made to principl or designee: Date
SignatureTime

Signature

Initiator of the repot

Observer of the interview

To be filled out by the principal or designee:
Oral report made to-

Written report made to:Local CityCounty Sheriff
Division of Family Services

Local City Police
County Sheriff
Division of family Services

Date

Time

Date

I

Time

Principal's signature

Distribute copies to

1

Mail to agency receiving the oral report.

2

Mail to the district's pupil personnel office3

Place in principal's child abuse-neglect file.
(Not to be placed in the child's personal file )39

Primary Prevention

So far little has been said about the role of the schools in the area of primary prevention. The concept of primary prevention of child abuse,neglect, and sexual molestation involves attempts to reach the general

population in a sustained effort to attack the causes of the problem.
Secondary and tertiary prevention (identification and treatment after thefact) involve efforts to prevent the recurrence of problems in any given
case.

McAffee and Nedler (1976) have provided the following rationale forthe introduction of parent education on a massive Oasis in the schools.
Their rationale is based on the fact that society has been changing rapidly
and as a result so have families. According to McAffee and Nedler some off
the indicators of social change are:
1. 60 percent of American families are metropolitan residents.
2. Many families move frequently, both short and long distances.
3. Families are having fewer children. The average household size in 1974
was 2.97 persons. In 1973 the live birth re in the United States was thelowest in history.
4. The number of single-parent families is increasing, both because ofdivorceand because the parents never married.
5. Over 50 percent of all women are in the labor force; over 30 percent of

all wome with children under 6 work out of the home.
6. Stable, multi-age communities and the extended family have been
replaced by communities linked by interests, age and income level.
7. Child bearing among young adolescents seems to be increasing. In oursociety these young people have had little or no exposure to young
children and even lesa to how to rear children. (p. 4)

The theory that abused children learr abusive parenting attitudes andchild rearing practices and, in turn, upon becoming parents rear theirchildren based on these learned attitudes and practices is important whenrelated to primary prevention. Although there are no data to substantiate

the theory that child abuse is perpetuated from parent to child, there issubstantial clinical evidence. Moreover, there is significant evidence in
.

40

35

the literature to indicate that certain attitudes and beliefs of the parent
are, in fact, transmitted to the child and remain with the child throughout
adoleicerice and inio adulthood.
As noted earlier, Munns (1972) compared the values of adolescents to
those of their peers and their parents and determined that male adolescents saw themselves at similar to their fathers in a variety of ways. Fry(1975) found that, if a child identifies with a parent, then there is a highprobability that the child will duplicate that parenec ideas, attitudes, andbehaviors.
Rased on the rapid shifts in our society, as noted by McAffee and Ned ler(1976), and the knowledge that attitudes and behaviors are transmitted

from generation to generation, the introduction of parenting programs
into the M..
3-seems amply Justified. Markham and Jacobsen (1976)
provided even further evidence:C

1. In 1974 there were 600,000 babies born to teenage mothers, most ofwhom were unwed.
2 At least 750,000 teenage girls became pregnant that same year, 1 out of
5 of whorriliad at least one previous pregriancy.

3. Most- teenage girls a ?. not prepared to cope with the day to day
demands of 3 baby.
4. Social and economic problems's:soon supersede the teenage mothers
initial excitement of having a baby.
5: When the constant demands of calling for the baby become difficult todeal with, abuse of the baby may result.

Ev'eri though child rearing is a significant enterprise for adults in any
society, few parents in the United States have received any systematic
instruction to prepare themselves for the task. Neither have they been
instructed in the social and economic realities of having children. Most
parents undertake the role with a eautiful naivety and exceedingly

limited knowledge about the normal stages of child development.
Illustrative of parents' limited knowledge about, normal child development is the following example from McAffee and Nedler (1976):
The "lie" or "bragging" behavior of a 4-year-old must be viewed quite differel, 'y than this same behavior in a 12-year-old. The 4-year-old 'is testing-reality and attempting to decipher the "rules" of his sociat envirvnment
whik the 12-year-old's behavior clearly reflects inadequate coping mechaoisms. Unfortunately, parents often equate these ,,vo events that occur atdifferert stages of development and deal with them in identical ways. (p. 9)

Any rational approach 'to the problem of primary prevention must
include the introduction of parenting instruction in the schools. There isno question that such progitms present a viable strategy for primaryprevention. The apparent socia need, the availability of the researchneeded to develop curricula, and common sense all support the
proposal.

436

School Quality Checklist
for Appropriate Involvementin Child Abuse and Neglect
Whiff there is r n substitute for the personal knowledge a professional has

regarding chg.; abuse and neglect, those working in service providing

institutions and age- cies must function within the confines of "thesystem." On the preceding pages the importance of good school policies
and procedures has been discussed, and an example of the report form
has been presented. A flow chart of the steps inv. Ived in most sch-olsituations may be found in Appendix B.
If the :-hoofs ?re to become an integral part of e multidisciplinary
commul..ty pr.igrams designed to combat child abuse and neglect, then

their efforts will extend beyond simple, reporti-g to the designatedageacies and in-house programs. The concept of a community school isstill alive and well in most parts of the country. Becoming a part of thecommunity's effort to solve the problems of abuse and neglect is a worthy
undertaking.
The fallowing S.:hoot Quality Checklist, a 5 point Likert (1973) typescale, is designed to help assess the extent to which a school system (or asingle attendance unit within a system) is participating in community
efforts to solve the problems of abuse and neglect.
School Child Abuse/Neglect Checklist

Listed below are the gas toward which every school should strive in aneffort to eliminate child abuse and neglect in our society. Rate your school
on a scale of 1 to 5:

1= Not involved= Somewhat involved
3 = Involved but needing improvement
4= Substantially involved
5= E. t, -isivelv involved
1. My school has developed and implemented a policy and procAuces tobe followed in the identification and reporting of suspected cases ofchild abuse and neglect.
1

2

3

4

5
37

42

,

2. My school has developed and disseminated infcrmation to the public
on the school's roles and responsibilities in the identification andreporting of suspected child abuse and neglect cases.
1

2

4

3

5

3. My school, in cooperation with the child protection agency, physicians,

police, hospital personnel,' lawyers, and interested and concerned
parents, has helped develop an awareness within the community of theextent to which child abuse and neglect may be present
1

2'.

4

3

5

4. My school (and my colleagues) act as an advocate to ensure that services are provided for abused and neglected children and their families.
1

2

4

3

5

5. My

provides annual inservice training for all school employeeson the subject of identifying and reporting children suspect I of being
abused and/or neglected.
1

2

4

3

5

6. My school ensures that all records of child abuse and neglect are con-sidered health and safety records, are not placed in the child's
educational record, and are maintained in a "central school registry"on all reports.
1

2

4

3

5

7. As a part of the inservice training provided, my school makes sure thatall personnel are aware of the effects that abuse, neglect, and sexualmolestation can have upon the child's academic performance andbehavior in sch
1

2

)l.
3

4

5

8. My s,:hool has helped develop an'awareness among my colleagues andother scht.ol personnel that abuse of children is multidimensional andcan resuit in a high incidence of abused and neglected children being
enrolled in special education classes.
1

2

3

4

5

9. My school has helped all personnel develop an .awareness 01 theimportance of their behavior upon the development of behavior
patterns and personality characteristics of the child.
1

2

3

4

5

10. My school offers programs for both secondary students (grades 7
through 12) and adults on appropriate child rearing and parenting
behaviors.
1

38

2

3

4

5

43

11. My school, in cooperation with other community agencies and organizations, helps provide child care services and facilities for school age
parents.
1

2

3
.. .

,4

5

12. My school, in cooperation with other community agencies and organizations, helps provide child care services suc h as crisis nursery facilities,
preschool day care centers, and other crisis intervention services.
1

2

3

4

.

5

13. My school conducts a review and evaluation of the child abuse andneglect policies, procedures, programs, and services at least once
annually.
1

2

3

4

5

14. My school seeks to employ new teachers and other school personnel
from teacher education programs that provide preservice training in
the identification, reporting, treatment, and prevention of child abuse
and neglect.
1

2

3

4

5

15. My school is represented on the multidisciplinary team established in
the community to help solve individual child abuse and neglect cases aswell as to create a climate where abuse, neglect, and sexual molestationof children is reduced or eliminated.
1

2

3

'4

5

44

39

Summary and Concluding
StatementChild abuse ano neglect is characterized by a number of abusive or
neglectful incidents over a period of time that become collectively more
severe the longer the abusive or neglectful behaviors continue. It
becomes readily apparent therefore, that all of society's resources andespecially all of the school's resources ought to be used to identify andreport any suspected case of abuse or neglect or any apparent inflictedinjury to a child. Identification and reporting should be done at theearliest possible moment, not only to protect the child from further injury
but also to avoid academic and personality deficits which have been
proven to_coeixist with abuse and neglect.
The costs of child abuse and neglect in this country have yet to beestablished. The true costs, however, are not to be calculated in terms ofdollars and cents. The true costs may never be visible but they are,nonetheless, very real. The abuse and neglect of children rob the victims
of a-chance to share the social, economic, and personal benefits of society
and cripples the society itself.

Knowledgeable educators can, should, and will become effective
agents in the battle against childhood's most tragic diseasechild abuse
and neglect.

4045Appendix A-A Concept Analysis of the Abused ChildAs Zig ler (1976) wrote, "Related to this perplexing problem [of definition)is our lack of a differentiated and conceptually-based classification systemfor child abuse" (p. 3).

Somewhat earlier, Kline and Hopper (1975) had reached the sameconclusion and set about the task of developing a-concept analysis of theabused child. It should be r,Jted that Zigler called for a conceptuallybased classification system for the processchild abusewhile Kline andHopper attempted to arrive at a conceptual definition descriptive of the
productthe abused child.
Based on an extensive review of the literature from the fields ofamedicine, social work, psychology, law, andeducation, the systematic
procedure known as "concept analysis" (Markle & Tiemann, 1970;
Thiagarajan, Semmel, & Semmel, 1974) was applied to the content of theliterature. The result was a differentiated and conceptually based classification system which identified three critical attributes* and a wide variety
of insufficient or irrelevant attributes of the abused and neglected child.

An abused or neglected child may be identified only if three criticalattributes are always present: (a) the individual must be under the age of18; (b) the individual must be under the charge of a caretaker; and (c) the
individual must have been nonaccidentally injured.
The first critical attribute has been extracted from the, legal literatureand is consistent with the law in most states.
The second critical attribute follows logically since, with the exceptions

enumerated in the law, an individual who has not reached the age ofmajority (18 in most states) is by definition under the charge of a caretaker.
The term caretaker is used here to convey the fact that children May beunder the charge of an institution, foster parents, baby sitters, and the like,as well as under the charge of natural parents.
Critical attributes are properties common to the concept and therefore must be
contained in every example or the concept. If any of the critical attributes of the abusedchild concept noted above are not present, that child may not be considered an exampleof the concept; rather, the child is a nonexample of the concept.

46

41

Concept Analysis Schem
C o,nnc.

Cd^1..ov4,,Nch,,, 6

Caisemn

C 41!w4,,

IflBy

Or7,41,0n

ABUSED CHILD
CONCEPT ANALYSIS

Fs,Moiogtc,

Fro,4n.94'101,..4fmt

17-7\.; bruin

SCSI

bUrttl

ij

conk

solo
410%

1

r"

1

11A

OWN

wigs.

abdorn47'

A an Abused Child
CokonnPNowalINICnotory.t

MeCINC.

s,ss.1,1ar11

1

pets a'I
155

b. ar.,a,io.seiva"a0071-01*,

l+f.er.,1 -.)...

,"{staqs5 ^,II

en7.4e1 j
..,

.rna

/*moilPO.1,,01

eagn

rwts.,,g.1011p.

41,44,s
oang

1

4

crop

[uncut...,q,s3 Pga,,1.14,7fr.11.0,Nwpo,NVY
nornotOM

48

The third critical attribute of the abused child concept is the mostdifficult to comprehend. The question that is nearly always asked is, How

can you tell whether the injury was accidentally or nonaccidentallyinduced?
The literature from the field of medicine clearly establishes the fact thatthe history given of the specific injury and the nature of the injury must becompatible if one is to accept the cause as being accidental. When thenature of a physical injury is at variance with the history given, there is astrong likelihood that the injury occurred nonaccidentally. In addition tothe overwhelming evidence presented in the medical literature, somestates (Connecticut and Louisiana) have adopted this language to-define
the term abuse in legislation mandating the reporting of suspected casesof child abuse.

The field of medicine has developed highly sophisticated diagnostic
procedures to differentiate between accidental and nonaccidental injuries. Medical diagnosis used in conjunction with extended diagnosis*

greatly minimizes the margin of error. Thus, the critical attributenonaccidentally injured is not only essential to the concept of the abusedchild but is also capable of being determined with a high degree of
accuracy, even though the specific type of injury varies from example toemple.)y referring to the concept analysis scheme presented on pages 42-43
should be able to identify the critical 'attributes (Columns 2, 3,
andn cessary in every example of an abused child. Columns 5 and 6 ofthe concept analysis scheme show the category of injury and classify the
injury as one of omission (neglect) or commission (abuse). Columns 7 andthe ead

8 show the type of physical injury (irrelevant attributes or insufficientattributes which, in and of themselves, vary from case to case without
affecting the integrity of the concept) and how the injuries are mostfrequently described in the existing literature. Column 9 identifies basic
procedures employed in the medical diagnosis. Columns 10,11,12, and 13

show the relationship between sociological and psychological descriptors and physical descriptors through the use of the extended diagnosis.
The last four columns of the analysis scheme are of special importance toschool personnel, since these descriptors help identify the behaviors
abused children are most likely to exhibit and teathers are most likely toobserve.
While the concept analysis-scheme presented here fails to provide thedifferentiated and conceptually based classification system for the process
The extended cliagriois is the investigation made by a social worker, peace officer, orother child proles tive service worker of the environment from which the child comes, t e.,
the child's home or place of residensie (institution), the living conditions, other family
members or individuals living in the same environment, etc The extended diagnosis isdesigned to determine situations and/or circumstances that tend to confirm or denywhether the nature of the injury is at variance with the history given
44

4

(child ab \jse) Zig ler (1976) seeks, it does provide a differentiated andconceptually based classif:Lation system for the product (the abusedchild).
School personnel who understand and use this concept will find that it
identifies those attributes of the abused and neglected child fhat must bepresent in every case as well,as those attributes that vary from case to case.

With modest training, school personnel should be able to identify thosechildren who appear to be at risk and who should benefit from further

investigation by those responsible for child protective services. In
addition, researchers and curriculum developers should find the concept
analysis scheme useful in identifying elements susceptible to research aswell as essential to the development of instructional programs designed totransmit knowledge about abused and neglected children.
Admittedly, a differential diagnosis of child abuse is not only complex,
but also involves personnel from a variety of disciplines. Few complex
problems of childhood are amenable to a single discipline diagnosis.
Teachers and other school personnel are not required not should they

be expected to make a definitive diagnosis. This is the task of thephysician, the social worker, the peace ofticer, and other child protective
service workers. It is, however, both the legal and professional
responsibility of school personnel to recognize the signs and symptoms ofneglect and abuse and to make a formal request for further investigation.

c

50

45

p

Appendix B
F w Chart of School
Pe Onnel Reporting Procedures
The followin page illustrates the steps in reporting suspected cases ofchild abuse an neglect. These are general procedures as some might varyfrom school tohoot or from district to district. A more detailed expla-

nation of these prbcedures can be found on pages 31-33, and an exampleof the child abuse aid neglect report form can be found on page 34.
N

4

r

51
46

Employees should be

Eiripluvee observes
and records dataon the Child hthe si.hool setting

died la the pOSSiOle

s g S o symptoms

SrART

END

Ab` 'SC Jr

geL,
4

Does

the emplefte
Suspect childabuse or neglect/

Prinonal or designee
praces one copy or ,he (Ps!,,cr s child abuse 'neglect
report form ,n a separate
hie to be matntamed

YES

the schoo1

Isppreopal or designee
d'aiis within 24 hours one
copy at the district ;chief ohoSe neglect report
Ong furti to the agency
receiyng the oral repot,NO

prmcipal ordesignee avail-

able/

YES

Principal or designee
mails within 24 hours one
Copy of the district 5Child abase-neglect reportng form for Ming at thepupil personnel office

Employee makes Immeate oral repOrt
rectry to theauthorities

Employee makes
immediate oral
report to the-principal ordesignee

Employee and admen

Istrato or teacher
conducts interview
with the Child togather information

Employee completes

1 1 s to thecpa, or his
ea, the drs

ch.,1 abuse
ealuaI

Does
interviewPrincipal or h,5
de5,ghee nforrhs r,
writing the school
employee imtialing
the report of theoral reportPr r

pal or h,

I. ,1,1,0P makeshU.?

soppOrt childabuse or neglect

Principal ordesignee uses the
district s procedurefor handling Mfg,
IPS or illness

MP Oral,ho401h rit,547

52

Glossary of Terms
Abnonhal: Devialing from a standard; not average, typical, or usual.
Abused child: The product of child abuse; any person under the age of 18 years in
the charge of a caretaker who is nonaccidentally injured by aft act of omission orcommission.

Affective domain: A sphere of activity or influence pertaining to feelings or
emotions.
Aggressive: Behavior characterized by offensive acts or attacks; action or activity
carried out in a forceful manner.

Bilateral: Affecting or pertaining to both sides of the body.

Bruise: An injury tdoes not break the skin but causes ruptures of the small
underlying vessels with resultant discoloration of tissues; contusion.
Burn: An injury produced by, or as if by, burning (described in terms of degrees-

1st, 2nd, 3rdin accordance with their depth through the skin).
Caretaker: Anyone responsible for the health and well being of a child (a parent,
guardian, foster parent, teacher, baby sitter, or any other person charged with theCare of a child).

Central nervous system: The system controlling those bodily functions of,relating to, comprising, or originating in the brain and spinal cord.

Clingy: Behavior characterized by a strong tendency to physically hold onto
and/or a reluctance to separate from; a strong emotional dependence.
Cognitive domain: A sphere of activity or influence pertaining to or relating to
the acquisition and application of knowledge.
Commission: A willful or volitional act.
Concept: A class of members that share some properties in common.
Confined: A state existing when movement is restricted beyond accepted norms;
bound, imprisoned, denied freedom, Pocked up.

Critical attribute: A property of every example of a concept. (If it is removed, theexample becomes a nonexample.)48

53

Descriptor: A property of a concept which may, in and of itself, be insufficient but
delimits examples of the concept; pictures, words, descriptions, characteristics.

Destructiveness: Behavior resulting in damage to property, self, or others.
Different stages of healing: I nju: ies of differing ages:

Domain: A sphere of influence or activity.
Extended diagnosis: The use of social, emotional, ecanomic,-or other environmental factors which tend to confirm or deny suspected cases of child abuse.
Ff #4.'_ ire: A break or rupture in the bone.

Chip fracture: A break in a bone which separates a small fragment from themain body of the bone.
Concussion.fracture: A b-eak in a bone resulting from impact.
Green stick fracture: An incomplete fracture of the long bones, principally inthe forearm; one side of the bone is broken and the other side is bent.
Long bone fracture: A break in one of the elongated bones supporting a limb,e.g., femur, humerus.

Spiral fracture: A break in a bone resulting from a twisting or torque.

Gross examination: Physical examination without the aid of radiologic
instruments or surgical entry.
Hematoma: A swelling containing blood.
Injury: A harm, hurt, or wound that adversely affects health,-looks, comfort, or
success. A specific impairment of body structure or function caused by an outside___agent or force which may be physical, chemical, or psychic.

Internal irjury: An injury to the internal organs, e.g.; bowel, kidneys, spleen,
liver, heart, lungs, mesentery.

Lability: Characterized by rapid emotional or mood changes.
Lethargic: Apathetic, sluggish; a state of overpowering drowsiness or sleepiness.

Malnutrition: Faulty or i, adequate nutrition; the state resulting from inadequate
or improper feeding.
Marasmus: Progressive wasting or emaciation, especially a wasting in infants;
failure to thrive.
Masochism: The act of inflicting harm or causing harm to be inflicted upon one's
self.

Mesentery: The membrane enfolding the intestines.
Metaphyseal: The line of the junction of the shaft of a long bone (diaphysis) andthe end segment of the bone (epiphysis), which daring early life are separated bycartilage.

Neglectful: Giving little or no attention or regard to; careless; unattending;inadequate caring.
49

54

A

Nonacddental: Occurring other than by chance; an injury which is inconsistent
with tlit stated cause.
Omissiom The act of neglecting of leaving undone; neglect of duty; failure to act.
-

.Paralysis: Complete or parti...I loss of function involving motion or sensation in apart of the body.

Pratve: 'lot reacting visibly to something that might be expected to produce
manifestations of an emotion or feeling.

Performance lag: Ar unexplained discrepancy between observed and realistically expectable behavior.
Physical: Of or pertaining to the body.
Posturing: Retna;,-,ing motionless for unusually long periods of time.

PfichOlogical injury. Th-- which adversely affects the emotional or intellectual
well be:ag of a child.

Psy.hotic: Referring to mental disorders characterized by c1,4ective or lost
contact with reality.
Radiologic: Of of dertaining to the use of radioactw.t substances in medicine;
x-ray, principally referring to x-ray diagribsis.
Retarded: Limited in intellectual or emotional development.
Retinal hemorrhage: Rupture of blood Mess: is in the perceptive structure of theeye.

Roentgenology: The branch of radiology which deals with the diagnostic andthm.apeutical use of roentgen rays.

Role reversal: A pathological pattern of behavior aherein a child assumes theparent role of providing emotional support.

50

55

References
Bakan, D. Slaughter of the innocents. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1971.

Bremmer, R. H. Children and ycuth in America (Vol. 2). Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1971.

Broadhurst, D. Project protection: A school program to detect and prevent childabuse and neglect. Children Today, 1975, 4, 22-25.
Caffey,). Infantile cortica I,hyperostosis. Journal of Pediatricc, 1946,29, 541-559. (a)Caffey, ).Multiple fractures in long bones of infants suffering from subdural
hematoma. American Journal of r' antgeno/ogy, 1946, 56, 163-173. (b)Child Protection Repoit, 1977, 3 (4).

DeFrancis, V. Protecting the child victim of sex _crimes committed by adults.
Denver: Children's Division, American Humane Association, 196,.
deMause, L. Our forebears made childhood a nightn-iare. Psychology Today,
1975, 8, 85-88.

Education Commission of the States. Educational policies and practices regardingchild abuse (Report No. 85). Denver: Education Commission of the States, 1976.
Education Commission of the States. Teacher educationAn active participant insolving the problems of 0- !d abuse (Report No. 99). Denver: Education
Commission of the States, 19%7.

Ferro, F. Combatting child abuse and neglect. Children Today, 1975, 4, cover 2.
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