The Meaning of ‘Theory’∗

GABRIEL ABEND
Northwestern University‘Theory’ is one of the most important words in the lexicon of contemporary sociology. Yet, their ubiquity notwithstanding, it is quite unclear what sociologists
mean by the words ‘theory,’ ‘theoretical,’ and ‘theorize.’ I argue that confusions
about the meaning of ‘theory’ have brought about undesirable consequences, including conceptual muddles and even downright miscommunication. In this paper
I tackle two questions: (a) what does ‘theory’ mean in the sociological language?;and (b) what ought ‘theory’ to mean in the sociological language? I proceed infive stages. First, I explain why one should ask a semantic question about ‘theory.’
Second, I lexicographically identify seven different senses of the word, which I distinguish by means of subscripts. Third, I show some difficulties that the current
lack of semantic clarity has led sociology to. Fourth, I articulate the question,‘what ought “theory” to mean?,’ which I dub the ‘semantic predicament’ (SP),and I consider what one can learn about it from the theory literature. Fifth, I
recommend a ‘semantic therapy’ for sociology, and advance two arguments about
SP: (a) the principle of practical reason—SP is to a large extent a political issue,
which should be addressed with the help of political mechanisms; and (b) the
principle of ontological and epistemological pluralism—the solution to SP should
not be too ontologically and epistemologically demanding.

1. INTRODUCTION‘Theory’ is one of the most important words in the lexicon of contemporary sociology. I am not referring only—in fact, not principally—to the subfield of sociologicaltheory. The words ‘theory,’ ‘theoretical,’ and ‘theorize’ are constantly and consequentially used by all sociologists. For instance, one way of describing what sociologistsof social movements do is to say that they develop ‘theories’ about social movements.
What sociologists of the family do is to develop ‘theories’ about the family. And soon. Moreover, it is a widespread belief that empirical sociological research should
be driven or informed by ‘theory.’ Thus, sociology journals tend to reject ‘atheoretical’ and ‘undertheorized’ papers, as well as papers that fail to make a ‘theoretical∗ Direct correspondence to: Gabriel Abend, Department of Sociology, Northwestern University, 1810
Chicago Ave., Evanston, IL 60208 (g-abend@northwestern.edu). The origins of this paper lie in an invitation to reflect on the present and future of sociological theory. I am thankful to the organizers of
the Junior Theorists Symposium 2005—Mathieu Deflem, Marion Fourcade, and Neil Gross—for this invitation, and to my discussant, Charles Camic. I also benefited from conversations with fellow “juniortheorists” Pierre Kremp, Simone Polillo, Isaac Reed, Erika Summers-Effler, Jonathan VanAntwerpen,
and Robb Willer. I presented a slightly different version of the argument at the 2005 Annual Retreatof the Society for Comparative Research, hosted by Central European University. At this conference I
received useful suggestions from my discussant, Jack Goldstone, as well as from Carsten Schneider andRobin Stryker. Finally, I am indebted to Sareeta Amrute, Charles Camic, Mathieu Deflem, Marion Fourcade, Neil Gross, Carol Heimer, Adam Kissel, Donald Levine, Richard Morales, Michael Sauder, Arthur
Stinchcombe, Devin B. Terhune, and the Sociological Theory editors and reviewers for their comments
and criticisms on earlier drafts of this paper.

Sociological Theory 26:2 June 2008
C American Sociological Association. 1430 K Street NW, Washington, DC 20005

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contribution’ to the literature (be the paper’s subject-matter inequality, education,
gender, or culture). Sociologists’ business is to ‘theorize’ about social things. Indeed,that sociology offers ‘theories’ about social things is arguably what makes it countas a social science (and differentiates it from the accounts of society that laypersons,poets, and journalists offer).
But what exactly do sociologists mean by the words ‘theory,’ ‘theoretical,’ and‘theorize’? Their ubiquity notwithstanding, we shall see that it is quite unclear whatthese words mean in the sociological language. More importantly, we shall also seethat this is not at all an abstract philosophical problem, unrelated to the actual
production of sociological knowledge. Unfortunately, semantic confusions about theword ‘theory’ have led to much miscommunication, inside and outside the subfield ofsociological theory. Rather than an abstract philosophical problem, this is a practicalproblem, which—insofar as agreed-upon logical and semantic bases are a prerequisite
for any sort of epistemic progress—sociology cannot neglect.
Thus, in this paper I tackle two main questions: (a) what does ‘theory’ mean in
the sociological language?; and (b) what ought ‘theory’ to mean in the sociologicallanguage? I proceed in five stages. First, I very briefly explain why it is a good idea
to ask a semantic question about ‘theory.’ Second, I investigate what ‘theory’ andsome of its inflected forms are taken to mean by different sociologists in different
sociological contexts. I find seven senses of the word, which I distinguish by meansof subscripts (theory 1 , theory 2 , theory 3 , etc.). Third, I consider whether the polysemyof ‘theory’ is a good or a bad thing. As this introductory section suggests, I believe
the latter to be the case, so section 4 brings out some difficulties that the current
state of semantic affairs has gotten sociologists into. Up to that point, the argument
is that the extension and intension of the word ‘theory’ are unclear, and that thishas brought about undesirable consequences. The fourth stage of my argument is to
ask what is to be done about this problem. How ought sociologists to use the word
‘theory’? This is what I dub the ‘semantic predicament’ (SP). Then I consider what
one can learn from the theory literature, both in terms of missteps to be avoided
and insights to be built on. Fifth, I recommend a ‘semantic therapy’ for sociology,
and advance two arguments about SP: (a) the principle of practical reason—SP is toa large extent a political issue, which should be addressed with the help of politicalmechanisms; and (b) the principle of ontological and epistemological pluralism—thesolution to SP should not be too ontologically and epistemologically demanding.
2. A MATTER OF MEANING?
‘What is theory?’ ‘What is a good theory?’ ‘What is theory for?’ These are threequestions to which sociologists have certainly given a lot of thought. Let us call them,
respectively, the ontological question, the evaluative question, and the teleologicalquestion. I would like to raise an apparently more basic and apparently simpler
one: ‘what does “theory” mean?’ 1 Let us call this the ‘semantic question’ (SQ). I
say that SQ seems to be a more basic question, because the other three presuppose
some stance on it. SQ seems to be a simpler question as well. Unlike the ontological
1 I follow John Lyons’s (1977) typographical conventions, although making a few modifications: (i) single
quotation marks: 1. for lexemes and expressions (when they are mentioned rather than used); 2. for thecitation of sentences; 3. instead of double quotation marks within double quotation marks; (ii) double
quotation marks: 1. for meanings; 2. for quotations from other authors; 3. for titles of articles; 4. insteadof single quotation marks within single quotation marks; (iii) italics: 1. for emphasis; 2. for titles of books
and journals; 3. for words in languages other than English.

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question, it does not force us to think about metaphysics, reality, essences, being, andthe like. Unlike the evaluative question, it does not involve the tricky predicate ‘(be)good.’ Unlike the teleological question, it does not appear to require that we areclear about the nature and aims of sociology. Rather, considering that sociologists
frequently use the word ‘theory,’ SQ just asks what it is meant by that mark on thepaper or string of sounds.
In order to show why it is a good idea to raise SQ and what one may learn fromit, let me propose a thought experiment. Suppose a person named Jones uttered thefollowing words: ‘It never snows in Chicago in January.’ You can have either of two
reactions to this statement. One is to think that Jones has a false belief. Since you haveactually lived a few years in Chicago, you know all too well that it does snow there
in January. Probably Jones got that piece of information from an unreliable source,which she mistakenly took to be a reliable one. In all likelihood, she has never lived
there herself. A second possible reaction is to think that Jones is confused about themeaning of the words she is using (for example, you may speculate that her English
is bad). Perhaps what she intends to assert is, ‘It often snows in Chicago in January,’
but has confounded the adverbs of frequency ‘never’ and ‘often.’ If this were thecase, then Jones would have a true belief. Or, she might have intended to affirm
that ‘it never snows in Chicago in July,’ but got the English names of the months
wrong. Similarly, the problem might lie in what the word ‘Chicago’ is taken to referto. If by ‘Chicago’ Jones is referring to the largest city in the U.S. state of Illinois,
whose mayor is Richard M. Daley, etc., then her statement is patently false. But
maybe Jones is referring to a small town somewhere in South America, also named‘Chicago,’ where it never snows in January.
The general point is that, as Donald Davidson (1984:142) puts it, ‘[i]f all we haveto go on is the fact of honest utterance, we cannot infer the belief without knowing
the meaning, and have no chance of inferring the meaning without the belief.’ So, as
things stand, it is impossible to determine whether Jones has an untrue understandingof Chicago’s weather or an untrue understanding of what the English word ‘never’means. To put it without bringing epistemic privileges into play, it is impossible todetermine whether the disagreement between Jones and you is one of meaning or
belief. And if the former is the case, any discussion you have with Jones about theoccurrence of snow in Chicago in January will be futile, and probably frustrating.
I think that something like this is at the bottom of sociologists’ unremitting disagreements about ‘theory.’ Sociology has been plagued by disputes over what a goodtheory is, what constitutes a theoretical contribution, where theory should go, whether
sociology has made theoretical progress, which theoretical paradigm should be favored, what the functions of theory are, what it is for a paper to be an atheoreticalone, and so on. These disputes have been framed as being about the nature, features,functions, and future of a certain entity that the word ‘theory’ is supposed to pickout, not as being about what exactly it is that the word ‘theory’ picks out. This framing is misguided. I argue that before any progress can be made on those importantquestions, certain confusions about our words and concepts must be cleared up.
For example, suppose that A, B, and C are three sociologists, and they engage in a
discussion about the question, ‘how should theory be judged?’ Now, when A speaksof ‘theory’ she mainly thinks of an ongoing dialogue with some classic texts. When B
speaks of ‘theory’ she mainly thinks of the construction of propositions of the form
‘if p then q.’ And when C speaks of ‘theory’ she mainly thinks of the developmentof lexica and schemata with which to talk about the social world. Not surprisingly,
A, B, and C find it impossible to come to an agreement about the question under

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discussion. Yet the most reasonable interpretation of this situation is not that A, B,
and C have a substantive disagreement about how theory should be judged, butrather that they are talking about different things. That they are indeed talking about
different things should not be obscured by the fact that they happen to use the same
English word (or, to be more precise, that nearly identical phonemes come out of
their mouths).
A, B, and C illustrate the kind of problem that many arguments and debates about‘theory’ have suffered from: they bypass SQ, and start directly with ontological,
evaluative, or teleological questions about the ‘object’ everyone is purportedly referring to. The circumvention of SQ has brought about much miscommunication. Verymuch like scientists working under different paradigms, who use the same word—e.g., ‘mass’—to express different concepts (Kuhn 1970), oftentimes sociologists literally talk past one another. In a snowball fashion, it has also brought about further
semantic and conceptual confusions, as ‘theory’ (however conceived) is at the heartof several other sociological problems, debates, projects, and institutions.
In brief, there are three reasons why sociology needs a semantic analysis of ‘theory.’
First, it will improve understanding and communication, without which there can be
no productive (indeed, no meaningful) substantive discussion. Second, it will prevent
what I call in section 4 the ‘Socratic error’: the belief that theory is an object out
there that our concepts or language can track down. As we shall see, A, B, and C
will never find out whose definition really refers and whose definition fails to refer,because there is no real or objective referent for ‘theory.’ Consequently (third), it willshow that how one ought to use the word ‘theory’ is to a great extent a political orpractical-reason problem.
In the next section I identify seven different senses of the word ‘theory’ in thesociological language. Yet before moving on to this task, I would like to add an
important caveat. The problems sociology is interested in can be neither solved nor
dissolved by means of conceptual or linguistic analysis. For these are genuine problems, not mere linguistic puzzles. What I argue is just that they would be much
more profitably addressed if our words and concepts were clearer. Let me illustrate
the point. Consider an imaginary world in which an omnipotent tyrant could force
A, B, and C to eliminate the word ‘theory’ from their vocabularies. From now on,
she would declare, in sociology the word ‘theory’ shall be meaningless; the word
‘gavagai’ shall mean “ongoing dialogue with some classic texts”; the word ‘ravagai’shall mean “construction of propositions of the form ‘if p then q’ ”; and the word
‘savagai’ shall mean “development of lexica and schemata with which to talk about
the social world.” In some respects this decree would make things better: A, B, andC will have fewer misunderstandings, will identify with more precision what it isthat they disagree about, and will have more fruitful conversations about these issuesof discord. Nevertheless, most of the fundamental problems will remain untouched.
First and foremost, one would not have made any progress at all on questions suchas: Is gavagai (ravagai, savagai, tavagai) beneficial, useful, important, necessary, etc.?
If it turns out that all of them are legitimate parts of the discipline, how do they
fit together? How should they be weighed? Nor would one have made any progressat all on questions internal to each of these parts, such as: What is a good gavagai(ravagai, savagai, tavagai)? What is gavagai for? What gavagais are true, valid, plausible, ‘warrantedly assertible,’ etc.? How does one tell a true from a false gavagai?
Who are the classics of sociological gavagai? These problems are not an artifact of
our linguistic practices, rules, and conventions, and hence cannot be settled by any
clarification of what words mean or what things are called.

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3. THE MULTIPLE MEANINGS OF ‘THEORY’
I would like now to distinguish seven different things that sociologists may mean
when they use the word ‘theory.’ My task in this section is not evaluative but descriptive. Like the lexicographer, I want to give an empirical account of different ways
in which a particular word is used by competent speakers of a certain language (seeAllan 2001; Cruse 1986; Landau 2001; Sager 2000). Each of these senses is used bysome reasonably large number of people whom one can reasonably call ‘sociologists.’
However, each of them may be considered semantically inaccurate or even incorrect
by some other people, whom one can reasonably call ‘sociologists’ as well. Still, thesepeople will probably not say that it does not make any sense, that the utterance isunintelligible, that the speaker knows nothing about sociology, or that she is out ofher mind.
It is crucial to realize the differences between my lexicographic exercise and theusual attempts to distinguish kinds, types, or forms of theory, theoretical approaches,ways of theorizing, etc. These attempts address themselves to the ontological question, ‘what are the different kinds of theory?’ But this question presupposes an underlying concept of theory, of which there are kinds to be found. For example, you
may set out to identify the different ‘theoretical schools’ that exist in sociology, andcome to the conclusion that there are four of them: S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 . However, you
are committing a petitio principii here: while it is quite clear what it is about thesefour things that makes them ‘schools,’ you are begging the question of what it isthat makes them ‘theoretical’ ones in the first place. It is your own, a priori conceptof theory what allows you to tell what is and what is not a theory or a theoreticalschool. In addition, you are performatively making a strong normative claim. You
are indeed taking sides in the very dispute these ‘theoretical schools’ have over what
theory is. In all probability, S 1 does not see any theory at all in the projects carriedout by S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 (and vice versa). But you disagree: according to you, S 2 , S 3 , andS 4 are genuine theoretical schools—that is why they are included in your typology.
By contrast, my semantic approach does not presuppose a concept of theory. It does
not make any ontological commitments or normative claims. It just reports on what
different sociologists seem to mean when they use the words ‘theory,’ ‘theoretical,’and ‘theorize.’
Theory 1 . If you use the word ‘theory’ in the sense of theory 1 , what you meanby it is a general proposition, or logically-connected system of general propositions,which establishes a relationship between two or more variables. As an example, let us
consider the ‘mass society version’ of the ‘breakdown theory’ of social movements:“Individuals are most likely to join social movements when they have few personalties within a community and a weak sense of identification with that community”(Useem 1980:357). This theory establishes a relationship between the variables ‘likelihood of joining social movements,’ ‘number of personal ties within a certain community,’ and ‘strength of sense of identification with a certain community.’ But what
I would like to stress is that if the theory were put in symbolic form, it would haveto be universally quantified. The subject of the sentence is not ‘some individuals,’‘late nineteenth-century individuals,’ or ‘Chinese individuals.’ The theory establishes
a relationship between those three variables in general, independently of things liketime and place.
Likewise, when it is said that ‘empirical investigations should make a theoreticalcontribution,’ what is usually meant is that ‘empirical investigations should make atheoretical 1 contribution.’ For instance, suppose you write a paper about two social

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movements that arose during the May Revolution of 1810 in Buenos Aires. For it
to be accepted for publication in a mainstream sociology journal, some conclusion
about social movements in general must have been drawn. Or, to put it using aubiquitous and highly-revealing euphemism, the empirical investigation must have‘suggested’ some more general conclusion. If there is no such a conclusion, thereviewers would probably point out that the paper is ‘atheoretical’ or, more benignly,that it is ‘undertheorized.’
Theory 2 . A theory 2 is an explanation of a particular social phenomenon. In thissense, if you say that you have a ‘theory’ about the demise of the Valois dynasty inlate-sixteenth-century France, what you mean is that you can offer an explanationof it. This explanation should identify a number of ‘factors’ or ‘conditions,’ which
individually should pass some sort of counterfactual test for causal relevance, andwhose interaction effects should be somehow taken into account. (A theory 2 could
be an explanation of some other kind; I consider only causal explanations because of
their hegemony in contemporary sociology.) So, for example, a theory 2 of the conceptof the self tells one why at a certain point in history such a concept came into being.
A theory 2 of the stock market crash of October 1929 tells one what brought it
about. A theory 2 of the victory of the White Party in the 1860 presidential elections
in Uruguay tells one why it is that it won.
Several epistemological understandings of social explanation are compatible withthe aims of theory 2 , some of which would see theory 1 as a misguided project. By
contrast, the deductive-nomological model of explanation posits a special relation
between theory 1 and theory 2 . As Hempel (1965:240) puts it, “in empirical science,the explanation of a phenomenon consists in subsuming it under general empiricallaws.” In this view, then, one or more theories 1 logically entail a certain theory 2 .
For instance, in order to explain why the Uruguayan White Party won in 1860, it
is necessary (and sufficient) to appeal to one or more general propositions about
voting behavior, electoral politics, party systems, and so on. What is important frommy point of view, however, is that even for the deductive-nomological model, theory 1
and theory 2 remain distinct entities.
Theory 3 . Like theory 1 and theory 2 , the main goal of a theory 3 is to say something
about empirical phenomena in the social world. However, the main questions thattheory 3 sets out to answer are not of the type ‘what x causes y?’ Rather, given acertain phenomenon P (or a certain fact, relation, process, trend), it asks: ‘what doesit mean that P?,’ ‘is it significant that P?,’ ‘is it really the case that P?,’ ‘what is P
all about?,’ or ‘how can we make sense of or shed light on P?’ Thus, one can thinkof theory 3 as a hermeneutical task, even if theorists 3 interpret social reality rather
than texts, and they do not necessarily share the philosophical inclinations of thehermeneutical tradition. To put it another way, what theories 3 offer is an original‘interpretation,’ ‘reading,’ or ‘way of making sense’ of a certain slice of the empiricalworld. They may shed new light on an empirical problem, help one understand somesocial process, or reveal what ‘really’ went on in a certain conjuncture. Unlike theory 1 ,theory 3 does not view P as the value of a variable y, which in turn is related to othervariables in such a way that can be described by a function y = F(x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n ).
Unlike theory 2 , theory 3 may or may not causally explain P.
For example, that you have a theory 3 of corruption in twentieth-century Latin
American politics does not mean that you have identified its causes. Nor does itmean that you know how this case fits into a system of social laws about politics, corruption, the law, and morality, which specifies the ‘conditions under which’corruption occurs. Rather, you may mean that your theory helps understand what

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corruption in twentieth-century Latin American politics ‘is all about’; that it provides
a ‘better interpretation’ of corruption in twentieth-century Latin American politics;
or that it tells a story about corruption in twentieth-century Latin American politics
that is illuminating, instructive, helpful, or edifying. Now, the exact nature of these‘interpretations’ is difficult to establish a priori, codify, and standardize. Therefore,
theory 3 may strike one as conceptually vague, methodologically problematic, or justunscientific. While they are rarer in U.S. sociology, theories 3 are a staple of some
Latin American and European sociological traditions (cf. Abend 2006).
Theory 4 . The word ‘theory’ and some of its derivatives are sometimes used to referto the study of and the students of the writings of authors such as Marx, Weber,
Durkheim, Simmel, Parsons, Habermas, or Bourdieu. These ‘studies’ are variously
described as ‘interpretations,’ ‘analyses,’ ‘critiques,’ ‘hermeneutical reconstructions,’or ‘exegeses.’ They often involve the study of ‘meaning,’ in either of the two following
meanings of ‘meaning.’ First, they may ask what the author of a text ‘really’ meant,that is, what she wanted to say when she wrote a particular passage (or essay, book,oeuvre). Most of the authors with which theory 4 concerns itself put forward very
complex arguments, which they put forward in a very complex style. Thus, theirwritings lend themselves to discussion about what exactly the argument is. In addition
to these discussions, one can reconstruct the logic of these arguments, identify how
the question is framed and how this framing affects the range of possible answers,
spell out assumptions, crucial concepts, borrowed ideas, etc. Furthermore, most ofthese authors have produced a large body of work, so theory 4 may also consider
how their thinking evolved, and, more generally, how they relate to their ancestors
and contemporaries. Second, theory 4 may ask what the meaning of a certain text isin another sense, namely, what is its significance, relevance, usefulness, what was or
is original about it, how it has been drawn upon, etc.
Most U.S. departments of sociology have on their faculty one or more persons
who are said to be ‘theorists.’ The graduate and undergraduate courses they teach are
typically called ‘sociological theory,’ ‘social theory,’ ‘classical theory,’ ‘contemporary
theory,’ or something like that. By saying ‘theorists’ and ‘theory courses’ in thesecontexts one generally means theorists 4 and theory 4 courses. Finally, note that you
can say that you: ‘are’ a theorist 4 ; ‘do’ theory 4 ; work in the field of theory 4 ; teacha theory 4 class; have written a theory 4 paper; or that one of your scholarly interestsis theory 4 . In fact, in most of these contexts it is likely that the word ‘theory’ betaken to mean theory 4 . However, you cannot have, have developed, or put forward atheory 4 . If the expressions ‘have a theory,’ ‘have developed a theory,’ or ‘put forward
a theory’ occur in a sentence, the word ‘theory’ is not being used in the sense oftheory 4 . Strangely, the predicate ‘(be) a theory 4 ’ cannot be applied to the content ofa theory 4 paper, to the product of the activity of doing theory 4 , or to the work of atheorist 4 .
Theory 5 . A theory 5 is a Weltanschauung, that is, an overall perspective from which
one sees and interprets the world. Unlike theories 1 , theories 2 , and theories 3 , theories 5
are not about the social world itself, but about how to look at, grasp, and represent
it. That is, theories 5 focus on our conceptual and linguistic equipment—for example,
the nature of the location from which we look at the social world, the lexicon andsyntax by means of which we talk about it, the nature of our conceptual scheme,
the categories into which we group things, and the logical relations that there canbe between concepts. Obviously, these ‘conceptual’ and ‘linguistic’ choices entail,are associated with, or are predicated upon many more general epistemological andontological views, which theorists 5 may or may not explicitly articulate. To name but

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asked, what counts as good evidence, whom are we talking to, what the social worldis made of, what properties can these entities have, how they fit together, and so on.
In its ideal-typical form, the core of a theory 5 does not have truth-values. While
its actual manifestations often include theories 1 and theories 2 , this is not logicallynecessary. For the thrust of theory 5 is, so to speak, syntactic rather than semantic.
In other words, theories 5 (again, in their ideal-typical form) do not offer propositions about what the social world is like (e.g., ‘Education is correlated with politicalparticipation’ or ‘The main cause of the fall of the Roman Empire was an economiccrisis’). Rather, they offer a way of looking at it or a way of talking about it (e.g.,‘Society can be thought of as a system’ or ‘The social world can be understoodas containing objects with properties and variables with values’). 2 Indeed, there areinteresting similarities between theory 5 and Kant’s categories of understanding. Theory 5 can be seen as providing one with an a priori framework (scheme, grid, map,
net, plan), a framework that is independent from experience, logically prior to any
contact with the social world. Thus, it would provide the conditions for the very
possibility of experience (or, more conservatively, the conditions for the intelligibilityof experience).
When one speaks of ‘postmodern theory,’ ‘poststructuralist theory,’ ‘feminist theory,’ ‘queer theory,’ ‘critical theory,’ ‘Marxist theory,’ ‘structural-functionalist theory,’‘network exchange theory,’ ‘game theory,’ and ‘rational choice theory,’ one is often
using the word ‘theory’ in this sense. Theory 5 can also occur as an adjective in expressions such as ‘theoretical approach,’ ‘theoretical school,’ ‘theoretical framework,’‘theoretical perspective,’ ‘theoretical tradition,’ ‘theoretical viewpoint,’ ‘orienting theoretical strategy,’ and ‘theoretical paradigm.’ This last one, of course, draws a parallel
between the field of sociological theory and Kuhn’s account of the history of science(Ritzer 1980). Another common example is the expression ‘theory-laden,’ which isoften predicated of ‘observation’ or ‘perception.’
Theory 6 . Lexicographers trace the etymology of the word ‘theory’ to the late Latinnoun ‘theoria,’ and the Greek noun ‘theōria’ and verb ‘theōrein’ (usually translated as“to look at,” “to observe,” “to see,” or “to contemplate”). The connotations of thesewords include detachment, spectatorship, contemplation, and vision. This etymology
notwithstanding, some people use the word ‘theory’ to refer to accounts that havea fundamental normative component. This usage I identify as theory 6 . For example, the contemporary projects of ‘critical theory,’ ‘feminist theory,’ and ‘postcolonial
theory’ are explicitly normative ones, which usually reject the fact/value dichotomy,
and hence the supposedly value-neutral sociological theory. The same is true of agood deal of ‘Marxist theory’ and ‘neo-Marxist theory,’ which draw inspiration fromMarx’s eleventh thesis on Feuerbach. Indeed, the expression ‘social theory’—as opposed to ‘sociological theory’—can have similar connotations. At least, self-defined‘social theorists’ are more likely to do theory 6 than, say, theory 1 . The basic point
for my purposes is that the word ‘theory’ can be used to refer to a normative, andindeed political, account—a far cry from other senses of it. (The expression ‘social
theory’ transcends the discipline of sociology and has close connections with thehumanities—see, e.g., Christian 1988; de Man 1986; Jay 1996; Knapp and Michaels
2 Sometimes these statements are presented as propositions about what the social world is like (e.g.,‘Society is a system,’ ‘Society is a text,’ ‘Education is a variable,’ ‘Social life is a theatrical performance’).
I take these formulations to be ellipses of ‘Society can be (profitably) thought of as a system,’ ‘Society canbe (profitably) thought of as a text,’ etc. For how could the truth-value of ‘Society is a text’ or ‘Education
is a variable’ be determined?

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1982. In fact, ‘social theorists’ deliberately try to transcend disciplinary boundaries.
Not surprisingly, ‘social theory’ has been used in a number of different ways. Moreover, these usages, as well as the relationships between ‘sociological theory’ and ‘social theory,’ have considerably changed over time—think of ‘social theory’ as usedby Stinchcombe [1968], Merton [1949, 1968], Goode [1973], or Coleman [1990]. Unfortunately, I cannot carry out a thorough analysis of ‘social theory’ in this paper[see Seidman and Alexander (2001)].)
Theory 7 . Many sociologists have written about issues such as the ‘micro-macro
problem,’ the ‘problem of structure and agency,’ or ‘the problem of social order.’This type of work is usually thought to fall within the domain of sociological theory.
One may also use the word ‘theory’ to refer to discussions about the ways in which‘reality’ is ‘socially constructed’; the scientific status of sociology (value freedom, theidea of a social law, the relations between explanation and prediction, explanation
and understanding, reasons and causes, and the like); or the ‘relativity’ of morality.
In these examples the word ‘theory’ assumes a distinct meaning, which I distinguishas theory 7 .
Theory 7 projects often include theory 4 elements (for instance, a reconstruction ofwhat Marx, Weber, and Durkheim said about the problem under consideration, or
what they would have said had they considered it). Moreover, as a matter of fact,
theorists 7 are often theorists 4 as well. Yet, whatever its usefulness or reasonableness,this correlation is not necessary but contingent. Theory 7 and theory 4 remain two
different projects. Similarly, while there can be relations between theory 5 and theory 7 ,occasionally even relations of necessity, the meaning of the two terms remains distinct.
Theory 7 does not refer to an overarching Weltanschauung, a way of looking at or
representing the social world. Rather, it refers to the study of certain special problems
that sociology has encountered. Even though it is because of its being in the businessof empirically investigating society that sociology has encountered these problems,
they are not empirical problems themselves (for example, they cannot be resolved
by means of empirical methods). They may be described as ‘philosophical’ problems,
insofar as they call for reflection upon the nature of knowledge, language, and reality,
and some sort of conceptual analysis. In fact, most of these problems have been taken
up in philosophy as well, usually under different rubrics, in a different voice, and inisolation from the sociological literature. To conclude with a reflexive note, the present
paper might be said to be a ‘theory’ paper mostly in the sense of theory 7 .
4. THE PROBLEMS OF POLYSEMY
Many natural language words have several different meanings. To take two examples
from Spanish, one of homonymy and one of polysemy: ‘aguja’ can mean “needle” or“hand of a clock”; ‘banco’ can mean “bank” or “bench.” Yet Spanish speakers haveno problem understanding one another. By considering its syntactic, semantic, andpragmatic contexts, they typically can discern whether any given token of ‘banco’
means “bank” or “bench.” More generally, they are aware of and know how todeal with this feature of the lexical semantics of their language. 3 In fact, for certain
3 Typical English examples of polysemy and homonymy are, respectively, ‘paper’ and ‘fluke.’ As two
linguists explain, “[s]trictly speaking, homographs are etymologically unrelated words that happen to
be represented by the same string of letters in a language. For example, bass the fish is derived from
Old English barse (perch) while bass the voice is derived from Italian basso. Conversely, polysemes are
etymologically and therefore semantically related, and typically originate from metaphorical usage” (Ravinand Leacock 2000:2; italics in original).

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purposes polysemy is not a liability but a great asset (Levine 1985a). Then why might
the multiple meanings of the word ‘theory’ constitute a problem for the sociologicallanguage and sociology in general?
One possible answer would stress the differences between the sociological language
and natural languages. Natural languages let one—and, arguably, must let one—
express one’s feelings, tell jokes, be ironic, do things with words, persuade, speak
without saying too much, tell stories, lie, affirm one’s identity, and talk of love.
By contrast, this argument goes, sociologists are mainly concerned with giving true
accounts of the social world. They put forward arguments, which are then subjected
to public scrutiny. Their claims are meant to be as precise as possible. Given theseaims, the sociological language ought not to be polysemous—all potential sourcesof ambiguity and fuzziness ought to be eliminated. This is, of course, a versionof the classic logical positivist position (e.g., Nagel 1961), and I do not mean todeny that in this context there is something to it. On the other hand, it is clear thatspeakers of natural languages do a very good job of dealing with cases of homonymy
and polysemy. In strict semantic terms, words and utterances may sometimes beambiguous. Yet, generally speaking, comprehension and communication do not seemto be impaired.
My argument is that in the case of ‘theory’ the problems stem from the erroneous
belief that there is something—indeed, one thing—out there for the word ‘theory’ toreally correspond to. Then, if one used the word to refer to anything but that object,
whatever it turned out to be, one would be mistaken. I want to call this the ‘Socraticerror.’ In many of Plato’s dialogues, Socrates sets out to answer a question of theform, ‘what is X?’ (see Robinson 1980). For example, in the Republic he asks ‘what
is justice?’; in the Euthyphro ‘what is piety?’; and in the Laches ‘what is courage?’(other examples are friendship, virtue, knowledge, and temperance). Socrates’ aim
is not to find out what things are just, what sort of thing justice is, what is goodabout justice, or what people mean by ‘justice,’ but what justice really is. Similarly,sociologists do not take theory 1 , theory 2 , theory 3 , etc., to be different senses of theword ‘theory,’ to be treated like different senses of the word ‘paper,’ ‘bass,’ or ‘fluke.’
Rather, they take them to be competing views about what theory (that is, the thing)really is, and hence competing views about the true meaning of ‘theory.’ 4Here lies the crux of the matter. Many sociologists have said that there are different ‘understandings’ or ‘conceptions’ of theory. More to the point, many have said
things like ‘theory means different things to different people’ or ‘different people
have different definitions of “theory”.’ Yet most sociologists have failed to draw thenecessary implications of this semantic fact. Thus, they still go on to ask Socratic
questions about theory, the object (which the word ‘theory’ supposedly picks out, or
should pick out). But recognizing “bank” and “bench” as two senses of the Spanish
word ‘banco’ has important consequences for the sort of questions that one can ask.

4 This view makes sense against the background of Plato’s metaphysics—for him, justice (and piety,courage, etc.) has an essence (Form, Idea, ‘eidos’), which philosophy can discover. But I take it that
this would seem a quite implausible ontological assumption to most contemporary sociologists—e.g.,that sociological theory has an essence, the Idea of sociological theory, which, if found, would settle
the controversy about what sociological theory is. As Robinson (1980:121) points out, there are “several
assumptions that must be made if Socrates’ question [what is X?] is to be a legitimate question admittingof a true answer. First, we must assume that the word X is univocal. Second, we must assume that thething X has an ‘essence.’ Third, we must make some sort of realist assumption about the ontologicalstatus of this ‘essence.’ And, fourth, we must assume that this ‘essence’ is not a ‘primary element’ but has
a structure that can be explicated; for otherwise we must already know what X is in asking the question
in Socrates’ sense.”THE MEANING OF ‘THEORY’183

While in Spanish they are referred to by the same word-form, benches and banks are
two very different things indeed. Therefore, only if one keeps these senses apart, can
one sensibly ask questions such as: what is a good banco?; how many kinds of bancos
are there?; what are bancos useful for?; or what is a banco? Likewise, we have seenthat the word ‘theory’ in the sociological language has several senses, each of whichtries to pick out a different thing. In fact, the difference between these things—e.g.,theory 1 and theory 4 —might be almost as significant as the difference between theconcept of a bank and the concept of a bench. Consequently, sociologists’ arguments
about ‘theory’—that is, about theory in general; about its nature, methods, quality,
aims, and possibilities—are neither as clear nor as fruitful as they should be. And,as one might expect, this state of affairs can lead to unfortunate misunderstandings.
Let me mention two important examples. Can small-N studies (e.g., ethnographic
and historical studies) yield ‘theoretical’ gains? The literature is as vast as it is discordant and inconclusive. 5 On a practical level, one often hears ethnographers andhistorical sociologists complain about the way in which their manuscripts are judged
by mainstream sociology journals. Probably the most common situation is the following: one or more referees say that the manuscript fails to make a ‘theoreticalcontribution’ or to ‘advance theory,’ often on the grounds that if your number ofcases is one you cannot derive ‘theoretical conclusions.’ Ethnographers and historicalsociologists respond that you can, and that the idea that you cannot reflects a bias
in favor of quantitative sociology. And so on. But if my argument is correct, there isno genuine disagreement here. If your number of cases is one, you obviously cannot
derive theoretical 1 conclusions. It is even dubious that a single case can ‘suggest’ (aswe saw above, a very common way of putting it) theoretical 1 conclusions. What ismore, if it is accepted that a theory 1 establishes a probabilistic rather than a deterministic relationship, a single case cannot even disprove it (Lieberson 1991, 1992).
But from an ethnographic or historical study you obviously can derive theoretical 2
and theoretical 3 conclusions. In fact, sometimes it might be the best or the only way
to obtain such ‘theories.’
Similarly, sociologists have long quarreled over the proper relationship between ‘sociological theory’ and ‘empirical research’ (for instance, ‘Sociological Theory and Empirical Research’ was the theme of the 2002 mini-conference of the Theory Section of
the ASA [Fine 2001]). Some of them argue that ‘theory’ ought to be ‘based on,’ ‘close
to,’ ‘linked to,’ ‘derived from,’ ‘in dialogue with,’ or ‘intimately related to’ empiricalresearch or empirical data. Some others argue that this is not so, or not necessarily so.
Again, it is clear that theory 1 , theory 2 , and theory 3 , ought to be based on empirical
data. On what other bases could one possibly make an argument about the conditions under which ethnic minorities tend to assimilate? How else could one work out
an explanation of the rise and triumph of capitalism? However, the same is not trueof other senses of ‘theory’—for example, if one’s aim is to rid a sociological conceptof some muddles, propose a new standpoint from which to look at social relations,
unveil a writer’s general presuppositions, or explore the connections between Adam
Smith’s well-known political economy and his less well-known moral philosophy.
At any rate, the most obvious sign that something is going wrong here is, I think,that sociology does not seem to be any clearer about the ontological, teleological,

5 To take the case of historical sociology, recent reflections on its relations to ‘theory’ include: Adams,
Clemens, and Orloff 2005; Calhoun 1998; Goldstone 1998; Kiser and Hechter 1991, 1998; Lieberson 1991,
1992; Mahoney 2004; Mahoney and Rueschemeyer 2003; Paige 1999; Quadagno and Knapp 1992; Skocpol
and Somers 1980; Somers 1998.

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and evaluative questions than it was 50 or 60 years ago. It is not just that many ofthe questions about the nature of theory raised in the 1940s and 1950s by people
like Robert Merton are still being debated today. 6 What is truly puzzling is thatthey are being debated in analogous terms, starting from analogous points, making
analogous assumptions, encountering analogous difficulties, provoking analogous objections, and bringing about analogous factions. And, as then, consensus is not insight. Indeed, not only is consensus not in sight—it is hard to see what kind ofargument could possibly settle the disagreements about what theory is, what a goodtheory looks like, why theory is important or useful, how theory is related to empirical research, whether there is theoretical progress, and so on. In fact, my claim isthat, as things stand, no argument could do that. One cannot find out or establish
what theory really is because theory is not an object out there that our concepts or
language could track down. As a result, ‘what “theory” really means’ is not the kindof thing one can find out or establish. Differently put: this lengthy stagnation shouldsuggest that perhaps it is the question what is defective; that perhaps answers do notseem adequate because the question needs to be reformulated. This is precisely oneof the aims of the present paper.
5. THE SEMANTIC PREDICAMENT
We have thus far seen that the word ‘theory’ in the sociological language is rife with
lexical ambiguities, and that this brings about undesirable consequences, including
pseudo-disagreements, conceptual muddles, and even downright miscommunication.
I want now to consider what is to be done about this situation. How can it be
improved? How can these undesirable consequences be avoided? How ought sociologists to use the words ‘theory,’ ‘theoretical,’ and ‘theorize’? Let us refer to this last
question as the ‘semantic predicament’ (SP).
I propose two main arguments regarding SP, which I refer to as the ‘principle
of practical reason’ and the ‘principle of ontological and epistemological pluralism.’
First, SP is a practical/political problem, which calls for practical/political methods
and solutions. A solution to SP must be the outcome of a collective process of
discussion and negotiation, which would look more like a community coming up witha political decision, than a physicist, mathematician, or philosopher coming up witha solution to an intellectual problem. Second, a solution to SP should make as few
ontological and epistemological demands as possible. In other words, the meaning of‘theory’ should not have too much built-in ontological and epistemological baggage.
I proceed as follows. In section 5, I show that the theory literature has generally
been at odds with this ontological and epistemological pluralism, partly because of
its neglect of the semantics of ‘theory’ and its resulting Socratic errors. In particular,
I criticize the arguments of ‘scientific theorists’ and the ‘types of theory’ argument.
In order to articulate the principles of practical reason and pluralism, a different
understanding of ‘theory’ is needed, which I find in the writings of Levine and

6 See Merton’s AJS article “Sociological Theory” (1945), later included as “The Bearing of Sociological
Theory on Empirical Research” in the first edition of Social Theory and Social Structure (1949); and his
papers “On the History and Systematics of Sociological Theory” and “On Sociological Theories of the
Middle Range,” which first appeared as chapters in the 1968 edition of the book. See also the following
articles, all of which were published in the ASR: Theodore Abel’s (1952) “The Present Status of Social
Theory”; Herbert Blumer’s (1954) “What is Wrong with Social Theory?”; Howard P. Becker’s (1954)“Vitalizing Sociological Theory”; and Parsons’s “The Role of Theory in Social Research” (1938), “ThePosition of Sociological Theory” (1948), and “The Prospects of Sociological Theory” (1950).

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185

Alexander. Building on these insights, in section 6 I go on to put forward my two
principles.
5.1 Scientific Theory
A group of sociologists, sometimes referred to as ‘scientific theorists,’ unambiguously
reject ontological and epistemological pluralism. For them, a sociological theory isa scientific explanation. If a given thing is not a scientific explanation, then it is
not a sociological theory. This is how the argument goes. Sociology is the scienceof society. It applies the scientific method to social phenomena. Like any science,
it offers objective accounts of what the world is like. And it does so by means ofscientific laws (see, e.g., Braithwaite 1959:1). Then, sociological theory cannot be an
ongoing dialogue with some classic texts or a story that makes sense of a bit of
the social world. For scientists do not ‘make sense’ of things—they establish generallaws in order to explain and predict them. Scientists do not enter into dialogues withclassic texts such as Aristotle’s Physics or Newton’s Principia—that would be utterly
useless. As Merton (1948:165) famously put it long ago, “[s]chools of medicine do notconfuse the history of medicine with current theory, nor do departments of biology
identify the history of biology with the viable theory now employed in guiding andinterpreting research. Once said, this seems so obvious as to be embarrassing.” Or,to take the case of economics, economic theory is definitely not the study of what
Smith, Ricardo, or Keynes said or meant. The ‘theory’ published in economic theory
journals (e.g., the Journal of Economic Theory) is filled with Greek letters, lemmata
and theorems, not with long quotations and long footnotes. In brief, the argument isthat insofar as sociology is a science, the theories of sociology must be analogous to
the theories of other, presumably ‘more mature’ or ‘more developed,’ sciences. That
is what theory is.
To take a classic example, George Homans had no doubt about what theory was
and what kind of thing was not a theory but something else. As he put it in his ASA
Presidential Address:
The explanation of a phenomenon is the theory of the phenomenon. A theory
is nothing—it is not a theory—unless it is an explanation.
One may define properties and categories, and one still has no theory. One maystate that there are relations between the properties, and one still has no theory.
One may state that a change in one property will produce a definite change inanother property, and one still has no theory. Not until one has properties, andpropositions stating the relations between them, and the propositions form adeductive system—not until one has all three does one have a theory. Most of
our arguments about theory would fall to the ground, if we first asked whether
we had a theory to argue about. (Homans 1964a:812; emphasis in original; seealso Homans 1964b, 1967, 1974, 1987)
Thus, according to Homans (1964a:811; emphasis added), “we should stop talking
to our students about sociological theory until we have taught them what a theoryis.” Along comparable lines, Jonathan Turner believes that “‘theorists’ in sociology
rarely theorize” (1985:24; see also Turner 1987, 1992, 2001, 2004). In other words,
so-called ‘theorists’ are not in fact theorists. For instance, making a case for “laws”
that are simplistic, abstract, and unconcerned with causality, Turner says that “these

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are the characteristics of theory as opposed to current empirical descriptions thatmasquerade as theory” (Turner 1979: 440; emphasis added). Likewise, in sociology
we are typically given a causal model, often complete with statistical razzledazzle, on some substantive area. [. . .] [T]here is nothing inherently wrong withsuch models per se; indeed, they represent refined efforts at empirical description.
The problem comes only when sociologists begin to believe that such models aretheory. They are not and cannot become theory, because they are tied to classesof observables in specific times and places. Theory must be more abstract, for it
must transcend particular times and places. (Turner 1979:451; emphasis added)
So, theory is or must be X; theory is not or cannot be Y . X is a “true theory”;
Y is a “masquerade” of theory (see also Turner 1985:25). Yet there is an obvious
epistemological and methodological difficulty here. How does one know and findout what theory really is? How does one justify an ontological claim of this sort?
What objective reasons can one give to someone who claims that theory really is Z?
Scientific theorists argue that the method is simple. One just has to look at whatnatural science theory is and what natural scientists mean by ‘theory.’ That is what
theory in sociology is and what sociologists ought to mean by ‘theory’ (e.g., Homans
1987:68).
Accordingly, one might want to replace the phrase ‘sociological theory’ with thephrase ‘history of sociological theory’ when referring to analyses and exegeses of classic texts (as Merton [1948, 1968a] and others have proposed). Or, like Randall Collins(1998:7), one might argue that “there is no sharp dividing line between theory andempirical research: if the research is important enough, it gets called theory.” Pushing this logic even further, one might repudiate the existence of a theory specialty,
journals, university courses, and ASA section, since “substantive relevant theoretical ideas . . . should be and often are thoroughly incorporated into our substantive
classes, publication organs, and section interests” (Chafetz 1993:1–2; see also Reed
1952:166).
Is the scientific theorists’ argument persuasive? Let us first note that they often
make the Socratic error. But this is not an insurmountable problem, because theirargument could be consistently recast as being about what the word ‘theory’ ought
to mean (rather than about what theory really is). However, there is a second, more
serious problem with their equation of sociological theory with scientific explanation.
It is obviously not my task here to take sides in the endless epistemological dispute
over whether the social sciences should be modeled after the natural sciences. And
this is precisely why I disagree with the scientific theorists’ solution to SP.
According to their reasoning, a stance on that epistemological dispute is the crucial
premise from which a conclusion on the meaning of ‘theory’ is drawn. Now, if itturned out to be true that sociology must be all about coming up with general lawsthat look as much as possible like physical laws, then scientific theorists would beon the right track. Undoubtedly, the answer to ‘what ought “theory” to mean?’cannot be divorced from the answer to ‘what is sociology?’, ‘what is the businessof sociology?’ or ‘what is sociology all about?’ Unfortunately, we still cannot agree
upon what sociology is all about. This is partly why there are so many competing
understandings of theory and uses of the word ‘theory’ in sociology in the first place.
So the scientific theorists’ argument turns out to be circular! If one could convince
all sociologists about what the true business of sociology is, SP would not be a major
issue. The real challenge is to propose a well-founded solution to SP, which does notTHE MEANING OF ‘THEORY’187

depend on having a prior agreed-upon understanding about the nature of sociology.
This solution should be as independent as possible from that other very thorny issue. 7
It is perhaps ironic that, for all their aversion to ‘intractable’ ‘philosophical’ issues, thescientific theorists’ argument is not at all independent of or orthogonal to them. On
the contrary, it is logically dependent on a definite (and not particularly moderate)
stance on one traditional philosophical issue: what kind of knowledge about humanbeings it is possible to attain.
5.2 Types of Theory
One staple of the theory literature—as well as of theory syllabi, conferences, andtextbooks—is the ‘types of theory’ argument. In bypassing the semantics of ‘theory,’
this argument makes a different sort of mistake: it does allow for a certain kind ofpluralism, yet at the unacceptable cost of conceptual incoherence. This is how theargument goes. There exist several ‘types,’ ‘kinds,’ ‘styles,’ or ‘varieties’ of theory andof theorizing (or theoretical ‘perspectives,’ ‘paradigms,’ ‘viewpoints,’ or ‘approaches’).
That is, theory comes in many varieties, in the same sense that tables come in manyvarieties: glass coffee tables, pool tables, solid oak dining tables, and so on. Still,
all of these objects can be correctly described as articles of furniture having a flathorizontal surface supported by one or more vertical legs. Likewise, ‘theory’ is alegitimate class or (non-natural) kind. Theories 1 , theories 2 , etc. are in some ways
different, but they still share some important properties. The word ‘theory’ refers to
all the objects that share these important properties. These properties allow one not
only to tell whether any given thing belongs to the class, but also to compare theworth of those that do, even when one has to compare the worth of, say, a theory 1
vis-à-vis a theory 5 .
The problem with this argument is that it is unclear what those important common
properties are. How do these purported types hang together? What exactly is thatthing they are types of ? Let us try to define ‘theory’ in such a way that we cancapture all of the things sociologists refer to when they use the word. That is, thisdefinition must be such that it would be semantically correct to say that someone
who attempts to figure out what Marx really meant, someone who tries to resolve
the problem of structure and agency, and someone who wants to state the conditions
under which revolutions occur, are engaged in the same activity. Or, to put it slightly
differently, that a commentary on Marx, an articulation of the relations between
structure and agency, and a law-like statement about revolutions, are all members of
the same class, or instances of the same concept.
Is it possible to pull off such a definition? I do not think so. In contrast to the caseof ‘table,’ the definiens would be so broad as to both sound empty and be of little
use. For example: ‘sociological theory is that which sheds light on human behavior
and social relations,’ or ‘sociological theory is that which helps one better understand, make sense of, etc. empirical data or the empirical world.’ Not only do these
two broad definientia sound a bit empty; they are in fact not broad enough, as they
still leave out some of the seven meanings of ‘theory’ identified above. As an example, consider Martin Albrow’s (1999:41) statement: “[n]o research can work without
theory, even when it denies it has any. For theory simply means the connection of
7 Obviously, one cannot see these two issues as completely orthogonal. If it turned out that the subjectmatter of sociology is the behavior of the fairies that ultimately cause social action, and its method turned
out to be introspection, the solutions we are currently prepared to suggest would become completely
implausible.

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ideas. Even counting is theory.” But if ‘theory’ means “the connection of ideas,” theclass would be excessively large and the concept not really useful. According to thisdefinition, ‘theory’ can be applied to any meaningful sequence of words whatsoever;indeed, ‘atheoretical argument’ is analytically contradictory.
It seems, then, that there is no reasonable and informative set of necessary andsufficient conditions for the application of the word ‘theory’ (nor is there a ‘prototype’ in Rosch’s sense [Lakoff 1987; MacLaury 1991]). Nevertheless, there is a moresophisticated version of this sort of argument, based on Wittgenstein’s (1953) notionof ‘family resemblance.’ Camic and Gross (1998:455), faced with the task of writing
an Annual Review of Sociology piece on sociological theory, chose to take this route.
In discussing contemporary sociological theory, we consider an area with notoriously fuzzy boundaries. In identifying what works fall within these boundaries,
we borrow Wittgenstein’s notion of “family resemblances”. . . It is such family
resemblances that constitute the contemporary theory field: criss-crossing similarities in terms of analytical issues and problems, intellectual ancestory andpoints of departure, vocabulary and style of argument, self-identification (calling one’s own work “theory”), institutional membership (belonging to theory
sections of sociological associations), group adoption (having one’s contribution
embraced by theorists), and more. No fixed cluster of these traits defines a family member nor makes it possible to track down all the stepchildren, distantcousins, and black sheep. Nonetheless, after one has spent some time amongfamily members, it is not difficult to recognize the different branches of thefamily tree.
The notion of ‘family resemblance’ has been the subject of much debate, and isclearly not without its problems (see, e.g., Baker and Hacker 1980). For example, it
makes it a bit mysterious how one can correctly use words (and, even more, how one
can learn to correctly use words), whose rules of use cannot be fully articulated. To
put it in Camic and Gross’s terms, how exactly is it that after spending “some time
among family members,” the task becomes “not difficult”? What exactly happens to
one after some time has passed? (Of course, the answer here cannot be that you havelearned to imitate your mentors, so that you now know under which conditions yourmaking certain noises will not elicit puzzled looks. For this answer would make thenotion of ‘family resemblance’ pointless.) Furthermore, it might be argued that, say,theory 1 and theory 7 cannot be convincingly said to resemble one another, except for
their linguistic isomorphism.
More importantly, from the point of view of SP Camic and Gross’s strategy is notvery helpful. For the notion of ‘family resemblance’ only perpetuates the fuzzinessaround the use of ‘theory.’ Indeed, perpetuating these kinds of fuzziness is precisely
its point! If one knew the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application ofa term, there would be no need for such a notion. Sometimes it might be useful tohold things together in this fashion. Sometimes it might be the only way of making
sense of ordinary language (or, for that matter, of the sociological language). Yet
some other times—“for [some] special purpose,” as Wittgenstein (1953:§69) says—
one may need to draw a more precise boundary. Thus, in order to avoid the abovementioned confusions, misunderstandings, and dead-end discussions, the extension
and intension of ‘theory’ should be more precisely specified. To put it another way:
the Wittgensteinian’s typical argument is that one need not worry about the conceptof a game, its logical structure or correct analysis. English speakers know how to use

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189

the word, they understand one another, and that is all there is to it. But in our casethis is not so. Ours is a case of a language gone awry. Speakers of the sociologicallanguage have significant disagreements about the use of the word ‘theory.’ Yet, atthe same time, all of them are members of the community; they all, as it were, sharea form of life. So the Wittgensteinian cannot help one here.
5.3 Taking Semantics Seriously
Unlike the previous two arguments, Levine and Alexander can provide the basis fora satisfactory articulation of the principles of practical reason and ontological andepistemological pluralism. Unlike the scientific theorists and other Socratic views,
they take the semantics of ‘theory’ seriously. Thus, they do not try to authoritatively
impose one or another meaning as the true one, nor do they try to establish what
theory really is. Unlike the types of theory argument, they do not presuppose theexistence of theory as a kind.
In fact, Levine has already offered a properly-semantic analysis of ‘theory.’ In“Social Theory as a Vocation,” he disambiguates “the four distinct meanings of theterm” (1997:2; emphasis added), and, as customary for a semantic analysis, uses
numbers (subscripts) to distinguish between its senses:
The most common associations to the term theory reflect four distinct meanings of the term. The term can be construed in the sense of theory 1 —abstract
or rational, as contrasted with empirical; theory 2 —general, as contrasted withparticular; and theory 3 —contemplative, as contrasted with practical. There isalso a function (theory 4 ) that might be termed exegetical, as contrasted withheuristic. We might take a big step toward clarification simply by insisting thatthese meanings be kept distinct . . . (Levine 1997:2; emphasis in original)
Even tough social science concepts are essentially contested (1985b:17; 1997:4; cf.
Gallie 1964), Levine still believes that “[c]ritical exploration of the meanings of key
terms and their implications offer[s] a . . . commendable route toward intellectual
sophistication and clear thinking”; indeed, the “codification of the plurality of standard meanings can itself be a boon” (1997:4). This is what Levine began to do, eventhough briefly, concerning the meaning of ‘theory’; and this is also what he had done
at more length concerning the meaning of ‘rationality’ (1985c; see also 1965:5–11,
15–17; 1985a; 1985b; 1995). The present paper take up this task, following his suggestion that keeping the meanings of ‘theory’ distinct would be “a big step towardclarification.”
Now, we have seen that many sociologists argue as though theory were an object out there that our concepts or language could track down. But the principles
of practical reason and ontological and epistemological pluralism require that this
Socratic position be transcended. In his four-volume work, Theoretical Logic in Sociology, Alexander forcefully rejects the Socratic ontology by means of an essentiallysemantic understanding of ‘theory.’In the first volume, Positivism, Presuppositions, and Current Controversies, Alexander presents a diagram that represents ‘the scientific continuum and its components.’
This diagram
clarifies . . . the relative character of the theory/data split. That “data” is athoroughly relative formulation can be illustrated by the fact that as social

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Figure 1. The Scientific Continuum and its Components
Source: Alexander (1982a:3).
scientists we continually treat as data the more general “scientific” formulationof those around us—others’ propositions, models, classifications, and generalassumptions about the empirical world. But it is also clear that “theory” is justas much a designational convenience. (Alexander 1982a:2–3)‘Theory’ and ‘data’—note Alexander’s use of quotation marks—are just relativeand convenient linguistic formulations. Moreover, ‘theory’ and ‘data’ are not qualitative but quantitative distinctions. Indeed, his decisive claim is that given a certain
point in the continuum, one applies the word ‘theory’ to whatever is on its left andthe word ‘data’ to whatever is on its right.
Although data and theory are, thus, commonly equated with qualitative positions on the more specific and general sides of the scientific continuum, it ismore correct to understand them as quantitative distinctions: every formulation “leftward” of any given point of focus is called theory and every statement“rightward” of that point is claimed as data.
[. . .] If these elements actually were completely qualitatively differentiated, theywould represent “concrete” distinctions. They are, instead, “analytic” distinctions, separations established for the convenience of scientific discourse, madeto facilitate communication and not to establish ontological qualities. (Alexander
1982a:3–4)
Thus, Alexander explicitly rejects the Socratic ontology and makes an essentiallysemantic point. It is a mistake to think of ‘theory’ and ‘data’ as if they were ontological qualities, which are part of the fabric of the world and hence one can pin down
and refer to once and for all. Rather, this is just a convenient analytic distinctionthat facilitates communication. There is nothing for theory to really be. ‘Theory’ is arelative term, which can be more or less analytically useful, which can cause moreor less confusions, which can result in better or worse communication, etc.
This point is also evident in another key feature of Alexander’s diagram, whose
value can be better appreciated vis-à-vis Merton’s typology in his article “Sociological
Theory.” Merton writes: “The phrase ‘sociological theory’ has been used to refer toat least six types of analysis which differ significantly in their bearings on empiricalTHE MEANING OF ‘THEORY’

191

research. These are methodology, general orientations, conceptual analysis, post
factum interpretations, empirical generalizations, and sociological theory” (Merton
1945:462; see also Merton 1945:462–63, 1968b:39). At first glance, this statement
appears to take the semantics of ‘theory’ seriously. Merton speaks of linguistic elements such as ‘phrase’ (and, later on, ‘term’), linguistic relations such as ‘usage’and ‘reference,’ puts quotation marks around ‘sociological theory’ to indicate mention rather than use, and seems to imply that the expression ‘sociological theory’ has
several senses. However, Merton quickly forgets about word meanings and senses,
and goes on to show that some of these ‘six types of analysis’ are not really theory. For example, speaking of the first and second types—‘methodology’ and ‘general orientations’—he says: “we should distinguish clearly between sociological theory, which has for its subject matter certain aspects of the interaction of men andis hence substantive, and methodology, or the logic of scientific procedure”; and“[m]uch of what is described in textbooks as sociological theory consists of generalorientations toward substantive materials” (Merton 1945:463, 464). Most revealingly,
Merton refers to the last of his six types as ‘sociological theory.’ So, sociologists haveused the term ‘sociological theory’ to refer to six different things only one of whichturns out to be sociological theory (without quotation marks)!
The contrast with Alexander could not be greater. There are 10 terms in Alexander’s continuum (‘ideological orientations’ is added in Alexander 1982a:40 and
1987:7). Remarkably, the term ‘theory’ is not one of them. Because of its beinga relative rather than an ontological quality, ‘theory’ cannot be precisely located on
the continuum. Instead, the use of the word ‘theory’ is a function of the particular point of reference chosen, the particular interests and goals of the enterprise,and so on. Furthermore—and this is crucial for my argument below—Theoretical
Logic makes a strong case for ontological and epistemological pluralism. Alexander
believes that general presuppositions are of the utmost importance, he shows why
this is so, and he chooses to focus on them in the subsequent three volumes on
Marx and Durkheim, Weber, and Parsons. But he does not believe that it would bewrong to apply the word ‘theory’ to models, classifications, or laws, let alone thatthose things are not really theory. In fact, the tendency “to reduce—to ‘conflate’—theoretical argument to one or another particular set of nonempirical commitments”
is one of the main antagonists of the whole project (Alexander 1982b:xviii; see also
1982b:373).
6. SEMANTICS, POLITICS, AND PLURALISM
Armed with these lessons from Levine and Alexander—and aware of the missteps ofother writers—I am now in a better position to address the semantic predicament(SP). What ought the word ‘theory’ to refer to in the sociological language? Moregenerally, by what criteria is this to be determined? 8 I argue that, while prima facie
this may appear to be a technical semantic issue, here sociology is faced with apractical/political problem. This is the principle of practical reason. Then I argue
for the above-mentioned principle of ontological and epistemological pluralism. Yet

8 Methodologically, the question is by what criteria one determines what any given word ought to referto in a language like the sociological language. What is the extension of ‘revolution,’ ‘social movement,’or ‘ethnicity’ (i.e., to which objects can you correctly apply these terms)? How about ‘rational action,’‘globalization,’ ‘status,’ or ‘moral value’? How are semantic disagreements to be adjudicated? These are
critical methodological questions, which sociology is far from having an adequate answer to.

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before presenting these two principles, I make the practical suggestion that sociology
needs a semantic therapy in order to clarify some of its conceptual confusions.
6.1 Semantic Therapeutics
If my argument up to this point is correct, the first thing sociology needs is some
sort of semantic therapy. All sociologists should be fully aware that their disagreements about theory have a semantic dimension, which has important effects on theappropriateness and forcefulness of different kinds of arguments. If this point became common sociological wisdom, that would surely amount to a step forward.
For instance, no theory discussion would forget that there are many senses of theword ‘theory’ and no real referent or true meaning; that the many things that theword ‘theory’ is used to express are quite different indeed; or that the ontological,
evaluative, and teleological questions in their customary form are problematic. Fullconsciousness of these facts would just dissolve numerous problems and disputes—
namely, those that are ultimately caused by semantic vagueness. Further, it would
clarify those (also numerous) problems and disputes that would still persist, pinpointwith more precision what the dispute is about, make discussion easier, and ultimately
make substantive progress possible.
Therefore, first, I suggest that a semantic therapy regarding the meaning of ‘theory’should be part of university courses called ‘sociological theory,’ theory textbooks,
certain Theory Section activities, and other appropriate forums. Second, I proposethat each time sociologists engage in a debate about ‘theory’—indeed, each time they
use the word ‘theory’ in a potentially confusing context—they make it clear whether
they mean theory 1 , theory 2 , theory 3 , etc. For instance, if a journal referee rejects
a paper on the grounds that it is ‘undertheorized,’ or that it needs ‘more theory,’
she should unambiguously say if she means theory 2 , theory 4 , or theory 7 (rather
than hiding behind this semantic ambiguity). Authors should indicate whether theirprojects make a contribution to theory 1 , theory 3 , or theory 5 (rather than ambiguously
claiming that they are ‘very theoretical’ or ‘driven by theory’ as a badge of epistemic
significance).
Unfortunately, this is only a first step forward toward making things better. For,
as sociologists know full well, words are sites of power (e.g., Bourdieu 2001). The
meaning of ‘theory’ is intimately related to very real institutional resources, careers,funding, prestige, status systems, sociology’s public relevance, and so on. Moreover,‘theory’ and ‘theoretical’ are ‘thick’ terms (Williams 1978, 1985), that is, they cansimultaneously do descriptive and evaluative work. Specifically, in numerous contexts
applying the expressions ‘theoretical,’ ‘relevant for theory,’ ‘informed by theory,’ and‘theory-driven’ to a paper, project, scholar, or line of research is not just to say thatthey are of a certain nature, but also implies a favorable judgment. While there is
only one sign, one English word-form ‘theory,’ there are many people who want to
use it in different ways, and who have a practical interest in doing so. There is only
one Theory Section in the ASA, whose practical interest is to enlarge its membershipand ascendancy. 9 Useful and necessary as it is, no semantic therapy will do by itself.
For I want to argue that SP is to a large extent a political problem.

9 Likewise, there is only one journal called Sociological Theory, a fact that was patent in a recent debate
in the pages of the newsletter Perspectives (Adams 2006; Kidd 2006; Perrin 2006; Sanderson 2006a, 2006b;
Wilkes 2006).

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6.2 The Principle of Practical Reason
The lexical semantics of a completely formal language is determined by its inventor.
As Hilary Putnam (1975:55; emphasis in original) puts it, “[a] formal language has,
after all, an inventor, and like any human being, he can give commands. Among thecommands he can issue are ones to the effect that ‘If you want to speak my language,
then do thus and so’.” Putnam’s point is that if you do not do thus and so, thenyou may be speaking some other language, but you are not speaking mine. Suppose
the question arises, ‘what does the word “malabia2614” mean in your language?’
The method to answer this question does not involve argumentation, discussion,and negotiation. The correct answer can be found in the dictionary I wrote for mylanguage. That is what ‘malabia2614’ really means.
The lexical semantics of natural languages does not derive from a process of explicit argumentation, discussion, and negotiation either. Nor can it be established byan authority such as the OED, a summit of linguists, or philosophical analysis. To
put it in Wittgenstein’s terms, what it is to follow a rule (linguistic or otherwise) isfixed by social practice. It cannot be fixed ‘privately.’ This is why Humpty Dumpty’s
stance is preposterous. Rather, word meanings derive from the very complex social
and linguistic processes studied by historical lexicology, lexicography, and semantics(Brinton and Traugott 2005; Keller 1994; Labov 1994, 2001). The question, ‘what
does the word “paper” mean in the English language?,’ is an empirical one. Lexicographers have empirically established that at present the word ‘paper’ has a certain
number of senses. Those are the things you can correctly refer to by using the word
‘paper.’ That is what ‘paper’ really means. The question, ‘what ought the word “paper” to mean in the English language?,’ just does not make sense.
By contrast, the nature of the sociological language (and other comparable semiformal languages) is such that the meaning of its terms is partially fixed by thesocial practices that occur within a relatively small and self-contained communityof speakers. In our case, the community of speakers of the sociological language
has a relative autonomy to agree upon what it is to follow this linguistic rule (i.e.,under which conditions it is semantically appropriate to use the word ‘theory’). Its
autonomy is relative because there are external linguistic, social, and institutional
constraints on what can count as a reasonable agreement—for instance, a linguistic
constraint is the meaning of ‘theory’ in the English language. Presently, though,the use of ‘theory’ in the sociological language is not constant across users. Then,the question becomes how to establish standards of validity and merit for arguments,
methods, and evidence that aim at settling this semantic divergence.
We have, then, a community, which has a relative autonomy to make a semantic
choice and come to a semantic agreement. While it is not the case that any answer is
as good as any other, there is no one true or correct answer either. This choice has tobe made in a particular social context. Moreover, it has not only epistemic but also
institutional and economic consequences. Thus, we have a community faced witha typically political or practical-reason problem. On my account, the six defining
characteristics of SP as a political problem are the following:(1) There are several parties, which differ in their preferences, desires, interests,
values, beliefs, and practices. (For example, some people use the word ‘theory’in such-and-such a way, some people have such-and-such conception of what
sociology is all about, some people like and some people dislike postmodernism,
rational choice, etc.).

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SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY(2) These preferences, desires, interests, values, beliefs, and practices are subject
to public scrutiny and rational appraisal. One can demonstrate that a party’s
stance is false, unreasonable, confused, pernicious, or insane in such a waythat any rational person ought to accept it. (For instance, if someone said that
‘theory’ ought to be roughly synonymous with ‘method’ or with ‘cheesecake’;or that ‘what does “theory” mean?’ is a question for a quantum physicist.)(3) However, there is no one single correct set of preferences, desires, interests,
values, beliefs, and practices. There can be legitimate differences here. Crucially,
if these differences lead to practical conflicts, these cannot be arbitrated fromoutside the political field (as one could do in the case of a disagreement overwhether the first name of the current President of Uruguay is Tabaré or Néstor).
(4) The problem has a set of factual initial conditions, which must be taken into
account: a certain distribution of power, status, and resources; certain existing
institutions (such as university courses called ‘Sociological Theory’ and theory
journals); the histories of the relevant concepts, ideas, and institutions; and ahost of other empirical facts about sociology and its social context.
(5) Procedurally, a satisfactory solution must be arrived at through characteristically political mechanisms. These can include rational argumentation and discussion, persuasion, aggregation and weighting of preferences, etc. Unlike thosecountries that have constitutions, these mechanisms are not already in place inthe relevant community (the speakers of the sociological language). Therefore,
they must themselves be the subject of a political conversation. Thought experiments such as ideal-speech situations, social contracts, or veils of ignorance
are presumably excluded, because SP is an effectively practical problem that
calls for an effectively practical solution.
(6) Substantively, a satisfactory solution must take all the different legitimate
stances into account. Again, if a political mechanism generated a solution that
excludes all but one point of view, one should be able to reject the outcome
from outside the political field. The solution must both depend on internal
political considerations, and external standards of reasonableness, acceptability,
justice, fairness, effectiveness, applicability, and the like. These standards are an
external check on the outcome of the political process.
Thus, my argument is that SP is in the domain of ‘practical reason’ (as opposedto ‘theoretical reason,’ as these terms are typically understood in philosophy—see
Audi 1989). The central aim of practical reason is to guide action. Its chief concern
is not what the world is like but with what one is to do. However, the notion ofpractical reason brings to the fore the role of reason in this kind of situations. Agents
engage in reasoning, reflection, deliberation, be it individually or collectively. The
end-products of this process—courses of action—might be more or less reasonable(or unreasonable), and even more or less rational (or irrational). This reasonablenessor rationality is a function of many factors, the subjective preferences of the actors
being only one of them. Thus, there are better and worse answers to the question,‘what ought “theory” to mean in the sociological language?’ But one should not
expect something like a true and exact solution to a mathematical problem (which amathematician may resolve in the abstract, on her own, by means of armchair—or
bathtub—reflection). Rather, one should expect something like a fair and reasonable
solution to a political problem, arrived at by means of political mechanisms forcollective decision-making. This solution cannot be discovered; it must be created. An
individual person cannot (and this ‘cannot’ is a logical one) resolve it. Sociology’sTHE MEANING OF ‘THEORY’

195

discussion about SP should be conscious of and not embarrassed by its politicalnature.
6.3 The Principle of Ontological and Epistemological Pluralism
My second principle concerns the content of a solution to SP. Given my claim
about SP’s political nature, I present it as an invitation to discussion. I believe thata satisfactory solution to SP should make as few ontological and epistemologicaldemands as possible. The set of conditions under which the word ‘theory’ can becorrectly used should not have too much built-in ontological and epistemologicalbaggage. I call this the ‘principle of ontological and epistemological pluralism.’
The reason why I advocate this principle is, very roughly put, the following. Suppose sociologists made a certain picture of the world or idea about what can be
known a prerequisite for something being a sociological theory at all. Consider someexamples. We may demand that theories be underlain by the assumption that “thesocial world consists of fixed entities with variables attributes” (Abbott 1988:169).
We may require that causality be taken to be the cement of the universe, the mostimportant relation that can hold between two entities. Or, we could build into thedefinition of ‘theory’ the idea that social processes are regulated by laws of nature.
Alternatively, we may demand the belief that the distinction between text and reality
is misleading, or even the belief that there are no such things as ‘reality’ and ‘objectivity.’ Or else, we may demand the assumption that nothing exists but what canbe actually observed or otherwise grasped by our senses, thereby denying existence
to such ‘mysterious’ things as causality and similar ‘underlying theoretical mechanisms’ (Steinmetz 2005). In any of these scenarios, only to the extent that you shared
the required ontology or epistemology, could you be said to have a theory of thesocial world. You could have other things about the social world—opinions, views,
beliefs, ideas—but not a theory. By definition, that particular ontology or epistemology would be obligatory for one to be allowed to enter a theoretical discussion, makea theoretical contribution, or theorize at all.
There are two main problems with this approach. First, whatever ‘sociologicaltheory’ turns out to mean, its meaning will not be identical with the meaning of‘ontological theory’ or ‘epistemological theory.’ In other words, it is reasonable toassume that sociologists’ theories do not mainly concern themselves with what it isfor something to exist and what things actually exist. Arguably, the kind of stuff thatsociological theories concern themselves with is (or, at least, is related to) the kindof stuff sociology is principally interested in—society, social relations, social interaction, social change, etc. Ontology and epistemology have a different subject-matter.
Naturally, they also have their own methodological and substantive debates, somearguments that are generally seen as defeated and some arguments that are generally
seen as valid, methodological rules, conceptions of epistemic progress, and so on.
All of this is outside the jurisdiction and competence of sociology. Thus, sociology
is not in a position to adjudicate—nor should it be interested in adjudicating—between competing ontological and epistemological arguments. Insofar as it is notclear how these controversies will turn out, sociological theories should be cautious
and not commit themselves to one or another view. And the strongest commitment one can in this respect make is a semantic one—that the very meaning of theword ‘theory’ carry such ontological or epistemological baggage that some ‘theories’
turn out not to be theories but misuses of the word (as scientific theorists would
have it).

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Second, the consequence of this policy for sociology would be a very impoverished discussion. This is the typical argument for pluralism. Dialogues about society,social relations, social processes, etc. between parties that differ in their ontology
and epistemology are potentially enlightening, and hence one should want that they
be conducted within the realm of ‘theory.’ Any of these parties may have things tocontribute to the discipline of sociology and the subfield of sociological theory, so
it would be unwise to draw a semantic boundary that excludes but one of them.
Let me illustrate this point. Would it be correct to apply the (sociological language)
word ‘theory’ to Charles Taylor’s (1989) Sources of the Self ? Well, it is easy to makea semantic argument to the effect that it would not. If by ‘sociological theory’ youmean something like ‘natural science theory,’ and thereby build into the meaning of‘theory’ the ontology and epistemology of ‘scientistic naturalism’ (Steinmetz 2005),
then Taylor does not advance a theory of the self. In fact, he has been one of themost influential opponents of that sort of views (Taylor 1985). Nevertheless, manysociologists would find the outcome of this semantic argument—namely, the a priori segregation of Sources of the Self from sociological theory and sociology—bothhighly implausible and terribly unfortunate.
I would like to conclude with three points of clarification. First, I am not objecting
to any particular type of ontology or epistemology, but to any ontologically or epistemologically demanding solution to SP. My argument is neither for nor against themetaphysics that realism, ‘scientistic naturalism,’ or postmodernism subscribe to. I
illustrated my point using Taylor’s Sources of the Self , but I might as well have used,
say, Coleman’s (1990) Foundations of Social Theory. Second, individual sociologicalarguments (as opposed to sociology itself or sociological theory itself ) may—and
many times willy-nilly must—implicitly or explicitly favor, say, a certain ontologicalconception about what the social world is made of. But my point is that: (a) thoseindividual sociological arguments should not conceive of this as a strong ontologicalcommitment; (b) sociology or sociological theory itself should not have this kind ofcommitments; (c) they definitely should not be built into the very meaning of theword ‘theory’ in the sociological language. Finally, I wrote above that “a satisfactory solution to SP should make as few ontological and epistemological demands as
possible.” As the italicized locutions ‘as few . . . as possible’ and (in the following
sentence) ‘too much’ indicate, my argument is not that one should not make any
ontological and epistemological demands. For example, consider a worldview which
believes in occult witches who have causal powers over social processes, and whichsees the examination of witchcraft substance as the only path to knowledge. We may
agree that a sensible rule of the sociological language would be something like this:the application of the word ‘theory’ is restricted to objects that do not involve thistype of ontology and epistemology.

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