Pan Africa News

Vol. 12 , No.2

DECEMBER, 2005
P. A. N. EDITORIAL STAFF

CONTENTS:

Chief Editor:
Toshisada Nishida, Japan Monkey Centre, Japan
Associate Editors:<NOTE>
Current Status of Bonobos and Other Large

Christophe Boesch, Max-Planck Institute, Germany

Mammals in the Proposed Forest Reserve

Jane Goodall, Jane Goodall Institute, USA

of Lomako-Yokokala, Equateur Province,

Takayoshi Kano, Kyoto University, Japan

Democratic Republic of Congo.

Tetsuro Matsuzawa, Kyoto University, Japan
William C. McGrew, University of Cambridge, UKJohn C. Mitani, University of Michigan, USA
Vernon Reynolds, Budongo Forest Project, UK
Yukimaru Sugiyama, Tokai-Gakuen University, Japan
Richard W. Wrangham, Harvard University, USA
Editorial Secretaries:
Noriko Itoh, Kyoto University, Japan
Koichiro Zamma, Kyoto University, Japan
Michio Nakamura, Kyoto University, Japan
Instructions to Authors:
Pan Africa News publishes articles, notes, reviews, forums,
news, essays, book reviews, letters to editor, and classified
ads on any aspect of conservation and research regarding
chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bilias (P. paniscus). Contributors are requested to write in English and the papers
except forums, reviews and essays should usually be 1,000
words or less. Manuscripts should be submitted by e-mail to:

pan_ed@jinrui.zool.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Photos and figures, however, should be sent by air mailto: T. Nishida, Department of Zoology, Graduate School of
Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa Oiwakechou, Sakyo,
Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan.
Publication of the next issue will be June 2006. Deadline for manuscripts is the end of April.

V. Omasombo, D. Bokelo and J. Dupain

14<NOTE>
Introduction of Seasonal Park Fee System to
Mahale Mountains National Park: A Proposal.
Toshisada Nishida and Crispin Mwinuka 17<NOTE>
Notes on the Behavior of a Newly
Immigrated Female Chimpanzee to theMahale M group.
Michio Nakamura and Noriko Itoh20

<NEWS>
D NA S a m p l i n g a n d D NA A n a ly s i s o f
Chimpanzees at Mahale
Eiji Inoue

22

14

Pan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005

<NOTE>
Current Status of Bonobos andOther Large Mammals in the
Proposed Forest Reserve ofL o m a k o - Yokokala, Eq u at e u rProvince, Democratic Republicof Congo.
V. Omasombo, D. Bokelo and J. Dupain
African Wildlife Foundation,Blvd 30 juin no 2515, Gombe
Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congovalomasombo@yahoo.fr,

INTRODUCTION

jdupainawfdrc@micronet.cd

The priorities that are generally identified
in conservation action plans for improving
the conservation status of Bonobo (Panpaniscus) include a better understanding of
their distribution, identification of key areasof high population densities, evaluation of theecological status of their habitat, evaluating thefragmentation of population and quantiﬁcationand mitigation of threats to their conservation
status1, 2.
One area that has been identified as
critical for the conservation of bonobo is theforest block Lomako-Yokokala (21 o 05'E,
00o50'N) - situated in the Equateur Province
in the "territoire of Befale, District de laTshuapa and the territoire de Bongandanga,
District de la Mongala" (Figure 1). This area
historically harbours important populationsof bonobos (Pan paniscus), seven otherspecies of primates, potential high densities
of Congo peafowl (Afropavo congensis) andother ﬂagship species as the golden cat (Felis
aurata), the water chevrotain (Hyemoschus
aquaticus) and the giant pangolin (Manis
gigantea)1, 3, 4. This forest block of about 3,600
km 2 has been identified by the Congolese
Institute for Nature Conservation (ICCN) as anarea that should receive a protected status5.
Initiatives to create a protected forest
Reserve between the Lomako and the Yekokola
rivers have never been finalized, due to theinstability in the country. At the same time, thehuman pressure on the proposed reserve has
increased, and the most recent reports of thebonobo's current status are alarming6.
The proposed Reserve is situated in the
Maringa Lopori Wamba (MLW) landscape.
This is one of the 11 landscapes on which
the activities within the Congo Basin Forest
Partnership (CBFP) (which is mainly CARPE/
USAID-funded) are focussed. Activities
within the MLW landscape are coordinated by
the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF), andset up in partnership with CARE-Internationaland Conservation International (www.awf.org).
The main objectives of the strategy in thislandscape are a reduction to the destructionof the tropical rainforest and an increase insustainable use of the natural resources. Oneof the specific objectives of the partnership
between ICCN and AWF is the creation of the
Lomako-Yokokala Reserve.
Before commencing with the gazetting ofa protected area, it is necessary to evaluate
the existing (or remaining) biodiversity in theregion and to identify the priority areas forbiodiversity conservation. For this reason, apreliminary biodiversity survey was carriedout in August-October 2004. The survey
implemented a quantitative bonobo and large
mammal survey in two specific forest plots(Figure 1). The first plot (L-plot), situatedalong the Lomako river (21 o 4'E; 0 o 55'N 21o12'E; 0o48'N), covered the former bonobo
study areas that have been active since the70's. A last visit of this area indicated potential
eradication of fauna6. The second plot (Y-plot)
is situated along the Yokokala river (21o15'E;
1o6'N - 21o21'E; 1o3'N) and has been reported
to be subject to intensive hunting by population
immigrating from the north. As immigrationand permanent settlement of a growing groupof hunters has been reported 7 , a directed
search for hunting camps was simultaneously
conducted in the forest extending between both
blocks surveyed for large mammals.
METHODOLOGY

The survey was carried out in AugustOctober 2004. The Standing Crop Bed (Nest)
Count was used, along straight line transects
for the estimation of bonobo densities andfor the calculation of Indices of AbundancePan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005

Figure 1. Lomako Forest Map

15

16

Pan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005
Table 1. Indices of Abundances per Kilometer (IAK) for ﬂagship species encountered during thesurveys in the Lomako-Yokokala forest block.

per Kilometer (IAK) of large mammals andﬂagship species (such as Congo peafowl). The
survey was carried out along 21 transects of
5 km:13 in the L-plot, 8 in the Y-plot. Bed
data were analyzed with Distance Sampling8.
Selection of the model that fits best thedetection function is based on the AICcriterion.
Local guides indicated the presence of
hunting camps that were visited in a forest
block of about 1,440 km2, stretched between
the Yokokala and the Lomako rivers. At eachcamp, GPS-points were taken, estimates weremade of the number of inhabitants and theirethnic origin was recorded.
RESULTS425 bonobo beds (76 bed sites) wererecorded along 65 km of transects in theL-plot, vs. 38 beds (9 bed sites) along 40 kmof transects in the Y-plot. Distance analysis
estimates 81 beds/km2 in the L-plot, and 12
beds/km2 in the Y-plot, resp. When using theconventional bed decay rate of 113 days, one
calculates cautiously 0.7 ind/km2 in the L-plot,
vs. 0.1 ind/km2 in the Y-plot. The estimatedstrip width (ESW) in the L-plot was 39 m,
vs. 30 m in the Y-plot.
While bonobo densities are remarkably
higher in the southern plot, the opposite is true
for traces of bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros)(Table 1). Little difference was found in IAK's

for other large mammals. Signs of the endemic
Congo peacock were also recorded at bothsites.
35 hunting camps were recorded. The
number of people living in these campsites
varies between an estimated 7 and 190
inhabitants, totalling almost 1000 people.
About 90% of those people belong to the
Ngombe ethnic group and only about 10%
are Mongo. The principal activity in thesecamps is hunting. Hunting is done mainly withsnares, but guns and "litimbo" i.e. poisoned
arrows, were also used.
DISCUSSION

The surveys indicate that the proposed
Reserve still holds considerable potential forbonobo and large mammal conservation. The
relatively high bonobo densities in the southernplot are encouraging, although the low densities
in the northern plot confirm the concerns
raised by previous surveys. It is not clear,
however, whether the differences in densities
are related to differential hunting pressures, orwhether they refer to patchy distribution due tovarying ecological parameters. Considerable
differences were observed in ESW between
both plots, indicating that different vegetation
patterns might be causal factors for thepatchiness of the bonobo distribution. Whilethe bonobo population is denser in the plot
along the Lomako river, a far greater number ofPan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005

signs of bongo were found along the Yokokala
river.
While the biodiversity potential of thisforested area still seems to be present, thesame can also be said for the threats. Creationof a protected area will have to deal with asignificant human population that has settled
in this forest block over the last two decades.
Most hunters are Ngombe people that areconsidered as non-autochtonous, as opposite
to the Mongo people. In addition, the easternpart of the proposed Reserve is inhabited byKitiwalist, a religious sect with their own
particular set of conditions. A participatory
approach involving all the different potential
stakeholders involved will be critical to
the success of this initiative and help avoid
conﬂicts.
AWF continues to support the ICCN in thecreation of the proposed Reserve. At the timeof writing, the first meetings for the creationof a CoCoSi (Comité pour la Conservationde Site) - a coordinating committee bringing
together all the key stakeholders were held.
The CoCoSi will bring together representativesof the local people, other partners, and ICCN.
In addition, a mission to start the process ofdemarcating and digitizing the boundariesof the proposed reserve is currently beingorganised, together with the ICCN.
REFERENCES
1. Thompson-Handler N, Malenky RK and
Reinartz GE. 1995. Action plan for Pan paniscus:
report on free-ranging populations and Proposals
for their Preservation. Milwaukee, Wisconsin:
Zoological society of Milwaukee County.
2. Evan Bowen-Jones. 1998. A review ofcommercial bushmeat trade with emphasis on
Central/West Africa and the Great Apes. Reportfor the Ape Alliance in The Africa Bushmeat
Trade - A Recipe for Extinction.
3. Dupain J, Van Krunkelsven E, Van Elsacker
L and Verheyen RF. 2000. Current status of thebonobo (Pan paniscus) in the proposed Lomako
Reserve (Democratic Republic of Congo).
Biological Conservation 94:265-272.
4. Dupain J and Van Elsacker L. 1998. Current
status of the proposed Lomako Forest Bonobo
Reserve (Equateur, Democratic Republic ofCongo). Great Apes of the World Conference, July
3-6, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. Abstract no023. (Invited speaker).

17
5. ICCN. 2004. Stratégie de la Conservation dansles aires protégées de la République Démocratiquedu Congo, 26p.
6. Dupain J. 2003. The proposed Lomako Forest
Reserve of the Democratic Republic of Congo:
urgent action needed. Oryx vol. 37(4): 3-4.
7. Dupain J and Van Elsacker L. 2001. The statusof the bonobo (Pan paniscus) in the Democratic
Republic of Congo. In : Galdikas BMF, Briggs
N, Sheeran LK, Shapiro GL and Goodall J, eds.
All apes great and small volume 1: African apes.
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Pp:57-74.
8. Buckland ST, Anderson DR, Burnham KP& Laake JL. 2001. Introduction to DistanceSampling: Estimating Abundance of Biological
Populations. Oxford University Press, New York.

<NOTE>
Introduction of Seasonal Park
Fee System to Mahale Mountains
National Park: A Proposal.
Toshisada Nishida1 and Crispin Mwinuka2
1.Japan Monkey Centre: nishida@jinrui.zool.kyoto-u.ac.jp
2.Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute: sokwe@mahale.org

Since the Mahale Mountains National Parkwas established in 1985, the number of tourists
visiting it has increased gradually (Figure 1).
In 2002, the park welcomed over 400 visitorsa year. Of course, this ﬁgure seems very small
considering the capacity of the park, whosearea exceeds 1,600 km2.
However, even this apparently low usage
rate is not really low from the viewpoint of
the welfare of chimpanzees: because these
tourists visit only a tiny portion of the park (c.
10 km2 within the study area of the M-groupchimpanzees), their interest in the park revolves
around chimpanzee watching (Figure 2), andtheir visits are concentrated in the dry seasonfrom July to October. The chimpanzees of the
M group must experience very stressful days
during this high season: Every day they are
surrounded by 10 to 30 tourists, park guides,
and the tour operators' employees for one houror more, in addition to researchers.
Not surprisingly, the number of monthly
visitors is inversely correlated with themonthly rainfall (Figure 3, Spearman’s
rs=-0.76, p<0.01). Moreover, tourists tend to18

Pan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005

Figure 1. Number of visitors to MMNP

Figure 2. Chimpanzees surrounded by tourists

think that the dry season is the best season
to watch chimpanzees. However, the groupsizes of visible chimpanzees and the numberof tourists are not correlated (Figure 4, rs=0.24,
p>0.05). This means that there are few visitors
when it is possible to see many chimpanzees
at the same time. Visitors do not realize thatparties of the greatest size can be seen in theearly rainy season of November and December,while parties are smallest in the late rainyseason of March and April.

Chimpanzees can be seen at any time of
the year. Figure 5 shows the appearance
rate of chimpanzee parties calculated fromobservation records in the Kansyana Research
Camp. It turns out that this rate is not less than
0.4 in any month of the year. If the visibilityof chimpanzees is low in some months of theyear, it is reasonable to expect that few tourists
would come during that period. However, as
the ﬁgure shows, there is no remarkable change
in the appearance rate of chimpanzees if thePan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005

Figure 3. Monthly rainfall and no. of visitors to
MMNP
Data for rainfall: 1973-1988 1 , for no. of visitors:
2000-2002

Figure 4. Mean monthly group size ofchimpanzees and no. of visitors to MMNP
Data for group size: 1999-2001, for no. of visitors:
2000-2002

Figure 5. Monthly rate of observation days
(1999-2001)
Table 1. An example of seasonal fees

19

group sizes of the observed chimpanzees are
disregarded. Accordingly, if tourists spent twonights in the park (giving them the opportunity
to search for chimps for three days), theywould more than likely have an opportunity towatch chimpanzees.
Moreover, a visit during the rainy season
has its own merits. There are more animals in
the forest, in particular, butterflies and birds.
Needless to say, the trees are more beautiful
and the air is much fresher than in the dry
season. People who enjoy eating fish willfind the fish caught during the rainy season
more delicious than that available in the otherseasons. Furthermore, visitors in the rainyseason will be fully rewarded by the sunset,
which is much more dramatic and colorful.
These seasonal features, as well as the above
data, suggest that it would be beneﬁcial to takea strategy that encourages more tourists tocome to Mahale in the rainy season.
Until tourists fully understand that therainy season is as good as the dry season for
chimpanzee watching, the park management
should introduce a seasonal fee system toencourage people to come in the rainy season.
Table 1 shows an example of such a seasonalfee. The chimpanzee-watching fee might be
US $50 during the rainy season compared with
US $150 during the dry season. At present,
the Mahale Park has neither introduced"chimpanzee fees" nor seasonal fees forwatching chimps.
We thank all the colleagues that collectedattendance record of chimpanzees and themeteorological data at the Kansyana research
camp from 1999 to 2001.
(The above is part of a paper presented
at the 3 rd TAWIRI Annual Conference heldin December, 2003 and submitted again in
December, 2005.)
REFERENCE
1. Takasaki H, Nishida T, Uehara S, Norikoshi K,
Kawanaka K, Takahata Y, Hiraiwa-Hasegawa M,
Hasegawa T, Hayaki H, Masui K and Huffman
MA. 1990. Appendix: Summary of meteorological
data at Mahale Research Camps, 1973-1988. In:
Nishida T (ed), The Chimpanzees of the Mahale
Mountains: Sexual and Life History Strategies.
University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo. pp: 291-300.

20

Pan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005

<NOTE>
Notes on the Behavior of a
Newly Immigrated Female
Chimpanzee to the Mahale M
group.
Michio Nakamura and Noriko Itoh
Kyoto University

INTRODUCTION

In chimpanzee societies, females usuallytransfer between unit-groups 1 on reachingsexual maturity. Recent studies (e.g. 2) haverevealed that cultural differences exist among
chimpanzee groups. Although such studies
usually compare groups that are geographicallydistant from each other, differences in thesocial customs between two neighboringgroups have also been implied3.
Although direct comparisons amongneighboring groups are often difficult, anobservation of the behaviors of immigrantfemales might provide some insights. For
example, some females showed idiosyncratic

feeding habits4, 5 or displayed subtly different
types of grooming hand-clasp6, implying thatthese females retained the customs of theirnatal groups. If differences of customs do
exist between two neighboring groups, thennewly immigrated females should initiallybe unaware of the customs of the new group.
Thus, an investigation of the behavior of
newly immigrated females may be useful indetermining how the behavioral repertoires
differ between their natal groups and the newgroup. It may also provide information onwhich customs and the manner in which they
are acquired by naïve individuals. However,
because newly immigrated females are often
intimidated by humans, there are few reportson the behaviors of such females immediately
after their immigration.
Since we had an opportunity to observe
the behavior of a newly immigrated female
to the Mahale M group, we have stated ourobservations in this report.

Figure 1. Yuri, on the second day after immigration, peering at Michio (anadolescent male) while on the observation trail.

Pan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005
OBSERVATIONSOn September 24, 2005, when we founda party of the M group chimpanzees at the
middle of their home range, we noticed an
unfamiliar young female on a tree. Since she
had distinctive characteristics, we recognized
her face thereafter and named her Yuri (Figure1). Based on the size of her body and thesexual swelling, we estimated her age tobe approximately ten to eleven years. We
observed Yuri for approximately three hours
intermittently on this day. The other M groupmembers, particularly the males, appeared
a little excited by the newcomer. However,
we observed only one case of threatening
behavior toward Yuri by an adult female,
Fuji. Yuri copulated with at least four males,
namely, Bonobo (an adult), Cadmus and Orion(adolescents), and Emory (an infant). She wasgroomed by Fuji (an adult female), Athena (anadolescent female), Acadia (a juvenile female),Masudi (an adult male), and Cadmus, Primus,
and Christmas (adolescent males), however,she only groomed back Cadmus.
The grooming hand-clasp was reported asa social custom of both the extinct K group7
and the M group8 at Mahale. On the ﬁrst day,Yuri performed the grooming hand-clasp with
Cadmus on a tree. S he also performed leaf
grooming 9, which is another custom of theMahale M group2.
On the next day, she even tolerated one ofthe observers up to a distance of approximately
three meters, while she followed the othermembers on the observation trail. She evenresponded to the distant pant hoot by themembers of the M group. We also observed
her playing with Michio (an adolescent male)on the ground.
During this season, Yuri's food repertoires
did not differ greatly from that of the M groupchimpanzees, except, that she was not observed
to eat lemons. Licking the surface of deadtrees is another cultural behavior of the Mahale
M group 10 . On November 12, 2005, we
observed Yuri licking the dead wood of a Ficus
vallis-choudae tree after several chimpanzees
had licked it.

21
DISCUSSION

Yuri got accustomed to both humans aswell as members of the M group very quickly.
This could be attributed to the possibility that
she had immigrated well before we noticed
her on that first day. However, she seemed
quite unfamiliar with the M group members
as deduced from their unusual excitement onthat day. Further, since only one habituatedgroup inhabits Mahale at present, we cannot
be certain of Yuri's natal group. Since shetolerated humans to some extent from thevery beginning, there is a possibility that she
had immigrated from the Miyako group to thenorth on which a habituation attempt is being
conducted. However, she also ate Myrianthus
arboreus fruits without hesitation although
this fruit is scarce in the mountainous areas of
the Miyako group. Another possibility is that
she immigrated from the N'ganja group to thesouth, especially because most of the M groupmembers were in the area that overlaps with
the N'ganja group's home range on the day
before Yuri was ﬁrst observed.
As she performed the grooming hand-clasp
on the very first day without any hesitation,
it is likely that she immigrated from a groupwhere this behavior is customarily performed.
Given the fact that chimpanzees from both
M group and the extinct K group performed
this behavior, the grooming hand-clasp could
be a common culture of several neighboringgroups in Mahale. It would be interesting toinvestigate further the extent to which thissocial custom is shared. Leaf grooming is also
likely to be a custom of her natal group.
We could not observe Yuri eating lemons.
Lemons were introduced to the M group range
by humans and have constantly been eaten by
the M group chimpanzees since 198211. Thus,
it is likely that chimpanzees of other groups in
Mahale might not be aware of the fruit. Dueto a scarcity of lemon fruits during the period
after she immigrated to the M group, we did
not have an opportunity to observe how Yuri
dealt with the unfamiliar fruits when the othermembers were feeding on them. As mostimmigrant females do eat lemons, it may also
be interesting to follow the process of how
such females learn to eat the unfamiliar fruit.

22

Pan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005

<NEWS>ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The field research was supported by
grants from the Japanese MEXT (#16255007
to T. Nishida, #14083205 to K. Sugawara,#16770186 to M. Nakamura) and Biodiversity
Research of the 21st Century COE (A14).

REFERENCES
1. Nishida T and Kawanaka K. 1972. Inter-unitgroup relationships among wild chimpanzees ofthe Mahali Mountains. Kyoto University African
Studies 7:131-169.
2. Whiten A, Goodall J, McGrew WC, Nishida
T, Reynolds V, S ugiyama Y, Tutin CEG ,Wrangham RW and Boesch C. 1999. Cultures inchimpanzees. Nature 399:682-685.
3. McGrew WC, Marchant LF, Scott SE and Tutin
CEG. 2001. Intergroup differences in a social
custom of wild chimpanzees: the grooming
hand-clasp of the Mahale Mountains. Current
Anthropology 42:148-153.
4. Matsuzawa T. 1994. Field experiments of use ofstone tools in the wild. In: Chimpanzee Cultures.
Wrangham WR et al. (eds), Harvard Univ Press,
Cambridge, Mass., pp. 351-370.
5. Sakamaki T. 1998. First record of algae-feedingby a female chimpanzee at Mahale. Pan Africa
News 5:1-3.
6. Nakamura M and Uehara S. 2004. Proximate
factors of two types of grooming-hand-clasp in
Mahale chimpanzees: implication for chimpanzee
social custom. Current Anthropology 45:108-114.
7. McGrew WC and Tutin CEG. 1978. Evidence
for a social custom in wild chimpanzees? Man
13:234-251.
8. Nakamura M. 2002. Grooming-hand-clasp
in Mahale M group chimpanzees: implication
for culture in social behaviors. In: Behavioural
Diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos. Boesch
C et al. (eds), Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, pp. 71-83.
9. Zamma K. 2002. Leaf-grooming by a wild
chimpanzee in Mahale. Primates 43:87-90.
10. Nishida T, Kano T, Goodall J, McGrew WC andNakamura M. 1999. Ethogram and ethnographyof Mahale chimpanzees. Anthropological Science
107:141-188.
11. Takahata Y, Hiraiwa-Hasegawa M, Takasaki
H and Nyundo R. 1986. Newly acquired feeding
habits among the chimpanzees of the Mahale
Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Human
Evolution 1:277-284.

DNA Sampling and DNA Analysis
of Chimpanzees at Mahale
Eiji Inoue
Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University

INTRODUCTION

Improvements in genetic techniques haveenabled us to study DNA in wild animals.
Until recently, it has been difﬁcult to determine
the genetic background of wild animals
without capturing them. In many cases,
capture disturbs their lives. Accordingly,
it is better to use non-invasive methods foranalyzing DNA. Genetic research on wild
chimpanzees has mostly been conducted by
the use of fecal samples1, 2. Shed or scratchedhairs3, 4, food wadge5, and urine6 have been also
used as DNA samples of primates.
The chimpanzees of the Mahale
Mountains National Park have been studied
for a long time. Within one well-habituatedgroup, the M group, we know the profilesof many chimpanzees, including age,year of immigration, and mother’s name.
Consequently, this group is highly suitablefor genetic studies. Furthermore, many othergroups exist around the Mahale area. If wecollect DNA samples from a wide area, thegenetic structure of wild chimpanzees will beclariﬁed.
I have collected many materials as DNA
samples at Mahale. In this report, I show
samples and sampling methods and thenpresent my perspectives on the analyses.

SAMPLESI conducted research from August to
October 2003 and from October 2004 to
October 2005. I collected DNA samples fromall of the individuals non-invasively with mycolleagues and our research assistants.
When we followed chimpanzees of the M
group, we sampled what probably contains
cells. We collected feces and urine mainly
because it was not difficult to get them while
following the chimpanzees. I occasionally

Pan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005

observed freshly dropped blood on leaves.
When individuals were observed to scratch
their body and shed their hair, the hairs werecollected. Food wadges, which chimpanzees
spat out after chewing food, were alsocollected. Sometimes they licked branches andtheir saliva remained. Saliva was collected
because it probably includes buccal cells. Malechimpanzees discard sperm remaining on their
penis after copulation. The sperm samples areprobably contaminated with cells from otherindividuals, but we still collected them. Whenmothers brought their dead babies, I obtainedsome ﬂuids from the carcasses. I also collected
tissue samples from carcasses of infants after
their mothers left them.
It is difficult to observe the chimpanzees
of other groups, but we could find the bedsof these chimpanzees. I collected their hairsthat remained on the beds and feces near or on
the beds (Figure 1).
SAMPLING METHODS

Some of the fecal samples were dried up
with silica. Other samples of feces, blood,
food wadges, saliva and fluid from carcasses

23

were put into a 0.9% NaCl and 1 mM EDTA
Na3 solution, to which ethanol was added up
to 70% vol. Ethanol was also added to urine
up to 70% vol. Hair samples were put into
the 70% ethanol environment or kept in a dry
condition. Sperm and tissues were also kept in
the 70% ethanol environment.
PERSPECTIVESGenetic research on chimpanzees at Mahale
has already been conducted by Linda Vigilantof the Max Planck Institute, Germany. Her
team analyzed 8 loci of microsatellite DNA inmany M group chimpanzees. They extracted
DNA from dried feces and succeeded indetermining the genotype of many samples.
I will cooperate with them and analyze themicrosatellite DNA of all M group members as
they did. From the genotype of the M groupchimpanzees, we can show the paternity andrelatedness of individuals.
Shed hair samples do not always provide
enough DNA7. If we can get sufficient DNA
from shed hairs, we will be able to clarify
the genetic structure of wild chimpanzees
by microsatellite DNA on autosome, Y

Figure 1. Sampling on the bed of chimpanzee

24

Pan Africa News, 12(2), December, 2005

chromosome and mitochondrial DNA.
Through such analysis, this study will provide
important information for conservation of wild
chimpanzees.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k t h e Ta n z a n i aCommission for Science and Technology,
the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute,Tanzania National Park, Mahale Mountains
National Park, and the Mahale Mountains
Wildlife Research Center for permitting
me to conduct this study at Mahale; Osamu
Takenaka and Linda Vigilant for their guidancein research methods; and many colleagues
and local assistants for cooperation in thefield. Financial support was given throughthe MEXT Grant-in-Aid for Science Research(A1) (#12375003 and #16255007 to Toshisada
Nishida).

2. Constable JL, Ashley MV, Goodall J and Pusey
AE. 2001. Noninvasive paternity assignment inGombe chimpanzees. Molecular Ecology 10:1279-1300.
3. Gagneux P, Boesch C and Woodruff DS. 1999.
Female reproductive strategies, paternity andcommunity structure in wild West African
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Pan Africa News, Vol. 12, No.2
Published in December, 2005
Address:
Japan Monkey Centre
26 Kanrin
Inuyama, Aichi 484-0081
JAPAN
TEL: (+81)568-61-2327
FAX: (+81)568-62-6823
E-mail: pan_ed@jinrui.zool.kyoto-u.ac.jp