AJBI Vol. XLIV–XLV, (2018–2019), 5–24

The Expression of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Elihu Speeches:
A Comparison of Instances in Texts from Qumran1
Rei FUJIKATA

Rikkyo Univ.
15nh005h@rikkyo.ac.jp

Introduction
This study examines similar expressions containing ‫( ׁשחת‬noun) in the Elihu
Speeches2 (ES) and Qumran (Q) texts. The noun ‫ ׁשחת‬is used five times in the ES,
all of which are concentrated in Job 33:15-303, where Elihu presents his views
1

This paper is based on part of my master’s thesis, which was accepted by Rikkyo
University (Tokyo, Japan) in January 2017.

2

It is generally agreed that the Elihu Speeches are later additions (for instance, seeJames L. Crenshaw, Reading Job: A Literary and Theological Commentary, Macon
2011, 12ff.; John Gray, The Book of Job, THB1, Sheffield 2010 [paperback 2015],
66ff.; Stephan Lauber, Weisheit im Widerspruch: Studien zu den Elihu-Reden in Ijob
32-37, BZAW 454, Berlin 2013, 40ff.; K. Namiki, Yobuki no Zentaizou [an overall
picture of Job], Tokyo 2013, 40-44; Carol A. Newsom, The Book of Job: A Contestof Moral Imaginations, New York 2003, 201ff.; Tanja Pilger, Erziehung im Leiden:
Komposition der Elihureden in Hiob 32-37, FAT 49, Tübingen 2010, 20ff.; Marvin H.
Pope, Job, AB15, New York 1965, XXVI ff.). This paper treats the ES as part of an
independent later addition written by different authors than those who wrote the rest ofJob.

3

The noun ‫ ׁשחת‬is used 24 times in the HB (Isa 38:17; 51:14, Ezek 19:4.8; 28:8, Jonah
2:7, Ps 7:16; 9:16; 16:10; 30:10; 35:7; 49:10; 55:24; 94:13; 103:4, Prov 26:27; 28:10,
Job 9:31; 17:14; 33:18.22.24.28.30). See Even-Shoshan, 1133; L. Wächter, “‫ׁשחת‬,”TDOT 14:596. An instance of Prov 28:10 (MT “‫ )” ִבּׁשְחוּתוֹ‬is included within the range
of investigation of this paper by adoption of BHS’s emendation “‫( ” ְבּׁשַתּוֹ‬supporting5

Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute XLIV–XLV 2018–2019

on individual suffering by describing the deliverance of an afflicted people4. He
also discusses his conceptualizations of God and human beings in this passage5.
However, little attention has been given to the meaning behind its intensive use
in this context6.
The first section of this paper clarifies the traits of ‫ ׁשחת‬as it appears in the ES
by comparing its details with other instances in the Hebrew Bible (HB). The second section discusses how the expressions in the ES that involve ‫ ׁשחת‬compare
to other instances in the HB and Q texts. The expressions of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Q texts
create a more threatening picture than do those of the HB and ES.
The state of current investigations into ‫ ׁשחת‬in the HB
Since the etymology of ‫ ׁשחת‬is unclear, attempts to determine its basic meaning have been unsuccessful7. Some vocabularies are suggested as the possible
relevant vocabulary of ‫( ׁשחת‬for instance, Moabite ‫“[ האשוח‬cistern”], Akkadiansbst. ḫaštu, ḫaltu [“hole, grave”] or Hittite sbst. ḫešta [“house”]). These diverse
evidence: fragment of codex from Cairo Genizah “‫ׁשחַת‬ַ ‫)” ְבּ‬.
4

T. Pilger considered this section to be the core of ES theology. Pilger pointed out that
distinct elements of the ES theology can be found in the contained teachings on suffering. Pilger, 138ff.

5

The noun ‫ ׁשחת‬is mentioned as a key word in this passage. See Pilger, 44, 65f.; Eugene H. Merrill, “‫ׁשחת‬,” NIDOTTE 4:94; Patrick W. Skehan, “The Pit (Job 33),” CBQ
31(1969), 382.

6

For instance, A. van Selms saw this intensive employment as an indication that theES author had a relatively poor vocabulary. A. van Selms, Text en Toelichting, A. vanSelms, Job (trans. K. Toka, Tokyo 2002), 43-44.

7

BDB considers the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬as a derivative of the verb ‫“( ׁשוח‬to sink”). “‫ׁשוח‬,” BDB:
1001. In contrast to BDB, HALOT sees the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬as denominative. “‫ׁשחת‬,” HALOT:
1472. For information on the indefiniteness of the etymology of ‫ׁשחת‬, see N. J. Tromp,“Primitive Conceptions of Death and the Nether World in the Old Testament,” BibOr
21(1969), 69 and Othmar Keel, Die Welt der altorientalischen Bildsymbolik und das
Alte Testament: Am Beispiel der Psalmen, Göttingen 19965, 62f.
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R. FUJIKATA: The Expression of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Elihu Speeches

meanings cause difficulty in determining the basic meaning of 8‫ׁשחת‬. M. Heldpointed out that Akkadian ḫaštu(m) and šuttatu(m) may be synonyms of ‫ׁשחת‬,despite the lack of etymological confirmation. Held also argued that the noun
‫ ׁשחת‬may be derived from the verb ‫“( ׁשחח‬to lower,” “to bow down”). This contrasts with the traditional view positing that ‫ ׁשחת‬is derived from the verb ‫“( ׁשוח‬tosink”). Despite these investigations, Held concluded that it was difficult to makea clear statement about the etymology of the noun 9‫ׁשחת‬.
Since the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬generally appears with the verbs ‫“( ירד‬to descend”) or‫“( נפל‬to come down”) in the HB, we can assume that ‫ ׁשחת‬is found below the surface of the earth. Furthermore, the use of ‫ ׁשחת‬as an object of the verbs ‫ חפר‬and‫( כרה‬both meaning “to dig”) indicates that ‫ ׁשחת‬is shaped like a hole10. Indeed,‫ ׁשחת‬is used in areas of the HB to represent a grave and subterranean space inwhich the dead live. However, it is difficult to develop a unified concept for thenoun 11‫ׁשחת‬.

8“‫ׁשחת‬,” HALOT: 1472-1473; Wächter, TDOT 14:595-599:596; Merrill, NIDOTTE
4:93; M. Held, “Pit and Pitfalls in Akkadian and Biblical Hebrew,” JANES 5(1973),
173-190:176.

9

Held, 174-181.

10 However, Held pointed out that usages of the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬in Ezek 19:4. 8 are homonyms
meaning “net.” Held, 181-187.
11 A detailed interpretation of the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬has not been settled. N. J. Tromp interpreted
it as a hole connecting a subterranean world; this realm was later considered to be
Sheol. Tromp saw the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬as a grave, generally indicating the death of a humanbeing. However, Tromp admitted there was difficulty involved in this interpretation.
Tromp, 69-71. Rosenberg concluded that the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬indicated the untimely death of
the wicked. R. Rosenberg, “The Concept of Biblical Sheol within the Context of ANE
Beliefs” (Ph. D. diss., Harvard Univ., 1980), 51-73. Wächter classified meanings of thenoun ‫ ׁשחת‬into two large groups (i.e., a crafty trap and a subterranean world). Wächter,
TDOT 14:597f.
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Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute XLIV–XLV 2018–2019

The state of current investigations into ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Q texts
The noun ‫ ׁשחת‬appears 42 times in the Q texts12. R. Rosenberg consideredthat the phrase “Sons of ‫( ”(בני שחת) ׁשחת‬CD [Cairo Genizah copy of the Damascus Document] VI, 15) may reflect “another stage” of its exegetical tradition. Rosenberg pointed out that this expression underscores the negative aspectfrom both a spatial and a moral point of view, which was already implied in the
biblical term13. The object of Rosenberg’s investigation, however, is to clarify
the meaning of ‫ ׁשאול‬in the HB. Thus, Rosenberg did not search for instances of‫ ׁשחת‬in the Q texts in detail. R. E. Murphy suggested two interpretations of ‫ׁשחת‬in the HB after investigating instances of its usage in 1QS (Serek Hayaḥad),1QHa (Hodayota), and the CD. That is, the verb ‫“( ׁשוח‬to sink”) and ‫“( ׁשחת‬tobecome corrupt,” “to be ruined”) influence the Qumran community’s two waysof interpreting the noun. According to Murphy, the Qumran community considered these two verbs to etymologically precede ‫ׁשחת‬. Thus, the verb ‫ ׁשוח‬led
the interpretation of the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬as “hole or grave,” whereas the verb ‫ׁשחת‬led its interpretation as “corruption.” Since members of the Qumran community
correlated the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬with the verb ‫ ׁשחת‬rather than the verb ‫ׁשוח‬, Murphy’s
study concluded that the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬had become a new ethical term in their theology14. L. Wächter noted that the meanings of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Q texts basically agreed
with those in the HB. In contrast to Murphy’s assertions, Wächter concluded thatwhile connotations with “hole” were weak in some instances, the shape of ‫ׁשחת‬remained a pit. Wächter accordingly supposed that the connotation of “hole”
fused with “corruption” in those instances15.
12 DSSC 2:720-721. This paper treats the Q texts as a corpus of Hebrew archives thatwere written in later ages than the HB.
13 Rosenberg, 73.

14 Murphy, Ronald E., “S̆ aḥat in the Qumran Literature,” Biblica 39 (1958), 61-66. Murphy deals with instances in 1QHa, the CD, and 1QS (1QS VI, 12, XI, 16, 22, X, 19, XI,
13, CD VI, 15, XIII, 14, XVI, 2, 1QH X, 23, XI, 13, 17, 19, 20, 27, XIII, 8).
15 Wächter, TDOT 14:598.
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R. FUJIKATA: The Expression of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Elihu Speeches

1. Expressions of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES (Job 33:15-30)
1.1. Translation
15

In the dream and in the vision of the night,
When deep sleep falls on people
In dozes on beds.

16

Thereupon He opens the ear of people,
And He seals those with their discipline.

17

That He causes to depart human beings from their deed16,
And He conceals17 the arrogance from a man.

18

He keeps his soul from Shahat,
And [he keeps back] his life from running to the arrow18.

16 MT “‫להסיר אדם מעׂשה‬.” Since the verb ‫( סור‬hif. “to separate,” “to remove”) cannot taketwo objects (see David J. A. Clines, Job 21-37, WBC 18A, Nashville 2006, 696), an
emendation has been proposed to place ‫ מן‬before ‫“( מעׂשה‬deed”). This emendation is
widely accepted (see Norman C. Habel, The Book of Job: A Commentary, London
1975, 177; Clines, Job 21-37, 682).
17 MT “‫( ”כסה‬pi. “to cover”). We read this in accordance with MT. The verb ‫ כסה‬is employed similarly in the ES (36:30.32) (in both instances, the subject of this verb isGod). Furthermore, we can find a similar usage to this clause in Gen 18:17. The verb
‫ כסה‬is also solely used in an expression about cutting a plant (Ps 80:17, Isa 33:12). For
these reasons, the emendation “‫( ”כסח‬qal “to cut away”) (see BHS; Clines, Job 21-37,
696) is unnecessary.
18 Commentators are divided on their views about the translation for “‫( ”ׁשלח‬i.e., “somekind of weapon” and “a stream”). On the former view, see “‫ ׁשלח‬I”, BDB:10181020:1019; Held, 174; Artur Weiser, Das Buch Hiob, ATD13, Göttingen 19685, 220;
Lauber, 59. On the latter view, see Clines, Job 21-37, 697; Pilger, 42; Pope, 218. Thereis a disadvantage to the latter view. That is, ancient versions (LXX, U, 11QtgJob) did
not translate this word into a kind of stream (cf. Lauber, 59). As Pope insisted, if ‫ׁשלח‬means “infernal stream” (as is well-known in Mesopotamian Hubur and Styx in Greek
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Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute XLIV–XLV 2018–201919

And besides, he is chastened by pain on his bed,
So that his bones struggle19 with each other.

20

Furthermore, his life loathes breads.
His soul [loathes] the favorite food.

21

His flesh vanishes and is lost to view.
His bones which were formerly in hiding20 are exposed.

22

Then, his soul approaches Shahat.
His life [comes close] to those who bring death.

23

If there be on behalf of him an envoy, a mediator, one of the thousand,To bring what is right to human beings,

24

He has compassion for him and says,“Redeem21 him from going down into Shahat.

mythology), ancient versions would have translated it to a kind of stream.
As supporting evidence for this interpretation of ‫ׁשלח‬, we can point to the relationship between the nouns ‫ ׁשחת‬and ‫“( חץ‬an arrow”) in 1QHa (XI, 16, XI, 27) (we will lookat these instances below). The noun ‫ חץ‬is thus employed in connection with the noun
‫ ׁשלח‬in 2 Sam 22:15, Ps 18:15; 144:6, and Ezek 5:16. Since a relationship between ‫ׁשלח‬and ‫ חץ‬is therefore assumed, it seems reasonable to conclude that the noun ‫ ׁשלח‬in Job
33:18 can be interpreted as an arrow-like weapon. This reading is supported by the factthat verb ‫ עבר‬widely suggests a “change of location or position” (see H. F. Fuhs, “‫עבר‬,”TDOT 10:408-425:413). Thus, the verb ‫ עבר‬does not restrict the translation of ‫ ׁשלח‬tomean a kind of stream.
19 K “‫“( ”ריב‬struggle”), Q “‫“( ”רוב‬abundance”). It is reasonable to adopt this reading ofK from the perspective of parallelism (similar to that in 33:15-18).
20 It is appropriate to take “‫( ”לא ראו‬they are not visible) as a relative clause that modifies“‫( ”עצמותיו‬his bones). See Clines, Job 21-37, 699.
21 MT “‫פדעהו‬.” Since the verb “‫ ”פדע‬only appears here, it is difficult to confirm its meaning. BHS proposes “‫“( ”פרע‬to release,” “to leave,” qal imp. +sf. 3ms.). BHS’s emendation (Habel adopted this emendation, see Habel, 177) is defective since the verb“‫ ”פרע‬connotes a negative meaning (see “‫ פרע‬III,” BDB:828f.:828; Clines, Job 21-37,
701). Therefore 11QJob (Targum of Job) translates the verb “‫ ”פצהו‬as “to rescue” (seeEmanuel Tov [ed.], Qumran Cave 11 II 11Q2-18, 11Q20-31, DJD 23, Oxford 1998,
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R. FUJIKATA: The Expression of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Elihu Speeches

I have found a ransom.”25

H is flesh becomes more abundant22 than a youth.
He returns to his youth.

26

He will pray to Eloah,
Then He will take delight in him and he will see His face with joy,
And He will give back righteousness to people.

27

He will sing23 toward people and will say,
“I sinned and distorted what is right. But He has not brought retribution to me.

28

He has saved my soul24 from running into Shahat25,
Now my life shines in the light.”

29

Behold, El does all these things.
Twice, three times, with a man.

130-132), the proposed emendation “‫ ”פדהו‬is reasonable to adopt. For instance, Clines(Clines, Job 21-37, 701); Driver and Gray (S. R. Driver / G. B. Gray, A Critical andExegetical Commentary on the Book of Job, International Critical Comementary vol.
1, New York 1921, 248) also agreed with this emendation.
22 MT “‫רטפש‬.” BHS proposes “‫יטפש‬.” This is a proper emendation. See Driver and Gray,
248.
23 MT

(√

, “to see”). BHS also proposes vocalization “‫( ”יָׁשִר‬v. “‫“[ ”ׁשיר‬to sing”],

impf.) or “‫( ”יָׁשֵר‬v. “‫“[ ”ׂשרר‬to confess”], impf.). This new word is analogous to theArab. ᵓašarra (“he informed”). From a parallelism with the next verb “‫אמר‬,” the vocalization “‫ ”יָׁשִר‬is suitable. Clines (Job 21-37, 703), Lauber (62), K. Namiki (An Old
Testament translating committee, Shosho [Writings], Tokyo 2005, 402), and Pilger(44) took the same reading.
24 In this verse, Q amends suffixes to 3ms. (‫ חיתו‬,‫)נפשו‬. Since there is no doubtful point at
this MT, we cannot find a reason to adopt this alteration.
25 MT “‫בׁשחת‬.” One medieval manuscript and one edition use “‫( ”בשלח‬this reading seems
to result from the expression in 33:18 and 36:12). As corroboration of the validity of
MT, LXX “εις διαφθοράν.” Some Greek versions use “φθοραν” (see Joseph Ziegler[ed.], Iob, Septuaginta auct. Acad. Scient. Gottingensis vol. XI, 4, Göttingen 1982,
362f.). Both are translations of “‫ׁשחת‬.”11

Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute XLIV–XLV 2018–2019

30

That He brings back his soul from Shahat,
And to make [him] shine in the light of life.

1.2. Composition and content of Job 33:15-30
Elihu shows how God prevents a person from running to ‫ ׁשחת‬by repeatedlyusing it in 33:15-30.
Details are below:
15-18 God warns a person about going to ‫ ׁשחת‬but without much effect.
19-22 In a second phase, God gives a reproof of pain on the person, but this isineffective. Thus, the person is approaching ‫ׁשחת‬.
23-26 The person is rescued from being sent to ‫ ׁשחת‬by the appearance of an
envoy/mediator.
23-24 The envoy/mediator has compassion for the person. The envoy/mediatorintervenes between God and the person by means of presenting a ransom.
25 The person recovers his or her physical health.
26 The person prays to God. God then returns righteousness to the person.
27-28 The person sings about salvation of God from ‫ׁשחת‬.
29-30 In summary, God performs the above several times to rescue a personfrom ‫ׁשחת‬.
Scholars such as R. Gordis and T. Pilger interpreted that the subject of chapter 33 is suffering as a means of instruction by God26. Although the person learnsof God’s merciful deeds from their sufferings (as C. Newsom pointed out27), thesuffering itself does not have direct efficacy in reforming the person.
In these passages, an envoy/mediator appears to converse about the afflicted
26 Robert Gordis, The Book of God and Man: A Study of Job, Chicago/London 1965,
113ff.; Pilger, 61.
27 Newsom, 215.
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R. FUJIKATA: The Expression of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Elihu Speeches

person’s situation. Only after the person has been rescued do they respond to
God and find meaning in past sufferings. Elihu accentuates God’s wondrous deedin delivering the person from ‫ׁשחת‬.
1.3. Characteristics of ‫ ׁשחת‬expressions in the ES
In the ES, ‫ ׁשחת‬is fundamentally located as a realm of death that opposes a
realm of life.28 Having committed a crime, the person goes down to ‫ׁשחת‬. Thus,‫ ׁשחת‬is also depicted as a place of punishment29.
The following section provides a detailed discussion of the expressions of‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES by comparing them with other instances in the HB.
A place of punishment
In 33:18, ‫ ׁשחת‬appears in parallel with “‫( עבר בׁשלח‬run to the arrow)” and“‫( ממתים‬those who bring death).” Both are expressions about death30. A closer
examination of these expressions may elucidate the character of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES.
In 36:12, “‫( עבר בׁשלח‬run to the arrow)” is connected with “be choked todeath” (“If they do not listen, they will run to the arrow and are choked to death
without knowledge.”). Elihu also uses the phrase “without knowledge” in his
evaluation of Job’s statement (“And also Job opens his mouth in vain and increases declarations without knowledge” [35:16]).The phrase “‫( לא בדעת‬disregarding knowledge)” is also used as an expression of criticism for Job (“Jobspeaks disregarding knowledge. His words are not based on insight” [34:35]).
Elihu declares that Job’s statements lack “knowledge.” Here, Elihu sees “knowledge” as the understanding of God’s real nature (“Bear with me a little, I willshow you, because still I have an opinion about Eloah. I hold knowledge (‫)דעי‬28 About the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬as a realm of death, see Tromp, 70. For instances in the ES, see
Pilger, 44; Lauber, 59-62, 200.
29 About the noun ‫ ׁשחת‬as a place of a punishment, see Rosenberg, 62-64.
30 See the translation of this paper and Held, 173f.
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Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute XLIV–XLV 2018–2019from afar. I inform you about the righteousness of my maker, since certainly
there is no untruth in my words. A perfect knowledge (‫ )תמים דעות‬is with you”
[36:2-4]). The expression “‫( עבר בׁשלח‬run to the arrow)” therefore indicates deathfrom a lack of knowledge about God.
The phrase “‫( ממתים‬those who bring death [‫ מות‬hif. Pt. pl.])” also appears in
2 Kgs 17:26 (Lions from Yahweh slay settlers lacking regulation of God in Samaria) and Jer 26:15 (Jeremiah says to the government officials and the people of
Judah, “If you are murderers against me, you will shed innocent blood”). In bothcases, “‫ ”ממתים‬is represented as a slayer of humanity. A. Weiser notes that 2 Sam
24:16 and Ps 78:49 are instances related to Job 33:2231. Both accounts refer to aslayer from God with a justifiable reason (David’s sin due to his investigation of
the population [2 Sam 24:16], and a punishment for Egypt [Ps 78:49]). Although
the instances in 2 Sam 24:16, Ps 78:49, and 2 Kgs 17:26 refer to a mass murderer(unlike the personal murderer in Job 33:22), the HB provides evidence that God
sends a slayer to administer punishment.
We can therefore conclude that, “‫ ”עבר בׁשלח‬and “‫ ”ממתים‬suggest undesirable
death as a punishment for human sin. Examination of these expressions in parallel with ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES reveals that ‫ ׁשחת‬has the same meaning. In Ps 55:24 and94:13, ‫ ׁשחת‬is used to make a similar implication (a premature death as a punishment 32 [55:24], a destruction of the wicked who insult and dismiss God [94:13]).
In Ps 7:16; 9:16, Prov 26:27 and 28:10, ‫ ׁשחת‬is utilized effectively for the purposeof depicting the self-destructions of the author’s foes. In these instances, ‫ׁשחת‬refers to both a wrongdoing of the foes and a place of ruin for them33. However,
31 Weiser interpreted “‫ ”ממתים‬as an angel of death (“Todesengel”). Weiser, 220.
32 In the HB, premature death is clearly seen as divine punishment. See M. A. Knibb,“Life and death in the Old Testament” in: R. E. Clements (ed.), The World of Ancient
Israel: Sociological, Anthropological and Political Perspectives, Cambridge 1989,
395-415: 403.
33 M. H. Lichtenstein designated this sort of retribution for wickedness as “poetic justice.” See Murray H. Lichtenstein, “The Poetry of Poetic Justice: A Comparative Study
14

R. FUJIKATA: The Expression of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Elihu Speeches

unlike the ES, in such instances of Ps or Prov, ‫ ׁשחת‬is represented as an ambiguous device for general retributive justice. As we will discuss later, the author of
the ES pays attention to all individuals rather than to a conceptual evil.
A cause for going to ‫ׁשחת‬In 33:17, Elihu indicates that “‫( גוה‬pride)34” and “‫( מעׂשה‬deed)” are causes
for going to ‫ׁשחת‬. In addition, ‫ גוה‬appears35 in Jer 13:17 and Job 22:29. Jeremiah
warns the people about their pride in Jer 13:15-17. Jeremiah says that their pride
will bring them gloom of death, darkness, and captivity if they ignore Yahweh’s
glory. Eliphaz hints at Job’s pride in Job 22:29 (“You may say ‘pride!’ ”)36. Elihu
also blames Job’s pride by correlating ‫ גוה‬with “‫( גבר‬a man)” by which Job represents himself37.
The word “‫( מעׂשה‬deed)” occasionally has negative connotations38. In Gen
44:15, the alleged theft committed by Joseph’s brothers is represented as ‫מעׂשה‬(but a false charge). In Neh 6:14 (a cunning scheme of enemies) and Lam 3:64
(the behavior of those who insult and oppress the author), ‫ מעׂשה‬is mentioned
as something that must be avenged by God. Ezekiel declares that pride incurs‫ ׁשחת‬as punishment (“They will take you down into Shahat, then you shall die
the death of the perforation in the heart of the seas” [28:8]). “The death of theperforation,” which parallels ‫ׁשחת‬, is used as an expression of Yahweh’s judgment (such death is cruel and dishonorable). Passages in Ezek (28:1-10) are proin Biblical Imagery,” JANES 5 (1973), 255-265.
34 For the meaning of the noun “‫גוה‬,” see D. Kellermann, “‫גאה‬,” TDOT 2: 344-350: 346.
35 There is general agreement that the noun “‫ ”גוה‬in Job 20:25 means “the back (of a human body)” as a hapax legomenon. See Clines, Job 1-20, WBC 17, Michigan 1989,
478.
36 See Clines, Job 21-37, 567.
37 As Namiki pointed out, the noun “‫ ”גבר‬is used as Job’s own representation in Job’s
speeches (for instance, 3:3.23; 15:25). Shosho, 403.
38 See “‫ עׂשה‬I”, BDB: 793-796: 795.
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nouncements of death as punishment for the prince of Tyre who is conceitedover his wealth. Thus, similarly to Job 33:17, ‫ ׁשחת‬is represented in Ezek 28:8 as
a place of punishment for pride.
A contraposition of ‫ ׁשחת‬to an ethical value
In Job 33:27, the person who was rescued fromperverted what is right (39going tostates, “I sinned and) .” Notably, “to pervert what is right” is a cause for40

in the ES.

First, what does “what is right (‫ ”)יׁשר‬mean here? The phrase ‫ יׁשר‬is repeatedly used as a virtue of Job in 1:1, 8 and 2:3. Job’s friends Eliphaz and Bildad also
approve of the value of ‫ יׁשר‬in regard to retributive justice (4:7, 8:6). They unanimously assert that whoever has the virtue of ‫ יׁשר‬shall not perish.41 The phrase ‫יׁשר‬is also highly rated in a retributive justice framework in three instances in Prov
(4:11, 2:21-22, 3:32). As H. Olivier suggested, the virtue of ‫ יׁשר‬is referenced in
Job, Prov, and Ps as something that every human should strive to obtain. As avirtue, it leads its owner to a satisfactory life. This is because Yahweh is intimate
with whoever has it (Prov 3:32)42. Eilhu himself applies the noun ‫ יׁשר‬to qualify
his mind in Job 33:3 (“uprightness of my mind, my statements and knowledge of
my lips utter genuine words”).
There is a turning point in the condition of the sufferer in 33:23 as an envoy/
mediator informs the sufferer of “what is right for him (sf. 3ms.)” 43 so that they
who have ignored this may know an appropriate way of life. In short, the suf39 In 33:27, the verb ‫( עוה‬hif.) means “to bend” when taking the noun ‫ יׁשר‬as an object.
See Hannes Olivier, ‟‫יׁשר‬,” NIDOTTE 2:563-568:566.
40 The adjective ‫ יׁשר‬is employed as a noun in this instance. See BDB:409; HAL:429.
41 This reference is insisted as an axiom. See Clines, Job 1-20, 125, Crenshaw, 57.
42 Hannes Olivier, ‟‫יׁשר‬,” NIDOTTE 2:563-568:566.
43 For an interpretation of “‫יׁשרו‬,” see also Seow’s consideration. Choon-Leong Seow,“Elihu’s Revelation,” ThTo 68-3(2011), 253-271:269.
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R. FUJIKATA: The Expression of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Elihu Speeches

ferer must be aware of “what is right for him” to avoid ‫ׁשחת‬. Conversely, ‫ ׁשחת‬isrepresented as the fate of a person who ignores the virtue that every human ought
to embody44.
A testimony of salvation from ‫ ׁשחת‬in a first-person narrative
Most uses of ‫ ׁשחת‬refer to it as a place for wicked foes to whom the authors
are opposed. Such evil people are destined for ‫ׁשחת‬. Thus, God’s actions in these
instances are meant to bring guilty people down to ‫ׁשחת‬. Elihu sees God and ‫ׁשחת‬from a different perspective. Elihu considers a person’s approach to ‫ ׁשחת‬to result
from their pride and deeds. Elihu says that such a person shall finally be rescued
and will testify in the presence of an audience45.
A testimony of salvation from ‫ ׁשחת‬is depicted in Ps 103:4. At the outset ofthe lines beginning at 103, the author orders one’s own soul to praise the merciful arrangement of Yahweh. The author then lauds Yahweh with some eulogisticnames in which Yahweh is praised as a forgiver of sin, a healer of sickness, anda redeemer from ‫ׁשחת‬. In this psalm, ‫ ׁשחת‬also connotes punishment because it
is treated equally with blame and sickness, which are considered the results ofsin46. Although the details of “blame” are ambiguous in this psalm, it is evident
that Yahweh rescues the person from ‫ׁשחת‬, which is represented as a place of punishment. A declaration similar to that in Job 33:27 is also mentioned in 103:10(“According to our sins, He did not deal with us, and in proportion with ourblames, He did not treat us”). Thus, it can be argued that Ps 103 is similar to the
ES in relation to the testimonies. In both instances, God delivers a sinner from adeserving punishment in ‫ׁשחת‬. Unlike the ES, the author of Ps 103 is interested
44 The nouns ‫ יׁשר‬and ‫ ׁשחת‬are also used together in Prov 28:10. Unlike in the ES, ‫( יׁשר‬pl.)means “the righteous” in this instance. The wicked who are destined for ‫ ׁשחת‬attempt
to mislead them in this passage.
45 Lauber considered the theme of this passage (33:26-28) to be “Danklied.” Lauber, 214.
46 See Christian Frevel, “Krankheit/Heilung,” HGANT5:301-305:302.
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in a godly group (“we”) rather than an individual and does not provide a detailed
cause for going to ‫ׁשחת‬.
1.4. Different expressions of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES and HB: A brief summary
Several observations in this chapter have shown three distinctions for ‫ׁשחת‬in the ES. First, the ‫ ׁשחת‬of the ES is concretely mentioned as the fate of anindividual who ignores the virtues that every human ought to embody. Second,‫ ׁשחת‬contrasts with an ethical value (‫)יׁשר‬. In the ES, ‫ ׁשחת‬is not a fate of foes ormerely of every mortal47. Third, the testimony of salvation from ‫ ׁשחת‬is told in a
first-person narrative in which the individual confesses to a past fault (33:27-28).
Such an individual confession about salvation from ‫ ׁשחת‬is missing in the restof HB; therefore, this is a distinguishing feature of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES. Fourth, ‫ׁשחת‬is used in various expressions as a threatening individual menace. This menace
waits for an individual who makes an ethical mistake on the path of life at any
time. Repetition and relationships with multiple depictions of death () give nuance and impact to ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES.

2. Expressions of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Q texts
In the following, we examine instances of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Q texts.
2.1. Similar testimonies involving ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES and Q texts
The 1QHa48 contains testimonies with expressions that are similar to thosein Job 33:27-28. Some opening paragraphs of 1QHa describe confessions of theauthor’s own past faults and thanks to God for salvation from ‫ׁשחת‬.
47 Although Ps 49:10 mentions ‫ ׁשחת‬as an individual menace, this ‫ ׁשחת‬is fate for every
mortal in the context of this psalm. See Tromp, 69; TDOT 14, 598.
48 The text of 1QHa is based upon Hartmut Stegemann, Eileen Schuller, Carol Newsom(Transl. of Texts), 1QHodayota, DJD 40, New York 2009.
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R. FUJIKATA: The Expression of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Elihu Speeches

In a psalm in 1QHa XI, 20-37, ‫ ׁשחת‬is depicted as a crisis that the author has
experienced.
(vacat) I thank you, O Lord. For you have redeemed my soul from ‫ׁשחת‬,and from Sheol-Abbadon, (21) You have lifted me to the eternal height. I
move about the boundless plain. I know that that place is a hope for thosewho (22) were formed from dust for an eternal council. And also, You
have purified the crooked spirit from a huge sin.
1QHa XI, 27-28(27) when all traps of ‫ ׁשחת‬are open, all nets of evil and casting nets of
the wickedness are spread on the surface of the water. (28) When all thearrows of ‫ ׁשחת‬fly unavoidable and shoot without hope49. ...

In this psalm,Thus,

is something that drives individual activity into a crisis.

is a threat that contains traps and shoots arrows. The expression “trapsof” is also used in 1QHa X, 23 and CD XIV, 2 (in these instances, it is seenas). 1QHa X, 23 is also part of a thanksgiving in the opening of apsalm beginning at 1QHa X, 22 (“And You save me from all traps ofthese instances,”). Inis a threat that intends to absorb a powerless individual50.

The authors state that God’s conduct rescues an individual from.

In 1QH XIII, 7-8, the author confesses a past fault and thanks God for salavation from ‫ׁשחת‬. These verses are located in the opening of a psalm composed
in 1QHa XIII, 7-21.
49 The translation in this paper refers to Svend Holm-Nielsen’s translate and comment.
Svend Holm-Nielsen, Hodayot Psalms from Qumran, Aarhus 1960, 65, 70.
50 In this phrase, Murphy saw ‫ ׁשחת‬as a power held by corrupted enemies. Murphy, 64.
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Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute XLIV–XLV 2018–2019

1QHa XIII, 7-8(7) I thank you, O Lord. For You did not abandon me when I temporarily
lived with foreigners. [] (8) You [have not] judged me (7) according to

my sin. (8) You have not abandoned me in a scheme of my inclination51.
And You saved my life from ‫ׁשחת‬, …
2.2. A contraposition of ‫ ׁשחת‬to an ethical value
In 1QS52 XI, 13-14, ‫ ׁשחת‬is used in contraposition to “way (‫)דרך‬.”1QS XI, 13-14
If my affliction bursts, He will let my life out from ‫ׁשחת‬. And He will
establish firmly my steps on the way. Through His affection, He drew menear, and by His loving-kindness, He shall provide 53(14) my righteousness.
Regarding the contraposition of ‫ ׁשחת‬to “way,” Murphy pointed out that ‫ׁשחת‬refers to a moral corruption rather than one of mere death that contrasts to “way.”
The same situation is present in the ES, in which a moral value is represented as‫יׁשר‬. Murphy commented about instances in both 1QS and 1QHa when ‫ ׁשחת‬is expressed as a threat by which the authors attempt to indicate apprehension aboutloss of faith and participation in evil. Murphy even pointed out that the authors
51 K. Nakazawa commented that the noun ‫ יצר‬refers to the fundamental evil of a humanbeing from which no one escapes. Japanese Biblical Institute, Shikaibunsyo [Dead Sea
Scrolls: Translations and comments], Tokyo 1963, 176, 301.
52 The text of 1QS is based upon DSSR 2, 2-35 (ed. M. Abegg, trans. M. Wise, M. Abegg, E. Cook and N. Gordon).
53 A literal translation is “he putted.” The translation in this paper refers to DSSR 1. DSSR
1, 33.
54 Murphy, 61, 63f.
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R. FUJIKATA: The Expression of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Elihu Speeches

declare a belief that God should give relief to an individual who has sinned orlost faith54.
It is evident that some characteristics are shared by several statements ofthanks in 1QHa and the ES (i.e., a confession of the author’s past sin [straying
from the right path of life] and a testimony of God’s salvation from ‫ ׁשחת‬in a firstperson narrative). Several psalms in 1QHa and the ES entail a belief that God
even saves individuals who are in hopeless situations and who have strayed fromthe right path of life in the past.
2.3. A stronger combination of arrows/envoys and ‫ׁשחת‬The arrows and envoys mentioned in parallel with ‫ ׁשחת‬are related morestrongly in the Q texts. A comprehensible instance is found in 1QS IV, 11-14.
1QS IV, 11-14(11) The Judgment for (12) all of those who walk in such a manner (i.e.,
those who belong to a wicked spirit and commit evil deeds) is numerous
afflictions at the hand of all the angels of destruction, eternal ‫ ׁשחת‬in rage
for God’s horrible avenge, an endless dread (13) with a humiliating destruction in a fire of external darkness, and an endless (12) rebuke. (13)Until all the ages and generations, they will know sorrowful misfortune,a bitter calamity, and a dark incident during (14) their exhaustive destruction. There are no survivors and no rescue. [vacat]
Another instance is found in 1QHa XI, 17-18.
1QHa XI, 17-18… and when those rush toward, She[o]l [and A]bbad[on] are opened, and
55 The translation in this paper refers to DJD 40. DJD 40, 37. Literally, “together with
their going,” Nielsen, 59.
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all the arrows of ‫ ׁשחת‬are (18) together with their retinue55.
2.4. ‫ ׁשחת‬as a more advanced threat in the Q texts:
A comparison with instances in the ES
Examinations of instances containing ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Q texts have shown that expressions of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES contain three common features: (1) A first-person testimony in which God saved an individual who sinned, (2) a contrast between ‫ׁשחת‬and an ethical value, and (3) a relationship between ‫ ׁשחת‬and arrows and envoys.
However, it is noteworthy that ‫ ׁשחת‬increases in threat as a means of God’s
judgment and as an infernal realm in the Q texts. In a former investigation of
1QS IV, 12, ‫ ׁשחת‬relates to “eternity (‫)עולם‬.” Similar instances are found in 4Q286(Berb)56 7ii5, 4Q418 (4QInstructiona) 69ii6, and 162 457. In 4Q286 7ii5, ‫ ׁשחת‬isemployed as a final retribution for Berial, who plots against the author. In 4Q418
69ii6, ‫ ׁשחת‬is a menace of God’s judgment for fools who behave wrongly. On
the contents of 4Q418, Harrington commented that this text provides a right andwise conduct appealing to “the threat of eschatological judgment.”58 In 1QHa
XI, ‫ ׁשחת‬is mentioned as an infernal realm. This tells us that ‫ ׁשחת‬has a gate (‫)דלת‬(parallel with “eternal bars [‫ )”]בריחי עולם‬and imprisons those who conceive evil(‫)עול‬. Further, as in the instances in 1QHa XI, 28, ‫ ׁשחת‬attacks an individual actively and independently. In 1QHa XI, 13, ‫ ׁשחת‬has a womb-like opening (‫שחת‬‫)משברי‬59. ‫ ׁשחת‬develops into the final judgment by combining with ‫ עולם‬in an
56 The text is based upon DSSR 2, 635-645 (ed. and trans. B. Nitzan).
57 The phrase “‫ ”ׁשחת עולם‬appears in 4Q418 162 4. However, the context is difficult todetermine since it is fragmentary data and there is no parallel text. The text in questionis based upon DSSR 2, 107-165 (ed. and trans. J. Strugnell and D. Harrington).
58 Harrington, Daniel J., “Wisdom Texts,” EDSS 2:976-980:978.
59 Depending on its vocalization, “‫ ”משבר‬can have two different meanings (i.e., “awomb” or “a wave”). The author seems to suggest both. H. Katsumura and S. Uemura(tr.), Shikaibunsyo VII [Psalms from Dead Sea Scrolls: Translations], Tokyo 2018, 49).
Newsom’s translation is “the womb opening of the pit.” DJD 40, 155. As a metaphor
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R. FUJIKATA: The Expression of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the Elihu Speeches

eschatological context. These expressions of ‫ ׁשחת‬can be mentioned as a trait of‫ ׁשחת‬in the Q texts.
Further, ‫ ׁשחת‬is employed in 1QS IX, 1660, 22, X, 1961 as an attribute of agroup that members of Qumran should avoid because of their corruption. This
group is represented as “the Men of Shahat (‫”)אנשי שחת‬62. Notably, this group isexpressed as “sons of Shahat (‫ ”)בני שחת‬in the CD VI, 15. This usage of ‫ ׁשחת‬isnot evident in the ES.

Conclusion: The Transition and Development of ‫ׁשחת‬As we have seen, the expression ‫ ׁשחת‬exhibits the following four traits in the
ES: (1) a place for punishment (this usage appears in some instances in the HB;
however, these references are ambiguous and lack concreteness), (2) a multiformity of expressions owing to repetition (it relates to arrows and those who bring
death), (3) a contrast between ‫ ׁשחת‬and an ethical value, and (4) an individual
testimony referring to God’s salvation and one’s past faults. In the ES, ‫ ׁשחת‬has adistinct outline as a place of punishment for an individual who has become ethically corrupt. Therefore, God’s salvation from ‫ ׁשחת‬is reported as a remarkable
deed of God. Then, a rescued individual sings about God’s salvation and discerns
one’s past fault. In this way, ‫ ׁשחת‬serves as warning equipment for individual
ethical corruption in the instances of the ES, whereas in other instances in the
HB ‫ ׁשחת‬appears obscurely as a realm of death or terror. Although several ‫ ׁשחת‬inthe rest of the HB are retribution for wickedness and sin, we cannot detect ‫ ׁשחת‬asof pregnancy is used frequently in this context, Newsom’s translation is suitable.
60 In this instance, it is seen as “‫אנשי השחת‬.” DSSR 1, 26.
61 In this instance, it is seen as “‫אנש שחת‬.” DSSR 1, 30.
62 M. Wise, M. Abegg, E. Cook and N. Gordon’s translation is “the Men of the Pit.” Thistranslation uses capital letters to indicate that ‫ ׁשחת‬is not a normal pit. DSSR 1, 27-29.
Murphy pointed out that the phrase “wicked people (‫( ”)אנשי עול‬IX, 17, X, 20) is asynonym for “‫אנשי שחת‬.” Murphy, 61.
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warning equipment for individual ethical corruption in such instances.
The above four traits of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES are also found in the Q texts, where‫ ׁשחת‬function as warning for individual ethical corruption. Furthermore, ‫ ׁשחת‬enhances its degree of dread and makes its presence more felt in this corpus. In
the Q texts, ‫ ׁשחת‬represents an infernal realm for the eschatological judgment ofGod, an active and independent assailant for an individual, and an attribute ofa group that is constituted by corrupt people. Thus, as a warning to individual
ethical corruption, ‫ ׁשחת‬expands its effect in eschatological contexts. Moreover,as a qualification for a disgusting group, ‫ ׁשחת‬clearly has a negative meaning on
the ethical plane.
To sum up, regarding the instances in the ES, on the one hand, ‫ ׁשחת‬has adistinct outline as a warning equipment for individual ethical corruption more
obvious than the other instances in the HB; on the other hand, ‫ ׁשחת‬is moderately
expressed in comparison with those in the Q texts with regard to terror and activity. In the instances of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES, we cannot find any eschatological expressions, an active and independent assailant, or an attribute of corrupted people.
Therefore, we can conclude that, in the ES, ‫ ׁשחת‬is on the eve of usage in the Q
texts. In other words, in the ES, ‫ ׁשחת‬indicates that the word was in a transitional
period during the development of its meaning: from an obscure space of death or
terror to a dreadful eschatological menace to an individual who has become ethically corrupt. Intensive usages of ‫ ׁשחת‬in the ES show that the author of the ES
had a high level of interest in ‫ ׁשחת‬and indicate that God’s deeds save individuals
from it63. Therefore, the author of the ES expresses ‫ ׁשחת‬concretely in detail.
63 During the course of this research, similarities between the contents of some psalmsof 1QHa and of the ES came to light in particular. The ES shares an individual testimony referring to God’s salvation from ‫ ׁשחת‬in 1QHa. This result suggests that bothwere chronologically produced in a similar environment (Puech concluded that “thesequence of the Hymns in 1QHodayota was known at least untill about 100 BCE.”
Émile Puech [trans. Robert E. Shillenn], “Hodayot,” EDSS 1, 365-369: 366) and ideologically. This subject requires further consideration.
24