筑波学院大学紀要第Mariko MIYAO: Breaking
7 集 Rules:
133Examining～ 143ページ
Fanselowʼs Theory and Observing a Student-Centered Language Learning Project in a CALL Classroom
2012年＜研究ノート＞

Breaking Rules: Examining Fanselow’s Theory
and Observing a Student-Centered Language
Learning Project in a CALL Classroom
Mariko MIYAO ＊Abstract
This article is written as a research note for this author’s presentation in a forum at JALT2011
in Tokyo. The forum will explore John Fanselow’s ideas about teaching and learning with ﬁve presenters and Fanselow himself as a commentator. Therefore, in this paper, ﬁrst, the notion of classroom observation advocated by Fanselow will be examined. Next, a new learner-centered, projectbased writing activity of digital storytelling conducted in the fall semester in 2010 will be described
as an example of classroom observation and then some unexpected ﬁndings will be analyzed inline with Fanselow’s theory of Breaking Rules.
抄録

本稿は、JALT2011のフォーラムでの筆者の発表のための研究ノートとして書かれている。
フォーラムでは、John Fanselow の教育および学習に関する理論について筆者を含む 5 名の発表があり、Fanselow 氏が最後にコメントを述べることになっている。そのため、本稿では、最初に Fanselow の推奨する classroom observation（教室内の観察）の考え方について調べ、次に、
2010年後期に実施した、学生中心のプロジェクト形式ライティング活動であるデジタル・ストー
リーテリングについて説明する。また、Fanselow の Breaking Rules の理論に沿って教室内の学生や教員自身について観察した結果、偶然見えてきたことについても言及する。

Introduction
This research note is written as a preparation for a presentation in a forum of five presenters
at JALT2011, 37th Annual International Conference of JALT (the Japan Association of Language
Teaching), to be held in Tokyo, November 18-21, 2011. In the forum featuring John Fanselow’s
notion of classroom obser vation, Fanslow himself will be the commentator to sum up the fivepresentations. This research note, therefore, will summarize some ideas and approaches ofFanselow, which strongly influenced and motivated many teachers including this author. Next,
a recently conducted student-centered, project-based activity of digital stor ytelling in a CALL＊

情報コミュニケーション学部情報メディア学科、Tsukuba Gakuin University

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筑波学院大学紀要 72012classroom and some findings through the teacher’s classroom observation will be explained andanalyzed in line with Fanselow's notion of classroom observation.
The following is the proposal submitted by the team of five presenters and accepted by the
JALT2011 program team:
Forum title: Obser ving Classrooms and Breaking Rules“Over the past 30 years, John Fanselow has made a significant contribution to EFL education in
Japan, through his writing and teaching. This panel explores Prof. Fanselow's ideas about learningwith papers inspired by his notion of classroom observation. Five speakers present various aspectsof observing university EFL classrooms, with concluding commentary by Prof. Fanselow.
Fanselow defined classroom observation as essential because it allows teachers to recognize
unconscious patterns in the culture of instruction, particularly unexamined practices and ingrained
assumptions about how talk and learning take place. Fanselow advocates questioning prescribedsuggestions about teaching: When teachers ＂do the opposite,＂ they better understand what
instruction and learning actually mean.
The first speaker outlines the philosophical groundwork of Breaking Rules as it relates toteachers who have studied under Fanselow, and looks at practical applications and influences onteaching style.
The second speaker explores practices of curriculum development, foregrounding observation
as a tool for building consensus about the kind of curriculum that is put in place in the classroom.
The third speaker explains how observation has been used by program administrators as anextension of course evaluation to follow-up instruction that goes above and beyond the curriculum,with potential to impart program-wide benefits.
The four th speaker investigates the intention to introduce scaf folded discourse, with agrounded analysis of how students do and (importantly) do not pick up extended patterns of talk.
The fifth speaker describes unexpected findings generated by an obser vation of studentcentered language learning projects conducted in a CALL classroom.”
The last paragraph is for this author’s presentation:“The fifth speaker describes unexpected
findings generated by an observation of student-centered language learning projects conducted in a
CALL classroom.”
As the title of the forum“Obser ving Classrooms and Breaking Rules”suggests, each of
the five presentations in the forum will focus different areas and aspects of Fanselow's notion ofclassroom observation and his various achievements in his career in education. All or the majorityof the presenters are graduates from Teachers College (TC), Columbia University, in New York or
Tokyo campus, where Dr. Fanselow’s Classroom Observation course was one of the first courses
for students to take. The textbook used for the course was titled“Breaking Rules”written by John
Fanselow. I attended his course of classroom observation in the summer of 1990.
The Teachers College TESOL courses in Tokyo were targeted at teachers with at least 2 to 3
years of classroom teaching experience. My classmates were mostly very experienced teachers─ 134 ─

Mariko MIYAO: Breaking Rules: Examining Fanselowʼs Theory and Observing a Student-Centered Language Learning Project in a CALL Classroom

with full of teaching knowledge, ideas, and energy. I had just started teaching in April of the same
year (1990) after about 20 years of working in the business sector in Japan, the U.S., and Canada, invarious industries including universities. I hoped to learn practical teaching techniques, theories,
and approaches in the TC's TESOL courses. I was a novice teacher, and had no idea of breaking
rules. I did not have any rules to break either. However, after many years of teaching since that firstsummer at TC, I realize the importance of classroom observation and occasional acts of breaking
rules advocated by Fanselow to analyze students and to see things differently as a teacher.

Fanselow’s Notion of Classroom Obser vation
First, some of the classroom obser vation ideas of Fanselow that have influenced many
practicing teachers will be examined by mainly referring to his book Breaking Rules used in thecourse of classroom observation.
Heuristic Approach
Maley (2005), by categorizing Fanselow’s notion of observation as a heuristic, explains that“thebest-known heuristic in our field was provided by John Fanselow in his book Breaking Rules (1987).
In this book, he urges us to ＇Do the opposite.’”According to Maley (n.d.), Fanselow“suggests that,
if we carefully examine what we habitually do in our classes and then try to do the opposite, we may
stumble upon some interesting new ways of proceeding.”Maley (n.d.) also explains that“Fanselow’s
point, which is worth thinking about, is that if we never try an alternative way of doing things, wenever know what might have happened!”
Learner-centered Education
Regarding learner-centered education, Fanselow (2011) says,“the most powerful learning takes
place when we are in charge and seek answers to our own questions, whether we are learning
languages or ways to teach languages, or anything else.”
Students learn a great deal when they are engaged in a student-centered language learning
activity, because they think actively and clearly while trying to figure out what to do and to findnecessary information in their own work. As a teacher, we also learn a great deal by looking for andcreating such an activity for our students and then observing them while they are engaged in theactivity.
Incidental Learning
Fanselow (1987) in the book Breaking Rules, explains about incidental learning as follows:“Inall of life, we learn a great deal incidentally (p.168),”and“deliberate, conscious attempts to learn
are effective partly because we alternate them with unplanned, unconscious moments of learning (p.
169).”

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筑波学院大学紀要 7

2012Looking at Teaching from a Different Perspective
Fanselow (1987) explains about the content of the book that the“material you are about to readis basically just a way of looking at teaching from a different perspective so that you see teachingand discussions of teaching differently (p.2).”In a different page, he says that the“aim of this bookis ultimately to see teaching differently (p.165).”
He suggests that by doing something different or new, we will have a chance to put ourselves
at a different angle. Or just doing the same routine differently, you and your students may find new
ways of teaching and learning. We sometimes forget this simple approach and become frustrated
if the same old approach does not work out suddenly with a different type of students or on thatparticular day with the same students. If we can see our teaching differently, then we feel morerelaxed and can try new activities more easily and enthusiastically.
Doing the Opposite, Breaking Rules, and Doing Something New
Fanselow (1987) tells us that the aim of the book Breaking Rule is to see teaching differently
and says,“To reach this aim, I have urged you to systematically describe communications,
make generalizations or rules about them, and then generate alternatives by substituting othercommunications and thus breaking the rules you discover (p.165).”
Purpose of the Obser vation System: To Look, Not Judge“Because the purpose of my observation system is to describe communications in order todiscover rules, and not to improve teaching, the descriptions need not be concerned with either
implicit or explicit judgments (p.20).”He informs us of the importance of objective observation tofind out more about our teaching.
“Observing highlights the fact that the purpose of the observation system is to look, not judge(p.19)”he concludes. He encourages teachers to observe without judging. He reminds us of theimportance of being objective when we observe our students.
He suggests us to do the opposite, but he also suggests us to do as follows.“Tr ying analternative for a few minutes or even a few seconds breaks a rule the same as if we try an alternative
for an entire period, for a few hours or for several days (p.169).”
This approach is closer to what I usually try to do in my teaching. By trying an alternative ina small scale, teachers can still learn to observe and notice the effects of the new approach andgradually can try other alternatives.

Brief Definitions of Digital Stor ytelling, Digital Stories, and Digital Stor ytellers
According to the Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling website, digital stor ytelling is“thepractice of using computer-based tools to tell stories.”Wikipedia defines that digital stor ytelling isthe“process by which people of all ages and experience share with others stories from their lives orcreative imagination.”Digital storytelling is a good teaching tool. Students can share their stories
with people from other countries over the Internet. In addition, students first read, view, and listen─ 136 ─

Mariko MIYAO: Breaking Rules: Examining Fanselowʼs Theory and Observing a Student-Centered Language Learning Project in a CALL Classroom

to various stories written by people from all over the world before venturing into creating their own
stories. It is an authentic reading and listening activity that teachers can offer in the classroom very
effectively.
The Center for Digital Storytelling site defines a digital stor y as a“short, first person videonarrative created by combining recorded voice, still and moving images, and music or othersounds,”and a digital stor yteller is a person“who has a desire to document life experience, ideas,or feelings through the use of story and digital media.”
Wikipedia explains about student created digital stories as follows:“Students can work
individually or collaboratively to produce their own digital stories. Once completed, these stories
can easily be uploaded to the Web and viewed by a worldwide audience.”This was the main reason
why this project was experimented in the fall semester of 2010.

Digital Stor ytelling: A Student-centered Project in a CALL Classroom
The idea of the digital storytelling project occurred to me when I attended a presentation by
Naoko Kasami, Obirin University, at LET 50, in Yokohama in September 2010. One of the activities
offered to her students in her course in a computer room was ＂Digital Storytelling using Windows
Movie Maker.＂
The activity seemed suitable for the third-year students in the course titled“Learning
English on the Web.”I had never used the software myself but a student who was working on her
graduation thesis under my supervision was using Windows Movie Maker in her graduation project
to create and edit movie videos to be uploaded to the Youtube site. If there were any problems,
I thought I could ask for her help. Also, the presenter kindly sent me via e-mail the instruction
she had made for her students about how to use the software. In addition, there are many usefulWebsites, for instance, how to use Windows Movie Maker, how to conduct the digital storytelling
project, and interesting digital stories created by many different people, including ESL/EFL
learners in many parts of the world.

Project Procedure: Digital Stor ytelling with Windows Movie Maker
The following is the procedure of the digital stor ytelling writing/nar rating projectexperimented in the fall semester in 2010.

1: Explanation of the Project
Explain about what the digital stor ytelling is and introduce some useful and interesting
websites for digital storytelling.
●

Center for Digital Stor ytelling <http://www.stor ycenter.org/>. Click“stories”andchoose stories under the categories:“Community,”“Education,”“Family,”“Youth,”“Health,”“Identity,”and“Place.”Students can read various stories created by native and non-native
speakers of English in different countries and cultures.

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筑波学院大学紀要 7

●

2012

BBC Digital Stor ytelling - Telling Lives: Your digital stories <http://www.bbc.co.uk/
tellinglives/> You can watch and listen to various digital stories created by British citizens.
Many of the films are probably too difficult for EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners.
Nonetheless, they can learn some very useful techniques from those digital stories.
Also, show students sample stories by the teacher and/or previous year’s student works.

●

A sample stor y created by the teacher: (See“My Trip to Liverpool at <http://www3.
tsukuba-g.ac.jp/t/miyao/engweb/index.html>. Click the“small-sized digital stor y”or the“large-sized digital story.”●

Student-created stories in 2010 can be viewed at the above mentioned course website,
under“Fall 2010: Digital Stories by Students.”

2. Brainstorming
After browsing digital stories, have a brainstorming session with your students. While checking
what kinds of photos they have in their file servers, they usually come up with their own story ideas.

3. Learning How to Use Windows Movie Maker
Teach how to use Windows Movie Maker, for example, how to start a new project, importphotos, and how to save the project, and the differences between a project file and a completed final
version of a movie file.
There are many websites explaining how to use the video editing software. The following are
examples of the websites and manuals used for this project.
● “Getting started with Windows Movie Maker”and other related pages at: <http://windows.
microsoft.com/en-US/windows-vista/Getting-started-with-Windows-Movie-Maker>●

The Japanese versions of the same manual at: <http://windows.microsoft.com/ja-JP/windowsvista/Getting-started-with-Windows-Movie-Maker/>
The“Work with projects in Windows Movie Maker”page is useful because it explains about

the differences between a project file and a movie file. (See the page at: <http://windows.microsoft.
com/en-US/windows-vista/Work-with-projects-in-Windows-Movie-Maker>.)
Two more resources were used for the project.
●

The manual created by Mie University students at: <http://ravel.edu.mie-u.ac.jp/~dst/>●

The manual sent from Naoko Kasami via e-mailUsing these 3 resources, a sample story titled“My trip to Liverpool”was created before theproject was offered to the students in 2010.

4. Creating Digital Stories by Using Students’ Own Photos
Have students arrange their photos (about 8 photos to use) and then start creating their own
stories. Usually, they write stories in Japanese first and then translate them into English. This─ 138 ─

Mariko MIYAO: Breaking Rules: Examining Fanselowʼs Theory and Observing a Student-Centered Language Learning Project in a CALL Classroom

process needs about three to five class hours depending on students' English abilities and theirproject contents.

5. Recording Narration
Explain how to record narration. There are two ways to record narration.
1.

Using the sound recorder in the Windows programs
Click“Programs -- Accessories -- Entertainment --Sound Recorder. You can record for 60
seconds at one take. Name and save the files in a folder for the digital story. Then you canimport the files into Movie Maker.

2.

Using the tools menu in Movie Maker.
Click the Tools menu and then Narrate Timeline to record your voice. Details of recording andadding narration are shown at“Add narration to your movie”page at the Microsoft’s“Getting
started with Windows Movie Maker”site.

6. Completing the Project and Saving the Stor y into a Movie File
Students have been working on a project file up to this stage. After completing necessary tasks
to create a story, students are ready to save the digital story into a movie file. (See details of how tosave a project file into a movie file at the“Publish a movie in Windows Movie Maker”page in theMicrosoft website.)
When students have completed and saved the final version of the stories, have them upload thedigital stories to their individual webpages. Create a link page to jump to the student-created story
pages.

Findings
Maley (2004), in his reference to Fanselow’s Breaking Rules, says that if they (teachers)“nevertr y anything different, however small, they never find out how it might have changed things.”
Also, he says that when“we change our customary practice, we become more aware of the effectsof what we do.”Therefore, in this section, I will examine what was found by conducting the new
writing project of digital storytelling.

a. Reading, Listening, and Viewing Digital Stories over the Web
The purpose of this writing project is to give students an opportunity to write creatively using
their own ideas. Before starting to write their own stories, they have a chance to read, view, andlisten to digital stories created by many people from all over the world. Those stories are authentic
reading, listening, and viewing materials. Moreover, while they are exposed to those authentic
materials, they can acquire deeper understanding of other people, cultures, and countries, and theoutside world surrounding them.
I had not been aware of those many different digital stories existing on the Internet until when I─ 139 ─

筑波学院大学紀要 72012tried to find some websites to be used as sample stories. I enjoyed viewing, reading, and listening tovarious stories myself. Some stories may be too difficult for students if they just read, however, withdigital stories, students receive various stimuli by reading, listening, and also visually by viewing.
This helps their understanding tremendously.

b. Movie Maker, the New Software to Use and Learn
In the course“Learning English on the Web,”several kinds of software or Internet tools havebeen used to conduct student-centered project-based activities to enhance students’ writing skills.
A small group of students who attend the course are majoring in informatics and media studies
and are very skillful in using networked computers in general. The majority of other students inthe department are not very fond of studying English, but this handful of students like to study
English by saying that they want to be exposed to some English before graduating. Although they
are rather reluctant to speak up in the classroom, but become active and creative in such a projectusing computers and the Internet. Therefore, I have been offering writing projects using different
software and Internet tools.
Some examples of software used in the course are: Study Note, Hot Potatoes, and Homepage
Builders. For example, using Study Note, students write original quizzes or stories using still
and moving pictures and sounds. With Hot Potatoes, they can make pre-formatted quizzes likecrosswords, matching quizzes, or cloze tests. With Homepage Builders, they create their own
websites in English.
By using Windows Movie Maker, students not only write their own stories, but also narrate
what they have written. Using Study Note, students can add narration by using the sound recorder,
but first they must write a story, draw or paint pictures to go with the story, and their time is up
before they can start recording narration. Moreover, the most of them are reluctant to do this extra
work of recording and adding the sound files into their works. However, with Movie Maker, theprocedure is simpler. What they have to do is to arrange photos, write the story, and then narrate it.
The procedure is much simpler. Students can concentrate more on the content of the project, whichis writing and narrating, rather than spending more time on learning to use the software or drawing
pictures in the drawing/painting software.

c. Recording and Adding Narration
When making a sample digital story, I used the sound recorder in the Windows programs.
Later, I found out that the students used the tool Narrate Timeline in the Movie Maker and saved
their narrations directly in the software’s project file. It is much easier to do.
Nonetheless, the experience of recording was very useful because I could understand what
my students would go through. Recording your voice is not so easy or simple as you might think it
is. You feel awful when you listen to your own voice for the first time. I am not a native speaker andI know my limitation in speaking naturally, but I sounded very awkward and monotonous when I
listened to my recorded narration for the first time. I did not speak very clearly or loudly enough.
So, I practiced several times until I thought I spoke more naturally. By actually recording narration

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myself, I was able to put myself in my students' shoes. Now, I can recommend them with confidence
to practice before actually recording narration.
However, I did not expect that my students would actually practice speaking before recording
narration. They would record narration by reading aloud just once, I thought. When I finally got
time to listen to their stories after the fall semester ended, I found out that all of them did a great job
in narrating their stories. They all seemed to have practiced narrating the stories before recording
their narrations. This was a very pleasant surprise. Some of them probably spent some time out ofclass to practice and record narration when there was nobody around in the CALL classroom.
I assume that even a professional voice actor would practice many times to master the craftof speaking and narrating. Maybe many of the students felt the same way. If I did not try this new
project, I probably would still think that the students taking this course would always be reluctant tospeak much less narrate their own stories.
This is a very good example of“a way of looking at teaching from a different perspective”forme. If I had not offered such a project to my students, I would have never realized that those same
students who speak monotonously or reluctantly when reading a textbook aloud in class would
really practice to make their narrated stories better.

d. Different Learning Styles
There were a very small number of students in the course and I was able to observe themwhen they were working on their stories. Some of them needed more time to find photos for theirstories. I wondered if they could finish the project in time or if this kind of writing project would be
too difficult for them. One student spent a great deal of time in choosing appropriate photos for hisstory. I realized later that he just needed time to select the appropriate photos out of his large photocollection. He finished his stories in time, after all. When I checked his narrated story, he soundedvery enthusiastic about talking about the many photos he had taken.
On the other hand, one female student completed her story way ahead of the deadline. She had
had experience of using the software before and decided on what to write about, almost from the
beginning. Her friend sitting next to her also jumped right in writing her own story. This student
had a harder time in writing in English, but both of them seemed to enjoy the project and helped
and gave advice to each other. Their cheerful and pleasant attitudes and eagerness to tackle theproject set a very good atmosphere in the CALL classroom. Other students (all male students) wererather quiet and were working individually without talking to other students. While observing theirlearning styles, I realized the importance of objective observation. We tend to judge by just looking
at our students. Even when they look very slow or lazy, they may be thinking about what to do intheir own ways. To find out more about their learning styles in such a project-based activity, I try totalk to individual students and ask about the progress of the particular day for a few minutes each,
and when it is not possible, then I ask them to submit a progress report in handwriting at the endof the class. In this way, students seem to open up more and talk to the teacher about what they are
doing and what they want to do next, etc. Then, you will get a chance to find out more about yourstudents and their learning styles.

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2012

e. A Visit of an Intern to Help Students Revise
Just before the fall semester started in 2010, teachers of English were informed that an intern(more like an assistant teacher or a teacher trainee) would come to stay at our university for a
few months. The intern was from the U.S., in mid-twenties, and just graduated from college. After
adjusting his schedules with him and other teachers, he visited my course of“Learning English
on the Web”three or four times during the semester. It was around the time when some of thestudents were about to finish writing. So, I asked him to help the students revise their stories.
Before asking him to help, I corrected minor grammatical mistakes. Talking to a native speaker andasking him to help gave the students a very good opportunity to think about their works seriously
and improve the content as much as possible.
In the beginning, I was not sure how I could use this intern’s help effectively in my course, but
it turned out to be a very good opportunity for the students to revise and practice narrating with
him in addition to their regular teacher. They tried hard to communicate with him with a little help
from the teacher. While the Intern was talking with a student, I could help other students, or if theIntern had a hard time understanding a particular student’s writing, I could help both of them bybecoming a kind of mediator. Also, having a native speaker visiting and helping in the classrrom
created a good learning environment for both the teacher and the students.

f. Using Photos from Students' Own Photo Collection
In the project, the students were assigned to choose about eight photos or so from their own
photo collections and tell a story or report on a topic using those photos.
The student-created stories in 2010 are as follows:●

My Bus Tour in Shinshu (About a trip to Shinshu and Yamanashi area in one summer)●

Battledore Fair (About a year-end battledore fair in Asakusa)●

My Photo Collection (About various kinds of photos this student had been taking)●

Trip to Lake Kawaguchi (About a summer vacation with his friends)●

Park Survey in Tsukuba (About a course assignment for surveying the parks in the city)●

Trip to visit Mt. Aso (About a trip to the mountain with friends when he lived in Kyushu.)
All the students chose different topics more or less although three of them wrote about theirtrips (to different locations!). Because they wrote about their memorable events in their lives, theirstories were very interesting with nice effects and transitions between photos thanks to Movie
Maker and of course with their good narrations.

Conclusion
The problem many teachers face when conducting a project-based activity in a CALL classroom
is that, sometimes, we do not know if students are really engaged in their own project or somethingelse. If you feel uneasy, it will be a good time to observe your students and the classroom activity
objectively. To help me observe the classroom activities and students, and see my teaching from adifferent perspective in the CALL classroom, I usually talk to each student about his or her work─ 142 ─

Mariko MIYAO: Breaking Rules: Examining Fanselowʼs Theory and Observing a Student-Centered Language Learning Project in a CALL Classroom

progress on that particular day. In this way, students open up more and talk to the teacher about
what they are doing, what they want to do next, and what troubles them, etc.
In the fall semester in 2010, I had an opportunity to look at my teaching from a different
perspective by going through a new classroom project using a new Internet tool. As a result, I wasable to find several new things about my students, the content of the project, and my teaching.
I found that my students not only wrote interesting stories but also narrated their stories very
well. My students practiced speaking because they had a good reason to do it. There are many
interesting digital stories to read, listen to, and view in the Internet. My students and I had an
unexpected help from a visiting intern. These are a just a few of my unexpected findings I witnessedin the fall semester in 2010.
If there is a chance, I would like to explore to find more new tools for classroom projects in
the CALL room, hopefully less complicated Internet tools such as Movie Maker, so that we canconcentrate more on the content of teaching and learning English.
References
Fanselow, J.F. (1987). Breaking Rules: Generating and Exploring Alternative in Language Teaching. New York:
Longman.
Fanselow, J.F. (March 7th, 2011). Adventures in our ESOL Classrooms. Posting at Peacecorps World site under＂You Call Yourself A Teacher.＂ Retrieved from <http://peacecorpsworldwide.org/teaching/author/
jfanselow/>.
Maley, A. (2004). Breaking Rules. EA (English Australia) Journal, 21(2). Retrieved date: September 18, 2011.
Retrieved from <http://www.englishaustralia.com.au/index.cgi?E=hcatfuncs&PT=sl&X=getdoc&Lev1=pub_
jnl21_2&Lev2=EAJ_21-2Mal>
Maley, A.(April 2005). Where Do New Ideas Come From? Paper received via e-mail.
Malley, A. (n.d.). 1. Where Do New Ideas Come From? Plenary summary (a shorter version of the paper of thesame title written in 2005) Retrieved from <http://www.britishcouncil.org/plenary_where_do_new_ideas_
come_from.doc>.
Forum Presentation Proposal
Shea, D., Dias, J., O’Dowd, G., Bradley, W., & Miyao, M. (2011, November). In D. Shea (Chair), Observing
Classrooms and Breaking Rules. Panel proposal submitted to the JALT2011 Program Team to be presented
at the JALT2011, Tokyo, Japan.
URLs of the Websites Mentioned in This Paper
The Center for Digital Storytelling site: <http://www.storycenter.org/>＂Digital storytelling＂ in Wikipedia: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_storytelling>＂The Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling＂ site at the University of Houston: <http://digitalstorytelling.coe.
uh.edu/>─ 143 ─