Media Discourse Analysis
メディアディスコース分析論
Analysing Discourse
Chapter 3

Intertextuality and Assumptions

間テキスト性 と 想定

Outline
1. Introduction 導入
 2. Difference and dialogicality
相違と対話性 3. The public sphere公共圏
 4. Hegemony, universal and particular
支配権、全称的と単称的
 5. Intertextuality
間テキスト性 6. Assumptions
想定 7. Ideologies and assumptions
イデオロギーと想定 8. Other types of assumptions
想定の種類1. Introduction 導入
 Texts have both internal and external relations

 External relations= Connections to the world outside the text
 Internal relations= Connections inside texts themselves

Levels of Text Analysis
Social Structures

External

Social Practices
Social Events
Actions and Social Relations
Identification of Persons
Representations of the world

BOTH ! !

Discourse (Genres, Discourses, Styles)
Semantics

Internal

Grammar and Vocabulary
Phonology (of speech) & Graphology (of writing)Intertextuality
 intertextual = ( inter + textual ) = between texts

 Intertextual relations are part of the external

relations of a text, but they are unusual external
relations because they are brought into the text
in some way.

Intertextual relations
Quotations
e.g. John said, ‘I will be late tonight’.

Reported speeche.g. John said he would be late tonight.

Texts which are incorporated into anothertext without attribution.
e.g. ‘John will be late tonight’.

Assumptions
 Texts always make assumptions.

 “What is ‘said’ in a text is ‘said’ against abackground of what is ‘unsaid’, but taken asgiven.” Assumptions = implicit

meanings(e.g. presuppositions)Intertextuality vs. Assumptions
 Intertextuality* attributed / attributable to specific texts* opens up difference Assumptions* not attributed / not attributable* closes down differenceThree social research themes 1. Social Difference(and the Public Sphere) 2. Hegemony(representing particular things as universal)
 3. Ideology(of assumptions in texts)

Hegemony and Ideology
Hegemony= the establishment, maintenance andcontestation of the social dominance ofparticular social groups

Ideology= representations of aspects of the world which
contribute to establishing and maintaining
relations of power, domination and exploitation.

2. Difference and dialogicality
相違と対話性 Intertextuality* opens up difference by bringing other ‘voices’
into a text
* more dialogue
 Assumptions* close down difference by assuming ‘commonground’* less dialogue

Five ‘Scenarios’ of Orientation to Differenceof social events, interactions, and texts(A) Openness to difference (‘Dialogue’)(B) Accentuation of difference (‘Conflict’)(C) Resolution of difference(D) Bracketing off of difference (‘Solidarity’)(E) Consensus, which accepts difference of power,
but suppresses difference of meanings

3. The public sphere 公共圏 ‘a part of social life outside the state and theeconomic system where issues of common
concern are debated in ways which may
contribute to the formation of public policy’ Example 8: TV debate about British Royal Family4. Hegemony, universal and particular
Antonio Gramsci and political power(Italian, 1891-1937)
 The struggle to achieve hegemony is a key idea forunderstanding the nature of political power.
 The successful use of power by dominant people

depends on achieving the active consent (or at leastpassive acquiescence) of the dominated people.
 Ideology is important for sustaining relations of power.

Hegemony and Discourse Theory
支配権と言説理論
Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe
 hegemony involves a struggle between different(particular) discourses to be accepted asuniversal.
 e.g.

Neo-liberal discourses about Globalization

5. Intertextuality

間テキスト性 ‘For any particular text or type of text,

there is a set of other texts and a set ofvoices which are potentially relevant, andpotentially incorporated into the text’ Question for analysing a text:

What texts and voices are included, which areexcluded, and what significant absences arethere?

Reporting (as a form of intertextuality) Direct reporting

e.g. She said: ‘He’ll be there by now’
 Indirect reporting

e.g. She said he would be there by then.
 Free indirect reporting

e.g. Mary gazed out of the window. He would
be there by now. She smiled to herself) Narrative report of speech act

e.g. She made a prediction.

Recontextualisation
 Intertextuality is a form of recontextualisation

Original
Event

Report of
the Event

Rest ofthe text

 Ideological roles of reports:• Substantiation (of author’s claims)• Legitimation (of government’s policy)
 Example: Lockerbie Bombing report

Texturing and Framing Texturing= How different voices are combined in a text.
 Framing (an important aspect of texturing)(a) How reported voices are ‘framed’ (orcontextualised) inside the main authorial voice ofthe text.
(b) The relation of various reported voices to eachother.

Intertextual selectivity
 Different voices ‘draw on’ different discourses.

 Voices can be represented more or less concretely.

Intertextual selectivity is related to genre• e.g. News reports focus on the meaning of whatpeople say, not how they say it. Novels focus on both.

6. Assumptions

想定 Implicitness• Social interactions depend on ‘common ground’.
• Common-ground = shared, taken-for-granted meanings.
• Dominant people and groups try to control the commonground.
• Therefore, assumptions are related to ideology.

Three kinds of assumptions
 Existential:‘X exists’

Triggered by definite articles and demonstratives(e.g. the, this, that, these, those) Propositional (or Factual):‘X is Y’, ‘X has Y’Triggered by ‘factive’ verbs(e.g. realize, forget, remember) Value:‘X is good/bad’

Triggered by certain verbs(e.g. help)

Value assumptions in texts
 Most evaluation in texts is implicit.

(暗黙） Implicit value assumptions are sometimes

triggered (e.g by the word ‘threat’).
 But sometimes they are not triggered so

we need to know the text’s value system.

7. Ideologies and assumptions
イデオロギーと想定 Ideology= ‘meaning in the service of power’ Assumptions are related to ideology

because they are a way of achieving hegemony,that is, of universalizing particular meanings.

Which assumptions are ideological?

‘Certainly, one cannot simply look at a text,
identify [its] assumptions, and decide [ontextual evidence alone] which of them areideological.’

Need textual analysis AND social analysis.

8. Other types of assumptions

想定の種類
Four types of ‘implicit’ meanings
 1. Assumptions (or Presuppositions) 2. Logical implications

 3. Standard conversational implicatures 4. Non-standard conversational implicatures

Four types of ‘implicit’ meanings
 2. Logical implications

e.g. I have been married for 20 years
This implies:
I am still married.
e.g. He is poor but honest
This implies:Poor people are not usually honest.

Four types of ‘implicit’ meanings
 3. Standard conversational implicatures

Based on Grice’s Maxims:• 1. Quantity: Give just the right amount ofinformation!
• 2. Quality: Tell the truth!
• 3. Relevance: Be relevant!
• 4. Manner: Be clear!

Four types of ‘implicit’ meanings
 4. Non-standard conversational implicatures• ‘Flouting’ one of Grice’s Maxims: apparentlybreaking a maxim, but adhering to it on an implicit
level of meaning.
• e.g. In a reference letter for somebody who isapplying for an academic job, writing only: ‘He iswell-dressed and punctual’.

Outline
1. Introduction 導入
 2. Difference and dialogicality
相違と対話性 3. The public sphere公共圏
 4. Hegemony, universal and particular
支配権、全称的と単称的
 5. Intertextuality
間テキスト性 6. Assumptions
想定 7. Ideologies and assumptions
イデオロギーと想定 8. Other types of assumptions
想定の種類