ISSN 2185-159X

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Volume 5 Number 1

April 2014

International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

erdInternational Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development
Official Journal of the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

Aims and Scope:
The International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, is an interdisciplinary journal
concerning environmental and rural development research in the education for sustainable development, ESD.
The IJERD is devoted to publishing peer-reviewed research article, review article and technical report in thefields of environmental and rural development, such as education for sustainable rural development, ruraldevelopment, environmental management or agricultural systems. Every article or report in IJERD must be
accepted by at least 2 reviewers and an editorial member.
The aims of IJERD are to publish the latest research development and achievements, to strengthen
education systems, to promote cooperation in environmental and rural development and to contribute to theprogress in sustainable development. The editorial board of this journal covers a variety of scientificdisciplines.
Thematic Areas:
The following areas are envisioned in IJERD.
Education for Sustainable Rural Development:
Environmental Education, Food and Agricultural Education, Participatory Approach, Capacity Building,Community Empowerment, Agricultural Extension, etc.
Rural Development:
Marketing, Partnership, Value Added Product, Community Development, Access to Technology,
Cultural Preservation, etc.
Environmental Management:
Bio-Diversity, Soil Degradation and Land Conservation, Water Quality Conservation, Deforestation andSustainable Forest Management, Environmental Management, etc.
Agricultural Systems:
Organic Farming, Conservation Tillage, Mechanization, Irrigation and Drainage, Nutrient and Pest
Management, Cattle Breeding, Agro-Forestry, Indigenous Technology, etc.
Infrastructural Systems:
Water Resource Development, Land Reclamation, Road Construction, etc.
Editorial Board:
Editor in Chief:
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture / Institute of Environment Rehabilitation andConservation, Japan
Managing Editors:
Dr. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Dr. Julian Torillo, Jr., Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Carlos Onan Tovar Mendoza, Honduras Embassy in Japan, Japan
Editorial Advisory Board:
Dr. Venkatachalam Anbumozhi, Asian Development Bank Institute, Japan
Dr. Robert J. Farquharson, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Prof. Dr. Keishiro Itagaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Arata Koga, University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Prof. Dr. Salvador Catello, University of the Philippines, Philippines
Dr. Rajendra P. Shrestha, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan
Dr. Vidhaya Trelo-Ges, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Editorial Secretariat:
Dr. Aya Ikawa, Dr. Yuta Ishikawa and Mr. Sergio Azael May Cuevas

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Contents
Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction Management in Banacon Island, Philippines
Jose T. Travero, Marina A. Labonite andDioscoro A. Avergonzado

1

New Records of Rotifer Fauna in the Upper Cambodian Mekong River Basin
Seanghun Meas and Ratha Sor

7

The Analysis of Rattan Productions in Prek Thnot Community Protected Area, Kampot Province,
Cambodia
Sreyneang Chheun, Monin Vorn and Ou Ratanak

14

Effect of Agricultural Land Reform Development Project on Rural Livelihood: Experience fromThailandNiramon Kaewkallaya, Rajendra P. Shrestha andAnisara Pensuk Tibkaew

20

Factors Influencing Equity in Farmer-managed Irrigation Distribution in Sindh, Pakistan
Junaid Alam Memon and Fateh Muhammad Mari

26

Beef Market Chain and Opportunities for Farmers in Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia
Miranda Pen, Darryl B. Savage, Sophal Lorn and Werner Stür32

Assessment on Local Awareness of Organic Farming Practices in Kampong Cham of Cambodia
Lalita Siriwattananon, Kumiko Kawabe and Machito Mihara

38

Drought Impact on Rice Production and Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies in Northeast Thailand
Anan Polthanee, Arunee Promkhumbut andJiraporn Bamrungrai

45

Comparison of Inoculated Eri Cocoon and Eco-block for Pollutant Removal
Carlos Onan Mendoza Tovar, Kumiko Kawabe,
Hiromu Okazawa and Machito Mihara

53

Biochar Amendment to Different Paddy Soils on CH4 Production, Labile Organic Carbon, pH andElectrical Conductivity Dynamics: Incubation Experiment
Chhin Phy, Ketsuda Dejbhimon, Daungsamon Tulaphitak,Phrueksa Lawongsa, Matsa Keophila, Nipa Thammasom andPatcharee Saenjan

58

Evaluation of Oxbow Lakes and Circulating Irrigation in the Ishikari River Basin, Japan
Daisuke Kusa, Tadao Yamamoto, Takashi Inoue andTetuaki Nagasawa

65

Diversity and Community Composition of Ants in the Mixed Deciduous Forest, the Pine Forest and thePara Rubber Plantation at Chulaborn Dam, Chaiyaphum Province, the Northeastern Thailand
Duangrat Thongphak and Chitima Kulsa

72

Effects of Coastal Road Spacing on Deposition of Tsunami-Borne Sand
Youki Maeda, Hiromu Okazawa, Yasushi Takeuchi,
Tomonori Fujikawa and Shigeyuki Miyabayashi

77

Possibility of Participatory Evaluation for Promoting Sustainable Agriculture Project in Samroung
Commune of Cambodia
Jun Fujihira and Machito Mihara

82

Canal Water Level as a Canal Water Management System: Case Study of Klong Rangsit,
Phathumthani, Thailand
Kamonsorn Thanwiset

88

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Survey Analysis of the Characteristics of Greenhouses in Korea
Mankwon Choi, Sungwook Yun and Yongcheol Yoon

95

Verification of Drainage with Biotope Placed on Artificial Floating Island Using Phragmites australis(Cav.) Trin. for Water Purification
Masato Kimura, Osamu Tsuji, Toshimi Muneoka,
Hiroto Ote, Ryuichiro Nakagawa and Yuri Yamazaki

101

Effect of Groundwater Level on Cadmium Uptake and Yield of Soybean from Cadmium Polluted Soils
Md. Zahidul Haque, Choichi Sasaki, Nobuhiko Matsuyama,
Takeyuki Annaka and Kiichi Sasaki

107

Investigation Species of Edible Tree and Medicinal Plants in Faculty of Agriculture,
Khon Kaen University
Naruemol Kaewjampa, Tipa Jandakorn and
Jarunya Rattanawan

114

Effect of Fallow on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi under Maize Cropping System
Phakpen Poomipan

119

Effects of Pesticide on Phenotypic Characteristics of Plant Growth - Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)
in Cassava Production Systems
Pimupsorn Panomkhum, Rattiyapon Rungthong,
Tippaya Nittayachit, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai,
Mongkon Ta-Oun and Phrueksa Lawongsa

125

Appropriate Chemical Fertilizer Application Rates on Yield and Yield Components of Red Roselle,
Cultivar: Surin
Ratchata Tonwitowat

131

Acceptability of Value Added Products from Giant Swamp Taro (Cystosperma chamissonis) Corm
Regucivilla A. Pobar, Emmylou Balo andMaria Shelanie Pobar

136

Effect of Ethanol-Blended Gasoline on the Concentration of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons andParticulate Matter in Exhaust Gas of Motorcycle
Somporn Pleanjai, Ittipol Paw-Armart, Therdsak Petblengsi
and Singto Sakulkhaemaruethai

142

Factors affecting paddy landscape from the perspective of landscape structure
Yamamoto Tadao and Nomoto Ken

148

Application of Analytical Hierarchical Process Method to Select a Technology Option in Rural Settings
Tung Nguyen Nhu

154

Evaluation of the Ion Components for the Estimation of Total Nitrogen Concentration in River Water
based on Electrical Conductivity
Yuri Yamazaki, Toshimi Muneoka, Sachiyo Wakou,
Masato Kimura and Osamu Tsuji

160

Assessment of Economics and Water Productivity of Four Crops Grown after Wet Season Rice underDiffering Water Availability Conditions in Northeast Thailand
Arunee Promkhambut, John S. Caldwell and Anan Polthanee

165

Effect of Calcium Ascorbate Treatments on Juice Leakage of Fresh Cut Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)
Intira Lichanporn, Nunchanok Nanthachai,
Palida Tanganurat and Unchalin Singkhum

171

Education for Sustainable Development in Agriculture at Primary Schools
Vicheka Lorn, Mom Seng, Bunthan Ngo,
Lalita Siriwattananon and Machito Mihara

176

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Changes in Cassava Yields with Trimmed Leaves for Eri-culture in Kampong Cham Province,
Cambodia
Kumiko Kawabe, Machito Mihara and Keishiro Itagaki

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Research article
erd

Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction Managementin Banacon Island, Philippines
JOSE T. TRAVERO*
Director, Regional Climate Change Center, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Email: jose_travero@yahoo.com

MARINA A. LABONITE
Director, Research and Development Center, Bohol Island State University, Philippines

DIOSCORO A. AVERGONZADOCampus Director, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Received 29 October 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding author)

Abstract The research was conducted to determine the socio-economic and environmental
condition of the island, to understand the problems and needs of the people of a climatechange vulnerable island, to determine the level of awareness of villagers on climatechange, find out the community initiatives on climate change adaptation and mitigationand find out if disaster risk reduction management is in place in the community. Banacon
Island, the research site, has 318 households sporadically spread in a 15 hectare dry land of
the village. It has a population of 1514 (2010 data), majority (93%) has a family income ofless than P3,000 ($67) a month or less than P100 ($2.2) per day. The source of electric
power is a portable electric generator which is enjoyed by only 8% of the households andthe majority (92%) are still using kerosene lamp at night. There is no potable water in theisland. Majority of the households (85%) has no toilet, 12% has their own and 3% of thehouseholds shared their toilet. The leading causes of infant mortality are diarrhea,
malnutrition and pneumonia. Only 3% of the residents are well-off while majority (87%)
are in the average level which is below the poverty line. A significant number (3%) lived
in a miserable condition. Fishing is the main source of livelihood. Fifty percent (50%) of
the residents are involved in seaweeds culture and business. Community problems are
directly related to health, sanitation, livelihood, education, source of power for electricity,
peace and order and problems with the children. Community members are aware of thechanging pattern of climate with increased temperature, extensive rainfall and sea level
rise as their indicators. Disaster risk reduction management mechanism is already in placein their locality through the village officials.
Keywords climate change, disaster risk reduction, mitigation, adaptation, empowerment

INTRODUCTION
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that the pace of climate change is very
likely to accelerate with continued greenhouse gases emission at or above current rates with
globally averaged surface temperatures estimated to rise by 1.8 °C to 4.0 °C by the end of 21st
century (Simpson, et al 2008). It is also projected that there will be an increase in globally averaged
surface temperature of 1.4 °C to 5.8 °C over the period of 1990 to 2100 and global mean sea levelis projected to rise by 0.09 to 0.88 meter between the years 1990 and 2100 (Amadore, 2005). This
will translate to a sea level rise which is expected to threaten small islands in the Philippines and in
Bohol in particular.
It is believed that if one key aspect such as the average global temperature is altered, otherclimate elements may likewise change (Amadore, 2005). Being an archipelago, the Philippines has
one of the vast irregular coastlines in Asia. Recognizing the vulnerability of the Philippine and its
small island communities, particularly the poor, women and children to potential dangerousⒸ ISERD

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consequences of climate change (RA 9729), it is imperative for us to get the perception of the local
communities with regards to climate change. Hence, there is a dire need for us to look into thecommunity’s perception on climate change and document their mitigation and adaptation measures.
On the other hand, it is stipulated in the Climate Change Law of the Philippines that disasterrisk reduction shall be integrated into climate change programs and initiatives (RA 9729) as it isrecognized that climate change and disaster risk reduction are closely interrelated and it isconsidered that effective disaster risk reduction will enhance climate change adaptive capacity of
the community.
Assessing the impact and vulnerability to climate change and subsequently working out
adaptive needs requires good information (UNFCC, 2007). The local knowledge and informationthat are gathered in this study shall be a good input in planning a climate change resilient
community.
Project Location
The site of this project is in an island village of Banacon which is one of the 40 small islands within
the 300 square kilometer Danajon Double Barrier Reef, the only barrier reef in the Philippines andone of only three in the Indo-Pacific Region. Banacon is in the coastal municipality of Getafe,
north of Bohol. The island has a vast yet diverse and beautiful seascape sprawling along a double
barrier reef which is known for its mangrove forest, the largest man-made mangrove forest in Asia.
This mangrove has an approximate area of 425 hectares which acts as the breeding ground forfishes and other coral reef animals. It also protects the islands from the impacts of typhoons andstorms.

LEYTE
CEBU

BOHOL
Fig. 1 Location map of the research site
OBJECTIVESThis research was conducted with the following objectives:
1. To determine the socio-economic and environmental condition of the island;
2. To understand the problems and needs of a climate change vulnerable village;
3. To determine the level of awareness about climate change and find out their indicators ofclimate change;
4. To find out the community initiatives on climate change mitigation and adaptation; and5. To find out if Disaster Risk Reduction Management is in place in their community.
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METHODOLOGYThis research was done through a participatory approach. This project is part of a long term
program called Socio-economic and Environmental Education in the island of Banacon, Bohol,
Philippines. This was done in 2011 to 2012. The tools used include the focus group discussion,
ranking, mapping, diagramming, time lining, seasonal calendar and a questionnaire-aided interview.
Preliminary visit was done to identify the key persons who can facilitate the conduct of the activity
and to get the needed secondary data. The usual protocol with the village officials was done. There
were 32 participants of the research process who were mostly women, health workers, fisher folks
and basic education teachers. The focus group discussion was done at the barangay hall and at theelementary school building. The interview was done in a house-to-house visit. For result validation,
the data gathered were presented back to the community particularly to the teachers of the
Department of Education and the barangay officials.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Current Socio-Economic Realities of Banacon
A participatory resource appraisal (PRA) was conducted in the island community of Banacon tovalidate the available secondary information about the village. This was done through a focus
group discussion (FGD) using resource mapping, time lining, seasonal calendar, well-being ranking
and diagramming to capture the vital information of the community. The PRA was done to assess
the current problems and needs for possible interventions.
It was found out that Banacon Island has 318 households sporadically spread in a 15 hectare
dry land of the village. It has a population of 1514 (2010 data), majority (93%) has a family incomeof less than P3,000 ($67) a month or less than P100 ($2.2) per day. The source of electric power isa portable electric generator which is used by only 8% of the households and the majority (92%)
are still using kerosene lamp at night. The electric generator will operate only from 6:00 until 10:00
o’clock in the evening. There is no potable water in the island. There are seven (7) households who
own a rainwater collector and there are four (4) public rainwater collectors installed in publicbuildings like the school and village hall. Majority of the households (85%) has no toilet, 12% has
their own and 3% of the households shared their toilet. The leading causes of infant mortality are
diarrhea, malnutrition and pneumonia. As far as the socioeconomic status of the community, it was
revealed in the Focus Group Discussion that only 3% of the residents are well-off while majority(87%) are in the average level which is below the poverty line. A significant number (3%) living ina miserable condition.
Current State of Their Environment
The Coastal Conservation and Education Foundation reported that due to illegal fishing activities
and coral extraction, among other harmful practices, the double reef where Banacon Island islocated is now vastly degraded. On an ocular observation of the mangrove plantations, we noticed
that there are portions of the mangroves that are illegally cut. In the FGD that we conducted, it was
revealed by the community residents that they also have to address the issue of solid waste
management.
Being an island village, fishing is the main source of livelihood. Fifty percent (50%) of theresidents are involved in seaweeds culture and business. Very few are into buying and selling ofseashells which are harvested by the villagers from the mangroves shorelines and shallow waters of
the island.
Problems, Needs and Potential Interventions
During the FGD session, villagers identified their problems, needs and potential solutions based onⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

their perception. It came out that the problems that they identified are those that are directly related
to their daily activities like health, sanitation, livelihood, education, source of power, peace andorder and problems with the children. Issues like protecting the mangroves, protecting the marine
resources; climate change adaptation and disaster management are not their immediate concern.
Table 1 List of community needs, problems and their suggested interventions
Needs

Problems

Sanitation

Toilet; Solid Waste management

HealthNo potable water; No Immediate
access of medical assistance/services ;prevalence of malnutrition; absence offood supply like vegetables and root
crops

Discipline

Juvenile delinquency problems

Education
Livelihood
Light

Many out-of-school youths
No livelihood program
No power

Peace and order

Stealing in Seaweed farms

Potential Interventions
Sanitation Education, Public
Awareness on the Health impact of
unsanitary environment
Local Medical Service providers;Public Awareness on Preventive
Measures on Climate Change Related
health problems; Disaster Risk
reduction and management of waterborne related diseases
Values formation education among
parents
Alternative Learning System
Livelihood trainings/courses
Install non-conventional source ofpower
Strengthen local police

Seasonal Calendar of the Community
During the FGD, island residents have identified major activities which happened on a regularbasis every year. These include social and economic activities which are of critical importance intheir daily survival. The seasonal calendar also indicated the time of the year where their householdincome and expenses goes high or down. It also indicates the trend of disease occurrence especiallyamong children.
Community Social Mobility
Islanders indicated during the FGD the mobility of the residents. The main reason of moving out
from the island is economic in nature. Residents have to seek employment in the nearby urban
community or outside the country like in Hongkong, Kuwait, Singapore and United States. Parents
with economic capacity to send their children to college and high school will send their children to
the city. Hence, young people also have to go out from the island for education purposes.
Climate Change AwarenessWith a questionnaire-aided interview, island residents were asked about their knowledge on climatechange. It was found out that all the respondents are already aware of the changing pattern ofclimate with the following as their perceived indicators: increased temperature, extensive rainfall
and sea level rise. All respondents indicated that they observed an increase of sea level in theirisland where majority said that sea water has encroached their dryland area by almost ten (10)meters from the coastline. Some of them, however, said that the sea water reached up to five (5)meters beyond the coastline.
When asked if there was an initiative of the village on climate change awareness, thirty
percent (30%) said that they learned about climate change issues in a village community meeting
called by the local officials and ten percent (10%) said that they got the information from an
Information, Education and Communication (IEC) materials. The rest of the islanders do not haveaccess of any information about climate change and disaster risk management.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

IMPORTANTACTIVITES/EVENTSJGUSOFARMING

harvesting

F

M

A

M

J

J

A

S

O

N

D

planting planting harvesting harvesting

FISHING
SOCIAL
ACTIVITES

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

EXPENSETREND
INCOMETRENDS

9DISEASE
OCCURRENSE

10

11

12

10

1=Fiesta SantoNino-Purok 5, Fiesta sa LourdesKapilia Centro, Ist Comunion of Children
2=Fiesta Sta. Crruz-Tibook Banacon
3=Fiesta Mother of Perpetual Help-Centro and Purok 3
4=Visita sa Birhen
5=Fiesta Sta. Cruz-Purok 1 and 2
6=Fiesta Corazon de Jesus-Purok 6; Fiesta Berhin sa
Berangay-Purok 3 and 5
7=Fiesta San Vicente Ferrer-Purok 7

8=Fiesta Sta. Teresita/Banacon Youth Day (Banacon
Catholic Organization Youth Organization[BCYO])
9=High income attributed to “high catch-saeson”for
fish, shellfish, crabs, s Shrimps
10=Ting-tipdas [sagolflu moragpamiangan ang
lutahan]
11=Diarrhea
12=Mumps [2012]

Fig. 2 Seasonal calendar of the community

Cebu
（50）

Kuwait（2）

Tagbilaran（3）

BanaconIslandUS（1）

Hongkong（3）
Singapole（2）

Fig. 3 Mobility map of the island residents
Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
The villagers knew (90%) that they will continue planting mangrove trees to mitigate climatechange and the same number said that they will adapt the changing climate by doing alternative
livelihood in the island especially non-fishing economic activities or livelihood skills likedressmaking for women and shellcraft, mechanic and computer skills for out-of-school youth.
Disaster Risk Reduction Management (DRRM)Ⓒ ISERD

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Disaster risk reduction management is a mandate of the local government units as provided in thePhilippine Disaster Risk Reduction Management (DRRM) Law. There is in every village a Local
Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council with appropriate funds to support DRRM activities.
The DRRM council of Banacon Island has already put in place the mechanism to respond all typesof disaster in the island. Village officials who were given the DRRM tasks were given basic
equipment like emergency lamps and even a mobile phone for them to quickly respond any form ofdisaster.
CONCLUSION
It is concluded that fishing is the main source of livelihood. Majority of the villagers has an incomeof less than P100 ($2.2) per day. Only 3% are considered well-off and the rest are living below thepoverty line. There is an observed degradation of the reef as perceived by the residents and there
are some issues on mangrove management. The community is also aware of the existing solid
waste management problems in the village.
Villagers identified the following areas as their problems: sanitation, livelihood, source ofpower, peace and order and problems with children. Residents are aware of the changing pattern ofclimate with increased temperature, extensive rainfall and sea level rise as their indicators. Majorityof the villagers does not have access on information about climate change. However, they knewthat to mitigate climate change, they have to continue planting mangrove trees in the island. On the
aspect of climate change adaptation, the community suggested to have alternative livelihood
especially non-fishing activities.
It is recommended that the existing knowledge and preparedness of the villagers about climatechange and disaster risk management shall be scaled-up through environmental and climate change
education and by installing alternative non-fishing livelihood to augment their income. Having
another source of income will lessen the social pressures that will affect adversely the surrounding
coastal and marine resources of the island. It is also recommended that the potential interventions
identified by the villagers shall be addressed by the concerned government agencies for community
empowerment and prosperity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to acknowledge the active participation of the island villagers and the generous support of
the teachers of Banacon Elementary School, headed by their principal Mr. Julius Quillopas, theHealth Workers and the Barangay Officials of Banacon Island for their hospitality and moral
support.
REFERENCES
Amadore, Leoncio A. 2005. Crisis or Opportunity, Climate change impacts in the Philippines. Barangay
Profile, Banacon, Getafe, Bohol, Philippine.
Republic Act No. 9729 (RA 9729, Climate Change Act of 2009). 2009. An Act mainstreaming climatechange into government policy formulations, establishing the framework strategy and program on
climate change, creating for this purpose the climate change commission and for other purposes,
Republic of the Philippines, Philippine.
Simpson, M.C., Gossling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C.M. and Gladin, E. 2008. Climate change adaptation andmitigation in the tourism sector: Frameworks, tools and practices. UNEP. University of Oxford,
UNWTO, WMO: Paris, France.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). 2001. Climate change, Impacts,
Vulnerabilities and Adaptations in Developing Countries.

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Research article
erd

New Records of Rotifer Fauna in the Upper Cambodian
Mekong River Basin
SEANGHUN MEAS*
Centre for Biodiversity Conservation, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science,
Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: meas_seanghun@yahoo.com

RATHA SOR
Centre for Biodiversity Conservation, Faculty of Science, Royal University of Phnom Penh,
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 18 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding author)

Abstract Rotifer samples were seasonally collected in 2010 from ponds, lakes, reservoirs
and rivers in the upper part of the Cambodian Mekong River in Kratie, Stung Treng and
Ratanakiri Provinces. A 30 µm mesh plankton net was used to collect samples. The water
quality parameters: temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity and dissolved
oxygen were also collected from each of the sampled sites. A total of 175 species of
Monogononta Rotifers were found, 64 of which were new Cambodian species records.
This investigation brings the total number of rotifers identified from Cambodia to 260
species. Of the 4 habitat types, ponds had the highest species richness, followed by lakes,
reservoirs and rivers.
Keywords rotifers, species richness, Mekong River basin, Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
Rotifers are microscopic zooplanktons that are mostly found in freshwater, although they have also
been recorded from saline waters and terrestrial environments, including moist tree bark. Rotifer
are very important to aquatic food webs as they provide a food source for other aquatic animals,
including larger zooplankton and fish larvae in both natural and human made habitats andimproving the water quality by the consumption of algae (Beres et al., 2005; Tasevska et al., 2010).
Several studies of rotifers have been conducted in Cambodia and new species records continue
to be found. Bēzins (1973) found several species, Anchitestudinella mekongensis, Brachionus
donneri, Filinia camasecla, and Lecane blachei in the Mekong River near Phnom Penh City. A
biomonitoring program along the Lower Mekong River Basin subsequently recorded at least 65
species in the Cambodian Mekong River basin (Davidson et al., 2006 & Vongsombath et al., 2009).
The number of rotifer species was substantially increased by Meas & Sanoamuang (2008) who
found 143 species, of which 102 species were new country records. Data have also been collected
on seasonal changes of plankton and zoobenthos in Tonle Sap Great Lake but the identity of these
species was not presented (Ohtaka et al., 2010). The first description of sessile rotifers was recently
conducted and 23 species were found, all of them were new country records to (Segers et al., 2010).
Furthermore, at least 79 species of rotifer were found in ponds from the north of Cambodian
Mekong River basin, seventeen of them were new records in Cambodia (Min et al., 2011), one ofwhich Lepadella punctata is considered to be rare in Thailand (Chittapun et al., 2003). The mostrecent study found one hundred and seven species in lakes and reservoirs from the northern part of
the Cambodian Mekong River basin, twenty-five of them were new country records (Sor et al.,2011).
According to rotifer distribution known to Southeast Asia (Segers, 2001, 2007), most of thespecies found in Cambodia are considered common or cosmopolitan species, except a few whichwere endemic to Southeast Asia. These endemic species include Anchitestudinella mekongensis
Bērzinś, 1973, Brachionus murphyi Sudzuki, 1996, Cephalodella songkhlaensis Segers &Ⓒ ISERD

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Pholpunthin, 1997, Keratella edmonsoni Ahlstrom, 1943, Lecane blachei Bērzinś, 1973, L.
superaculeata Sanoamuang & Segers, 1997, and L. thailandensis Segers & Sanoamuang, 1994.
OBJECTIVE
This investigation aimed to explore the diversity of rotifers in the Upper of Cambodian MekongRiver Basin from 4 different habitats within 2 different seasons in the year 2010.
METHODOLOGY
A total of 64 rotifer samples were seasonally collected from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, streams andponds (Table 1) in three provinces in northeast Cambodia (Fig. 1), Forty samples were collected in
the late dry season from 25th to 30th April 2010 from 4 habitat types, and twenty four samples werecollected in the late rainy season from 7th to 12th November 2010 from only 3 habitat types(excluding river samples) using a 30 micrometer mesh plankton net (Table 1). A sample wasobtained by dragging the net 15 times through open water in each habitat. All samples were
preserved by adding a small volume of 4% formalin. Environmental parameters measured at eachsampled locality included water temperature, pH, conductivity (pH/EC/TDS/Temperature, model
HI 98129 • HI 98130, HANNA Instruments company), turbidity (ISO Portable Turbidity meter,model HI 98713, HANNA Instruments company), and dissolved oxygen (Dissolved Oxygen Meter,model HI 9146, HANNA Instruments company). The locations of the sampling sites were recorded
using a Global Positioning System (GPS). The sampling sites are part of a detailed study toevaluate rotifer distribution and diversity in the upper part of the Cambodian Mekong River basin,
which in turn may serve as a baseline study for assessing the change of water quality in this region.
Rotifers were identified of species level under a compound microscope using published keys
(Segers, 1995; de Smet & Pourriot, 1997; Nogrady & Segers, 2002). Photographs of rotifers weretaken using an Olympus BX51 attached to the microscope. Species nomenclature follows Segers(2007).
Correlation analysis was carried out to determine whether there was any linear relationshipbetween species counts and the various environmental parameters measured.

Mekong River
Sesan River
Lake

Fig. 1 Study area
Ⓒ ISERD

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Pond

Sekong River
Srepok River
Reservoir

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Table 1 Number of samples in each habitat types
Habitat types
River
Pond
Reservoir
Lake
Total

Number of Samples
Late dry season
Late rainy season
20
0
10
14
5
5
5
5
40
24

Total Numberof Samples
20
24
10
10
64

Total Number ofSampled Localities
20
14
5
5
44

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
One hundred and seventy five species of rotifers were recorded from this study, 64 of which were
new Cambodian species records (Table 2). The highest number of species found was in a pond in
Stung Treng Province collected in April 2010 with 44 species (44 of 175 species= 25.14%),
followed by a reservoir sampled in November 2010 (39/175 species= 22.28%) also in Stung Treng
Province. The lowest number of species from a sample was collected from a pond in Ratanakiri
Province with only 3 species (3/175 species= 1.71%). However a sample from the Mekong River in
Kratie Province contained no rotifers.
Overall the highest number of species were found in ponds (e.g. a pond Stung Treng Province,
44 species), followed by lake and reservoir, with the river tending to support few species (0 species
at a Mekong River site in Kratie Province).
Common species were Keratella tropica (found in 42 of 64 samples = 67.18%), followed byAnuraeopsis fissa (41/64 samples = 64.06%), Lecane bulla (38/64 samples = 59.37%), A. coelata(36/64 samples =56.25%), Brachionus angularis and K. cochlearis (34/64 samples = 53.12%).
Fifty species were found in only one sample (1.56%).
Conductivity, turbidity, pH and temperature data obtained from ponds, lakes and reservoirs
were seasonally compared to the number of rotifer species collected from each of the habitats. For
conductivity, the number of species seems to be positively correlated in lakes and reservoirs while
it tends to be negatively correlated in ponds (Fig. 2), that is the lower the conductivity, the lower
the number of rotifer species expected. This finding is in agreement with the study of Jersabek(1995) that found the low numbers of rotifer species at sites with low conductivity. This is more
likely to be true in this study because ponds have a higher conductivity and support more species
than lakes and reservoirs which have a lower conductivity (Fig. 3).
350

Conductivity(µS/cm)
Conductivity(μS/cm)Conduntivity(μS/cm)

300
Pond
Lake
Reservoir

250
200
150
100
50
0
0

10

20
30
Number of species

40

50Fig. 2 Correlation between number of species and the level of conductivity in ponds, lakes
and reservoirsⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Turbidity (NCU)

1000

1000

800

729

600

556

400
200
0

1.15

1.77

1.59

Conductivity (µS/cm)

400
300

305

200
100

100
11
0

0.01

Temperture (℃)

40

pH

0.01

0.01
36.5

35

34.2

32.9

26.1

26.7

30
25

26.9

20
10
9
8
7
6
5
4

8.87

8.9

8.81

6.43
4.94

Ponds

4.91

Lakes

Reservoirs

Fig. 3 Range of each water quality parameter in each habitat type
Water temperature is also considered to be one of the most important factors influencing therotifer community. In this study, the numbers of rotifer species were not significantly correlatedwith water temperature. This could result from the life history and adaptation of each species to aparticular temperature range; for example, Synchaeta sp. Nothola squamula, Polyarthra
dolichoptera, Brachionus angularis, Keratella quadrata and K. hiemalis were found out to be
negatively correlated with the water temperature (Devetter, 1998).
The other parameters were not found to be significantly different among the three habitat types.
The range value of each parameter in each habitat type from site to site. Among the three habitat
types, lakes showed a smallest (conductivity) and widest (turbidity) range values (Fig. 3).
Cosmopolitan: Found in at least five of the eight biogeographic regions of the world (Afrotropical,
AFR; Antarctic, ANT; Australian, AUS; Nearctic, NEA; Neotropical, NEO; Oriental, ORI; Paciﬁc,
PAC; Palearctic, PAL) according to Segers (2007).
CONCLUSION
This study increased the number of new rotifer species records from Cambodia by 64. Ponds, lakes
and reservoirs were found to contain a greater number of rotifer species than the river sites which
tended to be low. This difference is most likely a result of the high flow in the river providing
unsuitable habitat for these tiny organisms which may reduce both the number of species that canⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

survive in this habitat and their density. In addition to flow the conductivity of the water body
appeared likely to be important in determining the number of rotifer species found in particular
habitats.
Table 2 New records for Cambodia, their incidence in the present study andoccurrence elsewhere
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

SpeciesAnuraeopsis navicula
Asplanchna tropica
Brachionus amazonicus
B. sessilis
Cephalodella forficula
C. hollowdayi
C. intuta
C. mucronata
C. songkhlaensis
C. tenuior
C. ventripes
C. xenica
Colurella colurusC. hindenburgi
C. obtusa
C. sulcata
Conochilus coenobasis
Dicranophorus corystis
Encentrum felis
Gastropus hyptopus
Itura aurita
Lapadella monodactyla
Lecane arcuata
L. aspasia
L. batillifer
L. braumi
L. calcaria
L. fl exilis
L. inermis
L. inopinata
L. nelson

Records elsewhere
AUS, NEA, NEO, ORI, PAL
AFR, ORI.
NEO
Cosmopolitan.
AUS, NEA, NEO, ORI, PAC, PALNEO.
Cosmopolitan.
AFR, AUS, NEA, NEO, ORI, PAL
ORI, Thailand.
ANT, AUS, NEA, ORI, PAL
Cosmopolitan; Thailand
NEA, PAL
Cosmopolitan
Cosmopolitan; Thailand
Cosmopolitan, Thailand, Lao PDR.
Cosmopolitan, Thailand, Lao PDR.
NEA, PAL
AUS, NEA, NEO, PAL; Laos
Cosmopolitan, Thailand.
Cosmopolitan; Thailand
Cosmopolitan; Thailand
NEA, NEO, ORI, PAL; Thailand
AUS, ORI; Thailand
AFR, AUS, ORI, Thailand.
NEA, ORI
Cosmopolitan; Thailand
Cosmopolitan, Thailand, Lao PDR.
Cosmopolitan; Thailand
AFR, NEO, ORI, Thailand.
AFR, AUS, NEO, ORI, Thailand, Lao
32 L. nitida
PDR.
33 L. pumila
AFR, AUS, ORI, PAL
34 L. pyriformis
Cosmopolitan, Thailand.
35 L. schraederi
ORI
36 L. simonneae
AFR, ORI
37 L. tenuiseta
Cosmopolitan; Thailand
38 Lepadella ehrenbergi
Cosmopolitan, Thailand.
39 L. punctata
ORI, PAL; Thailand
40 L. triptera
Cosmopolitan, Thailand.
41 Macrochaetus longipes
Cosmopolitan; Thailand
AFR, ANT, AUS, NEA, NEO, ORI,
42 Microcodon clavus
PAL
43 Monommata actices
Cosmopolitan, Thailand.
44 M. caudata
NEA, PAL
45 M. longiseta
Cosmopolitan*, Thailand, Lao PDR.
46 Notommata collaris
Cosmopolitan*.
*Although considered cosmopolitan, this species was not listed in ORI by Segers (2007).

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Table 3 New records for Cambodia, their incidence in the present study andoccurrence elsewhere (Cont.)
No
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64

SpeciesN. endoxa
N. tripus
Polyarthra dolichoptera
Resticula melandocus
Scaridium bostjani
Squatinella lamellaris
S. leydigi
Synchaeta oblonga
Taphrocampa selenura
Testudinella truncata
Trichocerca bidens
T. collaris
T. heterodactyly
T. iernis
T. macera
T. scipio
T. tenuior
Trocosphaera aequatorialis

Records elsewhere
NEA
Cosmopolitan.
AFR, AUS, NEA, ORI, PAC, PAL
AFR, AUS, NEA, NEO, ORI, PAL
Cosmopolitan, Thailand, Lao PDR.
Cosmopolitan, Thailand, Lao PDR.
AUS, NEA, NEO, PAL.
Cosmopolitan
AFR, AUS, NEA, NEO, ORI, PAL
AFR, NEA, PAL
Cosmopolitan, Thailand, Lao PDR.
AFR, AUS, NEA, NEO, ORI, PAL
species inquirenda
Cosmopolitan; Laos
AFR, AUS, NEA, PAL
Cosmopolitan; Laos
Cosmopolitan, Thailand, Lao PDR.
AUS, NEA, NEO, ORI, PAL.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (CBC), Faculty of Science,
Royal University of Phnom Penh and Fauna & Flora International, Cambodia.
REFERENCES
Baribwegure, D. and Segers, H. 2001. Rotifera from Burundi: the lepadellidae (Rotifera: Monogononta).
Hydrobiologia, 446/447, 247-254.
Beres, K.A., Wallace, R.L. and Segers, H. 2005. Rotifers and hubbell’s uified nutral theory of biodiversity
and biography. Natural Resources Modeling, 18(3), 363-376.
Berzins, B. 1973. Some rotifers from Cambodia. Hydrobiologia, 41(4), 453-459.
Chittapun, S., Pholpunthin, P. and Segers, H. 2003. Contribution to the knowledge of Thai microfauna
diversity: notes on rare peat swamp Rotifera, with the Description to a new Lecane Nitzsch, 1872.
Hydrobiologia, 501, 7-12.
Davidson, S.P., Kunpradid, T., Peerapornisal, Y., Nguyen T.M.L., Pathoumthong, B., Vongsambath, C. andPham, A.D. 2006. Biomonitoring of the lower Mekong River and Selected Tributaries. MRC TechnicalPaper No. 13, Mekong River commission, Vientiane, Lao PDR.
Devetter, M. 1998. Influence of environmental factors on the Rotifer assemblage in an artificial lake.
Hydrobiologia, 387/388, 171-178.
Jersabek, C.D. 1995. Distribution and ecology of rotifer communities in high-altitude alpine sites-a
multivariate approach. Hydrobiologia, 313/314, 75-89.
Meas, S. and Sanoamuang, L. 2008. Rotifer communities in the Cambodian Mekong River basins. KKU Res.
J (GS), 8(2), 18-30.
Min, M., Wong, K.K.W. and Meas, S. 2011. Rotifer fauna in pond samples from the upper Cambodian
Mekong river basin, Cambodian Journal of National History, 2011(1), 14-22.
Ohtaka, A., Watanabe, R., Im, S., Chhay, R. and Tsukawaki, S. 2010. Spatial and seasonal changes of net
plankton and zoobenthos in lake Tonle Sap, Cambodia. Limnology, 11(1), 85-94.
Segers, H. 2001. Zoogeography of the southeast Asian Rotifera. Hydrobiologia, 446/447, 233-246.
Segers, H. 2003. A biogeographical analysis of rotifers of the genus Trichocerca Lamarck, 1801
(Trichocercidae, Monogononta, Rotifera), with notes on taxonomy. Hydrobiologia, 500, 103-114.
Segers, H. and Chittapun, S. 2001. The interstitial Rotifera of a tropical freshwater peat swamp on Phuket
island, Thailand. Belg. J. Zoo, 131, 65-71.
Segers, H. and De Smet, W. H. 2008. Diversity and endemism in Rotifera: A review, and Keratella Bory de
St Vincent. Biodiversity and Conservation, 17, 303-316.
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Segers, H. 2007. Annotated checklist of the rotifers (Phylum Rotifera), with notes on nomenclature,
taxonomy and distribution. Zootaxa, 1564, 1-104.
Segers, H., Meksuwan, P. and Sanoamuang, L. 2010. New records of sessile Rotifers (Phylum Rotifera:
Flosculariacea, Collothecacea) from southeast Asia. Belg. J. Zool., 140(2), 235-240.
Sor, R., Meas, S. and Segers, H. 2011. Comparison of the rotifer fauna between lakes and reservoirs in theupper part of the Cambodian Mekong River Basin. Royal University of Phnom Penh.
Tasevska, O., Kostoski, G. and Guseska, D. 2010. Rotifers based assessment of the lake dojran water quality.
Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia, 25, 1-8.
Wallace, R.L., Snell, T.W., Ricci, C. and Nogrady, T. 2006. Rotifera: Biology, ecology and systematics.
Second edition. Kenobi productions, Ghent, Belgium, and Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands.

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Research article
erd

The Analysis of Rattan Productions in Prek Thnot
Community Protected Area, Kampot Province, Cambodia
SREYNEANG CHHEUN*
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: chheunsreyneang@yahoo.com

MONIN VORN
Dean of Faclity of Forestry, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

OU RATANAK
Rattan Project Manager, WWF-Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding author)

Abstract This study generally aims to illustrate, promote and increase the awareness ofthe dwellers in the study area regarding the beneficial aspects of rattan. Particularly, itaims to identify the ways that the committee can use to sustain their rattan production andto determine the advantages (or beneficial effects) of rattan production to committee
members’ livelihood. To achieve these objectives, stratified random sampling was
performed. Out of 82 respondents, 65 were collectors 13 were processors and 2 weremiddlemen, all living in three villages namely, Prek Thnot, Prek Kreng, and Chang Huon
and 2 retailer reside in Kampot city. The study illustrated that rattan committee sustain
rattan resource in their community by providing harvesting guidelines and initiating
additional jobs from the production chain managing the amount of rattan resource to be
used annually and replanting them, and applying harvesting technique from WWF. Rattan
production with its beneficial effects is extremely important for all households in the
production chain. It is not only used for food or handicraft but also a source of income
for all actors along the chain.
Keywords rattan, management, rattan benefit, Prek Thnot Community Protected Area

INTRODUCTION
Majority of Cambodian population are farmers living in rural areas and depend on agriculturalactivities (Ros et al., 2011). The level of productivity of agriculture in Cambodia is low incomparison with neighboring countries in Asia (FAO, 2013). Since the lead source of income of
farmers is low, additional income from other agricultural activities is significant. Mountainous
people harvest forest products such as bamboo, resin, honey, and rattan which we know as NonTimer Forest Product (NTFPs) after farming activity. A working paper of CDRI published in 2006shows that average income from NTFPs is 280 USD per year for poor people in Cambodia.
Moreover, NTFPs is used as a source of food, medicine, construction materials, shelter, and income
for rural poor throughout the world (Warner et al., 2007; Khou, 2010). They are scarce resource
and important to people who rely on harvest with sustainability. The people living near forest mustbe allowed to benefit from NTFPs in line with the development and sustainable resource
management, which will encourage them to protect the forest for future generations (Tuan, 2007).
Meanwhile Prek Thnot Community Protected Area had founded a rattan committee in order tomanage rattan resource for the benefit of the community members and to ensure the stability of its
usage. On the other hand, the information regarding rattan harvest, rattan production chain, andincome from rattan production were still limited. In order to overcome these limitations,information about harvest, production chain, and economic condition of rattan were acquired
during the study. This paper will identify the ways that the community can use to sustain rattanⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

production which serve as an important resource for Cambodians for food, furniture's, shelter, andextra income besides being one of their agricultural activities over centuries (WWF, 2010). Also, itwill determine the profitability of rattan production to the Prek Thnot Community Protect Area
members who are living and using rattan resources in Bokor mountain forest wherein they will bealso encouraged to protect the forest and forest products. The awareness of profitability of rattan
production in the study area is really significant. It is useful not only for protecting rattan resources
but also many other important forest products in the study area.
OBJECTIVE
The analysis of rattan production in Prek Thnot Community Protected Area aims to identify theways that the committee can use to sustain their rattan production and to determine the profitabilityof rattan production.
METHODOLOGYThis research was conducted in Prek Thnot commune, Teuk Chhou district, Kampot province
Cambodia. Stratified random sampling was used to determine the representative household out of
118 rattan committee members in the three villages. The samples were composed of collectors,
processor and middleman in three villages: Prek Thnot, Prek Kreng and Chang Huon. The sample
size was 82 households in which 65 households were collectors, 13 were processors 2 middlemenand 2 retailers from Kampot City. Two types of data were collected for analysis; primary data
which was generated from Rural Rapid Appraisal, e.g. key information deep interview, group
discussion, semi-structured interviews using questionnaires, while secondary data was taken fromrattan project publications, community records, committee records, the books, reports, and journals.
All the data were stored and analyzed using the program SPSS version 16 determining useful tools
such as frequency mean, compare mean analysis. Cost and Benefit and Margin method was applied
to generate cost and return to all actors along the production chain. The history of community,
timeline activities, and management strategies were described.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
History of rattan committee: There are three different divisions namely rattan group, medicinegroup and ecotourism group in the Prek Thnot Community Protected Areas. In 2007, Prek Thnot
Community Protected Area founded rattan committee under support from rattan project of WWFCambodia, Forestry Administration and the Ministry of Environment which aims to manage rattan
resource with sustainable manner and to provide job opportunity to community members
throughout rattan collecting and rattan processing. Moreover, rattan project initiated a training
course on how to produce several kinds of rattan furniture such as chair, bookshelf, and table aswell as providing support material for furniture production to those interested. In 2012, there are
1,841 people who benefited indirectly from Prek Thnot Community Protected Area. Therefore,
there are 118 people who got the profit from the rattan committee and they are potential in using
the rattan resource for commercial purpose. Nevertheless, they are actively involved in rattan
committee for setting up and practicing the regulation.
Rattan resource management: The structure of the committee is divided into three divisionnamely marketing, financial management and natural resource management divisions. The divisionof marketing was created to enable market information for processors and collectors. Division ofnatural resource management is very important to manage resources in the forest when destroyedby fire or deforestation as well as planning rattan resource for annually usage and managing rattan
nursery for replanting or sell out for cash income. Division of financial management is responsible
for managing money usage. The income comes from selling rattan cane, contribution free of 1,000
R from members per harvesting, and per selling rattan furniture, and funding from other sources
such as WWF and MAFF, FA. The main harvesting zone of rattan committee is around 78.30Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

hectares located in three villages namely Chang Huon (11.37 hectares), Prek Thnot (40.56 hectares)
and Prek Kreng (26.39 hectares) village. Harvesting is being done by cycle in each zone dependingon the time, number, and amount of actual plan of rattan committee. Moreover, around 30,000
rattan plants, from the nursery station of the community, were planted in the Prek Thnot
Community Protected Area zone every year. However, the average rattan harvest of the community
is around 27,000 canes (5 m per cane) per year or more which depending on the ability ofcommittee members (collectors) and market force. The rattan committee helps on management ofrattan resource and also contributes in sharing the profits and solving some problems of thecollectors. Furthermore, the profit will be shared to committee members in case of cash need,hiring someone to manage the nursery, training, replanting, and helping the members in emergency
cases like accidents in harvesting rattan.
Rattan collection technique of committee members: There are 21 species of rattan in Cambodia.
Their harvest season varies according to species of each rattan. There are only five commercial
species namely Calamus rudentom, C. viminalis, C. palustrist, Korthalsia, and Som. Collectors
harvest rattan fallow the traditional and specified committee technique. Traditional technique usedby the dwellers long time ago is unsustainable though because they harvest the rattan by digging its
roots, destroying the young rattan. The committee technique, on the other hand, was taught andsupported by WWF. These included three main activities. First, collectors identify the age andlength of rattan. Second, only 60% of the rattan in clumps is being harvested while the 40% is left
to support and provide nutrition to young rattan. Last, rattan cane should be cut 20-70 cm above theroots because the rattan trunks provide nutrition for young rattan. Only around 80% of the
respondents are following the rule of committee harvesting. This technique for harvesting is verysignificant but it still needs to be improved and should be taught to all committee members. This
harvest technique helps to enhance the sustainable resources in the protected area. According to theWWF (2011), the sustainable harvesting of rattan must consider the rattan age, seasonal harvesting,materials consumption and harvesting technique. The rattan recognized to be suitable for
harvesting must have the fallowing characteristics; (a) mature in age; (b) height is over five meters;(c) rattan cane is dark green with black thorn; (d) leaves are dried and falling out; and (c) bearing
flower and fruit. The best season for harvesting is during the dry season wherein the tree isprotected from moles and insects infestation that could affect rattan growth. In addition, the proper
harvesting tools should be utilized such as bush-whacker, special scissors, crampon and jungleknife. These tools are very important. Crampon is being used for isolating cane from other trees
growing with rattan. Bush-whacker is being used to cut and clean leaves from rattan cane which iseasier than knife. Special scissors cuts rattan twigs looped to other tree. These tools avoid
destruction of other plants significant for a sustainable rattan resource. The recommended fourmain steps for harvesting rattan are (a) collectors identify the right species; (b) cutting, rattan ten
centimetres above the root; (c) removal of branches or twig meshed with other cane or tree before
pulling: (d) pilling up of waste to the bush for fertilizer and to avoid fire. These steps are important
harvesting technique for sustainable rattan production.
Importance of Rattan Production
Cost and return of collectors: Rattan is a potential resource for collectors because they do notinvest capital but they can get profits from it. Time of collection of rattan depends on market
demand and households’ consumption. The collectors harvest the rattan around 22 days per person
person. For every harvesting time, men can collect around 47 canes while women can carry 35
canes from the forest. The average capital cost is 61,600 R per household such as jungle-knife,
thick clothes, gloves and so on. Average annual income of collectors is around 474,000 R perhousehold.
Cost and return of processors: According to the study, 70% of processors produce rattan
furniture only after farming or fishing and 30% of processors produce rattan furniture around 7
months and a half in average per year. There are three main types of rattan furniture that processors
produce such as bookshelves (3 shelves with width=0.4 m and height=1.5 m), chairs (width=0.4 m,
Height=1 m), and table set (4 chairs and a table with height=0.4 m and width=0.5 m). In averageⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

processors can earn around 3,872,200 R per year and spend around 466,400 R in average forcapital or expenses. Processors use 100% of family labour.
Detail Cost of Producing Certain Furniture
There are two options for calculating the total cost of processing rattan. First option is that the total
cost includes the cost of hiring labour and cost of buying raw rattan while second option is the useof 100% of family labour of the processors in processing and harvesting rattan from the forest.
Small Knife
Jungle-Knife
HannerGas Stand
Metters
Saw Handle
Brush
Driller
Iron Bending
scissorFig. 1 Fixed cost of rattan processing

RanttanNail
Gasoline
Vaney
Gas
Saw

Fig. 2 Percentage of variable cost
Table 1 Processor’s margin
Main Type of
Furniture
Chair
Table Set
Bookshelf
Note: FG: farm gate

Total Cost
Option1
19,700 R
139,900 R
26,800 R

FG Price
Option 2
4,900 R
23,300 R
4200 R

20,000 R
150,000 R
20,000 R

MarginOption 1
300
10,100-6,800

Option 2
15,100126,700
15,800

Profit of middleman and retailer: Middlemen are also community members who act as agents tocollect rattan for traders in Phnom Penh City. In average, they earn 200 R commission per cane ofrattan and around 426,600 R per season. Retailers are residents of Kampot market in the Kampot
city; they can earn around 20,000 R profit from selling rattan furniture per month.
Timeline activities of rattan production: Timeline of activities contributed for evaluating andassessing the time spent by the actors in rattan production versus the benefits that they get. Table 2
show that after their main activities or in between of their activities farming or fishing activities,Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

rattan committee members can have more additional income from rattan production aside fromfarming and fishing. Based on the table, committee members don’t harvest rattan the whole year
but only during dry season and a little during rainy season.
Table 2 Timeline activities of committee members
Activities
Rattan Harvest
Processing
Collecting
Selling Furniture
Farming Activities
Fishing Activities
Hiring labour

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Furthermore, there are some rattan collectors that go to the forest during rainy season. From
October until mid-May, collectors can harvest rattan because they are free from their farming or
fishing activities. They can also harvest during mid-May until the end of September but they
harvest during the day when they finished from their farming or fishing activities. With regards tothe collectors, they mostly process furniture almost every day except from mid-May until mid-Julybecause during that time they are busy with their farming activities. Retailers sell out their productevery day because their main job is to sell rattan furniture and other furniture in Kampot Province.
Rattan Production Chain
The production flow shows how rattan resource is used in the community. According to the study,
rattan production is mainly being sold out fresh, about 69% of all rattan from the forest, while only
30% is being processed as furniture and 1% is used as houses building materials
10%
20%

Processors
90%

Rattan in Forest

Consumers(Local)Retailers(Kampot)

Consumers(Resorts, guesthouse)

Middleman(Local)Traders(Phnom Penh)

10 %

100%

Collectors
80%

69%
1%
Household Consumption

Fig. 3 Rattan production flow
Contribution Income to Committee Members
Rattan is very important for people along the production chain. People use rattan for food, and not
only to make handicraft for household usage but also contributes to household gross income. The
benefits of rattan production are extremely important for all households in the study area. They use
the income to support child education, household repairs, food, and other expenditures for dailyliving. Furthermore, rattan production offers employment to all members of the family. It reduces
migrant labor and members of household can earn more profit from collecting rattan and sellingfurniture's. According to Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, rattan processing had shared about 65% to processors
annual income while collection had shared about 9% of collectors’ annual income.

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10%
8%

18%
64%

9%

Rice farming

2%

22%

Rice farming

FishingFishing

Selling Labor

Selling Labor

Rattan processing

67%

Fig. 4 Income source of rattan processors

Rattan Collecting

Fig. 5 Income source of rattan collectors

CONCLUSION
The rattan committee sustain rattan resource in their community by providing harvesting guidelines
and initiating additional jobs from the production chain managing, the amount of rattan resource tobe used annually and replanting them, and applying harvesting technique from WWF. Rattan
resource in the study area share benefits to all actors along the production chain and it plays animportant role in the income source of committee members after agricultural activities and fishing.
Annually, collectors can earn 474,000 R which shared 9% of annual income and processor can earn
3,872,200 R which shared 64% of annual income. Middlemen earn 200 R commission per sellingof cane of rattan, while retailers earn 20,000 R per month on selling rattan furniture. Nevertheless,the rattan resource is limited and need long time to grow for harvesting again plus it requires
management.
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
I am very grateful to express my appreciation to WWF-Cambodia, particularly rattan project teams
who provided input and financial support for this study.
REFERENCES
CDRI (Cambodia Development Resource Institute). 2006. Natural forest benefits and economics analysis ofnatural forest conservation in Cambodia. Working paper, December 2006. Hansen K. K., Top N., CDRI.
Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
FOA. 2013. Asian’s woman in agriculture, environment and rural production. (retrieved from http://www.
fao.org/sd/wpdirect/wpre0106.htm , [23 September 2013]).
Khou, E. H. 2010. A field guide of the rattan of Cambodia. Cambodia: WWF greater Mekong-Cambodia
country programme, 2008. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Tuan, D. P. 2007. NTFPs conservation and development: a strategic task of the forestry sector in Vietnam.
The role of NTFPs in poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation. In: Proc. the International
Workshop on the Theme. Ha Noi, June 2007. IUCN, Ha Noi, Vietnam. 7-10.
Ros, B., Nang, P. and Chhim, C. 2011. Agricultural development and climate changes: the case of Cambodia.
Working Paper No. 65. CDRI, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Warner, K. 2007. Gaining much from little: How ‘minor’ forest products can have a major impact on poverty
alleviation and promote. The role of NTFPs in poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation. In: Proc.
the International Workshop on the Theme. Ha Noi, June 2007. IUCN, Ha Noi, Vietnam. 11-17.
WWF. 2010. Economic return from rattan supports sustainable forest and poverty reduction. (retrieved fromhttp://Cambodia.panda.org/news_cambodia/?202505).
WWF. 2011. Mini guild book: Sustainable rattan harvesting mini guide. WWF-Cambodia, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia.

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Research article
erd

Effect of Agricultural Land Reform Development Projecton Rural Livelihood: Experience from Thailand
NIRAMON KAEWKALLAYA
ALRO, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand

RAJENDRA P. SHRESTHA
School of Environment Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology,
Pathumthani, Thailand

ANISARA PENSUK TIBKAEW*
Faculty of Technology and Community Development, Thaksin University, Thailand
Email: anisara.pensuk@gmail.com
Received 22 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding author)

Abstract Thailand has faced from long time the problem of land tenure, and agriculture
land reform program has been implemented in Thailand for about three decades
particularly in the areas identified as the encroached national reservation forest. Todate
more than 5.12 million ha of land have been allocated to the farmers in 69 provinces of thecountry for settlement and agricultural purposes. The collaborative project between JICA
and ALRO called D/S North project has been implemented during 2004-2007 aiming to
improve the living standard of farmers through promoting the practices of sustainableagriculture and integrating the proper natural resource management and environmental
conservation measures into their living activities. This study, therefore, examines theachievement of the integration of the natural resources conservation measures to farmers'
livelihood under the D/S North Project in the representative site, namely BorLek Long
sub-district, Phrae Province. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework, developed by DFID
was used to investigate the livelihood situation of the people who implemented the project.
The study shows that the people have better living condition with better natural, financial,and social capital as a result of project implementation.
Keywords Agricultural Land Reform Office, agricultural land reform, rural livelihood,sustainable livelihood framework

INTRODUCTION
Like other developing countries, Thailand also had adopted the liberal market-oriented policies todevelop the country (Isarangkun and Pootrakool, 2005). The developmental strategy was
implemented in Thailand aiming to improve the quality of life of its people by expanding the basic
infrastructure throughout the country such as roads, electricity and irrigation projects.
Consequently, the expanding of the basic infrastructure can bring in the foreign and local
investments were encouraged to increase agricultural commodities in order to support country’s
economic. Focusing on economic growth gave a great pressure especially on forest areas, whichwere rapidly destroyed and encroached for agricultural expansion (Department of Environmental
Quality Promotion, n.d.). Furthermore, the need for land areas was high to meet the demand ofincreasing population and the high competition on land for residential, industrial, and agricultural
purposes has also led to the land tenure insecurity for farmers. Accordingly, in response to those
problems and the land protection for agriculture, the Agricultural Land Reform Office (ALRO) wasestablished under the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives in 1975 to take responsibility
concerning the access of the poor people to land through implementation of land reform. ALRO’s
mission was in line with the King’s wish to have agricultural land protection in order to have theⒸ ISERD

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most efficiency farming (Agricultural Land Reform Office, 2009). ALRO is not only responsiblefor distributing land to poor farmers for agriculture and resident purpose, developing infrastructure
and occupation but also promoting the effective natural resources of rehabilitation and utilization.
One of many rural livelihood improvement projects initiated by ALRO, The Development
Study on Planning and Capacity Building for Natural Resources Management and Sustainable
Rural and Agricultural Development in the North Thailand Project or “D/S North Project” had been
implemented in cooperation with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) during 20042007 (Satutum, 2009) aiming in improving the living standard of farmers in the project areas
through the practice of sustainable agriculture, integrated to proper natural resources management
and environmental conservation of the protected areas, including local capacity building. Varietiesof activities and provision of required basic infrastructure were carried out within the project,including forest plantation, making firebreak line, forest boundary marking, small-scale checkdams construction, nursery of local plants, head water source protection, herbal harvesting andutilization, producing bio-gas using pig manure, organizing saving group and membership, swine
meat processing, practicing kitchen garden, low chemical inputs farming, soil surface protection
farming, soil improvement by bio-fertilizer/compost, livestock raising extension, plant material
processing, water melon cultivation extension and Wood vinegar production.
This study examined the achievement of the integration of the natural resources conservation
measures to farmers livelihood under the D/S North Project in the representative site, namely
BorLek Long sub-district, Phrae Province. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF),
developed by DFID. According to DFID, SLF assumes that livelihood resources comprised of fivedifferent capitals or assets, namely human, natural, financial, social and physical asset and each
asset can be represented by number of factors affecting livelihoods. Different researchers useddifferent indicators for assessing the livelihood asset, such as skill, literacy, knowledge, ability tolabor and health of household members as human asset (Ahmed and Chowdhury 2006; Cramb et al.
2004; de Sherbinin et al. 2008; DFID 1999; Kristjanson et al. 2005; Scoones 1998; Westley and
Mikhaev 2002) and also family structure, education, occupation, link to outside the farm sources ofincome (Soini 2005). Natural assets are the natural stocks and environmental services (de Sherbinin
et al. 2008; Scoones 1998). Land holding size is one of the most commonly used natural asset
indicator by several researchers, e.g. Ahmed and Chowdhury (2006); Cramb et al. (2004); Westley
and Mikhaev (2002). Some other natural asset indicators in use are rainfall, wildlife density, andlikelihood of having tick diseases (Kristjanson et al. 2005). Financial asset can be represented bycash, savings and credit (DFID 1999). In other cases, livestock possession (Kristjanson et al. 2005;
Ahmed and Chowdhury 2006; Cramb et al. 2004; Westley and Mikhaev 2002; Soini 2005) andremittances (de Sherbinin et al. 2008; Westley and Mikhaev 2002) are also used as financial asset.
Social asset are found to be represented by networks and connections, memberships of formalizedgroups and the relationship of trust (de Sherbinin et al. 2008), density of active community andbenefit from kinship (Kristjanson et al. 2005; Westley and Mikhaev 2002; Ahmed and Chowdhury2006) and collective action and accessibility to knowledge (Soini 2005). Physical asset comprisesof basic infrastructure and producer goods (DFID 1999), houses and occupational equipments(Ahmed and Chowdhury 2006; Cramb et al. 2004; de Sherbinin et al. 2008), transportation network(Kristjanson et al. 2005), vehicles, machinery, shops and other agricultural implements (Westley
and Mikhaev 2002) and even land under possession (de Sherbinin et al. 2008). Besides assessing
livelihood using five assets, the SLA has also been used in studying the coping strategies andadaptation to change of rural livelihoods (Salisbury and Schmink 2007; Soini 2005). SLA as awider view-based approach for addressing poverty and environment than conventional incomebased approach, which recognizes the importance of the ability to access to resources, however thecompleteness of the assessment depends on the availability of data (Cramb et al. 2004). The
indicators selected to be used in this study was appropriately designed as good representative ofeach asset in order to give the best responses of the villagers’ livelihood.

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Study Area
The project has been implemented in Phrae province, North region in Thailand (Fig. 1) where is themost significant area of the country for management and conservation of natural resources becauseof its extensive forest cover with unique biodiversity. The area is surrounded on all sides bymountains with level plains in the middle. The main occupation of the people is agriculture,
particularly rice cultivation, cash crops and orchards. It was found that villagers have unbalanced
income and high expenditure problem. Their main income source was from agriculture, livestockraising and fishery, etc.

Fig. 1 The location and the aerial photo of the study area
METHODOLOGYThe D/S North Project activities were implemented during 2004-2007. The project had adopted themethod of participatory approach by which villagers were encouraged to conduct all process of the
project by themselves. The outcome of the project was evaluated 3 years after project has been
terminated in order to investigate the changes of villagers’ livelihood as policies, institutions andprocesses can have a great influence on access to assets (DFID, 1999). The study made use of thesustainable livelihood framework (SLF) developed by DFID (Department for International
Development).The primary data was collected through household survey. A total of 75 households,
who participated in the project from the beginning until the project termination, were interviewed
using semi-structured questionnaire to determine significant change by asking specific questions
relating to before and after implementation of the project. The indicators representing those five
livelihood assets were assessed in order to investigate by comparing the changes of their livelihood
after project has been implemented. Thirteen indicators were used to represent four livelihood
assets. The physical asset comprised of the necessary infrastructures especially for agriculturalactivities was constructed with the supports of the D/S North Project, therefore this asset wasconsidered significantly improved. The human asset indicators were derived from two indicators,
namely experience/knowledge from training and gaining indigenous. The natural asset was derived
from four indicators, namely forest condition, forest product dependence, quality of water resourceand soil condition. The financial asset was assessed based on household income, expenditure,saving and debt. The social asset was derived from network building, cooperation among group,
cooperation between local organizations, networking between neighboring communities, therelying on external services. The collected household information was described and analyzed
using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Natural Asset
The natural asset of the villagers under the D/S North Project was assessed through four important
indicators included forest condition, forest production dependence, quality of water resource andsoil condition. Nearly 89% of the respondent perceived that their natural asset became better after
the project has been implemented, whereas only 1% claimed that their livelihood was getting worseand 10% perceived that their livelihood remained unchanged (Fig. 2). Forest, water and soil
condition were investigated as the indicators of natural asset. Nearly 95% of the villagers perceived
that the condition of the forest was increase while only 5% of the respondent perceived no change
in condition of the forest but none of the respondent detected the decreasing of the forest. However,the forest condition is better but the villagers whose livelihood rely on the forest was decreasing as
only about 4% of the respondent still live by using the forest product whereas 86% perceived thatthey stopped relying on the forest product. The better forest condition consequence the better water
quality and soil condition as 80% and 92% of the respondent perceived the better water and soil
condition, respectively.

100.00
80.00

%

60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00

Natural AssetNochangeWorse

Better

10.33

1.33

88.35

Fig. 2 Perceived natural asset due to the D/S North Project
Table 1 Perception of respondents on natural asset indicators
Perception on
Forest condition
Forest products dependence
Quantity of water resource
Soil condition

No change
3.5
7.5
00.0
..9

%
Decrease
0.0
7..9
0.0
3.5

Increase
7..9
..0
70.0
70.0

Source: Household survey

Financial Asset
The financial asset was assessed mainly through income and expenditure of the respondent. Overall
financial asset of the villagers under the D/S North Project became better as about 86% of the
respondents perceived that their income and saving has been increasing (Fig. 3) whereas theexpenditure has become smaller after the project has been implemented. However, 1.68%
respondents perceived that their financial situation got worse due to their higher expenditure anddebt whereas 12% of the total respondents mentioned their financial situation remained almost thesame (Table 2). In detail, the financial indicators showed positive results which help improving
their livelihood. The respondents responded that they have higher income (according to 86.7%
respondents) with higher saving (89.3% respondents) and reduction of expenditure (89.3%
respondents) and debt (80% respondents).

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Table 2 Perception of respondents on financial asset indicators
Perception on

No change
35.5
7.0
30.9
3..0

Household income
Household expenditure
Household saving
Household debt%
Decrease
0.0
89.3
0.0
70.0

Increase
7..9
0.9
77.5
..0

%

Source: Household survey

100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00

Financial Asset

Disagree
4.65

Nochange
12.00

Worse

Better

1.68

86.33

Agree
95.35

Fig. 3 Perceived financial asset due to the
D/S North Project

Fig. 4 Perception of the respondent on
benefit of community networking
and farmers group on overall social
asset

Social Asset
The social asset of the respondent was assessed through various indicators which related mostly tofarmers group and the networking. The questionnaire was designed to investigate the benefit of the
network and the farmer group on their livelihood. The positive results were found from thehousehold survey as more than 95% of the respondents have agreed that having network andfarmer group can support their livelihood (Fig. 4). Especially networking and farmer group canhelp reducing their dependency on external services (Table 3), as they can produce and use theproduction within group member. All respondents have agreed that the D/S North Project wascapable to improve their livelihood through social asset as they can reduce their dependency on
external service by being self-reliance. About 98% of the respondents had agreed of making
network and established the farmer group can improve their livelihood by having better
cooperation from local organizations and neighboring communities (Table 3).
Table 3 The percentage of perception of the respondent on benefit of community networking
and farmers group on the social asset indicators
Benefits from network and farmers group
Benefit on gaining a better cooperation with local organization
Benefit on creating a better networking with neighboring communities
Benefit on gaining less dependency on the external services and being self-reliance

Disagree
3.5
3.5
0.0

Agree
77.9
77.9
300.0

Source: Household survey

Human Asset
All respondents (100%) had agreed that their human asset was perceived significantly improved
through various types of training organized by the D/S North Project. They perceived that theyⒸ ISERD

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gained more experience and knowledge from training and meeting. On the other hand, theindigenous knowledge can be transferred among the group members.
CONCLUSION
As in other places of Thailand, agriculture has remained the major source of income to support
people’s livelihood in the BorLek Long land reform project (the D/S North Project) area. The
investigation showed that the farm households are better off with regard to every livelihood asset
after the project has been implemented. The physical asset was improved through various basic
infrastructure obtained from the project. The villagers perceived that their natural asset was betteras the conservation measurement were integrated into the project. Similarly, the financial asset was
improved as they can reduce their expenditure by living on their own farm production, for example,
the kitchen garden, low chemical input farming, organic fertilizer, etc. Their social asset and humanasset were also improved through various types of training and they can make connection throughtrainings and forming farmers group.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks are due to the Agricultural Land Reform Office, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives,
Thailand for providing the information of BorLek Long and the D/S North Project.
REFERENCES
Ahmed, K.A. and Chowdhury E.H., 2006. Study on livelihood systems assessment, vulnerable groupprofiling and livelihood adaptation to climate hazard and long term climate change in drought prone
areas of NW Bangladesh, FAO.
Alex de Sherbinin, A., VanWey, L.K., McSweeney, K., Aggarwal, R., Barbieri, A., Henry, S., Hunter, L.M.,
Twine, W. and Walker, R., 2008. Rural household demographics, livelihoods and the environment.
Global Environmental Change 18, 38-53.
Agricultural Land Reform Office. 2009a. Agricultural Land Protection. Pamphlet No. 455 May 2009.
Cramb, R.A., Purcell, T. and Ho. T.C.S. 2004. Participatory assessment of rural livelihoods in the central
highlands of Vietnam. Agricultural Systems 81, 255-272.
Department of environmental quality promotion. n.d.. Thailand National Environment Performance
Assessment (EPA) Report. P.6 (retrieved: 21 June 2010, from http://www.gms-eoc.org/CEP/Comp3/
docs/Thailand%20EPA%20Report_reduced.pdf).
DFID. 1999. Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets. (retrieved: 17 May, 2007, from: http://www.
livelihoods.org /info/info_guidancesheets.html).
Isarangkun, C. and Pootrakool, K. 2005. Sustainable economic development through the sufficiency
economy philosophy. (retrieved: 7 July 2010, from http://www.sufficiencyeconomy.org/old/en/files/
3.pdf).
Kristjanson, P., Radeny, M., Baltenweck, I., Ogutu, J. and Notenbaert, A., 2005. Livelihood mapping andpoverty correlates at a meso-level in Kenya. Food Policy 30, 568-583.
Scoones, I., 1998. Sustainable rural livelihoods: A framework for analysis. Brighton. Institute ofdevelopment studies. University of Sussex, UK.
Salisbury, S.D. and Schmink, M., 2007. Cows versus rubber: Changing livelihoods among Amazonian
extractivists. Geoforum 38, 1233-1249.
Satutum, P. 2009. People’s participation: Lessons learnt from international cooperation in Thailand’s land
reform area in proceedings of an international conference on land reform for wealthy life. Staff Paper
Number 116, Vol. 500. Feb. 2009, 86.
Soini, E. 2005. Land use change patterns and livelihoods on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
Agricultural Systems 85, 306-323.
Westley, K. and Mikhaev, V. 2002. The use of participatory methods for livelihood assetment in situations ofpolitical instability: A case study from Kosovo. Overseas Development Institute Report No. 190.

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Research article
erd

Factors Influencing Equity in Farmer-managed Irrigation
Distribution in Sindh, Pakistan
JUNAID ALAM MEMON*
Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Islamabad, Pakistan
Email: memon@gmx.us

FATEH MUHAMMAD MARI
Sindh Water Sector Improvement Project, Karachi, Pakistan
Received 24 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding author)

Abstract Equitable distribution of irrigation has been one of the most compelling
justification for irrigation management reforms in many countries. Policy response to suchneed in Pakistan had been the introduction of farmer-management of tertiary level
irrigation affairs. This study presents an empirical analysis of the effect of reforms onequitable irrigation distribution in Farmer Organizations (FO) of three Area Water Boards(AWBs) in Sindh, Pakistan. Cross-sectional quantitative information obtained fromsecondary sources included the official datasets on irrigation discharge measurements, FOmaturity indexes and FO profiles prepared by Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority(SIDA) and Water Sector Improvement Project (WSIP-I). A multinomial logistic
regression model, having Equity between Head and Tail watercourses as the regressand
and Institutional maturity index, Culturable command area, and Membership size of FO as
the regressors were used to model the determinants of Equity in Farmer-managed
Irrigation Distribution. The study identified institutional maturity as one of the influential
factors explaining variation in the irrigation delivery performance of FOs. With somecaveats, findings have useful policy implications for the success of irrigation reforms forsustainable agriculture in Sindh Province of Pakistan.
Keywords farmer-managed irrigation, irrigation equity, delivery performance ratio,
Pakistan

INTRODUCTION
Irrigation is the lifeline for millions of poor who eke out their livelihood from agricultural activities
carried out in the developing regions of the world. As a key component of the green revolution
package, developing countries have invested heavily in building irrigation infrastructure like dams,
diversion structures and irrigation networks. The benefits of such investments can be observed
from the fact that the total area under irrigation has more than doubled during 1961-2003 (Gleick etal., 2011). Probably it would not be exaggerating to say that human civilization avoided theMalthusian pessimism of food shortages and hunger (Malthus, 1806) partly because of theadvances in irrigation engineering and technology. Today, agriculture consumes 60 percent offreshwater withdrawal worldwide, 69 percent in Africa and 75 percent in Asia, whereas in somecountries, this figure could be as high as 99 percent (Gleick et al., 2011). Since 1950s, the irrigation
policies in various developing countries had largely been an artifact of international donors(Suhardiman and Mollinga, 2012).The importance of irrigation development on donor agenda canbe understood from the fact that irrigation could secure more than seven percent of the total lendingby the World Bank since 1950s (Plusquellec, 1999 cited in Bassi and Kumar, 2011). The extent towhich the donor intervention in irrigation issues and policies in developing countries is qualified issomething external to the scope of this paper. However, it worth reading the illuminating article bySuhardiman and Mollinga (2012) nicely describing the way in which the international donors
authored, suggested and pushed national irrigation policies in developing countries in general andIndonesia in particular.
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Over the years, the donor prescription of irrigation policy for developing countries has largely
shifted from the infrastructure expansion to institutional development. The new narrative described
the hydraulic bureaucracy as incapable of making full cost recovery of irrigation service, adequate
operation and management of infrastructure and equitable irrigation distribution; while assumingthat if organized, farmers could efficiently manage the irrigation affairs (Bandaragoda, 2006;
Memon, 2012; Mustafa, 2002; Suhardiman and Mollinga, 2012). The donors may have some
empirical or systematic understanding of the inefficiency of hydraulic bureaucracy irrigation affairs,
but it is highly tempting (see for example Suhardiman and Mollinga, 2012) to relate this shift to theascendancy of participatory approaches promoted by Ostrom (1990), Chambers (1983, 1989, 1997)
during the same period. Regardless of the label, the underline theme of reforms in most of thecountries was full or partial involvement of farmers in different aspect of irrigation management(Bassi and Kumar, 2011; Poddar et al., 2011; Samad, 2002). Garces-Restrepo et al., (2007 cited in
Bassi and Kumar, 2011) reported that 60 countries covering about 80 percent of the irrigated area
worldwide have already implemented some form of institutional reforms in irrigation management.
South Asian countries such as India (Arun et al., 2012; Poddar et al., 2011), Pakistan (Memon,
2012; Memon, 2006) and Sri-Lanka (Bandaragoda, 2006) were also not an exception of the donor
driven reforms. All of these countries have initiated some form of Participatory Irrigation andManagement (PIM) on secondary and tertiary level channels.
Institutional reforms in Pakistan are particularly important since the country features the Indus
River, which houses a gigantic irrigation system unparalleled in the world. The system developed
through substantial assistance of international donors. Consistent with donor narrative elsewhere in
the world (see for example, Bandaragoda, 2006; Suhardiman and Mollinga, 2012), the external
push for reforms triggered the policy shift for PIM, assuming that it will facilitate full cost recovery,
adequate operation and management and equitable irrigation distribution (Memon, 2006). Memon(2012) reported that despite more than 15 years of implementation, the reforms were still in theirinfancy. Advocates often report Sindh province for its relatively better performance in theimplementing the reforms, but actual implementation could hardly be seen beyond the canalcommand areas of three Area Water Boards (AWBs) against the targeted 14 canals (Memon, 2012).
Call for speedy implementation of reforms in the remaining canal commands in Sindh Province
might be reasonable, but there are virtually no empirical evidences suggesting the policymakers
about the efficacy of the farmer-managed irrigation system in terms of full cost recovery, adequate
operation and management of infrastructure and equitable irrigation distribution.
OBJECTIVE
Thus, the objective of this study was to carry out an empirical analysis of the extent to which theinstitutional reforms in the irrigation sector of Sindh Province in Pakistan could achieve its
equitable irrigation distribution objectives hoping that findings will guide appropriate policymaking.
In order to achieve this objective, the next section describes the materials and methods followed bya section on results and discussion. The final section concludes the study and draws policy
implication besides highlighting the areas for future research.
METHODOLOGY
Selection of Study Area and Sample FOs
The study covered all three canal commands of Area Water Boards (AWBs) namely, Nara CanalAWB (NCAWB), Ghotki Feeder Canal AWB (GFCAWB) and Left Bank Canal AWB (LBCAWB)
where the institutional reforms were implemented (Fig. 1). Farmer Organization (FO) served as themain unit of analysis. Selection of FOs was arbitrary based on the availability of required
information across all data sources explained in the Table 1. This means that any FO, for which therequired information was available, qualified the selection process. This process provided 34 FO(27 from NCAWB, four from GFCAWB and three from LBCAWB).
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Ghotki Feeder
AWB

Nara Canal AWB

Providencial Boundary
The Indus River System
Ghotki Feeder AWB
Left Bank Canal AWB
Nara Canal AWB

Left Bank Canal
AWB

100

0

100 Kirometers

Fig. 1 Location of study area, main canals and three AWBs
Table 1 Description of data and indicators
Data set/Source
1. Delivery Performance
Ratio (DPR)(WSIP-I, 2012a)1

Description
 DPR3 calculated separately for any watercourse (WC):𝐷𝑃𝑅 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒⁄𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒(1=getting designed share; <1= getting less than design share; and >1
getting more than the designed share) Head to Tail equity4 at the tertiary level channel was determined by:
𝐻𝑇𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (𝐷𝑃𝑅𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑊𝐶)/(𝐷𝑃𝑅𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑊𝐶)(1= Equity between Head and Tail WCs of a FO; <1= Head WCs getting lessthan Tail WCs; and >1= Head getting more than Tail)

2. Institutional Maturity

 The institutional maturity index was the sum of four constituting indexes:
1. Organizational management
2. Financial Management
3. Conflict Resolution
4. O&M and Irrigation Service Delivery(Since both of the sources were different in terms of weights assigned to eachof the above parameters, standardization was obtained by converting theoriginal scores into percentages)

Index (2 Datasets)(SIDA,2012)2(WSIP-I, 2011)

 CCA is Culturable Command Area in hectares irrigated on a tertiary channel(SIDA,2009) Size of FO (Membership)(WSIP-I, 2012b)
1.
2.
Notes:
Water Sector Improvement Project
Sindh Irrigation & Drainage Authority
3.
4.
DPR calculated at Water Course level
HT Equity calculated at FO level

3. Profile Indicators

Materials and Methods
The study utilized secondary information obtained from two government agencies, namely: Sindh
Water Sector Improvement Project (WSIP-I) and Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority (SIDA)(Table 1). Since the information was the part of official reports and publically inaccessible, theauthors wrote emails and visited the concerned offices to get access. Some of the selected FO waspresent in both SIDA (2012) and WSIP-I (2011) maturity index datasets. In those cases, theinformation was extracted from the dataset provided by SIDA (2012) due to the consideration thatit required no processing which could somehow affect the overall quality of the information.
Model SpecificationⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Institutional reforms in the irrigation sector came out of a belief that organized and capable famers
could take over the management responsibility of tertiary level irrigation affairs. This encouraged
the policymakers to implant FOs and invest in building their institutional capacity until they
become mature enough to assume the complete responsibility of tertiary level irrigation affairs. If
such an assumption was reasonable, any increase in the maturity level of a FO could result in more
equitable irrigation distribution. However, some other factors such as the membership size of FO
and the agricultural area it served could also affect the equitable distribution of irrigation. With thispremise, equity between head and tail watercourses (HT Equity) as dependent variable wasregressed with three independent variables namely, the institutional maturity index of FO (IMI), themembership size of FO (Mem) and the culturable command area of FO (CCA). The dependent
variable was re-coded into three categories (values < 0.90 = 1, head WCs drawing less water thantail WCs (HDL); values between 0.90 - 1.10 = 2, head and tail WCs drawing equal water (HTDE)
by allowing ± 0.10 margin to 1:00 to account for technical and flow change reasons; and, >1.10 =3,
head WCs drawing more water than tail WCs (HDM)). Thus, the dependent variable wascategorical while all of the independent variables were continuous. Since ‘HT Equity’ as adependent variable had three categories, Multinomial Logistic Regression was an appropriate
modelling choice. The model specifications were:log

𝑃𝑟(𝑌 = 𝐻𝐷𝐿)
= 𝛼 + 𝛽1 𝐼𝑀𝐼 + 𝛽2 𝑀𝑒𝑚 + 𝛽3 𝐶𝐶𝐴
𝑃𝑟(𝑌 = 𝐻𝑇𝐷𝐸)(1)

𝑃𝑟(𝑌 = 𝐻𝐷𝑀)log
= 𝛼 + 𝛽1 𝐼𝑀𝐼 + 𝛽2 𝑀𝑒𝑚 + 𝛽3 𝐶𝐶𝐴
𝑃𝑟(𝑌 = 𝐻𝑇𝐷𝐸)
Where:- Y was dependent variable: HT Equity having three categories (HDL, HTDE, &HDM)- HTDE was the reference category- IMI, Mem and CCA were independent variables- α was a constant (the state of HT Equity without any effect of independent variables)- β1, β2 and, β3were coefficient of independent variables
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
An average FO in Sindh Province could be a sufficiently large entity all in terms of its social,
geographic and operational attributes (Table 2). Serving thousands of hectares within the range ofvarious kilometers and satisfying hundreds of farmers must be a complex task if purely seen from a
micro lens of collective action problems. These complexities could multiply if one takes in toaccount the power structure in the agrarian society where landholding size symbolizes social status,
power and prestige. The difference in land holdings of the largest and smallest farmer and in FOs
indicates that not all of the members were equally advantageous in the local power structure (Table2). Within this context of the complexities, shall one expect that a FO could achieve its objective ofequitable irrigation distribution?
Based on the analysis of a small sample of arbitrarily selected FOs, the answer to the above
question appears to be a cautious ‘yes’ (Table 3). Taking equity between head and tail watercourses
as a base category of the dependent variable, the results of multinomial logistic regression revealed
that with one percent increase in institutional maturity index score, while keeping all otherindependent variable constant, there is relative risk that the inequity will decrease for about 10
percent (Table 3). This seems to be valid in both cases of inequality, i.e. if head was drawing less
irrigation than tail or head was drawing more irrigation than tail (Table 3). Relative risk that
inequity of irrigation will decrease essentially implies that equity will increase. None of the otherindependent variable had any significant impact on equity except that membership size hadsignificant impact on equity in the case of head watercourses drawing more irrigation than tailwatercourses. With an increase of 10 members, a FO would probably move five percent towards
equity (Table 3). If one looks at the effect of membership size with a “small is beautiful” lens, theⒸ ISERD

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contribution of membership size towards equitable irrigation distribution seems a paradox. This isbecause the complexities of irrigation management will perhaps increase with larger groups.
Nevertheless, a valid explanation may come from the “mass effect” suggesting that increase inshareholders, will reduce the space for individual to demand more irrigation than their due shareand thus compel FO management to ensure equitable irrigation distribution.
Table 2 Management context of an average FO in Sindh Province (N=354 FOs)
NCAWB
x̄
SD
CCA (Ha)
3280
3057
Design Discharge (Cusec)
35
32
Length of Channel (km)10
13Membership (Person)
280
231
Largest Landholder (Ha)98
85
Smallest landholder (Ha)3
2
Source: Prepared based on SIDA (2009)
Salient Features (Unit)

GFCAWB
x̄
SD
2659
2682
59
57
12
11
347
401
84
106
2
3

LBCAWB
x̄
SD
3457
2645
112
102
11
6
348
383
176
230
5
22

Other AWB
x̄
SD
2414
2012
68
91
9
3
280
138
197
172
2
2

Table 3 Results of multinomial logistic regression (irrigation equity as dependent variable)
EquityRRR
Std. errz
Head drawing less than tail.91991.01055–1.94
 Institutional Maturity.98486.01303–1.15
 Membership size
1.00125.008940.14
 CCA
Head drawing more than tail.89550.01097–2.45
 Institutional Maturity.95216.02717–1.72
 Membership size
1.00987.011130.89
 CCA
Notes:
1. ‘Head and Tail are drawing equal’ is the base outcome
2. * & ** denotes significance at 90 & 95 percent, respectively.
3. Supplementary statistics
Number of observations
=
34
LR χ²
=
14.91
Prob. > χ²=
0.0210Pseudo R2=
0.2154Log likelihood=–27.15064

P> | z |[95% confidence Interval]

0.053*
0.249
0.889.845374.959645.983883

1.001016
1.010748
1.018921

0.014**
0.086*
0.373.819720.900374.988291.9782891.006927
1.031931

CONCLUSION
Donors-pushed and demand-driven reforms in the irrigation sector posit various questions on theefficacy of FOs in achieving the intended objectives of PIM. One of the key questions raised in thisstudy asked whether the implanted FOs could ensure equitable irrigation distribution. Drawing on
the case of institutional reforms in Sindh Province of Pakistan, this paper concludes that it isplausible to expect that upon maturity FOs would deliver equitable irrigation distribution.
Nevertheless, there are various caveats in accepting this conclusion. Surprisingly, when regressedindividually none of the constituting indexes of IMI (Table 1) showed any significant impact onequity between head and tail watercourses. The impact came out only with the summation of theconstituting indexes as IMI (Table 1). One may conclude that farmer organizations need an overall
capacity building support in order to achieve its intended objectives. Nevertheless, given that the
study was data constrained and carried out with a very small sample of arbitrarily selected FOs, thiswould be an imprudent jump into the conclusion. In order to serve as a real policy input, the study
needs extension over adequate and representative sample of FOs. Such study should also include
all constituting indexes as separate variables. This will not only confirm the tentative conclusions
emerged out of this study but will inform policymakers about the specific areas of intervention forthe success of institutional reforms in irrigation sector of Sindh Province.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are extremely thankful to institutions – Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority, Sindh
Water Sector Improvement Project – and officials Mr. Nazeer Ahmed Essani, General Manager
Transition for providing access to the departmental datasets used in this study.
REFERENCES
Arun, G., Singh, D.J., Kumar, S. and Kumar, K., 2012. Canal irrigation management through water users
associations and its impact on efficiency, equity and reliability in water use in Tamil Nadu. Agricultural
Economics Research Review, 25, 409-419.
Bandaragoda, D.J. 2006. Limits to donor-driven water sector reforms: insight and evidence from Pakistan
and Sri Lanka. Water Policy, 8, 51-67.
Bassi, N. and Kumar, M.D. 2011. Can sector reforms improve efficiency?: Insight from trrigation
management transfer in central India. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 27, 709721.
Chambers, R. 1983. Rural development: Putting the last first. Longman London.
Chambers, R. 1989. Managing canal irrigation: Practical analysis from South Asia. Cambridge University
Press. USA.
Chambers, R. 1997. Whose reality counts?: putting the first last. Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd(ITP).
Gleick, P.H., Allen, L., Choen, M.J., Cooley, H., Christian-Smith, J., Heberger, M., Morrison, J.,
Palaniappan, M. and Schutle, P., 2011. The world's water Volume 7: The biennial report on freshwater
resources (Data Tables). Island Press, Washington, Covelo, Landon. UK.
Malthus, T.R. 1806. An essay on the principle of population: or, A view of its past and present effects onhuman happiness. Reeves and Turner, London. UK.
Memon, J.A. 2012. Emerging issues in the implementation of Irrigation and Drainage sector reforms in
Sindh Province of Pakistan. 28th AGM & Conference of PSDE Pakistan Institute of Development
Economics. Islamabad, Pakistan.
Memon, N.A. 2006. Participatory irrigation management and institutionalizing irrigation service in Sindh, in:
Hussain, I., Gill, Z.A., Naseer, Z. and Sarwar, S. (Eds.), INPIM’s 9th International Seminar Participatory
Irrigation Management. INPIM, Lahore, Pakistan, 78-93.
Mustafa, D. 2002. Theory versus practice: The bureaucratic ethos of water resource management andadministration in Pakistan. Contemporary South Asia, 11, 39-56.
Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge
University Press, New York, USA.
Poddar, R., Qureshi, M.E. and Syme, G. 2011. Comparing irrigation management reforms in Australia andIndia - a special reference to participatory irrigation management. Irrigation and Drainage, 60, 139-150.
Samad, M. 2002. Impact of irrigation management transfer on the performance of irrigation systems: A
review of selected Asian experiences, in: Brennan, D. (Ed.), Water Policy Reform: Lessons from Asia
and Australia. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Bangkok, Thailand, 161-170.
SIDA. 2009. Profile of Farmers Organizations - 354 registered FOs up to April 2009. Social Development
Cell of Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority, Hyderabad, Pakistan, 364.
SIDA. 2012. Institutional maturity index (IMI) of FOs. in: Transition Wing of Social Development Cell SOFWMP (Ed.). Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority, Hyderabad, Pakistan, 20+Excel datashet.
Suhardiman, D. and Mollinga, P.P. 2012. Correlations,causes and the logic of obscuration: Donor shaping of
dominant narratives in Indonesia's irrigation development. The Journal of Development Studies, 48, 923938.
WSIP-I. 2011. FO Performance Quarterly Report (July - September, 2011). in: NESPAK (Ed.), Monitoringand Evaluation Consultants. Sindh Water Sector Improvement Project (ID:P084302), Karachi, Pakistan,54.
WSIP-I. 2012a. Draft report on equity in water distribution based on Delivery Performance Ratio (DPR)
during low flow season. in: NESPAK (Ed.), Monitoring and Evaluation Consultants. Sindh Water Sector
Improvement Project (ID:P084302), Karachi, Pakistan, 48.
WSIP-I. 2012b. General assessment and profile of project farmer organizations. in: NESPAK (Ed.),
Monitoring and Evaluation Consultants. Sindh Water Sector Improvement Project (ID:P084302),
Karachi, Pakistan, 289.

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Research article
erd

Beef Market Chain and Opportunities for Farmers in
Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia
MIRANDA PEN*
University of New England, Armidale, Australia
Email: mpen@myune.edu.au

DARRYL B. SAVAGE
University of New England, Armidale, Australia

SOPHAL LORN
Department of Agriculture, Kampong Cham, Cambodia

WERNER STÜRFarm and Agricultural Advisory Services, Queensland, Australia
Received 26 December 2012

Accepted 26 July 2013(*Corresponding author)

Abstract Most cattle raising in Cambodia is undertaken by smallholder farmers, based ona system of low nutritional input (crop residues) and high labour input. Options forincreasing efficiency and introducing a market-oriented beef production system areconsidered a priority. This paper reports the outcomes of a cattle market chain study
conducted in Kampong Cham province. Three districts were selected: Prey Chhor (paddy
area), Tbong Khmum (highland area) and Kang Meas (Mekong area). A rapid market
appraisal was conducted by following the market chain from producers to traders. Farmergroups, cattle brokers and small, medium and large traders were informally interviewed.
Farmers in Prey Chhor frequently bought and sold draft cattle as a seasonal cycle for rice
cropping. Farmers along Mekong area practiced a form of market-orientated production,buying thin cattle from other districts to fatten and sell. At all points of the market chain,interviewees reported that kilogram of meat was the basis of price. Interestingly, sale ofraw meat at market (retail) is the only stage of the market chain at which weighing of meattakes place. At all other stages of the market chain, assessment of weight is undertaken byvisual assessment and is therefore only an estimate. For breeding animals, their physicalappearance rather than production-based measurements is the basis of price. Importantly,
meat eating quality was not identified an issue of importance by farmers or cattle traders.
Keywords draft cattle, market chain, cattle production system, smallholder farmers

INTRODUCTION
Demand of meat is the primary driver for a livestock revolution, and in developing countries, poor
people are consuming more animal products due to their increased income and urbanization(Dalgado, 2003). With projected population of 0.7 billion in 2005 and 0.9 billion in 2050 inSoutheast Asia (SA) (Haub and Kaneda, 2012), annual growth of meat consumption during 1997–2020 is expected to be 3.4% per year in SA and 3.1% per year in China (Dalgado, 2003), wheremeats are exported to.
As one of the ASEAN (Association of South-East Asian Nations) countries, Cambodia willenter into one economic zone so called ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) by 2015 (ASEAN,
2012). This will promote more opportunities for Cambodia to increase its participation in export
markets. However, there are challenges for the Cambodian producers to compete with othercountries related to product quality and supply issue.
Cattle population in Cambodia was 3.4 million in 2011, down from 3.6 million in 2009
(MAFF, 2012). Cambodia has had relatively high growth rates of meat production (7.7%) andⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

consumption (8.6%) since the 1980s (Ahuja, 2012). However, cattle production of the Cambodian
farmers is still small in number and is based on low nutritional input and high labor demand (Pen etal. 2009; 2010). Problems resulting from parasites and diseases are still severe for the Cambodian
cattle herd (Copeman and Copland, 2008, Nampanya et al., 2011). Interventions to develop
livestock sector in this country are very crucial to respond to the market opportunities.
Current cattle markets for the Cambodian livestock are mainly in local markets and in
Vietnam, China and Thailand (Sieng et al. 2012). The cattle trading within the country is still
modest and is laid in an extensive and traditional system. The understanding of cattle market chain
among the farmers and traders will have an implication for cattle development in the country forincome generation of smallholders and national economy. There have been studies to understandthe livestock movement and disease spreading in Cambodia (Sieng et al. 2012; Kerr et al. 2012;
Hawkins et al. 2012), that influenced the focus of the study reported in this paper.
OBJECTIVE
This study aims to analyze factors involving in beef market chain in Kampong Cham province ofCambodia and to discuss the opportunities for them to gain more participation in cattle markets.
METHODOLOGY
A rapid market appraisal (RMA) was used to collect data for this study. Informal interviews andmeetings with farmers, brokers and traders were undertaken in Kampong Cham Province,
Cambodia. This study were prepared by previous project funded by the Australian Center forInternational Agricultural Research (ACIAR), namely ACIAR project AH/2003/008 ‘Improved
feeding systems for more efficient beef cattle production in Cambodia’. The project had defined
three main sites for testing the adoption of forage planting and developing cattle fattening system.
With the assistance of local extension workers for agriculture and head of districts, Prey Chhor(paddy area), Tbong Khmum (highland area) and Kang Meas (Mekong area), were selected basedon its topography and agricultural activities. In each of the sites, there were 15 smallholder forage
adopted farmers (referring to those who have less than 10 heads of cattle) to join and a series ofquestions focusing on cattle production purpose, breed selection, buying and selling activities, wereasked. Farmers were allowed to discuss and to share their responses while all information wererecorded and analyzed by the interview team. Breed type were discussed in the interview process,however, due to inconsistency of definition of breed-type, this data was discarded in the result
section.
Five cattle brokers from each site were informally interviewed individually on cattle market
network, cattle price and trading margin. With the help of the brokers, three levels of traders wereidentified: small, medium and large traders based on numbers of cattle traded. Ten smalls traders at
commune level (buy and sell cattle; 15 cattle/month), 8 medium traders at district level (up to 60
cattle/month), 6 large traders at provincial level (300 cattle/month) were contacted and interviewed
separately. They were invited to the Department of Agriculture in Kampong Cham Province toprovide information related to cattle price and trading margin, trade flow and their perspectives on
cattle market chain. The data are presented in form of flow chart and tables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Cattle Market Chain of Smallholder Farmers: An Example in Prey Chhor District
Prey Chhor District is a paddy area in the province. The cattle purchasing (Fig. 1) in this area
mainly related to cropping activities (rice growing) because farmers purchased draft animal basedon cropping cycle. They also purchased breeding cows from within district (for native cows) orfrom Kang Meas (for crossbred cows). Brokers and small traders involved more or less in cattleⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

purchasing in the district depending on their contacts with farmers.
Farmers in Prey Chhor sell claves, old cattle and draft cattle to the market (Fig. 1). Calves
were mainly purchased by farmers within village or from nearby village. Small and medium traders
played a strong role in purchasing old and draft cattle and in selling to local slaughterhouses orlarge traders. Large traders sold their stock to local slaughterhouses, or Phnom Penh or to Ho Chi
Minh City in Vietnam.
The trade was done on unscheduled timeline with farmers, which means that it could occur
anytime farmers wanted to sell their stock. Sieng et al. (2012) reported that to find stock forpurchasing, traders contacted producers directly by traveling to their known sources or throughphone contacts or family networks. It was clear that farmers did not produce cattle based onplanned production. This becomes an issue for traders to optimize their activities on a basis ofregular and steady production cycle. Hence, cattle market chain at the district level was generated
in a traditional way and farmers’ awareness of market information was limited.
Buy cattle
Farmers in
Kang Meas(forcrossbred)
Farmers inothervillages (fornative)Grow cattle

CalvesCow forbreeding

Farmers inother village
in Prey
Chhor

Vietnam

Phnom PenhOld
animals

Farmers in
Prey Chhor

Brokers /Traders
Farmers in
Tbong
Khmum

Sell cattle

Draft
cattleDraft
animals

Small andmediumtraders

Big traders

Farmers in
Kang Meas
districtLocal
slaughterhouse

Fig. 1 An example of cattle market chain of farmers in Prey Chhor Distrcit, which is linked
with other districts within the province and to market*Broken box indicates cattle trading activities of farmers in Prey Chhor District. Arrows indicate movement of cattle
within the chain.

Table 1 Purpose of cattle production in the three project sites in Kampong Cham, Cambodia
Purpose of cattle production
Prey Chhor
Priority 1 – 2 – 3*
Cow-calf
2
Drought
1
Fattening*Information from farmer group interviews

Tbong Khmum

Kang Meas

1
2
-

1
3
2

Purpose of Cattle Production
The purpose of cattle produced by farmers in the three project sites were different (Table 1). In
Prey Chhor District (paddy area), draft power was the first main purpose, followed by cow-calf
production. The later was more prior purposes in Tbong Khmum District (highland area). None offarmers fattened cattle for selling in these two districts. In Kang Meas District (Mekong area), cowcalf purpose was the first priority. Farmers also fattened cattle in this area where feed availability isabundant. As fattening cattle was one of the project objective to increase smallholder cattle herd
and individual cattle price, more fattening activities was expected to achieve in others two projectsites. This development towards more oriented-market supply will be achievable in case thatnutrition of cattle is improved in terms of quantity and quality.
Cattle Purchasing and Selling Activities of Farmers
Farmers in Prey Chhor (paddy area) purchased draft cattle, mainly directly from farmers along theⒸ ISERD

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river, as a cycle for cropping activity. When they finished the activity, they sold their old stock tofarmers in Kang Meas for fattening. The calves were also being sold directly to other farmers or
small traders. In Tbong Khmum (upland area), farmers purchased cross-bred cows, mainly throughbrokers, in order to increase the crossbred type proportion of their herd. They produced calves andsteers for breeding or draft purpose to other farmers and old animals to traders. In Kang Meas
(Mekong River area), farmers bought thin cattle from Prey Chhor for fattening sale. They might
buy through brokers or directly from farmers. They also produced calves for selling and young
cattle for breeding or draught. Their fatten cattle were sold to small traders for slaughter.
There was a relationship between how farmers selected the breed of their stock and the
purpose of production. In paddy areas such as in Prey Chhor District, where draft power for rice
cropping are crucial, farmers preferred to keep the local breed of cattle due to their less feed
consumption and more suitable for draft power. In Tbong Khmum and Kang Meas Districts where
cow-calf and fattening were the main purpose of keeping livestock, more crossbred cattle, which
are larger than the local cattle, were observed. This means that smallholder farmers in these areas
have been selecting better and more productive breeds of cattle for their stocks in order to get more
benefit from their production.
Cattle Price and Trading Margin
To buy cattle for slaughter, traders estimated the amount of meat on animal and paid for kilogram(kg) of meat on the animal. Interviewees reported that when purchasing breeding cattle, theappearance of body (eg. head, skin, legs), body condition score and health condition were more
important. Higher prices were offered to fatter cattle. While animal were not weighed during thepurchasing, price were based on an estimation of meat yield per animal. Then traders calculated thevalue of individual cattle by multiplying its expected meat yield (kg) with a price per kg that they
intended to pay. The prices of meat were 11,000-13,000 Riel/kg (~2.75-3.25 USD/kg) for farmers.
Big traders in Kampong Cham paid 17,000 Riel/kg (~4.25 USD/kg). Brokers received acommission of ~4 USD per animal sold from both buyer and seller (2 USD from each). Medium
and large traders tended to have a profit margin of $20-25 per animal traded.
Sieng et al. (2012) reported that the demand of red meat within Cambodia is important, butinternationally, only the price of meat in the Vietnamese market determined the price of meat inCambodia. Time of the year is also important determinant of price based on the seasonal supply
which is high during festive seasons, for example during Khmer New Year (in April).
Trade Flow
Most often, the large traders purchased cattle through brokers and small or medium traders andpaid the original price of cattle plus a marginal price (marginal prices were not disclosed). The
large traders interviewed in Kampong Cham estimated that they sold 60% of their cattle to theVietnamese traders, 30% in Phnom Penh (for slaughters) and 10% to the local slaughters. These
traders reported that the market requires that cattle sold to Vietnam and Phnom Penh must have atleast 50-70 kg meat/animal. Larger animals with more meat were preferred. The Vietnamesetraders paid ~17,000 Riel (4.25 USD) for thin cattle and ~20,000 Riel (5 USD) for fat cattle perkilogram of meat. Interestingly, sale of raw meat at market (retail) is the only stage of the market
chain at which weighing of meat takes place. At all the other stages of the market chain, assessmentof weight is undertaken by visual assessment and is therefore only an estimate.
The trade of live animals is unreliable to predict because the formal trade is still small andinformal trade of live animals across the region is significant (Ahuja, 2012). Livestock trade(moving in and out) in Cambodia was unrecorded (Hing et al. 2007). Thailand is a big producer
and exporter of large animals in the region. Cambodia (and Laos) is considered as a transit country
for live animal movement from Thailand to high-value markets in Vietnam and China (Kerr et al.
2012). Competition of Thai cattle going to Phnom Penh and Vietnam became a threat to the
Cambodian farmers.
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Farmer's Perceptions on Cattle Market
Farmers were thinking of how to make more profit from their small number of cattle. They
understood that good health condition and fat cattle were easier to sell than thin cattle but they were
not aware on how the prices were given by buyers/traders. They chose to keep their cattle longer
rather than selling when the prices were low, thus they were not aware of extra input cost of laborand feeds during the delayed period. They tried to avoid trading costs made by brokers or small
traders because they preferred to sell/buy directly to/from others farmers.
Trader’s Perspectives on Cattle Trading
Traders did not think that supply/demand of cattle market would be a big issue for them to trade.
Hence, the expansion of business was their main focus, but lack of capital limit their business.
Besides these internal factors, they also mentioned some external factors that would be the issues
for their trading. For example, there has been an increase of competition of cattle coming fromThailand to Phnom Penh and Vietnam. They recognized that Thai cattle were hard to compete withusing local cattle that were produced by smallholder farmers. They explained that Vietnam market
for cattle was a driver for cattle price in Cambodia that is in consistency with Sieng et al. (2012).
Opportunities for Smallholder Farmers
Vietnam and China will become key importing nations to meet their growing demand for foods
although their productions are increasing each year (Ahuja, 2012). The ruminant meat, which comefrom mixed crop-animal system, will play the most important role for meat consumption in thosecountries (Devendra, 2002) beside pork and poultry meats which have the main source of animal
protein.
Due to small demand of meat in the country (Kerr et al. 2012), Cambodia is also exporting
cattle to Ho Chi Minh City. The demand of red meat in Cambodia is also increasing, hence strong
supply of in-country consumption and exportation must be secured. At the same time, the safety
must be considered, because trans-boundary diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), hasbeen a major issue for cattle trading (Sieng et al. 2012).
Cattle nutrition in the developing countries depends on roughage and straws from crops that
normally are sufficient in nutrients only for maintenance, but not for production, so
supplementation of energy, protein and minerals are required (Leng, 1990). As supplementing
concentrated feed and/or urea to low-quality diet was not cost-effective for farmers, leguminous
forage may be an ideal solution for smallholder farmers (Pen et al. 2012).
The expected future growth of smallholder livestock will have potential impact on the
livelihood of rural poor, hence on poverty reduction. However, the market participation ofsmallholder farmers must be secured. The main constraint in linking smallholders to markets was
not only the production-level, but also the challenge of making efficient transactions between
smallholder producers and the downstream players in the value chains (Ahuja, 2012). As it can beseen the cattle market chain in this study, many stakeholders involved in the transaction and trading
margin was still high. Improving producer knowledge about market opportunities and the
production techniques to produce acceptable products for market is the key for the success of
smallholder cattle business.
CONCLUSION
There is a move towards raising more crossbred cattle, which are larger than local cattle and bring ahigher price. The price of cattle was related to the estimated amount of meat on the animal, solarger and fatter animals demanded a higher price. Neither farmers nor traders mentioned meat
quality as a key factor in the business. There is big opportunity for farmers in Cambodia to produce
fat, crossbred cattle for city markets. This needs better feeding and management practices.
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Increasing market participation of smallholder farmers is also important in Cambodia. This needssome interventions such as rural infrastructure, appropriate technology transfer and a better
delivery system of live cattle aiming to support the small-scale producers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by the Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR).
We are thankful to Dr Sorn San, Dr Sar Chetra, Dr Seng Mom, Mr Chieng Sarith, Mr Chim Simach,
Mr Cheun Chet for discussion on study design and data collection.
REFERENCES
Ahuja, V. 2012. Emerging production and market environment for livestock in the Mekong region:
opportunities, challenges and the response. In; Animal Biosecurity in the Mekong: Future Directions for
Research and Development. L.B. Adams, G.D. Gray and G. Murray (eds). ACIAR Proceedings No. 137,
40-44. Australian Center for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, Australia.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations. 2012. ASEAN Economic Community Handbook for Business 2012.
ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Copeman, D.B. and Copland, R.S. 2008. Importance and potential impact of liver fluke in cattle and buffalo.
ACIAR Monograph Series, 133, 21. ACIAR, Canberra, Australia.
Delgado, C.L. 2003. Rising consumption of meat and milk in developing countries has created a new foodrevolution. The J. of Nut, 133(11), 3907S-3910S.
Devendra, C. 2002. Crop-animal systems in Asia: future perspectives. Agri. Syst., 71(1), 179-186.
Haub, C. and Kaneda, T. 2012. 2012 World Population Data Sheet. Population Reference Bureau,
Washington D.C., USA.
Hawkins, C., Sieng, S. and Kerr, J. 2012. Livestock trading and foot-and-mouth disease risk. In; Animal
Biosecurity in the Mekong: Future Directions for Research and Development. L.B. Adams, G.D. Grayand G. Murray (eds). ACIAR Proceedings No. 137, 73-89. Australian Center for International
Agricultural Research: Canberra, Australia.
Hing, V., Chan, S. and Sok, S. 2007. Cambodia’s agricultural production and trade. Cambodia Economic
Review 3, 69-91. Economic Institution of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Kerr, J., Sieng, S. and Scoizec, A. 2012. Working with traders to understand livestock movements and spreadof animal diseases in Cambodia and Lao PDR. In; Animal Biosecurity in the Mekong: Future Directions
for Research and Development. L.B. Adams, G.D. Gray and G. Murray (eds). ACIAR Proceedings No.
137, 59-64, Australian Center for International Agricultural Research: Canberra.
Leng, R.A. 1990. Factors affecting the utilization of poor-quality forages by ruminants particularly undertropical conditions. Nut. Res. Rev., 3(1), 277-303.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery 2012. Cattle production statistics. (retrieved: http://www.stats.
maff.gov.kh/. Accessed: 12 December 2012).
Nampanya, S., Suon, S., Rast, L. and Windsor, P.A. 2011. Improvement in smallholder farmer knowledge ofcattle production, health and biosecurity in Southern Cambodia between 2008 and 2010. Transb. andEmer. Dis., 59(2), 117-127.
Pen, M., Savage, D., Stür, W., Lorn, S. and Seng, M. 2010. Cattle feeding and management practices ofsmall-holder farmers in Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia. Inter. J. of Env. and Rur. Dev., 1-1, 132138.
Pen, M., Savage, D., Stür, W. and Seng, M. 2009. Constraints to cattle production of small-scale farmers in
Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia. In: Conference on International Research on Food Security,
Natural Resource Management and Rural Development. University of Hamburg, October. 6-8.
Pen, M., Savage, D.B., Nolan, J.V. and Seng, M. 2012. Effect of Stylosanthes guianensis supplementation on
intake and nitrogen metabolism of Bos indicus cattle offered a basal diet of mixed rice straw and tropicalgrass. J. of Anim. Pro. (in press).
Sieng, S., Hawkins, C. Madin, B. and Kerr, J., 2012. Charactersitics of livestock traders and trading in
Cambodia. In: Animal Biosecurity in the Mekong: Future Directions for Research and Development.
L.B. Adams, G.D. Gray and G. Murray (eds). ACIAR Proceedings No. 137, 45-58. Australian Center forInternational Agricultural Research: Canberra.

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Research article
erd

Assessment on Local Awareness of Organic Farming
Practices in Kampong Cham of Cambodia
LALITA SIRIWATTANANON*
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Pathum Thani, Thailand
Email: L_siriwattananon@hotmail.com

KUMIKO KAWABE
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo,Japan
Japan Research Center, Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo,
Japan

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 26 Decomber 2012

Accepted 26 July 2013(*Corresponding author)

Abstract In rural areas of Cambodia, more than 70% of the total population is in the
agricultural and related sectors, which are the important sectors of the Cambodian national
economy. Rapid development of agricultural technologies depending on agriculturalchemicals such as synthetic fertilizers, herbicide or pesticide has significantly increased
agricultural production since 1990 (MAFF, 2009). However, overuse of agriculturalchemicals is damaging the long-term soil fertility and productivity of farmlands. Also,
agricultural chemicals released from farmlands to downstream cause the degradation ofwater environment. So, attention has been paid to promote sustainable agriculture throughorganic farming practices. Taking into account the conventional farming practices of riceand vegetable cultivations that have been done by local farmers, various workshops andtrainings were conducted to promote organic farming practices. This paper dealt with thediscussion on sustainability of organic farming practices introduced on the basis of local
awareness. In addition, various workshops and trainings on organic farming practices wereassessed in this study.
Keywords organic farming practices, crop production, local awareness, Kampong Cham

INTRODUCTION
In developing countries like Asia, agriculture plays an important role for economic growth as wellas poverty reduction in rural areas. Rapid development of agricultural technologies has
significantly increased agricultural production in Asia. Cambodia’s economy is also based on
agriculture. More than 70% of the total population of 13.8 million is in agriculture and related subsectors such as livestock raising, fisheries, aquaculture for their livelihoods. Although Cambodian
farmers produce wide variety of crops, the major crop is paddy rice. However, agricultural sector
remains unpredictable because it depends largely on natural topography and weather conditions.
Currently in Cambodia, farming system tends to change to mono-cropping system with increasing
cash crop demands, and the majority of farmers in Cambodia apply agricultural chemicals, such as
chemical fertilizer, herbicide or pesticide to maintain high levels of crop yields.
Agricultural chemicals being released from farmlands cause not only polluting water
environment but also worsening human health. The application of herbicides or pesticides without
understanding of the safe usage results severe problems as the contamination of toxics inagricultural products that would induce human diseases. Also, the environmental integrity becomes
necessary for human prosperity and sustainable development because of rapid and prevalentⒸ ISERD

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environmental degradation, as agricultural practices by human beings are directly connected to thelong-term environmental and sustainable development.
Recently, organic farming practices are promoted to local farmers in Kampong Cham provinceof Cambodia, as it contributes to increase organic and nutrient contents with improving soil
physical and chemical properties, and to reduce the expenditure of agricultural chemicals for local
farmers. In addition, organic farming practices may harmonize more with natural environment
compared to conventional one depending on agricultural chemicals (Pinamonti, 1998, Brown et al.,2004 and ERECON, 2009). So, attention has been paid to suitable strategy to promote sustainableagriculture through organic farming practices. In this study, various workshops and trainings wereconducted to promote local perception on organic farming practices, such as composting, making
and applying bio-pesticide or liquid fertilizer. Based on various extension activities, this paper dealt
with the assessment on local awareness of organic farming practices through the observation on thechanges in farming practices.
METHODOLOGY
The target area of Roung Kor Village, Baray Commune in Prey Chhor District, Kampong Cham
Province was selected for the case study to conduct the assessment on local awareness of organic
farming practices, such as composting, making and applying bio-pesticide or liquid fertilizer. In theinitial stage of this study, a baseline survey using a questionnaire sheet was conducted in August2010 to get the basic information of local living as well as conventional farming practices in thevillage.
Then, various kinds of workshops and trainings were conducted to promote local awareness oforganic farming practices as shown in Table 1. In the target area of Roung Kor Village, Baray
Commune in Prey Chhor District, Kampong Cham Province, the core target farmers at 43 wereselected in the study. And then, the local awareness and the changes in farming practices were
evaluated.
Table 1 Important contents done for raising local awareness on organic farming practices
Month and year
April 2010|
March 2011
April 2011|
March 2012
April 2012|
March 2013

Important contents
Starting projectConducting a baseline survey
Holding workshop on compostingHolding training on compostingHolding workshop on compost application
Holding training on compost application
Holding workshop on making and applying bio-pesticide and liquid fertilizer
Holding training on making and applying bio-pesticide and liquid fertilizer
Holding workshop on applying net for protecting insects
Cultivating vegetables with organic farming practices
Cultivating rice with organic farming practices
Selling safe agricultural products
Assessing local awareness of organic farming practices

Number ofparticipants
43
43
41
43
41
43
42
43
43
43
41
43
43

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Conventional Farming Practices
Local living: According to the results of baseline surveys, Roung Kor village has 756 inhabitants(196 households). There are 104 ha of paddy fields and 6 ha of orchards/upland fields. Around 20%
of paddy fields are irrigated and others are depending on rainfalls. One household of farmer holds
farmland at around 0.5 ha averagely. Around 66% of all households earn for their living
exclusively from agriculture and all households cultivate rice and vegetables. The average rice
yield varies from 1.5 t/ha to 3.0 t/ha. Rice is planted mainly for self-consumption but remains wereⒸ ISERD

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sold to middle man. Additionally, vegetable are cultivated in a small scale farms around resident.
As a unit price of vegetables is high, many households generate cash income from vegetable
cultivation.
Rice cultivation: Various species of rice have been cultivated by local farmers, such as IR66, Chul
Sar, Sen Pidou, Riang Chey, Phnom Run, Car 6, Car 9, Ksay sticky rice, Somaly, Neang Nok,
Kong or variety 59. Due to the lack of water for irrigation, farmers are conducting rice cultivation
only once per year depending on rainfalls. To increase the rice productivity, chemical fertilizer iscommonly applied for rice cultivation, especially ‘Urea’ (N:P:K 46-0-0) or ‘Di-Ammonium
Phosphate’ (18-46-0).
Vegetable cultivation: In the target area, farmers are cultivating vegetables based on the market
demands, especially various types of cabbage such as Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. subsp.
ekinensis), Green kuang futsol (Brassica chinensis juslenius) and Swatow mustard (Brassica
juncea var. rugosa). Every two days, middle man comes to village for buying all vegetables thenbrings them to the market or restaurants. In the village, local farmers continue growing vegetable
all round year, approximately harvesting 4 times per year. Some vegetables take only 30 days but
some take longer more than 45 days. In dry season, some farmers cannot grow vegetables for a few
months because of too many insects as well as lack of water. Additionally, farmers are afraid ofapplying multi-cropping or crop rotation; because they worry that enough income would not be
achieved from selling various types but could get from small amounts of each vegetable. As sameas rice cultivation, farmers are applying a lot of chemical fertilizers and pesticides for vegetable
cultivation. Some farmers are applying more than 800 kg/ha of chemical fertilizer for cultivating
vegetables. The most popular formula of chemical fertilizer applied in vegetable farms are granularform at N:P:K 46-0-0, 18-46-0 or 15-15-15, in addition to liquid form of 16-16-8 or powder formof 30-5-5, etc. Actually, farmers not well known about the benefit or effect of each fertilizer onvegetable growth, but they apply according to what they have been told by the sellers or otherfarmers.

Fig. 1 Crop cultivations and agricultural chemical application in Roung Kor village
Chemical pesticide or fungicide application: Based on the advertisements by the pesticidecompany or seller, a few types of chemical pesticide or fungicide such as Visor, Reagant 1.8
EC/Vitaco, Carbendazim and Abamectin, etc. are widely applied especially for vegetable
cultivation by farmers. Farmers are expected it can help to decrease or stop insect or diseaseproblems. Normally, the effectiveness of pesticide works well at the first time, and then it decreases
because insect or disease improves their immunity. So, it is better to change a type of pesticide.
However, they just try to apply same pesticide with increasing the amount applied, as farmers do
not understand well. Most of pesticides or fungicides are imported from Thailand or Vietnam
through both regular and irregular ways. However, farmers have a less understanding about theeffect of those chemical on health or environment, even some sellers or farmers had been told or
joined the safety use training coordinated by the governments or NGOs before start selling or using
this kind of products. However, the safety use instruction is still not commonly understood byfarmers.
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Organic Farming Practices Promoted
Promoting organic farming practices: For decreasing the expenses of buying chemical fertilizer
and the effects on natural resource and human health, sustainable farming practice throughcomposting and liquid bio-fertilizer/pesticide making were proposed to farmers as alternative
farming practices. According to the previous surveys and requests from farmers in Roung Kor
village, 43 compost boxes (2 m x 4 m x 1 m) were constructed for composting as same as plastic
container were distributed for making bio-fertilizer and bio-pesticide. Then, the workshop on “howto make compost” was conducted for giving knowledge and training to farmers at Roung Kor
village. In addition to bio-fertilizer and bio-pesticide were introduced and trained to farmers byusing available materials in/around the village.

Fig. 2 Workshops on making compost, liquid bio-fertilizer and liquid bio-pesticide
For 2 years, organic fertilizer application through composting and liquid bio-fertilizer/
pesticide making had been promoted to farmers in Roung Kor village for supporting to increase theproductivity and decrease effects to health and environment. Totally 43 compost boxes had been
provided to 43 farmers, and all 43 farmers learned how to make compost and application methods
in farmlands.
During the 2nd year, farmers had produced compost averagely 4,363 kg per compost box.
Since then a few times composting had been done and applied to farmlands especially for rice andvegetable cultivation. Averagely, 150 kg of compost had been applied for 100 m2 of rice cultivationand 119 kg for 100 m2 of vegetable cultivation. Additionally with the application of compost,
farmers can decrease the amount of chemical fertilizer about 20-100 percent as shown in Table 2.
Through farmers’ observation, all of 43 farmers were satisfied with the effectiveness of compost(Table 3) and willing to continue composting. Also, farmers understanding on making bio-fertilizer
and bio-pesticide and safety use of chemical pesticide. The results were summarized in Tables 4
and 5.
Table 2 Decrease in chemical fertilizer through compost application
Decrease in
Percentage of farmers
chemical fertilizer
(%)
0-20%
20-40%
1040-60%
56
60-80%
32
80-100%2
Source: Results from the questionnaire survey (ERECON, 2011)Ⓒ ISERD

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Table 3 Changes in crop growing after applying compost
Crop yield (%)
Crop quality (%)
Soil quality (%)
Increase
98
93
100
Same
2
7
Decrease
Source: Results from the questionnaire survey (ERECON, 2011)

Table 4 Percentage of amount of chemical fertilizer or pesticide to be decreased
Content

0-20%
Decreasing chemical fertilizer with applying bio-fertilizer
2%
Decreasing chemical pesticide with applying bio-pesticide0%
Source: Results from the questionnaire survey (ERECON, 2011)

Decreasing percentage up to
20-40%
40-60% 60-80%
80-100%
2%
21%
51%
24%
0%
35%
53%
12%

Table 5 Summary of questionnaire results of workshop on bio-fertilizer, bio-pesticide andsafety use of chemical pesticide
Percentage of farmers
Yes
No
Not sure
86%
14%
100%
0%
95%
5%
100%
0%
-

Content
Understand how to make bio-fertilizer
Interested in making bio-fertilizer
Bio-fertilizer is benefit to farmland
Want to continue making bio-fertilizer
Understand how to make bio-pesticide
Interested in making bio- pesticide
Bio-pesticide is benefit to farmland
Want to continue making bio- pesticide

91%
98%
86%
98%

9%
2%
2%
2%

12%
-

Knowing the safety use of pesticide before attend this workshop
Doing the safety use of pesticide before attend this workshop
Understanding the safety use of pesticide through this workshop
Willing to adapt the safety use of pesticide
Source: Results from the questionnaire survey (ERECON, 2011)

60%
65%
98%
98%

40%
35%
2%
2%

-

Evaluating participatory level: Additionally, the results of questionnaire survey conducted after
the 1st workshop showed that 93% of farmers were applying chemical fertilizer and only 7% wereapplying cow manure instead of chemical fertilizer. However, after 2 years with 4 times ofworkshops and training, farmers’ adaptability for organic fertilizer increased. The level ofparticipation was evaluated according to the answers in questionnaire survey and attitudes of
farmers in workshops. There are various levels or degrees of farmers’ participation as shown in
Table 6. The evaluation of level or degree of farmers’ participation is important for increasing
farmers’ adaptability for organic fertilizer application.
At the 1st workshop, although many farmers attended, it was evaluated as low participation at
Level 2 or 3, because most of them participated only for responding to the requests for attending.
However, farmers became active after understanding the benefits of composting and bio-fertilizer/pesticide making at the 3rd workshops. At the 4th workshop, Roung Kor safety agriculture group
was established and farmers’ participation was very high and they were willing to adapt organic
fertilizer to their farmlands. So the level or degree of farmers’ participation was evaluated asinteractive participation at Level 6.
The awareness of disadvantages to human and environment of agricultural chemicals pushed
farmers to find natural materials for making compost, liquid bio-fertilizer and liquid bio-pesticide
in order to increasing the nutrients to crop and control pest or plant diseases in farmland. Recently,
farmers pay attention to produce and develop liquid bio-fertilizer or liquid bio-pesticide using somekinds of trees, herbs or spices which are available to that area. As these liquid bio-fertilizer andliquid bio-pesticide are new knowledge for farmers in Roung Kor village. However, various
workshops and trainings could lead them to see and accumulate experiences of those practices. As
more than 98% of farmers were willing to continue making bio-fertilizer and bio- pesticide as well
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as to adapt the safety use of pesticide, so establishing the farmers’ group had advantage to makecontinue and enhance of organic farming practices.
Table 6 Level of participation
Level
1

Type
Passive participation

Characteristics of each type
People participate by being told what is going to happen or has already happened.
It is a unilateral announcement by an administration or project management
without any listening to people's responses. The information being shared belongs
only to external professionals.
2
Participation in
People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researches using
information giving
questionnaire surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to
influence proceedings, as the findings of the research are neither shared nor
checked for accuracy.
3
Participation byPeople participate by being consulted, and external agents listen to views. These
consultation
external agents define both problems and solutions and may modify these in thelight of people's responses. Such a consultative process does not concede any sharein decision making, and professionals are under no obligation to take on board
people's views.
4
Participation forPeople participate by providing resources, for example labour, in return for food,material incentives
cash, or other material incentives. Much on-farm research falls in this category, as
faermers provide the fields but are not involved in the experimentation or theprocess of learning. It is very common to see this called participation, yet people
have no stake in prolonging activities when the incentives end.
5
Functional
People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives related toparticipation
the project, which can involve the development or promotion of externally initiatedsocial organization. Such involvement does not tend to be at early stages of project
cycles or planning, but rather after major decisions have been made. These
instructions tend to be dependent on external initiators and facilitators, but may
become self-dependent.
6Interactive
People participate in joint analysis, which leads to action plans and the formation
participationof new local institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve
interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple perspectives and make use of
systemic and structured learning processes. These groups take control over local
decisions, and so people have a stake in maintaining structures or practices.
7
Self-mobilization
People participate by taking initiative independent of external institution to changesystems. They develop contacts with external institutions for resources andtechnical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used. Suchself-initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing
inequitable distribution of wealth and power.
Source: Pretty (1994), adapted from Adnan et al. (1992)

CONCLUSION
According to the results through the observation and questionnaire surveys, many of farmers
wanted to reduce chemicals application and the expenses for agricultural chemicals, if there wereother things being available to replace. In order to improve the farming systems and economical
conditions, it is important to provide the appropriate knowledge and to improve the technologies offarming practices for farmers. It is no doubt that this project has been contributed well for
improving the farming systems and economical conditions at Roung Kor village. Sustainableagriculture enhances the quality of life for farmers and society, and in the long term enhances
environmental quality and natural resources which agriculture depends. The capacity building of
farmers and their institutions is essential for achieving a balance among economic, social andenvironmental development goals. Farmer-centered development and farmers’ awareness wascreated to facilitate farmers to develop by them. The participation of farmers means that farmers
assume a major role in decision-making and managing their own affairs. Efforts should be made tobuild confidence in farmers so that they make decisions on how to solve the facing problems. Other
players such as governments and NGOs have a supportive role, providing some guidance, advices,
comments, and trainings for building farmers’ confidence. Grouping of farmers is a way forfacilitating among farmers through exchanging knowledge and experiences related to agriculturalⒸ ISERD

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practices in sustainable way.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project titled Empowerment and Revitalization Project for Farmer’s Organization in Africa
and Asia has been supported by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan. It isalso grateful that the Institute of Environment Rehabilitaion and Conservation (ERECON) and theJapan Association for International Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry (JAICAF) has been
advanced the implementation.
REFERENCES
Adnan, S., Barrett, A., Nurul Alam, S.M. and Brustinow, A. 1992. People's Participation: NGOs and theflood action plan. Research and Advisory Services, Dhaka.
Brown, M.W. and Tworkoski, T. 2004. Pest management benefits of compost mulch in apple orchards.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 103, 465-472.
ERECON. 2009. ERECON Annual Report 2008-2009. Institute of Environment Rehabilitation andConservation, Japan.
ERECON. 2011. ERECON Newsletters, 2010-1, 2010-2, 2011-1, 2011-2, Institute of Environment
Rehabilitaion and Conservation, Japan.
JAICAF. 2012. Annual Report of Second Year, Project for improvement of farm management and rural
livelihood in Cambodia. JAICAF, Japan.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. 2009. Annual report of agriculture in 2008 and direction of
2009-2010. Cambodia, (in Khmer).
Pinamonti, F. 1998. Compost mulch effects on soil fertility, nutritional status and performance of grapevine.
Nutrient Cycling in Agro-ecosystem, 52, 239-248.
Pretty, J.N. 1994. Alternative systems of inquiry for sustainable agriculture. IDS Bulletin, 25(2), 37-48,
University of Sussex.

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Research article
erdDrought Impact on Rice Production and Farmers’
Adaptation Strategies in Northeast Thailand
ANAN POLTHANEE*
Program on System Approaches in Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture,
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
E-mail: panan@kku.ac.th

ARUNEE PROMKHUMBUT
Program on System Approaches in Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture,
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

JIRAPORN BAMRUNGRAI
Department of Plant Science and Agricultural Resources, Faculty of Agriculture,
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 31 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract Drought is an important constraint to rice production in Thailand especially thenortheastern part, as a result of the erratic distribution of rainfall. The objectives of thisresearch were to study rainfall characteristics in northeast Thailand, assess the impact ofdrought on rice production in 2012 and assess adaptation to strategies of farmers relative
to drought. Rainfall data over the 10 year period (2001-2011) and the drought year (2012)of northeast Thailand, as well as selected site study in Nakhonratsima and Kalasinprovinces were also investigated. Mean annual rainfall recorded in 2012 was only 966 mm
in Nakhonratsima which declined by 239 mm, compared to the mean annual rainfall 1204
mm in the time period during 2001-2011. Similarly, mean annual rainfall recorded in 2012
was 1133 mm in Kalasin which declined 375 mm, compared to mean annual rainfall 1508
mm in the time period between 2001-2011. The crop cutting study were done in the
farmer's fields to obtain rice yield and the yield components found that the actual yield
loss due to drought was 59-68% in Nakhonratsima and 55-65% in Kalasin, respectively
compared with the attainable yield. Farmer's coping adaptation strategies included crop
diversification (short-term adaptation options), change of land use pattern (long-term
adaptation options) and built on farm pond in the paddy fields.
Keywords drought, rainfall, rice, cassava, adaptation

INTRODUCTION
Drought is the most complex of all natural hazards, and more people are affected by it then any
other hazard (Hagman, 1984). Many definitions of drought exist in the literature; however, theconcept of water deficit is quite a common factor among all definitions. It is defined based on the
precipitation deficit that results in water shortage (Wilhite and Glantz, 1985). Drought impacts areusually first apparent in agriculture through decrease in soil moisture and high evapotranspiration.
It's severity mainly depends on the level of moisture deficiency and the duration to a lesser extent.
In Asia drought has affected agriculture so adversely in different parts of the continent, productionof rice, maize and wheat has declined in many parts of Asia due to increasing water stress (Bates etal., 2008). Drought has a significant effect on the livelihood of rainfed lowland rice farmers(Pandey et al., 2005). However, farmers employ various coping strategies of farming households
against drought, including use of irrigation, early maturity and drought resistant crop varieties, soil
and water conservation practices, adjustment in agricultural input and crop diversification(Bradshaw et al., 2004; Charles and Rashid, 2007; Ashraf and Roatray, 2013).

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Drought is an important constraint to agricultural production in Thailand, especially thenortheastern part which has been frequently subjected to drought as a result of the erratic
distribution of rainfall dry spells in the rainy season and low water holding capacity of soils.
Thirteen years out of thirty four years during the period 1970-2004, namely 1972, 1973, 1974,
1977, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1987, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998 and 2004 were drought years ofnortheastern, Thailand (Prapertchop et al., 2007).
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this research were to study rainfall data in the northeastern part of Thailand andassess the impact of drought on rice yield in the drought year (2012) at selected study areas. In
addition, farmer's coping with adaptation strategies in sustaining their livelihood against drought innortheastern region are also assessed.

METHODOLOGY
Selection of the Study Area
Northeastern Thailand is located between 14 o to 18 oN latitude and 100 o to 106 oE longitude. The
average elevation is between 200-230 meters above mean sea level. Initially based on newspaper
reports, several provinces have been declared drought disaster in northeast Thailand, Thairath,2/11/2012. According to Mongkolsawat et al. (2001) classified drought in northeastern into threezones, namely low risk area, medium risk zone area and high risk area. Nakhonratsima and Kalasinprovinces are situated in high risk area and low risk area respectively were a site selected as thestudy areas where is located in the south-west and the central of the northeastern (Fig. 1). Again,
newspaper reports have advised that drought severely hit several districts of Nakhonratsima andKalasin provinces (Thairath, 8,9/11/55). Then, the authors visited a few places of districts within
the two provinces and consulted with the District Agricultural Extension Officer, and deciding toselect Pratai and Muang districts located in Nakhonratsima and Kalasin, respectively, as the study
areas. An extensive field visit was made to observe the extent and magnitude of drought.
Afterwards, four villages were primarily selected in Pratai and Muang districts for the crop cutting
study.
Crop Cutting Study
Four farmers who had the paddy fields located in the village were randomly selected for crop
cutting study to obtained actual rice yield (sampled areas 3x2 meter) and yield components. In
general, rice mostly subjected to drought at the panicle development growth stage. The attainable
rice yield was estimated by employing yield components data (Yoshida, 1997) base on theassumption that drought did not occurred after the panicle development growth stage as calculated
in Eq. (1) to compared with actual yield.
Yield (tons/ha) = Spikelet number/m2 x grain weight x filled grain x 10-5……… (1)Farmer's Adaptation Strategy Study
Field visit were done for direct observing the farmer's adaptation strategies hit by drought in such
villages. Farming practices coping strategies against drought by the farmers were recorded. Rice
production areas hit by drought which replaced by other crops were noticed. The crop cuttingsstudied were sampled to determine growth and yield, as well as economic return.
RainfallⒸ ISERD

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Data of rainfall for the time period from 2001 to 2011 of overall northeastern (27 meteorologicalstations) and 2012 rainfall data available from meteorological stations where located near theselected study area in Nakhonratsima and Kalasin provinces were utilized for the study. The rainfall
data was analyzed to understand rainfall variability.
RESULTS
Observed Rainfall Change
In northeastern Thailand, mean annual rainfall intensity in 2012 was recorded 1,272 mm which islower by 325 mm than for the time period 2001-2011 which showed 1596 mm (data not shown). In
Nakhonratsima and Kalasin provinces a site selected in northeast showed a decreasing mean
rainfall intensity in 2012 that recorded 239 mm and 375 mm respectively, in comparison with thetime period 2001-2011. Among six months in the rainy season, the maximum decreased of meanannual rainfall intensity (98 mm) was observed in September of Nakhonratsima province. The
maximum decrease of mean rainfall intensity (142 mm) was observed in July of Kalasin province(data not shown).
Drought Impact on Rice Production
Table 1 Yield components of rice at different villages, Pratai district, Nakhonratsima
province
Village
Donkhang
Tungsawang
Nongwaeng
Nongwaengmai
Mean

Panicle*(no./m2)
114.6
98.6
101.4
122.6
109.3

Filled grain **(no./panicle)
29.4
38.4
21.3
27.2
29.1

Unfilled grain(no./panicle)
(%)
53.8
64.7
55.1
58.9
38.9
64.6
57.8
68.1
51.4
64.1

1000 grains
weight (g)
22.3
24.1
21.6
22.2
22.6

*Average from four farmers sampled, **average from 40 panicles (10 panicles/1 farmer sampled)

Table 2 Actual yield and attainable yield of rice at different villages, Pratai district,
Nakhonratsima province
Village
Donkhang
Tungsawang
Nongwaeng
Nongwaengmai
Mean

Actual yield*(kg/ha)
740.6
908.8
453.8
733.8
709.3

Attainable yield**(kg/ha)2,097.5
2,212.5
1,281.9
2,292.5
1,971.1

Difference(kg/ha)1,356.9
1,303.7
828.1
1,558.7
1,261.7

Reduction
(%)
64.7
58.9
64.6
67.9
64.0

*Average from four farmers sampled, ** estimation base on yield components

Crop cutting was sampled in the farmer’s fields at crop maturity growth stage. For four villages
with selected site in Nakhonratsima province, the mean panicle number per square meter, filled
grain number per panicle and unfilled grain number per panicle were obtained 109, 29 and 51,
respectively. The mean 1,000 grains weight was received 23 g (Table 1). The unfilled grain
percentage ranged from 59% to 68%, depending on locations (Table 1).
In case of grain yield, mean actual yield was obtained 709 kg/ha, while the mean attainable
yield estimated about 1,971 kg/ha (Table 2). The yield different between actual yield and attainable
yield showed 1,262 kg/ha with 64% reduction (Table 2). Yield reduction ranged from 59% to 68%,
depending on locations (Table 2).
For the four village selected sites in Kalasin province, mean panicle number per square meter,Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

filled grain number per panicle and unfilled grain number per panicle were obtained 112, 37 and 55,
respectively. While, mean 1,000 grain weight was received 21 gm (Table 3). The unfilled grain
percentage ranged from 48% to 69%, depending on locations (Table 3).
In case of grain yield, mean actual yield was obtained 848 kg/ha, while mean attainable yield
estimated about 1,947 kg/ha (Table 4). The yield gab between actual yield and attainable yield
showed 1,098 kg/ha with 59% reduction (Table 4). Yield reduction ranged from 55% to 65%,
depending on locations (Table 4).
Table 3 Yield components of rice at different villages, Muang district, Kalasin province
Village
KhumexNongkung
Joth
Najan
Mean

Panicle*(no./m2)
107.4
112.6
118.4
108.3
111.7

Filled grain **(no./panicle)
27.3
36.2
42.1
43.3
37.2

Unfilled grain(no.panicle)
(%)
48.1
56.9
78.3
68.5
39.4
48.4
55.7
56.3
55.4
57.5

1000 grains
weight (g)
21.2
18.7
21.1
21.3
20.6

*Average from four farmers sampled, **average from 40 panicles (10 panicles/1 farmers sampled)

Table 4 Actual yield and attainable yield of rice at different villages, Muang district, Kalasinprovince
Village
KhumexNongkung
Joth
Najan
Mean

Actual yield*(kg/ha)613.8
753.8
1,040.6
985.0
848.3

Attainable yield**(kg/ha)1,488.1
2,155.0
1,891.9
2,251.3
1,946.6

Difference(kg/ha)874.3
1,401.2
851.3
1,266.3
1,261.7

Reduction
(%)
58.7
65.1
55.0
56.2
58.8

*Average from four farmers’ sampled, ** estimation base on yield components

Farmers’ Coping Adaptive Strategies towards Drought
Regarding to field visit in the areas where rice severely hit by drought in a villages selected site.
Some farmers decided to plough the paddy fields in October and planted cassava replacing rice
before harvest, while some farmers planted cassava after rice harvest in Kalasin province. On theother hand, some farmers decided to grow mungbean in the paddy fields after rice harvest in
Nakhonratsima province. The crop cutting study was sampled for cassava in Khummex village
selected site which occupied by lowland rice fields within a toposequence landform. Because oflarge variation in water availability among the upper toposequence position, middle position andlower position, the rainfed lowland rice can be separated into three paddy fields types, namely
upper paddy, medium paddy and lower paddy. In the present study, farmers grew cassava in upper
paddy and medium paddy. The author observed that farmer does not cultivated cassava in lower
paddy. They mentioned that if cassava is grown in the lower paddy they may experiencewaterlogging early in pre-rainy season, due to lower paddy located at the bottom toposequence
position. Crop cutting study was done for two farmers sampled (farmer A and B) who grew cassava
in upper paddy and medium paddy in Khummex village. In the recent study, soil in cassava
sampled plots are sandy in texture with low total N, available P, exchangeable K and organic matter
both in upper paddy and medium paddy (Table 5). However, overall views of soil in medium paddy
fields are more fertile than upper paddy (Table 5). Farmer A planted cassava in November after rice
harvest while farmer B planted cassava in October before rice harvest. Cassava was harvested inJune before normal rice planting. Cassava was grown in post-rainy season. Therefore, cassava must
start their growth on residual soil moisture remaining in the soil and supplement with rainfall insummer season and pre-rainy season. The soil moisture contents were measured at 0-15, 15-30, 3045 and 45-60 cm soil depth entire the growing season (Figure 1, 2 and 3). The results showed thatsoil moisture content (SMC) at 0-15, 15-30 cm soil depth close to the permanent wilting point(PWP) value during November to February. However, the SMC at 30-45 and 45-60 cm soil depthⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

were mostly higher than PWP during the growing season, except their close to PWP in March andApril. In general, SMC in Farmer B’s sampled plots was observed to be higher than Farmer A’s
sampled plots. This was due to Farmer A’s sampled plots being situated at higher toposequence
positions than Farmer B’s sampled plots, even though their classifications were the same as
medium paddy type.
Table 5 Soil physical and chemical properties at 1 month after planting cassava in paddy
fields, Khummex village, Muang district, Kalasin province
Farmer/Paddy
field type
Farmer A
Upper paddy
Medium paddy
Farmer B
Medium paddy

Total N1(%)

Avail.P2(ppm)

Exch.K3
(ppm)

OM.4
(%)

Field capacity5(%)

Permanent6
wilting point (%)

0.004
0.006

2.80
3.97

28.98
33.73

0.258
0.354

5.67
6.25

1.24
1.26

0.007

7.66

99.27

0.284

6.67

1.27

1Kjeldahl method; 2 BrayII and molybdenum blue method; 31N NH OAC pH7; 4Walkey and Black method; 5,6Pressure
4

plate and pressure membrane apparatus

Table 6 Growth, yield and starch content of cassava at harvest, and net income of cassava
grown in the paddy field at Khummex village, Muang district, Kalasin province
Farmer/Paddy
field type
Farmer A
Upper paddy
Medium paddy
Farmer B
Medium paddy
Mean

Plant height Total biomass Root number(cm)(g/plant)(no./plant)

Root yield*(kg/ha)Starch(%)

Net income**(USD.)

75.9
91.8

417.5
583.9

5.5
6.8

10.9
18.4

21.8
20.3

89 (0.16 ha)
530 (0.48 ha)

120.2
95.9

775.7
592.4

8.9
7.1

23.8
17.7

23.9
22.0

720 (0.48 ha)*Average from four plots randomly selected area, **net income over fertilizer cost
Planting

Harvesting

Cassava8
7

Soilcontent(%)(%)
moisture cintent
Soil moisture

Field capacity (%)
65
0-15 cm4

15-30 cm
30-45 cm345-60 cm

2
1

Permanent Wilting Point (%)

0
8 Dec.

9 Jan.

6 Feb.

15 Mar.

5 Apr.

15-May9-JunFig. 1 Soil moisture content at 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-60 cm soil depth in upper paddy
fields toposequence position (Farmer A)Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Planting

Harvesting

Cassava12

Soilcontent(%)(%)
moisture content
Soilmoisture

10

8

Field capacity (%)
0-15 cm6

15-30 cm
30-45 cm

45-60 cm
4

2

Permanent Wilting Point (%)
0
8 Dec.

9 Jan.

6 Feb.

15 Mar.

5 Apr.

15-May9-JunFig. 2 Soil moisture content at 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-60 cm soil depth in medium paddy
fields toposequence position (Famer A)
Planting

Harvesting

Cassava

Soil moisture content (%)

S o iSoill mo i s t u rcontent
e c im(%)
t e n t (% )moisture

12

10

8

Field capacity (%)
0-15 cm6

15-30 cm
30-45 cm
45-60 cm

4

2

Permanent Wilting Point (%)
0
8 Dec.

9 Jan.

6 Feb.

15 Mar.

5 Apr.

15-May9-JunFig. 3 Soil moisture content (%) at 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-60 cm soil depth in medium
paddy fields toposequence position (Farmer B)
For cassava growth and yield, generally, the plant height, total biomass, root number and rootyield obtained were higher in medium paddy than that of upper paddy (Table 6). This way is due tohigher SMC in medium paddy. Mean root yield and starch content were 18 kg/ha and 22%,
respectively. Farmer A received net income (gross income over fertilizer cost) 619 USD, while
Farmer A earned net income 720 USD (Table 6).
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Another coping adaptation strategy in Khummex village, is that farmers change land
allocation by shifting rice to sugarcane especially in upper paddy fields. Some farmers built onfarm pond in the upper paddy to collect water during rainy season.
In case of mungbean, the crop cutting study was done of one farmer sampled in the Naklang
village selected site. The mungbean grain yield obtained was 159 kg/(0.48 ha) and provided a net
income about 106 USD.
DISCUSSION
The majority of rainfed lowland areas are found in the northeast (4.8 million ha) and north (1.4
million ha) of Thailand. In the northeast, seasonal rainfall is bimodal, usually beginning in May andending around mid October, but is highly variable. Drought may develop at anytime during thegrowing season. According to Gypmantasiri et al. (2003), 19% of northeast Thai farmers
experienced drought while growing rice at planting stage, and 40% of them at tillering rice stage,
although other 23% reported drought could affect rice growth at any growing stage.
In recent study, most rice planted areas beginning experienced to drought at panicle
development stage and subsequently until harvesting, especially in the upper paddy (top position of
the toposequence). Yield loss due to drought at selected site study ranged 55-68%, depending on
locations. The rice yield component mainly affected by drought is the number of unfilled grains per
panicle. Jongdee (2003) reported that yield loss due to drought as high as 45% in the upper paddy
fields. Prapertchob et al. (2005) stated that overall loss in rice production during drought years is
56% in northeast Thailand.
In case of farmer’s coping adaptation strategies, some farmers decided to grow cassava
replacing rice before maturity when they observed that rice will produced low yield. However,some farmers waited until rice reach to maturity growth stage. Then, cassava will be planted soonafter rice harvest in post-rainy season. Cassava started their growth using residual soil moistureremaining in the soil and with supplement summer rainfall and pre-rainy of consequence year
during the growing season. In a recent study, cassava experienced to drought during the third weekof March to the third week of May. Since the cassava crop receive rainfall once the last week ofJanuary (16 mm) and the first week of March (27 mm), and prolong drought until the third week ofMay. Then, cassava crop received accumulate rainfall about 80 mm until harvest. Cassava isregarded as a relatively drought resistant crop (Cock, 1985). During drought, it reduces water use
by following an avoidance strategy of stomatal closure (Ike, 1982) and leaf area reduction (Connor
and Cock, 1981).
Regarding to mungbean, the farmers planted immediately after rice harvest. Crops growth uses
residual soil moisture remaining in the soil until maturity. There is no rainfall during the growing
season. Mungbean is a short growth duration crop and harvested for 65 days.
The farmers practiced growing cassava and mungbean in the paddy fields indicating that theyshow a large emphasis on short-term adaptation options (autonomous adaptation) against drought.
Farmer A and B who grow cassava earn net income about 619 and 720 USD, respectively. While
the farmers who grown mungbean received net income about 106 USD, the farm incomes received
by the farmers, although, seem relatively low. But, it’s so important for livelihood of thesmallholder farmers in drought year. Some farmers changes in land allocation (long-term
adaptation or planned adaptation) by replacing of rice with sugarcane, especially in upper paddy
fields. This means substitution of crop with high inter-annual yield variability by crop with morestable yields. Other current adaptation, some farmers devoted upper paddy fields to build on farm
pond for collecting water during the rainy season.
CONCLUSION
Drought is an important constraint to crop production in northeast Thailand. In the drought year
2012, mean annual rainfall declined 239 mm and 375 mm in comparison with mean annual rainfall
between the time periods 2001-2011 in selected site study of Nakhonratsima and Kalasin provinces,Ⓒ ISERD

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respectively. Rice is the main crop affected by drought. The yield lose due to drought was about 5968% and 55-65% in Nakhonratsima and Kalasin provinces, respectively. Farmers coping adaptation
strategies include both short-term and long-term adaptation options against drought.
REFERRENCES
Ashraf, M. and Routray, J K. 2013. Perception and understanding of drought and coping strategies of farming
households in north-west Balochistan. International J. of Disaster Risk Reduction, (in press).
Bates, B.C., Kunzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S. and Palutikof, J.P.E. 2008. Climate change and water. Technical Paper.
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Secretariat, Geneva.
Bradshaw, B., Dolan, H. and Smith, B. 2004. Farm-level adaptation to climatic variability and change: Crop
diversification in the Canadian prairies. Climate Change 67, 119-141.
Charles, N. and Rashid, H. 2007. Micro-level analysis of farmers’ adaptation to climate change in southern
Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 00714, Washington D.C., USA.
Cocks, J.H. 1985. Cassava. New potential for a neglected crop. Westview Press, Bouder and London.
Connor, D.J. and Cock, J.H. 1981. Response of cassava to water shortage. II. Canopy dynamics. Field Crops
Res., 4, 285-296.
Gypmantasiri, P., Lim irankul, B. and Muangsuk, C. 2005. Bio-physical and socio-economic characterizationof rainfed lowland rice production systems of the north and northeast of Thailand. (Available fromhttp://www/mecweb.agri.cmu.ac.th/agsnst/publication).
Hagman, G. 1984. Prevention better than cure: Report on human and natural disasters in the third world.
Stockholm, Swedish Red Cross.
Ike, I.F. 1982. Effects of water deficits on transpiration, photosynthesis and leaf conductance in cassava.
Physiol. Plant., 55, 411-414.
Jongdee, B. 2003. Designing a national breeding program for developing drought tolerant rainfall lowland
varieties: The Thailand experience. In: Breeding rice for drought-prone environments. Ficher, K.S.,
Lafitte, R., Fukai, S., Atlin, G., Hardy, B. (Eds). International Rice Research Institute, Philippines, 64-69.
Mongkolsawat, C., Thirangoon, P.,Suwanwerakantorn, R.,Karledee, N., Paiboonsak, S. 2001. An evaluationof drought risk area in northeast Thailand using remotely sensed data and GIS. Asian J. Geoinformatics.
1(4), 33-43.
Pandey, S., Behura, D.D., Villano, R., Naik, D. 2005. Economic costs of drought and farmers’ coping
mechanisms: A study of rainfed rice systems in Eastern India. IRRI Discussion Paper Series 39,
International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, 35.
Prapertchop, P., Pandey, S. and Bhandari, H. 2005. Economic cost of drought and farmers’ coping
mechanism: A case of northeast Thailand. A Research Report Submitted to the Rockefeller Foundation.
Khon Kaen, Thailand.
Prapertchop, P., Bhandari, H. and Pandey, S. 2007. Economic cost of drought and rice farmers’ coping
mechanism in northeast Thailand. In: Economic cost of drought and rice farmers’ coping mechanisms: A
cross country comparative analysis. Pandey, S., Bhandari, H., Hardy, B. (eds). International Rice
Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, 116-148.
Wilhite, D.A. and Glantz, M.H. 1985. Understanding the drought phenomenon: The role of definitions.
Water International 10(3), 111-120.
Yoshida, S. 1977. Rice. In: Ecophysiology of Tropical Crops. Alvim, P.T., Kozlowski, T.T. (eds). Academic
Press, New York, San Francisco, Lonautherdon.

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Research article
erdComparison of Inoculated Eri Cocoon and Eco-block for
Pollutant Removal
CARLOS ONAN MENDOZA TOVAR
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: onan14@yahoo.com

KUMIKO KAWABE
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

HIROMU OKAZAWA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 7 January 2014

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract The most popular medium for microorganism immobilization is eco-block. The
easiest microorganism to obtain in Japan is Bacillus natto and used for producing food forhuman consumption. While, eri Cocoon has proven to be an efficient immobilization
medium for bacteria. Lactobacillus spp. is a beneficial bacteria easily obtained in every
country in the world. The main objective was to compare the performance of inoculated eri
cocoon and inoculated eco-block for glucose and NO3-N consumption. As a secondary
objective we compared, through the inoculation rates, the capacity of eri cocoon and ecoblock to allocate Lactobacillus and Bacillus natto separately. The methodology of thisstudy was divided into two stages. First, a comparison of eco-block and eri cocoon’s
ability to allocate microorganisms within its structures; and second, the comparison of
consumption between inoculated eri cocoon and inoculated eco-block. The comparison of
the amount of Lactobacillus and Bacillus natto to be allocated by the eco-block and the ericocoon, we found that there are no significant differences between the amounts of both
Lactobacillus and Bacillus nattowhich can allocate, however, a higher inoculation rate wasfound in eri cocoon medium. Addition to the consumption of glucose for both
microorganisms showed a significant difference between Lactobacillus and Bacillus
natto.Lactobacillushad a higher consumption rate. When comparing within both different
bacteria, the result foundthat the eri cocoon performed better against eco-block. In
comparison the use of inoculated eri cocoon showed better results in both consumption of
glucose and NO3-N of both Bacillus natto and Lactobacillus. However, when comparing
Bacillus natto and Lactobacillus, the last one showed better consumptions when combinedwith eri cocoon and Bacillus natto showing better results when combined with eco-block.
In conclusion, pending an economical study, eri cocoon inoculated with Lactobacillus spp.
presents the best option as a water pollutant removal tool.
Keywords eco-block, eri cocoon, Lactobacillus spp, Bacillus natto, water pollutant
removal, NO3-N consumption.

INTRODUCTION
The necessity for an effective and economic water pollutant removal tool, recently, has become aninterest in the developing world. Previous studies has given information about the use of effective
microorganisms for this effect (Ongley, 2000; de Vries et. al., 2008; Pebbles, 2003). TheseⒸ ISERD

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effective microorganisms require an immobilization medium to make them easier to handle andapply.
A known microorganism immobilization medium for water filtering is the eco-block. The ecoblock is any inert material where effective microorganisms can be immobilized and used for water
quality improvement. Park and Tia (2004), conducted an experiment where porous concrete andindustrial by-products was used for water purification. Although it was not inoculated theexperimenter calculated the amount of organisms attached to the block by the consumption ofdissolved oxygen. Matsunaga et.al. (2006), presented data where concrete eco-block inoculatedwith Bacillus natto performed better than regular block for water quality improvement. The use ofimmobilized microorganisms in blocks is usually for bio-filtration systems (Cohen, 2001).
Although, most of the substrates used to immobilize effective microorganisms are nonbiological porous materials. The eri cocoon has the structures to immobilize Lactobacillus spp.
within its fibers (Mendoza Tovar et. al., 2013); it was also determined the best treatment for the ericocoon to be used. A study with Lactobacillus acidophilus has proven capable of removing up to
60% of Arsenic (III) from water solution within 3 hours (Singh & Sarma, 2010). In anotherexperiment, Lactobacillus spp. isolated from shrimp farm water samples were capable ofsimultaneous removal of pathogenic bacteria and nitrogen (Ma, et.al., 2009)OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this study was to compare the performance of eri cocoon and eco-block as
porous mediums in glucose and NO3-N consumptions.
As a secondary objective, was to compare eri cocoon and eco-block based on the amount ofbacteria that can be allocated through the inoculation rates from both Lactobacillus and Bacillus
natto.
METHODOLOGY
The methodology of this study was divided into two stages; the first was the comparison between
two mediums, eri cocoon and eco-block, to allocate microorganism, and second was thecomparison of consumption of glucose and NO3-N between inoculated eri cocoonand eco-block(Fig. 1).

eri cocoon

eco-blockFig. 1 Immobilization mediums
Both eco-block and eri cocoon were inoculated with Lactobacillus spp. and Bacillus natto andcultivated for 3 days before making a dilution method to count the colony forming units of eachone. Both microorganisms had the same management for both immobilization mediums.
The inoculation solution was added directly in order to cover half of the sample and allowing
the other half to absorb by capillarity. The inoculated samples were incubated for 72 hours at 37 oCⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1(Fig. 2). Five count repetitions were made to get an average colony forming units (cfu) per
milligram of both mediums in order to observe the difference.

Inoculation of eco-block

Inoculation of eri cocoon
Fig. 2 Inoculation method

Simultaneous consumption experiments for both inoculated immobilization mediums by
Lactobacillus and Bacillus natto were carried out in a water recirculation system to simulate water
movement in a reservoir (Fig. 3). Glucose at two level of concentration; low concentration was of
5% glucose solution and high concentration of 15% glucose solution. NO3-N was determined at 10
mg/lat 0 hours before data collection. The data was collected at 3, 12, 24 and 48 hours andanalyzed within 24 hours of the sample taking.
TheSPSS Statistics Version 19 was used to analyze the significant differences andcomparisons among different microorganism, mediums, and consumptions.

a

c

b

a. Medium application reservoir b. Solution application reservoir c. Water pump

Water flow

Fig. 3 Experiment water recirculation system
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Within the inoculation rates (cfu/g), there was a significant difference between the eri cocoon andeco-block (Fig. 4) placing the eri cocoon as the best immobilization medium between them.
Nevertheless, the low mass of ericocoon is an advantage over the eco-block when comparing them

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

by the same unit of mass of inoculated medium. It is also suspected that the clay material of which
the eco-block consists may have had an effect on the immobilization ability or inoculation rate.
Even though there was no significant difference between bacteria allocation within eachmedium, Bacillus natto presents a higher rate in both mediums, hinting that Bacillus natto may be
more effective in the immobilization process.The document by Matsunaga et.al. (2006) presented
no inoculation rate of Bacillus natto in the concrete block used in his experiment; however,observing the dissolved oxygen in the document, it can be inferred that during the experiment they
multiply after application.

1.20x1010
A**

1.00x1010
A**

Cfu/g

8.00x1009
6.00x1009
4.00x1009
2.00x1009
B**B**

0.00x1000

Bacillus natto Lactobacillus spp.

Bacillus natto Lactobacillus spp.

eco-block

eri cocoon

Fig. 4 Comparison of eri cocoon and eco-block by inoculation rate
A**

a**

C**

c** β**

C**

b**

β**

B**

b**

α**

β**

Fig. 5 Consumption comparison of inoculated eri cocoon and eco-Block
Fig. 5 shows the consumptions of both glucose and NO3-N by both inoculated mediums. It isobserved that the consumption of eri cocoon inoculated with Lactobacillus has a significant
difference when compared with the other combinations. The differences in consumptions can be
assigned to the Lacto bacillus consumption due to the lack of significant difference between
inoculation rates within both mediums
The consumption of NO3-N of eco-block in this experiment is better than the results by
Matsunaga et.al. (2006) where after 24 hours of application there was an increase of NO 3-N.
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During our experiments the consumption was observed to stabilize after 24 hours in the case of
eco-block with both Bacillus natto and Lactobacillus spp. but there was no release of NO3-N
observed.
Overall in the consumptions ericocoon behaves better than eco-block having higher
consumptions even if, when inoculated with Bacillus natto, does not present statistical difference. It
is also observed that the consumption of glucose at low concentration presented asignificantdifference between Lactobacillus and Bacillus natto inoculated in eco-block placing
Lactobacillus in a higher consumption.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSAs there was no significant difference between both microorganisms within the immobilization
mediums while, a significant difference between mediums was found, the best immobilization
medium by inoculation rate is eri cocoon. Due to the fact that it can allocate statistically the sameamount of microorganisms in a smaller mass and volume than the eco-block. This sturdiness andlightness of the eri cocoon as an immobilization medium would make it easier to manage and totransport for any field application.
The eri cocoon inoculated with Lactobacillus spp. has the highest consumptions of all of thesolutions. This infers that the best option to remove pollutant or create an economic pollutant
removal tool is the eri cocoon inoculated with Lactobacillus spp.Lactobacillus spp. proved that ismore effective at consuming nutrients from a water flow than Bacillus natto, nevertheless Bacillus
natto may have with a different immobilization medium such as concrete have a better
consumption results.
It is recommended that the tool may be utilized as a bio-string contactor with inoculated erisilk yarn; the combination of untreated eri cocoon and eri silk twisted yarn may give a better result
when used together in water flow. The application could be by a spillway that ensures the contactof the bio-string contactor and the water for enough time for it to consume the pollutants in thewater.
REFERENCES
Cohen, Y., 2001. Biofiltration - The treatment of fluids by microorganisms immobilized into filter bedding
material: a review. Bioresource Technology, 77, 257-274.
De Vries, F.P., Aquay, H., Molden, D., Scherr, S., Valentin, C. and Cofie, O. 2008. Learning from brightspots to enhance food security and to combat degradation of water and land resources. Conserving Land,
Protecting Water, International Water Management, Institute in Association with www.cabi.org and
CGIAR Challenge Program on Water & Food, Cambridge, USA.
Ma C-W., Cho Y-S and Oh K-H. 2009. Removal of pathogenic bacteria and nitrogens by Lactobacillus spp.
jk-8 and jk-11. Aquaculture Journal, 287, 266-270.
Matsunaga, N., Masuda, S., Tokunaga, T., Yano, S., Oshikawa, H., Fujita, K., Koga, M., Iwashita, T. andHarada, A. 2006. Capacity of water quality purification by eco bio-block (EBB) in closed water system,engineering sciences reports, Kyushu University, 28(2), 247-253, Japan.
Mendoza Tovar, C., Kawabe, K., Okazawa, H. and Mihara, M. 2013. Utilization of eri cocoon for waterpollutant removal. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 4(1), 164-168.
Ongley, E.D. 2000. Water quality management: design, financing and sustainability considerations-II. Invited
presentation at the World Bank’s Water Week Conference: Towards A Strategy For Managing Water
Quality Management, April 3-4, 2000, Washington, D.C., USA.
Park, S-B. and Tia, M. 2004. An Experimental Study on the water-purification properties of porous concrete.
Cement and Concrete Research, 34(2), 177-184.
Pebbles, V. 2003. Measuring and estimating consumptive use of the great lakes water. Great Lakes
Commission, USA.
Singh A.L. and Sarma P.N. 2010. Removal of arsenic(III) from waste water using Lactobacillus acidophilus.
Bioremediation Journal, 14(2), 92-97.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Research article
erd

Biochar Amendment to Different Paddy Soils on CH4
Production, Labile Organic Carbon, pH and Electrical
Conductivity Dynamics: Incubation Experiment
CHHIN PHY
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

KETSUDA DEJBHIMON
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

DAUNGSAMON TULAPHITAKFaculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

PHRUEKSA LAWONGSA
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

MATSA KEOPHILA
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

NIPA THAMMASOM
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

PATCHAREE SAENJAN*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: patsae1@kku.ac.th
Received 12 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract Today biochar research in agriculture is worldwide interested to mitigate
greenhouse gas emission. Application of biochar in anoxic condition to different textured
paddy soils was proposed to study. We gave hypothesis that biochar rates in paddy soils
will correlate to the changing of CH4 production, soil labile organic carbon (LOC), pH andelectrical conductivity (EC), and their interactions. Biochar amendment rates, 6.25, 12.50,
18.75 and 25 t ha-1 were anaerobically incubated in loamy, clayey and loamy sand soils for
28 days. At the end of incubation, biochar amended loamy soils gave the highest
cumulative CH4 production followed by clayey and loamy sand soils. CH4 production wasenhanced by biochar amendment in loamy and clayey, but suppressed in loamy sand. The
highest cumulative CH4, 47.03 mg CH4-C kg-1, was produced from loamy soil with 12.50 t
ha-1 of biochar. The highest LOC was in clayey soil followed by loam and loamy sand in
all rates of biochar amendment. Biochar had tendency to enhance soil pH in loam, but not
in clay and loamy sand. In addition, highest EC was in clay, especially with 25 t ha-1 ofbiochar amendment, followed by loam and loamy sand. Through the whole of incubation,
biocahar amendment rates significantly negative correlated to CH4 production rates in all
soil textures. The positive correlations between LOC and biochar rates were found inclayey and loamy sand soils, while the former was highly significant. However, fluctuatedcorrelations were manifested in loamy soil. Furthermore, in loamy sand, the stronger
correlation between biochar rates, and both pH and EC, compared to loamy and clayeysoils. Biochar amendments suppressed CH4 production in loamy sand, but enhanced inloamy and clayey soil under anaerobic incubation. Further studies on biochar feasibility
should be trialed in paddy-field condition.
Keywords organic material, soil organic carbon, greenhouse gasⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

INTRODUCTION
Rice paddy is an important distribution channel of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emission,
which impacts to global warming or climate change aspects. CH4 production and emission fromsoil is derived from C mineralization, and widely documented with relation to the effect of soil
temperature, moisture, pH, Eh and plant cultivars (Zheng et al., 2007). In addition, soil labileorganic matter fractions are very important in vulnerable to transform and play crucial roles for C
and nutrient cycling, and perform a major role for source and sink of GHG change such as CO 2 andCH4 (Tian et al., 2013).
Biochar is a carbon rich by-product derived from thermal decomposition of organic matter
under pyrolysis system with low oxygen concentration promoted the potential for improving soil
properties (Denyes et al., 2012). Today biochar research in agriculture is worldwide interested tomitigate GHG emission such as CH4, or CO2 to environment. Therefore, this incubation experimentis established in a laboratory in order to identify the effectiveness of biochar amendment rates on
soil parameters and their interaction in different soil textures.
OBJECTIVE
To investigate CH4 formation, labile organic carbon (LOC), pH and EC dynamic characteristics
from application of different rates of biochar and their interactions in anoxic condition within
loamy, clayey and loamy sand paddy soils.
METHODOLOGY
Treatments, soils and incubation: The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design(CRD) in triplicate, incorporated with 0, 6.25, 12.50, 18.75 and 25 t ha -1 of biochar with 7.98 and0.94 dS m-1 of pH and EC respectively. Biochar derived from a 5 years old eucalyptus wood,
combusted at conventional kiln by 350 oC. The loamy, clayey and loamy sand soils were sampledfrom 0-15 cm depth in a paddy field in northeast of Thailand. More details of chemical andphysical properties of soils and biochar were shown in Table1. The soil was air dried, grinded andpassed through a 2 mm. sieve. Enough amount of soil sample was pre-submerged in deionizedwater for one week. Prior to the soil incubation, moisture content of the muddy soil was determined.
A weight of muddy soil used in this incubation trial was equivalent to 5 g of dried soil, wasplaced in a 60 ml serum bottle. The soil-biochar mixture with 15 ml of deionized water was shaken
by using vortex shaker in order to expel any gas bubbles in soil slurry, and flushed the head spacein the bottles by ejecting N2 (99.99%) gas with 1 bar pressure for 1 minute, the bottle was closed
immediately with butyl rubber stopper and aluminum crimp top seal. They were wrapped up withaluminum foil for protecting the light radiation.
Table 1 Basic chemical and physical properties of soils and biochar
Soils/biochar
Clay
Loam
Loamy sand
Biochar

Sand
(%)
2.53
50.00
84.14
-

Silt
(%)
17.31
36.70
11.95
-

Clay
(%)
80.26
13.30
3.91
-

BD
(g cm-3)
1.44
1.45
1.80
-

SOC
(%)
1.75
0.79
0.12
38.60

LOC
(g-C kg-1)
1.70
0.50
0.10
13.30

TN
(%)
0.16
0.07
0.02
0.50

C:N ratio
10.94
11.29
6.00
77.20

Gas samplings and soils analyses: Gas samplings were performed every week for 4 weeks.
Before the actual gas samplings, the incubated samples were flushed with N2 (99.99%) for 1 minute,sealed tight as mentioned previously and incubated again for 24 hours. One ml gas sample wastaken from the head space of incubation bottle using an air-tight syringe. The concentration of CH4
in the gas samples was analyzed with gas chromatograph (GC), Shimadzu GC2014, detector
temperature 200 oC (FID), injection port 150 oC, oven 180 o C, stainless steel column 2 m lengthⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

packed with unibead C. Carrier gas is He and retention time is 2.25 minutes. To calculate the CH4
production was mentioned by Ro et al., (2011). Labile organic carbon (LOC) was analyzed bypermanganate-oxidation method (Moody and Cong, 2008). The actual soil pH and EC were
measured by pH and EC meters, respectively.
Statistical Analysis: The data collected was analyzed statistically using Analysis of Variance(ANOVA) technique and treatment means were compared by using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
(DMRT) with SAS statistical program.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Cumulative CH4 production: Biochar amendment significantly enhanced cumulative CH4
production accompanied with a large range (8.42 to 54.03 mg CH4-C kg-1) in loamy soil, and amoderate range (5.63 to 19.40 mg CH4-C kg-1) in clayey soil, when compared to its control withoutbiochar Aemicalon, but it decreased CH4 production with a very low range (0.31 to 0.86 mg CH4-C
kg-1) in amended loamy sand soil (Fig. 1, a). Biochar amendment rates significantly negative
correlated to CH4 production rates in all soil textures (Table 2). A quadratic regression
determination had identified that cumulative CH4 production was influenced by LOC in loam, but
not found in clay and loamy sand. While pH had impacts on cumulative CH4 production in clayey
and loamy sand, and EC had determined cumulative CH4 production in all types of soil (data notshown). Zhang et al. (2012) had given a report that methane emission over the whole rice growing
season was significantly increased by the rate of biochar amendment. Yu et al. (2012) also
confirmed that under the high soil moisture, 85 and 100% water filled pore space, biocharenhanced methane emission. In contrast, Feng et al. (2012) indicated that biochar amendment inpaddy soil decreased CH4 emission as well as Liu et al. (2011) had proved that application ofbiochar reduced methane emissions from the paddy soil. These findings agreed to our results which
CH4 productions were enhanced in loamy and clayey soils, but decreased in loamy sand soil
amended with biochar. Zhang et al. (2010) had emphasized that the degree of methane emission
vary depending upon the type of soils, biochar application rates, soil moisture conditions, thefertilization, and water management regimes.
Labile organic carbon (LOC): The highest LOC was found in amended clayey soil, 1697.45 to1890.71 mg-C kg-1, followed by loamy soil, 587.46 to 681.20 mg-C kg-1, and loamy sand, 99.93 to
178.99 mg-C kg-1, respectively. The results found that biochar had no influence on LOC in loamy
and clayey soils, but fluctuated among biochar rates in loamy sand (Fig. 1, b). The dynamicchanges of LOC in loamy soil with 6.25, 12.50 and 18.75 t ha-1 of biochar were gradually increased
from 0 to 21 DOI, but tended to go down at 28 DOI, contradictory to the LOC change in clayey soil,
which was still keep increasing over the whole incubation. In addition, LOC changes in loamy sandsoil were very low but fluctuated (data not shown). The positive correlations between LOC andbiochar rates were found in clayey and loamy sand soils, while the former was highly significant(Table 2). However, fluctuated correlations were manifested in loamy soil. Zhang et al. (2012)
found that biochar amendment did not change LOC over the rice growing season.
Potential of hydrogen (pH): The dynamic changes of pH in different soil textures showed thesame patterns, which increased from the initials to the fluctuated peaks at 7, 14 and 21 DOI and
thereafter had tendency to go down at the end of experiment. The highest initial pH indicated inloamy soil followed by clayey and loamy sand, but at the end of incubation we did not find any
significant differences among those soil amendments. The pH values were range from 5.87 to 6.93,
5.77 to 6.45 and 5.26 to 5.76 for loamy, clayey and loamy sand respectively. Furthermore, we did
not see the effects of biochar on soil pH in clayey and loamy sand soils, except for amended loamy
soil which bichar had influenced to enhance soil pH (Fig. 2, a). Furthermore, in loamy sand, thestronger correlation between biochar rates and pH, compared to loamy and clayey soils (Table 2).
Farrel et al. (2013) had proved that pH change in biochar amended soils were higher than control
soil over the duration of incubation experiment because biochar was highly alkalinity. Lai et al.
(2013) also claimed that the application of biochar increased the soil pH due to their alkalinity.
Nigussie et al. (2012) also supported the findings above, i. l. biochar stimulated soil pH, and theⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

2500

70
70

b

a

60
60

aA
aA

Controol
Control
6.25
6.25 tt BC
BC ha
ha-1-112.50ttBC
BCha
ha-1-112.50
18.75ttBC
BCha
ha-1-1
18.75
25.00
t
BC
ha-1-125.00 t BC ha

50
50
40
40
bA

30
30
aB

20
20
cA

cA

10
10

dB

cB bB

eB

aB abC

0

0

Loam
Loam

Clay
Clay

bB bC bC

Labile organic carbon (mg-C kg-1)

Cumlative
4-C/ -1kg)
(mgCH
CH-C
CumulativeCH
production (mgkg )CH44 production
4

result gave another reason that the high surface area and porous nature of biochar and the factor
increases cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil and significantly positive correlate with pH.
Ventura et al. (2012) reported that biochar amended soil 30 and 60 t ha -1 had no effect on soil pH
from upland field experiment.

2000

1500

1000
B

0

Loamy sand
sand
Loamy

dB

cB bB
aB abCClaybB bC bC

Loamy sandLabileorganic
carbon(mg-C/kg)
Labileorganic
carbon(mg-C kg-1)

B

b
2000
2000

A

A

A

A

A

1500
1500

1000
1000
B

B

B
B B

500
500
aC

bC abC bC aC

00

Loam
Loam

Clay
Clay

Loamy sand
Loamy
sand

Different letters showed significantly different at p<0.01, vertical bars represent SE-mean. The lowercase used tocompare between the treatments within each soil type and the uppercase used to compare the same treatments among thethree soil types

Fig. 1 Cumulative CH4 production (a) and LOC at 28 DOI (b) from anoxic incubated soils anaffected by different rates of biochar application.
Electrical conductivity (EC): The highest initial EC was in loamy soil (0.34 to 0.40 dS m-1)
followed by clay (0.20 to 0.32 dS m-1) and loamy sand (0.02 to 0.08 dS m-1), respectively, but at theend of experiment we found that the highest EC was in clayey soil (0.25 to 0.44 dS m -1) followed
by loamy (0.12 to 0.16 dS m-1) and loamy sand (0.05 to 0.08 dS m-1) soils, respectively. Fig. 2, b
showed that biochar amendments had no potentials on soil EC in loamy soil, except for 25 t ha -1 ofbiochar amendment in clayey and loamy sand respectively, which promoted soil EC, compared tothe control. In addition, in loamy sand, the stronger correlation between biochar rates and EC wasevident, compared to loamy and clayey soils (Table 2).

Ⓒ ISERD

61

B
B B

500

2500
2500

Control
6.25 t BC ha-1
12.50 t BC ha-1
18.75 t BC ha-1
25.00 t BC ha-1

B

Loam

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

0.6

88

a

b

a ab abc

66

Soil
Soil pH
pH

Electrical conductivity (dS m-1)

bc

44

22

0

0.5

0.4

0.3

Loam
Loam

B

Clay
Clay

Loamy sand
sand
Loamy

Electricalconductivity
conductivity(dS/m)
Electrical(dS m-1)

aA
Control
Controol-1
6.25
6.25ttBC
BCha
ha-1
-1
12.50
t
BC
ha
12.50 t BC ha-1
18.75 tt BC
BC ha
ha-1-118.75
25.00 tt BC
BC ha
ha-1-1
25.00

0.3
0.3

bA
bA

bA
bA

B

0.2
0.2
B

B
B

B

0.1
0.1

aB
abC
abC

bC abC

0.0
0.0
Loam
Loam

Loamy sand

Clay
Clay

Loamy sand
sand
Loamy

Different letters showed significantly different at p<0.01, vertical bars represent SE-mean. The lowercase used tocompare between the treatments within each soil type and the uppercase used to compare the same treatments among thethree soil types

Fig. 2 Soil pH (a) and EC (b) at 28 DOI from anoxic incubated soils an affected by different
rates of biochar application
Table 2 Pearson correlation coefficients (r) relating biochar rates to CH4 production rate,
LOC, pH and EC
Soil parameter
CH4 (mg CH4-C kg-1d-1)

LOC (mg kg-1)

pH

EC (dS m-1)

B

Loam

b

Clay

B
B

0.1

0.6
0.6

0.4
0.4

B

0.2

0.0

0

0.5
0.5

Control
6.25 t BC ha-1
12.50 t BC ha-1
18.75 t BC ha-1
25.00 t BC ha-1

DOI
7
14
21
28
7
14
21
28
7
14
21
28
7
14
21
28

Loamy soil
-0.80**-0.82**-0.86**-0.85**
0.75**-0.66*
-0.29
0.50
0.39
0.19
-0.32
-0.61*
-0.04
0.17
-0.56
-0.05

Ⓒ ISERD

62

Clayey soil
0.80**-0.82**-0.81**-0.88**
0.73**
0.69*
0.57
0.63*
0.77**
0.58*
0.15
-0.22
0.54
-0.22
0.19
0.58*

Loamy sand soil
-0.51
-0.52
-0.60*-0.69*
0.51
0.41
0.68*
0.51
0.85**
0.96***
0.16
0.50
0.91***
0.86**
0.79**
0.51

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

Ventura et al. (2012) indicated that biochar application significantly increases soil EC and it
was a direct relationship between biochar rate and EC. The higher rate of biochar application
results in higher EC. Nigussie et al. (2012) had emphasized that biochar amended soils enhanced
EC in chromium polluted soil because biochar attributed to ash accretions as ash residue which was
dominated by carbonates of alkali and alkaline earth metals, variable amounts of silica, heavy
metals, sesquioxides, phosphates and small amounts of organic and inorganic N. In addition, Farrel
et al. (2013) proved that biochar had highly EC, which tend to promote soil EC.
CONCLUSION
Biochar amendment had varied effect on CH4 production in different soil textures under anaerobic
incubation. Biochar enhanced CH4 production in loam and clay, but decreased in loamy sand.
Simultaneously, biochar amendment had no potential to change LOC in every soil. While, biochar
had influenced to stimulate soil pH in loam, but not found any effectiveness in other two soils. In
addition, EC changes were tending to increase by biochar in clay and loamy sand. The correlation
was found between biochar rates and soil parameters in each soil texture and interaction between
LOC, pH, EC, and CH4 production. In order to minimize biochar production from tree feedstock,
the future research should generate biochar from crop residues (rice straw, rice hull, grass etc.), or
agricultural industrial wastes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to pay the highest respect and gratitude to H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri
Sirindhorn, who awarded this scholarship. This research was also partially supported by the
National Research University Project, KKU and Office of the Higher Education Commission;
KKU’s Graduate School Research Fund; KKU research grant, financial year 2013-2014; and also
the project “Problem soils in Northeast Thailand.”
REFERENCES
Denyes, M.J., Langlois, V.S., Rutter, A. and Zeeb, B.A. 2012. The use of biochar to reduce soil PCB
bioavailability to cucurbita pepo and Eisenia fetida. Sci. Total Environ., 437, 76-82.
Farrel, M., Kuhn,T.K., Macdonald, L.M.., Maddern, T.M., Murphy, D.V., Hall, P.A., Singh, B.P., Bauhmann,
K., Skull, E.S. and Baldock, J.A. 2013. Microbial utilization of biochar-drived carbon. Sci. Total
Environ., 465, 288-297.
Feng, Y., Xu, Y., Yu, Y., Xie Z. and Lin, X. 2012. Mechanisms of biochar decreasing methane emission
from Chinese paddy soils, Soil Biol, Biochem, 46, 80-88.
Lai, W.Y., Lai, C.M., Ke, G.R., Chung, R.S., Chen, C.T., Cheng, C.H., Pai, C.W., Chen, S.Y. and Chen, C.C.
2013. The effects of woodchip biochar application on crop yield, carbon sequestration, and greenhousegas emissions from soil planted with rice or leaf beet. J Taiwan Instit. Chem. Engin, (in press, corrected
proof).
Liu, Y., Yang, M., Wu, Y., Wang, H., Chen, Y. and Wu, W. 2011. Reducing CH 4 and CO2 emission fromwaterlogged paddy soil with biochar. Soils Sediments, 11, 930-939.
Moody, P.W. and Cong, P.T. 2008. Soil Constraints and Management package (SCAMP): Guidelines for
Sustainable Management of Tropical Upland Soil. Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research. No 130, ISBN 978 1 921434 52 5.
Nigussie, A., Kissi, E., Misganaw, M. and Ambaw, G. 2012. Effect of biochar application on soil properties
and nutrient uptake of lettuces (Lactuca sativa) grown in Chromium polluted soils. American-Eurasian J.
Agric. Environ. Sci., 12(3), 369-376.
Ro, S., Saenjan, P., Tulaphitak, T. and Inubushi, K. 2011. Sulfate content influencing methane production
from incubated soil and rice-planted soil in Northeast Thailand. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 57, 832-842.
Tian, J., Lu, S., Fan, M., Li, X. and Kuzyakov, Y. 2013. Labile soil organic matter fractions as influenced by
non-flooded mulching cultivation and cropping season in rice-wheat rotation. Eur. J. Soil Biol., 56, 1925.
Ventura, F., Salvatorelli, F., Piana, S., Pieri, L. and Pisa, P.R. 2012. The effects of biochar on the physicalⒸ ISERD

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properties of bare soil. Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,103, 5-11.
Yu, L., Tang, J., Zhang, R., Wu, Q. and Gong, M. 2012. Effects of biochar application on soil methane
emission at different soil moisture levels. Biol. Fertile Soils, DOI: 10.1007/s00374-012-0703-4.
Zhang, A., Bian, R., Pan, G., Cui, L., Hussain, Q., Li, L., Zheng, J., Zheng, J., Zhang, X., Han, X. and Hu, X.
2012. Effects of biochar amendment on soil quality, crop yield and greenhouse gas emission in a
Chinese rice paddy: A field study of 2 consecutive rice growing cycles. Field Crop Res., 127, 153-160.
Zhang, A., Cui, L., Pan, G., Li, L., Hussain ,Q., Zhang, X., Zheng, J. and Crowley, D. 2010. Effect of biochar
amendment on yield and methane and nitrous oxide emissions from a rice paddy from Tai Lake Plain,
China. Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 139, 469-475.
Zheng, J., Zhang, X., Zhang, L. Li, P. and Pan, G. 2007. Effect of long-term fertilization on C mineralizationand production of CH4 and CO2 under anaerobic incubation from bulk samples and particle size fractionsof a typical paddy soil. Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 120, 129-138.

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Research article
erd

Evaluation of Oxbow Lakes and Circulating Irrigation in
the Ishikari River Basin, JapanDAISUKE KUSA*
Tone River Basin Research and Management Office, Kanto Regional Agricultural
Administration Bureau, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Chiba, Japan
Email: kusadai@frontier.hokudai.ac.jp

TADAO YAMAMOTO
Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan

TAKASHI INOUE
Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, JapanTETUAKI NAGASAWA
Emeritus Professor, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan
Received 24 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract The study attempts to clarify the functions of oxbow lakes in rural irrigation
systems. The status of oxbow lakes was briefly investigated through interviews with town
officials and land improvement agencies. It is clear that even though canals have been
constructed in the area, oxbow lakes in the Ishikari River basin are utilized as primary andauxiliary irrigation resources and as reservoirs for circulating irrigation systems. In the
Urausu region, 14% of the irrigation water resource comes from oxbow lakes. The
percentage of drainage into the oxbow lakes is 72.0% during the puddling period and64.6% during the normal period. The percentage of water recycled through the oxbow
lakes is 76.3% during the puddling period and 66.4% during the normal period.
Furthermore, all water used in circulating irrigation is obtained from the oxbow lake in theregion around Karisatonuma. This reduces the amount of water taken from the river. Thissuggests that rural resources, such as oxbow lakes, can continue to be used as a componentof regional irrigation systems. This information may be beneficial as a reference for costeffective development of rural irrigation systems in developing countries.
Keywords Oxbow Lake, regional resource, circulating irrigation, Ishikari River,conservation of water environment

INTRODUCTION
As global water demand increases, the development of irrigation systems, especially in developing
countries, becomes increasingly important. This is also important for reducing poverty. Althoughinternational support is evident in many developing countries, in some cases, this support isinsufficient to develop adequate irrigation infrastructure. Therefore, it may be beneficial to involve
regional resources to facilitate the development of irrigation systems in areas of poverty.
To date, several studies have examined regional water usage. Yenigun et al. (2010) havestudied and evaluated Turkey’s irrigation systems, and Liyantono et al. (2012) studied theoperational status of conjunctive water use in Indonesia. However, local resources, such as oxbow
lakes, are not commonly incorporated in localized irrigation and drainage systems. Similar to lakes
or ponds, which are typical water resources in mountainous areas, oxbow lakes are typical water
resources in a river basin. Oxbow lakes are remnants of meandering flood plain rivers that havebeen cut off and physically isolated from their respective main river channels (Cullum et al., 2006).
In Kenya, small-scale irrigation farming is being undertaken around a considerable number ofoxbow lakes previously surrounded by seasonal wetlands (Mutero, 2002). In addition, oxbow lakesⒸ ISERD

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are used for small-scale aquaculture in Bangladesh (Thapa, 2004). Therefore, oxbow lakes can be auseful water resource for primary industries in developing countries. McQueen et al. (1982) and theUnited States Department of Agriculture (1999) studied the relationship between water quality ofoxbow lakes and agriculture in the Mississippi river basin. Yamamoto et al. (2004) conducted asimilar study of the Ishikari River basin. However, studies of oxbow lakes as sources of water for
irrigation have not been conducted. Studying effective use of rural water resources is important for
the future development of a particular region and can also be used as a reference for otherdeveloping areas.
In this study, we target the Ishikari River basin in Hokkaido, Japan. This agricultural region
has many oxbow lakes which function as rural water resources. By studying this region, we canobtain a complete view of oxbow lakes as localized rural sources of water. Furthermore, we aim to
demonstrate the usefulness of utilizing existing rural water resources in irrigation development.
Overview of Oxbow Lakes in Ishikari River Basin
According to a study of oxbow lakes in the Ishikari River basin (Kusa et al. 2001), oxbow lakes
have many features. Around the Ishikari River, there are many oxbow lakes that have been formed
naturally (Fig. 1) and artificially.

Fig. 1 Natural Oxbow Lakes in the Ishikari River basin
A common feature of oxbow lakes is that they have both sluice gates and agricultural drainage
inflow from the surrounding areas. Generally, oxbow lakes are used for agriculture, parks, andflood control. From an agricultural perspective, oxbow lakes have sufficient water volume for
irrigation because they originate close to large river systems. The land around oxbow lakes is often
used for farming because the soil is well drained. Lands around oxbow lakes are also frequently
used as parklands because of their unique biotope functions. In addition, oxbow lakes are also used
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as temporary reservoirs during flooding to reduce pump overload. In the Ishikari River basin,
oxbow lakes are primarily used for agricultural purposes (Table 1).
Table 1 Oxbow Lakes in the Ishikari River basin
No.

Name

1 Tsuikari
2 Old Ishikari River
3 Shimotappu
4 Kitsunemori
5 Karisatonuma
6 Kairaku Park
7 Sunagawa Reservoir
8 Raune River
9 Takonokubi
10 Shinotsuko
11 Itounuma
12 Hishinuma
13 Nishinuma
14 Higashinuma
15 Tsukinuma
16 Utsuginuma
17 Shin-numa
18 Urausunuma
19 Mikazukinuma
20 Toinuma
21 Piranuma
22 Hokkounuma
23 Fukurochinuma
24 Uryunuma
25 Tambanonuma
26 Tsurutanonuma
27 Tsurunuma
28 Sunagawakagetsu
29 Ebeotsukyucho
Total
Source: Kusa et al. 2001

Area
(km2)
0.359
0.027
0.047
0.476
0.087
0.773
0.365
0.329
0.133
0.100
0.114
0.112
0.018
0.013
0.199
0.075
0.050
0.145
0.105
0.065
0.389
0.044
0.014
0.077
0.008
0.053
0.077

Agriculture
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
21

Using situation
Park Flood Control
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
11
7

OthersA part of river
A part of river
A part of river
A part of river-

Sluice
Gate
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○

Based on this, we focus on the actual various agricultural uses of oxbow lakes using concrete
examples, such as a primary water resource, an auxiliary resource, and an intermediate reservoir for
irrigation from the main canal.
METHODOLOGY
In this study, we focus on several oxbow lakes in the Ishikari River basin, Nishinuma andHigashinuma, which are used for irrigation in and around the town of Urausu. We also focus on
Karisatonuma, which is used for irrigation between the town of Tsukigata and Iwamizawa city. To
understand the movement of irrigation waters in these areas, we investigated ownership documents
and interviewed representatives from local governments and land improvement agencies. We
examined areas around oxbow lakes to assess beneficiary areas, the volume of irrigation water
during normal and puddling periods, and drainage destinations. Based on this, it is possible todetermine the irrigation water flow from the oxbow lakes and the drainage water flow into theoxbow lakes. By comparing these flows with the entire flow of water use in the region, we
estimated the function of oxbow lakes in the regional circulating irrigation.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Function of An Oxbow Lake as Auxiliary Water Resource for Circulating Irrigation
To facilitate our investigation of an oxbow lake as an auxiliary water source for irrigation, we
examined the Urausu region. The town of Urausu is located on the Ishikari River in a region where
many oxbow lakes have been formed by flooding. In this area, irrigation water is taken from the
Ishikari River through main canals that were constructed in 1966. Before the construction of thecanals, recycled drainage water by the oxbow lakes was used to supply irrigation water. After
construction of the canals, circulating irrigation from the oxbow lakes has also been used.
Water use rights, specific to the use of irrigation water from oxbow lakes, were in place fromthe 1940s to the 1960s. The rights were extinguished after construction of the main canal in 1966.
However, the demand for auxiliary water increased, and consequently, the rights were reestablished in the 1983 and remain in effect. Since the re-establishment of the water rights, waterfrom oxbow lakes has been used to satisfy various needs. Today, 14% of the irrigation water
resource in the Urausu region comes from oxbow lakes and 24% comes from tributaries. This
indicates that small rivers, as well as oxbow lakes, were recognized as local resources when themain canal system was constructed (Table 2).
Table 2 Irrigation water resources in the Urausu region
Water resource
Oxbow Lake
River
Irrigation Canal
Total

Flow (m3/s)
0.59
1.00
2.59
4.18

Percent (%)
14
24
62
100

In addition to use as a source of irrigation water, oxbow lakes are used for other purposes.The
pattern of total water usage in the Urausu region is shown in Fig. 2, which indicates extensive
water circulation.

Pudding period(m3/s)
Normal period(m3/s)

Fig. 2 Total water usage in the Urausu region
The circulation and use of agricultural water is a significant feature of the Urausu region. In
the region, more water drains into the oxbow lakes than into to the Ishikari River. Drainage (X) canbe expressed as in Eq. (1)Ⓒ ISERD

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𝑋(%) =

Circulation water (𝑚3 /s)
× 100
Circulation water (𝑚3 /s) + Drainage Ishikari river (𝑚3 /s)(1)

In this calculation, X is 64.6% in the puddling period and 72.0% in the normal period. Somewater is lost in the reuse process; however, the water that is recycled (Y) through the oxbow lakes
can be expressed as in Eq. (2)𝑌(%) =

Reuse through oxblow lakes (𝑚3 /s)
× 100
Reuse through oxblow lakes (𝑚3 /s) + Reuse through canals (𝑚3 /s)(2)

Y is 76.3% in the puddling period and 66.4% in the normal period. A comparison with theactual flow rate is shown in Fig. 2. During the puddling period, water reuse from oxbow lakes
increases to 0.6914 m3/s from 0.5875 m3/s in the normal period. Water reuse from canals decreases
from 0.2968 m3/s during the puddling period to 0.2144 m3/s during the normal period. This
indicates that an oxbow lake is more important during the puddling period because the storage
function of an oxbow lake is more beneficial when water reuse increases. Therefore, it isreasonable to conclude that oxbow lakes have been used as a base for agricultural water circulation
for this reason. On the other hand, canals do not contribute to water reuse significantly. Oxbow
lakes in the Urausu region can collect waste water easily because they are located downstream
from branches of the Ishikari River. Moreover, as oxbow lakes function as temporary storage
repositories, it seems to be more practical to pump water from oxbow lakes than from canals.

Pudding period(m3/s)
Normal period(m3/s)
A: Irrigation area(ha)Fig. 3 Pattern diagram of water movement in Sangen-ya
In particular, in Sangen-ya, which is enclosed by oxbow lakes, irrigation water supply is more
dependent on oxbow lakes than other areas. Fig. 3 shows a pattern diagram of water movement inSangen-ya, which illustrates the complexity of water movement. Moreover, water flow into
Nishinuma has been restricted such that it only receives agricultural drainage. Nishinuma also
supplies irrigation water to land around the lake. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that only
drainage water is used in the Nishinuma circulating irrigation system. Because Nishinuma islocated at the end of the Urausu canal irrigation system, sometimes, for example during droughts,Ⓒ ISERD

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water from the canal system does not reach the lake. When such conditions occur, farmers use
water from Nishinuma. Therefore, it is evident that oxbow lakes water resources are important tostabilize farm management.
The plan associated with the water rights for Higashinuma stipulated that irrigation water
should be taken from the main canal rather than from the lake. However, there are restrictions on
the land enclosed by Higashinuma, and canals connecting the lake to farmland could not be built.
In actual practice, irrigation water goes into Higashinuma and farmers pump water from the oxbow
lake. As a result, we can say that, in this situation, the oxbow lake functions as a reservoir in theirrigation system.
Function of An Oxbow Lake as Main Water Resource for Circulating Irrigation
In this section, we describe a case in which an oxbow lake is used as the main resource forcirculating irrigation. Karisatonuma is an oxbow lake that is located between the town of Tsukigata
and Iwamizawa city. The land enclosed by the oxbow lake and the Ishikari River belongs to
Tsukigata, even though the town is situated primarily on the west side of the river. Tsukigata’s
current location is the result of work conducted in 1940, which changed the course of the river. A
land improvement project was carried out in 1981 and 1982. The pumps that are used currently
were installed at that time. Moreover, even before the land improvement project, water from theoxbow lake was used for circulating irrigation. Fig. 4 shows the location of Karisatonuma. The
most significant difference between this region and the Urausu region is that all irrigation water istaken from Karisatonuma.

Fig. 4 Karisatonuma
There is no official plan to supply irrigation water to the oxbow lake from the river. However,when water levels are exceptionally low, water is resupplied through the sluice gate. Under suchcircumstances, Karisatonuma water is only supplied by drainage from each side of the oxbow lake.
Incidentally, the water rights allow water to be pumped directly from Karisatonuma, as a part of the
Ishikari River because the oxbow lake had been really part of the river until 1940. As indicated byⒸ ISERD

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the above, water from the oxbow lake is used as circulating irrigation for the land around
Karisatonuma, which reduces the amount of water taken from the river.
According to the local government, this water system functions satisfactorily and allows
farmers access to water for various uses, such as deep ponding irrigation to protect crops fromdamage during cool summer weather.
CONCLUSION
In this study, from actual use of examples and data, it is evident that oxbow lakes in the Ishikari
River basin have many functions. In particular, we can conclude the following:
1. Oxbow lakes function as primary and auxiliary resources for rural irrigation, and as a reservoir
for circulating irrigation. In addition, each of the functions is dependent on geography, theexisting irrigation systems, or other circumstances specific to each particular oxbow lake.
2. As the storage function of an oxbow lake is very useful when water reuse increases, the functionof an oxbow lake changes relative to changes in the water balance in the area.
Although beyond the scope of this study, in 1956, a large land improvement project financedby the World Bank was undertaken in a different section of the Ishikari River basin. Major canals
were constructed at that time. However, many oxbow lakes, which were used as irrigation
resources before the land improvement project, still remain. Furthermore, in the Urausu region, a
new dam was constructed in 2010. Consequently, irrigation in this region will stabilize and becomeless dependent on oxbow lakes. However, the change in water use will result in a change of the roleof oxbow lakes and may affect the biotope and other environmental elements. Therefore, attention
should be paid to the possibility that these changes may affect the ecosystem or the water quality.
An understanding of how oxbow lakes function may be a useful reference for ruraldevelopment, especially at a community level in developing countries. Oxbow lakes havecharacteristics that can be leveraged to reduce both infrastructure costs and water use. Althougheconomic conditions and infrastructure development differs among countries, many developing
countries do not have sufficient financial resources to commit to effective but expensive
infrastructure projects. Moreover, there are insufficient water supplies in some regions. In thesecases, using rural resources like oxbow lakes seems more reasonable and promising thanundertaking expensive infrastructure projects.
REFERENCES
Cullum, R.F., Knight, S.S., Cooper, C.M. and Smith, S. 2006. Combined effects of best management
practices on water quality in oxbow lakes from agricultural watersheds. Soil and Tillage Research, 90(12), 212-221.
Kusa, D., Yamamoto, T., Nagasawa, T. and Inoue, T. 2001. Evaluation of oxbow lake for rural resource fromits flood control function in Ishikari River basin. Journal of Rural Planning Association, 20, 67-72.
Lee, J.1999. Agricultural research service of United States department of agriculture, science and education
administration. Delta MSEA Benefits Local Ecology, Agricultural Research Magazine, 47(3), 20-21.
Liyantono, Kato, T., Kuroda, H. and Yoshida, K. 2012. GIS analysis of conjunctive water resource use in
Nganjuk district, east Java, Indonesia. Paddy and Water Environment, 11(1-4), 193-205.
McQueen, A.D., Shulstad, R.N. and Osborn, C.T. 1982. Controlling agricultural soil loss in Arkansas’ North
Lake Chicot watershed: A cost analysis. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 37(3), 182-185.
Mutero, C.M. 2002. Health impact assessment of increased irrigation in the Tana River Basin, Kenya. The
Changing Face of Irrigation in Kenya: Opportunities for Anticipating Change in Eastern and Southern
Africa, 211-29.
Thapa, G. 2004. Rural poverty reduction strategy for South Asia. Australian South Asia Research Centre
Working Paper, 2004-06, 1-26.
Yamamoto, T., Kambe, T., Nagasawa, T., and Inoue, T. 2004. Water environment of oxbow lake and landuseof its watershed in the Ishikari River basin. Journal of Rural Planning Association, 23, 67-72.
Yenigun, K. and Aydogdu, M.H. 2010. Evaluation of irrigation and drainage systems of (Southeastern
Anatolia Project) GAP, the Turkey’s largest integrated water resource development project. Scientific
Research and Essays, 5(21), 3237-3253.
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Research article
erd

Diversity and Community Composition of Ants in the
Mixed Deciduous Forest, the Pine Forest and the Para
Rubber Plantation at Chulaborn Dam, Chaiyaphum
Province, the Northeastern Thailand
DUANGRAT THONGPHAK*
Entomology Section, Department of Plant Science and Agriculture Resources,
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
E-mail: duathg@kku.ac.th

CHITIMA KULSA
Entomology Section, Department of Plant Science and Agriculture Resources,
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 12 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract The species diversity of ants in three different land use types: a mixed deciduous
forest, pine forest and Para rubber plantation, were studied to determine and compare theant species diversity in these areas. Four sampling methods: handling capture overconstant time, honey bait trap, leaf litter sifting and soil sifting, were conducted from
September 2011 to September 2012, inclusive. The species richness of ants in the area was
40 identified species, belonging to 23 genera in five subfamilies. The Shannon-Wiener’s
species diversity index indicated that the diversity was the highest in the mixed deciduous
forest (2.65), followed by the pine forest (2.19) and lastly the Para rubber plantation (1.48).
The β-diversity, using Sorensen’s similarity coefficient to determine the similarity incommunity composition, was highest between the mixed deciduous forest and the Pine
Forest at 71%, and then between the mixed deciduous forest and Para rubber plantation at
61%, and between the pine forest and the Para rubber plantation at 53%, indicating thatboth ant species diversity and community composition were varied in these three sites
which may relate to their different land use types. Therefore, the information from thisstudy suggests that ant species diversity may be used to assist the conservation andmanagement planning of agro-forestry ecosystems.
Keywords ant, community composition, species diversity, land use type

INTRODUCTION
Ants play diverse and important ecological roles. They have functions in an ecosystem asherbivores, predators, prey, detritivores, mutualists and Alonso (2000) stated that their functions
are usually related to the species and genera they belong to. Mayati (1996) reported that they
improved soil, assisted in the decomposition process, create mycorrhizal reservoirs, effect nutrient
immobilization, water movement, nutrient cycling, soil movement and physical and chemicalchanges to the soil profile. Because of their ecological significance in forest ecosystems, ants are
considered suitable bioindicator species for biodiversity studies (Alonso, 2000). Moreover, ants havebeen used as biological agents of insect pests in agriculture in many countries such as Malaysia(Khoo and Chung, 1989) and Thailand (Kritsaneeapiboon and Saiboon, 2000). Although ants haverelatively low species diversity, they are the single most important arthropod group by their
dominance in animal biomass (Alonso and Agosti, 2000). Environmental changes have an impact
on macro-arthropod abundance (Pearson and Derr, 1986; Adis and Latif, 1996). Many ant species
are highly sensitive to the micro climate fluctuations and to habitat structure, and thus respondstrongly to environmental change (Anderson, 1990; Alonso, 2000). Overall, common species, mosthabitats are likely to have specialized species, which occur in sufficient species diversity andⒸ ISERD

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abundance as to be able to serve as suitable terrestrial indicator species of habitat quality andchanges. Thus, the objective of this study was to comparison between the diversity of ants at thereserve forest area of Chulaborn dam and rubber plantation.
METHODOLOGY
The study sites were located within the Chulaborn dam, Chaiyaphum province in northeast
Thailand. Three areas were selected based on differences in land use types: (i) a natural habitat
represented by a mixed deciduous forest and a pine forest (ii) a monoculture based Para rubber
plantation. The ants were sampled two seasons which of wet season and dry season during
September 2011 to September 2012. The 100 m long line transects were established at each study
site. Collecting ant specimens were performed by four sampling methods; hand collecting (HC),leaf litter sampling (LL), honey bait (HB), and soil sampling (SS). Ant specimens were identified
to family, genus and species using the identification guides of Bolton (1994), Hölldobler andWilson (1990), and Wiwatwitthaya and Jaitrong (2001). The specimens were also compared withthe reference collections at the Ant Museum, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University. The
Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index (Krebs, 1999), was used to calculate the diversity of ants
collected. The formula of the Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index used is presented as follows:𝑠𝐻′ = ∑(𝑝𝑖)(ln 𝑝𝑖 )

(1)

𝑖=1

Where, H’ = Species diversity indexs = Number of species
pi = Proportion of the total sample belonging to ith species
The Sorensen’s similarity coefficient (Krebs, 1999) was used to measure the beta diversity or
the similarity between two study sites as follows:S=

2𝑎2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐(2)

Where, S = Sorensen’s similarity coefficienta = Number of species in site A and site B
b = Number of species in site B but not in site A
c = Number of species in site A but not in site B
The evenness index (Krebs, 1999) was calculated to determine the equal abundance of ants ineach study site as follows:
Evenness =

𝐻′
𝐻′𝑀𝐴𝑋

(3)

Where, H’ = Observed index of species diversity
H’MAX = Maximum possible index of diversity
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A total of 40 ants species in 23 genera distributed among the five subfamilies were identified fromthree difference land use types using four sampling methods (Table 1). With the comparative ant
communities between the three sites, the highest number of species was recorded in the mixed
deciduous forest followed by the pine forest and the lowest in the Para rubber plantation. Twenty
eight species of ants in 21 genera and five subfamilies were found in the mixed deciduous forest
follow by 25 species in 20 general and five subfamilies from pine forest. The lastly, there are only
13 species in 13 genera and four subfamily from rubber plantation. Four species of ants such as
Pachycondyla luteipes, Pheidologeton affinis and Odontoponera denticulata, were found in allⒸ ISERD73

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

three land use types, whilst other species, such as Philidris sp.1, Camponoptus singualaris
Oecophylla smaragdina, Polyrhachis furcata, Aphaenogaster sp.1, Hypoponera sp.1, andPachycondyla higrite were found only in the mixed deciduous forest. Whereas, some species, suchas Polyrhachis cyaniventris Polyrhachis fruhstorferi, Polyrhachis sp.12, Aphaenogaster feae,
Pheidole sp.2, were found only in the pine forest and one species of Aphaenogaster sp.2 was foundonly in the Para rubber plantation. At the genus level of all sites, Polyrhachis had the highest
number of 8 species.
There was a difference in the number of ants species between wet and dry seasons, where in
the dry season ant species numbers were high in pine forest and in Para rubber plantation whereasslightly lower in the dry season in the mixed deciduous forest.
Table 1 Number of species, genera and family of ants in all sites at Chulabhorn Dam
NumberSubfamily
Dolichoderinae
Formicinae
Myrmicinae
Ponerinae
Pseudomyrmercinae
Total

Genus
3
4
9
6
1
23

Species
3
14
15
6
2
40

Total(%)
7.5
35.0
37.5
15.0
5.0
100

Table 2 Number of Subfamily, genera and species of ants in difference land use types at
Chulaborn dam
NumberSubfamily
MDF
3
4
8
5
1
21

Dolichoderinae
Formicinae
Myrmicinae
Ponerinae
Pseudomyrmercinae
Total

Genus
PF
2
3
9
4
2
20

PRP
2
3
5
3
13

Species
PF
2
7
10
4
2
25

MDF
3
9
10
5
1
28

PRP
2
3
5
3
13

Shannon index (H')

Note: MDF=Mixed deciduous forest, PF =Pine forest and PRP= Para rubber plantation

4
Dry season

Wet season

3
2
1
0
MDF

PF

PRP

Land types
MDF=Mixed deciduous forest, PF =Pine forest and PRP= Para rubber plantation

Fig. 1 Comparison between Shannon index (H’) of ant species in each land type at Chulaborn
dam
The Shannon-Wiener’s species diversity index (Fig. 1) indicated that the year round,
diversity was the highest in the mixed deciduous forest, followed by the pine forest and lastly therubber plantation. Moreover, the highest value of the evenness index of ants was in the mixed
deciduous forest, followed closely by the pine forest, whereas that for the Para rubber plantation
was markedly lower (Fig. 2). This indicates that a relatively equal abundance of each ant speciesⒸ ISERD

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was present in the mixed deciduous forest and the pine forest whereas the Para plantation had anunequal abundance of some ant species.
0.9
Dry season

0.8

Wet season

Evenness (J')

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
MDF

PF
Land types

PRP

MDF=Mixed deciduous forest, PF =Pine forest and PRP= Para rubber plantation

Fig. 2 Comparison between Evenness (J’) of ant species in each land type at Chulaborn dam
Table 3 The Sorensen’s similarity coefficient ants from the three sites
Types of land
MDF
PF
PRP

Sorensen's similarity (%)
MDF
PF
PRP
1
0.71
1
0.61
0.53
1

Note: MDF=Mixed deciduous forest, PF =Pine forest and PRP= Para rubber plantation

The species similarity between the mixed deciduous forest and the pine forest, as evaluated bySorensen’s similarity coefficient, was the highest whilst that between the mixed deciduous forest and
the Para rubber plantation and between the pine forest and the Para rubber plantation wereintermediate and the lowest, respectively (Table 3). The relatively high ant species diversity in themixed deciduous forest may be caused by the correspondingly high diversity in the plantcommunity and as such would potentially reflect the differences in the canopy cover and leaf
shedding. Hasin (2008) reported that the leaf litter, soil moisture content, and leaf litter biomass ineach study site would likely be affected by differences in each plant community. The leaf litter
provides both food and nest sites to many ant species, so it might be expected that an addition ofboth resources will produce a stronger response from litter-nesting ants (Armbrecht et al., 2006).
The higher species richness of ants in the natural forest than in the Para rubber plantation was
similar to the reported trend for ant diversity at Sabah, Malaysia, which was higher in the primaryand secondary forests than in the oil palm plantation (Yahya, 2000). Similarly with our report thatthe highest ant species richness was in the mixed deciduous forest followed by the pine forest and
the Para rubber plantation, respectively, supporting that the forest is a more suitable habitat than the
Para rubber plantation, all year round.
In the dry season, there were lower soil and litter moisture contents and a high temperature,
conditions which are unsuitable for ants and their prey leading to a lower ant biodiversity andpopulation levels and so a lower species number being recorded except in this study the mixed
deciduous forest was slightly higher in dry season. In the wet season, there is more soil and litter
moisture contents which are hence more suitable for many soil faunas that serve as ant prey. Thus,
with an increase in the population size and potential biodiversity, a higher of predatory ants were
found in this period. The similarity indices indicated that the species composition of ants between
the natural forest and the pine forest was higher than that between the pine forest and Para rubber
plantation. Compared with the primary land use as a natural forest, this result suggests that these amodified land usages reduce the ant diversity, meanwhile the Para rubber plantation can support alower ant biodiversity than the forests. This may be due to the fact that the tree canopy of the ParaⒸ ISERD

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rubber was treated all year round by some chemicals such as the herbicide that can also affect somearthropods and other food sources.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the difference in land use types, which may reflect the different land usages of thesesites but that awaits more detailed studies to confirm, potentially influenced the ant community
species diversity and composition, as somewhat intuitively expected but not to date ascertained forthese habitats. Some species were found in all three land use types, whilst other species were more
specialized being found only in specific microhabitats in the forest. If an understanding of
microhabitats used by specific ant species can be developed, along with the key trophic interactions,then the potential of using ants as terrestrial indicator species for detecting environmental changes
can potentially be reliably and easily (low cost and time) performed compared to some otherindicator species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Khon Kaen University funding 2012. The authors thank to the
Plant Genetics Conservation Project under The Royal Initiative of Her Royal Highness Princess
Maha Chakri Sirindhorn for permission of conducting the research. Special thanks to Integrated
Water Resource Manegiment and Development Central Northeast Thailand.
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biodiversity. Agosti, D., Alonso, L.E., Majer, J.D. and Schultz, T.R. (Eds). Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C., USA, 80-88.
Alonso, L.E. and Agosti, D. 2000. Biological studies, monitoring, and ants: An overview. In: Ants: Standard
method for measuring and monitoring biodiversity. Agosti, D., Alonso, L.E., Majer, J.D. and Schultz,
T.R. (Eds). Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA, 1-8.
Anderson, A.N. 1990. The use of ant communities to evaluate change in Australian terrestrial ecosystems: A
review and recipe. Proceedings of Ecological Society Australia, 16, 347-257.
Armbrecht, I., Perfecto, I. and Silverman, E. 2006. Limitation of nesting resources for ants in Colombian
forest and coffee plantations. Ecological Entomology, 31, 403-410.
Bolton, B. 1994. Identification guide to the ant genera of the world, Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
USA, 222.
Hasin, S. 2008. Diversity and community structure of ants at Sakaerat Environmental Research Station,
Nakhon Ratchasima province. Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University.
Thailand. 94, (in Thai).
Hölldobler, B. and Wilson, E.O. 1990. The ants. Belknap Press, Cambridge, USA, 732.
Krebs, C.J. 1999. Ecological methodology. Addison- Educationall Publishers, California, USA, 581.
Khoo, K.C. and Chung, G.F. 1989. Use of black cocoa ant to control mirid damage in cocoa. The Planter,
Kuala Lumpur, 65, 370-383.
Kritsaneepaiboon, S. and Saiboon, S. 2000. Ant species (Hymenoptera:Formicidae) in longkong (Meliaceae:
Aglaia dookkoo Griff.) plantation. Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology, 22(3), 393-396.
Maryati, M. 1996. A review of research on ants in Malaysia. In: Biodiversity and the Dynamics of
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Pacific and Asia series 1, 373-383.
Pearson, L.D. and Derr, A.J. 1986. Seasonal patterns of lowland forest floor abundance in southern Peru.
Biotropica, 18, 244-256.
Wiwatwitaya, D. and Jaitrong, W. 2001. Identification guide to the ant genera of Khao Yai National Park.
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. 110, (in Thai).
Yahya, B.E.B. 2000. The use of three insect groups as biological indicators in three ecohabitats of Sabah.
School of Science and Technology, University Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia, 182.
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Research article
erd

Effects of Coastal Road Spacing on Deposition of
Tsunami-Borne Sand
YOUKI MAEDA
Aoi Engineering Inc., Aichi, Japan

HIROMU OKAZAWA*
Faculty of Regional Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: h1okazaw@nodai.ac.jp

YASUSHI TAKEUCHI
Faculty of Regional Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanTOMONORI FUJIKAWA
Faculty of Regional Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanSHIGEYUKI MIYABAYASHI
Faculty of Regional Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 1 November 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Large-scale infrastructure for tsunami damage mitigation includes tidewater
control forests and tide embankments. It is said that installing a tidewater control forest of
200 m in width along the coast is effective in mitigating tsunami damage. Since the East
Japan Great Earthquake, tide embankments of about 7 m high have been underconstruction on coasts of tsunami-hit areas. Restoration and installation of tidewater
control forests require many years, and the construction of large-scale tide embankments
requires enormous cost. This study focuses on existing roads in the coastal areas. We
investigated the effects of road, depending on their conditions of spacing, on tsunami sanddeposition. A 0.3 m-wide, 12 m-long open channel was used for tsunami experiments. To
simulate a tsunami, a removable barrier was set near the upstream end of the channel toretain water. The barrier was lifted suddenly to generate a bore. The scale of the model
was 1/100. A certain amount of sand and models of a tidewater control forest, a tideembankment and roads made of acrylic were placed at the longitudinal midpoint of thechannel. The movement of sand carried by the reproduced tsunami was observed. Several
combinations of the tidewater control forest, tide embankment and three roads were usedin the tsunami reproduction experiment, with the spacing changed for each experiment. As
the result of experiments, it was clarified that when the spaces between the roads werewide, the amount of deposited sand was controlled better. It was also clarified that theamount of sand deposition at the time of a tsunami in a coastal area was able to becontrolled effectively by combining roads with wide spacing between them with atidewater control forest or a tide embankment.
Keywords tsunami, tidewater control forests, tide embankments, road, sand

INTRODUCTION
Tsunamis generated by the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 2004 (Mw 9.1) and the East Japan
Great Earthquake of 2011 (Mw 9.0) caused catastrophic damage in coastal areas (i.e. Kandasamy etal., 2005). In the East Japan Great Earthquake in particular, large amounts of sand were carried bytsunami waves from the sea bottom to coastal areas. The sand deposition was up to 30 cm thick,and the deposition was widespread. Because of the extreme amount and wide area of sanddeposition, removal work has not progressed yet at 2013.
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Large-scale infrastructure for tsunami damage mitigation includes tidewater control forests
and tide embankments. It is said that installing a tidewater control forest of 200 m in width along
the coast is effective in mitigating tsunami damage (Maeda, 2013). Since the East Japan Great
Earthquake, tide embankments of about 7 m high have been under construction on coasts oftsunami-hit areas. Restoration and installation of tidewater control forests require many years, andthe construction of large-scale tide embankments requires enormous cost.
OBJECTIVE
This study focuses on existing roads in the coastal areas. Roads take less time and money toconstruct than tide embankments and tidewater control forests take. We investigated the effects ofroad, depending of their conditions of installation, on tsunami sand deposition.
METHODOLOGY
A 0.3 m-wide, 12m-long open channel was used for tsunami experiments. To simulate a tsunami, aremovable barrier was set near the upstream end of the channel to retain water. The barrier was
lifted suddenly to generate a bore. The scale of the model was 1/100. A certain amount of sand andmodels of a tidewater control forest, a tide embankment and roads made of acrylic were placed at
the longitudinal midpoint of the channel. The movement of sand carried by the reproduced tsunami
was observed. Several combinations of tidewater control forest, tide embankment and three roads
were used in the tsunami reproduction experiment, with the spacing changed for each experiment.
The dimensions and alignment of the model trees in the tidewater control forest were
determined based on the study by Shuto et al. (1985). Acrylic sticks of 2 mm in diameter and 10.5
cm in length were arranged in a staggered pattern. The width of the tidewater control forest was set
as 200 cm (200 m in field scale), which was determined based on the Disaster Prevention Plan of
Minami Soma City, Fukushima Prefecture. The dimensions of the trapezoidal cross-section of thetide embankment were determined, based on the same plan, as 5 cm wide at the top, 13 cm wide at
the bottom and 7.5 cm high. The road model, simulating an agricultural road, was created as arectangle of 4.0 cm in width and 0.5 cm in height. The road models were placed immediately
downstream of the tidewater control forest model or the tide embankment model in three patternsof 15 cm, 20 cm or 25 cm intervals in each experiment. To evaluate the degree of sand control of
the road, the tide embankment and the tidewater control forest at the time of tsunami, Toyoura
silica sand, which was chosen to reproduce the sea bottom sand at the site, was laid in the channelbottom upstream of the tide embankment and tidewater control forest. 4.0 kg of sand was laid at 30
cm in width, 80 cm in length and 0.9 cm in thickness. The sand left in the assumed tsunami control
zone, consisting of the tide embankment, the tidewater control forest and roads, after the tsunami
simulation was measured for dry weight. Five experimental channel conditions were used: (1) nocontrol structures (no models), (2) only the road models, (3) the roads and tide embankment, (4) theroads and the tidewater control forest, and (5) the roads, the tide embankment and the tidewater
control forest. The interval of road was set as 15 cm, 20 cm or 25 cm in each experiment that used
the road models. To reproduce tsunamis in the experiment flume, a law of similitude was used.
Froude’s law of similitude is generally used for studies involving open flume experiments;
however, it was impossible to apply the Froude’s law of similitude, because there were locations
where water level differences were rapidly created by the presence of the tidewater control forest
and the embankment models. In this experiment, use of a law of similitude, in which the water
density and gravitational acceleration are the same for the original site as for the model, wasdetermined based on the conditions described in the Port and Airport Research Institute Report(Kimura et al., 1968). The geometric similarity in this experiment was set as 1/100, and the heightof tsunami that reached the coastal areas was assumed as 12 m, based on the Port and Airport
Research Institute Report (Takahashi et al. 2011). The tsunami velocity measured in the experimentusing the models was 1/10 that observed in the disaster area, which is the same as the result
obtained using Froude’s law of similitude (Maeda et al. 2013).
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Structures for mitigating Tsunami damage
Three Roads

Model scale is 1:100

Tidewater Control Forest 

Tide Embankment 

Acrylic sticks

4 cm

10 cm

30 cm
5 cm height

7.5 cm200 cm width

Tsunami Experiment Section
Several combinations of three infrastructuresets on this section

Removal barrier

Water

4 kg sand for evaluating
sand deposition

Lower(Ground)

Tsunami Experiment Section
Several combinations of three infrastructuresets on this section

Upper
(Sea)

The barrier was
lifted suddenly
to generate
TSUNAMI.

TSUNAMI

After Tsunami attacked,
Sands washed to downstream

Fig. 1 Outline of Tsunami experiment
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig. 2 shows the relationship between the road interval and the amount of sand deposited by thewater flow in the experiment. The values are the average and the standard deviation of threeexperimental flows. When road models were not installed, the sand deposition was 3.3 kg out of
the 4 kg of sand in the flow. When the road models were installed perpendicular to the flow atintervals of 15 cm, 20 cm and 25 cm, the respective sand depositions were 3.1 kg (78%), 2.7 kg(68%) and 2.5 kg (63%) and it’s standard deviation were 0.36, 0.16 and 0.11. It was clarified thatthe amount of sand deposited by the tsunami waves decreases with increases in the interval of roads.
It was demonstrated that the tsunami drag force decreased when roads were installed.
Fig. 3 shows the result of experiments with four different conditions. (1) Without any
structures, 3.2 kg of sand was deposited by tsunami waves. It was clarified that the amount of sanddeposited by the tsunami waves decreased in stages by combining the roads with a tideembankment and a tidewater control forest, in the following order of least to most increase: (3)with roads and a tide embankment, (4) with roads and a tidewater control forest, and (5) with roads,
a tide embankment and a tidewater control forest. It was clarified that combining the roads with atidewater control forest was effective in mitigating sand deposition caused by tsunami, because theamount of sand controlled by the tidewater control forest was particularly large.

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Amount of sand depositedby the tsunami waves (kg)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

4.0

Before experiment

After experiment

3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Initial laid sand
(4kg)

Nothing is roads

15 cm intervalroads

20 cm intervalroads

25 cm intervalroads

Fig. 2 Relationship between the road interval and the amount of sand depositedby the water flow in the experiment

Amount of sand deposited
By the tsunami waves (kg)

4.0
4.0

0.5
0.4

3.0

0.3
2.0
2.0
0.2
1.0
1.0

0.1

0.0

0.0
Nothing

Only Road

Road and TE

Road and TWPF Road, TE andTWPF

TE and TWPF means tide embankment and tidewater embankment.
Red indicates the result of tsunami experiment without any structures. Blue, Yellow and Orange also shows the results of
15 cm, 20 cm and 25 cm interval three roads, respectively.

Fig. 3 Result of experiments with five different conditions
As the result of experiments, it was clarified that when the spaces between the roads werewide, the amount of deposited sand was controlled in better way. It was also clarified that theamount of sand deposition at the time of a tsunami in a coastal area could be controlled effectively
by combining roads with wide spacing between them with a tidewater control forest or a tideembankment.
CONCLUSION
In this study, the effect of roads and each additional measure in controlling sand deposition causedby tsunami was examined and the effective interval of roads installed parallel to the coastline in
mitigating tsunami damages was explored.
It was clarified that the amount of sand controlled by the roads increases with increases in theroad interval and that a reduction of 98% or more was achieved in the condition with control
measures compared to without control measures, assuming that a tidewater control forest of 200 cm
in width (200 m in field-scale) was installed in each case.
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However, these results are from laboratory flume experiments that did not consider the
topography of the sea bottom or of coastal areas. The similarity of sand was also ignored in thisstudy. To further study measures against sand deposition damage by tsunamis, it is necessary to
conduct experiments that consider the similarity of sand and the topography of the sea bottom andthe coastal areas in question.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Eastern Japan Support Project from Tokyo University ofAgriculture, Japan. The authors are grateful for the research assistance provided by the students of
the laboratory of Hydro-structure Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture.
REFERENCES
Kandasamy, K. and Narayanasamy R., 2005. Coastal mangrove forests mitigated tsunami, Estuarine, Coastal
and Shelf Science, 65, 601-606.
Kimura, H., Kudo, K. and Shibayama, A., 1968. A model experiment on the tsunami breakwaters at the port
Kochi. Report of the Port and Airport Research Institute. 7(2), 3-64. 1968, (in Japanese).
Maeda, Y., Okazawa, H., Takeuchi, Y. and Fujikawa, T., 2013. Evaluation of tide embankment andprotection forest width on tsunami disaster using tsunami simulator. International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development, 4(2), (in press).
Shuto, N. 1985. Effect of salty wind protection forests on protection against tsunami and its limit. Coastal
Engineering Journal, 32. 465-469, (in Japanese).
Takahasi, S., et al. 2011. Urgent survey for 2011 great east Japan earthquake and tsunami disaster in ports
and coasts. Technical Note of the Port and Airport Research Institute, 1231, 31-44.

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Research article
erd

Possibility of Participatory Evaluation for Promoting
Sustainable Agriculture Project in Samroung Commune of
Cambodia
JUN FUJIHIRA
Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Receivedn 26 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract In all over the world, many organizations implement project from a viewpoint ofsustainable development. In case of Japan, 10.5 billion USD is used for Official
Development Assistance (ODA) in 2012. Projects were not only implemented but also
evaluated by donors, experts and implementers such as NGO and universities. This kind of
conventional project evaluation is designed mainly by implementer side and local people
regarded as just informants. But criticisms for conventional project evaluation were alsostudied by other researchers. In 2000, previous study stated that thinking of experts often
different from that of people in developing country. Other studies also mentioned that, for
improving quality of assistance, it is necessary to conduct project evaluation by adding thepoint of view of local people and feedback results of project evaluation to local people.
However,implementation of participatory evaluation also has difficulties such as resource
limitation and conflict of interest. So, this study dealt with the possibility of implementing
participatory evaluation for project from a viewpoint of sustainable development inSamroung commune of Cambodia. The study was advanced through comparing evaluation
result of conventional evaluation and model participatory evaluation. Result shows that
result of two evaluation approaches has some differences because of resource limitationand less objectivity. Therefore, this study concluded that project evaluation better to bedone not only by experts but also by local participants. This study proposes different
approach of participatory evaluation for evaluating the project properly with more local
voice in shorter time and less expense. This approach has potential to enhanceaccountability toward stakeholdersof Japanese ODA because result of evaluation is led
with more local voices with objectivity of experts. Process of this approach also has
potential as capacity building for stakeholders including local people in Cambodia.
Keywords participatory evaluation, conventional evaluation, participation level,sustainable development, Japanese ODA

INTRODUCTION
In all over the world, many organizations implement project from a viewpoint of sustainable
development. In case of Japan, 10.5 billion USD is used for Official Development Assistance(ODA) in 2012 (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2014). Projects were not only implemented but also
evaluated by stakeholders such as implementer, donor and expert. This kind of conventional project
evaluation is designed mainly by implementer side and local people regarded as just an informant.
By framework of ladder of participation that is considered as one of the classic and most influential
participation theories, this participation level is evaluated less than placation under degree of
tokenism. It is because that the ground rules allow people to advice but retain for the power holders
the continued right to decide (Arnstein, 1969).
Criticisms for conventional project evaluation were also studied by other researchers.
Chambers (2000) stated that thinking of experts often different from that of people in developingⒸ ISERD

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country. Other studies also mentioned that, for improving the quality of assistance, it is necessary
to conduct project evaluation by adding point of view of local people and feedback of the results.
Participation of stakeholders for evaluation is recognized to have benefit not only for improving
their knowledge and technique related to evaluation but also for their capacity development on
development management. For JICA (2001), the participatory evaluation has 4 objectives: 1)
building management capacity, 2) promoting ownership, 3) enhancing effective feedback, and 4)
advancing accountability for donor and Japanese citizens. So, participatory evaluation can beconsidered as one method for capacity building and for expecting sustainability of future activities
on project site because stakeholders learn method of project evaluation, strengthen ownership ofprojects, and improve their management skills in project implementation. Although participatory
evaluation does not have a fixed and agreed-upon definition, this study applies the definition of
Cousins and Earl (1999) who defined participatory evaluation as applied social research thatinvolves a partnership between trained and practice-based decision makers, organization memberswith program responsibility, or people with a vital interest in the program. But it also has
difficulties to implement. For example, to make reasonable evaluation result without conflict ofinterest seems to be difficult to make because this evaluation system involves more stakeholders as
evaluator. If there is no conflict of interest, result of evaluation will be trustable and carry out
positive impact for accountability toward donor and citizens. So, for implementing sustainable
development positively, this study dealt with the possibility of implementing participatory
evaluation for project from a viewpoint of sustainable development in Samroung commune of
Cambodia.
Study Site
Study covered 11 villages which are located in Samroung commune, Phrey Chhor district,Kampong Cham province, Cambodia. These villages consist of Bonteay Thmey, Takrit,
KondalKoang, TompangRisey, Svayprey, Samroung, Sodey, Thmey, Veal, Smei and Preykhcheay
village. This commune is located at the distance of 83 kilometers from Phnom Penh cityand 8,111
people are living in 2011 (Fig. 1). In Samroung commune, conventional farming system is mainly
applied for production in order to increasing yield. For promoting sustainable farming systems
through sustainable agriculture based on natural resource circulation, Institute of Environment
Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON) and Tokyo University of Agriculture has been
implementing a projectt itled project on promoting sustainable agriculture in Samroung communeof Kampong Cham province, Cambodia since April 2011.

Kampong Cham province

Cambodia

Phrey Chhor district

Kampong Cham province

Samroung commune
Phnom Penh
0

0

20km

100km

Fig. 1 Location of Samroung commune in Kamong Cham Province
METHODOLOGY
For achieving objective, the study was advanced through model participatory evaluation, focus
group discussion, with 6 committee members of farmers’ group and a school director on 27Ⓒ ISERD

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September, 2013. In model participatory evaluation, definition of evaluation, criteria for evaluation,and basic information and activities of the project were shared in order to implementing adequate
evaluation. Result of evaluation was answered by score on five points Likert Scale along thecontinuum of not satisfied at all to very satisfied. For avoiding conflict of interest, researcher acted
just as facilitator encouraging participants to answer their opinions without hesitation.
In the project, 17contents were implemented from April 2012 to March 2013, Japanesefinancial year of 2012. For evaluating activities in 2012, researcher explained contents under 5activities briefly and form question with participants. Then, participants evaluated these activities
based on OECD criteria for evaluation such as relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impacts andsustainability (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Materials for explaining process of participatory evaluation (left)
and model participatory evaluation with local participants (right)
Conventional Evaluation Approach and Results in 2012
From the 1st year of the project, implement organization named Institute of Environment
Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON) organize evaluation meeting as mid-term evaluation at
the end of each financial year. The evaluation team comprised eight experts from Thailand,
Cambodia and Japan having expertize in evaluation of international cooperation activities.The teamvisited project site in Samroung commune from 6 to 7 March, 2013. In the observation, meetings
were held for direct interviews by evaluators to farmers, school teachers and concerned government
officers in farmlands, elementary schools and market. The evaluation team also observed farmers
group meeting as well as workshop on promoting sustainable agriculture.Through the observationin site, every team member evaluated project achievements by using evaluation sheets based on
OECD criteria for evaluation. Finally, the team concluded “Summary of Evaluation” at theevaluation meeting on 8th March where 31 participants from collaborated organizations
attended.At the end of the evaluation meeting, summary of evaluation was submitted from leader of
evaluation team to representative of project implementer. Evaluation team evaluated the project as
satisfactory in terms of activities for farmers, but could not evaluate impact of activities inelementary schools because they could not observe activities for this criterion.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Comparing Results of Conventional Evaluation and Model Participatory Evaluation
Table 1 shows contents and evaluated activities done by evaluation team on March and local
participants on September 2013. Contents of activities which has asterisk were observed andevaluated by evaluation team on March, 2013.
As Table 1 shows, project team could observeonly 7 contents in 5 activities at project site
because of the time limitation. They evaluated almost all of activities as satisfactory and fewⒸ ISERD

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activities were evaluated as the highest or the second highest score through observation.
Yet, local participants evaluated 17 contents. Besides, as different from evaluation team, theyevaluated not only activities but also individual content as possible as they could.
Table 1 Result of evaluation by evaluation team and local people
Contents of activity in 2012
(From April 2012 to March 2013)* Activities which evaluation team observed
Activity 0
1. Conduct evaluation meeting for 2011
2. Distribute materials for 139 farmers

Activity 1
1. Set 33 model farms*
2. Select core members for farmers’ group in eachvillage
3. Form group on Samroung Safe Agricultural
Products (SSAP) and select committee members
4. Conduct technical training at Thailand
5. Conduct workshop for local farmers who do notbelong to the farmers’ groups by SSAP*
Activity 2
1. Establish Pellet Compost Center*
2. 22 rear cars were distributed

Activity 3
1. Hold meeting for project teams of surveying
agricultural product market
2. Hold meeting for project team of products with lesschemical input sales*
3. Register to Cambodian Organic Agriculture
Association (COrAA)
Activity 4
1. Promote the food, agriculture and environment
education through activities at organic farm*
2. Conduct rice growing experiment with different
three formulas were conducted at each school as thefood, agriculture and environment education. *3. Conduct training on the food, agriculture andenvironment education for school teachers
Activity 5
1. Organize evaluation meeting on 2012*
2. Publish and distribute newsletter which includes
the contents of activities and the outcomes as wellas project evaluation

Criteria ofevaluation

Evaluation byevaluation
team(March 2013)

1. Relevance
2. Effectiveness-3. Efficiency-

4. Impact
5. Sustainability-

1. Relevance

Satisfactory

2. Effectiveness

Satisfactory

3. Efficiency

Satisfactory

4. Impact
5. Sustainability

Satisfactory
Satisfactory

1. Relevance
2. Effectiveness

Satisfactory
Satisfactory

3. Efficiency
4. Impact
5. Sustainability

Satisfactory
Satisfactory
Satisfactory

1. Relevance
2. Effectiveness3. Efficiency

Satisfactory
Satisfactory
Satisfactory

4. Impact

Satisfactory

5. Sustainability

Satisfactory

1. RelevanceHighlysatisfactory
Satisfactory
Satisfactory-

2. Effectiveness3. Efficiency
4. Impact
5. Sustainability

Potentiallysatisfactory

1. RelevanceHighlysatisfactory
Satisfactory

2. Effectiveness3. Efficiency
Satisfactory
4. Impact
Satisfactory
5. Sustainability Satisfactory
Source: Summary of Evaluation for Year 2 and focus group discussion in 2013, ERECON

Evaluation by farmers(September 2013)

Very satisfied
Very satisfied(For 2, satisfied)
Very satisfied(For 2, satisfied)
Very satisfied
Very satisfied
Very satisfied(For 2 and 3, normal)
Very satisfied(For 2 and 3, normal)
Satisfied(For 4, very satisfied)
Very satisfied
Very satisfied
Very satisfied
Very satisfied(For 2, satisfied)
Very satisfied
Very satisfied
Very satisfied
Very satisfied
Very satisfied
Very satisfied(For 3, normal)
Very satisfied(For 3, normal)
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Very satisfied
Very satisfied
Very satisfied(For 3, normal)
Very satisfied

Very satisfied
Very satisfied(For 2, satisfied)
Very satisfied
Very satisfied
Very satisfied

As same as Chambers (2000) mentioned, result done by evaluation team and local people
showed some differences.
Firstly, local participants evaluated activity 0 which evaluation team did not evaluate. Also,Ⓒ ISERD

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they recognized not completely satisfactory toward effectiveness and efficiency on distributing
materials to 139 farmers. It is because that some farmers did not practice adequately even theyreceived materials for practicing the learnt techniques such as compost and bio-pesticide making.
Some farmers seem to busy with other tasks and less motivation for practicing the learnt
techniques.Distributing 22 rear cars were also regarded low effectiveness and efficiency at the
moment because some farmers not yet use for the intended purpose and just keep these at theirhouse.
Secondly, local participants evaluate low on selecting core members and forming farmer'sgroup. Forming farmer's group is not special for farmers. Reason of low evaluation was that thegroup was not registered as agricultural cooperative to the Cambodian government. However,registration of farmer's group to government is not included as project purpose.
Thirdly, activities at elementary schools were evaluated very high by both of evaluation teamand local people. Butparticipants especially teacher regarded impact of the rice experiment was
normal.They regarded it was just beginning and they would like to continue experiment withvegetable in order to teach advantages of sustainable agriculture to students.
At last, it was also revealed through focus group discussion that some farmers did not know
attached newsletter named Sustainable Agriculture in each village. It was attached on information
board in each village in order to share result of activities and evaluation meeting on previous year.
Discussion
JICA (2001) mentioned participatory evaluation is needed in JICA project because sustainability of
project will be improved, and beneficiaries can understand project and accept them more readily. It
applied same in Samroung commune because local participants mentioned they could understandproject design and activities well through model participatory evaluation. But, through model
participatory evaluation, it was considered that farmer's tend to evaluate contents of activities
positively. It may cause conflict of interest on result of evaluation. Facilitator needs to consider theway to prevent conflict of interest carefully.
Meanwhile, evaluation by experts did not evaluate the project properly because time limitation
did not allow them to observe all of activities and process of implementation. Opinions of the entire
range of beneficiary local people were also difficult to be involved because the evaluation team
could discuss with only some of farmers who were selected by implementer. As Beatrice (2008)
stated, proper information and feedback may only be obtained through interactive participation andrequired involvement of relevant stakeholders in the project at Samroung commune.
Normally, participatory evaluation was conducted with participation of experts and local
participants at the same time. But, as same as JICA (2001) studied, not enough time and money canbe considered as limitations for implementation.
So, this study would like to propose different approach of participatory evaluation for midterm and terminal evaluation as experienced from the case of Samroung commune.In detail, local
participants evaluate contents of activities through observation and focus group discussion withproject implementer. It is similar to monitoring but its purposes are not only checking progress andadjustment points of the project activities but also its impact and sustainability based on OECD
criteria. Tentative summary of the earlier evaluation should be shared with the evaluation team as
their reference. Evaluation team conducts observation after checking tentative summary of earlier
evaluation that is made by local evaluators. Under this approach, experts can understand voice of
local people properlywith shorter time and less expenses if they would read tentative summary ofearlier evaluation before their observation. In addition, sustainability can be evaluated fromcontents of tentative summary because management capacity of local people will be shown onsummary. JICA (2012) wrote some project conclude that they have sustainability if there were no
problems when evaluation conducted. But, in fact, it seems not proper way to evaluation
sustainability.
It was also considered that facilitator needs to improve knowledge related to evaluation andfacilitation for improving effectiveness and efficiency of participatory evaluation. Their facilitation
seems essential for conducting proper participatory evaluation without conflict of interest.
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Besides, this study could not check possibility of improving ownership of local people throughparticipatory evaluation because it needs to be studied by how their involvement changed, and how
their participation level improved in future activities. It needs to be studied in future studies.
CONCLUSION
According to the result and discussion done in this study, it can be concluded that Samroung
Commune has possibility of implementing participatory evaluation. Result of the study shows thatconventional evaluation done by only experts seems not evaluate the project properly because oftime limitation and less involvement of local people. In addition, result of evaluation done byexperts and local participants has some differences. However, local participants seem to evaluate
the project positively and they may evaluate some points which are not included as project
purposes. From these points, evaluation seems better to be done not only by experts but also by
local participants. So, this study proposes different approach of participatory evaluation forevaluating the project properly with more local voice in shorter time and less expense. This process
also seems able to evaluate sustainability of the project properly. In addition, this study could not
check possibility of improving ownership of local people through participatory evaluation. So it
needs to be studied in future studies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors would like to express appreciation to all of colleagues at ERECON and relatedorganizations, especially project evaluation team in 2011 and 2012.
REFERENCES
Arnstein, R. 1969. A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 35(4),216-224.
Beautrice, O. 2008. Strengthening rural agricultural training program through participation and training needs
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London.
Cousins, J. and Earl, L.M. 1999.When the boat gets missed: Response to M.F. Smith. American Journal of
Evaluation, 20, 309-317.
Cullen, A. and Coryn, C.L.S. 2011. Forms and functions of participatory evaluation in International
development: A review of the empirical and theoretical literature. Journal of Multi Disciplinary
Evaluation, 7-16.
ERECON. 2012. Annual report 2011 of program on promoting sustainable agriculture at Kampong Champrovince in Cambodia. Consortium of Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation andTokyo University of Agriculture, Japan.
ERECON. 2013. Annual report 2012 of program on promoting sustainable agriculture at Kampong Champrovince in Cambodia. Consortium of Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation andTokyo University of Agriculture, Japan.
JICA. 2001. Participatory Evaluation and International Cooperation. Japan.
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Participation in Development; The Question, Challenges and Issues.
Mihara, M. and Fujimoto, A. 2000. Sustainable farming practices for environmental conservation. Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation and Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan, 1-9.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2014. Overview of Japan’s ODA White Paper, Japan.
Miyoshi, K. et al. 2008. Theory of Evaluation.Sekaishisousya Co., Ltd., Japan.
Ohashi, M. et al. 2003. Project evaluation on international cooperation. The International Development
Journal, Japan.

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Research article
erdCanal Water Level as a Canal Water Management System:
Case Study of Klong Rangsit, Phathumthani, Thailand
KAMONSORN THANWISET*
Faculty of Architecture, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Email: kamonsorn_t@rmutt.ac.th
Received 17 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract This research paper deals with the management of the canal water level (CWL)
of Klong Rangsit Canal (KRC) as a canal water management system (CWMS) by relevant
local government units and the CWL impacts on the livelihood of local residents. The
relevant local agencies responsible for the CWMS in the area under study are the Royal
Irrigation Department (RID) Area 11, the Bungyeetho municipality (BYM) and the
Phachatiphat Sub-District municipality (PSM). The officials and personnel tasked with
the CWMS responsibility were interviewed. In addition, the collection of field data wascarried out. The findings indicate that attempts have been made by both municipalities toimprove the living conditions and livelihood of the local residents. However, the local
administrations lack the proper knowledge and skills to operate the floodgates. The
municipalities operate the floodgates according to the demands of local residents. It is thus
possible to draw a conclusion that most local-level state agencies give their own remit thefirst priority while the overall efficiency or cooperative efforts with other stakeholders are
given a second priority.
Keywords canal water, management, government, responses

INTRODUCTION
Many CWL problems arise from ineffective management or a lack of participation and cooperation
among stakeholder groups in the CWMS (Hearne and Torpen, 2010). Some canals are long,complex and connected to main rivers, the characteristics which influence the water flow in thecanals. In addition, misuse and overuse of canal water resources occurs, especially when there is awater shortage. Construction projects and canal gates slow canal water flow. In addition, floods
could be influenced by rising sea levels, land subsidence and variation in the levels of rainfall(Chyan-Deng et al., 2007). Variation in canals and soil loss during land clearing affects low-lying
areas and those with poor drainage (Casadio et al., 2010). The relevant government agencies inThailand that are responsible for management of natural resources, including the CWMS, havebeen classified into two levels: the National Government (NG) and the Local Government (LG)levels, as shown in Figure 1.
At the NG level, this research paper is concerned with two key state agencies, i.e. the Ministryof Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives of Thailand and the Ministry of Interior of Thailand.
The agriculture ministry is tasked with the duties and powers with respect to agriculture, water
sourcing and irrigation development, agriculturist promotion and development, cooperative systempromotion and development. In addition, under the Ministry of Agriculture and Agricultural
Cooperatives, the Royal Irrigation Department (RID) of Thailand is a national-level state body
mainly responsible for the irrigation management in Thailand (Ministry of Agriculture andAgricultural Cooperatives, 2011). On the other hand, the interior ministry is responsible for the
livelihood of citizens and the social, economic and environmental developments through district
and tambon (sub-district) administrations. At the level of LG, the focus is on the Royal Irrigation
Department’s Area 11, which is a local government agency directly responsible for Klong Rangsit
Canal (KRC), the canal under study. The RID’s Area 11 is tasked with surveillance of water levels
in KRC and prevention of flooding to the agricultural lands and communities near and along theⒸ ISERD

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canal. The LG-level units are structured to enable a close collaboration with local residents to build
a correct understanding of the area characteristics and thereby allow for timely response. This is thegoal impossible to achieve with the NG-level state agencies. KRC is located in Thanyaburi districtof Phathumthani province north of Bangkok. The district covers the municipalities of BYM and
PSM, both of which are responsible for the areas along Klong (canals) 1-5.

Fig. 1 The NG-level and LG–level state agencies
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this research is to study the CWMS of the relevant local government units and theenvironmental impacts and effects on local residents of the CWMS implementation.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGYThis research work relies on two sources of data: the primary and secondary sources. The primarydata sources include interviews with the local residents along the canal and with relevant
authorities as well as questionnaires. The secondary sources are reviews of books and journals,
official records of the relevant government agencies, and from other stakeholders. The government
agencies from which the official records were obtained are Bungyeetho Municipality (BYM),
Phachatiphat Sub-District Municipality (PSM) and the Royal Irrigation Department (RID) Area 11.
The officials and personnel responsible for the CWMS of the area under study were interviewed. In
addition, field data were gathered from interviews with local residents and observations. Theinterview sessions enable a correct understanding of the present conditions, the CWMS
implementation and its impacts on the livelihood of the local residents.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data from the RID Area 11 shows the impacts of changing precipitation on the CWL. Figure 2
depicts the relationship between the CWL in KRC and the average monthly rainfall from four
irrigation stations located in the lower North region from 1998 through 2010. A maximum average
rainfall was observed in September, one month before the CWL in KRC reached its annual peak inⒸ ISERD

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October. This is because following heavy precipitation water from the North region slowly flows
south and thus increases the CWL in Bangkok and its nearby areas. December had the lowest
precipitation level and subsequently a lower CWL in the following months.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul

Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 2 Precipitation and CWL from 1998 to 2010 by percent of peak value
3

Maxiuum Capacity

2.5
2 Standard Level
1.5
1
0.5

Swelling canal water is 50 cm

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul

Aug Sep Oct

Nov Dec

Fig. 3 Levels of canal water of 1995-2009
As seen in Fig. 3, the CWL could drop below 1.50 meters for up to 8 months of a year during
the period of 1995 to 2009. Ideally, the CWL should be in the range of 2.00-2.50 meters. Especiallyfrom April to July, the canal water quality failed to meet the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
standard and the CWL was the lowest during the period (Doungdearn, J. et al, 2002). In addition, it
is possible to conclude that the levels of canal water downstream are directly influenced by thevariability of precipitation in the North region of Thailand. The CWL in KRC was relatively stable
at approximately 0.5-0.9 m. Annual variable precipitation results in changes in the CWL (Thai
Meteorological Department, 2010). This fact is confirmed by Fig. 3, which illustrates thedifferences in the CWLs from 1995 to 2009. From 1995 to 1998, there were greater differences
between the highest and lowest CWLs, compared to from 2003 to 2009. The same figure also
shows that the CWL was below 1.50 meters for up to 8 months of a year during the dry season. An
ideal CWL should be in the range of 2.00 to 2.50 meters. In addition, the canal water quality failed
to meet the BOD standard and the CWL was at its lowest during the period of April through July.
A low and stable CWL of 0.5-0.9 meter was observed for most of the year. As indicated in Fig. 3,
the RID maintains a minimum CWL at no less than 0.50 meter or 50 cm in order to control thepollution level and maintain the water aeration in KRC. A lower CWL could affect the water
aeration in the canal since water inflow is insufficient to replenish oxygen in the water.
Furthermore, the lower CWL makes it impossible to flush waste water in KRC into the main river.
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CWMS Evaluation
The KRC canal flows and discharges into the Chao Phraya River. The water level of KRC issubject to the water levels of the Chao Phraya River and the water from the northern region. In ahigh CWL in KRC, the Chulalongkorn main floodgate would be opened to discharge the canalwater into the Chao Phraya River to prevent flooding. In the dry season in March and April, when
the CWL is low, the main floodgate would be opened to drain the water from the river into the
KRC canal. However, in case that the water level in the Chao Phraya River is lower than that in
KRC in any dry season, the river water would be pumped into KRC to maintain the canal water
quality and appropriate CWL. The minimum and maximum of CWL of KRC are 50 cm and 2.503.00 meters, respectively. According to the RID Area 11, there are many floodgates along KRC toregulate the CWL. When a demand for water arises, the RID 11th would be notified either by local
residents or by the BYM or PSM local administration to operate the floodgates. To efficiently
manage the CWL of KRC, the local RID launched the Operation and Maintenance South Rangsit
Irrigation Canal Project. The aims of the project are flood prevention and better water management
for agriculture. In addition, during the rainy season, the local RID closely monitors the CWL
situation of KRC and updates other relevant agencies for a timely decision and effective operationof the floodgates.

60

6 Kirometers

Fig. 4 Location of the Chulalongkorn main floodgate
Government Responses
According to an interview with Mr. Nithaklon Yentakoun, head of the Canal Water Management
Division of KRC, the canal water flows both upstream and downstream depending on the waterlevel of two rivers on either side of KRC in different seasons. The rivers are the Chao Phraya Riverand the Bang Phrakok River. The BYM municipality is responsible for the canal cleanliness andquality and the provision of assistance to the local residents affected by floods. In addition, themunicipality collaborates with local leaders and community members to improve the condition andsustainability of the canal, e.g. the clean canal campaigns, landscape improvement projects and theprograms to address environmental impacts from the industrial development in or around the area.
Figure 5 illustrates the cooperation between the relevant local government agencies and local
residents to address the problems and impacts arising from the CWL. When a CWL problem arises,
the RID Area 11 and the relevant municipalities would be alerted. The local RID would operate thecanal water floodgates according to the requirements, while the municipalities provide the local
residents with food, sanitation and basic accommodations. Occasionally, community leaders alert
the local RID to operate the floodgates or request assistance from a community closer to the localⒸ ISERD

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RID to alert the local state body to operate the floodgates. According to Thaweewong Sriburi, avice president of the Thailand Environment Institute (TEI) (2003), Thailand has at least 30 stateagencies under eight different ministries, other than two independent committees, responsible for or
tasked with canal water-related projects or duties. This unnecessarily complicates the efficient andsuccessful national-level implementation of the CWMS policies and practices in the country. In
addition, the inputs from local residents are usually excluded from the formulation of the nationallevel CWMS policies and practices. This leads to ineffective implementation of the CWMS
policies in the local level. The issues must be addressed urgently by which the local inputs areincluded and more cooperation of various relevant agencies is encouraged in the policy setting.

Fig. 5 Schematic of the operation and maintenance South Rangsit Irrigation Canal Project
Implementation of CWMS
(A) Alleviation measures in case of floods and droughts: According to an interview with themayor of BYM, the municipality would take necessary measures to alleviate the suffering of theresidents affected by floods or droughts. For instance, local residents whose houses are flooded
would be provided with safe temporary shelters and evacuated if required. In addition, they would
be provided with foods and medicines. However, some flood victims fail to receive the aids as theirresidences were illegally built on the state land and thereby are not shown in the local demographic
census.
(B) Preventive measures to wastewater: The illegal settlers were found to fail to care for theenvironment and thus dump household wastewater into KRC (Sajor, E.E. and Ongsakul, R., 2007).
In addition, our survey found that household wastewater from these illegal settlements is untreatedsince the area is outside the municipalities’ jurisdiction. Nevertheless, the educational campaigns
have failed to instill in these settlers a sense of responsibility and cooperation. Thus, both
municipalities of BYM and PSM have taken other necessary steps to improve the condition of thecanal and its CWL with such a project as the canal cleaning and dredging project which is held
once or twice annually. The project is supported by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) andlocal schools that send volunteers to help with the project.
(C) Assessment and treatment of canal water: When the CWL of KRC is low, the PSM
municipality would replenish the oxygen level in the canal water, especially in the area where
many restaurants and floating markets are located, i.e. Klong (canals) 1 and 2. The oxygen
replenishing machines are scheduled to run every day during 2.30 p.m. - 5 p.m. Although themunicipality has four machines under its care, only one is functional.
(D) Recovery of environmental degradation: Both BYM and PSM municipalities constructed acanal embankment along one side of the KRC canal and converted the other side into a small
avenue for walking and bicycles. In addition, improvements have been made to the landscape along
the canal. The developments are intended to prevent new illegal settlement along the canal and toevict the illegal settlers in a most ingenious and diplomatic manner.

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Ineffective CWMS of Relevant Local Government Units
The study results reveal a lack of cooperation between the local government units in charge of
KRC in tackling the CWL and pollution problems in an efficient and sustainable fashion. An
interview with the mayor of BYM indicated that three main agencies are tasked with the CWMS
responsibility of KRC, i.e. the engineering division of the municipality, the environment division of
BYM and the RID 11th. For example, construction of a bridge is the responsibility of themunicipality’s engineering division or the local RID or other local state units since the activity
affects land use and the canal characteristics. In addition, an interview with Mr. Nithaklon
Yentakoun, an official stationed at the RID Area 11, revealed that no standard operating procedureof the floodgates exists. Another interview with community leaders of the Klong Rangsit 3 market
showed that the local residents require the canal water for both agriculture and drainage to flush
water contaminants. The municipality sometimes involuntarily operated the floodgates to flush
waste water following the local community leaders’ requests.
The local municipalities operate the floodgates and manage the CWL of KRC in accordancewith the demands of local residents since the local administrations lack the proper knowledge andskills to operate the floodgates. The municipalities would tackle the problem only when it arises. It
is also found that most local-level state agencies give their own remit the first priority while theoverall efficiency or cooperative efforts with other stakeholders are given a second priority.
According to Chitradon (2009), the key to a successful CWMS is the adaptive capability and thecollaboration and participation of all concerned parties, i.e. local governmental agencies, cities, andcommunities.
CONCLUSION
The findings indicate a lack of regular and systematic monitoring of the quantity and quality ofwater in KRC. This contributes to a severe water shortage in dry seasons and to high pollution andlow oxygen in the water. Since the dredging of KRC a hundred years ago, the RID has been a key
government unit responsible for the CWMS of the canal. However, the agency has focused its tasks
on the prevention of flooding and maintaining of adequate water in the canal (i.e. a minimum of 50cm); but has never assessed the quality of the water in KRC. The local RID operates the water
floodgates according to the needs of local residents who are affected by contamination or pollution
in the canal water. In addition, it is found that the ineffective implementation of CWMS could
possibly be attributed to an ambiguous division of CWMS responsibility between various local
government units.
REFERENCES
Casadio, A., Maglionico, M., Bolognesi, A. and Artina, S. 2010. Toxicity and pollutant impact analysis in an
urban river due to combined sewer overflows loads. Canal Water Science & Technology, 61(1), 207-215.
Chitradon, R., et al. 2009. Risk Management of Canal water Resources in Thailand in the Face of Climate
Change. Research of Hydro and Agro Informatics Institute. (Retreaved from http://www.haii.or.th/
haiiweb/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=139&Itemid=1&lang=th_TH. Accessed: 8
September 2010).
Chyan-Deng Jan, Tsung-Hsien Chen and Wei-Cheng Lo. 2007. Effect of rainfall intensity and distribution on
ground canal water level fluctuations. Journal of Hydrology, 332(3-4), 348-360.
Doungdearn, J., Supatimasro, D., Kuppiphayyanant, N. and Rudisirisak, K.. 2002. The study of water quality
in Klong Rangsit, Phatumthani Province. Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi. Thailand.
Hearne, R.R. and Torpen, D.R. 2010. Stakeholder preferences for canal water management alternatives.
Canal Water International, 35(2), 150-164.
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative. 2011. Vision/Mission, variable data from the Office of theSecretary. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative. (Retreaved from http://eng.moac.go.th/ewt_news.
php?nid=101. Acessed: 3 January 2011).
Sajor, E.E. and Ongsakul, R. 2007. Mixed land use and equity in canal water governance in peri-ubanⒸ ISERD

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Bangkok. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 31(4), 782-801.
Sriburi, T. 2003. Living canal water conservation, special discussion as the world environment day by theinstitute of environment in cooperation with Chulalongkorn University. Siam Club Environment,
Foundation Spy Nakhasathien and Interdisciplinary Scientific Environment, Chulalongkorn University,
Thailand. (Retreaved from http://www.seub.or.th/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=
163:libery&catid=60:2009-11-12-08-41-01&Itemid=75. Acessed: 9 September 2010).
Thai Meteorological Department. 2010. Features daily weather summary. Report of Thai Meteorological
Department (Retreaved from http://www.tmd.go.th/climate/climate.php. Accessed: 28 July 2010).

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Research article
erd

Survey Analysis of the Characteristics of Greenhouses in
Korea
MANKWON CHOI
Institute of Agriculture and Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Korea

SUNGWOOK YUN
Institute of Agriculture and Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Korea

YONGCHEOL YOON*
Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Gyeongsang National University (Institute of Agricultureand Life Science), Jinju, Korea
Email: ychyoon@gnu.ac.kr
Received 12 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract The purpose of this study is to collect basic data (using a questionnaire survey)
to inform the establishment of structural safety guidelines and the standardization ofgreenhouse design in order to determine a standard model for the development ofgreenhouses on reclaimed land. To collect this data, 148 farms were visited across Korea,
and were administered a questionnaire survey. The survey included items on greenhousefacilities, foundations, covering material, and irrigation type. Results revealed thatgreenhouses were nearly evenly split between single- and multi-span structures. Most werearch or 1-2W types. Single-span greenhouses tended to use pipe foundations, while most
multi-span greenhouses used concrete foundations, and most foundations were buried
deeply (50-59 cm). Nearly all greenhouses (95.3%) used plastic film as a covering
material as opposed to glass; the same percentage used groundwater for irrigation. These
results could potentially be utilized as basic data to develop a standard model forgreenhouse design in Korea.
Keywords greenhouse structure, greenhouse covering material, greenhouse foundation,
survey data, greenhouse irrigation

INTRODUCTION
The total area dedicated to greenhouse cultivation of vegetables in Korea occupied about 47,924 haat the end of 2012 (MAFRA, 2013). This area is expected to increase gradually in the future
following the Korean government’s announcement of a development plan to build a research centeron reclaimed land in Saemangeum, an estuarine tidal flat on the Yellow Sea coast. The constructionof a seawall in April 2006, after a long fight between the government and environmental activists,allowed the land to be reclaimed. Since the establishment of the seawall, Saemangeum has beenscheduled for conversion into either agricultural or industrial land (Choi et. al., 2013). As such, theplanned research center is slated to incorporate a high-tech greenhouse and large-scale agriculturalcomplex that covers a large percentage of the reclaimed land. Additionally, a greenhouse iscurrently under development at other reclaimed land at Hwang (MIFAFF, 2010).
When building a greenhouse on reclaimed land, land settlement, structures and potentially
dangerous exposure to strong wind should be considered, because reclaimed land (due to its
proximity to the coast) is softer than general farmland. In considering the characteristics ofreclaimed land, there are many greenhouse construction requirements with regard to maintenance,
repair, reinforcement, structural design criteria, and deformation.
Many studies have investigated the actual conditions of various greenhouses. Suh and Yoon
conducted a survey analysis that collected data on heating method, gutter connection, capacity ofheating systems, type of crop cultivation, dimensions, etc. (Suh and Yoon, 1997). Studies have also
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been conducted on the actual state of the structures and environmental control facilities for tomato
greenhouses in the Chungnam region (Nam and Kim, 2009), as well as on the utilization ofirrigation systems for greenhouse farming (Lee et al., 1998). However, to date, no one has yet
conducted a nationwide study of greenhouses in Korea.
OBJECTIVE
This study’s aim is to provide basic data for the development of greenhouse maintenanceguidelines. This was accomplished by conducting a questionnaire survey on the structure, covering
materials, irrigation, and foundations of greenhouses in Korea.
METHODOLOGY
A questionnaire survey was conducted to investigate the actual state of greenhouses in Korea.
Regional investigations were conducted in eight of Korea’s nine provinces (Jeju was excluded).
Most greenhouses were selected and investigated via Agricultural Research Services, while large,
complex greenhouses were examined using satellite images. Greenhouses on a total of 148 farms
were investigated (Fig. 1): 63 for Gyeongsangnam-do (Gyeongnam); 15 for Jeollanam-do(Chonam); 11 for Kangwon-do (Kangwon); 10 for Gyeonggi-do (Gyeonggi), 10 for
Chugcheongbuk-do (Chungbuk), 10 for Chugcheongnam-do (Chungnam); 10 for Jeollabuk-do(Chonbuk); and 19 for Gyeongsangbuk-do (Gyeongbuk). The following aspects of each greenhousewere investigated: type, specifications, foundation type, irrigation type, and depth of foundation.
Additionally, questionnaire surveys were conducted during farm visits from July to September
2013. Survey data were analyzed using SPPS (IBM SPSS Statistics Version 20).

Fig. 1 Locations of surveyed greenhousesⒸ ISERD

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Of the 148 farms investigated, a total of 148 valid questionnaires were received. Data collectedfrom these questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS.
Greenhouse Types
Figure 2 shows the number and percentage of single- vs. multi-span greenhouses 72 (48.6%) for
the former, and 76 (51.4%) for the latter. Table 1 shows the types of greenhouses investigated.
According to the survey, 51 (34.5%) for arch greenhouses, 56 (37.8%) were 1-2W, 11 (7.4%) were
Venlo, 6 (4.1%) were Miryang, 3 (2.0%) were three-quarter, 1 (0.7%) were even-span, 2 (1.4%)
were peach-type, 6 (4.1%) were long-span, and 12 (8.1%) were other, respectively (“Other”
includes greenhouses without columns, Mammoth-type greenhouses, and so on). The mostcommon type of greenhouse was the 1-2W, which, along with the arch type, accounted for 72.3%
of all surveyed greenhouses. The even-span type was the least common, accounting for less than
1.0% of all surveyed greenhouses. From this result, it is clear that most farms in Korea prefer thearch style for single-span greenhouses, and the 1-2W style for multi-span greenhouses.

Fig. 2 Percentage of single- vs. multi-span greenhouses
Table 1 Types of greenhouse by region
Classifications

Arch
type

1-2W
type

Venlo
type

Gyeongnam
ChonnamKangwonGyeonggi
Chungbuk
Chungnam
Chonbuk
Gyeongbuk
Total
(%)

21
0
2
0
5
7
4
12
51
(34.5)

22
6
2
8
5
2
6
5
56
(37.8)

5
4
0
2
0
0
0
0
11
(7.4)

Type
3/4
Miryang
roof
type
type
6
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
3
(4.1)
(2.0)

Even
type

Peach
type

1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
(0.7)

0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
2
(1.4)

Long
span
type
2
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
(4.1)

Others

Total

3
63
2
15
5
11
0
10
0
10
1
10
0
10
1
19
12
148
(8.1) (100.0)

Foundation Type
Table 2 shows the results for foundation type according to region. The survey found that 47 (31.8%)
greenhouses used pipes, 25 (16.9%) used strip foundation of pipe (surface), 8 (5.4%) used strip
foundation of pipe (inner), 16 (10.8%) used concrete (trapezium), 24 (16.2%) used concreteⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1(columns), 18 (12.2%) used concrete (THP), and 10 (6.8%) used other foundation types. Further, it
is apparent that foundation type is related to greenhouse type: single-span greenhouses tended tofeature any of the three types of pipe foundation (pipes burial, strip foundation of pipe (surface),and strip foundation of pipes (inner)), while multi-span greenhouses tended to feature any of thethree types of concrete foundation (trapezium, columns, and THP). Of the 148 greenhouses
investigated, nearly half used one of the three types of pipe foundation (commonly associated withsingle-span greenhouses); this is likely because single-span greenhouses are easier and cheaper toinstall than multi-span greenhouses. After pipes burial (31.8%), the most popular type of non-pipe
foundation was concrete (columns) at 16.2%. Regional characteristics that could account for these
preferences were not observed.
Depth of foundation results by region shows in Table 3. The survey found that 6 (4.1%)
foundations were buried < 30 cm, 17 (11.5%) were 30-39 cm, 27 (18.2%) were 40-49 cm, 53(35.8%) were 50–59 cm, 33 (22.3%) were >= 60 cm and 12 (8.1%) for other, respectively. Of thegreenhouses surveyed, most (53, or 35.8%) had foundations buried 50-59 cm deep. For mostgreenhouses in general, which factor a wind speed of up to 30m/s into their design, 30 cm is asufficient foundation depth. However, regions with wind speeds of at least 40 m/s have beenreported to require a foundation embedment depth of at least 50 cm (Kim and Nam, 1995). Thus,
greenhouse designs must take regional wind speeds into account. In all cases, the embedment depth
was determined to be appropriate to regional wind speed, except those foundations buried 30 cm
deep or less in Gyeongnam and Chonnam provinces.
Table 2 Types of foundation by region
Types of foundation
Classifications

Pipes
burialGyeongnam
ChonnamKangwonGyeonggi
Chungbuk
Chungnam
Chonbuk
Gyeongbuk
Total
(%)

27
1
6
1
1
2
0
9
47
(31.8)

Strip ofpipe
(surface)
6
0
1
4
4
5
1
4
25
(16.9)

Strip ofpipes
(inner)
0
2
0
1
2
0
3
0
8
(5.4)

Concrete(trapezium)

Concrete(columns)

Concrete(THP)

Others

7
2
1
0
0
0
2
4
16
(10.8)

9
6
1
3
2
0
2
1
24
(16.2)

8
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
18
(12.2)

6
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
10
(6.8)

Total
63
15
11
10
10
10
10
19
148
(100.0)

Table 3 Depth of foundation embedment by region
Classifications
Gyeongnam
ChonnamKangwonGyeonggi
Chungbuk
Chungnam
Chonbuk
Gyeongbuk
Total
(%)

<30cm
5
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
(4.1)

30~39cm
4
2
2
1
1
1
0
6
17
(11.5)

Embedment depth
40~49cm 50~59cm
17
18
1
3
2
3
1
4
0
4
2
5
4
5
0
11
27
53
(18.2)(35.8)>=60cm
12
6
4
4
2
2
1
2
33
(22.3)

Others
7
2
0
0
3
0
0
0
12
(8.1)

Total
63
15
11
10
10
10
10
19
148
(100.0)Covering Material
Table 4 shows the greenhouse covering material by region. The survey found that 141 (95.3%)Ⓒ ISERD

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greenhouses used plastic film, while 7 (4.7%) used glass. Regardless of region, most installed
plastic film, likely because it is far less expensive.
Results regarding greenhouse irrigation type are given in Table 5. The survey found that 141(95.3%) used groundwater, 5 (3.4%) used stratum water, 1 (0.7%) used a combination of groundand stratum water, 1 (0.7%) used other types of irrigation, and 0 (0.0%) used rainwater. It isinteresting to note that the overwhelming majority of greenhouses used groundwater, while none
used rainwater.
Table 4 Greenhouse covering material by region
Classifications

Covering materal
Plastic film
Glass
59
4
13
2
11
0
9
1
10
0
10
0
10
0
19
0
141
7
(95.3)(4.7)

Gyeongnam
ChonnamKangwonGyeonggi
Chungbuk
Chungnam
Chonbuk
Gyeongbuk
Total
(%)

Total
63
15
11
10
10
10
10
19
148
(100.0)

Table 5 Greenhouse irrigation type by region
Classifications
Gyeongnam
ChonnamKangwonGyeonggi
Chungbuk
Chungnam
Chonbuk
Gyeongbuk
Total
(%)

Ground
water
61
15
8
9
10
10
10
18
141
(95.3)

Rian
water
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(0.0)

Irrigation water
Stratum Ground+Stratum
water
water
2
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
1
(3.4)
(0.7)

Othres
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
(0.7)

Total
63
15
11
10
10
10
10
19
148
(100.0)

CONCLUSION
This study presented the results of a detailed questionnaire survey on the types of form, foundation
embedment depth, covering material, and irrigation water of greenhouses in Korea. The results
obtained can be summarized as follows:
1) Of the 148 farms surveyed, 48.6% used single-span greenhouses, and 51.45% used multi-span.
2) Most greenhouses were the arch or 1-2W type.
3) Most greenhouse foundation types were pipe foundations for single-span greenhouses andconcrete foundations for multi-span greenhouses.
4) Embedment depth indicated that 88.4% of surveyed foundations were buried deeper than
40cm.
5) Most of the greenhouses examined (95.3%) used plastic film (PE) as a covering material.
6) Most of the greenhouses (95.3%) irrigated using groundwater.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was carried out with the support of “Cooperative Research Program for Agriculture
Science & Technology Development (Project No. PJ00949204)” Rural Development
Administration, Republic of Korea.
REFERENCES
Choi, C.H., Jung, S.W., Yun, W.J., Kim, Y.S. and Park, J.G. 2013. Changes in phytoplankton communities
and environmental factors in Saemangeum artificial lake, South Korea between 2006 and 2009. Korean J.
Environ. Biol, 31, 213-224.
Kim, M.K. and Nam, S.W. 1995. Experimental studies on the structural safety of pipe-houses, J. Bio. Fac.
Env., 4(1), 17-24.
Lee, N.H., Hwang, H.C., Nam, S.W., Hong, S.G. and Jeon, W.J. 1998. A study on the utilization of irrigation
systems for greenhouse farming. Magazine of the KSAE, 40(6), 37-45.
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA). 2013. Greenhouse status for the vegetables
grown in facilities and the vegetable production in 2012. MAFRA (ed.), Sejong, Republic of Korea, 61.
Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MIFAFF). 2010. no title. (Retreaved from: http://bit.
ly/1paUztE Accessed 6 Jul. 2010.)
Nam, S.W. and Kim, Y.S. 2009. Actual state of structures and environmental control facilities for tomato
greenhouses in Chungnam region. Jour. Agri. Sci., 36(1), 73-85.
Suh, W.M. and Yoon, Y.C. 1997. Status of heating equipment for greenhouses. J. Inst. Agr. Res. Util., 31,
136-146.

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Research article
erd

Verification of Drainage with Biotope Placed on Artificial
Floating Island Using Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. for
Water Purification
MASATO KIMURA*
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Email: masa-k@obihiro.ac.jp

OSAMU TSUJI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanTOSHIMI MUNEOKA
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanHIROTO OTE
Hokkaido Government, Hokkaido, JapanRYUICHIRO NAKAGAWA
Hokkaido Government, Hokkaido, JapanYURI YAMAZAKI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Received 27 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract Soil and fertilizer runoff from farms causes water pollution and eutrophication of
streams and lakes. A method for cleaning the polluted water is the placement of artificial
floating islands of Phragmites on the water surface. Phragmites plants absorb nitrogendissolved in water, promoting lateral bud sprouting. The grown lateral buds are then cut,removing the pollutants. This purification method is suitable for cold regions such as
Hokkaido. We devised a drainage system with a biotope to apply this purification methodwith a minimum of effort. The advantage of the method is that because the artificial
floating islands of Phragmites after sprouting are placed in the drainage and streams, no
Phragmites nursery is required. In this study, to determine the effectiveness of this method,
Phragmites plants after sprouting or in the 3rd year of growth were placed in a stream in
Biei Town, Hokkaido and were observed every 2 weeks. In the 3rd-year Phragmites plants,
terrestrial stems were lying on the ground after a month, but new lateral buds grew fromthe culms of fallen stems and underground stems. Thus, if Phragmites grown to a certain
stage could be used, this method is a promising approach to improve water quality. In
contrast, in Phragmites plants after sprouting, the number of terrestrial stems continued todecrease during the observation period because no underground stems were established byrunning water and accreted sand. The method should therefore be investigated in otherlocations, such as wide river channels and stable streams.
Keywords Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin., water purification, drainage system with abiotope, stream

INTRODUCTION
Hokkaido is located in the northernmost part of Japan and covers the largest area in the country.
Land-extensive farming is practiced in this area. This area plays an important role as a food supply
area for Japan. However, because large amounts of fertilizer are applied to fields to increase yield,
soil and fertilizer run off into streams, lakes, and marshes after heavy rains. This runoff is the mostⒸ ISERD

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important cause of water contamination and eutrophication. Given that pollutant loads from farm
fields have recently been increasing, it is desirable to investigate methods and strategies for
improving and maintaining the water quality of streams, lakes, and marshes.
One method to clean eutrophic water is to place the artificial floating islands of Phragmites
australis (Cav.) Trin. on the water surface (Uchida et al., 1999, 2001; Uchida and Maruyama,
1998; Tazaki, 2002). This method comprises three steps. First, the artificial floating islands areplaced on the surface of a eutrophic water body, and lateral buds sprouting from nods ofPhragmites plants are inserted into a drain mat. Second, after the lateral buds have sprouted, theygrow and absorb large amounts of nitrogen, including nitrogen from the eutrophic water. Finally, inautumn, Phragmites plants that have accumulated nitrogen are cut and removed from the system.
The artificial floating islands are left in place during the winter and reused in the following year. To
investigate the suitability of this method in cold regions such as Hokkaido, Tsuji et al. (2009) andKimura et al. (2012) placed the artificial floating islands on a biotope developed adjacent to Lake
Mizusawa in Hokkaido and observed the growth of Phragmites. The result was that the plants grewsteadily and were not damaged by cold during the following winter. Thus, water quality in cold
regions could be improved by this method.
In this study, to assess a drainage system with a biotope using the artificial floating islands ofPhragmites, we placed two Phragmites at different growth stages in a stream flowing into Lake
Mizusawa, Hokkaido and observed their growth. The two kinds of Phragmites are following: one is
the Phragmites in the 1st year after sprouting, another is the Phragmites in the 3rd year which therhizome fully grew in the site for breeding of Phragmites. If the 1st-year Phragmites grew
successfully, water quality improvement employing the drainage system with a biotope using theartificial floating islands of Phragmites would be more efficient, given that a Phragmites nursery
would not be required.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area

study area
Biei-cho

Biei-chosmall stream

Mizusawa Lakewater catchment
area

Fig. 1 Study area: Mizusawa Lake in Biei-cho, Hokkaido
The study area was in one of the three streams flowing into Lake Mizusawa (Fig. 1), a manmade
lake at latitude 43 ° 32 ′ 14 ″N and longitude 142 ° 29 ′ 41 ″ E located in Biei-cho in central
Hokkaido. The terrain around these streams and lake is hilly and comprises mostly farm fields(293.8 × 10−2 km2) for wheat, corn and so on. During the growing season, large amounts offertilizer are applied to the fields to increase yield. According to Ote et al. (2011), the amount of
nitrogen applied to these hillside farms was 1.8 × 103 kg in 2010. However, following heavy rains,soil and fertilizer flowed into the streams and lake from the water catchment area. In 2010, the rateof nitrogen runoff from farms was 11% (Ote et al., 2011). Thus, the nitrogen loading of the threestreams and Lake Mizusawa was estimated to be 2.0 × 103 kg. This is the most important cause of
eutrophication of the streams and lake and leads to the occurrence of blue-green algae andⒸ ISERD

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unpleasant smells. To preserve the local environment, it is desirable to improve water quality.
Growth of Phragmites
50cm

50cm

Five stems of Phragmites inserted
into a mat.

Fig. 2 Drain mat used to make artificial floating islands for water purification
As shown in Fig. 2, the artificial floating island of Phragmites comprises a drain mat(Yoshiharakakou Co., Ltd.) and five stems of Phragmites. First, the mats are placed on the water
surface until sprouting from the stems occurs. The mats are then transferred to the nursery and left
there until the rhizome grows to maturity.

Fig. 3 Aerial parts and rhizomes of 1st-year Phragmites

Fig. 4 Aerial parts and rhizomes of 3rd-year Phragmites
Figures 3 and 4 show the artificial floating islands of 1st- and 3rd-year Phragmites,
respectively. The 1st-year Phragmites was placed on the water surface of Lake Mizusawa on July 5,2012 and then sprouted. The 3rd-year Phragmites was transferred to the nursery on September 25,
2010. These Phragmites overwintered and the rhizomes grew as shown in Fig. 3.
These two types of the artificial floating island of Phragmites were transferred to the stream
shown in Fig. 1 on August 24, 2012. Figure 5 shows the arrangement of the artificial floatingⒸ ISERD

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islands of Phragmites. As shown in this figure, the artificial floating islands of 1st- and 3rd-year
Phragmites were placed alternately in the stream at 1-m intervals from upstream to downstream.
Moreover, each one was placed on the stream at 0.3 m intervals from water route and sandbank.
All the artificial floating islands of Phragmites were rooted to the bottom of the stream by anchor
pins. The number of stems was recorded every 2 weeks.
ground planAright bankB

Cleft bank

1m
G

H

I

1st-yearPhragmites

0.3 m
D

E

F

J

K

L

3rd-year Phragmites

sectional plan

Fig. 5 Arrangement of artificial floating islands of 1st- and 3rd-year Phragmites in a stream
RESULTS
Figures 6 and 7 show changes in the number of stems of 3rd- and 1st-year Phragmites, respectively.
Each line in the two plots represents the total number of stems of the artificial floating islands ofPhragmites that lay in the same column, namely “A” and “D,” “B” and “E,” “G” and “J,” or “H”
and “K.” However, because the artificial floating island of Phragmites, “F” and “L” were flown to
downstream, the line, “C” or “I” represents the number of stem of the artificial floating island of
Phragmites, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 8, in most 3rd-year Phragmites, the aerial part fell over and was partly
covered with sand on September 5, 2012. However, the number of stems increased steadily in all
positions, especially from September 5 to September 28, as shown in Fig. 6. The number of stems
in “A” and “D,” “B” and “E,” and “C” was 104, 105, and 64, respectively, on September 28. The
reason for the increase in the number of stems was the extension of lateral buds from stems that fellover and the appearance of sprouts from the rhizomes, as shown in Fig. 8. After September 28,
because the air temperature dropped, the increase in the number of stems ceased.

8/24

9/5

9/28

8/24

10/20

Fig. 6 Change in the number of stems of
3rd-year Phragmites placed in a
stream

9/5

9/28

10/20

Fig. 7 Change in the number of stems of
1st-year Phragmites placed in thestreamⒸ ISERD

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In contrast, as shown in Fig. 7, the number of stems of 1st-year Phragmites continued todecrease in all positions. Two months after placing in the stream, the number of stems decreased to
10 in “G” and “J,” 10 in “H” and “K,” and 17 in “I” because of the deposition of sand on
Phragmites.

Fig. 8 Growth of Phragmites in the 1st year, September 28, 2012DISCUSSION
Growth of 1st- and 3rd-year Phragmites showed opposite behavior. The number of stems of 3rdyear Phragmites increased steadily (Fig. 6), whereas those of 1st-year Phragmites decreased (Fig.
7). We speculate that this difference was associated with rooting of the rhizome.
The aerial parts of 3rd-year Phragmites fell over in 2 weeks after placement in the stream, andsediment deposits were observed. However, because the rhizomes had matured in the nursery (Fig.
4), they rooted readily in the stream bed after transplanting. Therefore, the lateral buds and sprouts
could be stretched and appeared because of capable of absorbing nourishment from the rhizome(Fig. 8).This result suggests that if artificial floating islands of 3rd-year Phragmites are used, thedrainage system with a biotope can be used practically. However, because in this case a breeding
nursery of Phragmites will be required, land must be reclaimed.
As shown in Fig. 3, rhizomes did not grow to maturity. We infer accordingly that they could
not root in the stream bottom. In addition, sediment deposition was observed. From this result, weinfer that Phragmites does not readily grow in streams with irregular flow such as the stream
studied here. However, given an environment in which the rhizome can grow to maturity, wesuggest that 1st-year Phragmites can grow steadily in a stream. In future, for practical applicationof a drainage system with a biotope, we plan to determine the locations to which 1st-year
Phragmites can adapt and observe Phragmites growth again.
CONCLUSION
The drainage system with a biotope using the artificial floating islands of Phragmites was
suggested to improve the water quality of Lake Mizusawa, Biei-cho, which has been madeeutrophic by an influx of soil and fertilizer from surrounding farm fields. To investigate thepracticality of this method, 1st- and 3rd-year Phragmites were placed in a stream flowing into Lake
Mizusawa and their growth was recorded at 2-week intervals. The 3rd-year Phragmites grewsteadily because nutrients could be absorbed via rhizomes rooted in the stream bed. Thus, if theartificial floating islands of 3rd-year Phragmites are used, a drainage system with a biotope can beused practically. In contrast, the number of stems of 1st-year Phragmites decreased because theirrhizomes did not mature and nutrients required for growth could not be absorbed. However, in anenvironment where rhizomes can mature, we suggest that 1st-year Phragmites may also be used ina drainage system with a biotope. It is necessary to investigate the growth of 1st-year Phragmites
transplanted to floating islands.
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REFERENCES
Kimura, M., Tsuji O., Muneoka, T. and Ote, H. 2012. Growth situation of Phragmites austrails (Cav.) Trin.
used in artificial floating island for water purification in cold regions. Int. J. Env. Rural Dev., 3, 168-173.
Ote, H., Tsuji, O., Muneoka, T. and Kimura, M. 2011. Purification of water quality of Mizusawa Lake byartificial floating island used Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. in Biei-cho. Proceed. 60th Annu Conf. Jpn.
Soc. Irrigation, Drainage and Rural Eng., Hokkaido Branch, 98-101.
Tazaki, F., Uchida, T. and Maruyama, J. 2002. Elongation of lateral buds in segments of each organ and nodeorder of Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. J. Jpn. Soc. Reveget. Tech., 28, 49-54.
Tsuji, O., Murakami, N. and Tokura, Y. 2009. Purification of water quality of Mizusawa Lake by artificial
floating island in Biei town. Proceed. 58th Annu. Conf. Jpn. Soc. Irrigation, Drainage and Rural Eng.,
Hokkaido Branch, 114-115.
Uchida, T. and Maruyama, J. 1998. A new attempt to seedling production of common reed (Phragmites
australis (Cav.) Trin.). J. Jpn. Soc. Reveget. Tech., 24, 104-108.
Uchida, T., Andoh, Y. and Maruyama, J. 1999. Studies on the efficiency of shoot production using lateralbud of culm and rhizome of common reed (Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin.). J. Jpn. Soc. Reveget. Tech.,25, 13-24.
Uchida, T., Tazaki, F. and Maruyama, J. 2001. A new method on waterfront revegetation using Phragmites
australis (Cav.) Trin. Culm. J. Jpn. Inst. Landsc. Architect., 64, 507-512.

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Research article
erd

Effect of Groundwater Level on Cadmium Uptake andYield of Soybean from Cadmium Polluted Soils
MD. ZAHIDUL HAQUE*
United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences (UGAS), Iwate University, Iwate, Japan
Email: mzhaque81@gmail.com

CHOICHI SASAKI
Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, Hirosaki, JapanNOBUHIKO MATSUYAMA
Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, Aomori, Japan

TAKEYUKI ANNAKA
Faculty of Agriculture, Yamagata University, Yamagata, Japan

KIICHI SASAKI
United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences (UGAS), Iwate University, Iwate, Japan
Received 30 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract Human uptake of Cadmium (Cd), a toxic heavy metal that can cause kidneydamage and other physiological disorder, takes place mainly through food. In someregions of Japan, the agricultural land area was polluted with heavy metals especially Cd.
Management of groundwater level can be effective method for minimization of Cd uptake
in plant at large scale agricultural field. In this greenhouse experiment, we investigated
two constant groundwater levels; 10cm groundwater level model (M-10) and 40cm
groundwater level model (M-40) on Cd uptake in Soybean plant in Cd polluted soils (3.39
mgkg-1). The redox potential of soil layer was measured from seed sowing to harvesting.
Thickness of gravel layer, non-polluted soil and polluted soil was 14, 15 and 25cm
respectively. The soil layer (10-40 cm) of M-10 was always measured in reduction
condition and 0-40cm layer of M-40 was always in oxidation condition. Cd concentrationof Soybean seed was significantly lower in M-10 (0.92 ± 0.1 mgkg-1) than that of M-40
(1.31 ± 0.2 mgkg-1). Cd concentration of stem was also found significantly lower in M-10
(0.82 ± 0.1 mgkg-1) than that of M-40 (2.34 ± 0.2 mgkg-1). In the other hand, main stemheight of soybean plant of M-40 (111.6 ± 5.1 cm) was significantly higher than that of M10 (100.5 ± 3.6 cm). In vegetative stage (first 50 days) the SPAD-value was observed
higher in M-40 (about 46.5) and lower in M-10 (about 31.3). Branch number, 100 seed
weight and seed yield were also found significantly higher in M-40 than those of M-10.
The result revealed that, reduction condition was effective for minimization of Cd uptake
in Soybean plant whereas, oxidation condition was favorable for seed yield.
Keywords cadmium uptake, groundwater level, soybean yield

INTRODUCTION
Many heavy metals exist in minute amounts in natural agricultural soil. However, when theamounts exceed a certain level due to pollutants brought from outside, soil contamination occurs
and agricultural products become contaminated. It poses a great threat to the environment andhuman health worldwide due to the persistent nature and toxicity and their accumulation in thefood chain (Bahadir et al., 2007). Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most harmful heavy metals. Cd
occurs naturally in the environment in its inorganic form as a result of volcanic emissions andweathering of rocks. In addition, mining, modern industrialization, use of fertilizers and CdⒸ ISERD

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containing sludge has led to an increase in levels of Cd in soil, water and living organisms.
Several possible methods of minimizing absorption of Cd by agricultural crops exist mainly,
1) soil dressing, 2) water management (paddy field), 3) chemical cleaning of soil, 4)phytoremediation and 5) use of different varieties and rootstock. But most of these methods arevery costly and time consuming for effective minimization. A further possible mechanism of
reducing Cd uptake may be via groundwater level management. In this process, oxidationreduction condition of root zone is controlled by groundwater level management. In oxidation
conditions, Cd converts to a soluble form that plants can uptake easily. On the other hand, in
reduction condition it is not in available form for the plant. Furthermore, the environmental andeconomic benefits of groundwater level management through reduced pollution and increased
yields have been documented (Kalita and Kanwar, 1993).
Soybean is one of the world’s major and fastest expanding crops in terms of both calorie andprotein intake. Soybean is an important traditional food, and sauce and paste made from it are
intrinsic to the Japanese gastronomic culture. A large-scale domestic agricultural products survey
in Japan showed that the Cd concentration in one-sixth of the total soybean seed exceeded 0.2
mgkg-1, the international allowable limit proposed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (MAFF,
2002). It is important to increase the yield as well as minimization of Cd from polluted soils. The
objective of the study is to find out the relation between groundwater level on cadmium uptake andsoybean yield. This will help to minimize uptake of heavy metals especially Cd in different grain
crops.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil Properties
In this study, we used polluted soil from Eastern Japan (we kept the place secret) and non-polluted
soil from Kanagi, Aomori prefecture. The physio-chemical properties of the soil were measured by
the standard methods of analysis (Table 1).
Table 1 Soil physical and chemical properties (Paul et al., 2011)
SampleDensity(g/cm³)Soil
textureMgO*

Polluted
soil
Non
Polluted
soil
Gravel

Na2O
*

CaO
*

K2O Total Fe
*

*

Cd

T-N
(%)

T-P
(%)

OM
(%)

*

2.453

L

496

114

2909

311

2820

3.39

0.40

0.15

4.80

2.592

SCL

918

84

1530

159

5683

0.14

0.44

0.60

6.00

147

18

539

58

600

0.13

0.00

0.35

0.05

2.680

Note: Soil texture is based on the International Soil Society classification. L: Loamy; SCL: Silty Clay loam.* mgkg -1 drysoil. Gravel diameter size 2-4mm

Experimental Design
The experiment was conducted in green house of Hirosaki University at Aomori prefecture. Twoplastic containers were used for two groundwater level treatment model; 10 cm (M-10) and 40 cm(M-40). Both containers were filled with gravel (small stone; 14 cm), non-polluted soil (15 cm) andpolluted soil (25 cm) shown in Fig. 1. After filling soil, Eh sensor and temperature sensor was set
up for every soil layer of the box.
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Before seeding the groundwater level was set up as 10cm for both treatments for 12 hours to moist
the soil. After 12 hours of seeding the groundwater level was set up as per treatment. Groundwaterlevel was maintained by Mariotte bottle arrangement which supplied water through the bottom of
the plastic box. Fertilizer (N,P,K) was applied as per recommended rate for Rhyho variety. The
seeds of soybean plants (Glycine max (L.) Merr.cv. Rhyho) were sown in four points of every box
at 4 seeds/point at 1st June 2012 about 2-3 cm depth of soil. After emergence, (15 days aftersowing) soybean plants were thinned to 2/point as well as 8/box. In every 4 days, 2000 ml water
was supplied in every box that is equal to rainfall of 4 days in this location. The plants wereperiodically sprayed with insecticide.
Measurement Procedure
Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) of each soil layer was measured by electrometrically using
ORP meter (Central Science Co., Ltd., model UC-203) from vegetative to harvesting period. Leaf
color measured using chlorophyll meter (Minolta Co. Model SPAD-502) from first trifoliate leaf
stage. The latest fully developed trifoliate leaf was used for leaf color measurement. Cd content ofseed, stem and root was measured after harvesting and drying and then extracted by nitric acid andsulfuric acid and the analyzed by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Model Z-2000, Hitachi
Corporation) as described by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan(MAFF ,1979).

Fig. 1 Layout of plastic container used in the experiment
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Redox Potential of Soil Layers (Eh)Oxidation-Reduction potential (ORP) condition is known as a redox potential (Eh). The Eh value insoil more than 300 mV is an indicator of oxidation condition and lower than 300 mV indicatesⒸ ISERD

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reduction condition (Iimura, 1981). Eh value varied in two boxes for two different groundwaterlevel treatment model. Eh value is less than 300 mV in below 10cm (from soil surface) in M-10 for
saturated condition by groundwater level (Fig. 2). In case of M-40, soil layer (0-40 cm) was
remaining in oxidation condition at about 700 mV Eh value (Fig. 3).
So it means reduction condition remained through crop life time of M-10 and oxidation
condition occurred in M-40. The proportion of soluble cadmium decreases abruptly with thedecrease of soil redox potential (Iimura, 1981). So, Cd dissolute decreased comparatively in M-10
than M-40.
900

Eh1〜Eh5 ( depth from soil surface) 	
 Eh (mV)	
 

700
500

Oxidation state	
 300

Eh1(5cm)Eh2(10cm)

Reduction state	 Eh3(20cm)

100

Eh4(30cm)-100

Eh5(40cm)

-300
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Measurement day	 Fig. 2 Eh value of soil layer of 10 cm groundwater level model
Eh1〜Eh5 ( depth from soil surface) 	
 900

Eh (mV)

700500

Eh1(5cm)Oxidation state	
 300

Eh2(10cm)
Reduction state	
 100

Eh3(20cm)-100

Eh4(30cm)
Eh5(40cm)

-300
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Measurement day

Fig. 3 Eh value of soil layer of 40 cm groundwater level model
Cadmium Concentration in Soybean Plants
Cadmium concentration of different parts of soybean plant was found higher in M-40 than M-10.
Accumulation of Cd uptake in seed by soybean plants was significantly higher in case of M-40
(1.31 ± 0.2 mgkg-1) than M-10 (0.92 ± 0.1 mgkg-1) at p > 0.001 (Fig. 4).
The reason was that, reduction condition occurred in M-10 for high groundwater level and M40 caused oxidation condition for lower groundwater level. Absorption and accumulation of CdⒸ ISERD

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was significantly reduced with diminishing Eh in reductive conditions formed by flooding rice
fields (Lu et al., 1992). Previous researchers showed that in soil reduction condition, the presenceof sulphate ion can be converted to sulfide ion which reacts with Cd and produce relatively
insoluble Cadmium sulfide (Ono et al., 2003). This mechanism supported to the M-10 and that is
why the Cd uptake by soybean plants was low. Cd uptake of soybean stem was also significantly
higher in M-40 than M-10 (Fig. 5). The average value of stem Cd uptake of M-40 and M-10 were(2.34 ± 0.2 mgkg-1) and (0.82 ± 0.1 mgkg-1) respectively. It showed that Cd concentration was
found 3 times higher in M-40 than M-10. This result revealed that redox condition of soil
influences the uptake of Cd and mobilization in soybean plants. Accumulation of Cd in roots ofsoybean plants in M-10 (5.92 ± 0.5 mgkg-1) had no significant difference (p = 0.875) with that of
M-40 (6.08 ± 2.2 mgkg-1) shown in Fig. 6. The Cd Concentration of soybean root was found higher
than that of stem and seed.
These happened due to the apparent free space (it represents the intercellular space freely
accessible to ions) of plant tissues were much greater in root tissue than other parts. In M-10, theCd concentration of root found about 7 times higher than that of stem and seed; and in M-40, theCd concentration of root found about 3 times higher than that of stem and seed. Accumulation of
Cd in root was the highest of the total Cd in the plant (Jarvis and Jones, 1976; Cui et al., 2008)
which is similar to this study.

Fig. 4 Cadmium concentration Fig. 5 Cadmium concentration Fig.6 Cadmium concentrationin seedin stemin root
Soybean Yield Components
The average main stem height in M-40 (111.6 ± 5.1 cm) was significantly higher than that of M-10
(100.5 ± 3.6 cm) shown in Table 2. This result might be occurred due to high groundwater level
effect in M-10. In M-10, first 30 days vegetative growth was affected due to the excessive moisturein the soil which was clearly visible in our experiment. Vegetative growth was inhibited following
shorter stem (Garside et al., 1992a) by the effect of excess moisture which is supported to thepresent study. Main stem length was found higher with lower water table treatment (Shimada et al.,1995) which is also similar to M-40.
There was a significant difference happened in case of soybean yield due to groundwater level
difference in this experiment. The average good seed weight per plant was 68.1 ± 14.6 g in M-40
and 35.1 ± 13.8 g, in M-10 (Table 2). Effects of groundwater level on soybean yield have been
observed by many researchers. The optimum groundwater table depth for getting highest yield little
differs from researcher to researcher; that is 20cm (Abe et al., 1981), 40cm (Ishibashi et al., 1982),
30cm to 50cm (Ueno, 1979) and 50cm (Shibata and Endo, 1976). In our experiment, we foundhigher yield in M-40 than M-10. Another researches showed that, soybean gave high yield when
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grown at around 10cm depth groundwater table in the saturated soil culture at the semi-arid tropicalregion in Australia (Garside et al., 1992b). In Japan most of the high yielded records were obtainedon a drained paddy field where the water table maintained at around 50cm from the soil surface.
100 seed weight and branch number plant-1 were found significantly higher for M-40 than M10. In M-40, 100 seed weight was found 39.2 ± 2.8 g and in M-10 was 30.9 ±1.7 g (Table 2). It
showed that Soybean seed of M-40 was good quality. In M-40 showed higher (7.9 ± 0.9) branchnumber than M-10 (5.9 ± 1.6) (Table 2). Previous researches found 100 seed yield decreases forexcess moisture in the soil at the ripening stage (Sugimoto et al., 2000). The average stem diameterand seed/pod were not significantly differing in M-40 to M-10.
Table 2 Soybean yield components of two different groundwater levels
Ground-water
level
10 cm
40 cm

Yield components
Stem height Stem diameter
Branch No.*
Seed/pod(cm)*(mm)
100.5 ± 3.6
7.3 ± 1.9
5.9 ± 1.6
1.94 ± 0.08
111.6 ± 5.1
9.0 ± 0.9
7.9 ± 0.9
1.92 ± 0.05

100 seed wt.1 Good seed wt.1
(g)*
(g)*
30.9 ± 1.7
35.1 ± 13.8
39.2 ± 2.8
68.1 ± 14.6

Note: * means significant according to ANOVA at 0.05 level. 1- Seed weight at 15% moisture. In all cases (n=8)

Leaf Color (SPAD-Value)
The chlorophyll meter provides a simple, quick, portable and non-destructive method for
estimating leaf chlorophyll content. In SPAD-value graph (Fig. 7) we can clearly see the effect ofgroundwater level on leaf chlorophyll content. In M-10 model, vegetative state (up to 50 days aftersowing) the leaf chlorophyll content was lower (about 31.3) whereas M-40 model was higher(about 46.5). It happened in M-10 model because of high groundwater level. But, after 50 days it
recovers by its adaptation quality. We know that, soybean plant has high range of adaptation
quality in high range of groundwater level. In previous study, (Garside et al., 1992a) reported that
temporary chlorosis occurred when saturated-soil-water culture was given to soybean plants andthat caused a reduction of leaf nitrogen content (Sugimoto et al., 1988). So it is clear thatgroundwater level has an effect on leaf chlorophyll content. Chlorophyll contents decrease as well
as decrease seed yield in lower water table treatment (Shimada et al., 1995) that is similar to thisexperiment.

Fig. 7 SPAD value of soybean plant grown in two different groundwater level
CONCLUSION
The accumulation of Cd in soybean plants was significantly affected by groundwater level.
Groundwater level controls the oxidation-reduction status of soil, consequently uptake of heavyⒸ ISERD112

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

metal by soybean plants. In oxidation condition of soil, plants uptake more Cd than reduction
condition of soil due to increase of soluble Cd. This result suggested that low groundwater level aswell as oxidation condition promotes Cd uptake in soybean plant and high groundwater level aswell as reduction condition inhibits the Cd uptake. This could be an effective technique forminimization of Cd and other heavy metal uptake from polluted soils and it can be improve themanagement of polluted soil in many countries. We need more research about various ranges ofgroundwater level and various stage of soybean to develop agronomic management of soybean
cultivation in polluted soil.
REFERENCES
Abe, C., Huruno, S. and Uchida, H. 1981. Studies on effective water management for paddy soil of volcanicash. (III) Growth and yield of crops on the fields converted from the paddy ones at different levels of
underground water. Bull. Tochi Agric. Exp. Stn., 27, 29-40, (Japanese with English summary).
Bahadir, T., Bakan, G., Altas, L., Buyukgungor, H. 2007. The investigation of lead removal by biosorption:
An application at storage battery industry wastewater. Enzyme Microb. Technol., 41, 98-102.
Cui, Y., Zhang, X., Zhu, Y. 2008. Does copper reduce cadmium uptake by different rice genotypes?, Journalof Environmental Sciences, 20, 332-338.
Garside, A.L., Lawn, R.J. and Byth, D.E. 1992a. Irrigation management of soybean in a semi-arid tropicalenvironment. Response to Saturated Soil Culture. Aust. J. Agric. Res., 43, 1033-1049.
Garside, A.L., Lawn, R.J. and Byth, D.E. 1992b. Irrigation management of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merril]
in a semi-arid tropical environment. Effect of Irrigation Frequency on Growth, Development and Yield.
Aust. J. Agric. Res., 43, 1003-1017.
Iimura, K. 1981. Metal Stress in Rice Plants, Japan Scientific Societies Press, Tokyo, Japan. 19.
Ishibashi, Y. Jinno, H. and Tsuruuchi, T. 1982. Influence of groundwater level on growth and yield of uplandcrops in temporary paddy field, Rep. Kyusyu Br. Crop Sci. Soc. Japan, 49, 60-65, (Japanese without
English summary).
Jarvis, S.C., Jones, L.H. and Hopper, M.J. 1976. Cadmium uptake from solutions by plants and its transport
from roots to shoots. Plant and Soil, 44, 179-191.
Kalita, P.K. and R.S. Kanwar. 1993. Effect of water table management practices on the transport of nitrate-N
to shallow groundwater. Transactions of the ASAE, 36, 413- 421.
Lu, R.K., Xiong, L.M. and Shi, Z.Y. 1992. A review about studies on cadmium in soil-crop ecosystem. Soils
24, 129-132, 137-141.
MAFF (The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan). 1979. The foundation ofenvironmental paddy field and investigation of paddy field, water quality and crop analysis method, in:
National conference of Paddy field Preservation. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Tokyo, Japan, 113-115.
MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and fisheries of Japan). 2002. Investigation of Cd concentration of
staple crops: the outline of the results. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Tokyo, Japan.
Ono, K., Gamo, M. and Nakanishi, J. 2003. Factors affecting cadmium concentration in rice in Japanese
paddy fields, In: Proc. of 24th Annual Meeting: North America. The Society of Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), 71.
Paul, S.K.., Sasaki, C., Matsuyama, N., Noda, K. and Mitra, B.K. 2011. Influence of percolation patterns on
growth and yield of rice plants and uptake of cadmium from polluted polluted paddy fields using soil
dressing models. Pedologist, 222-229.
Shibata, M. and Endo, T. 1976. Growth and yield of soybeans grown at different water table levels on
drained paddy fields. Tohoku Agric. Res., 18, 104-107, (Japanese without English summary).
Shimada, S., Kokubun, M. and Matsui, M. 1995. Effect of water table on leaf chlorophyll content, root
growth and yield. Jpn. J. Crop sci., 64(2), 294-303.
Sugimoto, H., Amemiya, A., Satou, T. and Takenouchi, A. 1988. Excess moisture injury of soybeanscultivated in a upland field converted from paddy. Effects of excessive soil moisture on bleeding,stomatal aperture and mineral absorption. Jpn. J. Crop Sci., 57, 77-82, (Japanese with English summary).
Sugimoto, H., Koesmaryono, Y. and Nakano, R. 2000. Effects of excess moisture in the soil at different
stages of development on the growth and seed yield of soybean. Pakistan J. of Biological Sciences, 3(9),1465-1467.
Ueno, Y. 1979. Effect of irrigation and groundwater table depth on growth and yield of soybean, Kinki
Chugoku Agric. Res., 58, 42-46, (Japanese without English summary).
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Research article
erd

Investigation Species of Edible Tree and Medicinal Plants
in Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University
NARUEMOL KAEWJAMPA*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: knarue@kku.ac.th

TIPA JANDAKORN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

JARUNYA RATTANAWAN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 12 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding author)

Abstract The objective of this study was conducted in Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen
University to investigate species, distribution and the usage of edible trees and medicinal
plants and finding some guideline to conservation. The Check-List Survey was used andonly more than 1.30 m. of height and more than 4.5 cm. of diameter at breast height(DBH) in both of edible trees and medicinal trees were identified and documented. The
results showed that the overall of tree species in Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen
University are 57 species and 28 families which divided to edible trees 37 species, 12families and medicinal trees are 55 species, 26 families. In addition to edible part are fruit,
leaf, flower, inside-outside seed, bark and root. While, whole plant part including bark,leaf, root, stem, fruit, flower, seed, resin, petiole and polen was used as medicinal trees
useful in the treatment of illness and any diseases. The distribution of edible trees andmedicinal trees in this area varied primary forest (dry dipterocarp forest and dry evergreen
forest) which no reforestration and conservation. This study indicated that edible trees andmedicinal trees are valuable resources for improving not only food and nutritional securityof households living but also ecological system. Therefore, more concern and should beenhanced the In-situ conservation of edible trees and medicinal trees through theparticipation of both faculty members and university members.
Keywords species and distribution, edible tree, medicinal tree

INTRODUCTION
Forest is an important productive sector effects on the natural balance of the remaining ecosystems
and improvement of rural livelihoods (Sarma et. al., 2010; Mbuvi and Boon, 2009). Many plant
species in the forest provide an adequate level of nutrition, food security, medicine and also income
generation. In recently, the natural resources of Thailand are decreasing in every year, especiallyforest areas. Rapid environment changes typically cause extinctions, the species diversity ofThailand forest ecosystems. The forest ecosystems should be maintained by managing thesustainable management strategies to protect forest biodiversity which understood on the structure,
ecology, behavior and reproduction of dominant tree species (Lamotte et al., 1998).
In the university area; Khon Kaen University, Thailand, the trend of the forest land was
decreased causes of university development strategies with lack of good maintain and management,
which affect to change of forest structure and endanger plant species in primary forest; drydiperocarpt forest and dry evergreen forest. Biodiversity survey in many natural locations such as
national park, conservation forest and community forest area were done by many researchers but
biodiversity or species inventory of university area is still neglected.
Therefore, the aim of the present study was to surveying the plant diversity, distribution andvaluable of plant in Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen Universtiy, Thailand, used the forestⒸ ISERD

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inventory technique to highlights the edible and medicinal tree resource and finding someconservation guideline would be help to maintain ecosystem, food security and also reduced global
warming.
METHODOLOGY
Study area: The study site is located in Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon kaenprovince Thailand at zone 48N with UTM coordinate 18 22 78.4 N and 26 75 04 E, 224
meters above sea level. The area encompasses 0.08 km2 with two dominant forest type which are
dry dipterocarp forest (DDF) and dryevergreen forest (Fig. 1).
Tree measurements: Trees with a diameter –dbh-at breast height more than 4.5 cm. and morethan 1.3 m of height were numbered, recorded its name and measured or estimated its height. The
diameter at breast height (DBH) was measured using a girth measurement. Height was measured
using a hypsometer when necessary. Photographs of trees habitat were taken and geographic
coordinates of each tree was also recorded using global positioning system (GPS; Garmin 60 CX).
The identification of trees was done through various available resources including World Wide
Web and expertise available in the department of national parks, wildlife and plant conservation.

Study area: Faculty of Agriculture
Khon Kaen University

Fig. 1 Study area of faculty of agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Forest inventory at Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand indicated that, twotypes of forest; dry dipterocarp forest (DDF) and dry evergreen forest (DEF) was found. In over all,57 species belonging to 28 families were observed and arranged according to their forest typeconsisting of 51 species were found in DDF, whereas DEF has only six specific species (Table 1).
The value products that are used from these tree species include fruits, seeds, leaf, bark, flower,root, stem, petiole, pollen and resins. Of these, 37 species belong to 12 families of edible trees werereported to be used as vegetables, food and fruits. Fruits and leaves are the most dominant parts asfound from 23 and 12 species, respectively (Fig. 2). While, the medicinal trees were found 55
species belong to 26 families which have potential value for traditional medicine of northeast
region of Thailand. Bark is the most dominant part use as a medicine source which found in 34
species. Leaves placed in the second positions next to the bark that have been reduced by 25
species (Fig. 2).
Besides, the distribution of all trees both edible and medicinal tree on study area varied
primary forest (dry diperocarp forest). South area of Faculty of Agriculture is rich in medicinal
trees such as Shorea obtuse, Xylia xylocarpa, Morinda coreia and Pterocarpus indicus. While, tree
which identified as both edible and medicine tree was found around Faculty of Agriculture (Fig. 3).

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Table 1 Valuable tree species at the Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Species
DDF
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.)
Merr.
Mangifere indica L.
Buchanania latifolia Roxb.
Melodorum fruticosum Lour.
Canaga odorata Hook. f & Th
Polylthia longifolia (Benth.) Hook.f.
Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb.
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br.
Millingtonia hortensis L.f.
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz
Crescentia cujete L.
Bombax anceps Pierre varspecna .
Canarium subulatum Guillaumin
Terminalia cacappa L.
Shorea obtusa Wall.ex Blume
Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer
Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels
Calophyllum inophyllun L.
Mammea harmandii Kosterm.
Tectona grandis L.f.
Caesalpinia coriaria Willd.
Albisia lebbeck (L.) Benth.
Senna siamea (Lam.) Irwin &BarnebyTamarindus indica L.
Sindora siamensis Teijsm. & Miq.
Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib
Bauhinia purpurea L.
Cassia bakeriana Craib
Cassia spectabilis DC.
Cassia fistula L.
Phyllocarpus septentrionalis
Donn.Sm
Erythrina variegate L.
Pterocarpus indicus Willd.
Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz
Lagerstroemia floribunda Jack
Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.
Lagerstrooemia loudonii Teijsm. &BinnMichelia champaca L.
Swietenia macrophylla King

FamilyLocal uses*

EdibleMedicinal

ANACARDIACEAE

Lf, Br, Rt

Yes

Yes

ANACARDIACEAEANACARDIACEAE
ANNONACEAE
ANNONACEAE
ANNONACEAE
APOCYNACEAE
APOCYNACEAEBIGNONIACEAEBIGNONIACEAEBIGNONIACEAE
BOMBACACEAE
BURSERACEAECOMBRETACEAEDIPTEROCAPACEAEDIPTEROCAPACEAEEUPHORBIACEAE
GUTTIFCEAE
GUTTIFERAELABIATAE
LEGUMINOSAEELSONIMUGEL–NINUGUIOLELLEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIOIDEAE

Lf, Fl, Fr
Fr, Sd, Rt, La
Lf, Sd, Rt, Po
Lf, Fl, S
Lf
Lf, Br, Fl, Rt, La, S
Lf, Br, Rt,
Lf, Fl, Rt
Lf, Br, Fl, Fr, Rt, Sd
Br, FrBr, FlFr, S
Lf, Br, Fr, Sd
Br, FlBr, Fl, La
Lf, Fr, Rt
Fl, Sd, La
Fl, FrLf, S
FrLf, Br, Sd
Lf, Br, Fl, Rt

Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIOIDEAE
LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIOIDEAE
LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIOIDEAE
LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIOIDEAE
LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIOIDEAE
LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIOIDEAE
LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIOIDEAE
LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIOIDEAE

Lf, Br, Fl, Fr
Br, SdBr, Sd, S
Lf, Br, Fl, Rt, Sd
Br, Fr, Sd
Rt
Lf, Br, Fl, Fr, Rt, Sd
Lf, Br, Rt

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

LEGUMINOSAE-PAPILIONOIDEAE
LEGUMINOSAE-PAPILIONOIDEAE
LEGUMINOSAE-PAPILIONOIDEAE
LYTHRACEAE
LYTHRACEAE
LYTHRACEAE

Lf, Br, Rt
Lf, Br, Sd, S, La
Lf, Br, S
Br, RtLf, Br
Br

Yes
No
No
No
No
No

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

MAGNOLIACAEMELIACEAE

Lf, Br, Fl, Rt, S
Lf, Br, Fl

No
Yes

Yes
Yes

atscarseazsindica A.Juss. var.
siamensis Valeton
Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. Var.
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.
.bxoR arzuesrnoa rseoeas
Averrhoa carambola L.
Morinda coreia Ham.
Haldina cordifolai (Roxb.) Ridsdale
Schleichere oleosa (Lour.) Oken
Lepisanthes rubiginosa (Roxb.)
Leenh.
Litchi chinensin Somn
Mimusops elengi L.
Strychnos nux-vomica L.
DEF
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.)
Backer ex K.Heyne
Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb.
Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.
Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.)
Merr.
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Grewia eriocarpa Juss.

MELIACEAE

Lf, Br, Fl, Fr, Rt, Pt,

Yes

Yes

MIMOSACEAE
MORACEAE
MORACEAEOXALIDACEAE
bOEIEILEL
bOEIEILELSAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAEBr, Fl, Sd
Lf, Fr, Sd, S, La
Br, Rt, S
Lf, Br, Fr, Rt,
Lf, Fr, S
Lf, RtBr, FrFr, Rt, Sd

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

SAPINDACEAESAPOTACEAESTRYCHNACEAE

Fr, SdLf, Br, Fl, Fr, Rt
Br, Fr, Sd

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes

CAESALPINIACEAE

Lf, BrYes

Yes

DIPTEROCAPACEAEDIPTEROCAPACEAEMELIACEAE

Lf
Lf, Rt, S
Lf, Br, Fr, Rt

No
No
Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes

MYRTACEAE
TILIACEAE

Br, Fr
Fr

Yes
Yes

Yes
No

* Br: Bark, Fl: Flower, Fr: Fruit, La: Latex, Lf: Leaf, Po: Pollen, Pt: Petiole, Rt: Root and tuber, S: Stem, Sd: SeedⒸ ISERD

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40Species (No.)

35
Medicinal tree
Edible tree

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Br

Lf

Rt

St

Fr

Fl

Sd

La

Pe

Po

Tree part used

Fig. 2 Different usable parts of trees of Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University,
ThailandEdible tree
Edible/Medicinal tree
Medicinal tree

Fig. 3 The distribution of edible and medicinal tree in Faculty of Agriculture,
Khon Kaen University, Thailand
In northeast region, the DDF and the DEF are two important of the forest dynamics in dry
forests of Thailand with very different ecosystems while existing in similar climatic regions(Lamotte et. al., 1998). Chantaranothai and Sanoamuang (2002) found that the most of forest type
in Khon Kaen Univesity area is DDF which fertile and high biodiversity and more than 80% of
DDF tree species was found in this area. However, deforestation for various reasons was occurred
during the university development system. Therefore, many valuable trees were extinct from thisarea. Similar to this study which forest inventory and identify trees in Faculty of Agriculture, Khon
Kaen Universtiy was divided into DDF and DEF. The DDF species was higher than DEF speciesⒸ ISERD

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because the DDF as being strongly adapted phonologically, physiologically and physiologically, tothe dry season burns which so characterize their environment (Stoott, 1988).
This study revealed also a need for controlling forest conservation in the university
area in term of plant biodiversity. Planting of edible and medicinal tree should bepromoted, strongly encouraged and supported from the university and faculty board andalso all of university and faculty members.
CONCLUSION
The natural ecosystems hold important plant genetic resources of edible and medicinal tree inFaculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, which if good management can serve a sustainable
resources include food security, good environmental would be reduced as climate change. An
urgent need, for conservation of both edible and medicinal tree species in two forest types, theirhabitats, indigenous knowledge and member’s participatory, is required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen Univeristy, Assistant Prof. Dr.
Chuleemas Boothai Iwai (Khon Kaen Uinversity) and forest scientist from the department of
national parks, wildlife and plant conservation who kind shared their knowledge and identified
plant species. Special thanks to integrated water resource management research and development
center in northeast, Tailand, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University (IWRM-KKU) for
scholarship supporting.
REFERENCES
Chantaranothai P. and Sanoamuang N. 2002. Plant species in Khon Kaen University. Khon Kaen University,
Thailand.
Lamotte, S., Gajaseni, J. and Malaisse, F. 1998. Structure diversity in three forest types of north-eastern
Thailand (Sakaerat reserve, Pak Tong Chai). Biotechnol Agron. Soc. Environ., 2(3), 192-202.
Mbuvi, D. and Boon, E. 2009. The livelihood potential of non-wood forest products: The case of Mbooni
division in Makueni District, Kenya. Environ. Dev. Sustainability, 11, 989-1004.
Sarma, H., Tripathi A. K., Borah S. and Kumar D. 2010. Updated estimates of wild edible and threatened
plants of Assam: A meta-analysis. Int. J. Bot, 6(4), 414-423.
Stott, P. 1988. The forest as a phoenix: towards a biogeography of fire in mainland Southeast Asia. Geogr. J.,
154(3), 337–350.

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Research article
erd

Effect of Fallow on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi under
Maize Cropping System
PHAKPEN POOMIPAN*
Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Phatum Thani, Thailand
Email: phakpen@tu.ac.th
Received 29 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Fallow had been reported to decline survival of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM)
spore. The effect of fallow on AM fungi under maize cropping system was studied toevaluate its effects on population of AM fungal species in community, AM spore
abundance and biodiversity. A pot experiment was undertaken over two successive crops.
The crop 1 was maize planting in all pots for establishing a uniform AM community. The
crop 2 was maize planting and leaving pot soil as fallow. At the start of the crop 2, the AM
community in both topsoil and subsoil was composed of 12 species in 4 genera: 2 speciesof Acaulospora, 2 species of Entrophosphora, 7 species of Glomus and 1 species of
Scutellospora. Glomus spp. was dominant in the AM community. The spore number of
Glomus spp. was approximately 70 and 80% of total spore number in topsoil and subsoil,
respectively. The AM fungal biodiversity was 0.94 and 0.91 in topsoil and subsoil,
respectively. The AM spore abundance was approximately 1,600±50 and 750±70 sporesper 100 g-1 of soil in topsoil and subsoil, respectively. There were no differences in AM
spore abundance of all pots at the start of crop 2. The data collection at the end of the crop
2 was compared to those at the start of crop 2. The results showed that the population of
AM fungal species in community, the AM spore abundance and the biodiversity in the
topsoil and the subsoil did not change under maize crop. However, fallow treatment had
decreased the AM spore abundance by 30% and 15% in the topsoil and the subsoil,
respectively. It had greatly affected on spore number of Glomus spp. than the other AM
genera. The AM fungal biodiversity had declined to 0.79 and 0.84 in topsoil and subsoil,
respectively. Therefore, the results indicated that fallow had negative effect on AM fungal
community in soil. This may be due to life cycle of AM fungi was disturbed by absence
their host during fallow period.
Keywords arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, fallow, Glomus, maize

INTRODUCTION
Symbiotic associations between arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and plant roots are widespreadin the natural environment. It can provide a range of benefits to the host plant, soil and environment.
These include improved plant nutrient uptake (Marschner and Dell, 1994), enhanced tolerance todrought and salinity of soil (Schreiner et al., 2007), enhanced tolerance to nematode and soil-borne
pathogen (Sylvia and Chellemi, 2001), and provided stability of soil structure (Bedini et al., 2009).
In addition, AM extraradical hyphae itself and glomalin producing by the hyphae have highly
correlated with soil organic carbon and are the major component of soil microbial biomass (Rillig
et al., 2002). These are resulted in an important role of AM fungi in regulating carbon fluxes
between the biosphere and the atmosphere under climate change.
Thailand is an important country in South-east Asia for production of feed maize The global
feed maize demand will increase to around 50% by 2020 (FAO, 2004). This is due to increasing in
consumption of red and white meats which has resulted in an increase in demand for maize as feed
for livestock. Otherwise, some maize is also used industrially for ethanol production. Therefore,
research on enhancing sustainable maize yield in Thailand has value more broadly in the world.
However, the production of maize for animal feedstock occurs in more than 40 provinces in 3
regions: Central, North-eastern and Northern parts of Thailand. Nakhonratchasima is particularlyⒸ ISERD

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important production areas. On Pak Chong soil, high phosphorus (P) fixation presently limits
productivity, as many farmers do not have the finances to apply rates of fertilizer required for
optimum yields. Application of AM fungi might become a solution in this case. Due to AM fungi
are well known to enhance the P nutrition of crop plants and the importance of AM fungi for maize
production in Thailand has been discussed (Na Bhadalung et al., 2005).
However, the fallow period is another farming practice which can reduce the population of
AM propagules in soil. Harinikumar and Bangyaraj (1988) and Thompson (1994) observed that
low AM abundance following fallow led to reduced AM sporulation and colonization in the
succeeding crop. Otherwise, fallow is widely practiced in central Thailand and maize farmers also
are interested in crop rotation. Therefore, the pot experiment was undertaken to evaluate effects offallow on populations of indigenous AM fungi.
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate effect of fallow on population of AM fungal species composition in community, AM
spore abundance and biodiversity in topsoil and subsoil of Pak Chong soil series under maize
cropping system in Thailand.
METHODOLOGY
An experiment was conducted in large pots using a completely randomised design with 4
replications. The treatments were maize-maize crop and maize-fallow crop. The experiment was
conducted with two successive crops. In crop 1, all pots were planted with maize for 4 months. In
crop 2, maize and fallow were randomly applied to 4 replicate pots for 4 months.
The soil sample belonged to the Pak Chong soil series: clay-loam, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic,
Typic Paleustults (Soil survey staff, 1998). The soil was collected from field plots (14˚ 38΄ N, 101˚
19΄ E; elevation 354 m above sea level; National Corn and Sorghum Research Centre, Amphur Pak
Chong, Nakhonratchasima Province, Thailand) at two depths, 0-15 cm topsoil and 15-30 cm
subsoil. The soil was allowed to air-dry before use. The soil chemical properties are given in Table
1. The soils before potting were analysed for soil pH, soil organic matter (OM) (Kjeldahl method),available P (Bray II method) and exchangeable K, Ca and Mg (1N NH4OAc) using Black et al.
(1965)
Table 1 Chemical property of the topsoil and subsoil
Soil layer
Topsoil
SubsoilpH
1:1 soil:H2O
7.0±0.0
6.8±0.0

OM%
2.6±0.1
1.1±0.1P
9.8±0.6
4.8±0.5

KCa
mg kg-1
160.0±9.1 1920.0±32.7
57.5±4.8 1620.0±75.7

Mg225.0±5.0
175.0±5.0

The soil was crushed with a mallet, roots removed by hand and then well mixed. Five kg coarse
washed river sand was placed into glazed clay pots (32 cm diameter at the top, 25 cm diameter at thebottom and 30 cm in height) to enhance drainage and then 7 kg subsoil and 13 kg topsoil wereplaced, respectively. Each pot had a single, central drainage hole sealed to a U-shaped drainage pipe
(1.3 cm diameter) with the free end of the pipe being slightly below the bottom of the pot to reduce
air flow into the pot base. Between the crop cycles, the pots were left uncovered and exposed to rain.
Vertical plastic sheets (1.5 m high) were placed between pots to prevent rain-splash.
In crop 1, all pots were cropped with maize (Zea mays L., cv. Suwan 4452), one plant per pot.
This was undertaken to produce a uniform population of AM fungi under maize for testing
agronomic practices. N fertilizer was applied to the soil surface three times at the rate of 2.52 g ofurea per pot (on a soil weight basis, equivalent to 112 kg N ha-1), split equally at D7, D30 and D45.
This rate was used to ensure normal grain production since the volume per plant of the pot soil was
about a half of that in the field. P fertilizer was applied as triple super phosphate (TSP) at the rateof 1.67 g TSP per pot (equivalent to 32.75 kg P ha-1) by surface banding on one side of the plant atⒸ ISERD

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D14. Zinc (Zn) fertilizer was applied at the rate of 0.38 g of Zn per pot as Zn-EDTA (equivalent to30.4 kg Zn ha-1) at D40. Other nutrients were not applied as previous studies had shown that maize
growth in this soil is limited by N, P and Zn (Suwanarit et al., 1992).
In crop 2, maize and fallow were randomly applied to 4 replicate pots. In the cases with crops,
one plant was grown per pot. Fertilizer was applied for maize cropping; N fertilizer was applied
two times at the rate of 1.12 g urea per pot (equivalent to 50 kg N ha -1), equally split at D14 andD40. P fertilizer was applied as TSP at the rate of 1.12 g TSP per pot (equivalent to 21.8 kg P ha -1)
by surface banding on one side of the plant at D14 and Zn fertilizer was applied at the rate of 0.38 gof Zn per pot (equivalent to 30.4 kg Zn ha-1) at D40. The rates of fertilizers, lower than that used in
the preliminary crop but adequate for maize, was used to minimize the difference in nutrient status
in soil among cultural practices. Fallow treatment was not fertilised but was exposed to the weather(infrequent rain events).
Soil samples were collected from 0-15 cm depth for topsoil and 15-20 cm depth for subsoil
using a 2 cm diameter steel auger, 3 augers per pot at the start and the end of crop 2. The holes
were filled with sterilized Pak Chong soils that were stored at room temperature in laboratory
before use. The soil samples were left to air-dry for determining the AM spore number. The AM
spores were sorted into group using morphology and size traits and identified using the INVAM
species guide and manual for AM fungal identification (Schenck and Perez, 1988). The AM sporeof each species was counted for calculating AM biodiversity using the Shannon-Wiener index(Pielou, 1975).
All data were checked for normal distribution by Levene’s test. ANOVA was used todetermine effect of treatments. Duncan’s Multiple Range Test at P<0.05 was used for post hoc
testing.
RESULTS
The AM community in the soil (both topsoil and subsoil) at the start of crop 2 was composed of 12
species in 4 genera: 2 species of Acaulospora, 2 species of Entrophosphora, 7 species of Glomus
and 1 species of Scutellospora. The 12 AM species were described in Table 2.
At the start of crop 2, there were 1,637 and 765 AM fungal spores 100 g-1 in topsoil andsubsoil, respectively. Glomus spp. was dominant. It contributed 73 and 78% of the total spore
number in topsoil and subsoil, respectively. The spore of Glomus spp. was 1199 and 599 AM
fungal spores 100 g-1 in topsoil and subsoil, respectively. The spore of Acaulospora spp. was 232
and 94 AM fungal spores 100 g-1 in topsoil and subsoil, respectively. The spore of Entrophospora
spp. was 188 and 56 AM fungal spores 100 g-1 in topsoil and subsoil, respectively. The spore of
Scutellospora sp. was 18 and 16 AM fungal spores 100 g-1 in topsoil and subsoil, respectively. The
AM spore number of each species was shown in Fig. 1. The AM fungal biodiversity was 0.94 and0.91 in topsoil and subsoil, respectively.
At the end of crop 2, total spore number, spore number of each AM species and AM
biodiversity did not change under maize-maize treatment. However, under maize-fallow treatment,
there were 1166 and 649 AM fungal spores 100 g-1 in topsoil and subsoil, respectively. Comparing
to the AM spore number at the start of crop 2, fallow treatment had decreased the AM spore
abundance by 30% and 15% in the topsoil and the subsoil, respectively. It had greatly affected on
spore number of Glomus spp. than the other AM genera. The spore of Glomus spp. was 838 and
455 AM fungal spores 100 g-1 in topsoil and subsoil, respectively. The spore of Acaulospora spp.
was 190 and 140 AM fungal spores 100 g-1 in topsoil and subsoil, respectively. The spore of
Entrophospora spp. was 128 and 42 AM fungal spores 100 g-1 in topsoil and subsoil, respectively.
The spore of Scutellospora sp. was 10 and 12 AM fungal spores 100 g-1 in topsoil and subsoil,
respectively. The AM spore number of each species was shown in Fig. 2. The AM fungal
biodiversity of fallow treatment had declined to 0.79 and 0.84 in topsoil and subsoil, respectively.

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Table 2 Characteristics of the AM fungal taxa and their codes
AM fungal species
Acaulospora sp. 1 (A1)
Acaulospora sp. 2 (A2)

Entrophospora sp. 1(E1)

Entrophospora sp. 2 (E2)

Glomus sp. 1 (G1)
Glomus sp. 2 (G2)Glomus sp. 3 (G3)

Glomus sp. 4 (G4)

Glomus sp. 5 (G5)
Glomus sp. 6 (G6)
Glomus sp. 7 (G7)

Scutellospora sp. (S)Spore characteristic
Globose shape, 76-112.5 µm, white to orange, soporiferous succule(80-100 µm). Two layers of spore wall, combined thickness 3-7 µm.
Globose shape, 100-120 µm, yellow to orange, soporiferous succule (120130 µm) and fine spines present. Two layers of spore wall, combined
thickness 5-10 µm.
Globose shape, 165-208 µm, orange to dark orange, hyaline outer layer, andhyaline, subglobose soporiferous succule (180-220 µm) and thick spines
present. Three layers of spore wall, combined thickness 15-17.5 µm.
Globose shape, 60-80 µm, hyaline colour and hyaline subglobose
soporiferous succule (60-80 µm). Three layers of spore wall, combined
thickness 2-5 µm.
Globose shape, 80-125 µm, white to cream colour, single chlamydospore.
Four to five layers of spore wall, combined thickness 4-8 µm.
Sporocarp formation without peridium (200-1500 x 200-2000 µm), globose(80-140 µm) or subglobose (80-96 x 120-140 µm) chlamydospore, paleyellow, forms spores in roots. Three layers of spore wall, combined
thickness 4-5 µm.
Sporocarp formation without peridium (200-800 x 200-1000 µm), globose(60-120 µm) or subglobose (40-112 x 96-188 µm) chlamydospore, paleyellow to yellow, forms spores in roots. Two to three layers of spore wall,
combined thickness 2-4 µm.
Sporocarp formation without peridium (1-3 mm), globose (80-100 µm) or
subglobose (60-100 x 90-140 µm) chlamydospore, yellow to orange. Threelayers of spore wall, combined thickness 3-5 µm.
Sporocarp without peridium, globose chlamydospore (92-112 µm), white tocream. Three spore wall layers, thickness 5-7 µm.
Globose shape, 120-300 µm, pale yellow to yellow, recurved septum. Twolayers of spore wall, combined thickness 4-5 µm.
Globose shape, 124-180, yellow-brown to dark orange-brown, shiny andcontaining lipid content. Two to three layers of spore wall, combined
thickness 4-8 µm.
Globose shape, 168-240 µm, white to cream colour, germination shield andauxillary cell. Five layers of spore wall, combined thickness 4-8 µm.

DISCUSSION
Fallow had negative effect on AM fungal community in soil. The fallow period reduced AM fungal
spore number in the topsoil by 30%. This finding is consistent with many previous studies thathave been undertaken in containers or in the field. For example, in a field study (acid to neutralsoil), one year of bare fallow treatment reduced AM density by 80% compared to continuous maize
cropping for a range of sites in Iowa, USA (Troeh and Loynachan, 2003). Similarly, in Queensland,
Australia, viable propagules of AM fungi declined in cracking clay soils during long periods offallow (>1 year) resulting in poor root colonization and symbiotic effectiveness of subsequentcrops (Thompson, 1994). Ryan and Angus (2003) observed that the percentage of root colonizationof wheat and field pea grown after fallow in South-Eastern Australia was depressed compared tothose grown after clover, an AM host. One possibility for the reduction in AM populations during
fallow is a lack of host plant roots necessary to maintain viable spore populations for the next crop.
Alternatively, Pattinson and McGee (1997) suggested that periodic wetting and drying of soil
during fallow periods in agro-ecosystems may also reduce AM fungal propagules during the fallow
period.
Fallow affected the proportion of species composition in the AM community. Glomus species
were more sensitive to fallow than species of other AM genera. In general, AM fungal spores areable to germinate in the absence of host-derived signals. Soil edaphic conditions, such as moisture,temperature and pH, promote AM spores from a dormant to a germinating state, but they are unableⒸ ISERD

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to complete their life cycle without their host plant (Giovannetti, 2000). Therefore, the decrease inspore number in fallow treatment was likely the consequence of failure to establish a functional
symbiosis with a host plant during the fallow period.

Fig. 1 AM spore number in topsoil (a) and topsoil (b) at start of crop 2

Fig. 2 AM spore number of fallow treatment in topsoil (a) and topsoil (b) at end of crop 2
CONCLUSION
Fallow had negative effect on the proportion of species composition in the AM community.
Glomus species were more sensitive to fallow than species of other AM genera.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgements of the Thailand Research Fund and the Commission on Higher Education,
Staff development project for financial support.
REFERENCES
Bedini, S., Pellegrino, E., Avio, L., Pellegrini, S., Bazzoffi, P., Argese, E. and Giovannetti, M. 2009.
Changes in soil aggregation and glomalin-related soil protein content as affected by the arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungal species Glomus mosseae and glomus intraradices. Soil Biol. Biochem., 41, 17911496.
Black, C.A., Evans, D.D., White, J.L., Ensminger, L.E. and Clark, P.E. 1965. Methods of Soil Analysis. Part
2: Chemical and Microbiological Properties. Amer. Soc. Agron., Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
FAO. 2004. World maize production. FAO. (Available source http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx,
accessed : 1 October, 2014).
Giovannetti, M. 2000. Spore germination and pre-symbiotic mycelia growth. In: Arbuscular Mycorrhizas:
Physiology and Function. Kluwer. Kapulnik, Y. and Douds Jr., D.D. (eds.), Netherlands, 47-68.
Harinkumar, D.M. and Bagyaraj, D.J. 1988. Effect of crop rotation on native vesicular-arbuscular
mycorrhizal propagules in soil. Plant Soil, 110, 77-80.
Marschner, H. and Dell, B. 1994. Nutrient uptake in mycorrhizal symbiosis. Plant Soil, 159, 89-102.
Na Bhudalung, N., Suwanarit, A., Dell, B., Nopamornbodi, O., Thamchaipenet, A. and Rungchuang, J. 2005.
Effects of long-term NP-fertilization on abundance and diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi under amaize cropping system. Plant Soil, 270, 371-382.
Pattinson, G.S. and McGee, P.A. 1997. High densities of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi maintained during
long fallows in soils used to grow cotton except when soil is wetted periodically. New Phytol, 136, 571580.
Pielou, E.C. 1975. Ecological Diversity. John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA.
Rillig, M.C., Wright, S.F., Nichols, K.A., Schmid, W.F. and Tom, M.S. 2002. The role of AM fungi andglomalin in soil aggregation. Plant Soil, 238, 325-333.
Ryan, M.H. and Angus, J.F. 2003. Arbuscular mycorrhizae in wheat and field pea crops on a low P soil:
Increased Zn-uptake but no increase in P-uptake or yield. Plant Soil, 250, 225-239.
Schenck, N.C. and Perez, Y. 1988. Manual for the Identification of VA Mycorrhizal Fungi. Second Edition,
Synergistic Publications, Florida, USA.
Schreiner, R.P., Tarara, J.M. and Smithyman, R.P. 2007. Dificit irrigation promotes arbuscular colonizationof fine roots by mycorrhizal fungi in grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) in an arid climate. Mycorrhiza, 17,551-562.
Suwanarit, A., Vanichkul, C. and Parkpian, P. 1992. Zinc critical level and supplying powers of Takhli, Loei
and Khorat soil series for corn production. Kasetsart J., 26, 432-440.
Sylvia, D.M., and Chellemi, D.O. 2001, Interactions among root-inhabiting fungi and their implications forbiological control of root pathogens, Adv. Agron., 73, 1-33.
Thompson, J.P. 1994. Inoculation with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi from cropped soil overcomes
long-fallow disorder of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) by improving P and Zn uptake. Soil Biol.
Biochem., 26, 1133-1143.
Troeh, Z.I. and Loynachan, T.E. 2003. Endomycorrhizal fungal survival in continuous corn, soybean andfallow. Agron. J., 95, 224-230.

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Research article
erd

Effects of Pesticide on Phenotypic Characteristics of Plant
Growth - Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) in Cassava
Production Systems
PIMUPSORN PANOMKHUM
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

RATTIYAPON RUNGTHONG
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

TIPPAYA NITTAYACHIT
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

MONGKON TA-OUN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

PHRUEKSA LAWONGSA*
Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center for Sustainable Economy: (ABRCSE),
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Email: phrula@kku.ac.th
Received 12 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an important economic crop in Thailand.
Nowadays, insect pest is the major problem that causes severe damage to cassava leading
to considerable yield losses. Since, using chemical pesticide is always presence ofchemical residues on soil and may affect the population and diversity of soil
microorganism. Therefore, the aim of the study was to determine the effect ofthiamethoxam on plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) population in cassava
production system. A total of 400 bacteria were isolated from 4 sites, including 1 (cassava
production system without thiamethoxam and fertilizer application 2 (cassava production
system with thiamethoxam application 3 (cassava production system with thiamethoxam
and organic fertilizer application 4 (cassava production system with thiamethoxam andchemical fertilizer application. These isolates were screened for their plant growthpromoting factors like production of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), phosphate solubilizing
activity and their ability to grow in N-free medium. In addition, their biocontrol activity
like protease and chitinase enzyme production and siderophore production as well as
antagonistic activity against Fusarium sp. were investigated. The findings of this study
indicated that the application of thiamethoxam in cassava production system can affect
PGPR population. In this study, numbers of bacterial isolates demonstrate that they are apotential source to be used as microbial inoculant for crop production system.
Keywords Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), thiamethoxam, cassava

INTRODUCTION
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is one of the most important economic crops in Thailand.
Cassava can be used for various food products, animal feed, raw material to produce ethanol etc. In
addition, an increasing demand for alternative energy products will increase the market value of
cassava in the near future.
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Nowadays, insect pest is the major problem that caused damage of cassava production. In
particular, the most of farmers prefer to use of chemical pesticide such as thiamethoxam,
insecticide in the group of neonicotinoids which is one of the most widely used, is resulting inchemical residue in soil. This may disturb the soil environment by affecting microorganisms in soil,
and also the physical -chemical properties of soil leading to infertility of soil. Biological control isthus being considered as an alternative or a supplemental way of reducing the use of chemicals inagriculture.
The using of introduced microorganisms with induced systemic resistance against plantdisease and stimulate plant growth has been extensively studied (Compant et al., 2005; Welbaum etal., 2004). The introduction of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) offers a promisingalternative to manage plant pathogen and enhance plant growth. PGPR can directly benefit plant
growth by increasing nitrogen and phosphorus uptake (Rodriguez et al., 1999) and indirectly byincreasing resistance to pathogen. PGPR may suppress plant pathogens by producing antimicrobial
metabolism (Duffy, 2004) and also by producing enzymes and/or fungicidal compounds(Bloemberg and Lugtenberg, 2001; Haas and Défago, 2005). This study was designed toinvestigate how chemical pesticide shaped the bacterial populations as well as plant growthpromoting activities for successful application of PGPR in cassava production systems to reduce
the use of chemical pesticide and soil fertility could be maintained.
OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of chemical pesticide on the populationand phenotypic characteristics of PGPR in cassava production system.
METHODOLOGY
Study Sites and Soil Sampling
Study sites used in this study were selected from Khon Kean province and Kalasin province (N 16°
28' 43", E 102' 49 and 37" N 16° 38' 3", E 103° 15' 15", respectively). Soil samples were collectedfrom rhizosphere of cassava cultivar Rayong 11 with three replications of each treatment wascollected at 0-15 cm depth. Pesticide used in this study for cassava stake priming wasthiamethoxam 25 WG. Four treatments used in this study, including 1) cassava production system
without thiamethoxam and fertilizer application 2) cassava production system with Thiamethoxam
application 3) cassava production system with thiamethoxam and organic fertilizer application,
1000 kg/1,600 Square meter 4) cassava production system with thiamethoxam and chemicalfertilizer application 15-7-18, 100 kg/1,600 Square meter. The rhizosphere samples were placed inplastic bags and stored at 4 °C for further microbial analysis. In addition, soil samples werecollected from 0-15 cm depth for the examination of physical and chemical properties of soil.
Isolation of PGPR from Cassava Rhizosphere
Bacterial strains were isolated from cassava rhizosphere by serial dilution plate technique on
nutrient agar medium (NAM) (Dubey and Maheshwari, 2002). The bacterial colonies were isolated
and maintained on NAM slants at 4 °C. One hundred isolates obtained from serial dilution platetechnique of each treatment were screened for their plant growth promoting factors like productionof indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), phosphate solubilizing activity and their ability to grow in N-free
medium. In addition, their biocontrol activity like protease and chitinase enzyme production andsiderophore production as well as antagonistic activity against Fusarium sp. were investigated.

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Phenotypic Characterization of PGPR
Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production: IAA production was determined using the method describedby Lawongsa (2008) with slight modification. Bacteria isolates were cultured in Tris-TMRT (Dmannitol 10 g, yeast extract 0.2 g, CaCl2.2H2O 0.2 g, MgSO4.7H2O 0.25 g, Tris-base 1.21 g, pH
6.8) supplemented with tryptophan 0.5 mM for 48 h. The measurement of IAA was done by adding
2 ml of 0.01 M FeCl3 in 35 % HClO4 into 1 ml of Tris-TMRT culture broth. The mixture wasincubated in the dark at 30 °C for 30 min. The detection of IAA was determined by thedevelopment of pink color.
Phosphate solubilizing assay: Solubilization of tricalcium phosphate was detected in national
botanical research institute’s phosphate growth medium (NBRIP) agar plate supplemented with
1.5% (w/v) agar (Nautiyal, 1999). Five microliters of each bacterial culture was dropped on NBRIP
agar plates. The development of halo zone around the bacterial colony indicated phosphatesolubilizing activity.
Nitrogenase activity: For rapid determination, nitrogenase activity was assayed after bacterial
strains were streaked onto N-free minimal medium supplemented with 1.5% (w/v) agar andincubated at 28 ± 0 °C for 3 days (Desnoues et al., 2003). Bacterial growth indicated nitrogenase
activity.
Protease assay: Bacteria were isolated for protease enzyme (casein degradation) using a method
described by Sjödahl et al. (2002). Samples were inoculated on LB agar plates containing skim
milk (20 %), then incubated at 28 ± 2 °C for two days (Uyar et al., 2011). The development of clear
zone around the bacterial colony indicated protease enzyme activity.
Chitinase assay: Chitinase activity was determined using colloidal chitin (Cattelan et al, 1999).
Five microliters of each bacteria culture were dropped on colloidal chitin agar (Colloidal Chitin 10
g, K2HPO4 0.5 g, MgSO4 7H2O 0.5 g, Na2HPO4 0.5 g, NaNO3 3.0 g, Yeast extract 1 g, Agar 20 g,
pH 7) and incubator at 28 °C for 7 days. The development of halo zone around the bacterial colony
indicated chitinase activity.
Siderophore assay: Siderophore was determined by chromazurol sulphonate agar (CAS) using themethod described by Clark and Bavoil, 1994. Bacterial inoculum was spotted into the center of a
CAS agar plate. After incubation at 28 °C for 5 days, siderophore production was assayed by clear
zone formation around the cell.
Antagonistic activity: An inhibition of phytopathogen by bacterial strains on potato dextrose agar
(PDA) plates was performed as detailed in previously study (Keel et al., 1996) with slight
modification. Briefly, bacteria was grown overnight in NB (Nutrient broth) medium, and 5 µl ofeach culture was spotted 2 cm from the edge of the plate (four spots per plate) and 0.3 cm squareplug from a culture of Fusarium sp. was placed at the center of the plate. The results were assessed
after 5 days by measuring the distance between the edges of the bacterial colony and the fungal
mycelium.
Statistical analysis: The data collected was analyzed statistically using Analysis of variance(ANOVA) along with least significant differences (LSD) by analytical software STATISTIC 8.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Soil Analysis
The data of physical and chemical properties of soil are shown in Table 1. The results showed thatsoil samples of all treatment were sandy soil and contained low fertility.
Effect on Bacterial Population of Rhizospheric Soil of Cassava
Total count of bacteria was found to decrease with the application of thiamethoxam (Table 2).
Interestingly, when the experimental plot received organic fertilizer as well as chemical fertilizer,Ⓒ ISERD

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there was slight increase in the bacterial count as compared to cassava production system without
any fertilizer.
Table 1 Physical and chemical properties of soil
Treatment
12
34
Organic matter; OM (%)
0.227 c0.360 b0.432 a0.368 b
Total N (%)
0.014 a0.009 b0.013 a0.009 bAvailable P (mg/kg)
7.230 c16.793 bc 51.890 a
26.330 b
Exchangeable K (mg/kg)
31.470 ab 24.037 b
33.057 ab43.870 a
Organic carbon (%)
0.132 c0.209 b0.250 a0.213 bSoil pH
4.411 a3.553 b4.556 a3.450 bElectrical conductivity (dS/m)
0.045 a0.026 b0.029 b0.032 bCation exchange capacity (cmol/kg)
1.725 b5.433 a3.333 ab6.000 aBulk density (g/cm3)
1.504 a1.411 a1.353 a1.442 aSoil moisture (%)
3.372 a2.935 a3.396 a3.009 aSoil texture
sand
sand
sand
sand
Treatment: 1) cassava production system without thiamethoxam and fertilizer application. 2) cassava production systemwith Thiamethoxam application. 3) cassava production system with thiamethoxam and organic fertilizer application,
1000 kg/1,600 Square meter. 4) cassava production system with thiamethoxam and chemical fertilizer application 15-718, 100 kg/1,600 Square meter. Means values followed by different letters are significantly different (ANOVA; LSD test,
P<0.05)

Table 2 Effect of pesticide application on bacterial population
Treatment Bacterial count (cfu/g soil)
1
5.94 x 1011 a
24.51 x 1010 b
35.42 x 1010 b
44.78 x 1010 b
Treatment: 1) cassava production system without thiamethoxam and fertilizer application. 2) cassava production systemwith Thiamethoxam application. 3) cassava production system with thiamethoxam and organic fertilizer application,
1000 kg/1,600 Square meter. 4) cassava production system with thiamethoxam and chemical fertilizer application 15-718, 100 kg/1,600 Square meter. Means values followed by different letters are significantly different (ANOVA; LSD test,
P<0.05)

Phenotypic Characterization of Bacterial Isolates for Plant Promotion and Biocontrol Traits
A total of 100 cultivable bacterial isolates of each treatment obtained after serial dilutions andplating onto NAM were screened for plant growth promoting traits through growth promoter assays
and biological control assays.
The bacterial ability to produce IAA in presence of L-tryptophan as precursor was tested. A
total of 305 isolates showed the ability to produce IAA, 60%, 64%, 89% and 92% of isolates thathave ability to produce IAA were obtained from treatment 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively (Fig. 1).
Phosphate solubilizer produce clear zone around the bacterial colonies on media containing
insoluble mineral phosphate. A total of 245 isolates showed the ability to solubilize tricalcium
phosphate, 60%, 64%, 77% and 44% of isolates that have ability to solubilize phosphate wereobtained from treatment 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively (Fig. 1).
A total of 310 isolates showed the ability to grow in nitrogen-free medium, 55%, 75%, 98%
and 82% of isolates that have ability to grow in nitrogen-free medium were obtained fromtreatment 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively (Fig. 1).
Production of fungal cell wall degrading enzymes (protease and chitinase enzymes), an
important mechanism of fungal inhibition, was analyzed. A total of 294 isolates could produce halozone on skim milk agar that showed protease activity, 65%, 86%, 67% and 76% of isolates thathave ability to produce protease were obtained from treatment 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. A total of
285 isolates could produce halo zones on colloidal chitin agar that showed chitinase activity, 65%,77%, 84% and 59% were obtained from treatment 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively (Fig. 1).
Bacterial isolates which have the ability to produce siderophore and showed clear zone on
CAS agar were considered as positive isolate. A total of 75 isolates could produce clear zone thatⒸ ISERD

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showed siderophore production, 5%, 22%, 35% and 13% were obtained from treatment 1, 2, 3 and4, respectively (Fig. 1).
In vitro antagonistic activity against Fusarium sp. was investigated. The result revealed that
only 16 isolates showed the ability to control Fusarium sp. growth among 400 isolates, 5%, 3%,
5% and 3% of isolates were obtained from treatment 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively (Fig. 1).
From this present study, the results showed that bacteria showed variation in their growthpromoter and biocontrol characteristics. Numbers of bacteria still showed the ability to promote
plant growth directly and indirectly way even in the presence of pesticide. This could be certified to
the fact that certain soil bacteria can degrade pesticides (Sethunathan, 1973). In addition, certain
soil bacteria might have utilized pesticide as energy sources (Ahemad and Khan, 2011).
Furthermore, the results showed that the application of organic fertilizer can promote plant growthpromoting activities of bacteria.
100

Percentage of phenotypic sharacteristic

90
80
70
60

1

50

2

40

3

30

4

20
10
0
IAA
production

Phosphate Grouth in N- Proteasesolubilizing free medium
enzymeactivity
production

Chitinas
enzymeprodution

Siderophore Antagonistic
activity

Treatment: 1) cassava production system without thiamethoxam and fertilizer application 2) cassava production systemwith Thiamethoxam application 3) cassava production system with thiamethoxam and organic fertilizer application, 1000
kg/1,600 Square meter 4) cassava production system with thiamethoxam and chemical fertilizer application 15-7-18, 100kg/1,600 Square meter.

Fig. 1 Number of bacterial isolates showing phenotypic characteristic at each sampling site
displayed as a percentage of the total site number
CONCLUSION
This study has shown that thiamethoxam not only affect the bacterial population but also have an
impact on their plant growth promoting activities. In addition, the use of organic fertilizer canslight increase the number of bacteria that exert the positive effects on plant growth promoting via
direct and indirect mechanisms. The higher numbers of bacterial isolates which have the ability to
produce IAA, solubilize phosphate, grow in nitrogen-free medium, produce chitinase enzyme andproduce siderophore were found in cassava production system with thiamethoxam and organic
fertilizer addition when compared to control with thiamethoxam. Therefore, it can be concluded
that the use of pesticides should be applied with organic fertilizer, to maintain the biodiversity ofsoil microorganisms. Further study should be carried out with such efficient PGPR isolates toachieve the successful cassava management.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by a grant from National Science and Technology Development Agency
and Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center for Sustainable Economy, Khon Kaen University.
REFERENCES
Ahemad, M. and Khan, M.S. 2011. Assessment of plant growth promoting activities of rhizobacterium
Pseudomonas putida under insecticide-stress. Microbiol. J., 1, 54-64.
Bloemberg, G.V. and Lugtenberg, B.J.J. 2001. Molecular basis of plant growth promotion and biocontrol byrhizobacteria. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 4, 343-350.
Cattelan, M.E., Hartel, P.G. and Fuhrmann, J.J. 1999. Screening of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria topromote early soybean growth. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 63, 1670-1680.
Clark, V.L. and Bavoil, P.M. 1994. Methods in enzymology. Academic Press. London, UK.
Compant, S., Duffy, B., Nowak, J., Clement, C. and Barka, E.A. 2005. Use of plant growth-promoting
bacteria for biocontrol of plant diseases: principles, mechanisms of action, and future prospects. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol., 71, 4951-4959.
Desnoues, N., Lin, M., Guo, X., Ma, L., Carreno-Lopez, R. and Elmerich, C. 2003. Nitrogen fixation
genetics and regulation in a Pseudomonas stutzeri strain associated with rice. Microbiol., 149, 2262.
Dubey, R.C. and Maheshwari, D.K. 2002. Practical microbiology. S. Chand and Co., New Delhi, India.
Duffy, B., Keel, C. and Defago, G. 2004. Potential role of pathogen signaling in multitrophic plant-microbe
interactions involved in disease protection. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 70, 1836-1842.
Haas, D. and Defago, G. 2005. Biological control of soil-borne pathogens by fluorescent pseudomonads.
Nature Rev. Microbiol., 3, 307-319.
Keel, C., Weller, D.M., Natsch, A., Defago, G., Cook, R.J. and Thomashow, L.S. 1996. Conservation of the
2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol biosynthesis locus among fluorescent Pseudomonas strains from diverse
geographic locations. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 62, 552-563.
Lawongsa, P., Boonkerd, N., Wongkaew, S., O’Gara, F. and Teaumroong, N. 2008. Molecular andphenotypic characterization of potential plant growth-promoting Pseudomonas from rice and maizerhizospheres. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 24, 1877-1884.
Nautiyal, C.S. 1999. An efficient microbiological growth medium for screening phosphate solubilizing
microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 170, 265-270.
Rodriguez, H. and Fraga, R. 1999. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria and their role in plant growth promotion.
Biotech. Adv., 17, 319-339.
Sethunathan, N. 1973. Microbial degradation of insecticides in flooded soil and in anaerobic cultures. Res.
Rev., 47, 143-165.
Sjödahl, J., Emmer, Å., Vincent, J. and Roeraade, J. 2002. Characterization of proteinases from antarctic krill(Euphausia superba). Protein Express. Purific., 26, 153-161.
Uyar, F., Porsuk, I., Kizil, G. and Yilmaz, E.I. 2011. Optimal conditions for production of extracellular
protease from newly isolated Bacillus cereus strain CA15. EurAsian J. BioSci., 5, 1-9.
Welbaum, G., Sturz, A.V., Dong, Z. and Nowak, J. 2004. Fertilizing soil microorganisms to improve
productivity of agroecosystems. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci., 23, 175-193.

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Research article
erdAppropriate Chemical Fertilizer Application Rates
on Yield and Yield Components of Red Roselle,
Cultivar: Surin
RATCHATA TONWITOWAT*
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumtani, Thailand
Email: ratchatatonwitowat@yahoo.com
Received 1 November 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The experiment of appropriate chemical fertilizer application rates on yield,
yield components, dry calyx acid and seed oil contents in red roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa)
cultivar: Surin with 4 chemical fertilizer rates (16-16-16: 0, 25, 50 and 75 kg/rai; 1 rai =1,600 m2) was conducted at Faculty of Agricultural Technology; Rajamangala Universityof Technology Thanyaburi; Pathumtani province, during late July to December 2010 by
RCB design 4 replications. The results indicated that some agronomic characteristics, yieldand yield components of all red roselles with applied in any rate of the chemical fertilizer
were higher than the non-applied one. The rate of 75 kg/rai brought red roselle not only
got better in growth of vegetative parts (192.2 centimeters of plant height, 10 mainbranches), faster in 50% first flower blooming date (only 100 days after planting), longer
periods of flowering and maturation of the first fruit (22 and 23 days after the first bloom
flower) but also gave greater in yield components (38.8 fresh fruits, 179.2 and 24.1 grams
fresh and dry calyx , 31.1 grams of seeds/plant), these supported the roselle to get thehighest yield (764.8, 103.0 and 132.8 kg/rai of fresh calyx, dry calyx and seed weightrespectively). Nevertheless when considering to the harvest index, the highest rate offertilizer applied roselle plot was equal to that non-applied plot (0.36). Regarding to theanalysis of dry calyx acid and seed oil contents in red roselle, all treatments by averagecontained 13-16% of acid and 20-21% of seed oil.
Keywords red roselle, chemical fertilizer rates, yield, yield components, dry calyx acid,seed oil contents

INTRODUCTION
Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), a member of Malvaceae family, is a tropical crop which has thevarious uses, started from home consumption to medicinal and industrial uses. Red calyxes are
utilized as reagent for jelly, jam, beverages, sauces and food preserves (Abo-Baker and Mostada,2011). Fresh calyxes are filled with greater amount of ascorbic acid and also rich in riboflavin,niacin, carotene, calcium and iron while dry calyxes presents antimicrobial as well as antioxidant
activities due to its phenolic compounds: flvanoids, gossypetine, hibiciscetine and saddaretine.
Seeds of roselle have been found to be a good of protein (Anokwuru et al., 2011 and Qi et al.,2005). Furthermore, the calyx extraction had a great therapeutic action for curing heart and nerve
diseases and high blood pressure (Hassan, 2009).
Roselle is one of the target medicinal herbs that Thai government desired to push theirproducts to share in the international markets. Thailand used to be the outstanding exporter of highquality dry roselle calyxes before the occurrence of economic crisis. From the analytic report ofroselle production, market and processing, OAE (2007) had concluded that despite roselle products
have a big chance for markets but there are some obstructions: in part of production, mostplantations are in small scale (only 5-6 rai/grower) with using the local growing practices, lackingof good varieties and agricultural practicing, then led to low productive efficiency. Indeed,systematic cultivation of this medicinal plant needs specific cultural, management practices andagronomical recommendations. Fertilizer is a major factor affecting crop production, to search forⒸ ISERD

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optimum rate of application being one important cultural practice needs to be standardized.
Unfortunately, until now there is very few of available research papers that could be supported theroselle production in commercial scale.
OBJECTIVE
This investigation was aimed to find the response of red roselle to 4 chemical fertilizer rates (1616-16 : 0, 25, 50 and 75 kg/rai; 1 rai = 1,600 m2) on yield, yield components, acid content in dry
calyxes and oil content in seeds.
METHODOLOGY
Field trial was carried out at the Agronomic field of Agricultural Technology Faculty, RMUTT,
during late July to December 2010. Before planting, the soil sample from field was taken and sent
to Soil and Plant Laboratory of Rice Department of Thailand for properties analysis (the results
were Sandy clay loam texture, pH 6.3, Organic matter 2.23%, Total N 0.11%, P2O5 123 ppm, K2O
241 ppm, CEC 9.76 meq/100g). Simultaneously the compost and manure samples were brought toanalyse for NPK contents in Soil and Plant Laboratory at Kasetsart University (compost: 1.12%N;
0.46% P2O5 and 1.03% K2O, manure: 1.49%N; 0.57% P2O5 and 1.30% K2O). At the land
preparation time or two weeks before planting, one tons of farmyard manure mixed with one ton ofcompost per rai were uniform applied to all plots as basal application.
The experiment was arranged in RCB design with 4 replications and 4 level of chemicalfertilizer application rates (formula 16-16-16: 0, 25, 50 and 75 kg/rai) which were applied at 3
weeks after planting. Two-three seeds/hill were sown (two weeks later thinned to one plant/stand)at 75x50 centimeters, 5 rows in 21 square meters of plot size. Ten sample plants in the middle rowsof each plot were observed for agronomic characteristics: plant height, number of main branches,
50 % of 1st flower blooming date, flowering periods and 1st fruit maturation date. At maturity,
dark red fresh fruit of ten sample plants in each plot were harvested for collecting yield and yieldcomponents data : number of fresh fruits/plant, fresh calyx weight/plant, dry calyx weight/plant,
seed weight/plant, 1000 seeds weight, fresh and dry calyxes yield, seed yield and harvest index.
The 200 g of dry calyxes and seeds of each treatment were taken to Agricultural and AgroIndustrial Product Improvement Institute at Kasetsart University for analysed the contents of dry
calyx acid and seed oil.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Some Agronomic Characteristics
Highly significant increase in plant height and number of main branches/plant was observed withchemical fertilizer application by the 120 days after planting when compare with the control
treatment (2 tons of compost mixed with manure only). The plant height varied from 145.9 cm innon fertilized plants to 191.2 cm in plant that received the highest rate of chemical fertilizer (75kg/rai). In case of number of main branches/plant, it seems that all fertilized plants progressively
increased their number of main branches/plant from 3 branches of control treatment to 8-10
branches/plant. Generally, fertilized plants would perform better than non fertilized one. (Akanbi etal., 2009)
When considering to the data analysis of 50 % of 1st flower blooming date, flowering periods
and 1st fruit maturation date, it showed that the highest rate of application plant took shortest time
to reach 50% of 1st flower blooming, equal to 3-11 days faster when compared with the lower rates
and control treatments. Moreover, it spent a little longer period of flowering (since the first to lastflower blooming) and 1st fruit maturation (duration between flower blooming and mature fruit).
Plants in higher fertilizer rate flowered earlier might be because of the vigorous and rapid growthⒸ ISERD

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of plants which brought them to attain the competent stage of flowering. Oyewole and Mera (2010)
reported that manure application promoted vegetative growth in roselle, while nitrogen had
elongated the juvenile stage in plant, thus delaying crop maturity.
Table 1 Some agronomic characteristics of red roselle “Surin” at different rates of chemicalfertilizer
Fertilizer(16-16-16)(kg/rai)Control
25
50
75
F testCV.(%)

Plant height at
120 day after
planting (cm)145.9b186.9a186.4a191.2a**6.44

No. of mainbranches/plant
2.8c
8.3b
9.3ab
9.8a
**
9.75

50 % of 1st
flower blooming
date (days)
111.0a104.2b103.0b100.2c**
1.24

Flowering
periods (days)
37.5b
20.8ab
00.5a
03.7a
**
4.59

1st fruitmaturation
date (days)
21.8c
22.6b
22.7b
23.3a
**
1.19

Means followed by the same letter at the same column were not significantly different by LSD*, ** significant at P<0.05 and 0.01, respectively and ns not significant

Yield and Yield Components
Different chemical fertilizer rates had significant effect on yield and yield components of deep redroselle “Surin”. Application of 75 kg/rai plots gave the highest number of fresh fruits, fresh and dry
calyxes weight/plant/rai, seed weight/plant and seed yield/rai. Meanwhile the application in 50
kg/rai plants had all components and yield which were at par with the 25 kg/raI ones. Nevertheless,both got in higher values than control treatment equal to 1.3-1.4 times. However, increased inapplication of the chemical fertilizer rates did not show the significant affect on the 1000 seed
weight. Okosun (2006) reported that the 20 kgN/ha did enhance the number of fruits and seed/fruit.
Furthermore, Haruna et al. (2011) found that the application of 60 kg/ha of nitrogen fertilizer and 5
tons/ha of poultry manure significantly increase calyx yield and profitability of roselle. Oyewole
and Mera (2010) observed that for the calyx, pod and seed production, the application of manure at
7.5 tons/ha or nitrogen at 75 kgN/ha gave the best yield. Anyinkeng and Mih (2011) concluded that
20 tons of poultry manure significantly increase growth, biomass and economic yield of roselle. Incase of the harvest index (calyx plus seed yield), it was found the significant effect on. The
increased fertilizer rate from control to 50 kg/rai had reduced the harvest index value. However,when topped up to 75 kg/rai, the value was speed up but not over the control. Atta et al. (2010) also
discovered that the supplying 50-100 kgN/ha significantly decreased seed and calyx harvest
indexes relative to control (0 kgN/ha).
Table 2 Yield components of red roselle “Surin” at different rates of chemical fertilizer
Fertilizer(16-16-16)(kg/rai)Control
25
50
75
F testCV.(%)

No.of fresh
fruits/plant
10.8c
27.9b
28.5b
38.8a
**
11.62

Fresh calyx
weight/plant (g)47.5c
126.1b133.5b179.2a**14.88

Dry calyx
weight/plant (g)
8.2c
16.8b
18.4b
24.1a
**
13.5

Seed
weight/plant (g)
10.3c
22.5b
23.1b
31.1a
**
10.66

1000 seeds
weight (g)
37.5
37.8
37.5
37.5
ns
3.31

Means followed by the same letter at the same column were not significantly different by LSD*, ** significant at P<0.05 and 0.01, respectively and ns not significant

Data from Table 4 revealed that the pH of dry roselle calyxes were decreased after applied
higher chemical fertilizer rates which would be correlated with the gradually increased of acidcontent (titratable acidity percentage) that ranged from 13.21-16.06%. This is in accordance withthat obtained by Abo-Baker and Mostada (2011). Nevertheless, at any rates of fertilizer did notⒸ ISERD

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affect to the oil content in roselle seeds, the approximate value of seed oil content was equal to 2021%.
Table 3 Yield of red roselle “Surin” at different rates of chemical fertilizer
Fertilizer (16-16-16)(kg/rai)Control
25
50
75
F testCV.(%)

Yield of fresh calyx(kg/rai)
000..c.73..b333.3b
9...7a**12.99

Yield of dry calyx(kg/rai)
35.2c
68.6b
78.1b
103.0a**12.28

Seed yield(kg/rai)
44.0c
96.0b
98.6b
132.8a
**10.67

Harvest Index
0.5.a
0.50b
0.50b
0.5.a
*
6.51

Means followed by the same letter at the same column were not significantly different by LSD*, ** significant at P<0.05 and 0.01, respectively and ns not significant

Table 4 pH, dry calyx acid content and seed oil content of red roselle “Surin” at different
rates of chemical fertilizer
Fertilizer (16-16-16)(kg/rai)Control
25
50
75

pH
2.96 ± 0.02
2.96 ± 0.01
2.93 ± 0.01
2.82 ± 0.02

Dry calyx acid content(%)
13.21 ± 0.29
14.16 ± 0.41
14.01 ± 0.20
16.06 ± 0.13

Seed oil content(%)
19.71±0.18
21.45±0.04
19.93±0.49
19.83±0.90

CONCLUSION
For producing roselle to reach better yield and yield components, two tons of organic fertilizer(compost mix with farmyard manure) as basal application and 75 kg/rai of chemical fertilizer
application formula 16-16-16 are recommended.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my special thanks to RMUTT for providing the research fund.
REFERENCES
Abo-Baker, A.A. and Mostada, G.G. 2011. Effect of bio- and chemical fertilizer on growth, sepals yield andchemical composition of Hibiscus sabdariffa at new reclaimed soil of South Valley area. Asian Journalof Science, 3, 16-25.
Akanbi, W.B., Olaniyan, A.B., Togun, A.O., Ilupeju, A.E.O. and Olaniran, O.A. 2009. The effect of organicand inorganic fertilizer on growth, calyx yield and quality of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. American-Euradsian
Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 3, 652-657.
Anokwuru, C.P., Esiaba, I., Ajibaye and Adessuyi, A.O. 2011. Polyphenolic content and antioxidant activityof Hibiscus sabdariffa calyx. Res. J. MED. Plant, 5, 557-566.
Anyinkeng, N. and Mih, A.M. 2011. Soil nutrient supplementation on growth biomass production of roselle
under tropical condition. Agric. Biol. J. N., 2, 603-609.
Atta,S., Sarr,B., Bakasso, Y., Diallo, A.B., Lona, I., Saadou, M. and Glew, R.H. 2010. Roselle (Hibiscus
sabdariffa L.) yield and yield components in redponse to nitrogen fertilizer in Niger.Indian J. Agric. Res.,44, 96-103.
Haruna I.M., Ibrahim, H.Y. and Rahman, S.A. 2011. The yield and profittability of roselle (Hibiscus
sabdariffa L.) at varying poultry manure and nitrogen fertilizer rates in the southern guinea savanna of
Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Technology, 7, 605-609.
Hassan,F.A.S. 2009. Response of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. plant to some biofertilization treatmenrs.
Ann.Agric.Sci., Ain Shams Univ.Cairo, 54, 437-446.
OAE (Office of Agricultural Economics). 2007. Thailand Economic Herbs year 2006/07, Case studies: RedⒸ ISERD

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roselle, Safflower and Kwao Kreu Kao. Agricultural Statistics. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives,
Thailand.
Okosun, L.A. 2006. The effect of nitrogen and phosphorus on growth and yield of roselle (Hibiscus
sabdariffa var sabdariffa L.) in semi arid agro-ecology of Nigeria. J. Plant Sci., 1, 154-160.
Oyewole, C.I. and Mera, M. 2010. Response of roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) to rate of inorganic andfarmyard fertilizers in the Sudan savanna ecological zone of Nigeria. African Journal of Agricultural
Research, 5, 2305-2309.
Qi, Y., Chin, K.L., Malekian, F., Berhane, M. and Gager, J. 2005. Biological characteristics, nutritional andmedicinal value of roselle, Hibiscus sabdariffa. Circular-Urban Forestry Natural Resources andEnvironment, 604, 1-2.

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Research article
erd

Acceptability of Value Added Products from Giant Swamp
Taro (Cystosperma chamissonis) Corm
REGUCIVILLA A. POBAR*
Bohol Island State University, Bohol, the Philippines
Email: regupobar@gmail.com

EMMYLOU BALO
Bohol Island State University, Bohol, the Philippines

MARIA SHELANIE POBAR
Bohol Island State University, Bohol, the Philippines
Received 7 January 2014

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Giant Swamp Taro “Cyrtosperma chamissonis” is a native plant in thePhilippines. It can also be found in Bohol, Philippines especially in swampy coastal areas.
It is used as food and is prepared in several ways like roasting, grating, or baking the corm
whole. Giant Swamp Taro has traditionally been an important emergency crop in times ofnatural disaster and food scarcity. It is rich in calories, fibre, calcium, iron, zinc, βcarotene, thiamine and Vitamin C. This study ventured to produce T1- Taro Espasol with
Young Buko, and T2- Taro Espasol with Peanuts; to determine its acceptability; and topromote the product to the rural community. This is an experimental study using parallelgroup design with sixty panelists assessing the product in six sensory attributes;
appearance, texture or mouthfeel, cohesiveness, odor, taste and general acceptability,
utilizing Hedonic Scale. It was found out that T2 or Giant Swamp Taro with peanuts
ranked first in four sensory attributes; cohesiveness (tie with T0) - Crumbly, Odor - Very
Pleasant, Taste - Moderately Palatable, and in General Acceptability-Very Much
Acceptable. T2 ranked second in texture-Less Soft and third in Appearance - Very
Attractive. On the other hand, T1 or Giant Swamp Taro with Young Buko got the highest
in Appearance-Very Attractive, cohesiveness (tie with T2)- Crumbly, second in tasteModerately Palatable, and in ‘general Acceptability- Very Much Acceptable and third in
Texture and Mouthfeel- less soft, and odor - Very Pleasant. Meanwhile, T0 ranked first in
texture and mouthfeel - less soft, second in appearance - Very Attractive, Odor - Very
Pleasant and third in Cohesiveness - Crumbly, Taste - Moderately Palatable, and General
Acceptability - Very Much Acceptable. It can be concluded that the three treatments ofGiant Swamp Taro Espasol are generally acceptable. It is easy for the rural people toprepare the recipe since it is cooked using carajay and tools which are available in ruralcommunities. Giant Swamp Taro flour can substitute glutinous rice in recipes.
Keywords giant swamp taro, corm, espasol, hedonic tasting, taro flour, glutinous rice

INTRODUCTION
Giant Swamp Taro (Cyrtosperma chamissonis) is a native plant of the Philippines that has dozens
of varieties thriving on most of three tropical islands in the Pacific (Hopkins, 2012). It is one of the
few subsistence crops that grow well within swampy areas. It may be field stored in the ground forvery long periods (up to 30 years or more) and has traditionally been an important emergency cropof times of natural disaster and food scarcity. In fact in Tonga and some other island, this isconsidered as famine food (Manner, 2011).
Englberger and Levendusky of the Island Food Community of Pomhpei promote giant swamp
taro along with other local foods can protect against many serious diseases such as Vitamin AⒸ ISERD

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deficiency, anemia, diabetes, heart disease and cancer (Wagner, 2006). It is rich in minerals (zinc,calcium and iron), β-carotene, and fiber (Manner, 2011).
Giant Swamp Taro is highly valued but consumption is infrequent. It can be eaten to replace
other crops like breadfruit when not in season, it can withstand strong winds and hurricanes, thus
providing food security (Englberger et al., 2004).
The main product of Giant Swamp Taro is the corm which can be roasted, boiled, baked,
mashed, grated and combined with other starches for eating. The leaves and inflorescences can beeaten as vegetables and the petioles yield a fiber suitable for weaving. The big leaves are used asfood wrapper and also to cover the earth oven (Hopkins, 2012).
In the Philippines, especially in Bohol, Giant Swamp Taro are not given much value as food, it
is only eaten when nothing can be eaten anymore, when there are still other food to eat, Giant
Swamp Taro is forgotten. In Anda, Bohol for example many Giant Swamp Taro are dying because
it is not taken as food. So to promote Giant Swamp Taro, the researcher thought of making recipes
out of taro so that it can be fully utilized. The researcher believed that there is enough supply of
Giant Swamp Taro since in the eastern part of Bohol, around 15 hectares are planted with Giant
Swamp Taro which according to the President of the Cooperative producing taro flour cannot cause
its extinction but can save the dying taro since the cause of its death is the non-consumption of themother corm. So, that 15 hectare taro farm is more than enough to supply the raw material if a hugevolume is needed in the production of more taro products.
This study ventured to produce Espasol utilizing Giant Swamp Taro flour as the main
ingredient. Espasol is a type of rice cake made out of rice flour cooked in coconut milk, sweetened
and dusted with toasted rice flour. It originated in Laguna, Philippines and popularly sold in major
thoroughfares, bus stops and specialty shops in Laguna (Merano, 2009). The researcher assumed
that Giant Swamp Taro flour can replace malagkit/glutinous rice flour in the recipe.
The researchers believed that in this study the Giant Swamp Taro farmers can get benefit fromthe new recipes, their taro corms can be utilized as a snack item and not be left behind unconsumed
or unutilized or just as food for hogs. The rural community can also get benefit because they can
use the new recipe as new addition to their snack or dessert. The entrepreneurs can mass produce
these recipes and sell them for another income.
OBJECTIVE
The study aimed to produce Espasol from Giant Swamp Taro; to identify the ingredients, tools,
equipment and the procedure in producing the three treatments of Giant Swamp Taro Espasol; todetermine the acceptability of the product; to promote the products to the local community and toencourage them to use the products. The products were developed at Bohol Island State University,
Main Campus, Tagbilaran City, Bohol, Philippines for Academic Year 2012-2013.
METHODOLOGYThis study is experimental using parallel group design and utilizing five-point Hedonic Scale. The
finished products were subjected to sensory appraisals of sixty panelists consisting of twenty
community people, thirty students and ten Food Technology instructors. Sensory appraisal is ascientific method used to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret reactions to those characteristics offood materials as they are perceived by the senses of sight, smell, touch and hearing (ASTM MNL
14).
This study was conducted in the Food Technology Laboratory of Bohol Island State
University Main Campus, Tagbilaran City. The sixty panelists broken down as follows: twenty-fivecommunity people, twenty-five Food Technology students and ten Food Technology instructors.
They were chosen to make sure that each must free from taste perception disorders, odor perception
disorders, color blindness and denture defects which might affect their judgment of the product(Hashimi, 2007).
The researchers formulated the four recipes utilizing Giant Swamp Taro flour in threeⒸ ISERD

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treatments; first is the Plain Swamp Taro Espasol as treatment, second is the Giant Swamp Tarowith Young Buko as treatment 1 and the third is Giant Swamp Taro with Peanuts for Treatment 2.
The products were evaluated two times, first in the afternoon and the other in the following day,since according to Panlasang Pinoy, Espasol has best result if consumed the next day as it will
firm-up. The five point Hedonic Scale was used with the following range and descriptive rating.
Table 1 Descriptive rating
Numerical
Rating4.50-5.00
3.50-4.49
2.50-3.49
1.50-2.49
1.00-1.49

Appearance
Most
Attractive
Very
Attractive
Attractive
Less
Attractive
Not
Attractive

Descriptive Rating
CohesivenessOdor

TextureSoft

TenderLess Soft

Crumbly

FirmLess Hard

GrainyFibrous

Hard

CoarseMost
Pleasant
Very
Pleasant
Pleasant
Less
Pleasant
Unpleasant

Taste
HighlyPalatable
Moderately
Palatable
Palatable
Less Palatable
Not Palatable

General
Acceptability
Most Acceptable
Very Much
Acceptable
Acceptable
Less Acceptable
Not Acceptable

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The researchers found out that the following are the ingredients of the three treatments of Giant
Swamp Taro Espasol.
Table 2 Ingredients
Ingredients
2 cups Giant Swamp Taro flour
2 cups coconut milk
¾ cup centrifugal sugar¼ cup brown sugar
1 cup Taro flour for dusting
1 stalk pandan tied to knot
1 cup young buko, shredded½ cup peanuts, toasted andcrushed1 sheet water cellophane forwrapping

To
Plain Giant Swamp
Taro Espasol
√
√
√
√
√
√

T1
Giant Swamp Taro Espasol
with Young Buko
√
√
√
√
√
√
√

T2
Giant Swamp Taro Espasol
with peanuts
√
√
√
√
√
√
√

√

√

√

The three treatments of Giant Swamp Taro used Giant Swamp Taro flour, coconut milk,
centrifugal and brown sugar, pandan leaves for flavoring, young buko for treatment 1, crushed
peanuts for treatment 2 and water cellophane for wrapping for the three treatments.
Tools/equipment needed: The preparation of the three treatments of Giant Swamp Taro recipes
required the use of the following tools and equipment: flour sifter, spatula, rubber spatula,measuring cup, measuring spoon, coconut grater, strainer, wooden ladle, tin sheets, carajay, stove.
Procedure: The procedure used in preparing the three treatments of Espasol are as follows: Heatthe carajay, add the Giant Swamp Taro flour. Cook in medium heat until toasted or golden brown
while continues mixing. Turn off heat, set aside. This will be used for dusting. In a mixing bowl,
put together coconut cream, sugar and pandan. Mix and transfer to a carajay. Bring to a boil thenlower the heat to medium. Remove pandan leaves and continue boiling, add the flour until thick.
Place in a tin sheet dusted with flour then flatten with a rolling pin. Slice into long strips. Roll it toform a cylindrical shape cake. Roll each in toasted flour. Wrap in water cellophane.
The three treatments were then subjected to sensory evaluation by the panelists. First was rightafter cooking and the second was a day after it was prepared. The panelists were asked to take aglass of water in between tasting of the product so as not to mix the taste of the products. LikewiseⒸ ISERD

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they were also blindfolded when evaluating the taste and the odor of the three treatments of Giantswamp Espasol so that their judgment of the product will not be affected by the appearance of the
product.
Table 3 Result of sensory evaluation
Attributes
Appearance

Texture/ Mouthfeel

Cohesiveness

Odor

Taste

General Acceptability

Treatments
T0
T1
T2
T0
T1
T2
T0
T1
T2
T0
T1
T2
T0
T1
T2
T0
T1
T2

Trial 1
4.29
4.24
4.28
4.29
4.18
4.22
4.36
4.5
4.4
4.43
4.24
4.4
4.38
4.31
4.59
4.3
4.27
4.34

Trial 2
4.1
4.5
3.9
4.65
4.5
4.55
4.4
4.4
4.5
4.2
4.1
4.5
4.25
4.55
4.3
4.3
4.45
4.6

Average
4.20
4.37
4.09
4.47
4.34
4.38
4.38
4.45
4.45
4.32
4.17
4.45
4.32
4.43
4.44
4.3
4.36
4.47

Rank
2
1
3
1
3
2
3
1.5
1.5
2
3
1
3
2
1
3
2
1

Descriptive Rating
Very Attractive
Very Attractive
Very Attractive
Less SoftLess SoftLess Soft
Crumbly
Crumbly
Crumbly
Very Pleasant
Very Pleasant
Very PleasantModerately Palatable
Moderately Palatable
Moderately Palatable
Very Much Acceptable
Very Much Acceptable
Very Much Acceptable

Result of the First Trial
As shown in the result of the first trial, in appearance, T0 or the Plain Giant Swamp Taro Espasol
ranked first while T1 or Giant Swamp Taro Espasol with Young Buko ranked third but all thetreatments received a descriptive rating of Very Attractive. When comes to texture, still T0 ranked
first while T1 ranked third with a descriptive Rating of Less Soft. For cohesiveness, T1 got thehighest rating with a descriptive rating of Tender while T0 got the lowest with a Descriptive Ratingof Crumbly. For Odor, T0 has the highest rating while T1 got the lowest; Taste, T2 got the rating of
4.59, described as Highly Palatable and T2, the lowest has a rating of 4.31 Moderately Palatable.
Result disclosed that T2 ranked first in General Acceptability with T1, the lowest, the threetreatments received a Descriptive Rating of Very Much Acceptable.
Result of the Second Trial
As manifested in the result of Second Trial, T1 got a rating of 4.5 or Most Attractive in Appearance
while T2 got 3.9 or Very Attractive in the same Attribute. On the other hand, T0 got 4.65 or Soft
while T2 got 4.55 both described as Soft in Texture and Mouthfeel. For cohesiveness, T2 has thehighest rating of 4.5 with a descriptive Rating of Tender and T0 and T1 got a tie rating of 4.4
described as Crumbly. In odor, T2 has a rating of 4.5 or Most Pleasant while T1 has 4.1 or Very
Pleasant. For Taste, T1 has a rating of 4.55 or Highly Palatable and T0 has 4.25 or Moderately
Palatable and for General Acceptability, T2 has the highest rating of 4.6 or Most Acceptable andT0 has 4.3 or Very Much acceptable. The result of the second trial affirmed that Espasol has better
result when allowed to firm up since in the General Acceptability T2 is rated Most Acceptable andthe other two treatments were rated Very Much Acceptable while in the texture and mouthfeel thethree treatments were rated soft.
Average Rating of First and Second Trial
The overall rating disclosed that T2 or Giant Swamp Taro Espasol with peanuts ranked first in four
attributes, Cohesiveness, (tie with T1), Odor, Taste and General Acceptability. The result is inconsonance with the theory of Gatchialan which states that when the Odor and Taste of the productⒸ ISERD

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are acceptable, the product is generally acceptable. T0 on the other hand got the highest rating in
Texture and mouthfeel while T1 ranked first in appearance and cohesiveness (tie with T2).
Shelf Life
Samples of the products were allowed to stand at room temperature to observe the changes that
may take place, it was observed that T0 and T2 lasted for 6 days while T1 lasted only for three days.
The addition of young buko caused the Espasol to spoil earlier than the other treatments whichwere T0 Plain Giant Swamp Espasol and T2- Giant Swamp Espasol with Peanuts. The addition of
peanuts in T2 had contributed the shelf life of the product and so it lasted longer.
Marketability
The three products were displayed at the university canteen other products were displayed at thecooperative store of Anda, Bohol where many Giant Swamp Taro can be found. After a week ofdisplay in the cooperative store, the three treatments were all sold out, while in the university
canteen it took two weeks for the product to be sold out.
CONCLUSION
Giant Swamp Taro Espasol can be prepared using the taro flour. It can be used for food other thanthe usual boiling which rural people used to eat like the three treatments of Espasol in this study.
The three treatments are all acceptable for food. It is easy for the rural people to prepare since it iscooked using carajay and tools which are available in the rural communities. Giant Swamp Taroflour can substitute glutinous rice in recipes.
It is recommended that information dissemination be done to promote the use of Giant Swamp
Taro Espasol as snack items; preparing these value-added products from giant Swamp Taro be
extended to rural community so that these nutritious snack items can be used as part of their meals;value-added products from Giant Swamp Taro be introduced to the entrepreneurs so that these canbe mass produced and sold in the community; and other food technologists be inspired toexperiment other products using Giant Swamp Taro with a hint that this could be used as substitutefor glutinous rice.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research undertaking comes into fruition with the kind assistance from Bohol Island State
University administration, faculty and Food Technology students. In particular, the researchers are
grateful to Dr. Elpidio T. Magante, CE, Ed.D., University President, for the permission and warm
support in the conduct of the study. Acknowledgement is likewise due to the Campus Director Dr.
Nelson M. Patena and to Prof. Lucia J. Poyos, her researcher assistant.
REFERENCES
ASTM MNL. 14. The role of sensory analysis in quality control. (Retrieved from: www.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Sensory-analysis).
Englberger, L., Jonhson, E. and Paul, Y. 2004. Report on the visit to the Pohmpei atollisland of mokil
documenting and promoting local food crops. (Accessed: August 1, 2013).
Hashimi, I. 2007. Evaluation Techniques. (Retrieved from http://www.iaom-mea.com/EduMat/Dec.11/
Session 5/Tech 10-AGF-IAOM-Muscat-07pdf. Accessed : October 22, 2013).
Hopkins, I. 2012. Giant swamp taro: Uptapped potential in the pacific. (Retrieved from : blogs.worldwatch.
org/…/giant-swamp-taro-untapped-potential-in-the-pac, accessed : October 28, 2013).
Manner, H. 2011. Farm and forestry production and marketing profile for giant swamp taro. (Retrieved fromhttp:// agroforestry.net/scps, Accessed : August 3, 2013).
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Morano, V. 2009. Espasol. (Retrieved from http://panlasangpinoy.com/2009/10/24/espasol., Accessed : July
15, 2013).
Wagner, K. 2006. Geneflow: A publication about agricultural biodiversity. (Retrieved from books.ggogle.
com.ph/book?isbn=9290437243. http://www.spc.int/lrd/cepactacc/swamptaro.ph.p, Accessed : August 2,2013).

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Research article
erd

Effect of Ethanol-Blended Gasoline on the Concentration of
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Particulate Matterin Exhaust Gas of Motorcycle
SOMPORN PLEANJAI*
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand
Email: Spleanjai@gmail.

ITTIPOL PAW-ARMART
Automotive Air Pollution Division, Pollution Control Department, Bangkok, Thailand

THERDSAK PETBLENGSI
Automotive Air Pollution Division, Pollution Control Department, Bangkok, Thailand

SINGTO SAKULKHAEMARUETHAI
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand
Received 3 January 2014

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study focuses on the characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) and fine particulate matter (PM) in six four-stroke motorcycle exhaust emissions.
Blend gasoline contains 85% (vol) ethanol (Gasohol E85) and 10% (vol) ethanol (gasohol91) was used as test fuels. The test motorcycle was driven on a Chassis dynamometer toevaluate the effect of ethanol-gasoline blend on gaseous pollutant emissions. The
dynamometer system comprised a cooling fan, a dynamometer, a dilution tunnel, aconstant-volume sampler (CVS) unit, a gas analyzer and a personal computer. The exhaustfrom the test motorcycle was passed to the dilution tunnel. The emissions of PAHs andcriteria air pollutants (THC, CO, and NOx) were measured. Measurements were
performed on a standard driving cycle. The results show that in comparison to gasohol 91
fuels, the use Gasohol E85 fuels achieved reduction of THC and CO emissions. The
emission of THC from gasohol E85 reduced by 4-60% (average 43%) compared withthose of gasohol 91 fuels. CO emissions also showed a reduction by 40-95% (average75%). The concentrations of naphthalene, Benzo(a)anthracene, Chrysene,
Benzo(b)fluoranthene, and Benzo(g, h, i)perylene were also determined.
Keywords ethanol-blended gasoline, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
particulate matter (PM), exhaust emission

INTRODUCTION
Increasing industrialization and motorization have turned polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) into omnipresent environmental pollutants. PAHs are organic compounds, the derivativesof which are widespread and harmful compounds formed by incomplete combustion. Some PAHs
are potential mutagens and carcinogens, and are probably a significant cause of allergic responses
and cancer. In addition, the oxidized and nitrated reaction products of these compounds have beenfound to be more potent carcinogens and mutagens than their parent PAHs. Motor vehicles are
known to represent a significant source of PAH emissions. Most carcinogenic PAHs have beenfound to associate with particulates, predominately with fine particulates.
The effects of ethanol-gasoline blend on air pollutant emissions had been investigated in manystudies (Al-Hasan, 2003; He et al., 2003; Hsieh et al., 2002; Yüksel and Yüksel, 2004). Most of thestudies indicated that ethanol-blended gasoline produced lower CO and THC levels than unleaded
gasoline on SI engines. Ethanol-blended gasoline also decreased emissions of air toxic, such as
benzene, 1,3-butadiene, toluene, and xylene, with ethanol levels increasing. Air quality issueⒸ ISERD

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caused by emissions from motorcycle in urban area is critical in Asian cities: China, India, Taiwan,
Thailand, and Vietnam. Such as motorcycles contributed up to 30% of CO and 70% of THC among
all gasoline powered vehicles in Bangkok (Xie et al., 2004), and account for 28% of CO, 52% of
THC, and 19% of NOx in Taiwan (TEPA, 2011). Emission from motorcycle correlates with many
parameters, such as fuel property, engine type, driving mode, and exhaust catalyst. However, to ourknowledge, there are no data on the particulate matter and PAHs distribution pertaining toemissions from motorcycles for Bangkok and the surrounding province of Thailand in current
literature.
This study investigated the effects of ethanol-gasoline blends applied in four-stroke
motorcycle on engine exhaust emissions. The Gasohol E85 (E85) and Gasohol 91 (E10) were usedas test fuels. The study was to measure only mass of PM and selected gaseous pollutants (THC, CO,
CO2 and NOx). PAHs in the exhaust are also discussed. Emissions inputs are calculated fromThailand’s PCD (Pollution Control Department).
OBJECTIVES
1.
2.

To analyze PAHs from Gasohol E85 and Gasohol 91 in four-stroke motorcycle exhaust
To measure mass of PM and THC, CO, CO2 and NOx emissions

METHODOLOGY
Table 1 Emission analysis system
Measurement
Direct Measurement

CVS Measurement

Weighing

Pollutants
CO/CO2
HC
NOx
CO/CO2THC
NOxParticulate Matter(PM)Analyzer
Non-Dispersive Infrared(NDIR)
Non-Dispersive Infrared(NDIR)
Chemiluminescence Detector(CLD)
Non-Dispersive Infrared(NDIR)
Flame Ionization Detector(FID)
Chemiluminescence Detector(CLD)
Micro Balance

Blend gasoline contains 85% (vol.) ethanol (Gasohol E85) and 10% (vol.) ethanol (gasohol 91) wasused as test fuels. These fuels are a commercial fuel in Thailand. There are 6 motorcycles wereselected. The selected four-stroke motorcycles were without any engine adjustment. The
motorcycle was placed on chassis dynamometer. The chassis dynamometer was located in a
certified laboratory within the motorcycle manufacturer. The main dynamometer system comprisesof a dilution tunnel, a constant volume system (CVS) unit, an exhaust gas analyzer and a personal
computer. Exhaust samples were collected for the entire cycle; the exhaust gas was initially mixed
with air, directed to the CVS unit, and then connected to the sampling bags and analyzer. In thisstudy, the carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (THC), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) inthe exhaust filtered samples were measured using a non-dispersive infrared analyzer, a flame
ionization detection analyzer, and a chemiluminescence detection analyzer, respectively.
Particulate matter (PM) emissions were sampled on fiber filters and measured by means ofweighing (see Table 1).
PM and particulate PAHs were collected by quartz microfiber filters (diameter 70 mm, flowrate 60 liter per minute for 20 minutes). Two sets of filter holders were employed in this system.
Back-up filters were used in each holder downstream the sampling filters to check the breakthrougheffects. Two glass cartridges containing polyurethane foam (PUF) plug and XAD-16 resin wereused to collect the gaseous PAHs. Before taking the samples, the cleaned filters were stored in a
desiccator for at least 8 h for moisture equilibrium before weighing. After the experiments, thefilters were brought back to the laboratory and put in a desiccator for 8 h to remove moisture. They
were weighed again to determine the net mass of particles collected. After final weighing (only forfilter samples), each PAH-containing sample was extracted with a mixed solvent (acetonitrile:Ⓒ ISERD

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dichloromethane = 10: 90% v/v) by accelerated solvent extractor (ASE). The extract was thenconcentrated by purging with ultra-pure nitrogen 130 psi for 60 second to 2 mL for cleanup
procedure and re-concentrated to 1.0 mL by evaporator. The concentrations of the following PAHs
were determined by a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC DAD/FLD).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

PM (mg)PM (mg)

All motorcycles fueled with gasohol 91 (E10) and gasohol E85 (E85) were tested. The results areshown in Fig. 1-Fig. 5 and Table 2. Figure1 shows that a quantity of PM content in the test
motorcycle exhaust decreases when adding more ethanol in fuel.
Figure 2 shows that THC emission from all motorcycles fueled with E85 decreases by 4-60%
compared to E10 and it was found that the THC emission decreases when adding more ethanol in
fuel. Figure 3 shows that CO emission from the motorcycles fueled with E85 decreases around 4095% compared to fueled with E10 and it was found that E10 has CO more than E85 because
incompletely burning of oil unfit engine makes more exhaust emission. The result of CO2 emission
is not significant difference as shown in Fig.4. Figure 5 shows that NOx emission from all
motorcycles fueled with E85 is 50-400% higher than E10.

THC (g/km)

Fig. 1 Emission of PM from four-stroke motorcycle with different fuelsFig. 2 Emission of THC from four-stroke motorcycle with different fuelsⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

CO2 (g/km)

Fig. 3 Emission of CO from four-stroke motorcycle with different fuels

NOX (g/km)

Fig. 4 Emission of CO2 from four-stroke motorcycle with different fuels

Fig.5 Emission of NOx from four-stroke motorcycle with different fuels
Our findings according to previous studies, it was found that ethanol-gasoline blended fuels(3-30 vol.%) and pollutant emissions are correlated. In general, exhaust HC and CO emissions arelower with oxygenated fuels, but comparable or higher NOx emissions are produced (Furey andⒸ ISERD

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King, 1980; Hsieh et al., 2002; He et al., 2003). The extent of pollutant reduction depends on
ethanol content, air-fuel ratio (AFR), engine operating conditions, type of cars and whether closedloop fuel is used (Zervas et al., 2002; Al-Hasan). The effect of using an ethanol gasoline blend fuel(ethanol 10 vol.%) on four-stroke motorcycle exhaust emission using chassis dynamometers had
been investigated that indicate reductions in CO and HC emissions with an insignificant effect of
ethanol on NOx emission(Jia et al., 2005). In addition, the high ethanol-gasoline blend ratio (20%)
resulted in a less emission reduction than those of low ratio blends (<15%)(Yao et al., 2009).
Furthermore, the effect of ethanol blended gasoline fuel on emission was investigated in Thailand(Sukajit et al., 2011). The exhaust emissions tests on four-stroke motorcycle fueled with E0, E10
and E20 results show that the ethanol blended gasoline fuel results in decreasing of CO emission by
40-70% and it was found that CO emission decreases when adding more ethanol in fuel. Other
emissions show no difference.
According to Table 2, it could be seen that many compounds were detected in the exhaustemissions tests on four-stroke motorcycle fueled with E10 and E85. In this study, based onemission amount, the top-5 aromatic hydrocarbons detected were as follows: Naphthalene,
Benzo(a)anthracene, Chrysene, Benzo(b)fluoranthene and Benzo(g, h, i)perylene. It was found thatethanol of E10 fuel plays insignificant effect on aromatic emissions, as compared to E85.
Table 2 Emission of PAHs from four-stroke motorcycle with different fuels
PAHs(mg/m3)
Naphthlene
Chrysene
Benzo(a)anthracene
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
Benzo(g,h,i)perylene

MC1
0.03
‹0.025‹0.025‹0.0250.06

PAHs(mg/m3)
Naphthlene
Chrysene
Benzo(a)anthracene
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
Benzo(g,h,i)perylene

MC1
4<0.025
ND
ND
ND

MC2
0.05
1.51
1.3
1.33
1.87
MC2
0.1
1.25
0.96
1.33
2.16

Gasohol 91(E10)
MC3
MC4
0.04
0.04
0.15
‹0.025
0.03
ND
0.14
ND
0.47
ND
Gasohol E85 (E85)MC3
MC4‹0.025
0.06
ND
0.04
ND
<0.025ND<0.025
ND
ND

MC5

MC6

0.03
‹0.025ND‹0.025‹0.025

0.03
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.05

MC5
0.04
ND
ND
ND
ND

MC6
0.04
ND
ND
ND
ND

CONCLUSION
This study investigated the emissions of THC, CO, CO2 and NOx emissions for four-stroke
motorcycles using E10 and E85 gasoline/ethanol blended fuels. In comparison with E10, using E85
as fuel reduces the emission of THC and CO by 4-60% and 40-95% respectively. In contrast, theemission of NOx emission is increased by 50-400% using E85. The CO2 emissions are notsignificant difference. The PM and PAHs were analyzed. The results were found that PM
decreases when fueled with E85 and PAHs: Naphthalene, Benzo(a)anthracene, Chrysene,
Benzo(b)fluoranthene and Benzo(g, h, i)perylene emissions for four-stroke motorcycles using E10
and E85 as fuels are not significant difference.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was financially supported by the Cooperative Education Program - Rajamangala
University of Technology (RMUTT) and Automotive Air Pollution Division, Pollution Control
Department (PCD), Thailand. The authors would like to thank staff of PCD who performed the
dynamometer tests.
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Al-Hasan, M. 2003. Effect of ethanol-unleaded gasoline blends on engine performance and exhaustemissions. Energy Conversion Management, 44, 1547-61.
Furey, R.L. and King, J.B. 1980. Evaporative and exhaust emissions from cars fueled with gasoline
containing ethanol or methyl tert-butyl ether. SAE technical paper series, 800261. Society of Automotive
Engineer.
He, B.Q., Wang, J.X., Hao, J.M., Yan, X.G. and Xiao, J.H. 2003. A study on emission characteristics of an
EFI engine with ethanol blended gasoline fuels. Atmospheric Environment, 37, 949-57.
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Research article
erd

Factors affecting paddy landscape from the perspective oflandscape structure
YAMAMOTO TADAO*
Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan
Email: tady@env.agr.hokudai.ac.jp

NOMOTO KEN
Foundation of Hokkaido Agricultural Modernization Technology Research Center, Hokkaido,
Japan
Received 22 November 2014

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The current landscape was constructed by the first settlement in approximately
120 years at the Shinotsu region located in the Ishikari River Basin, Hokkaido. The
objective of this study was to investigate landscape elements and factors found duringlandscape changes as well as the problems associated with future developments. Data
regarding landscape changes during each period were collected using topographic maps,
and changes because of human actions and related projects in this region were recorded
from town history and other related documents. Landscape changes occurred through thefollowing steps: (a) primal natural landscape (peatland, primarily occupying thelandscape); (b) natural and partial agricultural landscapes occurred during only good
settlement conditions (alluvial plain); (c) decrease in natural landscape and gradualdevelopment of a dry field landscape with drainage of peatland (farmland expanded inhockmoor from niedermoor); and (d) paddy field landscape established using an advanced
agricultural water-use system. From these landscape changes, it was clear that the changes
in elements and factors were primarily human plans (motive), peatland characteristics(depending of Fudo, which is a holistic phenomenon based on the complex of interactions
between factors such as climate, geography, and soil) and agricultural water-use system(tools and facilities). In addition, these elements and factors interactively affected
landscape changes; thus, evaluation using each element or factor alone is difficult.
Keywords drainage, peatland, colonization lot-plan, irrigation, landscape change

INTRODUCTION
A landscape is not simple scenery. An agricultural landscape is formed by interactions between theecosystem, climate, geomorphology, and human actions (Forman & Godorn, 1986). Any particular
rural area (farming village) is composed of various combinations of farmlands and land
improvement facilities, including production facilities, homes for living space, rivers, ponds,
forests, and other natural environmental elements. Most studies have evaluated rural areas
primarily on the basis of their production function or structure and function as individual elements
because production was considered the first priority in rural areas. However, sustainable
development is expected because of recent changes in circumstances surrounding life in rural areas
as well as agriculture. Thus, natural environments can provide a fulfilling environment based on
agricultural production, which generally indicates ecosystem stability. So, the holistic evaluationconsidering the relationship between each element is necessary for sustainable development. There
are few evaluations like this in actually. Therefore, we suggest the landscape evaluation is effective.
A landscape is formed in a rural area by various elements. Landscape evaluation is aneffective method to understand the relationships among the natural environment, life, production,and other elements. We can regard the landscape as an interaction between the visible phenomenaon the land surface and the land-use pattern, which exhibits a material circulation and humaninteraction between natures in this region. Furthermore, evaluation of these phenomena is anⒸ ISERD

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effective method to understand the regional environment.
The objective of this study was to investigate landscape elements and factors observed duringlandscape changes as well as the problems associated with future developments.
METHODOLOGY
The target area of the study was the Shinotsu region located downstream of the Ishikari River Basin.
In this area, the landscape represents the overview of pattern of land use.
We considered that investigation of land use and its patterns is an effective way to analyze thelandscape. The distinguishing landscape forms and elements during each period were identified
using Hokkaido soil maps (1985) and topographic maps issued by the Geographical Survey
Institute as well as human actions and related projects for this area that were collected from town
history and other related documents, including the history of irrigation, drainage and reclamationengineering in Hokkaido (1984), Shinshinotsu town history (1975), Tobetsu town history (1972),
and others. Subsequently, a conceptual diagram was prepared from the collected data.

Fig. 1 Location of Shinotsu region
RESULTSAt present, an approximately homogeneous landscape, i.e., paddy fields, with a few land-use
changes can be observed in the Shinotsu area. During each period, the natural landscape condition
gradually changed because of policies, social and economic conditions, and progressive
agricultural technology. Based on this developmental process, we considered that gradualdevelopment, factors restricting development, and human activities in the landscape differed during
each period.
The elements and changing factors during each period are described as follows.
Landscape Changes, Elements, and Factors before the 1870s
Before reclamation and settlement, the region comprised a wilderness landscape with alluvial
plains, hockmoor and niedermoor, forest, and river landscapes. The forest landscape was located ona neighboring hill and was characterized as a mixed forest with needleleaf and broadleaf trees. The
wilderness landscape, located in the lower area, was characterized as the hinterland of the naturalriver basin. The wilderness landscape was formed by meandering rivers, floods, and sedimentation;
thus, was considered an extension of the river landscape. This regional landscape was divided into
hockmoor, niedermoor, and an alluvial plain based on its vegetation and pedogenesis.
The niedermoor formed the hinterland because of the effects of the Ishikari River. The
hockmoor was formed and recharged by rain. The landscape change depends on the altitude ofⒸ ISERD

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hockmoor, which was relatively higher than that of the other wilderness landscapes. The alluvial
plain expanded along the Ishikari River and primarily comprised fluvial deposits; the primaryvegetation was broadleaf forest. The alluvial plain landscape was characterized by the positional
relationships among the river, soil, and vegetation.

Fig. 2 Overview of landscape pattern changesⒸ ISERD

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The river landscape was characterized as a primeval river with spatiotemporal changes
including natural levees and former river channels.
This landscape was stable as a natural ecosystem because of an absence of human activities.
Landscape Changes, its Elements, and Factors from the 1870s to 1900
During this period, the landscape largely comprised forest, wilderness, and river landscapes. An
agricultural landscape formed by settlement was observed in a part of the landscape. With the
exception of the agricultural landscape, each landscape element and the interrelationships are
essentially similar to those of the former period.During this period, the agricultural landscapeappeared in a part of the alluvial plain forming the wilderness landscape. However, it had not
widely expanded yet. Moreover, it had a small impact on the natural landscape because thesettlement comprised reclaimed land and houses. Although the colonization-lot plan had beenplanned by the government, it is yet to be regulated.
Landscape Changes, its Elements, and Factors from the 1900s to 1945
The regional landscape included forest, wilderness, agricultural, and river landscapes. It wascharacterized by paddy and upland spreads. The partial paddy landscape occurred under only good
settlement conditions on the wilderness landscape, and sustainable upland field landscapes were
present. The paddy landscape, with intake from natural rivers, was at the border of the wilderness
landscape at the foot of a hill or an alluvial plain near river branches. The paddy landscape had not
expanded at this time. However, the upland field landscape had increased gradually from analluvial plain to the boundary between niedermoor and hockmoor. A large part of hockmoor
remained devoid of human intervention.
The upland field landscape expanded in the wilderness by channeling the Shinotsu Canal fordrainage to dry the peatland, and constructing a grid-like road, drainage ditch, and houses designedon the basis of the colonization-lot plan. Although these fields were upland fields, the current basic
constitution, such as grid-like lots and scattered houses, appeared at this stage. This upland fieldlandscape was influenced by floods and snowmelt run off from the river and wilderness landscapes.
Landscape Changes, its Elements, and Factors from 1946 to 1965
During this period, the regional landscape was characterized by forest, wilderness, extended
agriculture, and disconnected river landscapes. The river landscape was separated from the alluvial
plain and the agricultural landscape was improved with embankments. The agricultural and alluvial
plain landscapes were affected by hydrological influence due to advancing river water drainage
caused by construction. Moreover, preventing the damage from floods by improving riverembankments has enabled sustainable agricultural production; however, it requires further
upgrading.
In the beginning of this period, a large part of hockmoor comprised the wilderness landscape.
After drainage, land reclamation and paddy construction were enhanced. Then, the alluvial plainarea decreased and changed to a paddy landscape. In addition, the upland field landscape waspresent with large qualitative changes. The paddy landscape appeared close to the Ishikari Riverand the upland field landscape decreased in size because of paddy construction on the alluvial plain.
Niedermoor was used as an upland field.
Landscape Changes, its Elements, and Factors after 1965: Quantitative Changes in the Paddy
LandscapeDuring this period, the regional landscape comprised forest, paddy, and river landscapes. The
paddy landscape was homogeneous and the low-lying area was developed. Thus, most of theupland field and hockmoor landscapes changed to paddy landscape. Moreover, the wildernessⒸ ISERD

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landscape disappeared during this period. The paddy landscape was formed by grid-like drainage aswell as irrigation channels and roads regulated by colonization-lot planning; Houses and facilities
filled these lots. The Shinotsu Canal, a dual-purpose canal, was located at the center of this area.
The establishment of an irrigation system and reinforcement of the regional drainage system
maintained the landscape.
This mixed area of paddy fields and upland fields changed by creating multipurpose paddy
fields in the paddy landscape.
The paddy landscape has been primarily sustained by a drainage and irrigation system, whichis centered on the Shinotsu Canal and takes water from the Ishikari River. Because such a systemcreated a new watershed, a new independent landscape appeared in the low-middle part of the
Ishikari River Basin.
DISCUSSION
Landscape Forming Elements and Factors
The pattern changes [from (i) to (ii)] in Fig. 2 characterize the appearance of an artificial landscapeand disappearance of the natural wilderness landscape. The artificial landscape formed byreclaiming farmlands and houses appeared along the reclamation settlements. This landscape islimited to appear in a relatively convenient location that is easier and effective in the developmentof an alluvial plain. Moreover, it is less common in inferior drainage areas such as peatlands andlower alluvial plains. This land condition makes it easier to reclaim settlements as well as set-up
water for agricultural use and houses as regulated factors of the landscape changes.
The changes from (iii) to (iv) in Fig. 2 were characterized as advanced systematic reclamationand the appearance and expansion of large-scale agricultural landscape in the niedermoor andalluvial plains. Social factors for landscape changes such as planning and implementation ofcolonization-lot plan form a base of agricultural development. This agricultural landscape
expanded with the advancement in drainage for using the alluvial and niedermoor areas.
Subsequently, the drainage specified the landscape changes during this period.
The changes from (iv) to (v) in Fig. 2 indicate a sustainable agricultural landscape which has
been unaffected by floods due to river improvement, thereby upgrading the condition for
agriculture with an advancement in river water drainage. Therefore, the factors specified for the
maintenance of the Shinotsu Canal by the systematic improvement projects of agricultural
production base are implementation or advancement of regional drainage, soil dressing in peatland,
and improvement of agricultural water management systems.
CONCLUSION
We evaluated the changes in regional landscape structure from the perspective of social and natural
factors. The current Shinotsu area landscape was built based on the regional natural, social, andtechnical conditions in a low-lying area on the Ishikari River Basin. The landscape developed
because of the interaction between human actions and previous conditions. From the beginning of
the settlement to the present, the regional landscape has changed gradually due to systematic andlarge-scale human actions. The changes in the natural and agricultural landscape structures
influenced by human action were specified by the niedermoor characteristics. These changes
depended on land drying by drainage. The changes to farmlands and more sophisticated farmlands
occurred because of enhanced drainage. Moreover, the sustenance of drainage function can befurther advanced to drain water from wilderness plain around the areas that have been drained
before.
From these landscape changes, it is clear that the primarily changed elements and factors werethe motivation (planning), the peatland characteristics (depending of Fudo, which is a holistic
phenomenon based on the complex of interactions between factors such as climate, geography, andsoil) and agricultural water-use system (tools and facilities). Furthermore, these influences areⒸ ISERD

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affected by a difference in perspective or the time of evaluation. In addition, these elements andfactors have an interactive effect; thus, evaluation using each element or factor alone is difficult.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our deepest appreciation goes to emeritus Prof. UMEDA Yasuharu at Hokkaido University for his
continuing support and constant encouragement.
REFERENCES
Hokkaido national agricultural experiment station. 1985. Soil Map of Arable Land in Hokkaido, (inJapanese).
Editorial committee of History of irrigation, drainage and reclamation engineering in Hokkaido. 1984,
History of irrigation, drainage and reclamation engineering in Hokkaido, Hokkaido blanch of Japanesesociety of irrigation, drainage and reclamation engineering. Hokkaido, Japan, (in Japanese).
Richard T.T. Forman & Michel Godorn. 1986. Landscape ecology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 3-31.
Shinshinotsu town. 1975, Shinshinotsu history, Shinshinotsu town, Hokkaido, Japan, (in Japanese).
Toubetsu town. 1972. Toubetsu town history, Toubetsu town, Hokkaido, Japan, (in Japanese).

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Research article
erdApplication of Analytical Hierarchical Process Method to
Select a Technology Option in Rural Settings
TUNG NGUYEN NHU*
International University - Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
Email: nntung@hcmiu.edu.vn
Received 29 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Selection of an appropriate technology in rural settings in developing countries
contributes to the effective use of the scarce resources of the community and thesustainability of the system using that technology. Literature review shows thatappropriate selected technologies suit difficult conditions of poor people, lessen theirfinancial burdens, increase productivity and create wealth. This paper also introduces theapplication of Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) method in making decision ontechnology in rural settings. The eight-step process of AHP method is demonstrated with
an illustration example of rural water supply investment based on the alternatives, criteria
and priorities as judged. This new model, an application of mathematical methodology insocial choice, would correct the shortcomings of other decision rules and improve thequality of decision-making process of a community in their initiatives to improve theirlivelihoods.
Keywords rural development, technology selection, analytical hierarchical process

INTRODUCTION
Nowadays about three quarters of 780 million people are drinking unsafe water and two thirds ofthis number are living in Africa and Asia (UNICEF, 2012). In order to achieve the Millennium
Development Goal for Water Supply and Sanitation of the United Nations, more efforts need to bemade to provide safe water to rural communities in these two continents. Fortunately, this mission
is likely to be realized, at least in terms of technology as nowadays there are many watertechnology options, both traditional and modern. A collection of most recent water treatment
technologies include solar water disinfection, coagulants/flocculants, ultraviolet treatment, reverse
osmosis, ultra filtration, nanofiltration, to name some (Dalberg, 2013). Beside those advanced
technologies, people can use traditional water treatment methods such as boiling water,
chlorination, sand filters and ceramic filters. For each technology application, there is acorresponding type of water supply. Current popular types include piped water distribution, handpump well, rainwater guttering system which can be used in rural areas (Mekong Delta Water
Project). Before selection of technology and water distribution type, it is important to know what
community wants. How to relate the community’s wants or criteria to technology options for
optimal selection requires a quantitative decision model. This paper introduces the application of
Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) technique for this purpose because the requirements for its
application are met with available options and predictable criteria. With many choices presented,
communities have great opportunities to make informed decision in a suitable water supply model
to improve their health and even further, increase farming and irrigation productivity hence raise
their income. Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) technique is presented as a quantitativedecision technique in many operations research books and journal papers. The key to this method ispairwise comparison between alternatives in respect to each criteria and these comparisons areorganized in the structural form of tree branches. The final goal is to calculate a weighted score
total for each alternative and select the most optimal alternative. Saaty (1990) introduced clear
basic guidelines for this calculation. Following him, some scholars proposed an extended AHN
method, or fuzzy AHN technique (Abdel-Kader and Dugdale, 2001, Ertugrul Karsak and Tolga,Ⓒ ISERD

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2001, Ordoobadi, 2012). The extended AHP method supplemented the short comings of failing todiscuss uncertainties or risks in determining values for each alternative. Applications of AHN
techniques can be found in much literature on investment selection, portfolio plans, technology
choice, vendor or provider selection.
OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this paper is to introduce the application of Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP)
method in a decision on water technology in rural settings. This is a multi-criteria decision-making
process which requires eight steps, as described in the next sections. A rural water technology isrecommended as a result of applying this method given judgment values provided by top experts.
The limitation of this presented calculation is that its outputs are only accurate in casepairwise comparison is perfectly consistent. In practice, pairwise comparison is not perfectly
consistent. Actually, consistency ratio should be calculated in any AHP matrices, whose calculation
is explained in the work of Saaty (Saaty, 1990). The scope of this paper does not include theinconsistency ratio.
METHODOLOGY
Basic AHP methods are explained in the work of Nydick and Hill (1992). He showed calculationtables to describe step by step to reach to the final aggregated score for each supplier. Saaty (1990)
listed AHP method steps as follows: 1 - identify potential alternatives; 2 - identify and classify
selection criteria; 3 - Identify criteria/alternatives interdependence; 4 - Construct AHP Model; 5 Perform pairwise comparisons to determine criteria priorities; 6 - Perform pairwise comparison todetermine alternative priorities with respect to each criterion; 7 - Determine overall priority foreach alternative; 8 - Select the technology alternative with the highest priority.
To illustrate this paper with a simple example, a list of three key criteria normally used forrural water supply technology selection, extracted from literature, is used. Next, from reading
technical assessment on community-level water supply, three emerging rural water technology
alternatives are selected based on the recommendations by water experts (Dalberg, 2013). They aresolar water disinfection, coagulant/flocculants treatment and reverse osmosis. After the criteria andalternatives have been identified, top experts in rural water supply have been contacted for giving
judgment values to the alternatives and criteria. This qualitative approach is called “jury of
executive opinion” where the opinions of a small group of high-level managers are good enoughfor decision (Render, Stair, & Hanna, 2009). From personal working relationship, a UNICEF top
water engineer and a former team leader of Mekong Delta Project Rural Water Project have beenasked to answer the questionnaire using the survey website www.surveymonkey.com. Both of themworked as top experts in an Australia-funded water project in Mekong Delta. The team leader, who
is a water engineer with more than 30 years of experience in rural water supply has responded. In
the questionnaire, the respondent is asked to judge the importance level of each water technology
and each criteria. The questionnaire uses 5-point Likert scale: 1 = very unimportant; 2 =unimportant; 3 = neutral; 4 = important; 5 = very important for criteria importance weights and 1 =very poor; 2 = poor; 3 = average; 4 = good; 5 = very good for other questions.
ILLUSTRATION EXAMPLE AND RESULTS
Let’s consider the following case. Suppose that a social enterprise wants to select an appropriatetechnology option to supply water to a community in rural Mekong Delta. This example excludes
water provision at the individual household level hence eliminate technologies for this level
including chlorination, sand filters, ceramic filters. A preliminary technical assessment filters out
three technologies suitable to local conditions are solar water disinfection, coagulant/flocculants
treatment and reverse osmosis. The overall objective is to identify the best technology which hasⒸ ISERD

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the highest evaluation score. Note that comparison values in the tables below are given by a top
expert in rural water supply.
Step 1: Identified potential alternatives are solar water disinfection, coagulant/flocculants treatment
and reverse osmosis).
Step 2, 3& 4: Criteria/alternative interdependence and AHP Model are established (Fig. 1).
Step 5: Criteria pairwise comparisons performed to determine criteria priorities (Tables 1, 2).
Let’s sum up all the elements in each column to generate Column Total (Table 1). Then divide
each value by its column sum. For example, the sum of all the elements in the column of item a –Low cost is 6.25. The value of the pairwise comparison between quality and itself is 1. To
normalize this value, we divide 1 by the column total of 6.25 to result in 0.16 (Table 2). The lastcolumn of Table 3 shows the priority weight of each criterion, which is calculated by averaging all
the values of the same row. For example, the criterion of item a - low cost is 0.16. The row averagevalue is not different from the value previously normalized by column because the expert judgment
is perfectly consistent.
Best
technology

Low
upfront
cost

Closealignmentwith locality

Solar water
disinfection

Limitedskills for
O&M

Low energy
and wastewater

Coaggulant/floc
culant withchlorine

Scalability

Employability

ReverseOsmosisFig. 1 The AHP model for technology selection
Table 1 Pairwise comparison of criteria - original matrix
a. Low costb. Alignment with localityc. Limited O&M skills
d. Low energy and waste watere. Scalability
f. Employability
COLUMN TOTALS

a
1
5/4
4/4
4/4
4/4
4/4
6.25

b
4/5
1
4/5
4/5
4/5
4/5
5.0

c
4/4
5/4
1
4/4
4/4
4/4
6.3

d
4/4
5/4
4/4
1
4/4
4/4
6.3

e
4/4
5/4
4/4
4/4
1
4/4
6.3

f
4/4
5/4
4/4
4/4
4/4
1
6.3

Read: take the example of the 2nd row. The pairwise comparison between alignment with locality (item b) and low cost
(item a) is 5/4. It means that the expert judged 5 points for alignment with locality versus 4 points for low cost.

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Table 2 Pairwise comparison of criteria - adjusted matrix

a. Low costb. Alignment with localityc. Limited O&M skills
d. Low energy and wasterwater
e. Scalability
f. Employability

a
0.16
0.20
0.16

b
0.16
0.20
0.16

c
0.16
0.20
0.16

d
0.16
0.20
0.16

e
0.16
0.20
0.16

f
0.16
0.20
0.16

Priorities(Row average)
0.16
0.20
0.16

0.16
0.16
0.16

0.16
0.16
0.16

0.16
0.16
0.16

0.16
0.16
0.16

0.16
0.16
0.16

0.16
0.16
0.16
TOTAL

0.16
0.16
0.16
1.00

Step 6: Pairwise comparison to determine alternative priorities with respect to each criterion. After
we make comparison between criteria, we continue with pairwise alternative comparison. Table 3aand Table 3b show the results of priority weights after we have taken Step 5 above. For example,
after column value normalization and row average, the priority weight for solar water disinfection
option relative to other option is 0.396 in respect to Low cost (Table 3a).
Table 3a Supplier pairwise comparison in respect to cost, alignment to locality, O&M skills

A. Solar disinfection
B. Coagulant/flocculants
plus chlorine
C. Reverse Osmosis
Weight

A
1

Cost
B
5/3

3/5
1/5
0.396

1
1/3
0.453

C
1/3

Alignment to locality
A
B
C
1
1
4

Limited O&M skills
A
B
C
1
5/3
5

3
1
0.151

1
1/4
0.444

3/5
1/5
0.556

1
1/4
0.444

4
1
0.111

1
1/3
0.333

3
1
0.111

Read: Take the example of the judgment value of 1/5 between C and A in the 3rd row. It means that C is 5 times lesspreferable than A in respect to Cost.

Table 3b Supplier pairwise comparison in respect to low energy/waste water, scalability andemployability
Low energy and water waste
A. Solar disinfection
B. Coagulant/flocculants
plus chlorine
C. Reverse Osmosis
WeightScalability

Employability

A
1

B
5/3

C
5

A
1

B
3/4

C
3

A
1

B
1/2

C
2/3

3/5
1/5
0.556

1
1/3
0.333

3
1
0.111

4/3
1/3
0.375

1
1/4
0.500

4
1
0.125

2
3/2
0.222

1
3/4
0.444

4/3
1
0.333

Table 4 Computation of overall weights
OptionA
BC

Low cost
0.160(0.396)(0.160)(0.453)(0.160)(0.151)(0.160)

Alignment Limited O&M
with locality
skillsLow energy
and water
waste

0.200
(0.444)(0.2)(0.444)(0.2)(0.111)(0.2)

0.160
0.160
0.160
(0.556)(0.16) (0.375)(0.16) (0.222)(0.16)(0.333)(0.16) (0.5)(0.16) (0.444)(0.16)(0.111)(0.16) (0.125)(0.16) (0.333)(0.16)

0.160(0.556)(0.16)(0.333)(0.16)(0.111)(0.16)

Overall
Scalability Employability Weights(row total)
0.426
0.419
0.155

Step 7: Determine overall priority for each alternative.
After we have known the priority for each criteria and alternative, we generate the overall
priority weight by making a product of these two priorities and sum all the values of the same row(Table 5). For example, Option A gets an overall priority weight of 0.426.

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Table 5 Overall priority weight ranking
Alternative
A – Solar disinfection
B – Coagulant/flocculants plus chlorineC – Reverse Osmosis

Overall priority weight
0.426
0.419
0.155

Step 8: Select the technology alternative with the highest priority: the final step is to sort theoverall weights by descending order and select the alternative with the highest weight (Table 5).
The above calculated result from AHP method yields the highest overall priority weight forsolar disinfection for rural water technology (overall priority weight of 0.426). This is because theexpert assessed that this alternative receives the highest values for three out of six assessment
criteria, i.e. alignment to local conditions, limited requirements for O&M skills, low energy andwaste water, with the largest importance weight loaded on the alignment to local conditions.
In the Mekong Delta Water Project (2002-2008) all piped water schemes in communes use
flocculant/coagulant technology. Several reasons can be given. Traditionally, local preliminary
technical assessment engineers did not include emerging technologies like solar disinfection orreverse osmosis, in the feasibility study phase. It was because of limited capacity of local rural
water centers, their ignorance of other better technologies and project time constraint, to namesome. Besides, local partners are inclined to prefer a familiar technology like flocculant/coagulant
technology with chlorine rather than take time to study the feasibility of a new technology which
requires much time and expertise. As a result, beneficiary communities in the project are
introduced with familiar coagulant technology whereas our computations show solar disinfection isbetter.
CONCLUSION
The AHP method is recommended for use as a multi-criteria selection model by any community
committee composed of members of diverse expertise, background and possibly interests. For
example, an engineer may prefer operations feasibility while a community representative favours
affordability and employability. The remaining issue is how to reach this consensus among thesemembers. Future studies need to introduce a method by which committee members can come up
with a consensus. Group preference decision technique is one method of this kind. Besides, theconditions for applying this model include prior identification of suggested choices and ability ofcommittee members in determining criteria relevant to the proposed investment, which would be achallenge in rural areas. It is strongly suggested that social enterprises use this selection approachas quantitative management. In a context where stakeholders need to know justifications of any
choice made by the social enterprise in option selection, the results of this approach would show
clear and scientific evidence to convince them. The limitations of this approach include a short listof alternatives meaning that if the number of alternatives and criteria is too large, it is too complex
to calculate priority weights manually. In this case, it is suggested to use a specializing software
Expert Choice. It is possible to properly apply the AHP method in selecting water technology
because of some reasons. Firstly, the nature of a water project requires preliminary technicalinvestigation for available water sources, normally done as part of feasibility study. As a result, ashort list of technology alternatives would be proposed. It should be avoided that a project presents
too many alternatives without prior technical screening step and consequently community select an
option which subsequently turns out to be technically unfeasible. Secondly, the list of evaluation
criteria can be enriched by consulting community members. Thirdly, for community-level water
schemes, different views from engineers, community development consultants, planning experts,
etc should be considered in making decisions. The AHP is a suitable and fair process to synergize
these diverse but important points of view. Lastly, with emerging advanced technologies in water
treatment and distribution, a community should be wise to take advantage of a technology which
can help enhance farming productivity hence reduce poverty. Future studies should explore howsome technologies can create employment for local people.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. Ray Miles, the former Australian Team Leader at the Mekong
Delta Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project for his expertise inputs to this paper. Withoutthem, I would have been unable to produce this study with the judgment values for the matrices.
REFERENCES
Mekong Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project, 2007. Monitoring and evaluation report for activity
completion report, AUSAID, Hanoi, Vietnam.
Dalberg. 2013. BoP product incubation project. Sasakawa Peace Foundation. (Online. Available http://www.
spf.org/e/publication/dbfiles/4665247a048.pdf. Accessed 28 Oct 2013).
Ertugrul karsak, E. and Tolga, E. 2001. Fuzzy multi-criteria decision-making procedure for evaluating
advanced manufacturing system investments. International journal of production economics, 69, 49-64.
Ordoobadi, S. M. 2012. Application of ANP methodology in evaluation of advanced technologies. Journal of
Manufacturing Technology Management, 23, 229-252.
Rangan, V. Kasturi. 2002. ApproTEC Kenya: Technologies to Fight Poverty and Create Wealth. Harvard
Business School Case 503-007, Nov. 2002 (Revised March 2006)., USA.
Render, B., Stair, R.M. and Hanna, M. (2009). Quantitative analysis for management. New Jersey. USA.
Saaty, T.L. 1990. How to make a decision: the analytic hierarchy process. European Journal of Operational
Research, 48, 9-26.
UNICEF. 2012. Progress on drinking water and sanitation, update 2012. (Online. Available http://www.
unicef.org/media/files/JMPreport2012.pdf. Accessed: 28 Oct 2013).

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Research article
erd

Evaluation of the Ion Components for the Estimation of
Total Nitrogen Concentration in River Water based on
Electrical Conductivity
YURI YAMAZAKI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanTOSHIMI MUNEOKA*
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Email: muneoka@obihiro.ac.jp

SACHIYO WAKOU
Department of Agriculture, Forestry & Fishery, Ibaraki Prefectural Government, Ibaraki,
Japan

MASATO KIMURA
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanOSAMU TSUJI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Received 30 October 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract It is generally known that the nitrogen concentration in river water is higher inagricultural areas. However, measurement of the nitrogen concentration is time- and costintensive. This study estimated total nitrogen (T-N) concentration based on electricalconductivity (EC) in river water at two agricultural watersheds area which are the Tokachi
area, the main land uses are upland and daily farming and the Nemuro area, the main land
use is daily farming. The ion components in river water were also considered. The
investigation was carried out from August to early September in 2003 to 2006 and in 2012,
and T-N concentration, EC and ionic components in river water were measured. In the twoareas, there was a positive correlation between T-N concentration and EC in the riverwater. From this result, T-N concentration was able to be estimated from EC. However,the slope of the regression line differed between the two areas. It is causally related to theeffect of the ionic components, because there was a very strong correlation between theconcentrations of cationic and anionic components in river water and the EC. In the
Tokachi area, SO42- and NO3- account for a high percentage of the anionic components.
These derive from fertilizer, which correlates positively with T-N concentration. In the
Nemuro area, Na+ accounts for a high percentage of the cationic components. In
comparison with sea salt, the Na+ concentration is higher than Cl- concentration. In
addition, there was no correlation between Na+ and T-N concentration. In the Nemuro area,
the outflow of ion component of geological origin affects EC. In light of the above, T-N
concentration was able to be estimated based on EC; however, it is necessary to consider
the difference in the concentrations of water quality components for each region.
Keywords T-N concentration, EC, cationic components, anionic components

INTRODUCTION
Large-scale farming has long prospered in Eastern Hokkaido, whose natural environment differsfrom those of other Asian monsoon regions. In recent years, water contamination, including nitratepollution of river water and groundwater, has been pointed out there (Tabuchi et al., 1995;
Matsumoto and Tou, 2006).
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The authors investigated the long-term river water quality in the Tokachi area and the Nemuroarea, where the agricultural land use is mutually different. It was shown that the trend of nitrogenconcentration in the river water differed between the two areas because of their mutually different
agricultural land use (Yamazaki et al., 2013, Muneoka et al., 2013).
The nitrogen concentration in river water is usually measured by ion chromatography andspectrophotometry, which are time- and cost- intensive. In contrast, electrical conductivity can bemeasured relatively easily in the field.
This study estimated the total nitrogen (T-N) concentration based on the electricalconductivity (EC) of the river water. EC had been used to estimate the T-N concentration in
irrigation water (Tomita et al., 2008). However there are not many examples of applying themethod to river water.
In this study, we examined whether the T-N concentration could be estimated from EC values.
To do this, based on the results of water quality investigations (2003 - 2012) in the Tokachi area
and in the Nemuro area of Eastern Hokkaido, the relationship between T-N concentration and EC
was expressed by using a linear regression. In addition, we considered the impact of the ioniccomponents in river water on the coefficients of the regression line.
METHODOLOGY
The study sites are outlined in Fig. 1. The Tokachi area, which consists of 24 watersheds in the
Tokachi river system and the Shikaribetsu river system (No. 1 to 24), is in the northwestern partwithin jurisdiction of the Tokachi General Subprefectural Bureau. It is an area of upland and dairy
farming. The Nemuro area, which consists of 11 watersheds in the Shibetsu river system, theTokotan river system and the Nishibetsu river system (A to K), is in the western within jurisdictionof the Nemuro Subprefectural Bureau. It is an area mainly of dairy farming. In both of these areas,large-scale farming has been pursued, and there have been no considerable changes in agriculturalland use in either area since 1985.

Fig. 1 Outline of the Tokachi and Nemuro areasⒸ ISERD

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For the years 1981 to 2010, the annual mean air temperature and the yearly precipitation were
5.9 ˚C and 840.7 mm at Komaba in the Tokachi area, and 5.4 ˚C and 1158.0 mm at Nakashibetsu in
the vicinity of the Nemuro area. Both areas have a relatively cold climate with less rainfall thanother agricultural areas in Japan.
The investigation of the river water quality was conducted at the normal water level at 35
sampling points. EC and water temperature were measured using a digital conductivity meter atsampling points. Discharge was also measured on the rivers in small watersheds (varying between
22 and 25 by year). The investigations were carried out from late August to early September in2003 to 2006, and in 2012. River water samples were analyzed for T-N concentration with
spectrophotometer using the cadmium reduction method and chromotropic acid method.
In addition, in late August 2005, ion components of river water were analyzed. These
components were Cl-, NO3-, NO2-, SO42-, HCO3-, CO3-, PO43-, NH4+, Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+. They
were analyzed by liquid chromatography.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the relationship between T-N concentration and EC in river water for each year in
two areas are shown in Fig. 2. The graph is an example of the results for 2012 (Fig. 2(a)).
Since there was a positive correlation between T-N concentration and EC in river water
through the study period in the two areas, it was possible to estimate the T-N concentration fromthe EC of the river water in these agricultural watersheds. The slope and intercept of the regression
line were virtually constant throughout the study period in the Nemuro area. In the Tokachi area,
the slope and intercept of the regression line were increased from 2005. After the full
implementation of “The Law on Animal Waste Regulation” in 2004, significant increases in nitrate
nitrogen concentration in river water from some sampling points in the Tokachi aera wereconfirmed (Yamazaki et al., 2013). The increasing trend of the slope and intercept since 2005 is
considered to reflect the changes in the behavior of farmers.
The slope of the regression line is small in the Nemuro area through the study period
comparing the two areas. This indicates that the increase in the EC due to change in the T-Nconcentration in the Nemuro area is higher than in the Tokachi area.
The coefficients of the regression line for estimating the T-N concentration from the EC inboth areas were different. As reasons for the differences, the influence of the ionic components
other than inorganic nitrogen can be considered. Therefore, cationic and anionic components inriver water were analyzed.
In the two areas, there was a very strong correlation between the cations and anions in theriver water and the EC (Fig. 3). The percentages of the cationic and anionic components in riverwater are shown in Fig. 4(a), (b) and Fig. 5(a), (b).
10.0

* 2012

Investigatedyear

T-N (mg/L)

8.0

2003

6.0
4.0

2.0
0.0
0

10

20

30

Tokachi area (Y = a X + b )Nemuro area (Y = a X + b )

a

b

r

a

b

r

0.24

⁃0.96

0.85 ※※

0.17

⁃1.00

0.87 ※※

0.17

⁃1.19

0.79 ※※

2004

0.24

⁃1.25

0.80 ※※

2005

0.38

⁃1.92

0.87 ※※

0.17

⁃0.97

0.83 ※※

2006

0.37

⁃1.65

0.92 ※※

0.19

⁃1.02

0.85 ※※

2012

0.32

⁃1.60

0.87 ※※

0.19

⁃1.13

0.82 ※※

Tokachi area

Nemuro area※※significnace of 1%

EC (mS/m)Fig. 2 Relationship between T-N concentration and EC in river waterⒸ ISERD

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N.B.

*

(a) Total cation concentration120

Total anion concentration (mg/L)

Total cation concentration (mg/L)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

80

40

0

0

10

20

30

60

(b) Total anion concentration
coefficient of correlation r
Tokachi

40

Nemuro(a)0.99 ※※ 1.0(b)0.99 ※※※※

0.99 ※※※※

significnace of 1%

20

Tokachi area
Nemuro area

0
0

10
20
EC (mS/m)

EC (mS/m)30

Fig. 3 Relationship between ionic components and EC in river water
Ca2+ and HCO3- are the main ionic components in the river water. The trend of the percentageof the ionic components differed between the two areas. The percentage of SO42- and NO3- werehigher in Tokachi area (Fig. 4(a), (b)). These components correlated positively with T-Nconcentration. They are derived from the outflow of fertilizer component. The runoffs of SO42- andNO3- were increased, because upland farming has been practiced on a large scale in the Tokachiarea. In the Nemuro area, the percentage of Na+ is comparable with the percentage of Ca2+ (Fig.
5(a), (b)). In general, most of the Na+ and Cl- are supplied from sea salt, and the ratio of Na+concentration to Cl- concentration in sea salt is 1:1.16. However, in comparison with sea salt, Na+concentration is higher than Cl- concentration in the Nemuro area. In addition, the Na+ in the
Nemuro area had no correlation with T-N concentration. From the above results, why the slope ofthe regression line of T-N concentration and EC in the Nemuro area is smaller than in the Tokachi
area, because the outflow of ionic components derived from the geological features of each arearather than agricultural origin affect the EC.

Fig. 4 Percentages of the ionic components in river water in Tokachi area

Fig. 5 Percentages of the ionic components in river water in Nemuro area
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CONCLUSION
The relationship between T-N concentration and EC was examined for two areas of eastern
Hokkaido with mutually different agricultural land use. Since there was a positive correlation, T-N
concentration in river water was able to be estimated from EC, and comparing the slope of theregression line, it is different in two areas. When the ion components of river water are compared
between the two areas, the percentages of SO42- and NO3- in the fertilizer component are higher in
the Tokachi area. In the Nemuro area, the outflow of ion components of geological origin affects
EC. From the above consideration, T-N concentration was able to be estimated based on EC;
however, it is necessary to consider the difference in the water quality components of each region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express my gratitude to the research assistance provided by the students, the
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine.
REFERENCES
Matsumoto, T. and Tou, S. 2006. Risk assessment of nitrate pollution in groundwater based on theenvironmental nitrogen-assimilation capacity of agricultural lands in Hokkaido. Jpn. J. Soil Sci. Plant
Nutr., 77, 17-24, (in Japanese with English abstract).
Muneoka, T., Yamazaki, Y., Wakou, S., Shimura, M., Yoshino, K., Tsuji, O. and Tabuchi, T. 2013. The
nitrogen runoff characteristics in agricultural watersheds after enforcement of animal waste regulation.
IJERD, 4-2, (in press).
Tabuchi, T., Yoshino, K., Shimura, M., Kuroda, S., Ishikawa, M. and Yamaji, E. 1995. Relation between
land use and nitrate concentration of outflow water from watersheds of agricultural and forest area, Japan.
Trans. of JSIDRE, 178, 129-135, (in Japanese with English abstract).
Tomita K., Hirai Y., Beppu Y., Hamagami K. and Mori K. 2008. Estimation of total nitrogen concentrationin irrigation water based on electrical conductivity. Sci. Bull. Fac. Agr., Kyushu Univ., 63(2), 141-145.
(in Japanese with English abstract).
Yamazaki, Y., Muneoka, T., Wakou, S., Shimura, M., Yoshino, K., Tsuji, O. and Tabuchi, T. 2013. The
difference of agricultural land use in watersheds and long term fluctuation on the river water quality.
International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 4(1), 152-157.

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Research article
erd

Assessment of Economics and Water Productivity of Four
Crops Grown after Wet Season Rice under Differing Water
Availability Conditions in Northeast Thailand
ARUNEE PROMKHAMBUT*
Program on System Approaches in Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kean University,
Thailand
Email: arunee@kku.ac.th

JOHN S. CALDWELL
Program on System Approaches in Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kean University,
Thailand

ANAN POLTHANEEProgram on System Approaches in Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kean University,
ThailandReceived 30 October 2014

Accepted 20 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The economic profitability and water use productivity of four crops grown after
rice harvest were assessed in two sub-districts, Dong Klang (DK) with limited water
availability for irrigation, and Tung Pra (TP) with greater water availability, in Kornsarn
District, Chaiyapoom Province, Northeast Thailand. Three households growing dry season
rice, soybean, chili and field corn were purposively selected for each crop in each area.
Higher crop yields were found in TP than DK for dry season rice, soybean and field corn
(5000 vs 5513 kg/ha, 1646 vs 1971 kg/ha, 3633 vs 4563 kg/ha, respectively), while chili
yield was higher in DK (14917 vs. 9083 kg/ha). Fertilizer cost was the main cost for dry
season rice in both areas (39-42% of total production cost), followed by labor (27-38%),
but irrigation cost was higher in DK than TP (21% and 9%). Seed cost was the main costfor soybean production in DK (43%), but combined harvester was highest in TP (41%).
Labor for fruit picking was the main cost for chili in both areas (80-81%), and fertilizer
was the main cost for field corn (36-53%). Net returns in both areas followed a similar
pattern, chili> dry season rice > soybean ≥ field corn (18,838>1,880>827>598 USD/ha in
DK; 15,462>1,512>540≈ 585 in TP), with higher net returns in TP due to lower costs. The
benefit-cost ratio was highest for dry season rice in both areas; 4.06 and 4.86 in DK andTP, respectively. However, water productivity on a yield basis was lowest for rice in bothareas (0.68 and 0.75 kg/m3 in DK and TP, respectively), and highest for field corn (0.98
and 1.23 kg/m3 in DK and TP, respectively). Measures to reduce water use for rice, andreduce costs and improve market access of other crops could improve water productivity
and farmer income.
Keywords dry season rice, soybean, chili, field corn, benefit-cost ratio, water productivity

INTRODUCTION
Rice is the main economic crop in Northeast Thailand. It contributes one third of the total national
rice planted area and production. However, dry season rice production in the northeast region
covered only 19% of total dry season rice area and contributed only 13% of dry season riceproduction nationally in 2011 (Office of Agricultural Economics, 2012). Dry season rice istypically cultivated with water supplied from large or medium scale reservoirs. Lower rainfall
during the wet season leaves less water in these reservoirs, leading to low yields, crop failures, andreduced income for farmers. Due to the drought in the 2012 wet season, the Office of Agricultural
Economics (2012) has predicted that the harvested area of dry season rice in the Northeast will beⒸ ISERD

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reduced by 50%, resulting in 43% lower yield, in contrast with relatively stable dry season
production in other regions. In years with low levels water in reservoirs, the Royal Irrigation
Department (RID) warns farmers that it may not have sufficient water for late-planted dry season
rice. The Department of Agriculture has promoted change to non-rice crops with lower waterrequirements, but many farmers continue to grow dry season rice. However, the reasons why
farmers continue growing dry season rice have not been reported. In this paper, we focus on
economic returns and water use productivity of rice compared to the most important non-rice crops
as possible key factors in farmer crop choice decision-making. Assessment of these two factors
may suggest possible ways to improve the profitability of non-rice crops.
OBJECTIVE
To compare the economics and water use productivity of 4 different crops grown after wet season
rice under different water availability conditions.
METHODOLOGY
Four crops (dry season rice, soybean, chili and field corn) grown under irrigation after wet season
rice harvesting were assessed based on household surveys in 2 sub-districts, Dongklang (DK) andTungpra (TP), Kornsarn District, Chaiyaphum Province, Northeast Thailand, during 2013. These
sub-districts were selected based on their higher diversity of crops grown after main season rice ina preliminary field survey of 4 sub-districts.
DK was located at a higher elevation and had limited access to irrigation water from small
streams. TP was situated near the Chern River, one of the main rivers in the Northeast. Irrigation
was provided by publicly-financed electric pumps along the river. Soil is finer in TP (Sandy loamy)
than DK (Loamy sand). Rice is the main crop grown in the dry season in both areas.
Three households growing dry season rice, soybean, chili or field corn were purposively
selected for each crop in each area, 12 farmers per sub-district and 24 farmers total. Structured
questionnaires were employed to interview each farmer regarding the farmer’s age and educationlevel, types of dry season crops grown, cultural practices, yields, production costs, prices, markets,and reasons for crop selection. Group interviews with key informants (village headman, village
committee members, and leading farmers) were done to obtain general village information.
Descriptive statistics were calculated using the statistical package SPSS Ver.13.0 (SPSS Inc.).
Spreadsheet software (Microsoft EXCEL) was used for percent analysis.
Water use productivity was expressed on two bases: monetary value per unit cost, shown in Eq.
(1), and yield per quantity of water used, shown in Eq. (2), according to Pereira (2007), as follows:
Value of crops
Irrigation cost

(1)

Crop yield
Total seasonal water use crop(2)

Water cost productivity =Water use productivity =Water requirements for rice (http://www.rid.go.th/attatch_branch/qrice.html) and field corn
(http://www.rid.go.th/attatch_branch/qcorn.html) were obtained from the Royal Irrigation
Department, while the water requirement for soybean was taken from the Agricultural Research
Development Agency (http://www.arda.or.th/kasetinfo/north/plant/soy_water.html).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Farmer Characteristics
Farmer's average ages were similar in both areas (46 years in DK and 48 years in TP). Fifty-eightⒸ ISERD

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percent of respondents in DK had finished elementary school, considerably less than 83% in TP.
The average number of household laborers was 2.33 and 2.00 persons/household in DK and TP,
respectively. These numbers are lower than average number of farm laborers per household of theprovince (2.86) and nationally (2.88) (Office of Agricultural Economics, n.d.).
Table 1 Planted area and yield of crops grown after wet season rice under irrigation in
Dongklang (DK) and Tungpra (TP) sub-districts, Kornsarn Distict, Chaiyaphum
Province, Northeast Thailand
Crops

Dry season rice

SoybeanChili

Field corn

AverageSD
C.V.(%)
AverageSD
C.V.(%)
AverageSD
C.V.(%)
AverageSD
C.V.(%)

Dongklang
Planted area
Yield
(ha/household)(kg/ha)
0.91
5,000
0.24
1,875
27
38
1.97
1,646
1.40
377
71
23
0.45
14,917
0.05
2,097
10
14
0.61
3,633
0.36
1,670
59
46

TungpraPlanted area
Yield
(ha/household)(kg/ha)
0.85
5,513
0.49
642
57
12
0.96
1,971
0.32
104
33
5
0.32
9,083
0.00
1706
0.00
19
0.97
4,563
0.26
1,013
27
22

Source: Field survey, 2013.

Yields and Planted Area of Crops Grown after Wet Season Rice
Higher planted areas per household of each crop except field corn were found in DK compared to
TP (Table 1). This may be due to more labor availability, or because less favorable conditions in
DK leads farmers to expand planted area in order to get more total production despite lower yields.
Yields of dry season rice, soybean and field corn were 10%, 20%, and 26% higher,
respectively, in TP than DK (Table 1). This may be due to more favorable conditions in TP than
DK. However, chili yield was 39% higher in DK than in TP. This is partly due to the longer harvest
period of chili in DK due to its higher elevation. Farmers start growing chili soon after wet season
rice and continue harvesting until rice planting in July for the next wet season in DK, while in TP
farmer's have to stop harvesting chili in June due to excess soil moisture at its lower elevation.
Production Cost of Crops Grown after Wet Season Rice
Both sub-districts had similar patterns of production costs for all four crops. In both sub-districts,
chili production cost was approximately 10 times or more higher than other crops, followed byfield corn and dry season rice, and lowest in soybean (Tables 2 and 3). The fact that the production
cost of soybean was lowest of the four crops contradicted farmer's stated expectations. A higher
share of costs at the start of the season may influence farmer perceptions more than costs later inthe season.
The factors contributing most to production costs differed among the four crops, but thepatterns for each crop were similar between the two sub-districts. Fertilizer was the most important
production cost for rice (42% of total cost in DK, 36% in TP) and field corn (36% in DK, 53% in
TP). The greater proportion of cost allocated to fertilizer in TP indicated that field corn production
was more intensive in TP than in DK, likely reflecting greater water availability in TP. Seed costs
and land preparation were second and third in importance for field corn. More farmers indicatedthat good land preparation is crucial for seed germination. However, combined harvester wassecond in importance in contribution to rice production costs (27% in both DK and TP) (Tables 2
and 3).
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Table 2 Production cost of crops grown after wet season rice under irrigation in Dongklang(DK) Sub-district, Kornsarn Distict, Chaiyaphum Province, Northeast Thailand,2013
Dry season rice

SoybeanChili

Field corn

List
Cost
(USD/ha)
36
208
8
134
2
106

%

Cost
(USD/ha)
1
177
28
153
5
44

%

Cost
(USD/ha)
208
239
526
218
82
6
5,775
169

%

Cost
(USD/ha)
102
104
187
1
14
32
23
54

%

Land preparation
7.3
0.3
2.9
19.7
Seed
43.5
3.3
20.1
Fertilizer
42.1
6.8
7.3
36.1
Fungicide/insecticide
3.0
Crop stimulants
1.1
0.1
Herbicide
1.7
0.1
2.6
Labor
80.0
6.3
Combined harvester
27.0
37.5
Irrigation
21.5
10.7
2.4
10.5
Transportation
0.5
1.2
4.4
to market
Cost of production
495
100.0
407
100.0
7,223
100.0
517
100.0
*Production costs excluding family labor cost. Crop stimulants include plant growth regulators and liquid fertilizer.
USD=US dollars

Table 3 Production costs of crops grown after wet season rice under irrigated area at Tungpra (TP) Sub-district, Kornsarn Distict, Chaiyaphum Province, Northeast Thailand,2013
Dry season rice

SoybeanChili

Field corn

List
Cost
(USD/ha)
64
21
190
2
10
132
24
44

%

Cost
(USD/ha)
6
61
4
6
6
4
21
88
11
58

%

Cost
(USD/ha)
149
233
297
132
7
19
4,194
172

%

Cost
(USD/ha)
64
96
290
54
7
37

%

Land preparation
13.2
2.3
2.9
11.7
Seed
4.4
23.2
4.5
17.6
Fertilizer
39.1
1.6
5.7
52.9
Fungicide/insecticide
0.3
2.1
2.5
Crop stimulants
2.3
0.1
Herbicide
2.1
1.6
0.4
Labor
7.9
80.6
9.8
Combined harvester
27.1
33.1
Irrigation
9.1
21.8
3.3
6.8
Transportation
4.9
4.2
0.0
1.3
to market
Cost of production
487
100.0
265
100.0
5,203
100.0
548 100.0*Production costs excluding family labor cost. Crop stimulants include plant growth regulators and liquid fertilizer.
USD=US dollars

For soybean, seed and combined harvester costs were the two most important costs, with seed
costs higher in DK but combined harvester higher in TP. In DK, farmers did not keep their own
seed for next season, but in TP, one farmer used his own seed produced in an upland area. This
indicates by saving their own seed farmers can lower production costs for soybean. Hired labor cost
comprised approximately 80% of the cost of chili production in both sub-districts (Tables 2 and 3).
The sub-districts differed in the relative importance of irrigation water costs. In DK, with lesswater availability, the highest proportion of production cost spent for irrigation was for rice (21%).
In TP, with greater water availability, the highest proportion spent for irrigation was for soybean(22%) (Tables 2 and 3). Higher water use for soybean in TP was reflected in higher yields (Table1). This indicated that improved access to irrigation water can make non-rice crops more viable..
Returns of Crops Grown after RiceIn both locations, net returns was 10-fold or higher in chili (15,462-18,838 USD/ha), followed bydry season rice (1,512-1,880 USD/ha). In TP soybean was ranked third (827 USD/ha) followed byⒸ ISERD

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and higher yield per area. The high returns of chili were due to its high price (Fig. 1). Nevertheless,using price as the major criteria for crop selection may not be appropriate, due to its greater pricefluctuation as seen in Fig. 1. This may be the reason why farmers did not grow chili as theirsecondary crop, or grew chili as one of 2 or 3 crops.
The benefit-cost ratio (BCR) was highest for dry season rice in both areas, 4.06 and 4.86 in
DK and TP, respectively. This was higher than chili despite its much greater net returns, reflecting
the much lower production cost of rice. Nevertheless, all 4 crops had BCR values higher than 1,
indicating that all crops were profitable for farmers.
However, among the 4 crops chili had the highest water cost productivity, with similar values
in both areas (Table 4). Water cost productivities of the same crop differed between the two subdistricts, reflecting different costs of water. For example, with limited access to water and resulting
higher cost (DK), rice had the lowest value (18.9) of the 4 crops. However, where water costs wereless (TP), water cost productivity was higher (53.5). However, when the cost of water isdisregarded and only the amount of water used is considered, water yield productivity was highest
for field corn, followed by soybean, and lowest for rice in both areas. This finding confirms thatdry season rice uses more water than other crops. Unfortunately, in the absence of data on the waterrequirements of chili, we cannot compare chili water yield productivity.
Table 4 Partial budgeting (USD/ha) of crops grown after wet season rice under irrigated area
at Dongklang (DK) and Tungpra (TP) sub-district, Kornsarn distict, Chaiyaphum
province, northeast Thailand
Dongklang
Dry season
rice
495
2,007
1,512
4.06
18.91

List
Total cost
Gross return
Net return
BCR
Water costproductivity
Water yieldproductivity

0.68

Soybean

Chili

407
946
540
2.33
21.72

7,223
22,685
15,4623.14
133.88

Field
corn
517
1,102
585
2.13
20.25

0.78

NA

0.98

TungpraDry season
rice
487
2,367
1,88
4.86
53.46
0.75

Soybean

Chili

265
1,093
827
4.12
15.73

5,203
24,02818,8384.62
139.80

Field
corn
548
1,147
598
2.09
30.59

0.94

NA

1.23

BCR= Benefit-cost ratio, water cost productivity =yield value (USD)/water yield productivity (USD), water use= crop
yield (kg/area)/total water use (m3/area), NA= not available and USD=US dollars
45
40
35

Price (baht/kg)

30
Rice

25

Field corn

20

Soybean15

Chilli10502002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Fig. 1 Farm gate price of crops in this study in Thailand during 2002-2012
Source: Office of Agricultural Economic (n.d.)Ⓒ ISERD

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CONCLUSION
In the introduction to this paper, we indicated that this study sought to answer the question, why do
farmers continue to grow dry season rice despite the problems they faces due to insufficient water
resulting from frequent droughts in the Northeast. Many factors may affect farmer's decisions tocontinuing growing rice. As a first step in identifying which factors are most important in crop
choices, we assessed four dry season crops following wet season rice, dry season rice, soybean,chili, and field corn, using four measures: net returns, BCR, water cost and water use productivity.
Net returns analysis indicated that chili was the most profitable, while dry season rice was secondin net returns, exceeding soybean and field corn in both areas. However, BCR was highest in dry
season rice in both areas compared to chili. The high BCR of rice thus may be the reason why
farmers continue to grow dry season rice. However, in terms of water use efficiency, dry season
rice is not the most efficient crop, and its water cost productivity is poorest when water costs arehigh. Measures to reduce water use in dry season rice in areas with poor water availability, andreduction of production and market constraints for other crops, may enable farmers to obtain higher
water productivity and greater net returns from dry season second crop production. The effect ofthese measures should be assessed in relation to differences among farmer's in levels of educationand household labor availability, those two factors which this study did not evaluate. Developmentof a decision-tree model based on BCR, water availability, and other potential factors could be auseful tool for extension and farmer group leaders.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study were financially supported by research fund from Faclty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen
University. Authors are grateful to farmers who kindly participated in the survey and Miss Buppa
Simma and other graduate students for their assistances in data collection.
REFERENCES
Office of Agricultural Economics, 2012. Agricultural statistics of Thailand 2012. (Available fromhttp://www.oae.go.th/download/download_journal/yearbook55.pdf. Accessed: 20 October 2013).
Office of Agricultural Economics. n.d. Household social and economic data and agricultural labor in2010/2011. (Available from http://www.oae.go.th/ewt_news.php?nid=15084. Accessed: 20 October2013).
Pereira, L.S. 2007. Relating water productivity and crop evaporation. In: N. Lamaddalena, M. Shatanawi, M.
Todorovic, C. Bogliotti, R. Albrizio (Eds.), Options Méditerranéennes Ser. B, 57, 31-50.

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Research article
erd

Effect of Calcium Ascorbate Treatments on Juice Leakage
of Fresh Cut Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)
INTIRA LICHANPORN*
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Phathum Thani, Thailand
Email: lintira@yahoo.com

NUNCHANOK NANTHACHAI
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Phathum Thani, Thailand

PALIDA TANGANURAT
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Phathum Thani, Thailand

UNCHALIN SINGKHUM
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Phathum Thani, Thailand
Received 30 December 2013

Accepted 20 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Before cutting, melons were washed with sodium hypochlorite (100 ml/l active
ingredient) and water rinsed. Melons were cut longitudinally into four parts, cut into
triangles 2 cm thick. A piece of watermelon was chosen from the center. Watermelon slice
were dipped in calcium ascorbate (CaAsc; 0, 1, 5, 10 and 20%, w/w) for 2 minutes anddrained. Fresh-cut watermelon was arranged in foam trays with 4 pieces per tray, covered
with plastic polyethylene (LLDPE) film and stored at 10C with relative humidity of 9095%. At each storage interval, melon slices were evaluated for weight loss, changes incolor (L*, a* and b*), total soluble solids and juice leakage. Dipping fresh-cut watermelon
slices in 5, 10 and 20% CaAsc increased the weight loss up to 9.73 12.83 and 13.65%
respectively, compared with watermelon dipped in 0 and 1% CaAsc, which only
experienced 4.88 and 4.10% of weight loss after storage for 8 days. Percent juice leakage
in fresh-cut watermelon dipped in 1 and 5% CaAsc was less than the other treatments. The
effect of calcium ascorbate on the changes of color and total soluble solids were notsignificantly different. However, fresh-cut melon dipped in 1% CaAsc tended to reducethe changes of weight loss and juice leakage better than other treatments.
Keywords watermelon, calcium ascorbate, juice leakage

INTRODUCTION
Fresh-cut watermelon is sold as quarters and halves with rind, or as cubes without rind. Quality
degradation of fresh-cut watermelon has been described as loss of texture, color, and sweetness(Rushing et al., 2001). Juice leakage in fresh cut watermelon can increase as a result of cube size,storage temperature, or modified atmosphere. Fonseca et al. (1999) found that cubes of length <1.9
cm had more juice leakage due to cut surface injury, while cubes >4 cm in length had more juice
loss from compression. Water-soaked appearance of watermelon is an ethylene-induced
phenomenon characterized by softening and maceration of the endocarp and the placenta tissues(Risse and Hatton, 1982; Elkashif and Huber, 1988a, 1988b). Water-soaked tissue is characterized
by enhanced solute leakage, degradation of pectic polymers, cell separation, and loss of cell wall
rigidity (Elkashif and Huber, 1988a, 1988b). The induction of water-soaking and the related
increases in softening and cell leakage by ethylene parallel the role of this growth regulator inⒸ ISERD

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ripening; Calcium plays a pivotal role in cell signals related to AOS (Bhattacharjee, 2005). Calcium
dips have been implicated in enhancing membrane stability, slowing senescence, and improving theretention of membrane integrity (Picchioni et al., 1996). The softening rate is related to Ca levels in
the fruit tissue (Fallahi et al., 1997). For this reason, Ca dips have been used as firming agents toextend post harvest life of several products. Firmness and resistance to softening, resulting fromaddition of Ca, have been attributed to the stabilization of membrane systems and formation of Ca
pectate, which increases rigidity of the middle lamella and cell walls, leading to increased
resistance to polygalacturonase (PG) activity and to improved turgor pressure (Mignani et al.,1995). Ca ions form intermolecular bridges by interaction with free car- boxyl groups of pectic acidpolymers to form insoluble salts with ionic linkages between pectin molecules (McFeeters andFleming, 1991). Ca application often results in reduced incidence of physiological disorders anddecay (Garcํa et al., 1996). Therefore, in this study we determine the effects of calcium ascorbate(CaAsc) dips, subsequent storage time and a maintained modified atmosphere condition on juice
leakage of fresh-cut watermelon.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to determine effects of calcium ascorbate treatments on juice leakage
of fresh cut watermelon (Citrullus lanatus).
METHODOLOGY
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) fruit was purchased from a commercial market in Phathumtani
province in Thailand. Before cutting, melons were washed with sodium hypochlorite (100 ml-*l−1
active ingredient) and water rinse. Melons were cut longitudinally into four parts, and then cut into
triangles 2 cm thick. A piece of watermelon was chosen from the center. Watermelon slices weredipped in calcium ascorbate (CaAsc; 0, 1, 5, 10 and 20%, w/w) for 2 minutes then removed. Freshcut watermelon was arranged in foam trays with 4 pieces per tray and covered with plastic
polyethylene (LLDPE) film and stored at 10C with relative humidity of 90-95%. At each storage
interval, melon slices were evaluated for changes in color (L*, a* and b*), total soluble solids, juice
leakage and weight loss.
Watermelons from each treatment were weighed individually before and during the storage
period, and the percentage of weight loss was calculated using the equation by:
Totalweight loss(%) = [initial weight of fruit - initial weight of fruit] × 100
initial weight of fruit(1)

Colorimeter measurements were made at days 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 on eight random cubes percontainer replicate using a chromameter with an aperture of 8mm diameter, D65 illuminant, and
CIE L*, a*, b* color scale, (Minolta CR200, Ramsey, NJ).
Percent juice leakage was determined by weight after each storage interval, using the formula
Percent juice leakage(%) = [(container + Juice wt.) - container wt.
] × 100 % (2)(container +fruit wt.) - container wt.

Total soluble solid (TSS) from fruit juice was measured by a digital refractometer (PAL-1,
Atago, Tokyo, Japan). The units of TSS were expressed as a percentage.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Watermelon treatment dipped in 0, 1, 5, 10 and 20% CaAsc were not significantly different inregards to brightness (L*) throughout storage (Fig. 1A). The lack of predictive power usingreflectance tristimulus colorimetry to determine lycopene content in watermelon flesh has beenpreviously reported and is thought to be due to the lack of instrument sensitivity (Perkins-Veazie etⒸ ISERD

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al., 2001). While, a* value is the redness, which was found to have decreased slightly duringstorage (Fig. 1B). The b* values, the blueness was reduced slightly as a result of the oxidation
process and deterioration (Perkins-Veazie and Collins, 2004) (Fig. 1C). Fresh cut watermelon
dipped in 0, 1, 5, 10 and 20% CaAsc showed a slight increase in the total soluble solid throughout
storage (Fig. 1D). The total soluble solids in the range from 7.33 to 10.33%, is consistent with theresearch of Perkins-Veazie and Collins (2004). They found that the total soluble solids ofwatermelons, cv Summer Flavor 800 and Sugar Shack, that were cut into 5 cm pieces were in therange of 11.4 to 12.2%. The juice leakage of fresh cut water melon increased rapidly in the first 2
days (Fig. 1E), this may be a consequence of the increase of tissue decomposition.
42

30

A

B

28

41

a*

L*

26
40

24
39

22

38

20
0

2

4
6
Days after storage

8

10

0

16
Total soluble solid (%)

C

14
b*

4
6
Days after storage

8

10

16

15

13
12
11
10

14

D

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

0

2

4
6
Days after storage

8

10

0

2

4
6
Days after storage

8

10

20

10

E

8

Weight loss (%)

Juice leakage (%)

2

6
4

F

16
12
8
4

2

0

0
0

2

4
6
Days after storage

8

0

10

2

4

6

8

Days after storage

L* (A), a* (B), b* (C), Total soluble solid (D), Juice leakage (E), Weight loss (F)Fig. 1 Effects of calcium ascorbate on quality of fresh cut watermelonsⒸ ISERD

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Juice leakage is not a desirable characteristic in fresh cut watermelons, as the juice gives thetissue a water-soaked appearance, and provides an excellent medium for microbial growth (Cartaxo
and Sargent, 1997). Juice leakage in fresh cut watermelon can increase as a result of cube size,storage temperature, or modified atmosphere. Fonseca et al. (1999) found that cubes of length <1.9
cm had more juice leakage due to cut surface injury, while cubes >4 cm in length had more juice
loss from compression. Sargent (1998) found that fresh cut watermelon cubes held at 1C had 50%
more leakage than those held at 3 C, and concluded that this difference was due to chilling injury.
Cartaxo and Sargent (1997) reported that juice leakage increased from 10 to 20% in fresh-cut
watermelon stored 5 days at 3 C under actively maintained atmospheres of O2, 3 kPa, plus CO2, 5–
20 kPa, compared to that stored in an ambient environment. The percent leakage found in our study
was similar to that reported by Fonseca et al. (1999) for non-compartmentalized Sangria
watermelon cubes. Although the 5% CaAsc treatment slightly decreased the percent juice leakage
in fresh -cut watermelon, fresh-cut watermelon dipped in 1% CaAsc tended to reduce the changes
of weight loss and juice leakage better than other treatments. The weight loss of fresh cut
watermelon dipped in calcium ascorbate concentration of 1% was not significantly different fromthe control (Fig.1F). However, fresh cut watermelon dipped in 1 and 5% CaAsc had more weightloss than controls during the first 2 days of storage. The properties of calcium increased thefirmness. Dipping in calcium ascorbate will reduce the loss of firmness in apples stored byapproximately 13 % after 3 weeks at 10 ºC (Fan et al, 2005).
CONCLUSION
Calcium ascorbate affected the changes of color (L* a* b*) and total soluble solids in fresh cut
watermelon. Dipping with 1% calcium ascorbate decreased the weight loss and juice leakage. A
dipping treatment in 5, 10 and 20% calcium ascorbate increased the weight loss and juice leakage
more than the control of fresh cut watermelon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University ofTechnology Thanyaburi (RMUTT).
REFERENCES
Bhattacharjee, S. 2005. Reactive oxygen species and oxidative burst: roles in stress, senescence and signaltransduction in plants. Current Science, 89(7), 1113-1121.
Cartaxo, C.B.C. and Sargent, S.A. 1997. Controlled atmosphere storage suppresses microbial growth on
fresh-cut watermelon. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, 110, 252-257.
Elkashif, M.E. and Huber, D.J. 1988a. Enzymic hydrolysis of placental cell wall pectins and cell separationin watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) fruits exposed to ethylene. Physiologia Plantarum, 73, 432-439.
Elkashif, M.E. and Huber, D.J. 1988b. Electrolyte leakage, firmness, and scanning electron microscopic
studies of watermelon fruit treated with ethylene. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural
Science, 113, 378-381.
Fallahi, E., Conway, W.S., Hickey, K.D. and Sams, C.E. 1997. The role of calcium and nitrogen in
postharvest quality and disease resistance of apples. HortScience, 32, 831-835.
Fonseca, J.M., Rushing, J.W. and Testin, R.F. 1999. Shock and vibration forces influence the quality offresh-cut watermelon. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, 112, 147-152.
Garcia, J.M., Herrera, S. and Morilla, A. 1996. Effect of postharvest calcium dips in calcium chloride on
strawberry. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 44, 30-33.
McFeeters, R.F. and Fleming, H.P. 1991. pH effect on calcium inhibition of softening of cucumber mesocarp
tissue. Journal of Food Science, 56, 730-732, 735.
Mignani, I., Greve, L.C., Ben-Arie, R., Stotz, H.U., Li, C., Shackel, K. and Labavitch, J. 1995. The effects of
GA3 and divalent cations on aspects of pectin metabolism and tissue softening in ripening tomato
pericarp. Physiologia Plantarum, 93, 108-115.
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Perkins-Veazie, P. and Collins, J.K. 2004. Flesh quality and lycopene stability of fresh-cut watermelon.
Postharvest Biology and Technology, 31, 159-166.
Perkins-Veazie, P., Collins, J.K., Pair, S.D. and Roberts, W. 2001. Lycopene content differs among redfleshed watermelon cultivars. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 81, 1-5.
Picchioni, G.A., Watatd, A.E., Whitaker, B.D. and Reyes, A. 1996. Calcium delays senescence-related
membrane lipid components in shredded carrots. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 9, 235-245.
Risse, L.A. and Hatton, T.T. 1982. Sensitivity of watermelons to ethylene during storage. HortScience, 17,946-948.
Rushing, J.W., Fonseca, J.M. and Keinath, A.P. 2001. Harvesting and postharvest handling. In: Maynard, D.
(Ed.), Watermelons: Characteristics, Production, and Marketing. American Society for Horticultural
Science Press, Alexandria, VA 22314.
Sargent, S.A. 1998. Fresh-cut watermelon. Citrus Vegetable Magazine, 44, 26-28.

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Research article
erd

Education for Sustainable Development in Agriculture atPrimary Schools
VICHEKA LORN*
Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia
Email: vichekalorn@yahoo.com

MOM SENG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

BUNTHAN NGO
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

LALITA SIRIWATTANANON
Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Pathum Thani, Thailand

MACHITO MIHARATokyo University of Agriculture, Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation,
Tokyo, Japan
Received 1 October 2013

Accepted 20 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Even a small plot or container garden applying sustainable agriculture can help
children learn basic ecological principles. In urban living, a garden maybe the best
connection for young people to nature; especially it may affect to their community,
making the connection between suitable agriculture and their parents or their future
activities. The study was conducted to access the perception of school children at primaryschool through the series of training provided towards sustainable agriculture andenvironmental education. Series of training were delivered to school children selectedfrom five primary schools: two from Prey Chhor district, Kampong Cham province andother three from Phnom Penh. Totally, there were about 200 children that participatedfrom the selected primarily schools in each training. Before and after the training provided,
as well as interviews at each step, the understanding of school children on sustainableagriculture and environment was evaluated; the results showed that the understanding ofcomposting materials were increased, also the perception and the motivation increased
with the training including practical demonstration. Noticeably, after the training on
compost making, school children had learned the ways of how the compost is made andwhat the chemicals meant to them and their communities. We also observed that a numberof school children started to collect the organic materials for their school's compost boxes.
Moreover, the results from their vegetable gardening gave evidence that the understandingof school children on agriculture and environment was increased and it was applicable totheir villages and the communities close to their places. Based on the findings obtained
and our observation, the series of training on sustainable agriculture and environment toschool children at primary schools are effective to the rural villages for their livings andincome generation. This may be also helpful to the community effort in sustainableagriculture and environment as a whole.
Keywords food safety, trained and non-trained pupils, knowledge transferring

INTRODUCTION
The effort towards the environment and sustainable agriculture has to involve all people in thecommunity, experts and policy maker. Childrens knowledge on the subject plays an important role
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by influencing the daily life and farm practices of their parents as well as their future activities.
Even though, farmers still using chemical fertilizers and pesticides in farmlands to increase
agricultural productivity. The application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in developed
countries and developing countries have been causing serious environmental problems for sometime (Mihara and Fujimoto, 2007). Educators focused on schooling for sustainability, a vegetablegarden is the best starting place. Children can care for other living things, learn ecologicalprinciples, experience the joy of nature, make connections between science and social studies anduse all their senses, thus pupils will know the balance between living and surviving through ahands-on relationship with another living organism. Students gain a better understanding of how
gardening and farming practices affect the environment, and how they can improve both soils andthe quality of their food (Biological Farmers of Australia, 2009). It is a way to understand an
educational process on a daily basis (Center for Ecoliteracy, 2004-2011). To conclude, the topic of
this study is to investigate the children’s acceptance of knowledge on sustainable agriculture andenvironment.
METHODOLOGIESThe study was conducted at 6 primary schools and was divided into two groups, the first (ReseySai,
Prey Veng and Prey Sar) was accepted the training about sustainable agriculture and environment
since 2006 until 2011, and the second (Prek Speu, Toul Rokakos and Tro Pangsela) was not
accepted. These schools are located at the edge of Phnom Penh city, Prey Sar and Prey Veng
commune, Dang kor district, Cambodia. These areas are capital cities of Cambodia and it has alargely free land to conduct agriculture. So people here can be called farmers. There were 363
pupils from six primary schools interviewed using structured questionnaires. Among them, 164
joined the training courses whereas the rest did not. Key questions were applied with the students
are: the pupils acceptance of the knowledge of agriculture and environment; how this important
knowledge for the pupils thinking, and how the pupils can be in the core play role of extension?
During the study, some experimental materials were also provided by the trained schools, wereseeds, compost boxes, and organic gardens.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Rehabilitation and sustentation of the agriculture and environment, using the sustainability ofnatural resources, and reflecting very clearly on a good environment, explaining to farmers andpupils to understand the importance of agriculture is a measure in the conservation work. Practiceof the organic agriculture was increased through creating a series of compost centers, modelorganic farming and training courses. Based on the study, the range of pupil’s age is from 11-15
years old. The pupils are the future guardians of the world. Sharing the knowledge will provide theyounger generation with the skills and they need to face the challenges of producing delicious andhealthy food. There are many workshops at the trained school, namely: water quality control,
agricultural land improving, planting technology, compost making and bio-extract making.
Depending on the training of materials for making compost (Fig. 1), the trained group can makecompost by themselves; they can practice at their house which opposite from the non-trained group.
Knowledge on suitable agriculture and environment shown in table 1, notified that the trained
pupils have a high acceptance of agro-forestry, mixed cropping, rotation crop, benefit from usingorganic fertilizer and bio-extract (97%), whereas the non-trained pupils accepted the 26%. In
addition to this, the trained pupils can get a lot of experiences about crop technology related soil
quality by enjoying organic farming with their hand-plantings.
Beside the materials for making compost, each step for making fertilizer is also important(Table 2). Digging a pit or building a compost box, putting plant residues in the pit or compost box
as a layer, putting farmyard manure in the pit or compost box alternative with plant residues layers,
pouring water until the materials become moist, covering the pile with plastic or thatch to protectfrom rainfall, and mixing the materials in the pit every week are the necessary knowledge for howⒸ ISERD

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compost can be made. The trained students gave the best answers, whereas the non-trained students
even though chose the right answers it was limited.
120
100

100

83.4

100

100

100

100

85.4
Knowledge oftrained students
(%)

80
53.6

60
40

49.2
37.7

33.3

24.6

Knowledge of
non-trained
students (%)

21.6

20
0

6.5

7.9

0

0

Can

Pesticide

0
Food
waste

Food
plant

Wind

Water Compost Plastic
box

Paper

Fig. 1 Materials for making compost
Table 1 General education on suitable agriculture and environment
Description
Understanding of trained
students (%)
Understanding of nontrained students (%)

Agroforestry
Yes
No
Yes
No

Mixed crop

Rotation crop

95.7
4.3
18.1
81.9

98.8
1.2
16.1
83.9

Benefit from using organic
fertilizer and bio-extract
100
26.1
73.9

Understanding oftrained students (%)
100
100
100

Understanding of nontrained students (%)
100
94
86.4

100
100
93.3

30.2
100
44.7
48.2

95.1
4.9
100

Table 2 Each step for making compost
Each step for making compost
Dig a pit or build a compost box
Put plant residues in the pit or compost box as a layer
Put farmyard manure in the pit or compost boxalternative withplant residues layers
Put stone in the pit or compost box
Pour water until the materials become moist
Pour water until the materials become soaking wet
Cover the pile with plastic or thatch to protect from rainfall
Mix the materials in the pit or compost box every week

In addition to this, the trained group added that farmers should reduce the use of chemicalfertilizer (100%) and use organic fertilizer instead of (100%) because when they apply organic
fertilizer to the crop, there is no concern to their health. And non-trained group responded that
reducing of chemical fertilizer will cause crops not growing well (81.9%). Moreover, 54% of the
non-trained group answered that the application of chemical fertilizer will improve soil fertility
while 93% of trained group mentioned that soil fertility will be degraded. Regarding to varieties of
insect (for diversity of insect pest), the non-trained group showed that it is increase (65.3%), andthe trained group also showed that it is decrease (93.3%). However both groups stated that it is notdifficult to reduce the application of chemical fertilizer. This result can express that the trainedgroup is easy to understand about disadvantage of chemical fertilizer while more higher
understanding than the non-trained group. Acknowledgement of chemical disadvantage should be
the best education for all people; it can lead farmers to lessen the amount of chemical fertilizer, andit can encourage customers to think about food safety. Relating to the effect of environmental
pollution on public health, the trained group understands the effect whereas non-trained group only
54% of them understands. To reduce the amount of organic waste, recycling the waste into othermaterials is a main solution like recycling organic wastes into organic fertilizers. Farmers can apply
organic fertilizers or compost fertilizers to the field to build a good soil quality and can bring theⒸ ISERD

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food safety as well as the fresh environment. The farmers can have more benefits when they apply
organic fertilizers because there is no need of much money like with chemical fertilizers, and all
farmers can also learn how to produce high quality of organic fertilizer by themselves easily.
Therefore, basing on safety feeling of using organic fertilizers, 100% from the trained students
have a very strong confident on safe fertilizer because many theories were provide, it is an essential
idea to promote their thinking at the present and in the future. Only 38.2% from the non-trained
students have safety feeling. This understanding of organic fertilizer of non-trained students wasgot from outsides, including their families, friends and neighbors. The best information brings themto understand a lot about conservation of suitable agriculture and environment. The rest of nonsafety feeling 61.8%, since they did not get a lot of information about a good practice ofsustainable agriculture and environment so they always think if they apply organic fertilizer, thecrop’s yield will be decreased and will be also destroyed strongly from insect pest very quickly.
Particularly, increasing the amount of trees around the house, school and community are very
interested from trained students (100%) and non-trained students (55.8%). The reason is because;they can derive many benefits from the tree such as flood, building a house or making equipment,
providing the shade and fresh air, especially the residue of the trees like leaves, bark or branch canbe made into organic fertilizers as well. 44.2% the rest from non-trained students, they do not want
to increase the trees. The reason when there are a lot of amounts of trees,it can cause thesurrounding area dirty almost everywhere that can damage to environment and it can cause theserious accident. Futhermore, beside studying in the class, both trained and non-trained students
also got the agricultural and environmental knowledge from outside (Fig. 2), were as followed:
parents, teachers, classmates, friends at the schools, neighbors, NGOs, and the government. Even if
the students can get the knowledge from outside, it is very limited. It means only sometime thestudents were involved; it is not like taking a class regularly.
Friend at school

11.00

The government

11.10

23.60
18.90

15.10

NGO

22.60
30.70

Classmate

39.00
46.20
40.20
43.20
43.30
42.20
42.70

Teacher
Neighbour
Parents
0.00

Non-trained
students (%)

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

TrainedStudents (%)

50.00

Fig. 2 Students knowledge on agriculture and environment getting from outside schools
Importantly, publishing books of agriculture and environment are also a main way to involve
people especially students to learn the news and concerned issues in over the world. According to(Fig. 3) some students always do many researches by reading books in the school’s library but
some rarely and some never to read. Even though, the amounts of the trained students on bookreading still bigger than the non-trained students.
After finishing the training, many trained students can conduct their own practices throughlearning and only a small amount could not because they are rare to join the training caused by
supporting their parents for farm work. So they could not follow the lessons like the others (Fig. 4).
Encouraging people to understand the sustainable agriculture and environment throughtraining series such as how to create appropriated practices, showing all difficulties related to any
failure of applying the pollution on agriculture and environment and expressing clearly the benefit
on sustainable agriculture, were focused as the most benefits for life skill from the trained students
reason (Fig. 5).
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3.50%
13.60%
34.80%

Always

AlwaysRarelyRarely42.70%
82.90%

Never
22.60%

Never

Trained students

Non-Trained students

Fig. 3 Amount of students for reading books on agriculture and environment

120
100
80
60
40
20
0

100

97

100

100

81.1
Can (%)
18.9
3
Growing plant

00Making compost

Making biopesticide

Cannot (%)

0

Conservation
water
environment

Conservation
surrounding
environment

Fig. 4 Visibility of the trained students’ practice after training

The benefit of suitable agriculture andenvironment

16.60

Any failure of applying the pollution on
agriculture and environment

19.10

A good practise of sustainableagriculture and environment

17.60

What is sustainable agriculture andenvironment

83.40
80.90

Not understand(%)
Understand (%)

82.40
2.00
98.00

0.00

50.00

100.00150.00Fig. 5 Understanding of the trained students through training series
100

85

80.9

80.9
Want to practice

50
15

19.1

19.1

Do not want to practice0
Parent (%)

Neighbour (%)

Others (%)

Fig. 6 Transferring of appropriated agriculture and environment to involvements
Many advantages derived from the training series not only provide the student knowledge, butalso provide benefits indirectly to the student’s parents or neighbors (Fig. 6). However, there is still
limit of transferring because some involvements understood it takes time and it could not
absolutely make a competition with foreign products.
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Indeed, relying on the questionnaires of the trained students, there are many problems were
occurred around people living area, they are water pollution, infertile productivity, air pollution,
lacking of food safety and suitable agriculture. There are differences between before and after the
training. After testing before training, it was explain there is only a little understanding onsustainable agriculture and environment for the trained students, and the understanding subjects in
the interest of testing the children, namely: making compost (18.9%), sustaining water environment(18.3%), and sustaining surrounding environment (26.8%). Therefore, after training the students
are really most understand and they can almost absolutely practice all the knowledge by themselves,especially they are a part of human resource and responsible for transferring this knowledge to theinvolvements.
Finally, the purpose of both groups, they would like to have a vegetable garden for theirschools because they can improve planting crops, making compost fertilizer, making bio-extract,
and they can have fun with their garden and learn new skills. The vegetable garden plays animportant role to integrate the garden into the curriculum, including garden-based social studies. It
encourages classroom teachers to participate with their students in the garden, especially to invite
the local community to join together for growing plants year-round and can promote more andmore the knowledge of sustainable agriculture and environment to the local community.
CONCLUSION
The trained pupils understood well about conservation of agriculture and environment, but nontrained pupils had a limit. All the pupils are very happy to join the program because they can learn
and practice using of natural resource to get sustainability, and reflecting clearly of a goodcondition for environment. This study is very essential for pupils because it is a way to teach themto have a closely relationship with appropriated agriculture and environment in their future. Bothgroups would like to have organic vegetable garden for their school because they can enjoy with
their garden and learn new skills. It is concluded that, there is still limited knowledge of the pupils
on environmental and sustainable agriculture. They should be trained on the subject through formal
educations, providing ready materials, practices and study tours.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON),as well, we would like to great thanks to all which cooperated very closely with this research.
REFERENCES
Center for Ecoliteracy. 2004-2011. The school in every garden. (Retrieved from http://www.ecoliteracy.
org/essays/school-every-garden., Accessed: 19 July, 2011).
Mihara, M. and Fujimoto, A.(eds.) 2007. Sustainable Agriculture with Organic Fertilizer, Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan.
Biological Farmers of Australia. 2009. Organic School Garden. (Retrieved from http://www.organicschools.
com.au/About/tabid/157/Default.aspx., Accessed: 19 July, 2011).

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Research article
erdChanges in Cassava Yields with Trimmed Leaves for
Eri-culture in Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia
KUMIKO KAWABE*
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan /Research Center, Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Email: kumiko@khmergreennature.com

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Envrionment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

KEISHIRO ITAGAKI
Faculty of Internationl Agriculture and Food Stuides, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo,
Japan
Received 26 December 2012

Accepted 20 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Cassava (Manihot esculenta), a host plant of eri silkworm (Samia Cynthia ricini),
is one of the main crops, followed by rice in Cambodia. As it was not long ago that ericulture was introduced in Cambodia, the research related to eri-culture and eri silkworms
in Cambodia has not been developed. Especially, trimming methods of cassava leaves
have not been studied yet. Accordingly, attention has been paid to evaluate the suitableamounts of leaves trimmed for eri-culture without affecting cassava tuber yields. So, thisstudy dealt with the potential percentage of cassava leaves trimmed for eri-culture in
Cambodia. In the experimental field at Royal University of Agriculture located in Phnom
Penh, cassava, variety called KM 94, was cultivated from November 2011 to July 2012 for
8 months. After 4 months passed from planting, the leaves were trimmed at 0%, 20%, 40%,
60%, 80% and 100%, respectively. At 8 months passed from planting, the yields werecompared amongst plots of different trimmed percentage, and the suitable amounts ofleaves trimmed for eri-culture without affecting cassava tuber yields were discussed. The
experimental results showed that yields of 100% trimmed were significantly smaller thanthat of 0% to 80% trimmed. Additionally, there was no significant difference in yields
amongst plots trimmed 0% to 80%. It was concluded that cassava leaves can be trimmed
up to 80% without affecting cassava tuber yields.
Keywords eri-culture, eri silkworm, cassava, trimmed leaves

INTRODUCTION
Eri-culture, raising eri silkworms (Samia Cynthia ricini), has been conducting widely in Southeast
Asia, such as southern China, Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia. Although its origin is Assamprovince in India, eri silkworm became the only one kind among various wild silkworms whichdomesticated in the same manner of mulberry silkworm and it has introduced to many countries
where host plant of eri silkworm can be found or cultivated (Photo. 1). Host plants of eri silkworm
are the leaves of castor, cassava or papaya which are very easy to cultivate in the tropical or subtropical areas. The most attractive points of eri-culture for local farmers are that eri-culture can startwith low input, for example the leave of cassava or castor is costless and rearing materials such asbamboo tray or net are easy to find in local areas, and eri-culture can provide local farmers not only
cocoons but also pupae that includes high nutrition of protein.
Eri-culture has introduced in local villages of Kampong Cham province, Cambodia in October2010 by the international NGO for aiming to promote environmental awareness and income
generation for local farmers to tackle with local problems regarding agriculture.
Agriculture is the main industry in Cambodia, and the statistics shows that 80% of totalⒸ ISERD

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population lives in rural areas and 70% of total population is engage in agriculture or related
sectors (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011). The government places the first priority on agriculture,
but at the same time it is very important for local people to sustain their living. However, local
farmers in Cambodia still have difficulties to earn enough income from agriculture due to lack ofinfrastructure, knowledge, technology and information.
Cassava is one of the main crops followed by rice in Cambodia, and its yields has been
increasing according to the statistics of FAO as shown in Fig. 1, due to the high potential of foodsecurity. In the research area, Kampong Cham province, the harvesting areas and yields of cassava
have been increasing dynamically in recent years. Normally cassava farmers get income from tuber
yields; however there may be high possibility to receive other income by using cassava leaves. So,
eri-culture can be one of the options to utilize the leaves, and it can be useful for local farmers togenerate more income from agriculture.

Photo
1. Eri-silkworms
Photo.
1 Cultivating
eri-silkworms
10,000,000

Amount of production (Mt)

9,000,000
8,000,000
7,000,000
6,000,000
Rice
5,000,000

Cassava

4,000,000

Maize

3,000,000
2,000,000

1,000,000
02000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Year
Source: FAO stat (2011)

Fig. 1 Trend of production in Cambodian top 3 crops
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this paper is to evaluate the suitable percentage of cassava leaves trimmed in midflow of cultivating without any effects on tuber yields of cassava in the research site. One of themain obstacles for local farmers to continue eri-culture was to gain enough amounts of fresh leaves
for rearing eri silkworms during dry season. A host plant of eri silkworm, cassava leaf, has rarely
been used after harvesting tubers in Cambodia. So, attention has been paid to the effect on cassava
yields after trimming certain amounts of leaves during its growing period. As the appropriateⒸ ISERD

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trimming methods have not yet been studied, the methods for eri-culture are also discussed in thisstudy. It is expected that the results would be available to extend the utilization of cassava leaves
for eri-culture in Cambodia.
METHODOLOGYThis experiment was conducted at the experimental field in the Royal University of Agriculture(RUA) located in Phnom Penh, Cambodia (Photo. 2). The variety of cassava named KM 94 waschosen for the experiment, as the variety has been widely cultivated by local farmers in Kampong
Cham province. Each experimental plot was a 4 m x 4 m square at 30 cm of planting interval as
shown in Fig. 2. There were 20 cassava trees in each of the 15 plots, so totally 300 cassava trees
were planted and cultivated from November 2011. Numbering of the plots was done from thesouthwestern plot along west side as “a1” to “a5”, from the southern plot to north for the middle
lane as “b1” to “b5”, and from the southeastern plot along east side as “c1 to c5”.
Ensuring the growing conditions in each plot, all cassava trees were measured by height after
4 months of planting, and 48 cassavas in 6 plots with no significant difference in height were used
for the further experiment (meshed plots in Fig. 2). Trimmed percentage was decided for each plot,“c5” for 0%, “c4” for 20%, “c1” for 40%, “b5” for 60%, “b1” for 80% and “a2” for 100%,
respectively (Fig. 3). Also, meteorological conditions, such as temperature, humidity and rainfall,
were observed at the experiment field in the Royal University of Agriculture during theexperimental period.

Photo. 2 Experimental field at Royal
University of Agriculture

0％ Trimmed

20％ Trimmed

17

18

19

20

17

18

19

20

17

18

19

20

13

14

15

16

13

14

15

16

13

14

15

16

9

10

a511

12

9

10

b511

12

9

10

c5 11

12

5

6

7

8

5

6

7

8

5

6

7

8

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

17

18

19

20

17

18

19

20

17

18

19

20

13

14

15

16

13

14

15

16

13

14

15

16

9

10

a411

12

9

10

b4 11

12

9

10

c411

12

5

6

7

8

5

6

7

8

5

6

7

8

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

17

18

19

20

17

18

19

20

17

18

19

20

13

14

9

10

5

15

16

13

14

15

16

13

14

15

16

a311

12

9

10

b311

12

9

10

c3 11

12

6

7

8

5

6

7

8

5

6

7

8

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

17

18

19

20

17

18

19

20

17

18

19

20

13

14

9

10

5

15

16

13

14

15

16

13

14

15

16

a211

12

9

10

b211

12

9

10

c2 11

12

6

7

8

5

6

7

8

5

6

7

8

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

17

18

19

20

17

18

19

20

17

18

19

20

13

14

9

10

5
1

15

16

13

14

15

16

13

14

15

16

a111

12

9

10

b111

12

9

10

c111

12

6

7

8

5

6

7

8

5

6

7

8

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

Fig. 2 Experimental plots at RUA,
Cambodia

40％ Trimmed

60％ Trimmed

80％ Trimmed

Fig. 3 Trimming methods from 0% to 100%
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-1

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Meteorological Data Observed during the Experiment
Meteorological conditions were observed from July 2010 to July 2012 at the experimental site inRoyal University of Agriculture, Cambodia. The observed period covered whole the experimental
period from November 2011 to July 2012. During the experimental period from November 2011 toJuly 2012, higher and lower temperature ranged from 30 degree Celsius to 37 degree Celsius andfrom 20 degree Celsius to 26 degree Celsius, respectively. Also, the monthly rainfall was from 0
mm to 190 mm. The trends of temperature and humidity from November 2011 to July 2012 weresimilar with that from November 2010 to July 2011. However, there was less rainfall from
December 2011 to February 2012 comparing to that from December 2010 to February 2011 asshown in Fig. 4.
(mm / month)(°C) / %
120

400
350

100
300
80
250

Rainfall (mm)Highest temperature (°C)

60

200
150

Lowest temperature (°C)
Highest humidity (%)

Lowest humidity (%)

40
100
20
50
0

0
Jul

Aug Sep

Oct Nov Dec

Jan

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

2010

Jul

Aug Sep

Oct Nov Dec

Jan

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Jul

2012

2011

Experimental period

Fig. 4 Meteorological conditions observed at experimental field from July 2010 to July 2012
Table 1 Height of selected cassava trees in each plot
Name of plot

Height of each cassava tree(cm)

Average

c5
93
109
110
93
105
113
103.8

c4
86
94
113
102
99
113
95
105
100.9

c1
99
102
108
103
101
101
90
102
100.8

b5
90
100
94
91
93
105
105
100
97.3

b1
107
96
101
90
89
101
99
88
96.4

a2
94
112
94
104
98
96
97
91
98.3

Selection of Cassava for Trimming
In March 2012, after 4 months passed from planting, the heights of 300 cassava trees were
measured. Eight plants in each of selected 6 plots which indicated no significant difference inheight were selected for further experiment (Table 1). This is to ensure that selected cassava trees
grew similarly although there were various factors affecting to the growth of cassava trees such as
soil nutrients, moisture, solar radiations, and other plants effects, so on.
And then, amounts of cassava leaves from the lower part were trimmed at 0%, 20%, 40%,
60%, 80% and 100% (Fig. 3) in March 2012. The plot was selected as “c5” for 0%, “c4” for 20%,“c1” for 40%, “b5” for 60%, “b1” for 80% and “a2” for 100%, respectively (Fig. 2).

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Changes in Cassava Yields with Trimmed Leaves
The leaves of selected cassava were trimmed at 0% (c5 plot), 20% (c4 plot), 40% (c1 plot), 60%(b5 plot), 80% (b1plot) and 100% (a2 plot), respectively (Fig. 3). After 4 months passed, cassava
tubers were harvested and the mass of tubers in each cassava tree was measured in July 2012.
The experimental results were summarized in Fig. 5. It showed that the yield of 100%
trimmed leaves was significantly smaller than that of 0% to 80% trimmed. Also, there was no
significant difference in the yield among plots trimmed 0% to 80%. It was considered that trimmed
cassava trees at 0% to 80% could recover the function of photosynthesis with reproducing cassava
leaves. However, photosynthesis was not enough to grow cassava tubers for cassava trees trimmed
at 100%.
Also, the fresh mass of trimmed cassava leaves at 0% to 80% was measured for cultivating
eri-silkworms at middle flow of harvesting cassava as shown in Table 2. Apparently, there was atendency for the fresh mass of trimmed cassava leaves to be larger with the increase in percentage
trimmed. It indicated that 202.42 g of fresh cassava leaves were harvested from one cassava plantof 80% trimmed for cultivating eri-silkworms.
A**

5
Mass of harvested cassava tubers (kg)

A**

4.5

A**
A**

4
3.5

A**

3
2.5
2
1.5
B**

1
0.5
0
c5
0%

c4
20%

c1
40%

b5
60%

b1
80%

a2
100% trimmed

Different letter indicates the significant difference at 99%(**) .

Fig. 5 Effects of trimmed amounts of cassava leaves on mass of harvested cassava tubers
Table 2 Fresh mass of selected cassava leaves in each plot from 0% to 80% trimmed
Name of plot

Fresh mass of
cassavaleavestrimmed (g)Average (g)c5(0% trimmed)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

c4
(20% trimmed)
42.72
28.98
35.39
13.92
45.58
23.25
17.63
34.09
30.20

c1
(40% trimmed)
90.90
55.80
62.88
106.92
84.99
92.51
81.69
111.8985.95

b5(60% trimmed)
137.41281.20169.51
159.1979.81
191.71160.84145.82165.69b1(80% trimmed)
232.74185.21290.75129.42163.67220.66220.49176.44202.42

CONCLUSION
Cassava (Manihot esculenta), a host plant of eri silkworm (Samia Cynthia ricini), is one of themain crops in Cambodia, and its harvested areas and yields have been increasing in the last five
years and it is estimated to expand year by year.
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Eri-culture, the raising of eri silkworm, a kind of wild silkworm originated in Assam province,
India, was introduced to Cambodia in October 2010. Since then, farmers face the difficulty toensure fresh leaves for feeding eri silkworm. So trimming methods of leaves should be studied.
Accordingly, attention has been paid to evaluate the suitable amounts of leaves trimmed for ericulture without damaging cassava yields.
KM 94, one of cassava variety that is widely adopted by local farmers in Cambodia, wascultivated from November 2011 to July 2012, a period of 8 months, at the experimental field inRoyal University of Agriculture located in Phnom Penh. After 4 months passed from planting, theleaves were trimmed at 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%, respectively. At 8 months passed
from planting, the yields were compared among plots of different trimming percentage anddiscussed the suitable amounts of leaves trimmed for eri-culture without damaging cassava tubers.
The results showed that the yields of 100% trimmed were significantly smaller than that of 0% to
80% trimmed. Moreover, there was no significant difference in yields amongst plots trimmed 0%
to 80%. Accordingly, it was concluded that cassava leaves can be trimmed up to 80% without
damaging cassava yields.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Bunthan NGO, Rector at Royal University ofAgriculture to rent us the experimental farm of the university. I also would like to thank EREON
Cambodia Branch for the assistance to provide at all levels of the research project.
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cassava in Vietnam: Implications for future research and development, http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y1177e/Y1177E06.htm.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Corporate document repository, Food
outlook Global Market Analysis, http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/ak341e/ak341e06.htm.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAOSTAT, http://faostat3.fao.org/faostatgateway/go/to/home/E.
Agriculture & Livestock Industries Corporation (alic), Trend of cassava production in Cambodia, http://
www.alic.go.jp/joho-d/joho08_000071.html, (in Japanese).
Khang, D.N., Wiktorsson, H. and Preston, R.T. 2005. Yield and chemical composition of cassava foliage andtuber yield as influenced by harvesting height and cutting interval. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal
Sciences, 18(7), 1029-1035.
Hue, K.T., Do Van, Do, T.T., Ledin, I., Wredle, E. and Spörndly, E. 2012. Effect of harvesting frequency,
variety and leaf maturity on nutrient composition, hydrogen cyanide content and cassava foliage yield.
Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 25(12), 1691-1700.
Wanapat, M., Pimpa, O., Petlum, A. and Boontao, U. 1997. Cassava hay: A new strategic feed for ruminants
during the dry Season. International Journal for Research into Sustainable Developing World Agriculture.
9(2), On-line Edition.
Hong, N.T.T., Wanapat, M., Wachirapakorn, C., Pakdee, P. and Rowlinson, P. 2003. Effects of timing of
initial cutting and subsequent cutting on yields and chemical compositions of cassava hay and its
supplementation on lactating dairy cows. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 16(12), 17631769.
Tsuno, Y., Taniyama, T. and Suprapto, H. 1983. The photosynthesis and estimation of productivity of
cassava. Japan. Jour. Crop. Sci. 52(4), 484-492.
Sopheap, U., Patanothai, A. and Aye, T.M. 2011. Farmers’ perceptions on cassava cultivation in Cambodia.
Khon Kaen Agri. Jour., 39, 279-294.

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erdInternational Society ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Philosophy of ISERD:
Recently, in developing countries, subsistence agriculture is being converted to export-oriented mono-culture,and the amounts of agricultural chemicals applied to the farmland are increasing every year. The appliedchemicals in farmland cause serious environmental problems downstream such as eutrophication, unusual
growth of aquatic plants, decrease in dissolved oxygen and accumulation of bottom mud in water resources.
Also, there seem to be many cases in which people apply agricultural chemicals without understanding its
impact to health and food safety. Therefore, it is necessary to promote and enhance understanding ofsustainable rural development among local stakeholders including farmers.
Sustainable rural development aims to meet human needs while preserving the natural environment. As
it should cover not only social and economic development but also natural environment conservation, no
single organization can achieve sufficiently the aspirations of sustainable rural development. Collaboration
among international, governmental and non-governmental organizations, together with the academe andscientific sector, is indispensable.
The knowledge and intelligence accumulated in universities and research institutions are also expected
to make the programs facilitated by the international, governmental and non-governmental organizations
more adequately implemented and meaningful to societal development. However, these cases especiallythose implemented locally have been scattered without having been summarized well or recorded in annals
academic or scientific societies.
So, the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development founded in 2010, aims to discussand develop suitable and effective processes or strategies on sustainable rural development focusing on
agricultural and environmental aspects in developing countries. The ultimate goals of the society are tocontribute to sustainable rural development through social and economic development in harmony with thenatural environment, and to support the potential or capacity building of local institutions and stakeholders in
the rural area with academic background.
Purposes of ISERD:
The primary purposes of ISERD are to contribute to sustainable rural development through social andeconomic development in harmony with the natural environment and to support the potential or capacity
building of local institutions and stakeholders in the rural area with academic background.
In order to enhance the realization of the primary purposes of ISERD, the secondary purposes are;- to facilitate interaction among international, governmental, non-governmental organizations and local
communities,- to hold conferences or symposia on environmental and rural development,- to publish the International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, and- to encourage and develop local awareness concerning sustainable rural development.
Membership:
There shall be two categories of membership.
(a) Individual(b) Organizational
An application for membership of ISERD shall be submitted to the secretariat of ISERD, Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation (Japan) or Association of Environmental and Rural
Development (Thailand) by writing or by other appropriate means.
Council of ISERD:
The affairs of ISERD shall be governed and managed by the ISERD Council. The councilors are as follows.
President
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan
Deputy Presidents
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

Prof. Dr. Anan Polthanee, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Executive Secretary / Editor-in-Chief of IJERD
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture / Institute of Environment Rehabilitation
and Conservation, Japan
Managing Editors
Dr. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Dr. Julian Torillo, Jr., Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Carlos Onan Tovar Mendoza, Honduras Embassy in Japan, Japan
Treasurer
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Regional Vice Presidents
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Mom Seng, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Dieter Trautz, University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Dr. Siaw Onwona-Agyeman, African Program on Field Oriented Leaders in Environ. Sectors, Ghana
Dr. Sri Wahyuni, Islamic University of Riau, Indonesia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Elpidio T. Magante, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Dr. Vo Quang Minh, Cantho University, Vietnam
ISERD Secretariat:
Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON)
2987-1 Onoji Machida-Shi, Tokyo 195-0064, Japan
Tel/Fax: +81-42736-8972
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net
Collaborated with
Association of Environmental and Rural Development (AERD)
93/64 Moo.3, Sinsab village 2, Bungyeetho sub-district, Thanyaburi district,Pathum Thani 12130, Thailand
Tel/Fax: +66-2957-8064
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net

Institute for the Advanced Studyof Sustainability
All articles and reports published in this journal were accepted through a peer-review process. However,most articles and reports published in this journal were presented at the International Conference on
Environmental and Rural Development that was co-organized by United Nations University, Institute for
the Advanced Study of Sustainability.