Copyright © 2008 ICMPC10
Copyright of the content of an individual abstract is held by the first-named (primary) authorof that abstract. All rights reserved.
E-mail: icmpc10@psych.let.hokudai.ac.jp

Abstract Master: Causal Productions
Abstract Cover Design: Kumiko Motegi, Misa Yoshizawa
Printed by Hokkaido Printing Planning Co., LTD.

Table of ContentsPage
5
6
3PM3-R01
7
5AM1-S01

Special Sessions
Keynotes
Young Researcher Award Winners’ Papers
APSCOM3 General Meeting & Symposium: The Latest Research
Trends in Asia-Paciﬁc Regions

Symposia
9
11

14
16
18
20

22
24
24
27
29

1PM1-R01 Symposium 1 : Music and Health: Empirical Investigations andTheoretical Constructs
1PM2-R01 Symposium 2 : Investigating Musical Performance: Aspects of
Self in Advanced Musical Learning Across Diﬀerent Musical
Genres2AM1-R01 Symposium 3 : Applying Music Psychology
2PM1-R01 Symposium 4 (Invited) : Absolute Pitch and its Implications forMusic Perception and Cognition
2PM2-R01 Symposium 5 : Musical Dynamics as Adaptive, Flexible Behavior:
The Emergence of Meaning and Social Life
3AM1-R01 Symposium 6 : Aesthetic Evaluation and Cognitive Classiﬁcationof Music in Experts and Laymen: Behavioral andElectrophysiological Data
3PM1-R01 Symposium 7 : Music and Health: a Paradoxical Relationship
3PM1-R06 Symposium 8 : ICMPC-Rencon: Toward New Research on
Designing Expression in Musical Performance
3PM2-R01 Symposium 9 : Musical Emotions: Eﬀect of Structural and
Performance Cues
4AM1-R01 Symposium 10 : Experiencing Musical Multimedia: EmpiricalInvestigations of Cross-Modal Perception & Cognition
4AM2-R01 Symposium 11 (Invited) : Animal Calls, Music, and Language:
Search for Common Themes in Evolution

Monday 25 August 2007
31
32
34
35
36
38
39
41
42
43
44
45

1PM1-R02
1PM1-R03
1PM1-R04
1PM2-R02
1PM2-R03
1PM2-R04
1PM2-R05
1PM3-R01
1PM3-R02
1PM3-R03
1PM3-R04
1PM3-R05

Pitch
Rhythm, Meter and Timing I
Education I
MemoryPerformance I
Development I
Neuroscience I
Social Interaction
Computational Models and Analyses I
Psychoacoustics I
Perception of Musical Structures
Music Listening I

1

Tuesday 26 August 2008
47
48
49
51
52
54
57
59
62
64
67
69
69
70
71
72
74
75
76
78
79

2AM1-R02 Melody
2AM1-R03 Performance II
2AM1-R04 Emotion in Music I
2AM1-R05 Therapy
2AM2-R07 Musical Scales and Melody / Harmony and Tonality / Timbre /Psychophysics and Music Acoustics
2AM2-R08 Rhythm and Timing / Body Movement / Memory
2AM2-R09 Music Listening and Preferences / Development / Performance /Audio-Visual Interactions / Psychoacoustics
2AM2-R10 Emotional Aspects / Rhythm and Timing
2AM2-R11 Education / Performance
2AM2-R12 Performance / Neuroscience
2AM2-R13 Neuroscience
2AM2-R16 Demonstration I
2AM2-R17 Demonstration II
2PM1-R02 Rhythm, Meter and Timing II
2PM1-R03 Music Listening II
2PM1-R04 Emotion in Music II
2PM1-R05 Education II
2PM2-R02 Rhythm, Meter and Timing III
2PM2-R03 Performance III
2PM2-R04 Education III
2PM2-R05 Computational Models and Analyses II

Wednesday 27 August 2008
82
83
84
85
87
89
91
93
95
98
100
102
102
102
103
104
106
107
108
109
110

3AM1-R02 Timbre I
3AM1-R03 Computational Models and Analyses III
3AM1-R04 Memory and Imagery
3AM1-R05 Performance IV
3AM2-R07 Musical Scales and Melody / Harmony and Tonality / Timbre /Psychophysics and Music Acoustics
3AM2-R08 Rhythm and Timing / Body Movement / Memory
3AM2-R09 Music Listening and Preferences / Development / Performance /Audio-Visual Interactions / Psychoacoustics
3AM2-R10 Emotional Aspects / Rhythm and Timing
3AM2-R11 Education / Performance
3AM2-R12 Performance / Neuroscience
3AM2-R13 Neuroscience
3AM2-R16 Demonstration III
3AM2-R17 Demonstration IV
3AM2-R18 Demonstration V
3PM1-R02 Timing and Performance
3PM1-R03 Music Listening III
3PM1-R04 Emotion in Music III
3PM2-R02 Development II
3PM2-R03 Audio-Visual Interaction
3PM2-R04 Music and Language
3PM2-R05 Harmony and Tonality I

2

Thursday 28 August 2008
112
113
114
116
117
118
120
121

4AM1-R02 Timbre II
4AM1-R03 Performance V
4AM1-R04 Neuroscience II
4AM1-R05 Body Movement
4AM2-R02 Harmony and Tonality II
4AM2-R03 Music Listening IV
4AM2-R04 Emotion in Music IV
4AM2-R05 Neuroscience III

124
125
126

5AM1-A01 Ethnomusicology
5AM2-S01 Psychoacoustics II
5AM2-S02 Music Therapy / Evolutional Perspective / Development /Neuroscience and Disorders / Computational Models andAnalyses
5PM1-S01 Performance VI
5PM1-A01 Cognitive Processes and Music Psychology
5PM1-S02 Music Listening and Preferences / Development / Methodology
5PM2-S01 Neuroscience and Pathology

Friday 29 August 2008

130
131
133
137

3

4

ICMPC 10

Special Sessions

Keynotes
Organization Processes in Music Perception
Jun-ichi Abe; Hokkaido University, Japan
K-1
Some sequences of tones are perceived as musical events, i.e., as coherent melodies,
whereas others are not. Why is this? Needless to say, listeners’ minds are responsible
in some way. But how do our brain mechanisms make such distinctions? For listeners— whether they may be music experts (musicians) or novices (non-musicians), andregardless of their musical culture, — two organizational processes are essential
for the perception of a stimulus tone sequence as a melody: one process involves
metrical organization and the other is a process of tonal organization of a stimulus
tone sequence. If metrical organization is successfully carried out in accordancewith a listener’s metrical schema, the result is that a coherent temporal structure
is assigned to a stimulus tone sequence; psychological time units such as “beat”
and “meter” are perceived. Likewise, if a tonal organization is successfully executedin accordance with a listener’s tonal schema, then a coherent tonal relationship is
assigned that relates constituent pitches within a sequence of tones. In turn, thisconfers a sense of “key” or “tonality” upon the sequence. Conversely, if both ofthese two kinds of organization are not successfully carried out, then tones would
be perceived as a random-like sequence or a jumbled sequence of notes. In thistalk, I discuss some general properties of these organization processes in music
perception.

Japanese Voices — A Video Archive of Singing Styles andTechniques in the Japanese Language
Ichiro Nakayama; Osaka University of Arts, Japan
K-2
This is an introduction of Japanese Voices — A Video Archive of Singing Styles andTechniques in the Japanese Language (Nihongo o Uta, Uta, Utau ᮹ᴀ䁲ȧ℠・૘・䃵Ǜ ),a DVD set about Japanese vocal music that I recently published. The feature of thisarchive is that the performers from both traditional, contemporary and western style
genres of Japanese song sang a set phrase in their own respective métier. I’d like togive an overview on the characteristics of Japanese vocal music, referring to thosescenes from the DVD set.

The Origins of Rhythm in Movement
Laurel J. Trainor; McMaster University, Canada
K-3
We tend to think of music as based in the auditory modality, but we see themovements of musicians, we play our instruments using our sense of touch andproprioception, and we feel the rhythm in our bodies. In a series of studies, we haveshown that body movement shapes how we hear rhythm. In particular, moving on
every second versus on every third beat of a rhythm pattern with more than one
possible metrical interpretation disambiguates the perceived meter. The vestibular
system appears to be crucial for this interaction as diﬀerential galvanic stimulationof the vestibular nerve alone inﬂuences metrical interpretation. Young infants are
not able to self-locomote, but they do experience considerable daily correlated
multisensory input as parents walk with them and rock them while singing andtalking. Movement aﬀects metrical interpretation in infants similarly as in adults,suggesting that the movement and auditory systems wire together at an early age.
Furthermore, infants enrolled in music classes for babies and parents that emphasize
moving to musical rhythms show an earlier bias for the metrical structures of therhythms of their culture. This suggests that experience is central in the developmentof auditory-movement pathways in the brain.

The ICMPC Series, and Some Current Research on Music
Perception and Cognition
Diana Deutsch; University of California at San Diego, USA
K-4
This paper is in three main parts. The ﬁrst part describes the circumstances surrounding the founding of the ICMPC series in the late 1980s, and the ﬁrst two ICMPC

5Special Sessions

ICMPC 10conferences, which were held in Kyoto and in Los Angeles. The second part describes
some recent research by the author and collaborators. The ﬁrst body of researchconcerns a new illusion, in which a spoken phrase is perceptually transformed tobe heard as song, just through simple repetition. The second body of researchconcerns absolute pitch. It is argued, based both on published work and also a
newly completed study, that exposure to tone language during the critical period forspeech strongly inﬂuences the capacity to acquire absolute pitch for musical tones.
The third body of research concerns a new illusion of pitch circularity, in which thisis achieved with a bank of tones that each comprise a full harmonic series. This both
extends the theoretical scope of pitch circularity and also has implications for thedevelopment of new music. Finally, developments in the ﬁeld of music perception
and cognition since the inception of the ICMPC series are considered.

3PM3-R01 : Young Researcher Award Winners’ Papers
Room 1, 17:30 – 19:00 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Eﬀect of Expressive Intent, Performer Expertise, and Listener
Expertise on the Perception of Artistic Individuality in Organ
Performance
Bruno Gingras, Tamara Lagrandeur-Ponce, Bruno L. Giordano,
Stephen McAdams; McGill University, Canada
3PM3-R01-1
This study investigated the perception of artistic individuality in organ performance.
Six organists, three of whom were prize-winners at national competitions, eachrecorded two “mechanical” and two expressive interpretations of a chorale setting
by Scheidt (1587–1654). In a subsequent perception experiment, twenty nonmusicians and twenty musicians listened to these recordings and grouped together
performances they thought had been played by the same organist. Twenty-eightparticipants (70%) performed signiﬁcantly above chance level, demonstrating thatmost listeners can recognize speciﬁc performers even on an instrument with a limited
range of expressive parameters such as the organ. There was no signiﬁcant diﬀerencein the performance of musicians and non-musicians. Participants were less likely togroup together expressive performances from diﬀerent performers than mechanicalones. Participants’ performance was signiﬁcantly higher for prize-winning organists
than for non-winners, suggesting that the performers’ level of expertise is linked tothe perception of artistic individuality.

Stimulating Music: Combining Singing with Brain Stimulation to
Help Stroke Victims Recover Speech
Bradley W. Vines 1 , Andrea C. Norton 2 , Gottfried Schlaug 2 ;1
University of British Columbia, Canada; 2 Harvard University, USA
3PM3-R01-2
It is strange to think that singing might help a stroke victim speak again, but this is
the secret of Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT), a speech therapy that emphasizesmusical aspects of language. We investigated the potential for transcranial Direct
Current Stimulation (tDCS) to augment the beneﬁts of MIT for Broca’s aphasia
patients. tDCS is a non-invasive technique that modulates neural activity. We used
tDCS to stimulate the right inferior frontal gyrus, which is thought to contributeto singing, and to recovery from aphasia. The stimulation coincided with an MIT
session, conducted by a trained therapist. Participants’ language ﬂuency showed
greater improvement with real tDCS + MIT, compared to sham tDCS + MIT. These
results provide evidence that combining tDCS with MIT may enhance activity in asensorimotor network for articulation in the right hemisphere, to compensate fordamaged left-hemisphere language centers.

6

ICMPC 10

Special Sessions

5AM1-S01 : APSCOM3 General Meeting & Symposium:
The Latest Research Trends in Asia-Paciﬁc Regions
Space 1, 9:15 – 10:45 Friday 29 August 2008, Oral session

The Latest Research Trends in Asia-Paciﬁc Region
Sun-Hee Chang 1 , Catherine Stevens 2 , Emery Schubert 3 , Shin-ichiro
Iwamiya 4 , Kyungil Kim 5 , Qian Zhang 6 , Shibin Zhou 7 , Eddy Chong 8 ;1Seoul National University, Korea; 2 University of Western Sydney,
Australia; 3 University of New South Wales, Australia; 4 Kyushu
University, Japan; 5 Ajou University, Korea; 6 Central Conservatory ofMusic, China; 7 Capital Normal University, China; 8 Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore
APSCOM3
The Symposium is organized as a plenary session for the 3rd triennial International
Conference of the Asia-Paciﬁc Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (APSCOM3),
which is held as a joint meeting with ICMPC10. The purpose of this symposium
is to discuss the research trends and progress made in APSCOM member societies
since ASPCOM2, which was held in 2005 in Seoul (Korea). In particular, the symposium provides an opportunity for researchers in the Asia-Paciﬁc region to meet
one another especially those who are new to ICMPC and ASPCOM meetings. We
welcome representatives from the Society for Music Psychology of China (SMPC)
who will outline research trends and SMPC activities. SMPC will review the ﬁeld ofmusic psychology in China evolving in the context of music education curricularreform and explaining its characteristic rapport with the ancient Chinese thoughts ofmusic. SMPC is exploring an international cooperation network to meet their needs
caused by the rapid expansion of the ﬁeld in China. A Singaporean delegate will
also join to share his research interests with the society members as an observer.
Representatives from the Australian Music & Psychology Society (AMPS), the JapaneseSociety for Music Perception and Cognition (JSMPC), and the Korean Society forMusic Perception and Cognition (KSMPC), will report on current research activities
and research groups and future directions within their own society as well as ininternational communities.

The Construction and Development of Music Psychology in China
Qian Zhang 1 , Shibin Zhou 2 ; 1 Central Conservatory of Music, China;
2
Capital Normal University, China
5AM1-S01-01
The education of music psychology began along with the introduction of the concept
into China. According to the education of music psychology in China in the past 20
years, a system of the education has been founded, master and doctor degrees are
oﬀered in some universities. The research ﬁelds are enlarging and probing deeply.
On the solid foundation of Chinese traditional music-psychological ideas, newtechnique and achievements are more and more combined to enhance the researchlevel of the subject.
The gap between the education home and aboard exists in the structure of the knowledge, which needs the cooperation of the scholars from all the relative ﬁelds andexplores the issues in music psychology. There will be a bright future of music psychology education.

Music Perception and Cognition Research in Australia
Catherine Stevens 1 , Emery Schubert 2 ; 1 University of Western Sydney,
Australia; 2 University of New South Wales, Australia
5AM1-S01-02
This paper sketches activities concerning music perception and cognition research inAustralia in the three years that have elapsed since the successful APSCOM 2 meetingin Seoul in 2005. We outline activities at society, conference and research group level.
The recipients of the AMPS Graduate Student International Conference Travel Support
Scheme are noted. The competitive Endeavour International Postgraduate Research
Scholarship (EIPRS) scheme is described as a potential source of support for students
in the Asia-Paciﬁc region considering undertaking graduate research in Australia.

7Special Sessions

ICMPC 10

Research, Activity, and People in Music Perception and Cognitionin Korea
Kyungil Kim; Ajou University, Korea
5AM1-S01-03
The purpose of this paper is to review the research related to music perception andcognition in Korea. To this end, the past, current, and future of relevant Korean research, activities, and researchers are outlined. Speciﬁcally, the research before thecreation of the Korean Society of Music Perception and Cognition (KSMPC), the organization of the KSMPC and its activities and research thus far, and, ﬁnally, the future
directions of the KSMPC are discussed. Introduction of the members to the KSMPC(Tables 1 and 2) provides insight into the research domains and historically representative activities in Korea.

The Japanese Society for Music Perception and Cognition
Shin-ichiro Iwamiya; Kyushu University, Japan
5AM1-S01-04
The Japanese Society for Music Perception and Cognition was founded in 1988. Since
then, the SMPC has continued its eﬀorts for collaborative exploration and development of this research ﬁeld. The JSMPC organized the ﬁrst ICMPC in Kyoto in1989.
This paper includes brief introduction of history, activities and future of the JSMPC.
As a recent topic of the JSMPC, a special issue of the Journal of Music Perception andCognition (the oﬃcial journal of the JSMPC) focused on Sound Design has been published. Now, the JSMPC is to host the tenth ICMPC in Sapporo in 2008.

Music Psychology Research in Singapore: A Report
Eddy Chong; Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
5AM1-S01-05
This paper presents the state of research in music psychology in Singapore. A brief
history of the two tertiary institutions which could have embarked on this area of
research in the last four decades — the period spanning Singapore’s independence
as a nation — makes clear the reasons for the nascent state of development. The
handful of relevant research theses and journal publications are then listed against
this historical backdrop.

8

ICMPC 10

Symposia

1PM1-R01 : Symposium 1 : Music and Health: EmpiricalInvestigations and Theoretical Constructs
Room 1, 13:00 – 15:00 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Music and Health: Empirical Investigations and Theoretical
Constructs
Laura Mitchell 1 , Raymond MacDonald 1 , Gianna Cassidy 1 , Julie C.
De Simone 1 , Douglas Lonie 2 , Eugenia Costa-Giomi 3 ; 1 Glasgow
Caledonian University, UK; 2 MRC Social and Public Health Sciences
Unit, UK; 3 University of Texas at Austin, USA
SUMMARY-1
Aligned with the growing recognition of the potential beneﬁts of music interventions
on heath parameters are considerable advances in research that investigates the
beneﬁts of music on various health measures (Wosch and Wigram, 2007). This
heightened interest is driven by both developments in research methodology (qualitative and quantitative) and the ever-increasing availability of music in everyday life
(Pothoulaki, MacDonald and Flowers, 2006). However, despite this increasing interest
there remains much to learn, from a health context, about the processes involved
and the potential outcomes of music interventions (Mitchell, MacDonald, Serpell andKnussen, 2007).
This symposium presents a series of empirical research studies relating to theeﬀects of both musical participation and music listening on health parameters. A
number of important issues provide overarching themes for this symposium. For
example the importance of musical preferences and the complex relationship wehave with favourite music is developed in a number of preservations, while real-world
experiences of music as a part of everyday activities is also tackled. The symposium
also presents both quantitative and qualitative methodologies and mixed methods
paradigms in bringing this research forward.
Raymond MacDonald will begin the symposium with a discussion of the key themes
and recent literature. Laura Mitchell will discuss the growing literature on music
listening for pain relief, and in particular whether cognitive style may be an important
individual diﬀerence in the eﬃcacy of and reactions to this intervention. Gianna
Cassidy will then look at the beneﬁts of music listening on health parameters andexperience during interactive game play, comparing physiological measures relating
to health and wellbeing when gaming is accompanied by soundtrack music or
self-selected music. Julie De Simone will present recent ﬁndings in collaboration withthe music charity Polyphony on the eﬀects of musical activity on communicationand cognitive functioning of dementia suﬀerers. Douglas Lonie will then discuss
his work on the relationship between music listening and emotional health inyoung adults, which encompasses both psychological and sociological theory andmethodology and looks at preference for music seen as ‘negative’ such as heavy rock.
Eugenia Costa-Giomi will act as discussant for the symposium in bringing together
the ﬁndings and themes.

The Inﬂuence of Cognitive Style on Pain Relief Using PreferredMusic
Laura Mitchell, John McDowall, Raymond MacDonald; Glasgow
Caledonian University, UK
1PM1-R01-01
A growing body of research has investigated music listening as a non-invasive
technique capable of aﬀecting pain, with consistent ﬁndings that the person’s own
choice of music is particularly eﬀective (Mitchell and MacDonald, 2006). Further
work is needed, however, to uncover potential individual diﬀerences which may
aid clinicians in identifying who will beneﬁt the most from this intervention. One
signiﬁcant recent research development is the empathising and systemising quotient (Wakabayashi et al, 2006), two brain types which relate to diﬀerent cognitive
styles; high empathisers can identify and respond well to emotions and thoughts
in others, and high systemisers are able to deal easily with abstract, organisationaland mechanical systems. This study used experimentally induced pain in 72 healthy
volunteers to compare the eﬀects of preferred music and mental arithmetic to control
in individuals high in ‘empathising’ or ‘systemising’. A signiﬁcant interaction was

9Symposia

ICMPC 10

found between condition and cognitive style, with empathisers tolerating more pain
during the music condition than during both other conditions, but no diﬀerencesin systemisers. Systemisers were further found to rate pain lower in the arithmetic
condition than the control, and empathisers to rate their perceived control as higher
when listening to music. The ﬁndings here suggest that this may be an important
individual diﬀerence in eﬃcacy of the intervention that may also clarify previous
gender diﬀerences in the research.

Music and Videogame Play: The Eﬀects of Self-Selected andExperimenter-Selected Music on Performance and Experience
Gianna Cassidy, Raymond MacDonald; Glasgow Caledonian
University, UK
1PM1-R01-02
The Wii platform presents not only a new form of interactive ‘edutainment’ forhealth and wellbeing, but a new platform for musical experience. There is a needto investigate both the nature of our music practices and preferences during
gameplay, and the eﬀects of exposure to music on gameplay performance and experience. The study aimed to investigate the eﬀects of exposure to self-selected andexperimenter-selected music on Wii game performance and experience. Employing a
repeated-measures design, participants completed Wii Star Wars in the presence ofexperimenter-selected music, self-selected music or game soundtrack, in a counterbalanced order. Two physiological measures (heart-rate and caloriﬁc expenditure),
three behavioural (pedometer rate, completion time, and performance), and threeexperience measures (enjoyment and mood state), were obtained. Preliminary results
indicate that performance and experience measures were optimal when listening to
self-selected music: players scored highest; burned most calories; and experienced
greatest enjoyment and positive mood change. However, listening to music, whether
self-selected or experiment-selected, resulted in more positive performance and experience measures in comparison to playing without music. The results are discussed
in relation to theories of attention-distraction, arousal and aﬀect modiﬁcation, andour subjective relationship with the musical stimuli. Directions for further researchand implications for serious-games design, practitioners, and educationalists arealso discussed.

‘It Just Makes Me Feel Better’: Music and Emotional Health Overthe Youth-Adult Transition
Douglas Lonie 1 , Patrick West 1 , Graeme Wilson 2 ; 1 MRC Social andPublic Health Sciences Unit, UK; 2 Newcastle University, UK
1PM1-R01-03
Much has been written about the salience of music in adolescence for identity
formation and socialisation. The aims of the paper are to investigate the emotional
health of fans of the three main ‘taste groups’ identiﬁed (Chart, Dance and Rockmusic) and explore the diﬀerent uses of music for emotional regulation and wellbeing
within these groups. To do this, logistic regressions were carried out on a large scale
longitudinal dataset (The West of Scotland Twenty-07 Study). This was followed
by semi-structured interviews with 18 participants, designed and analysed using
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA).
The quantitative analysis showed little variation between taste groups in measures of
emotional health suggesting that this does not vary according to music preference.
This was corroborated by the qualitative enquiry which highlighted how participants
across all taste groups perceived multiple means of using music to aid emotional
development and sustain emotional wellbeing throughout the youth-adult transition.
Participants used music for emotional regulation and ‘feeling better’. This was not
linked to any taste group in particular but instead was practised by participants who
indicated a stronger taste for music generally. These results indicate that the processof using music for emotional wellbeing is closely linked to any music preference as
opposed to particular music genres or styles.

A Mixed Methods Investigation into the Eﬀects of Music on
Individuals with Dementia
Julie C. De Simone, Raymond MacDonald; Glasgow Caledonian
University, UK
1PM1-R01-04

10

ICMPC 10

Symposia

This is a joint study between Glasgow Caledonian University and a music charity,
Polyphony, who provide access to musical activities in a large psychiatric hospitalin the west of Glasgow, Scotland. This paper investigates the use of music as anintervention in the treatment of individuals with dementia. An experimental design
was utilised with 20 participants in an experimental group and 20 participants in acontrol groups. Cognitive function and communication skills were assessed. Semi
structured interviews with the participants’ carers which were also used and analysedusing thematic analysis. Quantitative analysis utilising ANOVAs investigated theeﬀects of music upon the dependant measures. The qualitative data was analysedusing thematic analysis. This analysis reported a number of key themes such as
enjoyment of sessions, improvement in social interaction and enhanced self esteem.
This research highlights the beneﬁts of music intervention which has the potential
to improve quality of life. Future research should seek to uncover in more detail theprocess and outcomes of these types of intervention.

Researching the Relationship Between Music and Health: An
Overview of Published Research and Key Themes
Raymond MacDonald, Laura Mitchell; Glasgow Caledonian University,
UK
1PM1-R01-05
This paper will overview key issues for researchers interested in investigating therelationship between music and heath. It will provide an overview and criticalevaluation of published research in the area highlighting the contrasting ways inwhich music and health can be studied. Diﬀerent approaches will be presented
with an emphasis on comparing and contrasting the ways in which quantitativeand qualitative methodologies are utilised. For example, the paper will present
studies that utilise focus group research (eg music education and health) and semi
structured interview research (eg the eﬀects of musical participation by patients withcancer). These will be compared with research that involves questionnaire designs(eg patterns of music listening and health) and with studies that have an experimental
approach (e.g. the eﬀects of listening to music while undergoing kidney dialysis
treatment). Theories of musical identities and musical communication will be used
to suggest psychological mechanisms by which music may have health beneﬁts. The
role of musical structure, cultural variables and the inﬂuence of personal musicalpreference will be discussed. The contrasting but related contributions of music
therapy, community music and music education to our understanding of music andhealth will also be presented.

1PM2-R01 : Symposium 2 : Investigating Musical
Performance: Aspects of Self in Advanced MusicalLearning Across Diﬀerent Musical Genres
Room 1, 15:15 – 17:15 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Investigating Musical Performance: Aspects of Self in Advanced
Musical Learning Across Diﬀerent Musical Genres
Graham Frederick Welch 1 , Andrea Creech 1 , Ioulia Papageorgi 1 ,Margaret S. Barrett 2 , Raymond MacDonald 3 ; 1 IOE University of
London, UK; 2 University of Queensland, Australia; 3 Glasgow
Caledonian University, UK
SUMMARY-2
The purpose of this symposium is to present new evidence relating to teaching,learning and performance in diverse musical genres within higher education contexts
that draws on data from a two-year research project funded by the UK’s Economic
and Social Research Council under their Teaching and Learning Research Programme(TLRP) and with Professor Graham Welch as the Principal Investigator. The presentation will also draw on an Australian Research Council Linkage grant ‘Mapping theNovice-expert Continuum in Composing and Performing’ with the Universities of
Tasmania and Brisbane (led by Professor Margaret Barrett with Professor Graham
Welch as the co-researcher).
The Investigating Musical Performance [IMP]: Comparative Studies in Advanced Musical Learning research project (http://www.tlrp.org/proj/Welch.html) is a two-yearcomparative study of advanced musical performance (2006–2008). The project has

11Symposia

ICMPC 10been devised to investigate how classical, popular, jazz and Scottish traditionalmusicians deepen and develop their learning about performance in undergraduate,
postgraduate and wider music community contexts. It is conceived as a multi-site,
multi-methods research project that draws equally on the strengths and expertise of
the four higher education partners (the Institute of Education, University of London;
University of York; Leeds College of Music; and the Royal Scottish Academy of Musicand Drama, Glasgow).
Included in the research methodology is a specially-devised web-based questionnaire, linked electronically to a 623-ﬁeld database, that provides a comprehensive,
short-term, longitudinal comparison of participants (N= 244) concerning theirbackgrounds, attitudes and approaches to advanced performance learning over a
twelve month period. This set of data is complimented by interviews, individual casestudies, focus groups and digital video analyses of studio-based instrumental lessons.
Analyses of quantitative and qualitative data have produced new evidence relating
to the processes that underpin teaching and learning within higher education music
contexts. The motivation for hosting this two-hour symposium is that it provides aunique opportunity to bring together evidence relating to the concept of self in theteaching and learning of diﬀerent musical genres - an aspect of higher education
learning in music that remains relatively under-researched. It is anticipated thediscussion will explore ways in which higher education music curricula should takeaccount of how the aspects of self and genre interact and impact on learning, bothin the UK and in Australia.
Speciﬁc research foci to be presented and discussed include: (a) the ways in whichlearning in music is mediated through gender and musical genre by self concept;(b) a longitudinal comparison of the attitudes and perceptions of advanced musicallearners towards ideal and self-perceived musical skills; and (c) the relationshipbetween musical self-eﬃcacy and time, eﬀort, perceived relevance and pleasure inmusical activities amongst undergraduate music students. Professor Barrett willreport on the perceptions of twenty eminent composers who teach composition inhigher education settings concerning the learning and teaching strategies that they
employ and the environmental conditions and factors that support these strategies.

Investigating Musical Performance: A Longitudinal Comparison ofAdvanced Musical Learners’ Attitudes and Perceptions Towards
Musical Skills
Ioulia Papageorgi, Andrea Creech, Graham Frederick Welch; IOE
University of London, UK
1PM2-R01-01
This paper focuses on a twelve-month longitudinal comparison of 87 advanced musicians’ attitudes regarding musical skills. Participants (undergraduate and portfolio
career musicians) completed a specially-devised questionnaire investigating theirbackgrounds, attitudes and approaches to performance learning on two occasions,to capture potential changes in attitudes over time. Responses to questions focusingon (a) perceptions regarding the importance of particular musical skills in becoming
a successful musician (‘ideal’ musical skills) and (b) self-assessment of musical skills(‘perceived’ musical skills) were analysed in SPSS. Findings suggest that, over thecourse of twelve months, musicians lowered their ratings of ‘ideal’ musical skills,
whilst self-perceived skill ratings did not signiﬁcantly change. A previously observed
gap between musicians’ ‘ideal’ and ‘perceived’ level of skill decreased, potentially
due to gaining more experience and perhaps more realism about what is possible‘ideally’. Signiﬁcant diﬀerences in attitudes were observed in relation to gender, but
not musical performance genre or professional status. Female musicians appeared
more likely to place unreasonable expectations upon themselves. As undergraduate
musicians came towards the end of their studies, their attitudes seemed to converge
with those of established professional musicians. Gender, musical genre and professional status interacted to inﬂuence musicians’ attitudes in a variety of ways.

Subjective Values and Musical Self-Eﬃcacy: The Relationship
Between Musical Self-Eﬃcacy and Time, Eﬀort, Perceived
Relevance and Pleasure in Musical Activities Amongst
Undergraduate Music Students
Andrea Creech, Ioulia Papageorgi, Graham Frederick Welch; IOE
University of London, UK
1PM2-R01-02

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Although musical self-eﬃcacy has been found to play an important role in thedevelopment of higher education music students, an under-researched area is therelationship between musical self-eﬃcacy and subjective values such as enjoymentof musical activities, perceived importance or usefulness of musical activities andthe perceived time/eﬀort cost of engaging in musical activities. This paper ﬁrst
addresses the question of whether the perceived relevance, time and eﬀort expended
and pleasure experienced in musical activities changed over time for music undergraduates. Secondly, this paper tests the hypothesis that these variables would
account for variability in musical self-eﬃcacy of the students. Fifty-nine music
undergraduates in the UK (encompassing the four musical genres noted above) weresurveyed at time 1 and again at time 2, 12 months later. Likert scales measured
musical self-eﬃcacy as well as perceived relevance, eﬀort required and pleasureexperienced in musical activities. A signiﬁcant decrease in the perceived relevanceand pleasure in practising alone was found, while an increase in pleasure experienced
in mental practice was found. Multiple regressions revealed that pleasure in musicalactivities was the only predictor to account for signiﬁcant variability in musicalself-eﬃcacy. The evidence presented here points to future research that probes thenotion of pleasure in musical activities and how this may be capitalized on in orderto maximize opportunities for enhancing musical development.

Musical Self, Genre, and Gender as Factors in Higher Education
Learning in Music
Graham Frederick Welch, Ioulia Papageorgi, Andrea Creech; IOE
University of London, UK
1PM2-R01-03
Educational and psychological research suggests that gender and musical genre caninﬂuence musical learning and the development of musical identities, particularly
during adolescence. However, there are few studies concerning the possible impactof gender and musical genre on higher education (HE) musical learning. A two-yearcomparative study, funded under the ESRC’s Teaching and Learning Research
Programme (TLRP), investigated the eﬀect of musicians’ gender and chosen musicalperformance genre (Western classical, jazz, popular, or Scottish traditional music)
on undergraduate and postgraduate (career-based) learning. Data were gathered
through a web-based survey of participants (n=244) drawn from four HE institutions(HEIs) in Glasgow, York, Leeds and London and the wider workplace, supplemented
by semi-structured case study interview data from a sub-set (n=27). Statisticaland qualitative analyses indicate that gender and genre can impact individually on
aspects of participants’ psychological and socio-psychological make-up and attitudes
to learning. However, there was no evidence any major interaction between genre
and gender in the data. Also, irrespective of musical genre, skilled musicians had
many aspects in common in terms of their core musical identities and behaviours,
implying that the requirements for highly skilled musical performance can transcend
particular group characteristics.

Eminence Lessons: Eminent Composers’ Perceptions of Learning
and Teaching Practices in Music Composition
Margaret S. Barrett; University of Queensland, Australia
1PM2-R01-04
The phenomenon of music composition learning and teaching has been the focus
of considerable inquiry in educational and psychological research. Much of thisinquiry has examined learning and teaching practices in school settings where musiceducators work with novice student composers. Less research has examined thelearning and teaching practices of eminent composers working with experienced
student composers. Eminence studies provide insights into the beliefs, values,
processes and practices of eminent leaders in a domain of practice. This project
employed life-history interview to examine the perceptions of 20 eminent composers
who teach composition in higher education settings concerning the learning andteaching strategies they employ and the environmental conditions and factors that
support these strategies. Findings suggest that composition teaching is individualistic, genre-speciﬁc, and shaped by composers’ biographies and experience of learningand teaching as student and educator. Whilst all composers valued their learningand teaching experiences, their capacity to reﬂect on this, and develop individualised
strategies for students was related to their experience in teacher education. Theseﬁndings hold implications for the ways in which student composers in the higher
education setting are prepared for their professional lives, and for the professional
learning needs of higher education composition academics.

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ICMPC 102AM1-R01 : Symposium 3 : Applying Music Psychology
Room 1, 8:30 – 10:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Applying Music Psychology
David J. Hargreaves 1 , Raymond MacDonald 2 , Graeme Wilson 3 ,Hiromichi Mito 4 , Adam Ockelford 1 , Scott D. Lipscomb 5 ;1Roehampton University, UK; 2 Glasgow Caledonian University, UK;
3
Newcastle University, UK; 4 Miyagi University of Education, Japan;
5
University of Minnesota, USA
SUMMARY-3
The digital revolution gave rise to the widespread availability of relatively cheap andportable music listening and recording equipment, which meant that a considerable
proportion of the world’s population now has access to virtually any music in many
listening situations. More recent developments have seen music download services
overtaking CD sales, and software packages which enable anyone to compose andtransform music relatively easily. This has changed the ways we create and use musicin everyday life, and to the study of its applications in areas including health care,education, consumer behaviour, leisure and the media. This newly-emerging ﬁeld ofstudy has recently been surveyed in The Social and Applied Psychology of Music, by
Adrian North and David Hargreaves (Oxford UP, 2008).
The symposium aims to explain the historical context of applied music psychology
within the discipline as a whole, and to outline its scope and main features.
The opening position paper by David Hargreaves outlines the historical context andscope of applied music psychology. It outlines the main areas of application, as
well as some of the theoretical questions which arise. Each of the next three papers
illustrates a diﬀerent aspect of applied music psychology. Raymond MacDonald andGraham Wilson present some ﬁndings on musical identities in improvising musicians
which emerge from their interviews with 10 improvising musicians from varied
backgrounds, analysed using discursive psychological methods. Hiromichi Mito
discusses some empirical studies which focus on the process of musical learning
in informal settings, with an emphasis on how people can acquire various kinds ofmusical skill through everyday experiences. His research shows that young Japanese
non-musicians can show very high levels of cognitive musical skill, and can outperform musicians with abundant experience in both formal musical training and daily
musical activities on certain tasks. Finally, Adam Ockelford discusses the ﬁndings ofresearch into the musical engagement of children with complex needs, and presents
a model of musical development that synthesises (a) classroom observations, (b)the ﬁndings of psychological research into early music development in able-bodied
children, and (c) a theory of music cognition.
Music not only fulﬁls many important roles in society, but has equally important cognitive, social and emotional functions for the individual. Applied music psychology
is beginning to describe and explain these functions in a widening variety of real life
contexts, such those illustrated in this symposium.

Learning Musical Skill Through Everyday Musical Activities
Hiromichi Mito; Miyagi University of Education, Japan
2AM1-R01-01
The purpose of the present study is to show the role of everyday musical activity inthe acquisition of musical skills, and is based on the premise that people without
formal musical training can acquire a high level of musical skills through exposure
to everyday musical activities. The present study begins with the discussion ofsome studies from my own doctoral research which focus on the process of musicallearning in informal settings. From a detailed analysis of research in music education,
anthropology and ethnography, it became clear that people can acquire various kindsof musical skill through everyday experiences, and the discussion then goes on to
examine some psychological studies which have been providing empirical evidence
to show that various kinds of cognitive musical skills can be acquired without
formal training. I describe some of my own experimental studies of the cognitive
musical skills of young Japanese people, in which non-musician participants showed
extremely high level of cognitive musical skill. It was especially surprising in thesestudies that even the musician participants who had abundant experience in bothformal musical training and daily musical activities could not perform as well as

14

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the non-musician participants. An important implication of this study is that young
participants’ daily musical leisure activities function, on a high level, as musicaltraining, even though the participants may have no conscious awareness of thisprocess.

Musical Identities in Improvising Musicians
Raymond MacDonald 1 , Graeme Wilson 2 ; 1 Glasgow Caledonian
University, UK; 2 Newcastle University, UK
2AM1-R01-02
There is signiﬁcant interest in improvisation and how this universal but underresearched musical activity is conceptualised and realised in contemporary practice.
Our previous work has highlighted how professional jazz musicians talk about
improvisation and how these discourses shape musical identities, deﬁnitions of jazzmusic and perceptions of lifestyle. In particular, a mastery repertoire prioritises
instrumental virtuosity as a key feature of improvisatory practices while the mysteryrepertoire prioritises more inspirational, instinctual or ‘soulful’ understandings.
However, while improvisation is often seen as the preserve of elite jazz musicians
there is signiﬁcant improvisational activity around the world by musicians who
do not come from a jazz background and there is an urgent need to understandhow these musicians utilise and talk about improvisational practices. This paper
utilises discourse analysis to investigate how ten improvising musicians negotiate
and maintain identities. Results highlight how participants used psychologicalconstructs (eg ﬂow) to describe successful improvisation across the very wide rangeof improvisational practices they describe. The ﬁndings are discussed in relation
to discursive psychology, applied psychological research and research on the viewsof musicians and contemporary conceptualisations of improvisation. This paper
highlights how applied psychological research in the form of discourse analysis
can further our knowledge of musical identities and improvisational practices. The
fundamental relationship between talking about music and performing music, andthe importance of identity negotiations when improvising together, are highlighted.

Towards a Music Curriculum for Children with Complex Needs
Adam Ockelford; Roehampton University, UK
2AM1-R01-03
The aim of the research project that is reported here has been to provide anevidence-based model of musical development in children with complex needs, withthe objective of providing teachers with an interactive software package for assessing
and recording their pupils’ achievements and progress, and to oﬀer a curriculum
framework and materials. Three sources of evidence have been used to build up themodel of musical development: observations of children with complex needs, madeby practitioners and members of the research team; the ﬁndings of the last three
decades of psychological research into the early musical development of able-bodied
children; and the ‘zygonic’ theory of music-structural cognition developed by Adam
Ockelford in the last ten years. The model has developed through an iterative
process, as systematic observations have led to hypothesis-building - theories thathave then been tested by practitioners in the classroom. The results indicate thatthe musical development of children with complex needs can usefully be modelledin six levels across three domains: ‘reactive’, ‘proactive’ and ‘interactive’. Each sector
is itself divided into four elements to provide the level of detail needed for teachers
to make practical use of the material. The research is ongoing, and is currently in thephase of software development mentioned above.

Music Psychology: Developments and Applications
David J. Hargreaves; Roehampton University, UK
2AM1-R01-04
Music psychology has moved from a predominance of psychometrics in the 1960s, toan emphasis on cognitive psychology and the study of classical music in the 1980s,
which accompanied the emergence of sub-disciplines including the developmental
and social psychologies of music. We are now seeing a new emphasis on the applications of psychology in areas including health care, education, consumer behaviour,
leisure and the media. This paper outlines the historical context of applied music
psychology within the discipline as a whole, and outlines its scope and main features.
The paper describes some of the main cognitive and learning functions that music
can fulﬁl for the individual, which include the promotion of artistic and performanceskills, of creativity and improvisation, memory, problem solving and reasoning, and15

Symposia

ICMPC 10other potential scholastic gains. It also reviews some of music’s main social andemotional functions, which include emotional communication, mood regulation,
aesthetic appreciation, entertainment, teamwork and co-operation, and moral andspiritual development. It is argued that the understanding of these functions as they
operate in everyday life contexts will become a primary task of music psychology,
and that this will requite a much greater emphasis on practical implications, and anincreasing use of naturalistic methodologies.

2PM1-R01 : Symposium 4 (Invited) : Absolute Pitch and
its Implications for Music Perception and Cognition
Room 1, 13:30 – 15:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Absolute Pitch and Its Implications for Music Perception andCognition
Ken’ichi Miyazaki 1 , Andrzej Rakowski 2 , Piotr Rogowski 2 , Sylwia
Makomaska 3 , Elizabeth W. Marvin 4 , Elissa L. Newport 4 , Sandra E.
Trehub 5 , David Huron 6 , Carol L. Krumhansl 7 ; 1 Niigata University,
Japan; 2 Fryderyk Chopin University of Music, Poland; 3 Warsaw
University, Poland; 4 University of Rochester, USA; 5 University ofToronto at Mississauga, Canada; 6 Ohio State University, USA; 7 Cornell
University, USA
SUMMARY-4
Absolute pitch (AP), a faculty to identify musical pitch categories of individual tones
without any context, is one of remarkable auditory skills associated with music
and has drawn a great deal of interest of researchers. Research on AP has a long
history from the early period of scientiﬁc psychology, but previous research on
AP had rather limited perspectives, mainly focusing on aspects of AP as a musicaltalent and marvelous performance of its possessors, partially because AP possessors
were believed to be extremely rare in the general population. During the recent
few decades, however, AP has been studied in a wider range of perspectives, and a
growing body of research has revealed perceptual and cognitive aspects of AP morein detail, and not only AP per se but several related phenomena have drawn wider
interest of researchers in cognitive science, neuroscience, music education, andbehavioral genetics. Recent studies have extended the scope of AP and raised several
controversial issues including the possible association between AP and language —particularly an assumed relationship between AP and tone languages, the existenceof the sensitive period for AP, learnability of AP, various types of implicit AP, andgenetic basis of AP. These lines of research on AP from multidisciplinary perspectives
are expected to converge on a consistent model for understanding human mind.
In this symposium, four distinguished presenters from diﬀerent perspectives talkabout their insightful ideas about the nature of AP and related phenomena as well as
ﬁndings of their experiments.

Absolute Pitch as a Measuring Device in Psychoacoustic
Experiments
Andrzej Rakowski 1 , Piotr Rogowski 1 , Sylwia Makomaska 2 ; 1 Fryderyk
Chopin University of Music, Poland; 2 Warsaw University, Poland
2PM1-R01-01
Absolute pitch (AP) is a unique feature of the musical pitch memory. The possessorsof full AP (several percent of the population of musicians) preserve in their long-term
auditory memory the pitch standards of 12 within-octave values of musical pitch(chromas).
Two experiments concerning absolute pitch have been presented. In the ﬁrst one
pitch strength of short pure-tone pulses containing a limited number of vibration
periods, was estimated as a proportion of correct chroma identiﬁcations by expert
AP possessors. It was found that the duration time of a tone pulse, more than thenumber of vibration periods contained in it, determine the tone pulse’s pitch strength.
Second experiment concerned estimations with the method of chroma identiﬁcationof pitch strength in residual tones with missing fundamental and spectrum composedof 11 harmonics located at various parts of the harmonic series. The higher numberof lowest harmonic of this band-limited spectrum, the more diﬃcult to perceive the16ICMPC 10

Symposia

virtual pitch of the tone’s missing fundamental. Experimental results were comparedwith those obtained with the method of musical interval identiﬁcation (Houtsma &Smurzynski, 1990).
Additional experiment concerned ﬁnding the frequency range where AP is fullyeﬀective. This range appeared to spread from third through seventh octave.

Statistical Learning in Language and Music: Absolute Pitch
Without Labeling
Elizabeth W. Marvin, Elissa L. Newport; University of Rochester, USA
2PM1-R01-02
Absolute pitch (AP) is typically deﬁned as the ability to identify or produce a musicalpitch without access to an external reference tone. By this deﬁnition, pitches must
be named by some standard, and the incidence of AP in the general population
is estimated to be quite low (e.g., 1 in 10,000). Recent research has shown that
pitch memory is more wide-spread if the labeling requirement is removed. We havedeveloped a test of AP, based on statistical-learning research in language acquisition,
which tests pitch memory after a familiarization phase but does not require labeling.
Our results demonstrate a robust ability of listeners to learn and remember threenote patterns across four participant groups (n=44): AP (professional) musicians,
non-AP musicians, amateur musicians, and nonmusicians. When listeners are asked
to distinguish between learned pitch patterns and their transpositions, performancein all four groups is above chance (in accord with other recent studies). Further,
the test discriminates reliably between AP musicians and non-AP musicians, andcorrelates well with traditional pitch naming tests for those who can name pitches.
This allows us to test those without musical training. We discuss results for eachgroup in light of current theories of pitch memory. Of particular interest are threenonmusicians whose scores place them well within the range of AP musicians’
performance.

Developmental Perspectives on Pitch Memory
Sandra E. Trehub; University of Toronto at Mississauga, Canada
2PM1-R01-03
We examined pitch memory in children of diﬀerent ages, cultures, and language
backgrounds. Instead of using isolated pitches, as in typical AP studies, we usedfamiliar music. In Study 1, Canadian 5- to 10-year-olds and Japanese 5- to 6-year-olds
were required to distinguish the original versions of familiar TV theme songs fromfoils that were pitch-shifted by one semitone. Older children performed better than
younger children, and Japanese children performed better than same-age Canadianchildren. In Study 2, 9- to 12-year-old children of Asian (Chinese) or non-Asian(European) heritage performed a similar task. Some Asian children spoke a tone
language in addition to English; others were monolingual English speakers. Age,
heritage (Asian, European), and tone-language use had no eﬀect on memory for pitchlevel. These ﬁndings disconﬁrm the view that AP processing is superior in younger
than in older children. They also disconﬁrm the reported contributions of genetic
factors to cross-cultural diﬀerences in pitch memory. The absence of pitch memory
diﬀerences between tone-language users and non-users in Study 2 makes it unlikelythat language factors contributed to Japanese children’s enhanced performance inStudy 1. Instead, early note-naming and key-naming opportunities are likely to be
responsible for the observed diﬀerences.

On the Mental Representation of Pitch: Lessons from Absolute
Pitch
David Huron; Ohio State University, USA
2PM1-R01-04
How does the auditory system represent music-related percepts such as pitch?
The extant research suggests that multiple representations exist concurrently inthe auditory system, and that these representations are shaped by the auditory
environment during development. These observations are consistent with theories
of competitive representations, such as Edelman’s “neural Darwinist” approach.
Following Huron (2006), it is suggested that the diﬀerence in predictive accuracy
for diﬀerent representations provides the feedback mechanism by which competing
representations are selected. Representations that perform poorly in predicting
future sounds atrophy. Repercussions for cognitive modeling of music are brieﬂy
discussed.

17Symposia

ICMPC 102PM2-R01 : Symposium 5 : Musical Dynamics as
Adaptive, Flexible Behavior: The Emergence of Meaning
and Social Life
Room 1, 15:45 – 17:45 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Musical Dynamics as Adaptive, Flexible Behavior: The Emergenceof Meaning and Social Life
Patricia M. Gray 1 , Edward W. Large 2 , Paul J. Thibault 3 ,William Southworth Greaves 4 , James D. Benson 4 , Laurel J. Trainor 5 ,Ian Cross 6 ; 1 University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA;
2
Florida Atlantic University, USA; 3 University of Agder, Norway;
4
York University, Canada; 5 McMaster University, Canada; 6 Universityof Cambridge, UK
SUMMARY-5
The contributors to this Panel will discuss the question of whether music-making
with its underlying concomitant sound and time dynamics is uniquely human.

Rhythmic Analysis of Musical Interactions Between Bonobo and
Human
Edward W. Large 1 , Marc J. Velasco 1 , Patricia M. Gray 2 ; 1 Florida
Atlantic University, USA; 2 University of North Carolina at Greensboro,USA
2PM2-R01-01
Synchronization of rhythmic communication signals has been observed in insects
and amphibians. While such behavior is rare among higher animals, synchronouschorusing may exist among bonobos. To our knowledge however, non-humanprimates have never been reported to spontaneously entrain with rhythmic sounds,
and we are aware of no successful attempts to train them to do so. Thus, our goal wasto establish whether three language-capable bonobos were able to entrain to auditory
stimuli during musical interactions with a human. We analyzed MIDI recordings ofthe musical interactions, which took place over a three day period. During theseinteractions, a bonobo played “chords” on a MIDI keyboard while interacting withthe musician, whom s/he could see and hear playing on a separate MIDI keyboard.
Thirty-seven episodes of rhythmic interaction were identiﬁed. Within each, descriptors of rhythmicity and entrainment were computed, including instantaneous tempo
and phase of bonobo events relative to human events. In about half of the rhythmic
interactions, attunement of tempo was observed, and in just under half of these
episodes, statistical evidence of phase entrainment was found. Our analysis provides
evidence of meaningful rhythmic interaction between a non-human primate and ahuman in a musical context.

Musicking and Culture Creation: Sound and Time as Agents ofSocial Cohesion
Patricia M. Gray, Ryan Daniels; University of North Carolina at
Greensboro, USA
2PM2-R01-02
The ubiquity of music-making throughout past and present human cultures, combined with recent research revealing a suite of musical faculties present at birth innormal humans suggest a deep evolutionary role for the perception and manipulation of sound and time. Just as the primary focus for spoken language lies not in
its concepts or precepts but in the manipulations of sound and time that convey
meaning, so it is with music-making (musicking). Musicking is often spontaneousand part of a natural and organic outcome of a social process. Participation in thegroup’s manipulation of sound and time through musicking is a central element of
citizenship in the group and of the group’s cohesiveness. From this perspective, musicking is transformed into a process of social cohesion. Because musicking rides onrhythmic synchrony, a communicative interaction where a coupling between brains
can aﬀect each other’s internal states, and because this interactional synchrony isbasic to musicking, spoken language, and to other collective dynamics, new researchwith a group of bonobo apes (Pan paniscus) who demonstrate similar capacities

18

ICMPC 10

Symposia

suggests these capacities may have existed in a common ancestor thereby oﬀering
increased resources for social cohesion earlier in the evolutionary record.

Norms, Co-Constructed Body Dynamics, and Interaction in
Bonobos and Humans
Paul J. Thibault; University of Agder, Norway
2PM2-R01-03
This presentation will examine the centrality of micro-temporal bodily dynamics
in bonobo-human interactions in a joint Pan-human cultural environment (SavageRumbaugh et al 1998). How do the micro-temporal interactional dynamics of bodies
eﬀect coordination relations among agents (bonobo and/or human)? How are these
dynamical processes of bodies-in-interaction connected to norms and higher-scalar
cultural and historical constraints? Our brains and bodies tune into and exploit these
dynamics in ways that connect experience to normative cultural patterns and values,
which exercise their own constraints on these same dynamics. Body dynamics cantransform cognition, selfhood, and social reality. This view challenges the traditional
idea of language as a code, which treats the brain as a processor of symbolic inputs
and outputs. Instead, co-constructed body dynamics themselves have causal andcognitive powers. Hominids are inﬂuenced by and respond to these dynamics inmicro-time. Hominids (e.g. bonobos and humans) exploit pitch, rhythm, cadence,
tempo, duration, loudness and other aspects of vocalizations as well as facial andgestural activities. The term ‘micro-temporal body dynamics’ refers to the very fast,small-scale bodily processes involved in vocalizing, eye movements, rhythm, tone,gesture, voice quality, and much more.

Musical Representation by a Bonobo Resulting from theAssimilation of Meaning Through Bonobo-Human Dialogic
Interaction
James D. Benson, William Southworth Greaves, Ashley Watkins; York
University, Canada
2PM2-R01-04
The data for this study consists of a 30 minute interaction between the bonobo
Panbanisha, the musician Peter Gabriel, and the primatologist Sue Savage-Rumbaugh:a dialogue between the three participants, interspersed with interactive song improvisations on an electronic keyboard by Panbanisha. There are six iterations of aspeech genre, with the structure song-title negotiation ˆ acceptance ˆ song production
ˆ evaluation. Panbanisha improvises ﬁve diﬀerent songs in the six conversations:the ‘orange and banana song’, the ‘lookout point song’, the ‘car song’, the ‘banana
song’, and the ‘grooming song’. ‘Groom’ was originally proposed by Panbanishain the second conversation, but no song was produced. During the course of theconversations, Sue mediates Panbanisha’s song production by re-contextualizing
Panbanisha’s song-titles as activities and events in the past and future, such thatthe ‘lookout point song’ becomes the ‘yesterday song’, the ‘car song’ the ‘tomorrowsong’, and the ‘banana song’ the ‘later song’. In the process, Sue re-contextualizes
the ‘grooming song’ as a ‘now’ song. The ‘grooming song’ with its focus on thehere and now is the culmination of the preceding discourse, and the result is an
expansion of Panbanisha’s musical assimilation in the most aesthetically pleasing of
the ﬁve songs, as indicated by the extended positive evaluation by Panbanisha, Sueand Peter. A linguistic methodology for the analysis of casual conversation is used toshow how the assimilation of meaning through ﬂexible dialogic interaction with Sue
is the scaﬀolding for Panbanisha’s assimilation of musical meaning in her musicalinteraction with Peter.

19Symposia

ICMPC 103AM1-R01 : Symposium 6 : Aesthetic Evaluation andCognitive Classiﬁcation of Music in Experts andLaymen: Behavioral and Electrophysiological Data
Room 1, 8:30 – 10:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Aesthetic Evaluation and Cognitive Classiﬁcation of Music in
Experts and Laymen — Behavioral and Electrophysiological Data
Elvira Brattico 1 , Sirke Nieminen 1 , Kjetil Falkenberg Hansen 2 , Mira
Müller 3 , Tuomas Eerola 4 , David J. Hargreaves 5 ; 1 University of
Helsinki, Finland; 2 KTH, Sweden; 3 University of Leipzig, Germany;
4
University of Jyväskylä, Finland; 5 Roehampton University, UK
SUMMARY-6
Subjective processes aimed at aesthetic or cognitive evaluation of music are an
important, although relatively neglected, aspect of music listening. Those processes
occur without any instruction since, for instance, listeners involuntarily classify
music as belonging to a certain style or as mismatching stylistic expectations.
Expertise with music and musical concepts reﬁnes those cognitive and aesthetic
evaluative processes leading to the usage of ﬁne-grained or even novel categories
by music experts. In this symposium, the interaction between expertise and subjective processes related to music classiﬁcation and evaluation is studied from an
original perspective. In the ﬁrst talk by S. Nieminen & E. Istok, behavioral data will
explore how aesthetic and emotional concepts of music develop from childhood toadulthood. This talk provides conclusions on the similarity of musical concepts
applicable to Western tonal music in individuals with varying degrees of expertiseand at diﬀerent ages. The second talk by K. Hansen & R. Bresin presents contrasting
behavioral ﬁndings showing how expertise with a special musical genre, such as DJ
scratching, resulted in conceptual musical structures diﬀerent from the knowledge
repertoire of individuals exposed to the Western tonal music genre. The third andfourth talks will then reports attempts at ﬁnding neural correlates of subjective
judgments and classiﬁcation of music. In particular, the third talk by E. Brattico
deals with brain oscillatory responses of orchestral musicians possessing a highly
reﬁned musical knowledge, enabling them to correctly classify the style of even
750-ms musical excerpts of the classical genre. The ﬁnal talk by Mueller, L. Hoefel,
E. Brattico & T. Jacobsen will illustrate how evaluative and descriptive judgments ofmusical passages modulate the time-locked brain responses and the correspondentrole of formal musical instructions.

Verbal Description of DJ Recordings
Kjetil Falkenberg Hansen, Roberto Bresin; KTH, Sweden
3AM1-R01-01
In a recent pilot study, DJs were asked to perform the same composition using
diﬀerent intended emotional expression (happiness, sadness etc). In a successive
test, these intentions could not be matched by listeners’ judgement. One possible
explanation is that DJs have a diﬀerent vocabulary when describing expressivity
in their performances. We designed an experiment to understand how DJs andlisteners describe the music. The experiment was aimed at identifying a set ofdescriptors used mainly with scratch music, but possibly also with other genres.
In a web questionnaire, subjects were presented with sound stimuli from scratch
music recordings. Each participant described the music with words, phrases andterms in a free labelling task. The resulting list of responses was analyzed inseveral steps and condensed to a set of about 10 labels. Important diﬀerences were
found between describing scratch music and other Western genres such as pop,
jazz or classical music. For instance, labels such as cocky, cool, amusement andskilled were common. These speciﬁc labels seem mediated from the characteristic
hip-hop culture. The experiment oﬀered some explanation to the problem of verballydescribing expressive scratch music. The set of labels found can be used for further
experiments, for example when instructing DJs in performances.

20

ICMPC 10

Symposia

The Development of Aesthetic Responses to Music and Their
Conceptual Basis
Sirke Nieminen, Eva Istók, Elvira Brattico, Mari Tervaniemi; University
of Helsinki, Finland
3AM1-R01-02
Aesthetic experiences are multidimensional in their nature and include both cognitive
and aﬀective responses. In our study, the developmental aspects of aesthetic andemotional responses to music were investigated. While listening to musical pieces(major, minor, atonal), our participants (six-to nine-year-old children) were asked torate the pieces according to the beautiful-ugly, the like-dislike and the happy-sad
dimensions by using a special, child-adapted method. Results revealed the major
piece to be mostly considered as beautiful, while none of the pieces was rated as
ugly. The children generally liked the major piece best, the atonal piece second
best, and the minor piece least. All age groups rated the major piece as happy, but
only nine-year-olds rated the pieces clearly either happy or sad. In addition to thediﬀerent kinds of evaluative ratings, the children were asked to describe the pieces
by giving them appropriate titles. None of the titles contained the word ugly, while
beautiful occurred in several titles. These results conﬁrm the results of the study
investigating the conceptual basis of the aesthetic value of music in adults. Our
study suggests the presence of aesthetic responses to music to be associated withthe concept of beauty already in school-aged children.

The Electrophysiology of Aesthetic Music Processing: Comparing
Music Experts with Laymen
Mira Müller 1 , Lea Höfel 1 , Elvira Brattico 2 , Thomas Jacobsen 1 ;1University of Leipzig, Germany; 2 University of Helsinki, Finland
3AM1-R01-03
This study augments prior ﬁndings of inﬂuence of music expertise on music processing by investigating whether music experts and laymen diﬀer with regard toevaluative aesthetic processing of musical sequences. 16 music experts and 16 musiclaymen judged the aesthetic value (evaluative task) as well as the harmonic correctness (descriptive task) of musical chord sequences consisting of ﬁve chords withthe ending chord sounding either incorrect, ambiguous or correct in the harmonic
context established by the preceding four chords. Electrophysiological recordings
were analysed. ERP data indicates diﬀerences in processing of the evaluative vs.
descriptive judgements, i.e., a late and widespread positivity was observed thatwas signiﬁcantly larger for aesthetic compared to correctness judgements. Thisdiﬀerence, however, was equally pronounced for experts and laymen. Additionally,
established ERP eﬀects reﬂecting the processing of harmonic rule violation were
investigated. Here, group diﬀerences were observed in the processing of the mild
violation. Furthermore, experts and laymen diﬀered in their early brain responses
to the beginning of the whole chord sequence. Given the present results, a distinct
inﬂuence of expertise on aesthetic music processing could not be revealed eventhough experts and laymen diﬀered in their early brain responses to musical stimuli.

Brain Oscillatory Responses of Musical Style Classiﬁcation in
Orchestral Musicians
Elvira Brattico; University of Helsinki, Finland
3AM1-R01-04
The classiﬁcation of music according to a particular style relies on abstraction of
the characteristic acoustic features, as well as on long-term memory of schemata.
The aim of the study was to determine the brain oscillatory signatures of musicalpassages belonging to diﬀerent musical styles. Orchestral musicians classiﬁed
hundreds of brief musical excerpts as belonging to one out of four musical styles:
Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and Modern. Brain oscillatory responses at 2–25 Hz
were measured. Spectral centroid, spectral entropy, roughness and spectral ﬂux werealso computed for each musical excerpt. The acoustical analyses revealed higher
spectral centroid for Baroque and Modern styles as compared with the others and thehighest entropy and roughness for the Modern style contrasted with the others. The
behavioural responses showed that Classical style was the most diﬃcult to classify
whereas Modern style was the easiest. Early theta brain oscillations were increased
and late alpha oscillations decreased to the Modern style as compared with all theothers. Findings converged to suggest a sequence of style processing from initialextraction of the characteristic acoustic parameters to the subsequent matching of
sensory codes with pre-existing style representations.

21Symposia

ICMPC 103PM1-R01 : Symposium 7 : Music and Health: aParadoxical Relationship
Room 1, 13:30 – 15:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Music and Health: A Paradoxical Relationship
Gunter Kreutz 1 , Stephan Bongard 2 , Cynthia Quiroga-Murcia 2 ,Stephen Clift 3 , Jane Ginsborg 4 , Laura Mitchell 5 ; 1 University of
Oldenburg, Germany; 2 University of Frankfurt, Germany;3
Canterbury Christ Church University, UK; 4 Royal Northern Collegeof Music, UK; 5 Glasgow Caledonian University, UK
SUMMARY-7
Musical practices including listening, singing, playing instruments and dancing are
subject of a growing body of research in the context of wellbeing and health. In
general, most musical practices seem to promote wellbeing by providing opportunities of psychophysical training in one way or another. Playing musical instruments,
singing or dancing, for example, implies a certain amount of mental and physicalexercise, social interaction and emotional reward, all of which may have profound
implications for wellbeing and health. Paradoxically, professional engagement inmusical activities appears not to raise the beneﬁcial eﬀects of musical practices to an
optimum, but rather seems to be associated with increasing levels of practice-related
health problems. These problems are both apparently intrinsic to the activities aswell extrinsic to them as they may relate to contextual and situational conditionsof practice. The papers presented in this symposium tap into this paradox bydemonstrating eﬀects of musical practices in amateurs and professionals. Three
papers are dedicated to amateur singing and dancing, drawing from wide-spreadpractices in many countries. Partnered dance is a common activity particularly inurban areas that is practiced by a growing community of individuals, who often haveotherwise limited musical backgrounds. Choral singing, which has attracted a larger
number of studies over the past years, by contrast, appears to imply greater musicaldemands from the participants, but is similarly popular among non-professionals
as is dance. These studies highlight beneﬁcial aspects of amateur singing anddancing, contrasting sharply to the health implications of professional musicianship.
The forth paper in this symposium draws from ﬁndings about occupational stress,
coping, performance anxiety and personality variables in a study of musicians who
work in high-ranked German orchestras. Thus the contributions they provide someinsight into the controversial facets and impacts of musical activities on health andwellbeing on the basis of empirical research.

Does Partnered Dance Promote Health?
Gunter Kreutz; University of Oldenburg, Germany
3PM1-R01-01
The arts, music, and dance have recently become prominent topics of debate inhealthcare and health promotion. There is growing recognition of the beneﬁts ofartistic involvement to well-being and health. This research focuses on partnered
dance as a common practice in all human cultures. Its purpose was to investigate thedancers of tango argentino, and to explore potential health beneﬁts in this group.
Participants (N=110) completed a self-developed inventory, which was, in part, basedon interviews and observations as a participant observer. The inventory addresses
educational, musical, and socio-economic background, motivation for and investment
in dancing tango, and other leisure activities. Dancers are characterized by high-level
education and socio-economic status. Motivation appears to be predominantly driven
by both hedonistic and social factors, accounting altogether for nearly 60% of thevariance. Physical investment in terms of time and money indicate tango dancing asa highly important activity that seems to involve substantial opportunity of moderate
physical exercise, social interactions and emotional reward. Tango dancers are
dedicated to the practice in many respects, including physical and emotional. They
draw from similar motivations as compared to participants of other musical activities
such as singing and listening to music. Notably, aspects of physical ﬁtness are more
prominent in this group. Implications of partnered dance for social, emotional, andphysical well-being and health promotion demand further research.

22

ICMPC 10

Symposia

Eﬀects of Tango Dancing on Testosterone, Cortisol and Emotional
State
Cynthia Quiroga-Murcia; University of Frankfurt, Germany
3PM1-R01-02
The present study examine the physiological and emotional eﬀects of one form ofpartnered dance: tango argentino. In particular, the inﬂuences of the presence ofmusic and partner on testosterone, cortisol and emotional state were considered.
Twenty four healthy tango dancers were submitted to four conditions of dancing:“with partner with music”, “with partner without music”, “without partner withmusic” and “without partner without music”. The conditions were temporally separated by at least one week. Before the experimental treatment and again 20 minutes
thereafter, the participants provided saliva samples for analysis of cortisol andtestosterone concentrations and ﬁlled out the Positive and Negative Aﬀect Schedule(PANAS). The data suggest that motion with a partner to music has a more signiﬁcant
positive eﬀect on emotional state than motion without music, or motion without
physical contact have by their own. Moreover, signiﬁcant decreases of cortisol
concentrations were found with the presence of music, whereas signiﬁcant increasesof testosterone levels were found associated with the presence of a partner. To ourknowledge, this is the ﬁrst study showing aﬀect and hormonal changes in response
to partnered dance, in general, and the diﬀerential inﬂuences of music and partnerin particular.

Stress in the Orchestra: Interrelationships of Personality,
Performance Situation, Performance Anxiety and Coping Strategies
Stephan Bongard, Volker Hodapp, Franziska Langendoerfer;
University of Frankfurt, Germany
3PM1-R01-03
Professional musicians often suﬀer from performance anxiety. Some studies attribute levels of anxiety to personality variables, while other studies have identiﬁed
inﬂuences of situation and context. Objective of the present study was to examine
the inﬂuences of personality and coping strategies on performance anxiety amongprofessional orchestra musicians. The sample consisted of 122 members of six
German symphony and opera orchestras. The musicians were asked to completequestionnaires measuring various personality traits. In addition, shortly before anormal rehearsal and a public performance, they also gave details about their coping
and their performance anxiety. The latter was measured by four aspects: Lackof conﬁdence, worry, emotionality, and physical symptoms. The various aspectsof performance anxiety are highly correlated and yet are diﬀerentially associatedwith other personality traits. In the rehearsal, there is greater concern about social
interactions, whereas in the performance situation, the music becomes the focus
of concern. Furthermore, performance anxiety is associated with personality traits
that are related to neuroticism and escapism. In addition, musicians suﬀering fromperformance anxiety use a range of strategies before a rehearsal or performance tocope with the situation, even if some of these strategies may be ineﬃcient to reduce
performance anxiety.

Health Problems, Health-Promoting Behaviours and Their Eﬀects
on Music Performance and Non-Music Performance Students in
Higher Education Institutions
Jane Ginsborg 1 , Gunter Kreutz 2 , Mike Thomas 3 , Aaron Williamon 4 ;1Royal Northern College of Music, UK; 2 University of Oldenburg,
Germany; 3 University of Chester, UK; 4 Royal College of Music, UK
3PM1-R01-04
The interrelationships between lifestyle, physical health and psychological wellbeing
have been studied in a number of populations. The health-promoting behavioursof music performance students are of particular interest given the physical andemotional demands of expert music making. The present study aimed to compare
the health behaviours of music and non-music students in higher education. It alsosought to determine the extent to which self-rated health and self-reported symptoms were associated with health-promoting lifestyle. Music performance students
from two conservatoires and students of nursing and biomedical science from two
universities aged 19–25 years completed the Health-Promoting Lifestyle Inventory
and an inventory of musculo- and non-musculoskeletal health problems. Music
performance students scored lower than non-music performance students on health23Symposia

ICMPC 10

responsibility, physical activity and spiritual growth. Music performance students
rated their health, generally, as better than non-music performance students, butreported worse symptoms. Lifestyle, self-rated health and self-reported symptoms
were associated positively and negatively. Nursing and biomedical science students
may be atypical in that they are likely to gain a greater awareness of health issues
from their studies. Nevertheless, music performance students need to adopt healthy
lifestyles in order to reach their full potential as musicians, and the evidence suggests
an urgent need for better health promotion as part of their training.

3PM1-R06 : Symposium 8 : ICMPC-Rencon: Toward New
Research on Designing Expression in Musical
Performance
Room 5, 13:30 – 15:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Rencon: Performance Rendering Contest for Automated Music
Systems
Mitsuyo Hashida 1 , Teresa M. Nakra 2 , Haruhiro Katayose 1 , Tadahiro
Murao 3 , Keiji Hirata 4 , Kenji Suzuki 5 , Tetsuro Kitahara 1 ; 1 Kwansei
Gakuin University, Japan; 2 The College of New Jersey, USA; 3 Aichi
University of Education, Japan; 4 NTT Communication Laboratories,
Japan; 5 Tsukuba University, JapanSUMMARY-8
Rencon (Performance Rendering Contest) is an annual international competition atwhich entrants present the computer systems they have developed for generating
expressive musical performances and audience members and organizers judge theperformances. Recent advances in performance rendering technology have broughtwith them the need for a means for researchers in this area to obtain feedback about
the abilities of their systems in comparison so those of other researchers. At the
ICMPC10, the competition will consist of an autonomous section (for evaluating
the ability of the entered systems to generate performances autonomously) and asystem-supported section (for evaluating human performances done using computer
systems). The autonomous section aims to evaluate performances rendered byautonomous computer systems using e.g. a rule-based or case-based approach, andthe system-supported section aims to build common ground for evaluating humanperformances done using computer systems.

Musical Analysis of Conducting Gestures Using Methods from
Computer Vision
Teresa M. Nakra; The College of New Jersey, USA
3PM1-R06-01
In this paper we present musical analyses and interpretations of a noted conductor’s
gestures. The analyses were enabled by computer vision techniques that tracked theposition of the conductor’s right hand from a video sequence. The resulting outputof the hand tracking system, when combined with beat and tempo data from theaudio signal, provides numerous possibilities for analyzing the conductor’s gesturesand expressive techniques. We describe the stages of the video and audio processing,and present our analyses of the conductor’s movements.

3PM2-R01 : Symposium 9 : Musical Emotions: Eﬀect ofStructural and Performance Cues
Room 1, 15:45 – 17:15 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Musical Emotions: Eﬀect of Structural and Performance Cues
Petri Toiviainen 1 , Tuomas Eerola 1 , Eva Istók 2 , Roberto Bresin 3 ,Isabelle Peretz 4 ; 1 University of Jyväskylä, Finland; 2 University of
Helsinki, Finland; 3 KTH, Sweden; 4 Université de Montréal, Canada
SUMMARY-9
Most of the research on human music information processing has until now focusedon cognitive aspects, such as perception of musical elements, learning, and produc-24ICMPC 10

Symposiation. Yet, one major reason for listening to music is the emotional impact it has.
For the domain of aﬀective science, therefore, music is of central concern. While anumber of aspects contribute to music-induced emotions, the content of music is
one of the most important factors. The aim of this symposium is to discuss recent
advances in music emotion research, with the focus being on the relation between
musical content and emotions. In particular, the eﬀect of structural and performancefeatures on perceived emotions will be discussed. Speciﬁc questions addressed in
the three presentations of the symposium include the eﬀect of structural features ofmusic on diﬀerent levels of abstraction on perceived emotion; the eﬀect of expressive
timing variations on the facilitation of auditory grouping and on perceived pleasantness; and the eﬀect of performance features on perceived emotional quality as wellas their interaction with structural features. These questions are investigated using
interdisciplinary approaches that combine methods of musicology, psychology, andcomputer modeling.

Inﬂuence of Acoustic Cues on the Expressive Performance ofMusic
Roberto Bresin, Anders Friberg; KTH, Sweden
3PM2-R01-01
The main aim of this study was to investigate the optimal combination of performance and structural parameters for obtaining a certain emotional expression. To
explore the role of the performer with respect to musical expressivity, musicianstested a number of acoustic and structural cues.
In a factorial design, twenty subjects adjusted the values of seven performanceparameters (tempo, sound level, articulation, phrasing, transposition, instrument,
attack speed) for communicating ﬁve diﬀerent emotional expressions (neutral, happy,
scary, peaceful, sad) for each of four diﬀerent scores. The scores were speciﬁcallycomposed for communicating four diﬀerent emotions (happiness, sadness, anger,
calmness).
Main results showed a general agreement with previous research in the ﬁeld ofexpressive music performance. There was a tendency to use faster tempi andlouder sound level for happy and angry performances, and slower tempi and softersound level for sad performances. More staccato articulation and faster attack time
were used for happy and angry performances. Phrasing was used with the typicalaccelerando-ritardando/crescendo-decrescendo in happy performances while it wasused in the opposite way for peaceful and sad performances. Happy performanceswere transposed to a higher pitch, while sad and scary performances to a lower one.

Eﬀects of Timing Cues in Music Performances on Auditory
Grouping and Pleasantness Judgments
Eva Istók 1 , Mari Tervaniemi 1 , Anders Friberg 2 , Uwe Seifert 3 ;1
University of Helsinki, Finland; 2 KTH, Sweden; 3 University of
Cologne, Germany
3PM2-R01-02
By means of varying timing, dynamics, pitch, and timbre music performers putemphasis on important events of a musical piece and provide their listeners withacoustic cues that facilitate the perceptual and cognitive analysis of the musicalstructure. Evidence exists that the speed and the accuracy with which stimulus
features are being processed contribute to how a stimulus itself is evaluated. In
our study, we tested whether expressive timing facilitates auditory grouping andwhether these timing variations inﬂuence pleasantness judgments. To this aim,
participants listened to short atonal melodies containing one or two auditory groups
and performed both a cognitive and an evaluative task. The expressive phrasing
patterns of the excerpts were gradually modiﬁed ranging from inverted phrasing
through deadpan versions to exaggerated timing patterns. Reaction times decreased
and hit rates increased with a more pronounced grouping structure indicating that
subtle timing variations alone do facilitate the formation of auditory groups in amusical context. Timing variations also modulated the direction of pleasantness
ratings. However, the results suggest that the threshold of an expressive musicalperformance to become more pleasant than its deadpan counterpart presumably canbe exceeded only by the simultaneous covariance of more than one acoustic cue.

25Symposia

ICMPC 10Mapping Musical Features to Perceived Emotions Using Partial
Least Squares Regression
Tuomas Eerola; University of Jyväskylä, Finland
3PM2-R01-03
The aim was to uncover such musical features from audio that are relevant for perception of emotions using a speciﬁc multivariate analysis method, Partial Least Squares(PLS) regression. An experiment was conducted where non-musicians (N=116) rated
either basic emotions or emotional dimensions (3) of ﬁlm music excerpts (n=110).
The musical features were extracted from audio ﬁles using MIR Toolbox (Lartillot &Toiviainen, 2007). For each excerpt, the ﬁrst three moments and two other measures
were calculated across the frame-based analysis of them, resulting in 400 features foreach. PLS regression was applied to reduce the dimensionality of the musical feature
space in the analysis as this technique preserves the link between independent anddependent variables unlike other data reduction methods (e.g., PCA). An optimum
set of predictors was discovered using PLS regression. This consisted of 4–6 latentvectors which each explained a high proportion of covariance between the featuresand ratings. In sum, a high degree of correspondence was obtained for categoricalemotion concepts (R2 =.55 - .79) and dimensional ratings (R2 =.59 - .84). Descriptors
and explanations for the latent vectors were obtained by correlating them with thefeatures and by visualising them.
Research on music and emotions have used high-level musical features (mode,tension), expressive features (articulation, tempo) and low-level acoustic features(loudness, roughness) to explain emotional expression in music. Often such studies
focus on single level of features and a wide variety of acoustically-derived features
has not been exhaustively studied due to inherent limitations of mapping techniques(e.g. multicollinearity problems in regression), lack of computational models, or
insuﬃcient coverage of features due to pre-selection of musical material or design
constraints in analysis-by-synthesis studies.
The aim was to uncover such musical features from audio that are relevant forperception of emotions using a speciﬁc multivariate analysis method, Partial Least
Squares (PLS) regression.
An experiment was conducted where non-musicians (N=116) rated either basic
emotions or emotional dimensions (3) of ﬁlm music excerpts (n=110). The musicalfeatures were extracted from audio ﬁles using MIR Toolbox (Lartillot & Toiviainen,2007). For each excerpt, the ﬁrst three moments and two other measures were
calculated across the frame-based analysis of them, resulting in 400 features foreach. PLS regression was applied to reduce the dimensionality of the musical feature
space in the analysis as this technique preserves the link between independent anddependent variables unlike other data reduction methods (e.g., PCA).
An optimum set of predictors was discovered using PLS regression. This consistedof 4–6 latent vectors which each explained a high proportion of covariance between
the features and ratings. In sum, a high degree of correspondence was obtained for
categorical emotion concepts (R2 =.55 - .79) and dimensional ratings (R2 =.59 - .84).
Descriptors and explanations for the latent vectors were obtained by correlatingthem with the features and by visualising them.
The results extend the previous research (a) by providing a solution to the reductionof the musical feature space and (b) by uncovering novel feature combinations. The
approach advocates using real music and sophisticated acoustic features in musicand emotion research.

26

ICMPC 10

Symposia

4AM1-R01 : Symposium 10 : Experiencing MusicalMultimedia: Empirical Investigations of Cross-Modal
Perception & Cognition
Room 1, 8:30 – 10:30 Thursday 28 August 2008, Oral session

Experiencing Musical Multimedia: Empirical Investigations of
Cross-Modal Perception & Cognition
Scott D. Lipscomb 1 , Roger A. Kendall 2 , Zohar Eitan 3 , Assi Schupak 3 ,Lawrence E. Marks 4 , Annabel J. Cohen 5 , Yee-May Siau 5 , Shin-ichiro
Iwamiya 6 , John Hajda 7 ; 1 University of Minnesota, USA; 2 University ofCalifornia at Los Angeles, USA; 3 Tel Aviv University, Israel; 4 Yale
University, USA; 5 University of Prince Edward Island, Canada;
6
Kyushu University, Japan; 7 University of California at Santa
Barbara, USA
SUMMARY-10
The purpose of this symposium is to present international, empirically-based perspectives related to the cognition of the multimedia experience, with its high levelof sociological signiﬁcance. Presenters from several regions of the world (Canada,
Israel, Japan, and the United States) will share results of their most recent research.
The presentations demonstrate a number of approaches to the serious study ofmultimedia, informing our current understanding of related artforms and their aﬀect
on those who experience them.

Stratiﬁcation of Musical and Visual Structures II: Visual and Pitch
Contours
Roger A. Kendall; University of California at Los Angeles, USA
4AM1-R01-01
This series of studies acknowledges the important elements of congruence andassociation, but emphasizes an often overlooked domain that is in-between, or acomposite, of these two elements. In Experiment 1, animations in two-dimensional
space were created consisting of a simple ﬁlled-circle that moves in x-y space.
Patterns of ascending and descending ramps, arches, and undulations, used inprevious experiments, were superimposed. These were accompanied by two-partpitch patterns. For Experiment 2, the relation of visual and melodic contour wasinvestigated using monophonic pitch and monovisual animations. Animations
consisted of an arch pattern, a circle, a triangle, a square, a pentagon, a hexagon, anda stair structure. The single pitch pattern combined with these visual structures wasa melodic arch with 8 equally-spaced contour inﬂection points. Finally, Experiment
3 was based on several patterns used in Experiment 1 that crossed at C5, creatinga paradoxical composite that could be interpreted in several ways. Musical pitch
patterns were created using the piano tones as in Experiment 1 and also with two
timbres, piano and oboe; visual patterns included monochromatic vs. multiple
colors. In all experiments subjects rated the degree of ﬁt between the visual andmusical composites. Repeated measures ANOVA using MGLH generally showed that
hypothesized patterns of pitch and visual motion have the strongest perceptual ﬁt,
with some notable exceptions.

Louder is Higher: Cross-Modal Interaction of Loudness Change
and Vertical Motion in Speeded Classiﬁcation
Zohar Eitan 1 , Assi Schupak 1 , Lawrence E. Marks 2 ; 1 Tel Aviv
University, Israel; 2 Yale University, USA
4AM1-R01-02
Garner’s speeded discrimination paradigm was used to determine whether loudness
change and spatiovisual vertical motion interact perceptually. 32 participants(16 musically trained) served in 2 experiments, where auditory stimuli (1000 Hz
sinusoids) increasing or decreasing in loudness accompanied visual stimuli (dots ona screen) that simultaneously moved up or down. Participants rapidly discriminatedvalues in one, “relevant,” stimulus (auditory in Expt1, visual in Expt2) while ignoring
the other. Each experiment included 2 baseline conditions, 2 correlated conditions(congruent and incongruent), and an orthogonal condition. Two outcomes would27

Symposia

ICMPC 10indicate interaction: Garner interference, (Orthogonal condition RT > baseline RT),
implying failure to attend selectively to the relevant stimulus, and congruence eﬀects(RTs, incongruent stimuli > RTs, congruent stimuli). Results in Exp1 (auditory
discrimination) indicate signiﬁcant congruence eﬀects both within the orthogonalcondition and between correlated conditions. Exp2 (visual discrimination) gave nosigniﬁcant congruence eﬀects. No Garner interference emerged in either experiment.
Congruence eﬀects were larger for musically untrained participants. Results suggestthat loudness change and visually perceived vertical motion interact perceptually.
The combination of congruence eﬀects and no Garner interference conforms to amodel in which information deriving from auditory and visual stimuli combines intoa single variable, continuously compared to bipolar response boundaries.

The Narrative Role of Music in Multimedia Presentations: The
Congruence-Association Model (CAM) of Music and Multimedia
Annabel J. Cohen, Yee-May Siau; University of Prince Edward Island,
Canada4AM1-R01-03
The present paper presents recent empirical work conducted within the context of
the Congruence-Association Model of music in multimedia. Participants watched a
20-minute “silent” ﬁlm twice with either an appropriate, inappropriate, or no music
background. They responded as quickly as possible when an extraneous target “X”
appeared in the corner of the screen at intervals of approximately 1 min. After theﬁrst (warm-up) presentation, response time was signiﬁcantly slower with the original
music as compared to the no-music condition. This ﬁnding was consistent with theview that appropriate music increased the narrative coherence of the presentationand inhibited detection of information extraneous to the story. One-half the participants were instructed to attend to the story, so as to answer some questions later
about it. Results were consistent with the notion that music may play a similar role
to telling a viewer-listener to attend to the story. Of secondary interest, responsetime was signiﬁcantly correlated with individual diﬀerence measures on both theTellegen Absorption Scale and experience with video games.

Subjective Congruence Between Moving Picture and Sound
Shin-ichiro Iwamiya; Kyushu University, Japan
4AM1-R01-04
To make impressive visual media production, subjective congruence between motion
picture and sound is important. It is indicated that subjective congruency between
motion picture and sound has two aspects. One is formal congruency: the matchingof auditory and visual structures. The other is semantic congruency: the similarityof the auditory and visual meanings. The synchronization of auditory and visual
accents of audio-visual stimuli created formal congruency. The similarity between
auditory and visual impressions evoked from audio-visual stimuli created semantic
congruency. Rating experiments showed both types of audio-visual congruencies
had eﬀects to raise subjective congruence. Furthermore, the relationship between
the transformation of visual images and the pitch or loudness pattern of soundalso contributed to rising subjective congruence. For example, combination of anascending pitch scale and an enlarging image pattern created subjective congruence.
Combination of a descending pitch scale and a reducing image pattern createdsubjective congruence. Furthermore, a combination of an ascending pitch scale anda sliding movement from left to right and that of a descending pitch scale and asliding movement from right to left. Vertical correspondence of direction between
movement of image and pitch shift had strong eﬀect on the subjective congruence.

28

ICMPC 10

Symposia

4AM2-R01 : Symposium 11 (Invited) : Animal Calls,
Music, and Language: Search for Common Themes in
Evolution
Room 1, 10:40 – 12:40 Thursday 28 August 2008, Oral session

Animal Calls, Music, and Language: Search for Common Themes in
Evolution
Kazuo Okanoya 1 , Aniruddh D. Patel 2 , Yoichi Inoue 3 , Thomas
Geissmann 4 , Ryo Oda 5 , Kazutoshi Sasahara 1 ; 1 RIKEN Brain Science
Institute, Japan; 2 The Neurosciences Institute, USA; 3 Nishimaizuru
High School, Japan; 4 Zürich University, Switzerland; 5 Nagoya
Institute of Technology, JapanSUMMARY-11
Animal calls, music, and language are vocal behaviors that depend upon precise
motor control and auditory feedback. By comparing these behaviors, we can ﬁndcommon themes in evolution that are constrained by environmental, psychological,
and physiological factors.

Empirical Comparisons of Pitch Patterns in Music, Speech, andBirdsong
Aniruddh D. Patel 1 , Adam T. Tierney 1 , Frank A. Russo 2 ; 1 The
Neurosciences Institute, USA; 2 Ryerson College, Canada
4AM2-R01-01
Musical melodies are characterized by certain statistical regularities. For example,
large intervals (“skips”) are often followed by reversals, and phrases often have anarch-like shape and ﬁnal durational lengthening. These regularities could reﬂect
motor constraints on pitch production or the melodic characteristics of speech. To
distinguish between these possibilities we compared pitch patterns in instrumental
musical themes, sentences, and birdsongs. Patterns due to production-related constraints should be present in all three domains, whereas patterns due to statisticallearning from speech should be present in speech but not birdsong. Sequences weretaken from classical music of 5 countries, sentences from 4 languages, and songs of
56 songbird families. For sentences and birdsongs each vowel/note was assigned one
pitch. For each sequence we quantiﬁed patterns of post-skip reversals, the directionof the initial and ﬁnal interval, the relative duration of the ﬁnal vowel/note, andpitch contour shape. Final lengthening and post-skip reversals predominated in all
domains, likely reﬂecting shared motor constraints; the latter may result from skips’
tendency to take melodies toward the edges of the pitch range, forcing subsequent
reversals. Arch-like contours were found in music and speech but not birdsong,possibly reﬂecting an inﬂuence of speech patterns on musical structure.

Vocal-Auditory Segmentation of Sound Sequence in Songbirds andHuman Babies
Kazuo Okanoya, Miki Takahasi, Noriko Kudo; RIKEN Brain Science
Institute, Japan
4AM2-R01-02
Segmentation and chunking are characteristics that are shared by human speech,music, and bird song. Male Bengalese ﬁnches sing complex songs with deterministic
and probabilistic note-to-note transitions. When chicks were reared in a multi-tutor
environment, they eventually learned to sing complex songs that contain 1–3 tutor
songs segmented and arranged in personalized fashion. In humans, we recorded
brain activity when hearing sound stream that were organized to have high- andlow-transition points. At the scalp electrode placed at FCz, we found a negative
potential corresponded with segmentation. The strength of the potential was correlated with the degree of learning to segment the statistical sequence, suggesting that
this potential could be a marker for sound segmentation. The same procedure wasapplied to examine whether new-born infants can also segment ongoing statisticalsequence. We found a positive potential corresponded with segmentation at thesame electrode. Thus, right after the birth, infants can also demonstrate abilityof segmentation. Results suggest that both in birds and humans segmentation of
ongoing sound is enabled by the higher auditory-vocal integration area and by the29Symposia

ICMPC 10basal ganglia and this ability is probably innately prepared in humans and birds andhelp them to acquire songs, music, and language.

Gibbon Song Syntax Decodes Behavioral Contexts
Yoichi Inoue 1 , Shigeto Yosida 2 , Kazuo Okanoya 2 ; 1 Nishimaizuru
High School, Japan; 2 RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Japan
4AM2-R01-03
Gibbons are small, arboreal apes distributed throughout the tropical rainforests ofSoutheast Asia. Gibbons are known to produce songs. But, there has been little study
about the syntax of gibbon song. So, I have conducted ﬁeld observation in northern
Borneo (Danum Valley Conservation Area). I followed one gibbon group for one weekin succession in August and December every year since 2001. The data collection
method is to record the voice, while collecting the activity data. From 2001 to 2007,
I followed one group for a total of 82 days and collected 63 male songs. The Muller’s
gibbon (Hylobates Muelleri) lives in northern Borneo. Concerning the organization ofthis gibbon’s song, the details were reported by Haimoﬀ (1985). According to him,
male songs consist of wa and oo notes. I examined the male songs recorded in myresearch acoustically and conﬁrmed it. I studied whether one male gibbon named
Sigyu changed the combination of wa and oo notes in various situations. As a result,the orders of 3 successive notes in his songs were observed to be diﬀerent according
to the situations. These observations suggest that gibbon song syntax may decode
behavioral contexts.

Song-Diversity in a Gibbon Species: The Silvery Gibbon (Hylobates
Moloch) from Java (Indonesia)
Thomas Geissmann; Zürich University, Switzerland
4AM2-R01-04
Because male silvery gibbon songs generally exhibit a higher degree of structuralvariability than female songs, the syntactical rules and the degree of variability inmale singing have rarely been examined. The unusual rarity of male singing inthe silvery gibbon makes such a study particularly challenging. The results canbe summarized as follows: (1) Males appear to exhibit individual preferences in
the order of diﬀerent note types used in their phrases. (2) Male phrase variability
both within and between individuals appears to be higher in silvery gibbons thanin most, perhaps all, other gibbon species. This high variability appears to be aderived characteristic among the Hylobatidae. I will discuss the implications of thisﬁnding for the interpretation of song function. It appears that song function cannot
be identiﬁed for “the gibbon”. Gibbon songs appear to be multi-functional, and therelevance of these functions appears to exhibit strong diﬀerences among gibbon
species.

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Monday 25 August 2007

1PM1-R02 : Pitch
Room 2, 13:00 – 15:00 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

The Correlation Between Absolute Pitch and Adaptation toTransposed Keyboards
Keun-Ah Jeon 1 , Suk Won Yi 1 , Kyungil Kim 2 ; 1 Seoul National
University, Korea; 2 Ajou University, Korea
1PM1-R02-1
The purpose of this study is to see whether there is a correlation between absolute
pitch(AP) and sight-reading ability when playing on a transposed keyboard. A pilot
survey showed that people assume AP possessors to have more diﬃculty usingtransposed keyboards than non-AP possessors do. The majority of the 25 college
students with musical experience reported that the possession of AP may negatively
aﬀects sight-reading on transposed keyboards, resulting in perceptional confusion,
psychological strain and mistakes in performance.
In order to investigate the correlation between AP index and sight-reading ability ontransposed keyboard, two experiments were conducted:
1. The measuring of each subject’s AP index. Subjects were instructed to identify
the pitch class of presented tones.
2. The measuring of the adaptability to transposed keyboards. Subjects wereasked to sight-read given scores on a keyboard in both the original and transposed key. When played in the transposed key, the subjects hear diﬀerent pitchclasses from those notated on score.
The result of the correlation analysis showed that AP index has no signiﬁcant eﬀect
on the adaptability to transposed keyboards in contrast to the pilot survey. In
addition, it appeared that the correlation between AP index and ability to sight-read
was not signiﬁcant.

Simultaneous Pitch Perception in Absolute and Non-Absolute Pitch
Possessors
David J.T. Marco, Neil McLachlan, Sarah Wilson; University of
Melbourne, Australia
1PM1-R02-2
This study explored the perception of simultaneous pitches between musicians withand without absolute pitch (AP). Listeners performed estimations of pitch number
and pitch height for musical chords of increasing inharmonicity and spectral density.
Sounds consisted of one, two or three simultaneous pitches. Results showed that
AP performance accuracy decreased signiﬁcantly for all multi-pitch sounds in asimilar manner to non-AP (NAP) musician performance. In contrast, performanceeﬀects due to increasing inharmonicity and spectral density were only witnessed in
NAP musicians. Comparison of pitch height judgment accuracy and pitch number
estimation results provided evidence that pitch number estimation is not based onprior pitch extraction mechanisms as proposed in multiplicity models. The reduced
ability to identify pitches in multiple pitch stimuli is likely to be due to reductionsin the salience of individual pitches caused by increased masking of higher-orderharmonics and co-modulation of harmonics occurring within the same critical band.

Perceived ‘Closeness’ in Pitch Depends in Part on Perceived‘Closeness’ in Time: Further Support for an Auditory Motion
Hypothesis
Molly J. Henry, J. Devin McAuley; Bowling Green State University, USA
1PM1-R02-3
Support for an auditory motion hypothesis was previously provided by a demonstration that increasing the pitch velocity of three-tone melodies increases themagnitude of the auditory kappa eﬀect, which is characterized by dependence oftime judgments on to-be-ignored variations in pitch (Henry & McAuley, in press). The
aim of the current study was to test the auditory motion hypothesis with respect tothe auditory tau eﬀect, which is characterized by the dependence of pitch judgments
on to-be-ignored variations in timing. Participants judged the relative pitch of atarget tone embedded in three-tone ascending sequences, while ignoring changes tothe target’s timing; pitch velocity was varied between subjects. In accord with an

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ICMPC 10auditory motion hypothesis, increasing the pitch velocity of the sequences increased
the magnitude of the auditory tau eﬀect. Findings were supported by quantitativeﬁts to an imputed pitch velocity model. Musical training was not correlated withmagnitude of the auditory tau eﬀect. Generally, the results of the current study
provide support for the inherent interdependence of the dimensions of pitch andtime in music perception.

Exposure to Ambiguous Tone Sequences Induces Short-Term
Plasticity in Pitch Perception
A. Seither-Preisler 1 , L. Johnson 2 , S. Seither 2 , B. Luetkenhoener 2 ;1
University of Graz, Austria; 2 Muenster University Hospital, Germany
1PM1-R02-4
Eleven non-musicians were tested with the Auditory Ambiguity Test (AAT), whichassesses a subject’s tendency to categorize ambiguous two-tone sequences either
according to their concrete physical sound attributes (present upper harmonics) orto their implicit tonal meaning (virtual pitches at the respective missing fundamental
frequencies). The exposure group (N=5) was repeatedly tested with the AAT overa period of 8 weeks (1 session per week; 3 consecutive AAT presentations). The
training group (N=6) underwent the same procedure, but received training between
the 3 presentations. There was one block of spectral training with the ‘Noise
Shift Test’ and one block of virtual pitch training with the ‘Present Fundamental
Frequency Test’. The AAT scores increased steadily over the eight weeks period,
both in the exposure group (p=0.0012) and the training group (p=0.011), regardlessof the type of training (p=0.59), thus indicating a general increase in the salience of
virtual pitch sensations. The same eﬀect, although weaker, was observed over the 3subsequent AAT presentations of a single session (exposure group: p=0.062; training
group: p=0.01). These results suggest that short-term exposure to harmonic sounds
enforces virtual pitch perception regardless of explicit training.

1PM1-R03 : Rhythm, Meter and Timing I
Room 3, 13:00 – 15:00 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Investigating the Human-Speciﬁcity of Synchronization to Music
Aniruddh D. Patel 1 , John R. Iversen 1 , Micah R. Bregman 1 , Irena
Schulz 2 , Charles Schulz 2 ; 1 The Neurosciences Institute, USA;
2
Birdlovers Only Rescue Service Inc., USA
1PM1-R03-1
One universal of human music perception is the tendency to move in synchrony
with a periodic beat (e.g., in dance). This response is not commonly observed in
nonhuman animals, raising the possibility that this behavior relies on brain circuits
shaped by natural selection for music. Consequently, if a nonhuman animal canacquire this ability, this would inform debates over the evolutionary status of music.
Speciﬁcally, such evidence would suggest that this ability did not originate as anevolutionary adaptation for music. We present data from an experimental study ofsynchronization to music in a Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita eleanora),“Snowball”, who spontaneously dances in response to certain music (see YouTube:“dancing cockatoo”). Snowball’s preferred song was presented at diﬀerent tempi(original, +/- 2.5%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%), and his rhythmic movements while
dancing were quantiﬁed from video. The results reveal occasional bouts of synchronization at a subset of these tempi on ∼20% of the trials. This demonstrates that anonhuman animal can synchronize to a musical beat, though with limited reliability
and tempo ﬂexibility. These ﬁndings are consistent with the “vocal learning andrhythmic synchronization” hypothesis, which suggests that vocal learning provides
the auditory-motor foundation for synchronization to a musical beat.

Identifying Timing by Sound: Timbral Qualities of Micro-Rhythm
Anne Danielsen 1 , Carl-Haakon Waadeland 2 , Henrik G. Sundt 3 ;1
University of Oslo, Norway; 2 Norwegian University of Science andTechnology, Norway; 3 Norwegian Network for Technology Acoustics
and Music, Norway
1PM1-R03-2
Temporal “deviations” from a given reference grid, such as in standard musical32

ICMPC 10

Monday 25 August 2007

notation, are well known and an identiﬁed characteristic of music performance.
Yet, when a musician performs temporal patterns, strategies of movement andinteraction with the instrument also aﬀect the sound produced. Hence, sound andmicro-timing are invariably closely related. In this paper we provide a report froman experiment aimed at investigating how variations in micro-timing are reﬂected
through variations in sound. Five experienced drummers performed a rock groovein three diﬀerent tempi, whereby the performances were subjected to three diﬀerent
playing conditions: a) playing as “natural” as possible, b) playing “laid-back”, and,c) playing “pushed”. Our focus was on how these diﬀerent playing conditions inﬂuenced the timbral content of the snare drum sound. In this experiment the recorded
sounds of the snare drum strokes were isolated and analysed for spectral content
by using FFT, where the results showed that in a majority of the performances thesound of the snare drum is characteristically altered when the drummer attempts
to play laid-back or pushed. This demonstrates that timbral content might contain
information regarding micro-temporal positioning, and, moreover, that timbre needs
to be taken into account in studies that deal with micro-timing.

Stealing Time: How Grace Notes Can Be Added
Peter Desain, Renee Timmers; Radboud University Nijmegen, The
Netherlands
1PM1-R03-3
Previously collected data was re-analysed for data-driven appearance of distinct typesof grace notes. Grace notes are one-note ornaments that are special in at least two
ways: their duration is relatively inﬂexible over performances in diﬀerent tempi, andthey are timed by “stealing” time from surrounding notes rather than by inserting
time. Two types of graces are usually distinguished that are either performed in timeof the previous note, or in time of the main note.
Using time-shifts of note onsets between without and with grace note performancesin seven tempi, the proportion of the grace note duration stolen from the previous
note, the main note, and inserted was calculated. Additionally, the duration of thegrace note at tempo 60 was measured and the slope of tempo scaling of the grace
duration. These ﬁve parameters were used as input to a clustering analysis. The
time-shifts proﬁles showed an amazing consistency in time-shifts over repeatedperformances. They also revealed diﬀerent behaviour across participants. Theirmusical interpretations fall within two groups, as reﬂected in a clear clustering ofparameter values for time stealing and grace note duration. The slope of scaling withtempo seems to allow for freedom on a continuous range.

Exploration and Imitation of the Timing of Grace Notes
Renee Timmers, Peter Desain; Radboud University Nijmegen, The
Netherlands
1PM1-R03-4
The eﬀectiveness of visual feedback to assist in the exploration and imitation of
the timing of grace notes, which are short ornamental notes, was investigated in anexperimental study. The ability of piano students to imitate target performanceswith diﬀerent grace note timing was tested before and after a training session.
During training, the piano students explored ways of grace note performance with
the instruction to explore grace note timing in order to improve the imitation task
in the posttest. Half of the group of participants received visual feedback during
training. The results showed no signiﬁcant improvement of the imitation of thetarget performances between pretest and posttest and no signiﬁcant eﬀect of visualfeedback, suggesting that training using exploration was not helpful. However, thevisual feedback did inﬂuence the timing of ornaments in the exploration training.
Although overall participants in the no-feedback condition explored the timing of
the grace note and surrounding notes more freely than the participants in the visualfeedback condition, participants who received visual feedback explored diﬀerent
types of grace note timing more systematically.

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ICMPC 10

1PM1-R04 : Education I
Room 4, 13:00 – 15:00 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Learning Rhythm: The Impact of Visual Presentation
Frank Heuser 1 , Scott D. Lipscomb 2 , Glenn Pohland 2 ; 1 University ofCalifornia at Los Angeles, USA; 2 University of Minnesota, USA
1PM1-R04-1
This investigation aims to determine whether the visual organization of rhythmic
information impacts learning by comparing two approaches. The repetitive approachpresents a speciﬁc rhythm in the ﬁrst measure of a four measure, visually discrete
exercise with the same rhythm repeated in each measure. In the varied approach,diﬀerent rhythm patterns are presented in each measure of a continuous exercise inwhich no pattern is repeated and with no visual separation of presented patterns.
The study seeks to determine whether the repetitive or varied approach results ingreater eﬃcacy in learning.
Sixth grade beginning instrument students participated. Treatment commenced
at the beginning of the second semester of instruction, after tone production wasestablished. Regular classroom teachers provided rhythmic instruction to students
and were asked to supplement their teaching with researcher-provided instructional
materials for ﬁve minutes every class period. These materials used either therepetitive or varied approach and incorporated rhythms studied during the second
semester. After two months of instruction, students were tested on their ability
to perform the rhythms on their instruments. Results of the present study will
provide empirical evidence to either conﬁrm or disconﬁrm this hypothesis, providing
useful cognition-based information for use in the creation of the next generation of
beginning instrumental methods texts.

Teaching Expressivity to Advanced Instrumentalists
Katie Zhukov; Sydney Conservatorium of Music, Australia
1PM1-R04-2
Research into teaching of expressivity typically uses questionnaires and interviews toascertain the teaching methods employed by instrumental instructors and the practising strategies of students. Little is known regarding the importance of expressivity
in instrumental teaching in higher education or the role gender diﬀerences may playin its teaching. This study takes an encompassing view of expressivity by including
tempo, articulation, dynamics and emotion in its deﬁnition as suggested by recent
research. It re-examines observational data on lesson content from 24 instrumental
music lessons in higher education by amalgamating the scores in four categories
of tempo, articulation, dynamics and emotion as expressivity and comparing thisto the scores in technique. The individual aspects of expressivity are re-calculated
as percentages of expressivity to ascertain their relative importance with regard togender. Results show greater emphasis on teaching of expressivity than technique,with subtle gender diﬀerences emerging between the two teacher groups, the two
students groups and the four same-gender/ diﬀerent-gender pairings. Findings
support the new concept of expressivity and challenge traditional views on theimportance of teaching technique to advanced instrumentalists. Gender diﬀerencesin emphasis on particular aspects of expressivity add to our understanding of
instrumental teaching in higher education.

The Signiﬁcance of Qualitative Approach in the Research ofMusical Cognition: A Study Methodology Using the Concept ofInter-Subjectivity
Yasuko Murakami; Kyoritsu Women’s University, Japan
1PM1-R04-3
The aim of this study is to explore the signiﬁcance of a qualitative approach to musical cognition research using the concept of inter-subjectivity in order to understandthe internal sense of the player.
This paper will ﬁrst give a brief overview of past research on the principle andmethodology of qualitative approaches to educational psychology. It also looks at
research that has used the concept of inter-subjectivity. Secondly, there will be abrief presentation of the author’s research on piano lessons using such qualitative
methods. Third is a comparison of the results of previous scientiﬁc research with34

ICMPC 10

Monday 25 August 2007

those of qualitative research and clariﬁcation of the distinction between them.
Finally, the paper suggests the signiﬁcance of using a qualitative approach in musiccognition research.
Using the concept of inter-subjectivity allows us to glimpse the subjectivity ofother people through our own subjectivity. This paper proposes the feasibility of
implementing the methodology used here to clarify the internal sense of the player.

73 Forms of Actions (Diverse Exercises) Included in German
Gehoerbildung-Books Published Between 1889 and 1983
Luis Estrada-Rodríguez; Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico,
Mexico1PM1-R04-4
This paper presents a part of a larger research project in all the didactic components(exercises, ﬁelds of exercises, thematic contents and sequences) found in the mostused Gehoerbildung-books between 1889 and 1985 in Germany. The author focuseson the analysis of 1209 exercises included in these books. Some cognitive functions
have been used in these books together with musical actions as consecutive or
simultaneous components of this kind of exercises. The basic forms of action(listening, singing, playing, reading, writing, analysis, recognition, memorizationand others) as well as their combination constitute a total of 73 forms of actions
used by the authors of the analyzed books. Some of these forms of action are little
known outside Germany; they are thought to help the student develop the internal
audition and are alternatives to take a dictation, one traditional exercise used withskepticism today. An important part of the didactic strategies of the authors rely on
the applied exercises. These have also a strong inﬂuence on the future behavior of
the students. However, there are various problems that make the evaluation diﬃcultof the contribution of these exercises to the overall development of the student in an
objective way.

1PM2-R02 : Memory
Room 2, 15:15 – 17:15 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Musical Change Deafness: The Inability to Detect Change in a
Non-Speech Auditory Domain
Kat R. Agres, Carol L. Krumhansl; Cornell University, USA
1PM2-R02-1
This article presents two experiments investigating the degree to which listeners
can detect changes in melodies. In both studies, pairs of melodies were presented
to a group of professional musicians and a group of non-musicians. In Experiment
1, musical structure and musical expertise were explored with stylistic, non-stylistic,
and random melodies. Experiment 2 utilized a full-factorial design to examine
tonality, musical interval, metrical position, note duration, and musical expertise.
Signiﬁcant eﬀects were found for several variables, but tonality had a particularly
large eﬀect on performance. Under some conditions, large changes between the
melodies went undetected even by professional musicians. These results suggestthat listeners form a memory representation for schematically consistent tones,
which we refer to as the “musical gist”. These results also suggest a comparison withchange blindness, in which viewers can fail to notice salient changes in a visual scene,raising the question of whether similar processing operates in both modalities.

The Eﬀect of Timbre and Pitch Level on the Suzuki Violin
Student’s Processing of Familiar Melodies
Crystal Peebles; Florida State University, USA
1PM2-R02-2
The Suzuki method teaches students to play the violin by ear, focusing on daily listening and review of older repertoire. This study builds on work by Saah and Marvin(2004) to determine whether students who learn violin using this pedagogical method
encode Suzuki repertoire with absolute pitch and timbre information. If so, thenchanging timbre and key might inﬂuence the student’s ability to perform an errordetection task on a melody from the Suzuki repertoire. Thirty-eight Suzuki-trained
students (ages 6–16) heard two-measure excerpts and evaluated whether they werecorrectly performed. Both familiar key and familiar timbre were shown to improve35

Monday 25 August 2007

ICMPC 10

performance: participants detected errors signiﬁcantly faster and more accurately
when melodies were played in their original key (p < .001) or on the violin (p < .001)
and older children performed the task slightly faster and more accurately and than
younger children, although this diﬀerence in performance was not signiﬁcant. These
results demonstrate that timbre and pitch level aﬀect processing in Suzuki students,suggesting that these parameters may be encoded along with musical intervals andcontour.

Modelling Memory Responses in a Melody Recognition Task
Andrea R. Halpern 1 , Daniel Müllensiefen 2 , Geraint Wiggins 2 ;1
Bucknell University, USA; 2 Goldsmiths University of London, UK
1PM2-R02-3
Most empirical studies investigating memory for melodies relate memory performance to a number of inﬂuencing and experimentally controlled factors. Memory
performance is usually deﬁned as a function of the correctly recognised items. In
contrast to this conventional approach, we seek a more comprehensive model of
melodic memory that predicts all types of memory response in a melodic recognitiontask, i.e. that also explains memory failures. The predictions are based on a set ofalgorithmically extracted analytical features of the melodic stimuli. In a presentation
phase, 21 untrained participants rated the familiarity of 40 short melodic phrases.
In the test phase, the participants were presented with 80 melodic phrases, half ofwhich they had listened to in presentation. The participants’ explicit and implicit
memory was assessed by two rating judgements for each melody item. Employing
several diﬀerent statistical modelling techniques we show how the diﬀerent analyticalfeatures and their combinations act upon the subjective memorability of a melody.
From the prominence of the analytical features within the statistical model, we
discuss how the presence of certain melodic structures can lead to speciﬁc subjective
memory responses. The relationship between the traditional approach to musicalmemory analysis and this new one is discussed.

An Exploration of How Music Can Modify Long Term Memory
Sherilene M. Carr, N.S. Rickard; Monash University, Australia
1PM2-R02-4
Physiological arousal induced by emotion has been identiﬁed as an important
modulator of long term memory consolidation. Animal and human research has
shown elicitation of emotion can improve memory for an event compared to control
non-emotion conditions, and this enhancement is believed to be mediated by thebeta-adrenergic system. The clinical potential of emotional arousal to be used as amnemonic strategy is exciting but limited by at least two methodological barriers.
First, this research has tended to focus upon intrinsic sources of emotional arousal
in that the emotion is an integral part of the material to be remembered. Suchmethodology typically involves participants viewing disturbing images combinedwith a negative narrative. Second, the majority of experimental evidence has reliedon the use of negatively valent content to induce emotion; clearly this method would
be undesirable in applied settings. Emotionally powerful music is a source of arousal
induction not yet exploited in physiological models of memory-emotion research.
Music is unique in that it has the potential to increase physiological arousal whileat the same time infusing aﬀect into otherwise neutral material. This research
will investigate the utility of using emotion inducing music as an extraneous andexternally valid source of emotional arousal that may then be used to enhancememory for otherwise neutral material.

1PM2-R03 : Performance I
Room 3, 15:15 – 17:15 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Priming Preferred Tempo in Multi-Sectional Music
Peter Martens; Texas Tech University, USA
1PM2-R03-1
In most experiments studying preferred tempo (tactus), participants are kept metrically naïve, and the preferred tempo of each piece is deﬁned from their unbiased
responses. Much music that we experience in our daily lives, however, is multisectional. Logically, preferred tempo in subsequent sections of music might be“primed” by the preceding music. A pilot and follow-up experiment were conducted

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Monday 25 August 2007

to investigate how preferred tempo in a piece’s second section (generically, the B
section) was inﬂuenced by a preexisting preferred tempo from the piece’s A section.
Participants tapped their preferred tempo in response to 15 excerpts of diverse
genres and styles, hearing either a “primed” (A-B) or “unprimed” (B only) versionof each excerpt. The junctures between A and B sections in these excerpts wereof two types. In seven excerpts, the metric structure of A and B sections weresimilar, with at most two layers added or subtracted across the sectional boundary.
Participants’ preferred tempo in the B section of these excerpts was signiﬁcantly
diﬀerent under primed and unprimed conditions for all seven excerpts. In theremaining eight excerpts, the A and B sections shared at most two metrical layers.
Only two of these eight excerpts showed signiﬁcant diﬀerences between conditions,
showing the ease with which participants experienced these musical boundaries as akind of reset button for preferred tempo. This study demonstrates the malleabilityof preferred tempo given a preceding metrical context, and explores the types ofmusical boundary that will most aﬀect the preferred tempo of subsequent musicalsections.

MuSA.RT and the Pedal: The Role of the Sustain Pedal in
Clarifying Tonal Structure
Elaine Chew, Alexandre R. J. François; University of Southern
California, USA
1PM2-R03-2
Pianists use the sustain pedal to clarify and project tonal structure in performance.
The eﬀect of sustain-pedal use on the projected tonal structure, while potentially
useful to piano pedagogy and automated transcription, remains a little-studied
phenomenon. Our goal is to discover ways to model and measure, quantitatively,
the eﬀect of the sustain pedal on tonal coherence. We use the MuSA.RT system
for tonal analysis and visualization to capture the tonal patterns analyzed froma pianist’s performance of Bach’s Prelude No. 1 from The Well-Tempered Clavier,paced by a metronome, with and without the use of the sustain pedal. The analysis
is based on the Spiral Array Model, as implemented in MuSA.RT. Tonal contexts are
mapped to short-term and long-term centers of eﬀect (CEs) that trace out spatial
trajectories over time. The likelihood of a triad/key is given by the distance between
the short-term/long-term CE and that triad/key. We present quantitative results thatshow that increased tonal coherence in a pedaled performance can be observed asstronger likelihood of the nearest keys (i.e. shorter distances between the long-term
CE and closest key), and that use of the sustain pedal results in smoother transitions
to and from the nearest triads.

On the Eﬀect of Performance Evaluation in Acquiring Samba
RhythmMasato Kawakami, Tsutomu Fujinami; JAIST, Japan
1PM2-R03-3
It is diﬃcult for anyone to acquire a new rhythm if it is unfamiliar to him. It isdiﬃcult, for example, for Japanese to acquire a Samba rhythm as its rhythmic
structure is so diﬀerent from the ones they have been familiar with. To study how
one learns to play a new rhythm, we investigated the process in which Japanese
subjects are trained to play Samba rhythms. We employed 18 subjects to separate
them into three groups. An instructor showed all of them how to play Samba rhythmwith a shaker. Two groups were provided with additional information, which was
calculated based on the data obtained from acceleration sensors put on their wrists.
We calculated for each subject’s acceleration data its auto correlation function
to compare it with the instructor’s by calculating the cross correlation function
between them. The cross correlation function represents how his arm movement isclose to the one of the instructor, which we regard as an index to evaluate his or
her performance. Of the two groups given additional information, one group wasonly informed whether or not his performance was correct. The other group was
furthermore shown his auto correlation along with the instructor’s, expressed aswave form on computer display. We compared these three groups to investigate
how the diﬀerent instructions aﬀected the learners. It turned out the group who
were shown auto correlation as wave forms learnt better than the group who were
not given any information of their wrist movement. The group who were only told
whether his performance was correct did however not outperform the group without
any feedback. The result suggests that the learner needs a direction, not just a
judgment, to acquire a new rhythm when they imitate the instructor.

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A Pianist’s Expression in the Role of Co-Performer: Changes in
Timing and Dynamics Through Communicative Interaction with aViolinist
Yuriko Kubota; Independent Researcher, Japan
1PM2-R03-4
This paper is based on Seashore’s theory of ‘aesthetic deviation from the regular’(1938, p. 9). Studies of expression have been carried out by many researchers.
Although studies of performance and social interaction are currently mainstreams of
psychology of music research, the study of expression in ensemble performance has
been paid relatively little attention. This study aims to investigate how a pianist’s
expression changes in timing and dynamics when playing with a violinist, throughfour conditions: solo performance, performance before and after rehearsal, andperformance nineteen days after the rehearsal. A further purpose of the study
is an exploration of the eﬀects of the performers’ interactions in rehearsal andperformance on expression. The experiment took place at the University of Sheﬃeld;
Mozart’s Sonata for Violin and Piano K.454 was played by two student participants.
Quantitative research with MIDI data and supplementary data, comprising audio andvideo recording data, and qualitative data from semi-structured interviews were used
for analysis. Findings included changes in the style of expression, the occurrenceof diﬀerent metrical features, and a ‘characteristic’ expressive style in the piano
accompaniment. In ensemble performance, the treatment of temporal structures
may be critical for an eﬀective expressive style.

1PM2-R04 : Development I
Room 4, 15:15 – 17:15 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Categorization of Melody During the First Year of Life
Eugenia Costa-Giomi, Leslie Cohen, Danielle Solan, Ashley Borck;
University of Texas at Austin, USA
1PM2-R04-1
The ability to recognize a melody despite variations in some of its musical characteristics is essential for the understanding of music. The cognitive process ofrecognizing equivalence among stimuli that are not the same is called categorization.
In order to group similar stimuli under the same category, listeners must disregard
perceived diﬀerences among the stimuli and focus on their common properties.
In other words, categorization requires the perception of both diﬀerences andsimilarities between stimuli.
We completed a series of experiments with 7- and 11-month olds to study thedevelopment of melodic and timbre discrimination and categorization during theﬁrst year of life. A habituation-novelty preference procedure was used. We foundthat 7- and 11-month olds can discriminate between instruments playing the same
melody and can also discriminate between melodies played by the same instrument.
We then proceeded to study categorization by determining whether infants canrecognize a melody played by diﬀerent instruments and an instrument playing
diﬀerent melodies. The results indicated that 7- and 11-month olds could do thelatter but not the former. In other words, they could categorize timbre but not
melody after short-term habituation to the stimuli.

Development of Tonal Organization: A Case Study in Melodic
Improvisation
Pirkko A. Paananen; University of Jyväskylä, Finland
1PM2-R04-2
In a previous cross-sectional study of melodic keyboard improvisation of children
aged 6 to 11 years it was found that tonal stability developed as a function ofage, in accordance with the some earlier perceptual studies of tonal hierarchy. To
further investigate whether tonality develops from a more global representation ofpitch to hierarchical organization in melodic improvisation, a 2-year longitudinalcase study was conducted with one child, who in the beginning of the study was
6 years 4 months (January 2006) and in the end of the study 8 years 4 months ofage (January 2008). The child improvised on an accompaniment identical to theprevious cross-sectional study, using eight marked keys of the synthesizer (diatonic
scale, C major) for instrumental improvisation, and a headset and microphone for
vocal improvisation. The child used stable tones as reference in both keyboard and38ICMPC 10

Monday 25 August 2007

vocal improvisations increasingly with age. The ambitus of the melody was larger
and motor exploring was typical in keyboard melodies. Vocal melodies were morestatic and pitch accuracy changing. Instrumental and vocal improvisation revealed
diﬀerent aspects of the development of the tonal organization in childhood.

Origin of Singing; Infants’ Vocalization in Solitude
Yohko Shimada, Shoji Itakura; Kyoto University, Japan
1PM2-R04-3
The present study reported here investigated the psychological meaning of infants’
vocalization when they are alone without any responses. In the experiment, we
compared frequency and duration of the sound in three conditions; 1) an adult(caregiver) respond naturally to infant’s vocalization, 2) infants are kept alone andbegin to vocalize spontaneously, 3) Infants are kept alone and begin to vocalize
spontaneously, with ampliﬁed sound feedback by stereo speakers. In all conditions,infants did not express uncomfortable such as crying or fussing. As a result, theduration of the behavior was signiﬁcantly higher in the ampliﬁed condition than the
respond condition. Ratio of sound during the recording was marginally higher in thealone condition than the respond condition, and the alone with ampliﬁed feedback
condition than alone condition. The results suggested that infants vocalize not only
for response to others but also listening the sound of their own.

Music in Our Lives: An Investigation of Music Learning Between
9–19 Years of Age
Jane Davidson 1 , Paul Evans 1 , Robert Faulkner 1 , Gary E. McPherson 2 ;1University of Western Australia, Australia; 2 University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, USA
1PM2-R04-4
This paper to investigate the factors that inﬂuence the current role of music in the
lives of young adults (19 years old) who had formal music learning opportunities
in primary school and who either persisted or gave up performance in the interim.
It draws together data from a research project started in 1997 in which McPherson
and Davidson began tracing the learning experiences of beginning instrumentalists,and continued for ﬁve years, by which time only 45 of the original 158 were stillplaying their instruments. Results compare the early opportunities with current
achievements and factors crucial to continuing or quitting the musical learning areshown to include incremental beliefs about abilities and learning, family support,
ﬂexible strategies to problem solving when practising. To date there have been few
longitudinal research opportunities to explore music learning in such a manner,
especially how this music learning experience aﬀects their adult lives, whether
they persist in their learning or not, thus this paper contributes signiﬁcantly to theresearch in music learning.

1PM2-R05 : Neuroscience I
Room 5, 15:15 – 17:15 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Time Courses of Cortical Beta and Gamma-Band Activity During
Listening to Metronome Sounds in Diﬀerent Tempi
Takako Fujioka 1 , Edward W. Large 2 , Laurel J. Trainor 3 , Bernhard
Ross 1 ; 1 Rotman Research Institute, Canada; 2 Florida Atlantic
University, USA; 3 McMaster University, Canada
1PM2-R05-1
Oscillatory cortical activities in beta-band (13–20 Hz) are related to somatomotor
system and gamma-band (> 20Hz) are involved with feature binding in perception.
Previously gamma-band activity in electroencephalography was found to modulate
with musical pulse with a two-beat metric accent. The present study examined betaand gamma-band activities in auditory cortices recorded via magnetoencephalography (MEG) when subjects listened to musical pulse in various tempi. Tones were
presented with an interval of (1) 390, (2) 585 and (3) 780 ms, and (4) with irregularintervals between 390 to 780 ms, and (5) with 390 ms-interval with a two-beataccent while occasionally a tone was omitted at the accented one, and (6) at theunaccented one. Results showed that beta-band activity decreased immediately
after the stimulus and returned to the previous level just before the next stimulus,

39

Monday 25 August 2007

ICMPC 10regardless of the interval (tempo) while this pattern disappeared in the irregularcondition. The omission of a tone resulted in an extra beta rebound. In contrast,
gamma-band activity exhibited a peak right after the pulse, or the omission. We
propose that beta oscillations may support encoding of predictable regularity inthe stimulus sequence, whereas gamma oscillations likely reﬂect processing of thecurrent auditory events.

The Eﬀect of Musical Training on the Subcortical Processing ofMusical Intervals
Kyung Myun Lee, Erika Skoe, Nina Kraus, Richard D. Ashley;
Northwestern University, USA
1PM2-R05-2
How does the early (subcortical) stage of the auditory pathway encode musicalintervals? We sought to examine how the subcortical auditory system of the humanbrain, speciﬁcally the brainstem, represents the acoustic properties of consonant anddissonant intervals, and how musical training might alter this representation. The
auditory brainstem response (ABR) represents the spectral and temporal properties
of sound with considerable ﬁdelity. In the ABR, the fundamental frequency (pitch)and its harmonics (up to about 1000 Hz) are represented by phaselocking. There is a
growing body of evidence to suggest the subcortical representation can be modiﬁed
by long-term auditory experience such as musical training. Using scalp-electrodes,
we measured ABRs (10 musicians and 10 non-musicians) to two chords: major 6th(G2 and E3) and minor 7th (F#2 and E3). The ABR accurately reﬂects the frequency
and time-varying components of the two chords, however, musicians show morerobust representations of higher harmonics than non-musicians, especially for the
dissonant chord. Interestingly, the two groups did not diﬀer in their representationof the fundamental frequency, nor in their representations of the individual notes ineach interval. These results suggest that musicians have specialized sensory systems
for processing musical intervals that occur as a consequence of their extensive
musical experience. [supported by NSF Grant 0544846]

Beat Initiation versus Continued Beat Perception: The Role ofMotor Areas in the Brain
Jessica A. Grahn, James B. Rowe; MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences
Unit, UK
1PM2-R05-3
Certain motor areas in the brain (e.g., basal ganglia) are involved during auditory
perception of sequences with a beat even when no movement is made. It is unclear,
however, if the activity is due to early processing, such as *searching* for the beat,or later processing, such as internal beat generation. We investigated neural activity
for diﬀerent stages of beat perception using fMRI. Participants listened to a series ofbeat and non-beat sequences. The beat sequences could be preceded by a non-beatsequence, (the beat therefore must be perceived anew (‘beat-new’ condition)), or
could follow another beat sequence with the same beat rate (‘beat-continuation’, or adiﬀerent rate (‘beat-interference’). If the basal ganglia are involved in ‘ﬁnding’ a beat,
activity should be greater for ‘beat-new’ and ‘beat-interference’ sequences, whereas
if the basal ganglia are involved in later beat processing, activity should be greaterfor ‘beat-continuation’ trials. We found greatest activity for beat-continuation trials,
and less activity for beat-new and beat-interference trials. Other motor areas did
not show this pattern of activation. Thus, the basal ganglia are more responsive tolater stages of beat processing, suggesting a role in beat generation or prediction, as
opposed to searching for the beat.

fMRI Investigation of an Enculturation Eﬀect Among Western andTurkish Listeners
Steven M. Demorest 1 , Steven J. Morrison 1 , Laura A. Stambaugh 1 ,Munir N. Beken 2 , Todd Richards 1 , Clark Johnson 1 ; 1 University ofWashington, USA; 2 University of California at Los Angeles, USA
1PM2-R05-4
The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that listeners demonstratepatterns of activation associated with music structural processing, when encoding
and retrieving both culturally familiar and unfamiliar stimuli. Participants (8 US,
8 Turkish) were right-handed adults and musical novices. Stimuli consisted of 940

ICMPC 10

Monday 25 August 200730-second instrumental music examples: 3 Western classical, 3 Turkish classical, 3Chinese traditional followed by a 12-item memory test completed in the scanner.
Replicating the ﬁndings of previous research, all subjects were more successful
remembering novel music from their home culture. There was increased activation inright frontal areas when subjects listened to culturally unfamiliar music suggesting
greater cognitive demands for music constructed according to unfamiliar structuralprinciples. We interpret the ﬁndings to mean that listeners interact with both
culturally familiar and unfamiliar music in similar ways. That is, listeners employ
common cognitive strategies to information identiﬁed as music, though easy accessto deeper structural information appears restricted to individuals encultured toa given musical tradition. These results reﬂect the cultural speciﬁcity of music
schemata that allow listeners to eﬃciently and eﬀectively encode and recall musicalinformation.

1PM3-R01 : Social Interaction
Room 1, 17:30 – 19:00 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Exploring Enforced Occupational Change in Opera Singers: A Case
Study Investigation into the Eﬀects of Musical Identity in theContext of Career Change
Jane Oakland, Raymond MacDonald, Paul Flowers; Glasgow
Caledonian University, UK
1PM3-R01-1
This paper is concerned with issues of construction and maintenance of identity
within the context of occupational crisis. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis(IPA) is used to investigate one opera singer who has been forced to abandon an operatic career as a result of physical disabilities, which despite extensive investigation
have no medical diagnosis. The study examines how an identity concept, which has
been constructed as a result of many years of professional opera work, has beenchallenged and questioned as a result of this illness. Under discussion will be themultifaceted, sometimes contradictory relationship the participant has experienced
between singing, performance and control of musical expression and in particular
the way his physical disabilities have impacted his sense of self as he re-negotiates
an identity perception outside the operatic community. The study also evaluates theuse of IPA as a methodology to investigate areas of musical identity in a case study
situation.

Non-Musician Adult Perspectives on the Role of Music in theFormation and Maintenance of Musical Identities: An
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)
G.N. Caldwell, Raymond MacDonald, B. Duncan; Glasgow Caledonian
University, UK
1PM3-R01-2
Identity research is growing rapidly. Many current studies on musical identity
focus upon childhood- and/or adolescent-centred investigation through quantitative
measurement. Also, participants, often musicians, are usually deﬁned by genre
and/or duration of music lessons/levels of technical achievement attained. However,there is a need for research that investigates the role of music as a constituent partof identity from the perspective of adults who deﬁne themselves non-musicians.
The current paper seeks to highlight the utility of Interpretative Phenomenological
Analysis (IPA) for psychological research into musical identity. This paper, basedon 10 open-question semi-structured interviews, examines the relationship between
identity and music. Results suggest that musical identity is a subjective and sociallyconstructed phenomenon. Emergent, recurring and superordinate thematic observations are discussed and analysed from a ‘participant as expert’ standpoint. Data
from this study support the utility of IPA and provide avenues of further research
employing both quantitative and qualitative methods. Music is a key factor in theformation and maintenance of personal and musical identities and plays a central
role in mediating underlying psychological constructs across the lifespan. This
research provides further evidence to support the assertion that all individuals,
regardless of musical experience, have musical identities.

41

Monday 25 August 2007

ICMPC 10

1PM3-R02 : Computational Models and Analyses I
Room 2, 17:30 – 19:00 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Realizing Feature Exaggeration in Scale-Performance on the Piano
Shinya Morita 1 , Norio Emura 1 , Masanobu Miura 1 , Seiko Akinaga 2 ,Masuzo Yanagida 3 ; 1 Ryukoku University, Japan; 2 Shukugawa Gakuin
College, Japan; 3 Doshisha University, Japan
1PM3-R02-1
This paper aims at realizing a feature exaggeration system for automatic scale
performance on the piano with performance parameters modiﬁed from the originals
extracted from the input human performance. The proposed system generates
simulated performances by manipulating the extracted performance parameters.
This paper proposes a set of parameters for describing performance features ofscale-playing on the piano. The set consists of 15 parameters, or three sets of ﬁveparameters pi0 through pi4 where i ∈ {t, v, d} distinguishes three basic features;
onset time, velocity, and duration. Each of these basic features is modeled as the sumof a global curve and deviations from it, where the spline interpolation is employedusing locally averaged points, or representative points, as the points to be passed.
The suﬃx j in pij distinguishes the standard deviations (j=0), the rms deviationfrom the spline curve (j=1), the range of the spline curve (j=2), the rms diﬀerence
between successive notes (j=3), and the rms of the spline curve from the metronomic
line (j=4). All parameters are made controllable on the screen with slider bars from
0% up to 200% for synthesizing from “suppressed” to “exaggerated” performance,
where 100% represents the original performance.

Development of an Automatic Basso Continuo Playing System for
Baroque Music Performers
Masahiro Niizuma, Masaki Matsubara, Hiroaki Saito; Keio University,Japan
1PM3-R02-2
The purpose of this study is to develop an automatic basso continuo playing system.
In order to ﬁnd musically appropriate sequence of chords, we deﬁne “harmonycost” as the sum of two diﬀerent costs; One is the “local cost” which indicates thelikelihood of a certain chord allocation and the other is the “transition cost”, whichindicates the likelihood of a certain connection between two chords. Automatic
basso continuo playing is realized by searching the most optimal chord sequence,
which minimize the accumulated harmony cost. Our system is evaluated by threeexperiments. Each result showed the eﬀectiveness of our approach.

Gaussian Process Regression for Rendering Music Performance
Keiko Teramura 1 , Hideharu Okuma 1 , Yuusaku Taniguchi 1 , Shimpei
Makimoto 1 , Shin-ichi Maeda 2 ; 1 NAIST, Japan; 2 Kyoto University,Japan
1PM3-R02-3
So far, many of the computational models for rendering music performance havebeen proposed, but they often consist of many heuristic rules and tend to becomplex. It makes diﬃcult to generate and select the useful rules, or perform theoptimization of parameters in the rules. In this study, we present a new approachthat automatically learns a computational model for rendering music performancewith score information as an input and the corresponding real performance data as
an output. We use a Gaussian Process (GP) incorporated with a Bayesian Committee
Machine to reduce naive GP’s heavy computation cost, to learn those input-output
relationships. We compared three normalized errors: dynamics, attack time andrelease time between the real and predicted performance by the trained GP toevaluate our proposed scheme. We evaluated the learning ability and the generalization ability. The results show that the trained GP has an acceptable learning
ability for ‘known’ pieces, but show insuﬃcient generalization ability for ‘unknown’pieces, suggesting that the GP can learn the expressive music performance without
setting many parameters manually, but the size of the current training dataset is not
suﬃciently large so as to generalize the training pieces to ‘unknown’ test pieces.

42

ICMPC 10

Monday 25 August 2007

1PM3-R03 : Psychoacoustics I
Room 3, 17:30 – 19:00 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Sensitivity to Temporal Deviations on the Starting Point or theEnding Point of “Frequency” Glides
Satomi Tanaka 1 , Minoru Tsuzaki 1 , Eriko Aiba 1 , Hiroaki Kato 2 ;1Kyoto City University of Arts, Japan; 2 ATR-CIS, Japan
1PM3-R03-1
The occurrences of sound events in a sound stream can be perceived without criticaldiﬃculty even when it is diﬃcult to deﬁne the corresponding acoustic boundary. This
study is designed to investigate which acoustical feature functions as an eﬀective cue
to “mark” the occurrence of a new event. In the case where a sound glides quickly
in frequency, at which point do we perceive the occurrence of the second sound, thestarting point of the frequency glide or the ending point? To answer this question,
experimental stimuli are designed so that an isochronous structure is conveyed
exclusively by the starting or by the ending points of the glides. The frequency glide
modulates the carrier frequency of a sinusoid in the ﬁrst experiment so that thestimulus has the change in pitch, and the resonant frequency of a complex tonein the second experiment so that the stimulus has the change in timbre with nopitch change. In both experiments, the deviation from the isochronous structure is
detected more easily under the starting-point condition than under the ending-pointcondition. The results suggest that the starting point function as a more eﬀective cue
to mark a new event than does the ending point [Work supported by the Grant-in-Aid
for Scientiﬁc Research (B) No. 20300069, JSPS].

Factors Inﬂuencing Spatial Pattern Recognition in a MusicalContext
Blas Payri, José-Luis Miralles-Bono; Universidad Politécnica deValencia, Spain
1PM3-R03-2
Our experiment studies the recognition of spatial patterns and their usability as
a musical language element. We used 4 rhythm patterns played at 2 diﬀerent
tempi. The sounds moved between left and right, either continuously or with abruptchanges. 7 timbres were used: 4 synthetic (sine and square wave, white noise) akinto psychoacoustics typical material, and 3 that represented real musical material(voice, orchestra). The stimuli were played in a silent room over two loudspeakers
to 20 musicians that were asked to recognize the rhythm pattern out of a set of 4
patterns. A simpliﬁed version was played to 30 non-musicians that had to guess
whether the movement accelerated.
The statistical analysis shows that mean diﬀerences in right/wrong pattern recognition were signiﬁcant when at the .01 level depending on timbre harmonicity, listener
position, jitter, movement shape, and rhythm pattern. Thus spatial patterns canbe perceived better for harmonic sounds with neither temporal variations (jitter ortremolo) nor noise components. The literature is rich in studies of sound localization
with simple sounds, but few studies deal with material actually used by electroacoustic composers (spatial trajectories, complex timbres) and we show that spatial
trajectories recognition in a concert hall is fragile.

On the Factors of the Spatial Impressions of Reproduced Music in
Surround Sound Comparing Recording Techniques
Toru Kamekawa, Atsushi Marui; Tokyo University of the Arts, Japan
1PM3-R03-3
Microphone technique for surround sound recording of an orchestra are discussed.
Seven types of surround microphone sets recorded in a concert hall were comparedin subjective listening test on the attributes such as powerfulness and spaciousness
using a method inspired by MUSHRA (MUltiple Stimuli with Hidden Reference andAnchor). To minimize temporal change in music, Phase Randomized Signal (PRS) was
proposed. From the average score of the listening test, the impression diﬀerence
between original source and PRS was found in some microphone arrays at somepieces. It means that the impression of these arrays depend on temporal changes
in music. The data from the listening test between original source and PRS showedthat impression of powerfulness had slightly higher correlation. The relations of the43

Monday 25 August 2007

ICMPC 10physical factors of each array were also compared, such as SC (Spectral Centroid)and LFC (Lateral Fraction Coeﬃcient) of each array. The correlation of these physicalfactors and the attribute scores show that the contribution of these physical factors
depends on music and its temporal change. ‘Powerfulness’ is related to timbral
character and ‘spaciousness’ is related to temporal change. Furthermore signals
synthesized from IR (impulse response) of each array were also compared. It was
reaﬃrmed that sound of orchestra is consisted from more complicate signals.

1PM3-R04 : Perception of Musical Structures
Room 4, 17:30 – 19:00 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Beginnings, Middles, and Endings: The Eﬀect of MusicalParameters on the Perception of Intrinsic Formal Functionality
Michel Vallières 1 , Daphne Tan 2 , William E. Caplin 1 , Joseph Shenker 1 ,Stephen McAdams 1 ; 1 McGill University, Canada; 2 University ofRochester, USA
1PM3-R04-1
This study investigates the perception of intra-thematic formal functions — the
temporal role of beginning, middle, or ending played by a musical passage within theboundaries of a theme — as expressed through musical materials. We examined therole of various musical parameters in the perception formal functionality in short,
out-of-context musical excerpts. Participants (separate groups of 20 musicians and
20 non-musicians) heard two types of stimuli: original excerpts of Mozart’s piano
sonatas and modiﬁcations thereof. Their primary task was to identify the excerpts
as a beginning, middle, or end of a theme. The original excerpts were modiﬁed byaltering individual musical parameters. All modiﬁcations had to remain stylisticallycoherent. The results obtained in the ﬁrst two experiments of this project showed,
notably, an eﬀect of (1) the excerpt’s opening tonic and dominant harmonies onmusicians’ perception of beginnings and middles; (2) the unaccompanied anacrusis
on musicians’ and non-musicians’ perception of beginnings and middles. The
current study presents the results from the third experiment. They provide, notably,
greater insight into the form-functional impact of (1) non-tonic harmonies otherthan the dominant on musician’s perception of beginnings and middles; and (2)several aspects of the unaccompanied anacrusis — such as the opening scale degrees,
texture contrasts, and duration — on musicians’ and non-musicians’ perception of
beginnings and middles.

Eﬀects of Leading and Following Contexts on the Music Sound
Restoration
Takayuki Sasaki; Miyagi Gakuin Women’s University, Japan
1PM3-R04-2
When a sound in a melody is deleted and replaced by a noise, the absent sound canbe restored perceptually. This phenomenon, Music Sound Restoration, has beenstudied by indirect methods, that is, noise localization method (Sasaki, 1980) anddiscrimination method (DeWitt & Samuel, 1990). In the present study, Music Sound
Restoration was studied by means of a report method. It was examined whether aleading or a following context has an inﬂuence on the perceptually restored sound(pitch). Ten musically trained listeners, without any knowledge about Music Sound
Restoration, were asked to write down what they heard in a music notation. Twosounds in each of simple short tunes were removed and replaced by pink noises. As
context information, a major or a minor chord was added previous to or following
after the tunes. When the leading chord was major, the listeners reported the
melodies in a major key. And when the leading chord was minor, they reported
minor melodies. This context eﬀect was observed also when the context chord wasadded after the tunes. It was revealed that the restored pitch is strongly dependent
upon the context cue.

Children’s Impression and Expression of Major, Minor,
Whole-Tone, and Korean Traditional Scales
Eunsil Park; Seoul National University, Korea
1PM3-R04-3
The present study examined perception of major, minor, whole-tone, Korean traditional scales on condition of diﬀerent tempo, and expression of those scales through44ICMPC 10

Monday 25 August 2007

their own compositions. To examine impression of musical scales, I had the 5th
grade students listen to 9 short musical phrases. While students listened to music,
they checked on a meaning discrimination test. To examine children’s expressionof musical scales, 32 children of the 5th grade divided into 6 groups composedmusic. Their composing procedure involved listening to music related with a scale,searching common features, deciding title suitable for the scale, making music andperforming, revising and recording.
The results of discrimination test displayed music in speciﬁc scale evoked speciﬁcmood, major showed positive but minor, Korean, and whole-tone negative. And
children’s composition showed diﬀerent scale produced diﬀerent composing characteristics, that is, title, measure, rhythm, sequence, closure, central tone were changed
according to scales.
Children tend to be aﬀected more by tempo than scale, when they listen to music.
Generally diﬀerent scales evoke diﬀerent moods. Fast music makes more positive
emotional responses than slow music. The titles of compositions are similar to theemotional responses of each scale. And children tend to concentrate more on the
melody progress than rhythm and any other components. The products of composition reﬂect well many characteristics of each scale.

1PM3-R05 : Music Listening I
Room 5, 17:30 – 19:00 Monday 25 August 2007, Oral session

Metaphors of Motion in Listeners’ Verbal Reports
Riitta Rautio; University of Jyväskylä, Finland
1PM3-R05-1
It is generally acknowledged that music elicits a sense of motion in listeners. There
are, however, diﬀering views (physiological, ecological, psychological, metaphorical)
concerning the origins of the experience of motion. This study explored how listeners express their experience of musical motion in free verbal reports. Based on
the assumptions of cognitive semantics and cognitive linguistics it is held that by
exploring linguistic expressions one can conclude how the speaker understands thephenomenon under discussion. The data consisted of verbal reports (in Finnish),submitted to content analysis. Five musical excerpts were chosen from the repertoire of 20th century orchestral music, each excerpt possessing a clear pattern ofascent and/or descent. Preliminary results showed that the respondents tended touse motion verbs quite frequently when conceptualizing the semantic content of theexcerpts. Descending pitch contours were connected either to subsiding dynamic
processes or descending physical motion. In the latter case, descending motion was
systematically conceptualized with verbs, which refer to locomotion caused by an
external force, more speciﬁcally by gravity. The ascending pitch contour was conceptualized with verbs referring to motion caused by the mover him/herself. It seems
that listeners use their bodily experience of gravity to conceptualize their experienceof music.

Factors Inﬂuencing Music Preference Among Japanese Listeners
Over 50 Years Old: Why do They Like Certain Songs?
Eri Hirokawa; Nagoya College of Music, Japan
1PM3-R05-2
The purpose of this study was to investigate why Japanese people miss certain songs
when they grow older. The 233 Japanese people who participated in this study were
50 years old or older, and were either interview or they completed a survey. Whenanswering the survey, they indicated which songs they miss and want to sing or listen
to and why. Results showed that a third of the comments indicated that they missed
particular musical selections because those songs are associated with speciﬁc memories, personal experiences or life events. Approximately 100 comments indicated thatthey miss certain music because those songs made them feel nostalgic. Results also
showed that people miss songs that they used to sing or listened to. Many comments
also indicated that people miss particular songs because they like musical elementsof those songs, the mood or styles of those songs, or the composer or singers of thosesongs. People also enjoy listening or singing songs that provide positive eﬀects on
their mood or health. Such information is important for music therapists to enhance
the quality of music applications and the quality of the lives of older adults. Whenmusic therapists pay attention to the music preferences of clients, the quality of music applications will become more therapeutic.

45

Monday 25 August 2007

ICMPC 10The Enjoyment in Opera — An Empirical Study of Visitors’
Experience in Music Theatre
Johanna Jobst, Sabine Boerner; University of Konstanz, Germany
1PM3-R05-3
Our paper investigates the perceived artistic quality of the performance, visitors’ affective responses, and context factors as predictors for the statement on their overall
enjoyment in opera. After attending a performance of “The Magic Flute” by Mozart
in the opera house of Dessau, members of the audience (n = 114) were asked to answer a questionnaire. Regression analysis yields visitors’ aﬀective responses to theperformance as a better predictor of their overall enjoyment than the perceived artistic quality of the performance. However, satisfaction with the auditorium and service
quality is shown to make virtually no contribution to the audience’s overall enjoyment.
Investigating intersubjective agreement on the overall enjoyment in opera, only minor
individual diﬀerences (e.g., experts versus non-experts) are found.

46

ICMPC 10

Tuesday 26 August 2008

2AM1-R02 : Melody
Room 2, 8:30 – 10:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Polynomial Contour as a Core Feature for Representing Melodies
Daniel Müllensiefen, Geraint Wiggins; Goldsmiths University of
London, UK
2AM1-R02-1
Melodic contour is often regarded as one of the most important features in the context of modelling music perception and melodic memory. Numerous psychologicalstudies in the past have found contour to be an important mental representation of
melodies or short melodic phrases. From an analytical point of view there have been
several attempts to abstract a melodic contour representation from any given melody.
These approaches diﬀer in the degree of abstraction and the type of information
used. In this paper we propose a novel method for representing melodic contour.
This method is based on ﬁtting a polynomial curve to the onset and pitch data of a
melody using multiple regression. The melodic contour is then represented by the
resulting set of polynomial coeﬃcients. This representation of melodies allows forseveral interesting and useful applications. 1. To determine the commonness of any
given melody with respect to a corpus of melodies by computing a probability spaceover the multi-dimensional distribution of the polynomial coeﬃcients of melodic
phrases. 2. This probability space also allows for the clustering of melodies into
groups of similar contour. 3. The polynomial representation of melodies makes
it also possible to construct several elegant and intuitively convincing similarity
measures.

Perceptual Segmentation of Melodies: Ambiguity, Rules andStatistical Learning
Marcus T. Pearce 1 , Daniel Müllensiefen 1 , Geraint Wiggins 1 , Klaus
Frieler 2 ; 1 Goldsmiths University of London, UK; 2 University of
Hamburg, Germany
2AM1-R02-2
Models of perceptual segmentation in melody tend to rely either on local Gestalt-likerules that indicate boundary strength or statistical learning and the information
dynamics of melody perception. In an experimental study, 25 musically trained
participants were asked to indicate phrase boundaries during four repeated listenings of 15 unfamiliar, popular melodies. Several computational models of
melodic segmentation are compared in predicting the participants’ majority-voted
boundaries. These include rule-based models (Cambouropoulos, 2001; Frankland &Cohen, 2004; Temperley, 2001), as well as simple (Saﬀran et al., 1999) and complex(Pearce & Wiggins, 2006) models based on statistical learning. The results indicatethat the complex statistical model achieves comparable performance to the bestof the rule-based models. Combining models selected on the basis of prediction
accuracy and simplicity yields a hybrid model (containing both rule-based andstatistical components) that outperforms its component models. To address low
inter-rater agreement for many melodies, a further analysis is conducted in which
participants sharing a similar segmentation strategy are clustered together for each
melody separately. Nearly all melodies yield several perceptually valid and stablesegmentations. This allows a more detailed comparative analysis of the various
models’ performance.

Pitch Space Processing and Melodic Expectancies in Tonal andAtonal Contexts
Juan Fernando Anta; National University of La Plata, Argentina
2AM1-R02-3
The extent to which tonal (TPS) or atonal (APS) pitch space, proximity and range,
aﬀect each other on melodic expectation was assessed. In Experiment 1, fourteen
non-musicians rated how well test tones continued tonal melodies; in Experiment 2
fourteen non-musicians performed the same task with atonal versions of previously
used fragments. Experiment 1 suggested that TPS did not aﬀect expectation beyond
a TPS-activated (TPS-a) area hypothesized for each fragment, and that events towards
the TPS-a bulk were preferred. Experiment 2 showed that events placed towards
the range bulk were preferred. Comparisons between data from both experiments

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ICMPC 10indicated that expectancies for events in the range bulk were greater in tonal thanin atonal condition, suggesting that TPS-a should be considered a separate factor
reinforcing expectations.

Recognition of Microtonal Musical Intervals by Performers andComposers
Terumi Narushima 1 , Greg Schiemer 1 , Emery Schubert 2 , Richard
Parncutt 3 ; 1 University of Wollongong, Australia; 2 University of New
South Wales, Australia; 3 University of Graz, Austria
2AM1-R02-4
Little is known about the ability of performers to perceive and reproduce microtonal
intervals (intervals smaller than a semitone) relying purely on intervallic perception.
The aim of this study is to explore the ability of trained musicians and composers torecognize microtonal intervals. Our experiments have demonstrated that within two
weeks of learning, some participants are able to recognise with reasonable accuracy
two tone sequential intervals that are varied by amounts smaller than 15 cents (15hundredths of an equal tempered semitone). The results shed light on the ability torecognize microtonal intervals and the process by which such knowledge is acquired.
Our data suggest that more complex forms of microtonality, such as 19-tone equal
temperament or just tuning based on unfamiliar frequency ratios, can be performed
successfully given suﬃcient practice over an extended period.

2AM1-R03 : Performance II
Room 3, 8:30 – 10:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Experimentally Investigating the Use of Score Features for
Computational Models of Expressive Timing
Sebastian Flossmann, Maarten Grachten, Gerhard Widmer; JKU Linz,
Austria
2AM1-R03-1
In the expressive performance of music variation of tempo plays a major role inshaping and structuring the piece. We distinguish two aspects of tempo, the current
tempo and the timing of individual notes with respect to the current tempo. Those
two notions are inﬂuenced diﬀerently by the characteristics of the performed score.
The relation between score and timing/tempo has many facets, one of which we
examine more closely in the following. More precisely we provide experimental evidence for the hypothesis that timing is more aptly modeled with score characteristics
from a small temporal score context, while tempo modeling proﬁts from a bigger
temporal score context.

Chopin’s Rubato: A Solution
Manfred Clynes; Georgetown University, USA
2AM1-R03-2
We report on the Chopin rubato, not encountered with other composers, that lend tohis music a unique power of communication, intimacy and often a touching charm
not otherwise evident. No-one in is lifetime could equal Chopin’s seemingly magical,
and personal use of this.
Here we report on the discovery, using Superconductor II of a surprising but simple
feature that appears to accomplish aspects of this elusive magic. The ritard curve is
simply inverted. It is a faithful temporal inversion of a ritard function , with similar
exponents: starting as a suddenly slowed tempo gradually returning to the normal
tempo, with a dynamic curve similar to the ritard, but inverted in time. The gradualacceleration is carried beyond the normal tempo towards the end of the rubato
phase, so that the total time taken may be only slightly diﬀerent as if no rubato
had taken place. Rubato often occurs initiated through a harmonic suspension withthe resolution appropriately postponed. Several Chopin music examples of rubato
realization are included in mp3 format. The complete ﬁrst movement of the E minor
piano concerto is being realized, including orchestra (well ahead of the 2050 Rencon
deadline).

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

Intuitive Visualization of Gestures in Expressive Timing: A Case
Study on the Final Ritard
Maarten Grachten 1 , Werner Goebl 2 , Sebastian Flossmann 1 , Gerhard
Widmer 1 ; 1 JKU Linz, Austria; 2 McGill University, Canada
2AM1-R03-3
Expressive timing is vital for the aesthetic quality that makes us appreciate performed
music. It is a largely tacit skill that musicians acquire by practice. A long-standing
intuition is that expressive timing is closely related to the concept of motion. Thisview leads naturally to the adoption of a dynamical systems approach to the studyof expressive timing. A well-known visualization technique from dynamical systems
theory is the phase-plane representation. The application of this technique, thathighlights the dynamic aspects of the data, is demonstrated in a case study on theﬁnal ritard in performances of Schumann’s Träumerei. We argue that expressive
gestures are visible in a clear and intuitive manner in the phase-plane representations.
Another striking aspect of the phase-plane trajectories is their suggestion of humangestural motion.

Timing in Piano Music — Testing a Model of Melody Lead
Johan Bjurling, Roberto Bresin; KTH, Sweden
2AM1-R03-4
The main aim of this study was to investigate if a model of note synchronization,
based on measurements of the mechanics of a real piano, would provide as side
eﬀects the so-called “melody lead eﬀect” and more naturalness in automatic music performance of piano music. A real-time model was validated with a listening test.
Seven experienced pianists participated as subjects. For each of ﬁve pieces of music,
they were instructed to adjust two sliders corresponding to parameters tempo andsynchronization for making the piece sounding “as realistic as possible”. Subjects
could exaggerate the eﬀect of both melody lead and inverted melody lead by up to
200 percent. In the second part of the test subjects were asked to adjust tempo to apreferred value with a slider, and to choose the most realistic synchronization withthe mouse from three anonymous alternatives, in a forced choice fashion. The threealternatives corresponded to (1) perfect synchronization, (2) 100 percent melody
lead, and (3) 100 percent inverted melody lead.
Main results show that on average subjects preferred positive synchronization values,
corresponding to normal melody lead. Subjects preferred positive synchronization(normal melody lead) correlated with tempo, and this result assimilates reality. For
negative synchronization values (inverted melody lead) the relationship to tempo
seems more arbitrary.

2AM1-R04 : Emotion in Music I
Room 4, 8:30 – 10:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Why do Listeners Enjoy Music That Makes Them Weep?
David Huron; Ohio State University, USA
2AM1-R04-1
Tearing of the eyes, nasal congestion, a constriction in your throat, and erratic
breathing: your doctor would conclude that you are suﬀering from a severe allergic
reaction. But in special circumstances, music can evoke precisely such symptoms.
How does music evoke feelings akin to sadness or grief? And why do people willingly
listen to music that may make them cry? In this presentation, some physiological,
evolutionary, and behavioral aspects of adult crying are brieﬂy surveyed. It is suggested that the pleasure of musically-induced weeping arises from cortical inhibitionof the amygdala, and is linked to the release of the hormone prolactin.

Construction of a Quantitative Scale for Cheerfulness of Short
Melodies
Kenta Shoji, Masashi Yamada; Kanazawa Institute of Technology,
Japan
2AM1-R04-2
It has been shown that the cheerfulness of music depends on many factors suchas tonality, tempo, performing register, and so on. However, it has not been49

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ICMPC 10

quantitatively deﬁned how these factors determine cheerfulness. In the present
study, three listening experiments were conducted to determine how the tonality,
speed, and performed register vary the cheerfulness of music. In each experiment,
listeners listened to each pair of stimuli and compared the cheerfulness of themwith seven-step categories. Using Scheﬀé’s method, each stimulus is plotted on
cheerfulness scales. The performing register of a stimulus is evaluated as thecentroid for the overall-term spectrum, and is shown in ERB (Equivalent Rectangular
Bandwidth)-rate scale, in the present study. The results show that the degree ofcheerfulness increases proportionally as the register shown in ERB-rate increases.
Using this relationship, a quantitative scale of the cheerfulness can be constructed.
On this scale, it is estimated that the eﬀect of tonality (major or minor) corresponds
to the centroid shift of 4 ERB-rate, and doubling the speed corresponds to an increaseof the controid in 3.5 ERB-rate.

The Inﬂuence of Social Feedback on the Emotional Eﬀects of Music
Hauke Egermann, Oliver Grewe, Reinhard Kopiez, Eckart Altenmüller;
Hannover University of Music and Drama, Germany
2AM1-R04-3
Numerous studies have shown that music aﬀects the so-called “subjective feeling”
component of emotion. Our study investigates whether the emotional eﬀects ofmusic can be manipulated by social feedback. We used a web-based experimentbecause web experiments oﬀer many advantages over lab experiments (like bigger
external validity). The study was implemented into an online music-personality-test,
in order to motivate subjects to take part. In about 10 minutes, participants could
join data-collection and get personalised test results at the end, which described
their music preferences and personality. The 2576 participants (mean age: 32,5 years(SD=12,6); 1443 male and 1133 female) were randomly assigned to 2 groups. All
participants listened to 5 from 23 music excerpts (30 sec each) in random order. Aftereach excerpt, participants rated the induced emotions using arousal and valence
dimensions. Additionally, group 2 received faked feedback based on the emotional
ratings of preceding participants. This was presented while the participants listened
to the stimuli. Results show, that participants of group 2 (with social feedback) rate
their own emotions signiﬁcantly diﬀerent compared to group 1 (without feedback)for 21 of the 23 pieces on at least one dimension. Looking at those group diﬀerences
the feedback is proven to inﬂuence the participants’ ratings. Thus, a social factor
inﬂuencing emotional eﬀects of music could be conﬁrmed.

Construction and Validation of a Music-Directed Attention Scale(MDAS): A Preliminary Study
Joanna Kantor-Martynuska; Warsaw School of Social Psychology,
Poland2AM1-R04-4
Music-directed attention (MDA) is a tendency to automatically shift attention towards
extant musical stimuli. MDA is deﬁned with reference to theories of attentional
resources and attentional ﬁltering. A questionnaire measure of MDA, Music-Directed
Attention Scale (MDAS), was constructed and validated. This paper presents the
structure and psychometric characteristics of the MDAS. 422 musicians and nonmusicians ﬁlled out a pilot version of MDAS which consisted of 44 items. Principal
components factor analysis was performed on the results and suggested two independent factors named Distractability and Involvement. Distractability is a tendency
to have music divert one’s attention from tasks of primary focus, with a resulting
decline in performance. Involvement consists in experiencing frequent and strong
emotional responses evoked by music, which disturbs performance of the tasksof immediate importance. Three expert judges later freely categorized the items
considering their content validity and consistency. Items with a strong response bias
and those of insuﬃcient validity were excluded from the present version of MDAS
that consists of 13 items. Musical expertise was found to signiﬁcantly aﬀect the total
MDAS scores and Involvement but not Distractability. MDAS is supposed to measureindividual diﬀerences in a tendency to have one’s attention involuntarily driven bymusic in a range of every-day contexts. The analysis of MDA’s relationship withgeneral attentional control and auditory style is in progress.

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

2AM1-R05 : Therapy
Room 5, 8:30 – 10:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

The Eﬀects of Music Therapy on Declarative Memory Processes inModerately Impaired Dementia Populations
M. Lynch 1 , S.R. Toukhsati 1 , D. O’Connor 1 , M. Thaut 2 , P.C. Bennett 1 ,B. Barber 3 ; 1 Monash University, Australia; 2 Colorado State University,
USA; 3 National Aging Research Institute, Australia
2AM1-R05-2
The aim of this study was to examine the eﬀects of music therapy (MT) on declarative
memory processes in persons diagnosed with probable Alzheimer’s dementia.
Participants were 57 individuals (MMSE = 15.57 ± 6.00; mean age = 83.09 years, SD= 7.46) from ten Residential Aged Care Facilities (RACFs). The eﬀects of MT werecompared with those following animal assisted therapy (AAT), diversional therapy(DT) and a no treatment control. Treatments were randomly assigned to RACFs andconducted in small groups, twice weekly for one hour over four weeks. A nested,
mixed-model design compared pre- and post-intervention general semantic memory,
personal semantic and episodic memory between groups. The ﬁndings revealed
a signiﬁcant improvement in autobiographical recall of events during childhood
following AAT in comparison to MT (p < .05). In contrast, MT yielded an improvementin autobiographical recall of events during early-adulthood in comparison to DT (p <.01), but not in comparison to the no treatment control (p > .05) or the AAT group(p > .05). There were no signiﬁcant changes evident with regard to general semantic
memory or personal semantic memory. Taken together, these ﬁndings suggest thatdeclarative memory processes are not generally responsive to MT. Methodologicallimitations and implications for future research will be discussed.

The Eﬀects of Music Therapy, Animal-Assisted Therapy andDiversional Therapy on Attention and Memory Processes ofIndividuals with Probable Alzheimer’s Dementia
R. Kharsas 1 , S.R. Toukhsati 1 , D. O’Connor 1 , M. Thaut 2 , P.C.
Bennett 1 , B. Barber 3 ; 1 Monash University, Australia; 2 Colorado State
University, USA; 3 National Aging Research Institute, Australia
2AM1-R05-3
The aim of this study was to evaluate the eﬀects of exposure to music therapy(MT), animal assisted therapy (AAT), diversional therapy (DT) and a no treatment
control (NT), on the attention and memory processes of cognitively impaired, elderly
participants. The sample comprised 60 participants (mean age = 83.96 years, SD= 7.39) with mild to severe dementia (MMSE = 14.48 ± 6.89). A nested, mixedmodel design was employed whereby each condition (MT, AAT, DT and NT) was
randomly assigned to at least two Residential Aged Care facilities. Hour long grouptherapeutic interventions were scheduled twice weekly over four weeks. Pre- andpost-intervention data on measures of cognition (MMSE), recognition memory, visual
selective attention and auditory selective attention was collected. Findings revealed
a signiﬁcant interaction for the MMSE Language subscale (p < .05), with performance
improvements observed following MT and DT in contrast to decrements following
AAT and NT. An improvement on the MMSE Registration subscale was also observed(p < .05); however, improvements following MT were not diﬀerentiated from otherconditions. There were no signiﬁcant changes observed on the memory and attention
measures. The application of a randomised controlled methodology has yielded datathat do not support the utility of alternative treatments to ameliorate attention andmemory deﬁcits in dementia populations.

An Empirical Study of Proactive Multimedia Therapy Contents for
Public: Production Design and Cognitive Response Measurements
Irene Eunyoung Lee, Charles-François Latchoumane, Jaeseung Jeong;
KAIST, Korea
2AM1-R05-4
Whether it is under conscious or unconscious circumstances, people in today’ssociety experience a range of multi-sensory stimulations through diverse confronted
media that bring changes in feelings or moods. Multimedia contents including51

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ICMPC 10

arts and therapies are being developed increasingly nowadays, but their cognitive
mechanisms and eﬀects are still ambiguously ascertained. Can we really induce
target emotions from audiences with short multimedia contents (60 sec. long) that
employed abstractive visuals and non-lyrical musical expressions? If yes, would there
be any common thread in audience responses to these purpose-driven new creations?
In this study, under a hypothesis that it is possible to create certain emotion/mood
inducing multi-modal contents, we ﬁrst researched various psychology (and/or
therapy) ﬁelds (e.g., music, colors, images, and motiongraphics) for guidelines todesign three speciﬁc types of positive emotion elicitations (i.e., Relaxation, Happy,
and Vigorous), and produced audio-visual contents based on the learned expressive
attributes. Then we investigated the response of 12 subjects (6 males and 6 females,mean age 22 year old ) on their EEG power diﬀerences between rest and watchingmovie sections, alpha asymmetry, cognitive performances during visual congruent
continuous performance tasks (cCPT, attentional task), and self-evaluation questionnaires. We concluded that emotional/mood induction using multi-modal contents
could bring out changes in attention, visible from a behavioral study, however milder
in the electrophysiological response.

2AM2-R07 : Musical Scales and Melody / Harmony andTonality / Timbre / Psychophysics and Music Acoustics
Rooms 7, 10:40 – 12:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Poster session

The Relative Prevalence of Medieval Modes and the Origin of the
Leading Tone
Richard Parncutt, Daniela Prem; University of Graz, Austria
2AM2-R07-01
The rank order of ﬁnals in the Index of Gregorian Chant by Bryden and Hughes(1969) is G (Myxolydian), D (Dorian), F, C, A, E, B. Why? Melodically, major-second
intervals are universally preferred (cf. Vos & Troost, 1989), presumably for reasonsof stream fusion and critical bandwidth. Adding M2s above/below a ﬁnal creates athree-tone core, relative to which the tritone is avoided — presumably due to its low
pitch commonality (Stoll & Parncutt, 1987). Harmonically, medieval musicians may
have preferred the perceptual coherence created by optimizing pitch commonality
between the spectral pitches of the ﬁnalis and the virtual pitches of the other tones.
Both melodic and harmonic models are consistent with statistical prevalence data.
In 13th -century polyphony, the leading tone lies a semitone below a following tone ina (consonant) harmonic dyad (Barsky, 1996). Why? Since B (and E) seldom function
as ﬁnals, they are unstable, so the progression from B to C (or E to F) is moreprevalent than the reverse. The tonality of major-minor music involves chroma
stability proﬁles, which depend on chroma prevalence (Krumhansl, 1990). That inturn depends on two eﬀects with distinct historical origins: the leading tone (c. 13th
century) and chroma salience in the tonic triad (c. 16th ). The success of key-tracking
models may depend on how they separate these.

The Impact of Uniqueness in Musical Scales on Mistuning
Detection
Marco Lehmann, Reinhard Kopiez; Hannover University of Music andDrama, Germany
2AM2-R07-03
In musical scales, the structural feature “uniqueness” refers to the idea that eachscale tone can be unequivocally identiﬁed by its set of distances to the other scaletones (Balzano, 1982). The concept has been confused with the concept of scales withunequal step sizes (e.g., Trehub, Schellenberg, & Kamenetsky, 1999), and it is necessary to assert which one of the two is perceptually more prominent in musical scales.
This study empirically compared two unique scale structures with one non-uniquescale structure of unequal steps. We predicted that the two unique scales would allow
for a better detection of mistuned single tones in repeated presentations. In contrast,
on average, N=17 participants were more sensitive to mistunings in the non-uniquescale condition. Moreover, exploratory analysis of the sensitivity for mistunings at
diﬀerent scale positions revealed that the vicinity of the target tones is possibly more
important for the detection of mistuning than is the global scale structure. In fact,
for each of the three scale structures, sensitivity diminished for targets following acomparably small scale step. In this study, uniqueness could not be promoted as

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

perceptually important for the detection of mistuning in musical scales. Conversely,
the local structure of the scales appeared to be crucial in completing the task.

Assessing the Role of Sensory Consonance in Trained Musicians’
Tuning Preferences
Johanna Devaney, Ichiro Fujinaga; McGill University, Canada
2AM2-R07-05
This study tests whether trained musicians’ tuning preferences align with the interval
sizes that can be calculated from the overtone series and whether there are any
diﬀerences in the subjects’ preferences when the intervals are produced with sine
waves versus complex tones. This comparison is useful in assessing the impactof the partials in the tuning preferences. In the experiment, subjects were asked
to tune one or two tones in relation to a sounding bass note; these tones were either a perfect octave, a perfect ﬁfth, a major third, or a minor seventh above the bass.
This work builds on Terhardt’s theory sensory consonance, which is rooted in
Helmholtz’s theory of consonance and dissonance. Helmholtz postulated thatthe coincidence of a signiﬁcant number of partials between two pitches produces
a consonance whereas the absence of such coincidence produces a dissonance.
Terhardt found an inverse relationship between the degree of consonance and theamount of beating present in the sound. His theory suggests that the intervals that
occur between lower partials and the fundamental sound more consonant when they
are tuned to the integer ratio between that partial and the fundamental.

Estimating the Perception of Complexity in Musical Harmony
Jose Fornari, Tuomas Eerola; University of Jyväskylä, Finland
2AM2-R07-07
The perception of complexity in musical harmony is here seeing as being directly
related to the psychoacoustic entropy carried by the musical harmony. As such,it depends on a variety of factors mainly related to musical chords structure andprogression. The literature shows few examples of the computational estimation, directly from audio, of the complexity in musical. So far, the perception of this feature
is normally rated by means of human expert listening. An eﬃcient computationalmodel able to automatic estimate the perception of complexity in musical harmony
can be useful in a broad range of applications, such as in the ﬁelds of: psychology,
music therapy and music retrieval (e.g. in the large-scale search of music databases,
according to this feature). In this work we present an approach for the computational
prediction of harmonic complexity in musical audio ﬁles and compare it with its
human rating, based on a behavioral study conducted with thirty-three listeners
that rated the harmonic complexity of one hundred music excerpts. The correlation
between the results of the computational model and the listeners mean-ratings arehere presented and discussed.

A Hybrid Model for Timbre Perception — Part 2: The Texture ofSound
Hiroko Terasawa, Patty Huang, Jonathan Abel, Jonathan Berger;
Stanford University, USA
2AM2-R07-09
We propose a hybrid model of timbre integrating two complementary component
models, one of “color” and the other of “texture”. Previous studies on timbre
perception describe a multidimensional space, in which spectral centroid, spectral
ﬂuctuation, and temporal attack and decay characteristics constitute the principal
components. We propose that these factors can be eﬀectively described in terms of a
waveform’s instantaneous spectral envelope (the color), and instantaneous temporal
irregularity (its texture). The texture model employs normalized echo density (NED),
developed by Huang and Abel (“Aspects of Reverberation Echo Density,” AES 123rd
Convention, New York, October 2007), as a metric to characterize the texture of noisewith diverse granularity. Originally developed to describe perceived reverberationecho density, NED also appears to be useful for describing the temporal irregularities(texture) found in any sound object. In this experiment, we investigated the correlation between NED and perception of noise-like sounds with various static textures.
The predictability of NED is consistent across the bandwidths tested, and at average
NED explains 93% of the subjective judgments of texture dissimilarity. We therefore
propose NED as a useful perceptual descriptor of a sound’s time variant texture
density.

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ICMPC 10Eﬀects of Temporal Synchrony Between Two Sounds on
Perceptual Impression Space and Its Relation to the Cochlear
DelaysEriko Aiba 1 , Minoru Tsuzaki 1 , Satomi Tanaka 1 , Masashi Unoki 2 ;1
Kyoto City University of Arts, Japan; 2 JAIST, Japan
2AM2-R07-11
Onset synchrony is widely assumed to be an important cue for perceptual uniﬁcation
as a single tone. However, even if all the components physically begin simultaneously,
their temporal relation might not be preserved at the cochlear level. This is called thecochlear delay. Our previous experiments about accuracy of judgment on perceptual
synchrony between two sounds suggested the accuracy such as enhance the cochlear
delays was higher than that such as cancel out the cochlear delays. Therefore, there
is a possibility that the easiness of the perceptual uniﬁcation diﬀers according to
the sound, because the range of the gap in time that assumed to be simultaneous
is diﬀerent depending on the sound. The perceptual impression space induced by
the variation in the temporal gap between two sounds was estimated by the multidimensional scaling method. Three types of complex tones were used as stimuli
to investigate whether the cochlear delay imposes a systematic bias in judging theperceptual uniﬁcation of two sounds. As a result, the perceptual uniﬁcation appears
to occur more easily on the sounds such as cancel out the cochlear delays than thatsuch as enhanced the cochlear delays. This result suggests the auditory systemappeared more “tolerant” of the delay following the intrinsic, natural direction, i.e.,the cochlear delay.

The Chromelodeon Scale: A Psychoacoustical Model of Roughness
versus Harry Partch’s One Footed Bridge
Alexandre Torres Porres; University of São Paulo, Brazil
2AM2-R07-13
Under a Psychoacoustical point of view, and because of the partials’ alignment, it is
the spectrum of sounds that determines the consonance of given musical intervals.
For example, harmonic spectrums do align their components in harmonic musicalintervals. On this paper, I adopt a computer software to analyze the spectrum of theHarmonium built by Harry Partch (the Chromelodeon). Its results show which are themost consonant steps in the span of an octave. I use this data to compare to a similargraph designed by Harry Partch, his One Footed Bridge. A major concern behind thisresearch is to question at what extent musical intervals related to higher harmonics
do provide a perceptual signiﬁcant consonance perception. Another consequence isto promote a revision of Harry Partch’s theoretical work.

2AM2-R08 : Rhythm and Timing / Body Movement /MemoryRooms 8, 10:40 – 12:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Poster session

Eﬀects of Musical Training and Tapping the Beat on Perceived
Complexity of a Rhythm
Louis N. Vinke, J. Devin McAuley; Bowling Green State University, USA
2AM2-R08-01
Musical rhythms vary in complexity. However, many questions remain concerning
the best way to measure rhythmic complexity in a manner that corresponds tolisteners’ perceptions. The present study (1) examined the potential mediating rolesof musical training and tapping a beat on listeners’ subjective ratings of rhythmic
complexity and (2) evaluated previously proposed measures of rhythmic complexity.
Of particular interest was the PS-measure proposed by Shmulevich & Povel (2000).
Musicians and non-musicians rated the complexity of sixty-ﬁve auditory rhythms ona six-point scale (1 — very simple, 6 — very complex) in listen-and-tap and listen-only
conditions. In the listen-and-tap condition, participants tapped along with rhythms
at a steady rate that they felt coincided with the ‘beat’ before making a complexity
judgment. In the listen-only condition, participants did not tap before making acomplexity judgment. Results reveal that tapping the beat increased complexity
ratings, but there were no clear diﬀerences attributable to musical training. Overall,mixed support was found for the PS measure of rhythmic complexity. Although the
PS measure was positively correlated with judged complexity, tapping the beat while

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

listening to each rhythm, which was expected to strengthen the induction of a ‘beat’,increased rather than decreased complexity ratings.

Examining the Relationship Between Phonological Skills andTemporal Processing in Very Young Children
Charles Wigley, Janet Fletcher, Jane Davidson; University of Western
Australia, Australia
2AM2-R08-03
It is widely acknowledged that phonological processing plays a critical part in literacy
acquisition. Recently however, questions have been raised about the nature of theseprocesses and currently there is evidence that basic temporal processing abilities
may also signiﬁcantly contribute to literacy development. This study investigates thelinks between a purely motor-rhythmic measure of temporal processing ability (synchronous beat tapping) and two pre-literacy indicator measures: Rapid Automized
Naming [RAN] and Phonological Awareness [PA], at the early stages of literacy
acquisition. Fifty kindergarten children were tested on PA, RAN, synchronizedbeat tapping, IQ and musical perception. Success for synchronised beat tapping
was calculated as the maximum cross-correlation (Max r) between the transformed
stimulus and response waveforms and the top and bottom performing quartiles
were examined for diﬀerences on the pre-literacy skill measures using ANCOVA.
Controlling for age, IQ and musical perception skills, a signiﬁcant diﬀerence wasfound for RAN (F (1, 23) = 7.17, p < .05, η2p = .27) but not PA (F (1,23) = 1.45, p> .05). These results suggest that at the earliest stages of literacy development,
basic temporal processing skills (such as those used to perceive beats and generate
rhythmic movements) may contribute to at least one behavioural measure strongly
associated with literacy acquisition (RAN).

Moving to Music: The Inﬂuence of Familiarity, Enjoyment, andGroove on Spontaneous Dance
Bradley W. Vines 1 , Petr Janata 2 ; 1 University of British Columbia,
Canada; 2 University of California at Davis, USA
2AM2-R08-05
Moving spontaneously while listening may be the most common act of musicalengagement. The experience of familiarity, enjoyment, and groove may aﬀect one’s
propensity to move. This research aims to determine how these three factors aﬀect
spontaneous dance. Participants completed online questionnaires pertaining to theirgeneral background in music and dance, and suggested music that makes them feellike dancing. They listened to segments of their own suggestions, as well as the otherparticipants’, and rated them on familiarity, enjoyment, groove, and the “urge tomove.” In the laboratory, a movement-tracking system measured participants’ body
movements while they listened to the music presented online. A preliminary analysis,using linear regression and correlation statistics, revealed that the perception ofgroove accounted for the most variability in the urge to move, and that judgmentsof the urge to move best modelled the amount of head movement. Further analyses
will explore patterns of spontaneous motion associated with the experience of being
in the groove with music, as well as the eﬀects of interactions among familiarity,
enjoyment, and groove on body movement. These data provide evidence for theconnection between perceived groove and motor activity in the brain.

‘Notes Inégales’ in Contemporary Performance Practice
Dirk Moelants; Ghent University, Belgium
2AM2-R08-07
Playing the ﬁrst of two equally notated notes notably longer than the second,
the so-called ‘notes inégales’, is a common practice in the performance of Frenchbaroque music. It is a means of expression and enhances the metric structure ofthe (dance) music. Although there is a general agreement between performers about
the application of ‘inequality’, its exact performance is an ongoing source of debate.
In an experiment 8 harpsichordists and 8 baroque violinists performed 6 melodies
of French baroque gavottes in three tempo conditions 40-60-80 bpm, along with ametronome. The mean ratio of inequality was about 1.63:1. Yet, a lot of variability
was found with mean ratio’s of individual performers varying between 1.89 and 1.33.
Another main source of variance is the metric structure, with larger inequality foundat metrically important points. The base tempo also has an important inﬂuence on
the performance of the ‘inégalité’, but it is treated in very diﬀerent ways by diﬀerent

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ICMPC 10

performers. Pitch factors have only a minor impact. Even in simple pieces individuals
convey a personal expressivity through their use of ‘notes inégales’. The results
can be related to historical evidence (e.g. from mechanical instruments) and to theprosody of the French language.

Long-Term Memory for Simple and Complex Music: Quantity andQuality of PracticeJane Ginsborg, Jenny Pitkin; Royal Northern College of Music, UK
2AM2-R08-09
Research into the recall of musicians for the music they perform from memory
has focused on the eﬀects of musical expertise, mental representations and thedevelopment of performance cues, practice and memorizing strategies and thecharacteristics of the music itself. The process whereby the memory trace of aperformer for a speciﬁc piece of music fades over the course of time has also
been described. The present study aimed to explore the eﬀects of the expertiseof performers and their practice quantity and quality on accuracy of recall forone of two newly composed pieces of music, simple and complex, in a series of
performances from memory. Conservatoire students, all wind instrumentalists, kept
practice diaries as they memorized either a simple or complex piece, which they
then performed from memory over a four-week period. Errors and hesitations wereanalyzed in order to calculate accuracy and ﬂuency of recall in each performance.
There was a signiﬁcant eﬀect of expertise but no eﬀects of quantity of practice orlevel of complexity. Content analysis of the diaries suggested that quality of practice— like quantity — varied widely. Strategies used by the more successful memorizers
included mental practice, auditory and visual approaches, and attention to details.
These ﬁndings have obvious applications for the teaching of eﬀective practicing
strategies at all levels.

Nameability: Can Unique Verbal Labels Improve Recollection ofMusic and Faces?
Jack D. Birchﬁeld 1 , James C. Bartlett 1 , Andrea R. Halpern 2 ;1University of Texas at Dallas, USA; 2 Bucknell University, USA
2AM2-R08-11
The present research examines whether nameability, deﬁned here as the associationof a proper name or some other uniquely identifying description with a given stimulus item, enhances the role of recollection in recognition of melodies. An additional
goal was to extend our ﬁndings with melodies to another class of non-verbal stimuli:
photographs of faces. To dissociate familiarity and nameability, we assembled
familiarity-matched sets of highly nameable and low nameable items, as well as
sets of unfamiliar items. Stimulus items were presented in a study/test procedure,using the remember-know paradigm to measure recognition performance. Our main
hypothesis, that remember responses (indicating a recollective experience) would be
more frequent for high-nameable items than for low-nameable items, was conﬁrmed
for both melodies and faces. A secondary hypothesis, that know responses (suggesting judgments based on familiarity) might be more frequent for low-nameable items
than for high-nameable items, was also conﬁrmed for both stimulus types. However,overall hit rates (remember + know responses) for high- and low-nameable items weresigniﬁcantly diﬀerent for faces but not for melodies. We suggest that recognition
memory for melodies may be more dependent on a sense of global familiarity thanon a speciﬁc verbal label.

Memory for Tempo in Oral Music Traditions: Evidence for
Absolute Tempo in Aboriginal Ceremonial Song?
Freya Bailes 1 , Linda Barwick 2 ; 1 University of Western Sydney,
Australia; 2 University of Sydney, Australia
2AM2-R08-13
While long-term memory for the tempo of highly familiar music can be precise, it has
been suggested that there is greater variability in the recalled tempi of performancesof music for which no ﬁxed version is known, as in oral music traditions. This
study examines the tempi of multiple performances of one particular Aboriginal
dance-song, to determine tempo stability within a speciﬁc oral music tradition.
Djanba are ceremonial dance-songs from the Murriny Patha speaking people in the
Wadeye area of the Northern Territory of Australia. The songs are characterized
by a distinctive clap stick beat. We analysed the tempo of 49 extant recordings of56

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

djanba 14, spanning a period of 34 years. The mean tempo of the recordings is 141
bpm (range 127–148), and a standard deviation of 3 bpm indicates that performance
tempi deviated positively or negatively, on the average, by only 2%. There was no
overall tendency for the tempo to decrease or increase either during a performance,or across the 34-year span. The lack of variation in the tempo of djanba 14 isremarkable in the face of the numerous factors that are likely to modulate bothchoice of tempo and its stability through time, and these factors are discussed.

2AM2-R09 : Music Listening and Preferences /Development / Performance / Audio-Visual Interactions/ Psychoacoustics
Rooms 9, 10:40 – 12:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Poster session

Eﬀects of Orchestration on Musicians’ and Nonmusicians’
Perceptions of Musical Tension
Brian A. Silvey; University of Texas at Austin, USA
2AM2-R09-01
The purpose of this study was to examine the eﬀects of orchestration on musicians’and nonmusicians’ (N = 40) perception of musical tension. Participants were asked
to register their perceptions of tension using the Continuous Response Digital
Interface (CRDI) dial while listening to three orchestrations of the movement Bydlo
from Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition. The full orchestra and brass quintet
stimuli were digitally altered to have the same amplitude, frequency, and duration
as the third orchestration for solo piano. Graphic analysis revealed similarities in
how musicians and nonmusicians perceived tension across time for each of the threestimuli. Pearson product-moment correlations between the participant groups were
all statistically signiﬁcant at the p < .001 level and highest for brass quintet (r = .96),
followed by full orchestra (r = .91), and piano (r = .78). Notably, musicians perceived
the piano orchestration as being the least tense of the stimuli while nonmusicians
felt this was the most tense, perhaps suggesting a diﬀerence in perceived tension
response based on timbre. Overall, musicians’ tension responses displayed lessvariability among the stimuli than nonmusicians who tended to use more of the dial
when registering their responses.

Musicians’ Transformations of the Listening Process: An
Exploratory Study
Caroline Davis; Northwestern University, USA
2AM2-R09-03
Since the advent of recording technology, listeners have been accustomed to hearing music they know at the push of a button. Professional musicians often use
recordings to hone their craft, repeatedly listening to ﬁnd inspiration and inﬂuence.
Previous studies have found evidence for increased emotional response, structuraland thematic awareness, and preference over repeated listening, but these ﬁndings
depend on a number of musically related features. This study addresses alternatives for cognitive changes during repeated exposure, drawing upon socioculturalvariables such as shared mental representations and schemata. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eleven professional musicians. In individual sessions,musicians were asked to describe both ingrained and barely familiar recordings.
Many described similar processes of listening, spanning from the induction ofenjoyment to analysis, and in many cases, to transcription. Musicians also speakof the importance of discovery in the listening process, suggesting that they seekout changes in schemata. In addition, musicians related by multiple performancecollaborations experience similar cognitive transformations. Interview statements
show that musicians’ cognitions change not only according to structure, emotion,and preference, but also according to cultural schemata.

Who Listens to What Music, and Why? Correlations Between
Personality, Music Preferences, and Motives for Listening in a
Sample of Older Adults
Petri Laukka; Uppsala University, Sweden
2AM2-R09-05
A questionnaire was sent to a random sample of 500 Swedish elderly (65–75 years).
It included (a) a brief Big-5 personality measure, and questions about (b) how often

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

ICMPC 10various music listening strategies were used in everyday listening and (c) preference
for diﬀerent musical styles. Several positive correlations were found between personality and music preferences: e.g., extraversion/(jazz & classical), (agreeableness& conscientiousness)/easy listening, and (emotional stability & openness)/jazz.
Positive correlations were also found between personality and motives for listening:e.g., extraversion/motives related to identity and agency, agreeableness/mood
regulation, and (conscientiousness & emotional stability)/enjoyment. Emotional
stability and openness were further negatively correlated with relaxation. Finally,correlations were found between music preferences and motives for listening: e.g.,easy listening/(enjoyment & relaxation), folk music/(enjoyment & mood regulation),jazz/enjoyment, and classical/(enjoyment & mood regulation). All eﬀect sizes were
small to moderate. The results suggest that some associations between personality and music preferences generalize across age-groups, though the particular
styles of music diﬀer across generations. Like in previous research, openness was
associated with liking of both complex (classical, jazz) and intense (rock) styles,
whereas agreeableness was associated with preference for more conventional styles(easy listening). Results also suggest that motives for listening are mediated by
the listener’s personality characteristics. Finally, certain styles of music may be
preferred depending on the particular motives for listening.

Does Music Taste Last? A Mixed Methods Study of Music Taste
Over the Youth-Adult Transition
Douglas Lonie 1 , Patrick West 1 , Graeme Wilson 2 ; 1 MRC Social andPublic Health Sciences Unit, UK; 2 Newcastle University, UK
2AM2-R09-07
Although much work has been conducted to identify and map diﬀerent music tastes
there is a lack of longitudinal data in the literature. The aims of this paper are toinvestigate the nature of music taste over the period 1987–2006 and to understandperceptions of the factors contributing to music tastes and how this changes overtime. To do this, data regarding music taste were collected from a cohort every
three to ﬁve years, since participants were aged 15. This was followed by qualitativeinterviews with a subsample of 18 participants, designed and analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA).
The statistical analysis indicated 5 taste trajectories, labelled: Consistent, Prodigal,
Early Shift, Late Shift, and Transient. Around half the sample displayed consistenttaste across the youth-adult transition. The IPA analysis revealed a range of exposures and diﬀering life events over the youth-adult transition as cited by participants
to account for their changing music tastes.
The social factors inﬂuencing music taste emerged as primary within individuals’
accounts of their taste trajectories. The inﬂuence of social structure (e.g. marriage,
child rearing and employment) was recognised by participants as the strongest
explanation for their changing taste and changing musical participation. Theseﬁndings indicate that music taste should be considered as dynamic and related toother social and personal circumstances over the lifecourse.

The Eﬀects of Kindermusik Training on Infants’ Abilities to
Encode Musical Rhythm
David W. Gerry, Ashley Faux, Laurel J. Trainor; McMaster University,
Canada2AM2-R09-09
Previous work showed that when infants were bounced on every second beat of an
ambiguous (unaccented) rhythmic pattern, they later preferred to listen to an auditory
alone version of the pattern with accents every second beat (march), whereas infants
bounced on every third beat of the same unaccented rhythmic pattern preferred tolisten to an accented version of the pattern with accents every third beat. We tested
infants in Kindermusik classes in the identical procedure to see whether enriched
experience with rhythm aﬀects the development of metrical perception. As with
infants not in Kindermusik classes, movement inﬂuenced metrical interpretationin those enrolled in Kindermusik. Overall, those enrolled in Kindermusik listened
longer during the test, indicating heightened interest in music. However, unlike
the infants in the previous study, those taking Kindermusik showed a general bias
to interpret patterns in groups of two rather than in groups of three. This bias isconsistent with the musical materials of their classes, which are predominantly inmarch as opposed to waltz rhythms. We conclude that musical classes for infants
can aﬀect the development of metrical perception.

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

A Perceptual Study on Asynchrony Between Auditory and Visual
Stimuli: The Eﬀect of Anticipation by Motion or Periodicity
Minori Saikawa, Kohei Washikita, Masashi Yamada; Kanazawa
Institute of Technology, Japan
2AM2-R09-11
It has been shown that the delay of an auditory stimulus has a greater range of acceptability than the case of an auditory stimulus prior to a visual one for the perceptionof synchrony in audio-visual stimuli. In these studies, the following audio-visual
stimuli were typically used: For visual stimulus, anticipation of timing is available bymotion of an object. In the present study, another type of anticipation by periodicity
was also prepared. These two types of anticipation took place in auditory and visual
stimuli respectively. The detection threshold of asynchrony was determined foreach type of stimulus described above, and compared with the threshold of theaudio-visual stimulus where no anticipation is available. The results showed that thethreshold for the sound-prior condition was consistent in 80–100 ms for the stimuli
where anticipation was available, but for the “no anticipation” stimulus, it showed aquite large value of 150 ms. For the sound-later condition, the threshold commonly
showed a large value at 160–220 ms, not only for the “no anticipation” stimulus, butalso for the “anticipation” stimuli, except for “visual periodicity” stimulus for which
the threshold was 98 ms. The results imply that anticipation aﬀects the detection ofasynchrony, and suggest that there is an interaction between the type of anticipationand modality.

Computational Model of Congruency Between Music and Video
Tetsuro Kitahara 1 , Masahiro Nishiyama 2 , Hiroshi G. Okuno 2 ;1
Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan; 2 Kyoto University, Japan
2AM2-R09-13
We propose a method for calculating congruency between music and video based on
similarity of accent structure and mood. There are two types of congruency between
music and video: temporal congruency related to synchronization of accents andsemantic congruency related to similarity of mood. Previous works, however, havedealt only with either congruency. We model the temporal congruency based on
the correlation between accent feature sequences extracted from audio and visualcontent, and the semantic congruency based on mutual mapping between two feature
spaces representing music and video respectively. Then, we integrate the two typesof congruency as a weighted linear sum. Our experiments with real-world content
show the eﬀects of our method.

2AM2-R10 : Emotional Aspects / Rhythm and Timing
Rooms 10, 10:40 – 12:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Poster session

Music and Emotion: An Experimental Study on Emotional
Responses from Musicians and Nonmusicians to Modal MusicalExcerpts with Tempo Variation
Danilo Ramos 1 , José Lino Oliveira Bueno 1 , Emmanuel Bigand 2 ;1
University of São Paulo, Brazil; 2 University of Bourgogne, France
2AM2-R10-01
The purpose of this study was to verify emotional responses from Musicians andNonmusicians on modal musical excerpts with tempo variation. Participants were
30 Musicians and 30 Nonmusicians. Three musical excerpts on moderato tempo,
constructed on the Ionian mode, and transposed to the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian,
Mixolydian, Aeolian and Locrian modes and to the largo and presto tempi were
employees. The tasks of the participants were listening to each musical excerpt
and associating them to Joy, Sadness, Serenity or Fear/Anger. The results show agreater uniformity in the emotional responses from Musicians than Nonmusicians.
The results suggest a greater inﬂuence of the tempo on the mode in the triggeringof speciﬁc emotions in listeners, except the Locrian mode, where there was a greaterinﬂuence of the musical mode, regardless in which tempo the musical excerpts were
heard.

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ICMPC 10

Cognitive Styles Inﬂuence Perceived Musical Coherence
Gunter Kreutz 1 , Laura Mitchell 2 , John McDowall 2 , Emery Schubert 3 ;1
University of Oldenburg, Germany; 2 Glasgow Caledonian University,
UK; 3 University of New South Wales, Australia
2AM2-R10-03
Baron-Cohen and co-workers propose a theory of individual diﬀerences that is basedon two characteristic cognitive styles (Baron-Cohen, Knickmeyer and Belmonte, 2005),
called empathizing and systemizing. The present study explores the inﬂuences ofgeneral and music cognitive styles on perceived musical coherence. A total of 64
participants (33 female) were selected who were scoring high in either (general ormusic) empathizing or systemizing. Participants listened to pairs of pre-selectedmusic excerpts, four representing classical and four representing popular music.
Within each genre, two excerpts expressed a ‘happy’ tone and two excerpts conveyeda ‘sad’ tone. Pairs of excerpts were matched in genre and mismatched in emotion, or
vice versa. Participants rated how well excerpts within each pair went together on
a 10-point Likert-type scale. Results show that coherence ratings were signiﬁcantly
higher for emotion-matched than for genre-matched pairs. Signiﬁcant interactions
were found between both general and musical cognitive styles on the one hand andtype of matching on the other. In particular, general systemizing shows a tendency
to be associated with higher values of genre-matching (p = .051) whereas music
empathizing leads to signiﬁcantly higher values of emotion-matching (p < .05). These
results suggest that cognitive styles may inﬂuence high-level cognitive processes inmusic listening. [Acknowledgement: We would like to thank the Carnegie Trust for
the Universities of Scotland for funding this study.]

Comparison Between Perceived Emotion and Felt Emotion inMusic Listening: Analysis of Individual Diﬀerence and MusicalExpertise by Use of Factor Score
Etsuko Hoshino; Ueno Gakuen University, Japan
2AM2-R10-05
Two experiments were conducted to investigate the diﬀerences in perceived emotion
and felt emotion using classical music excerpts. In Exp.1, 54 students who did not
major in music were asked to listen to each phrase from four orchestral pieces
twice. Half of them (Perceived-Emotion group) were instructed to rate the emotional
characters of the phrases on 30 seven-point adjective scales each time, while theother half (Felt-Emotion group) rated the emotion aroused by them. Factor analysis
was conducted then separately for each group. In addition, the data of two groups
was also analyzed together by other factor analysis once more to compare the factor
scores of all of the subjects directly. In Exp.2, the same procedure was carried out
with 17 other students majoring in music, except that only one factor analysis was
conducted together for the two music groups. Standard factor scores of the subjects
in these two experiments were calculated, and compared between both listening
conditions in each group of subjects. The results suggested that (1) Perceived
emotion was not exactly identical to felt emotion in each semantic structure, and that(2) musical expertise and emotional responsiveness of music were related closely.

Therapeutic Forgetting? Relaxing Music Counters
Hyperconsolidation of Emotionally Arousing Stimuli
Lauren Velik, N.S. Rickard; Monash University, Australia
2AM2-R10-07
Memory for emotionally powerful events can sometimes be unusually heightened
and unwanted, for instance, in the case of post-traumatic stress disorder. Recent
research has shown that the strength of memory for emotionally intense events
can be reduced by blockade of beta-noradrenergic receptors. The current study
explored whether enhanced memory for emotional events could be prevented by
concurrent exposure to relaxing music. Participants (29 males, 60 females; mean
age=22years, SD 5.83) viewed an emotional or non-emotional slideshow accompanied
by either silence or Satie’s Gymnopedie No. 1. Recall of the slideshow was tested one
week later, using 76 four-alternative forced-choice (4AFC) questions. Groups wereequivalent on mood and arousal levels prior to treatment, and the groups exposedto the music reported equivalent familiarity and likeability. The ﬁndings revealed
that recall of the slides shown immediately after the emotionally arousing images
was signiﬁcantly greater than recall of the non-emotional images. However, thiseﬀect was entirely prevented in the presence of calming music. A group by phase60

ICMPC 10

Tuesday 26 August 2008

interaction eﬀect was observed, F(2,168)=3.45, p=.003, with Tukey’s post-hoc tests
conﬁrming that calming music resulted in similar levels of recall of the emotional
story as observed with the non-emotional story. These ﬁndings provide promise
for a non-pharmacological means of ameliorating excessively strong and intrusive
memories associated with trauma.

Emotion-Related Autonomic Nerve Activity with Musical
Performance and Perception
Hidehiro Nakahara 1 , Shinichi Furuya 2 , Tsutomu Masuko 3 , Satoshi
Obata 4 , Hiroshi Kinoshita 4 ; 1 Morinomiya University of Medical
Sciences, Japan; 2 Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan; 3 Mukogawa
Women’s University, Japan; 4 Osaka University, Japan
2AM2-R10-09
Previous studies have demonstrated signiﬁcant changes in cardiac and autonomic
measures during musical perception. The changes are commonly evident when thelisteners are emotionally aroused to a pleasurable music. However, there has beenno attempt on a similar issue for musical performance. The present study therefore
examined the eﬀect of emotion on the heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV)
associated with musical perception and performance. Eleven pianists underwent
experiments under the expressive piano playing, non-expressive piano playing,expressive listening, and non-expressive listening conditions. The music selected
was the well-tempered Clavier, Vol. I, No.1 prelude (J. S. Bach), which was played 60
bpm and needed 2.5 min for one tune. HR and HRV data (HFpower, LFpower, HF/total
power, LF/total power, RMSSD) were evaluated using 5-min (two tunes) data, and 20
sec data at the self-reported highest pleasant period. It was found that expressive
eﬀort in perception as well as performance modulated HR and HRV, and that such
modulations were much greater for the musical performance than perception. The
results conﬁrmed that musical performance was far more eﬀective in modulating
emotion-linked cardiac and autonomic nerve activity than musical perception inmusicians.

Rhythm Play and Enhanced Emotional Sensitivity in Children
Yuriko Nakanishi 1 , Takayuki Nakata 2 ; 1 Nagasaki Prefectural Centerfor Children Women and Persons with Disabilities, Japan; 2 Future
University-Hakodate, Japan
2AM2-R10-11
This study examined if three months of group rhythm activities enhance 3–4
year-olds’ emotional expressivity. Twelve children from one child care center wereassigned to the rhythm play condition and seven children from another child carecenter were assigned to the control condition. Children in rhythm play condition
experienced rhythm play for three months that emphasized synchronizing rhythmwith others. Children in rhythm play condition were individually presented with
10-minute long puppet shows before and after the rhythm play and video recorded.
For the children in the control condition, two puppet shows with video recordings
were separated by three months without experiencing group rhythm play in between.
Between puppet shows, all children experienced usual musical activities at the childcare centers, including singing or listening to music CDs between recordings. Analyses of adults’ ratings of the videos revealed that when emotional events involved
the target child, ratings were higher for children in rhythm condition than in control
condition, but no diﬀerence was found between groups when emotional events
involved puppets only. Also, when events were positive in valence, ratings werehigher for children in the rhythm play condition than in the control condition, but
no group eﬀects were found for negative emotional events. These ﬁndings suggestthat learning to synchronize rhythm with others may help 3–4 year-olds to express
their positive emotions.

Steady Beat Production (SBP) with Various External Stimuli by 7 thGrade Students
Yo Jung Han, Sun-Hee Chang; Seoul National University, Korea
2AM2-R10-13
To investigate the characteristics of Steady Beat Production (SBP) 30 music-majoredstudents (trained students) and 30 general students in 7th grade participated. There
were 5 tasks consisted of SBP without external signals, with visual and auditory
signals and with metric and rhythmic sequences. Means of tempo, steadiness of beats

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ICMPC 10and accuracy of synchronization were analyzed by recording the means of individual
IOIs, the SD of individual IOIs and synchronization errors. The study found thatparticipants tended to produce faster than the tempo was given with stimuli. SBP
without external signals was the fastest and the diﬀerence of its individual results
was the largest. SBP with auditory signals was steadier and more accurate thanwith visual signals. SBP with rhythmic sequences was steadier than with metricsequences. Trained students were more accurate and steadier in all tasks except
SBP with auditory signals. In regard to tempo and steadiness, a relationship was
found between SBP both with and without signals. With regard to steadiness, asimilar relationship seemed to exist, except for with auditory signals. In conclusion,
the sensory modality and structural feature of stimuli plays an important role in
SBP. Musical training aﬀects extracting the periodicity from external stimuli andresponding to the stimuli more accurately.

2AM2-R11 : Education / Performance
Rooms 11, 10:40 – 12:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Poster session

Rhythm and Reading: Improvement of Reading Fluency Using a
Rhythm-Based Pedagogical Technique
Scott D. Lipscomb 1 , Dee Lundell 2 , Corey Sevett 3 , Larry Scripp 4 ;1
University of Minnesota, USA; 2 Minneapolis Public Schools, USA;
3
Music-in-Education National Consortium, USA; 4 New EnglandConservatory, USA
2AM2-R11-01
In the Fall of 2007, a music-integrated reading program was introduced to a north
Minneapolis urban school to help third grade students improve reading ﬂuency. The
purpose of this investigation was to determine to what extent the use of musicalrhythm could facilitate the acquisition of reading ﬂuency and improve accuracy whenreading high frequency sight words.
The “Rhythm & Reading Group” was established in each of three third grade classrooms. This pedagogical method involves establishment of a clear beat to which
students read lists of 25 words. A variety of tempos and word orders were used toprovide variety so that the activity continuously engaged the students. A carefully
designed assessment schedule was established to measure reading ability at two- tothree- week intervals throughout the testing period.
Results revealed impressive levels of improvement for both students below gradelevel reading ability and for those at or above grade-level. Students improved
dramatically in their reading ﬂuency on the list of 25 words, as measured by the
number of words read correctly (increased signiﬁcantly) and the time required toread the list of words (decreased signiﬁcantly). Results revealed signiﬁcant transfer
of reading ﬂuency, as both the accuracy and reading time improved signiﬁcantly forlists of words not seen since the initial pre-test.

Eﬀects of Metacognitive Instruction on Thinking During Piano
Practice in Experienced Pianists and Novices
Iwao Yoshino; Hokkaido University of Education, Japan
2AM2-R11-03
This study aims to investigate whether musical experts are more metacognitively
aware during practice than novices, and whether any instruction can enhancemetacognitive activity. Eight experienced pianists (music majors) and ten novices
practiced a short piece for piano under “normal condition” or “metacognitive
instruction condition”. When they temporally stopped physical practice, they wereasked to tell what they had thought during practice and what they were thinking atthat time. Participants of metacognitive instruction condition were also asked to
set their goal before practice, to evaluate their performance, and to reﬂect and plan
their practice at the time stopping physical practice. Their video-recorded verbal
reports were classiﬁed into metacognitive reports and cognitive reports. Metacognition scores were calculated according to quality and quantity of the metacognitive
reports. Under the normal condition, experienced pianists demonstrated signiﬁcantly higher metacognition scores than novices. Metacognitive instruction yieldedsigniﬁcantly higher metacognition scores to only novices. Experienced pianists were
not inﬂuenced by metacognitive instruction because they appeared to have highmetacognitive skills. This study demonstrated that metacognition was relevant to62

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

the acquisition of expertise also on a musical instrument, and that metacognitive
instruction could enhance metacognitive activity particularly for beginners. Making
instrument students image their goal, monitor their problems and think methods ofsolving them may develop their capacity of self-regulated learning.

Stirling Silver: Understanding the Psychology of Group Singing for
Health and Wellbeing
Jane Davidson 1 , Andrea Lange 1 , Bev McNamara 1 , Sue Jenkins 2 , Gill
Lewin 2 , Lorna Rosenwax 2 ; 1 University of Western Australia,
Australia; 2 Curtin University of Technology, Australia
2AM2-R11-05
This poster aims reports on the degree to which various health beneﬁts of singing can
be claimed. Stress reduction, feelings of wellbeing and a general sense of being better
exercised have been claimed (Bailey and Davidson, 2003, 2005, and 2008). But thequestion still remains whether it is the singing activity itself which promotes theseespoused beneﬁts or other factors. A choir of people who had never participatedin group singing or singing in any formal context was formed, matched for age andsocial group. All were over 70 years of age, half were in receipt of home-help services
and were regarded as being marginally socially isolated. The other half was notreceiving any social assistance. Standardised measures of social wellbeing, healthand emotional state as well as detailed interviews were made and pre and post asinging course that lasted 12 weeks. The choral leader’s remit was to introduce basic
techniques of singing (posture, breath control, voice placement) alongside facilitatingsocial group process: jokes, coﬀee breaks, group tasks etc. All participants reported
positive beneﬁts of singing and feelings of having had exercise, but none foundthese as signiﬁcant as the social aspects, including their interactions with the choral
leader. These results have important implications revealing the important social
psychological beneﬁts of the group activity of singing.

Music Provision in Young Children’s Education: Scottish
Perspectives
Raymond MacDonald 1 , Lana Carlton 1 , Katie Reid 2 , Tom Bancroft 3 ,Cerin Richardson 4 ; 1 Glasgow Caledonian University, UK; 2 Universityof Glasgow, UK; 3 ABC Creative Music, UK; 4 Edinburgh City Council,
UK
2AM2-R11-07
From an international perspective there is increasing interest in early years music
interventions in terms of how best to implement such education programmes andthe types of outcomes that can be expected from these activities. This study aimed
to gain insight into the organisation and delivery of music provision in Scottish earlyeducation. It explores the experiences and perspectives of music service providers
at various levels across nursery schools and primary schools (Children aged 3 to12). The present study utilised four semi-structured focus groups and an individualinterview. Participants (n=20). included primary and nursery teachers, projectworkers, educational oﬃcers, and music programme developers. Results highlighta number of key themes. For example: wider social and educational beneﬁts forchildren in music education; a perceived lack of music education specialists; issues
relating to teacher training. Appraisal of various music provision programmes
was also discussed and issues of language and culture in music were highlighted
as important. The heterogeneous mix of contributors in this research project has
provided a unique opportunity to stimulate discussion between those who makemusic programmes available to teach and those who are expected to teach them.
As a result, key issues relating to the success of early music provision have been
identiﬁed. These include tackling teachers’ conﬁdence in their ability to ‘teach’ music
and identifying ‘core’ components in the music programme utilised.

The Eﬀect of Contextual Interference on Instrumental Practice: An
Application of a Motor Learning Principle
Laura A. Stambaugh, Steven M. Demorest; University of Washington,USA
2AM2-R11-09
The purpose of this study was to examine the eﬀects of low (blocked), moderate(hybrid), and high (serial) levels of contextual interference during one practice63

Tuesday 26 August 2008

ICMPC 10session on the technical accuracy and musicality of seventh grade clarinet andsaxophone students at acquisition and retention and their attitude towards thepractice conditions. In motor learning, the contextual interference hypothesis
predicts the blocked condition would exhibit higher performance at acquisition andthe serial condition at retention. Students (N=19) practiced three eight-measuresongs during one 18-minute practice session. They were randomly assigned toeither the blocked group (switch songs after 6 minutes), the hybrid group (switch
songs every 2 minutes), or the serial group (switch songs every 1 minute), until all
songs were practiced a total of 6 minutes. Test recordings were made immediately
after practice concluded (acquisition) and 24 hours later (retention). Students also
completed an attitude questionnaire. Performances were scored on technical andmusical achievement. There were no signiﬁcant diﬀerences in technical accuracy,
musicality, or attitude among the groups at acquisition and retention. There wasa signiﬁcant interaction between practice condition and trial for musicality [F (2,15)= 4.84, p<.05]. Though students demonstrated considerable technical accuracy,
averaging at the 95th percentile, they did not as often perform musically, with meanscores at the 49th percentile.

Timing and Dynamics in Infant-Directed Singing
Takayuki Nakata 1 , Sandra E. Trehub 2 ; 1 Future University-Hakodate,Japan; 2 University of Toronto at Mississauga, Canada
2AM2-R11-13
The temporal and dynamic features of mothers’ performances (n=10) of Twinkle,
Twinkle, Little Star for their infants (i.e., ID singing) were compared with performances of non-mothers (n=10) singing the same song while alone (solo singing). ID
singing had a slower tempo and was more temporally more stable than solo singing.
ID singing also showed smaller timing deviations at phrase endings than did solo
singing. With respect to dynamics, ID singing was more expressive than solo singing,as indicated by more gradual changes in dynamics at phrase endings. Also, thecorrelation between pitch height and dynamics for the ﬁrst two notes explained 5.22
times more of the variance in ID singing than in solo singing. In sum, the ﬁndings
revealed systematic diﬀerences in the timing and dynamics of ID and non-ID versionsof the same song. The greater predictability and smoother transitions of maternal
performances may have important aﬀective and attention-regulating consequences
for infant listeners.

2AM2-R12 : Performance / Neuroscience
Rooms 12, 10:40 – 12:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Poster session

Eﬀect of Harmonic Distance on Performance Expression
Christopher Bartlette; Baylor University, USA
2AM2-R12-01
In two experiments, I investigate the eﬀect of harmonic distance — the extent
to which a harmony is “closely” or “distantly” related to a context — on volume
and timing levels for performances of 20 newly composed musical excerpts by 12
graduate piano students. Several earlier studies have suggested that performance
expression may be aﬀected by harmonic factors, but this issue has not been studied
in a controlled experiment with multiple participants. For the ﬁrst experiment, one
chord changes within each pair of excerpts: One chord is either “close” or “distant”
from its preceding chord, and all other chords are held the same. Distance between
chords is measured using a simple, key-neutral, two-dimensional model. For thesecond experiment, each pair of excerpts begins with the same musical material;at a point of modulation, one excerpt continues in a “close” key, while the otherexcerpt continues with the same material transposed to a “distant” key. The two
experiments agree in their results: “Distant” chords are performed louder andwith delayed onsets. In addition, the results oﬀer insights into the eﬀect of meter,
key, texture, and “sequential” (chord-to-chord) versus “contextual” (multiple-chord)measurements of harmonic distance on performance expression.

Pre-Symbolic Musical Expressiveness: A Case Study Related to the
Performer’s Expression in Singing
Jin Hyun Kim; University of Cologne, Germany
2AM2-R12-03

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This study aims at giving evidence for musical expressive features as rule-based
pre-symbolic “signs”, focusing their symptomatic aspect related to the performer’s
emotional states.
Taking up the concept of micro-intonation, the author carries out FFT-based spectral
analyses of acoustic features of singing voices consisting of mechanisms such asattack, vibrato, ampliﬁcation of singing formant, sforzando. Diﬀerent combinational
possibilities of some of these mechanisms are associated with a variety of emotional
expression guided by singing. The analyzed musical pieces include opera arias,
contemporary art songs, and Korean traditional songs. The FFT-based analysesof single individual tones are used for observer training and veriﬁed by observer
agreement.
The result of this study shows that acoustic features of singing voices related to
diﬀerent categories of emotional expression are rule-conducted. This supports theauthor’s thesis that the capacity of singing voices to additionally form a temporary
structure of individual sounds renders singing performance a means of mediating
emotions in an intended way: The aspect of micro-intonation allows a singer to generate expressive musical features not only immediately expressing her/his emotional
inner states, but rather intentionally controlled.
This study opens future research perspectives on expressive acoustic features in music performance, which — albeit their symptomatic characters — act as pre-symbolic“signs” that are based on rules applied within a cultural system.

An Investigation into the Relationship Between Student
Typologies and the Experience of Performance Anxiety in
Adolescent Musicians
Ioulia Papageorgi; IOE University of London, UK
2AM2-R12-05
Data presented in this paper form part of a study exploring the experience of performance anxiety by adolescent musicians. The aim is to investigate the presence of
diﬀerent music student typologies and explore relationships between student type,
experiences of performance anxiety and examination achievement. Students aged
12–19 (N = 410) in two geographical locations (UK and Cyprus) responded to a new
self-report questionnaire dealing with a range of learning and performance issues.
Participants attended junior conservatoires and/or youth orchestras. K-Means cluster
analysis was used, grouping students into clusters based on similarity of responses
and allowing the establishment of student typologies. Further in-depth analysisof student responses was conducted through thematic analysis of qualitative datafor representative cases from each of the student clusters. Results suggested threetypologies: ‘unmotivated students feeling ineﬀective but guarding self-esteem’, ‘students susceptible to maladaptive performance anxiety’ and ‘conﬁdent students thatexperience adaptive performance anxiety’. Chi-square tests revealed relationships
between typology and gender, age group, nationality and examination achievement.
The study suggests that diﬀerent types of students are aﬀected by anxiety in distinct
ways and evidence diﬀerent patterns of examination achievement. Students may be
predisposed to experiencing maladaptive or adaptive performance anxiety. Findings
have implications for education.

Kinematics and Muscular Activity of Upper Extremity Movements
in Piano Keystroke by Professional Pianists
Shinichi Furuya 1 , Tomoko Aoki 2 , Hidehiro Nakahara 3 , Hiroshi
Kinoshita 4 ; 1 Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan; 2 Prefectural
University of Kumamoto, Japan; 3 Morinomiya University of Medical
Sciences, Japan; 4 Osaka University, Japan
2AM2-R12-07
This study investigated the eﬀects of sound volume and striking tempo on control ofupper extremity movements in expert pianists (N=8) when they performed repetitive
octave keystrokes. It was found that at all levels of sound volume and striking
tempo, the upper limb angles at the moment of ﬁnger-key contact were invariant.
The eﬀects of sound volume and striking tempo on limb movements were revealed
diﬀerently. The proximal segments contributed more to the movement of the limb
for the production of larger sound, whereas they contributed less for increasing
striking tempo. We propose that sound volume control is achieved by an “impulse
strategy”, whereas striking tempo control is made by a “moment of inertia strategy”.

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ICMPC 10

To control sound volume and striking tempo simultaneously, pianists selected anintermediate way of these two strategies where movements at the elbow joint playeda major role in keystroke.

The Diﬀerence in Neural Correlates of Singing a Familiar Song and
a Newly Learned Song: An fMRI Study
Shizuka Uetsuki 1 , Tatsuya Kakigi 1 , Hiroshi Kinoshita 2 , Kazumasa
Yokoyama 1 ; 1 Hyogo Prefectural Rehabilitation Center Nishi-Harima,
Japan; 2 Osaka University, Japan
2AM2-R12-09
The understanding of the neural network for singing familiar songs and its diﬀerence
from singing newly learned songs are utmost importance for the conduct of eﬀective
music and/or speech therapy. The present study used the fMRI to investigate
the brain correlates for singing a familiar song(FS), and those for singing a newly
learned song(NS). Fifteen normal subjects performed the experimental singing task,sung the FS and NS songs covertly during fMRI scans. The FS was a well-known
nursery song while the NS was composed by one of the authors. Both songs had
the same musical components but had diﬀerent melodies and lyrics. The subjects
completely memorized two songs before the scan. Greater activation was found forthe left hemisphere at the superior temporal gyrus, angular gyrus and uncus for
the FS compared to the NS. The uncus is a part of the entorhinal cortex(EC) whichinterconnects to the hippocampus with an important role in memory retention andconsolidation. It could be related to the retrieval process of the melodies and lyrics
from semantic memory. The NS had greater activation in the left IPL including
the precuneus, SMG, SFG, MFG, and the right IFG, posterior cingulate gyrus andprecuneus. The wider activation in the prefrontal area and precuneus with the NS
should reﬂect the diﬃculty of retrieving the song from episodic memory as well as
attention to perform the task accurately.

Music Playing Enhances Auditory Memory Trace: Evidence from
Event-Related Potentials
Keiko Kamiyama, Kentaro Katahira, Dilshat Abla, Kazuo Okanoya;
RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Japan
2AM2-R12-11
In this study, we examined the relation between practice and memory of soundsequences, speciﬁcally the hypothesis that practice involving physical performanceenhances auditory memory. Musicians learned two unfamiliar sound sequenceswith diﬀerent type of trainings. In the key press condition, they learned a melody
with key press while listening to the auditory input. In the no key press condition,
they listened to another melody without any key press. These two melodies were
presented alternatively, and the subjects were given each of these trainings. They
were instructed to pay suﬃcient attention in both conditions. Following the training
stage, they listened to these two melodies again without any key press and the
ERPs were recorded. During the ERPs recordings, 10% tones of these melodies were
deviated. The analysis showed that the amplitudes of mismatch negativity (MMN)
for deviant stimuli were larger in the key press condition than in no key press
condition. The result suggests that training with key press eﬃciently promoted
auditory memory.

Comparison Between Expert and None-Expert Pianists’ Cognitive
Processes in Piano Playing: Quantitative and Qualitative Studies
Michiko Ono 1 , Toshihiko Matsuka 1 , Masakazu Iwasaka 1 , Masaki
Hara 2 , You Nakayama 2 ; 1 Chiba University, Japan; 2 Yamaha Music
Foundation, Japan
2AM2-R12-13
Recent studies in music cognition have revealed that the way in which experts process
musical information while playing musical instruments is qualitatively diﬀerent fromthat of none-experts. Oura and Hatano (2001), for example, showed that experts
tended to pay close attention to artistic expression while novices gave emphasis to
the technical aspects in piano playing. A majority of these comparative studies onmusic cognition, however, has employed only qualitative methods (e.g. interview). In
order to facilitate better understanding of the nature of diﬀerential music cognition
by experts and none-experts, we replicated Oura and Hatano’s (2001) experiment66

ICMPC 10

Tuesday 26 August 2008

using both qualitative and quantitative (i.e., neuroimaging) methods. In our study,
participants were asked to practice a previously unseen score for seven minute,followed by a detailed interview. In addition, we also recorded neuro-physiologicalmeasures using multichannel near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) while the participants were practicing the score. The marked diﬀerences were obtained in both
qualitative and quantitative data. The results of detailed interview were similar tothat of the precedent experiment (i.e., Oura & Hatano, 2001). The neuroimaging
data (i.e., multichannel NIRS) revealed that the experts and the none-experts indeed
processed music diﬀerently — the marked diﬀerences were observed in the left
hemisphere, the right lateral temporal and the right dorsal frontal regions.

2AM2-R13 : Neuroscience
Rooms 13, 10:40 – 12:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Poster session

Neural Mechanism of Melody Perception Revealed by Functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Miho Yamauchi, Takuya Hayashi, Akihide Yamamoto, Hiroshi Sato,
Hidehiro Iida; National Cardiovascular Center Research Institute,
Japan
2AM2-R13-01
A neural process of melody perceptions has not been fully understood. A key
process of melody perception is that we recognize “melodic shape” (temporal changeof relative pitch) in a piece of music. To locate brain areas associated with melody
perception, we used a discrimination task of temporal changes of relative pitch infunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study. Twelve non-musician subjects
received fMRI scan while performing a discrimination task of sound sequences: theylistened to a “target melody” followed by an “object melody”, and were asked toanswer whether the relative pitch of the object was same or not as the target. One
half of object melodies diﬀered in pitch of only 6th tone while a half of them alteredin pitch of all the tone from the target. The rate of correct answer signiﬁcantly
decreased when all tones of the object melody changed in pitch. Analysis of fMRI revealed signiﬁcant task-related activations in inferior frontal gyrus, medial prefrontal
area, and right inferior parietal lobule. Particularly the inferior parietal lobule related
to a correct answer rate. Our ﬁndings suggest that the right inferior parietal lobule,regarded as subserving visuo-spatial information, has a pivotal role in recognition of
melodic shape.

Investigating the Perception of Harmonic Triads: An fMRI Study
Takashi X. Fujisawa 1 , Norman D. Cook 2 ; 1 Kansei Gakuin University,
Japan; 2 Kansai University, Japan
2AM2-R13-03
We have undertaken an fMRI study of harmony perception in order to determine therelationship between the diatonic triads of Western harmony and brain activation.
We have run an fMRI study on 12 right-handed, Japanese, male non-musicians inorder to determine the sites of brain activation in response to the common triadsof Western diatonic harmony. All stimuli consisted of 2 triads of 1.5 sec durationeach and presented as grand piano sounds. None of the chords contained intervalsof 1 or 2 semitones, but diﬀered in terms of their inherently resolved/unresolved
character (major, minor and tension [diminished and augmented] chords). Stimuli
were presented in blocks of 5 chord pairs per 30 seconds. Subjects were not awareof the block design. Subtracting out the brain activation in response to a white noise
condition, the strongest response was found in right frontal and temporal regions.
The brain response to these three types of chords could be distinguished within theright orbitofrontal cortex and cuneus/posterior cingulated gyrus in occipital lobe.

Investigation of the Musician’s Brain Activation During Diﬀerent
Music Listening Modes: A Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Study
Toshie Matsui 1 , Koji Kazai 2 , Minoru Tsuzaki 3 , Haruhiro Katayose 2 ;1JST, Japan; 2 Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan; 3 Kyoto City
University of Arts, Japan
2AM2-R13-07
Some well-trained musicians empirically argue that they listen to the music in diverse

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ICMPC 10modes. They may change their listening “mode” in accordance with situations;trying to understand the musical structure, evaluating the level of performanceand so on. This study investigated the prefrontal cortex activation during listening
to music in diﬀerent modes by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS). Two tasks andtwo stimuli conditions were prepared. Two tasks were to detect a target (Detectiontask) and to simply listen to the stimuli (Listening task). Two types of stimuli were
unknown piano pieces (Original condition) and scrambled fragments of Original
stimuli (Scrambled condition). In Detection task of Original condition, participants
were required to respond to their subjective phrase boundaries. In Detection taskof Scrambled condition, participants were asked to detect a noise burst presented
at the timing when the participants in the Detection task of Original condition had
marked. As a result, superior frontal cortex activation was signiﬁcantly decreased
for Original condition stimuli in Detection task, while it was signiﬁcantly increased in
the other conditions. The result suggests that speciﬁc cognitive processes included
in analyzing a musically structured stimulus aﬀect activities in the superior frontal
cortex.

Non-Right-Handedness as a Neurophysiological Selection Variablein Musicians: The Inﬂuence of Early Beginning and Practice on the
Incidence of Handedness
Reinhard Kopiez 1 , Niels Galley 2 , Andreas C. Lehmann 3 , Marco
Lehmann 1 , Hauke Egermann 1 ; 1 Hannover University of Music andDrama, Germany; 2 University of Cologne, Germany; 3 Hochschule fürMusik Würzburg, Germany
2AM2-R13-09
For musicians, practising plays an important role. However, the question remains
whether particular occurrences of handedness are the result of intensive bimanual
training or the neurophysiological and genetically determined prerequisite for
year-long successful practising (Kopiez, Galley & Lee 2006). The theoretical basis isgiven by Annett’s (2002) “right-shift theory” which classiﬁes people as right-handers(RH) and non-right-handers (NRH). We assume that bimanual training could result ina higher proportion of NRH in bimanually performing musicians (pianists, violinists),
compared with the normal population. 128 music students (76 pianists, 47 string
players, and 5 various instrumentalists) participated in a performance test of handedness (speed tapping), resulting in a lateralisation coeﬃcient (LC=100*[L-R/L+R]).
Based on the subjects’ self-declaration of handedness (11.7% NRH), the proportion of
RH and NRH was identiﬁed by binary logistic regression. We found a proportion of
30.8% of NRH in the group of musicians, while in the control group of non-musicians(matched for age range), a proportion of 21.7% of NRH was observed. The correlation
between LC and the age at which pianists and string players began playing was foundto be r(128) = .06; (n.s.). We argue that this increased proportion is based on an early
onset of a selection eﬀect in the course of instrumental lessons. In other words,
pianists do not become ambidextrous, but ambidextrous people can become pianists.

Comparing Cortical Networks Underpinning Singing with Lyrics
and Propositional Language
Sarah Wilson 1 , David Abbott 2 , Anthony Waites 2 , Regula Briellmann 2 ,Dean Lusher 1 , Gaby Pell 2 , Jenni Ogden 3 , Michael Saling 1 , Graeme
Jackson 2 ; 1 University of Melbourne, Australia; 2 Austin Health,
Australia; 3 University of Auckland, New Zealand
2AM2-R13-11
Research has suggested that singing with words may facilitate propositional languagein patients with aphasia, however mechanisms supporting this observation remain
poorly understood. We compared cortical activation associated with covert propositional language and singing with familiar lyrics in the same group of 26 healthy
individuals undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). For each task,
the BOLD response compared to rest was modeled assuming the SPM canonicalhaemodynamic response function and assessed with unpaired t-tests, using a cluster
threshold of p<0.05 corrected for multiple comparisons. To control for variablesinging ability, an out-of-scanner behavioural measure of pitch accuracy was includedin the model as a covariate of no interest. The Sing-Rest contrast revealed signiﬁcantbilateral activation in the middle frontal gyri, maximal on the right at 50, 2, 44 and58, 4, 28 (BA6) and on the left extending more posteriorly into the pre-central gyrus
at -46, -14, 32. The Speech-Rest contrast revealed that this left-sided activation

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

overlapped with a portion of the left middle frontal activation observed during
generative language. Our ﬁndings conﬁrm previous research indicating involvementof the right frontal lobe during singing. They extend this research by suggesting
involvement of the propositional language network in singing with familiar lyrics.

2AM2-R16 : Demonstration I
Rooms 16, 10:40 – 12:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008,

Illusions Related to Auditory Grammar: Ten Demonstrations inMusical Contexts
Yoshitaka Nakajima; Kyushu University, Japan
2AM2-R16-1
Auditory illusions that can be interpreted in the theoretical framework of auditory
grammar are demonstrated in contexts that are related to music. Auditory grammar
is a conceptual tool to construct auditory streams out of auditory subevents, i.e.,
onsets, oﬀsets, ﬁllings, and silences. Cues of subevents are detected independently
to be interpreted, or suppressed, by the auditory system. Interpreted subeventsshould be concatenated grammatically to form auditory streams. A few Gestalt
principles work in this process. If subevents are reconstructed subjectively in such a
way to show an inconsistency with the physical structures of stimulus patterns, or ifsome subevents are suppressed or restored perceptually, illusory phenomena should
appear. My colleagues and I explained, and sometimes predicted the existence of,several auditory illusions in this framework. Ten auditory demonstrations made ofsynthesized instrumental and vocal sounds are presented to indicate how the human
auditory system as described by auditory grammar can work in music. The illusions
to be presented are the gap transfer illusion, the illusory auditory completion, theillusory split-oﬀ, subjective reconstruction of melody, and time-swelling. These
illusions appear clearly in the musical contexts, and often more clearly than whensimpler sounds are employed.

2AM2-R17 : Demonstration II
Rooms 17, 10:40 – 12:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008,

Collecting Continuous Data in Music and Listeners: PsySound3
and RTCRR, Two Free Resources
Densil Cabrera 1 , Emery Schubert 2 , Farhan Rizwi 2 , Sam Ferguson 1 ;1University of Sydney, Australia; 2 University of New South Wales,
Australia
2AM2-R17-1
This demonstration describes two software resources for collecting data on musicalfeatures of sound recordings and continuous human responses: PsySound3 and
RTCRR. PsySound3 is a soundﬁle analysis framework that enables analysis of various
general and psychoacoustical parameters of sound recordings including time-series
data. The general parameters relate to spectrum, autocorrelation, sound level,
and the like, and psychoacoustical parameters include loudness, sharpness, pitch,roughness and binaural modelling. In several cases, more than one algorithm isimplemented for a type of output parameter, and new analysis algorithms are easily
introduced into the software framework. PsySound3 is Matlab-based. RTCRR (RealTime Continuous Response Recorder — pronounced ‘Arty-car’) is a Macintosh based
tool that samples continuous responses of experimenter-selected response scales(up to 2 recordable simultaneously) to multimedia stimuli. The time-based responses
are synchronised with the audio stimulus and can be exported for further analysis
at a sampling rate of up to 30 Hz. Examples of the use of each will be provided. The
resources are freely available from www.psysound.org and under software/facilities
at empa.arts.unsw.edu.au/em/. PsySound3 received ﬁnancial support from theAustralian Research Council grant LE0668448 and the University of New South Wales
via its Strategic Investment in Research Scheme. RTCRR received ﬁnancial support
from the Australian Research Council grant DP0452290.

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ICMPC 102PM1-R02 : Rhythm, Meter and Timing II
Room 2, 13:30 – 15:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

An Empirically Validated Model of Complexity: Longuet-Higgins
and Lee Reconsidered
Olivia Ladinig, Henkjan Honing; Universiteit van Amsterdam, The
Netherlands
2PM1-R02-1
This paper aims to validate and elaborate the Longuet-Higgins and Lee’s (1984)
model of syncopation (L-model for short) using previously published empirical data
(Ladinig & Honing, 2007) on complexity judgments. First, the L-model event salience
is combined with a sequential component, so as to better reﬂect the empirical results.
Second, formal musical training will be a parameter of the model accounting for thediﬀerences found in the responses of non-musicians and musicians. The empirical
data suggest that not only do listeners use hierarchical templates to make sense ofa rhythm (as suggested by the L-model), but their judgments are also inﬂuenced by
the temporal extent and absolute position of the events. For all listeners, events atthe beginning of a bar in general receive higher salience ratings, presumably because
they help in establishing a mental framework (primacy eﬀect). For non-musicians, anadditional strong recency eﬀect is observed. We show that when models of rhythm
perception are extended with a sequential component based on heuristics, a betterﬁt with the data is obtained. This shows particularly useful when considering on-line
perception of ecologically plausible patterns.

Musical Rhythm Parsing Using Mixture Probabilistic Context-Free
Grammar
Makoto Tanji, Daichi Ando, Hitoshi Iba; University of Tokyo, Japan
2PM1-R02-2
The metrical structure is important to analyze music pieces. And there has beencognitive interest in it. Listener perceives the metrical structure relatively easily. However machine like approach has been diﬃcult. It implies that listener havea model containing prior knowledge for music and listen music applying to the model.
In this paper, we attempt to model the metrical structure by mixture model ofProbabilistic Context-Free Grammar named Metrical PCFG Model. Because theMetrical PCFG Model is probabilistic model, it allows us to estimate maximum
likelihood structure on the model based on Bayes’s Theorem. And the mixture model
distinguishes musical meters 4/4, 3/4 and 6/8.
The quantitative performance of metrical structure estimation and score quantization
problem are investigated. We found that our model needs relatively small amount oftraining data compared to HMM. The best result of the metrical structure problem
was about 90% in F-Score. For score quantization problem, 98.8% notes are correctly
estimated from MIDI data. The result of simple threshold quantization method
works about 88%. We infer that our model works a part of human perception.

Role of Partner’s Feedback Information in Rhythm Production
Taiki Ogata, Takeshi Takenaka, Kanji Ueda; University of Tokyo,
Japan
2PM1-R02-3
Although rhythm production between two people might be inaccurate, we canproduce a rhythm more smoothly with a partner than with a metronome. This study
was intended to investigate the role of a partner’s feedback in rhythm production
using a continuous and alternating tapping task. The alternate tapping task was totap a pressure sensor using an index ﬁnger alternately with metronomes of two kinds(constant inter-stimulus intervals (ATm) or constant time diﬀerence from responseto stimulus (ATf)) or with a partner (ATp) following the eight pacemaker stimuli. The
continuous tapping task (CT) was to keep twice the tempo of the pacemaker. Tapping
performance under the ATp condition was better than under the CT condition.
Furthermore, tapping performance under ATp condition was better than under ATm
and ATf conditions in means and standard deviations of time diﬀerences fromstimulus to response (ds). The results of time series analyses suggest that under ATp
condition, inter-tap intervals (ITIs) were corrected to adapt to the partner’s ITIs andds were corrected using long past ds of the participant’s own and of the partner inmutually complementary manner.

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Phase Correction in Sensorimotor Synchronization with
Non-Isochronous Rhythms
Bruno H. Repp 1 , Justin London 2 , Peter E. Keller 3 ; 1 Haskins
Laboratories, USA; 2 Carleton College, USA; 3 MPI CBS, Germany
2PM1-R02-4
Phase correction is required to maintain synchronization of a movement with arhythm. It has been studied primarily with isochronous sequences. We used a phase
perturbation method to examine how phase correction operates in cyclically repeated
non-isochronous rhythms containing two or three intervals whose long and shortdurations form a 2:3 ratio. Musically trained participants tapped in synchrony withcomputer-controlled sequences containing small local phase shifts. The immediate
reaction to a phase shift (the phase correction response, PCR, of the next tap,
expressed as a percentage of the phase shift in the rhythm) was the dependent
variable. In isochronous control sequences, we conﬁrmed previous ﬁndings that the
PCR is larger when tone inter-onset intervals are long (600 ms) rather than short(400 ms). In non-isochronous two-interval rhythms containing alternating intervalsof these same durations, we found a similar dependence of the PCR on the durationof the interval following a phase shift. In three-interval rhythms, however, where
either the short or the long interval occurred twice, there was no clear dependence
on interval duration. In general, phase correction in non-isochronous rhythms was
as eﬀective as in isochronous rhythms. The metrical interpretation of the rhythms(i.e., where the downbeat was located) had no eﬀect on either rhythm production orphase correction.

2PM1-R03 : Music Listening II
Room 3, 13:30 – 15:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

How Music Touches: The Eﬀects of Pitch, Loudness, Timbre andVibrato on Listeners’ Audiotactile Metaphorical Mappings
Inbar Rothschild, Zohar Eitan; Tel Aviv University, Israel
2PM1-R03-1
Relationships of touch and sound are central to music performance, and audiotactile
metaphors are pertinent to musical discourse. Yet, few empirical studies haveinvestigated systematically how musical parameters such as pitch, loudness, andtimbre and their interactions aﬀect auditory-tactile metaphorical mappings. In
this study, 40 participants (20 musically trained) rated the appropriateness of six
dichotomous tactile metaphors (sharp-blunt, smooth-rough, soft-hard, light-heavy,
warm-cold and wet-dry) to 20 sounds, varying in pitch, loudness, instrumental timbre(violin vs. ﬂute) and vibrato. Results (repeated measures ANOVAs) suggest thattactile metaphors are strongly associated with all musical variables examined. For
instance, higher pitches were rated as signiﬁcantly sharper, rougher, harder, colder,
and lighter than lower pitches. We consider two complementary accounts for theﬁndings: psychophysical analogies of tactile and auditory sensory processing, andexperiential analogies, based on correlations between tactile and auditory qualities
of sound sources in daily experience.

The Eﬀect of Music Listening on Spatial Skills: The Role ofProcessing Time
Doris Grillitsch, Richard Parncutt; University of Graz, Austria
2PM1-R03-2
Previous research on the eﬀect of music listening on spatial skills has not carefully
considered the time taken by participants to complete spatial tasks. We randomly
selected 4 groups of 10 participants. Each group listened to 3 minutes of music (orsilence) then worked on a cube rotation task (A3DW). Group 1 listened to happy,
fast music by Mozart, Group 2 to a favorite CD track, Group 3 to sad, slow music by
Mozart and Group 4 sat in silence. The groups did not diﬀer in spatial skills, butthere was a large diﬀerence in working time: the mean time spent on each rotation
task was 47s, 103s, 90s and 73s for Groups 1–4 respectively. We speculate on
possible reasons why listening to a favorite piece of music might cause participants
to spend more time on a subsequent spatial task. The results imply that music can
indirectly promote the acquisition of non-musical skills, since children who spend
more accumulated time on any task will become more skilful in that task.

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ICMPC 10

Continuous Measurement of Musical Impression by the Color
Image
Hiroshi Kawakami; Nihon University, Japan
2PM1-R03-3
Continuous change of the impression while listening to music was observed bychoosing the color. The possibility of observing continuous impression change wasveriﬁed using the color selection. Subjects were 17 volunteers and they clicked
the start button for playing music and selected the color, which they felt, on RGB
gradation. The value of each RGB parameters was recorded. Music was “Ah, vous
dirai-je Maman” by Mozart. Although how to choose a color for every subject was
diﬀerent, the similarity of change in 12 variations was seen. Warm colors wereselected in the dynamic parts, such as pink or orange, and contrast was deep. In the
8th variation that changes to minor, dark blue and purple were chosen. In the 7thvariation that modal interchanges on the parallel minor key were used frequently,
dark colors, such as purplish red, were also chosen. Moreover, in the 9th variationthat changed from the 8th minor to major, the yellowish green or orange werechosen. Even if the color chosen by every subject was diﬀerent, it was possible torecord the impression change continuously by recording color and that the selectedcolor was related to the impression of a musical piece.

Aesthetic Reactions to Music in Elementary School Children:
Revisiting the Open-Earedness Hypothesis
Marco Lehmann, Reinhard Kopiez; Hannover University of Music andDrama, Germany
2PM1-R03-4
The open-earedness hypothesis (Hargreaves, 1982) states that younger children
are more tolerant towards music that is regarded by adults as unconventional. To
understand the transition from more to less open-earedness, we had to examine
the precise interaction between the factors age and type of music. In line with
Hargreaves, a decline in open-earedness should not only result in less preference forunconventional music in older children, but also in a stabilized level of preference
for conventional music. Based on the statement that pop music is a “badge ofidentity” for adolescents (Hargreaves, Marshall, & North, 2003), we classiﬁed pop
music as conventional and examples of classical, avant-garde and ethnic music as
unconventional music. Elementary school children in the four grades (N=186) rated
their preferences for eight short musical examples taken from these genres. We
found a decline in open-earedness between grades one and two, in contrast to earlier
results by Schellberg & Gembris (2003). However, the decline in open-earedness wasdue to a decreasing preference for classical music in older participants. Thus, whilechildren prefer pop music and devalue classical music within their acquired stylistic
sensitivity in western tonality (Hargreaves, North & Tarrant, 2006), with increasing
age, they possibly maintain open-earedness in regard to music which does not belong
to this idiom.

2PM1-R04 : Emotion in Music II
Room 4, 13:30 – 15:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Cross-Cultural Investigation of Adolescents’ Use of Music for
Mood Regulation
Suvi Saarikallio; University of Jyväskylä, Finland
2PM1-R04-1
The current study was a cross-cultural exploration of diﬀerences and similarities
in how adolescents regulate their mood through music in Finland and in Kenya.
As a whole, the study was a qualitative exploration of cultural characteristics, but
it included also quantitative analysis of a pilot survey. The results demonstrated
the many-sidedness of music as a means of mood regulation, speciﬁed previous
understanding of the mood-regulatory mechanisms, established similarity between
the cultural groups in the basic nature of mood regulation, and revealed somecross-cultural diﬀerences in how the regulation was realized and what aspects wereemphasized. The study increased knowledge of the role of cultural background in
the emotional experience of music.

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

Strong Emotional Experiences in Choir Singing — A Cross-Cultural
Approach
Jukka Louhivuori; University of Jyväskylä, Finland
2PM1-R04-2
The main reason for people to sing in a choir is according to previous studies music’s
social and emotional dimensions. In previous studies choir singers have reported
strong emotional experiences (SEM). Although SEM has been widely studied, the roleof cultural background in these experiences is not well understood. The study aims
to compare the quality and quantity of strong experiences of music experienced by
the singers with results reported in previous studies about SEM. It is argued that thebasic emotions are very similar in diﬀerent cultures because of the long evolutionary
history of emotions. The cultural diﬀerences are believed to appear more in therealization of emotions in behavior (phenotype). The research material consists ofquantitative (N=713) and qualitative data (40 interviews), which has been collectedfrom choir singers in six countries (Finland, Estonia, Belgium, Rumania, South Africa,
Kenya). The main cultural diﬀerences concerned the role of social situation andstrength of emotions. Cultural background did not show a prominent role in thefrequency or quality of emotional experiences. Cultural background had an inﬂuenceon how emotions are expressed in musical performance and on speech about music.
Understanding underlying cognitive, emotional, social and cultural process behindmusical experiences asks for a global perspective. Deeper understanding of cultural
diﬀerences in musical experiences increases multicultural societies’ abilities tomanage complex socio-cultural processes.

Orientation Eﬀect in Continuous Emotional Response Tasks
Emery Schubert; University of New South Wales, Australia
2PM1-R04-3
This paper discusses identiﬁcation of initial-orientation-time based on the secondorder standard deviation (SD2) method, a simple time series technique that identiﬁes
signiﬁcant activity in multiple response time-series data. For each emotion dimensionof each piece investigated, the mean of the SD series, and the SD2 were calculated,
ignoring the ﬁrst 20 seconds. A one SD2 conﬁdence range was produced. Initialorientation was then deﬁned as the time taken for the SD series to ﬁrst enter thisrange. For the 2 dimensions by four pieces, the median orientation time was 7.5
seconds. Initial orientation time varies according to several factors. The ambiguityof the emotional message and the tempo of the piece are two examples. Orientation
time can also be hidden in a ‘true’ response which happens to be close to the initial
response position. This raises the question of whether the start of a continuous
response task should be made at a neutral position (such as middle or zero points ofvalence and arousal scales) or at random. The former falsely deﬂates the spread ofscores. However, there are pragmatic concerns about starting a continuous responsetask in random positions. It therefore seems likely that there will be a typical lower
limit of initial orientation time where SD is initially less than the mean second orderSD, and then overshoots, and then settles into the ‘reliable’ conﬁdence region.

Evaluating Structure and Performance: Relationships Between
Judgments of Tension, Emotion, Expression, and Interest inDiﬀerent Musical Performances
Richard D. Ashley; Northwestern University, USA
2PM1-R04-4
Numerous studies have explored the relationship between musical structure, expressive performance, and listener responses; often continuous ratings are obtained foremotionality (valence, intensity, or both), tension, expressiveness, and familiarityof thematic materials. The relationship between these diﬀerent scales, and theirconnection to speciﬁcs in musical structure and expressive performance, has been
little explored. This study aimed at more systematic exploration of the relationships
between continuous judgments of musical tension, emotion, expressiveness, andinterest; Two compositions were used: Mozart Piano Sonata K. 282, I (development
and recapitulation) and Scriabin Prelude Op. 11/4, in both expressive and mechanicalversions. Participants listened to these performances and gave continuous responses
to musical tension, emotionality, expressiveness, and interest. In addition, theymarked moments in the performances which were particularly expressive or interesting and gave summary post-listening evaluations of the emotionality, expressiveness,aesthetic quality, and interest of the performance. Results to date indicate that there
are both signiﬁcant correlations and signiﬁcant diﬀerences between the categories

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ICMPC 10of continuous ratings, showing that these variables are tapping into diﬀerent aspectsof musical structure and performance. Individual musical moments marked as
expressive or interesting contribute in diﬀerent and complicated ways to thesejudgments and have a strong eﬀect on not only momentary but overall responses.

2PM1-R05 : Education II
Room 5, 13:30 – 15:30 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

The Social Representations of Music, Musicality, Music Child andGeneral Teachers
Anna Rita Addessi, Felice Caurgati; University of Bologna, Italy
2PM1-R05-1
This paper deals with a research project currently being undertaken at Universityof Bologna about the training of the university students studying to become musicteachers. The general hypothesis of the project is that “musical knowledge” (Olsson
1997, 2002), can be investigated as a social and psychological construction as
described by the theory of Social Representations (Moscovici 1981; Mugny-Carugati1989), as well as social music values (Baroni 1993, Bourdieu 1983) aﬀecting musiceducation and teaching practice.

Mobile Music for Children — Experiences of MobiKid
Maija Fredrikson 1 , Pirkko A. Paananen 2 ; 1 University of Oulu, Finland;
2
University of Jyväskylä, Finland
2PM1-R05-2
In the present study, mobile software applications for young children were developed and tested. The pedagogical design is based on IP-/Neo-Piagetian theory ofdevelopment. The research perspectives were focused on child-centered usability
and software development. MobiKid software was developed to allow children to
sing, record and listen to the songs, and forward the recorded songs to the server
independently at home. The song repertoire in the software was learned in advancein music plays school; a group of nine girls worked on their personal mobile phones.
The music play school teacher worked also as the mobile teacher in the hardware.
Outside the music play school context, one boy used the device independently athome. (UI) and the software design were investigated by parent questionnaires
and video-observations. Children were able to work independently on the device,and the structure of decision-making was suitable for the users. However, some
UI-features were uncompleted. Children were highly motivated in singing, learningand decision-making. MobiKid provided a natural, motivating context for musicalcreativity and social sharing as well as a tool for research in the development ofsinging.

Diﬀerences in Conceptions of Musical Ability
Susan Hallam; IOE University of London, UK
2PM1-R05-3
Historically, musical ability was largely conceptualised in relation to basic auralskills. Recently, broader conceptions have identiﬁed a range of skills required forreaching high levels of musical expertise. This study aims to explore the diﬀerent
conceptualisations of musical ability held by musicians, educators, other adults, andchildren. An inventory with statements derived from previous qualitative research
exploring conceptions of music ability was used to assess the conceptions of musicalability held by 650 individuals aged 14 to 90 including musicians, educators, adults
who were actively engaged in music making in an amateur capacity, adults were
not actively engaged in making music, children actively engaged in making musicin addition to their engagement with the school curriculum and children with noengagement with music outside of the school curriculum. Factor analysis of the
responses revealed 6 factors related to: the skills required for playing an instrument
or singing; musical communication; listening and appreciating music; composition
and improvisation; personal commitment and motivation; and aural and analytic
skills. There were statistically signiﬁcant diﬀerences between each of the respondentgroups in relation to each of the factors. The ﬁndings suggest that the way thatmusical ability is conceptualized by any individual depends on the nature of his or
her engagement with music.

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

The Impact of Formal and Informal Learning on Students’Compositional Processes
Sylvana Augustyniak; University of New South Wales, Australia
2PM1-R05-4
Many students spend hours a day listening to music; from the moment students wakeup in the morning to the time they go to bed, students engage in listening to music.
The accessibility of various music technologies such as iPod, iTunes, compositional
software and the like have helped to increase the rate of memorized learning by
students.
Few studies have acknowledged the impact that these out-side inﬂuences have in theclassroom. One such inﬂuence is the impact of technology on students’ absorptionof conscious and unconscious knowledge regardless of whether students are trainedor untrained musically.
The two diﬀerent types of listening students engage in have been operationallydeﬁned in my PhD thesis as either conscious listening (purposeful listening/ explicit
learning) or unconscious listening (background listening/ implicit learning).

2PM2-R02 : Rhythm, Meter and Timing III
Room 2, 15:45 – 17:45 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Selective Rhythmic Impairments in Music
William F. Thompson 1 , Linda Sigmundsdottir 1 , John R. Iversen 2 ,Aniruddh D. Patel 2 ; 1 Macquarie University, Australia; 2 The
Neurosciences Institute, USA
2PM2-R02-1
Research has addressed tone deafness or “congenital amusia” (CA), but most of
this research concerns pitch-related deﬁcits. Rhythmic deﬁcits sometimes co-occur
in CA but may be secondary to pitch problems. The aim of this research was todetermine if there are individuals with normal musical pitch perception but impaired
musical rhythm perception. Another aim was to evaluate two novel tests of rhythm
perception. Participants were administered the MBEA (which includes 3 subtestsof pitch perception and 2 of rhythm perception) and two new rhythm tests: theMonotonic Rhythm Test (MRT) and the Beat Alignment Test (BAT). The MRT involves
same/diﬀerent discrimination of rhythmic patterns produced on a single pitch. The
BAT involves listening to musical excerpts and judging whether a superimposed trainof beeps is “on the beat” or not. Five participants performed in the normal range on
pitch-related subtests of the MBEA but showed impairments on one or both rhythm
subtests. Individuals with impaired rhythm also showed reduced performance on the
BAT and MRT tests, suggesting a selective rhythmic impairment. However, variabilityon these latter two tests was large, pointing to the need for larger samples in orderto determine if the tests can help diagnose rhythm impairments.

Does Amusic Mean Unmusical?
Jessica Phillips-Silver 1 , Isabelle Peretz 1 , Nathalie Gosselin 1 , Petri
Toiviainen 2 , Olivier Piché 1 ; 1 Université de Montréal, Canada;
2
University of Jyväskylä, Finland
2PM2-R02-2
The severe pitch deﬁcit in congenital amusia can interfere with the ability to perceiveand produce a rhythmic beat in music. However, the extent of rhythm abilities in
the context of music without melodic pitch information is unknown. We tested therhythm abilities of a classic amusic subject, in the context of real music devoid of
melodic pitch : percussion music. Using perception and production of body movement as an index of rhythm processing, we demonstrate that an amusic subject canjudge and synchronize movement to percussion music as well as to a metronome. We
suggest that in congenital amusia, performance on melodic music is not equivalent
to performance on percussion music. An amusic’s rhythmic ability is not limited tothe metronome : by removing the primary source of their musical deﬁcit, pitch, andby using simple body movement, an amusic subject can be musical.

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

ICMPC 10Eﬀects of Marker Durations on the Perception of Inter-Onset TimeIntervals
Emi Hasuo, Yoshitaka Nakajima; Kyushu University, Japan
2PM2-R02-3
When people perceive rhythm in music, they are listening to the intervals between theonsets of successive sounds. This study focuses on how the temporal length between
the onsets of two sounds is perceived. We varied the duration of the sound markers
systematically and conducted two experiments to examine how the durations of
the markers aﬀect the perception of time intervals. The results of the experiments
can be summarized as follows: 1) lengthening both the ﬁrst and the second marker
caused the inter-onset time interval to be judged longer, 2) lengthening only the ﬁrst
marker in some cases caused the interval to be judged longer, although not clearly,
and 3) lengthening only the second marker caused the interval to be judged longer ina stable manner. These tendencies appeared both when the amplitude of the markers
of diﬀerent duration was made constant, and when the total energy of the markers
of diﬀerent duration was made constant. It was shown that the perceived length of
an inter-onset time interval increases as the duration of the markers lengthen, andthat the eﬀect of the second marker is more stable and more systematic.

A Multiresolution Model of Rhythmic Expectancy
Leigh M. Smith, Henkjan Honing; Universiteit van Amsterdam, The
Netherlands
2PM2-R02-4
We describe a computational model of rhythmic cognition that predicts expected onset times. A dynamic representation of musical rhythm, the multiresolution analysis
using the continuous wavelet transform is used. This representation decomposes
the temporal structure of a musical rhythm into time varying frequency components
in the rhythmic frequency range (sample rate of 200Hz). Both expressive timing andtemporal structure (score times) contribute in an integrated fashion to determine
the temporal expectancies. Future expected times are computed using peaks inthe accumulation of time-frequency ridges. This accumulation at the edge of theanalysed time window forms a dynamic expectancy. We evaluate this model using
data sets of expressively timed (or performed) and generated musical rhythms, by
its ability to produce expectancy proﬁles which correspond to metrical proﬁles. The
results show that rhythms of two diﬀerent meters are able to be distinguished. Sucha representation indicates that a bottom-up, data-oriented process (or a non-cognitivemodel) is able to reveal durations which match metrical structure from realistic
musical examples. This then helps to clarify the role of schematic expectancy(top-down) and it’s contribution to the formation of musical expectation.

2PM2-R03 : Performance III
Room 3, 15:45 – 17:45 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Inﬂuences of Movement and Grip on Perceptual and Measured
Tone Quality in Drumming
Soﬁa Dahl, Michael Grossbach, Eckart Altenmüller; Hannover
University of Music and Drama, Germany
2PM2-R03-1
In drumming, the interaction between drumstick and drumhead is determining thequality of the tone. It is believed that a richer spectrum is developed when the
stick freely strikes and bounces up from the drumhead, as compared to strokes
when the rebound of the stick is hindered. However, on occasion the rebound is toostrong for the next stroke and needs to be controlled, for instance by a muscular
hypertension of the grip. In order to investigate the movement-to-sound interaction
during drumming, audio, contact interaction between drumhead and drumstick,and muscle activity in grip (EMG) were recorded. Furthermore, the movement ofdrumstick and player were analyzed using a motion capture system.
Professional players were asked to play two types of mezzoforte strokes on a drum:“normal” and “controlled”. “Normal” strokes were allowed to freely rebound fromthe drumhead. For “controlled” strokes the player was asked to control the ending
position of the drumstick, stopping it as close as possible to the drumhead directly
after the stroke.

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

Results show that the two playing instructions inﬂuenced the interaction between
drumstick and drumhead. Compared to normal strokes, the controlled strokes
yielded a shorter contact duration and higher peak force. Listeners rated the normal
strokes as having a fuller timbre and harder attack.

Continuous Self-Report of Engagement to Live Solo Marimba
Performance
Mary Broughton 1 , Catherine Stevens 1 , Emery Schubert 2 ; 1 Universityof Western Sydney, Australia; 2 University of New South Wales,
Australia
2PM2-R03-2
Laboratory-controlled experiments have demonstrated that expressive bodily movement (or lack thereof) can contribute positively (or negatively) to assessments ofmarimba performance. The experiment reported here investigates audience continuous self-report engagement responses gathered via the portable Audience Response
Facility (pARF). The stimulus material was a solo marimba piece performed in alive concert. A female musician performed two musically similar sections within
the piece in two diﬀerent performance manners (deadpan and projected). The
second-order standard deviation threshold method analysed signal reliability. As
hypothesised, mean engagement responses were greater in the projected sample
than the deadpan sample. Reliable signal was only observed in the projected sample.
Diﬀerence between deadpan and projected sample mean engagement responses may
be due to expressive bodily movement from the performance manner manipulation;
alternatively, an order eﬀect may be responsible. Experimentation in ecologicallyvalid settings enables understanding of audience perception of music performanceas it unfolds in time.

An Eﬀective Singing for Musical Expressions
Kiyomi Toyoda 1 , Tsutomu Fujinami 2 ; 1 Tokyo Nikikai Opera
Foundation, Japan; 2 JAIST, Japan
2PM2-R03-3
It is widely accepted among singers and voice trainers that singing in the samemanner for opening throat like yawn may result in increasing the resonance andthus allow singers to express the content of music in detail. We carried out anexperiment to investigate whether the practice is eﬀective in improving vocal skills.
We employed a female singer, whose repertoire is mostly consisted of classicalmusic, and asked her to adopt the particular way of singing. We measured its eﬀect
in two aspects:1) Objectively, we measured the vibration of her body while she wassinging using a laser interferometer, an innovative optical sensing technology, and
2) Inter-subjectively, we measured how listeners perceived the content of music
composition with a questionnaire. As the result, we found the technique to beeﬀective in increasing the resonance of the voice by opening the cavity of larynx andpharynx. The FFT analysis of the vibration revealed that the spectrum values aroundhigh tones(750–800Hz) were distinctively high when she opened the cavity of larynx
and pharynx, compared to the ones when she did not adopt such a technique. We
examined how thirty listeners perceived the content of a song by adopting the Music
appreciation evaluation experiment (Mood Adjective Check List) to observe its eﬀects
as we expected. We conclude that the singing, in which the throat opens like yawn,
resulted in increasing the resonance of voice. We believe that our ﬁnding will help
singers to improve his or her vocal-skill in musically meaningful ways.

Hype vs. Natural Tempo: A Long-Term Study of Dance Music
Tempi
Dirk Moelants; Ghent University, Belgium
2PM2-R03-4
Musical tempi found in dance music provide us with information on the relationshipbetween music and movement. Large databases of (dance) music tempi are available
as tools for DJs. In this paper, one speciﬁc database, the ‘Scandinavian Dance Charts’is the main object of study. The database contains the tempi of the Top 40 in thedance charts which is updated weekly since 1998. Analysis of the tempo distributions
thus provides us with details on the evolution in tempo over a period of 10 years. The
long-term study of dance music tempi may allow us to distinguish between fashion
trends in dance music (and dance movement) and the most preferred, natural tempo.
It shows that he main peak stays very consistent at 128 bpm, with a small range

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ICMPC 10around it (125–130) representing about half of the total entries. Looking for variationin the data throughout time has allowed us to identify the styles behind diﬀerent
tempo zones and to follow their evolution throughout time. Dance music foundoutside the preferred range can be associated with diﬀerent types of movement
related to diﬀerent resonance phenomena.

2PM2-R04 : Education III
Room 4, 15:45 – 17:45 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Exploring Children’s Understanding of Music Through the Use ofDrawings and Interviews
Tiija Rinta, Susan Hallam; IOE University of London, UK
2PM2-R04-1
Research on children’s understanding of music has generally considered children’s
improvisations, compositions, notations, or their understandings of the emotions
portrayed in music. The aim of this study was to investigate children’s overall
understanding of music through drawings and their explanations of those drawings.
18 10-year-olds participated in the study listening to music from three diﬀerent
genres, classical/ ﬁlm, jazz, and popular music. After listening to each piece thechildren drew a picture reﬂecting how they understood the music and were theninterviewed and asked to explain the relationship between the picture and the music.
The drawings were analysed using content analysis, and consideration of colour
and size. The interviews were subject to thematic analysis. The themes emerging
related to musical elements, dynamics, images associated with the music, aﬀective
responses, events associated with the music, adopting a holist listening style, musicalstructure, lyrics, familiarity with the musical style, and musical instruments. There
were diﬀerences in response relating to the genre of the music. The combination ofdrawings and interviews was found to be a useful means for investigating children’s
musical understanding illustrating the range of diﬀerent types of understandings
which children may have in response to diﬀerent types of music.

Deﬁning Relationships Between Motivational Beliefs andSelf-Regulated Practising Behaviours Using a Structural Equation
Model
James M. Renwick 1 , Gary E. McPherson 2 , John McCormick 3 ;1
University of Sydney, Australia; 2 University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, USA; 3 University of Wollongong, Australia
2PM2-R04-2
The amount of time musicians spend practising and their use of adaptive learning
strategies are crucial to skill development. Because practice is self-directed, motivational eﬀects are especially salient. This study of young people preparing fora music examination investigated associations between practising behaviour andmotivational constructs derived from self-determination theory, which interprets
motivation as lying along a continuum of perceived autonomy. Relations between ﬁve
regulatory styles on this intrinsic–extrinsic continuum and three types of practising
behaviour were investigated through structural equation modelling. Factor analysis
revealed ﬁve motivational dimensions with partial correspondence to research inacademic and sport domains: internal, external, social, shame-related, and examrelated motives. Three behavioural factors consistent with self-regulated learningtheory emerged: eﬀort management, monitoring, and strategy use. Structural
equation modelling showed a clearer picture than emerged from previous multiple
regression analyses: internal motivation accounted best for variance in each typeof practising behaviour, with only a small added eﬀect from competence beliefs
and exam-related motivation. Thus, for young musicians engaged in a demanding
assessment task, intrinsic motivation was not statistically distinguishable frominternalised extrinsic motivation, despite the distinction drawn in self-determination
theory. Self-regulated practising behaviour was explained more powerfully by thisunitary internal motivation construct than by perceived competence and other lessinternalised forms of extrinsic motivation.

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

Developing a Music Aptitude Test for Schoolchildren in Asia
Yoko Ogawa 1 , Tadahiro Murao 2 , Esther Ho Shun Mang 3 ; 1 Tottori
University, Japan; 2 Aichi University of Education, Japan; 3 Hong Kong
Baptist University, China
2PM2-R04-3
This paper addressed a New Music Aptitude Test (NMAT) for Asian school children,and the relationship between NMAT scores and children’s musical achievement as
rated by their teachers. Participants in the study were 135 male and 149 female
aged 8 to 13 years (3rd , 4th , 5th and 6th grades). In the ﬁrst part of the study, thechildren were asked to respond to each item on paper while listening to audio stimuli
of NMAT, which consists of 5 categories: timbre, time, pitch, loudness and tonal
imagery-melody. In the second part of the study, music teachers also required torate whole children’s musical achievement using traditional musical tests. Children
performed best in the timbre and loudness categories while, weaker in the pitch andtonal imagery-melody categories. Younger children were particularly weak in the
tonal imagery-melody category. Teachers’ assigned achievement scores did not havestrong correlations with NMAT scores. However, Pearson correlations (p<.001) were
insigniﬁcant among the younger children but signiﬁcant among the older children.
Therefore, the results of the NMAT were similar between those found in teachers’
evaluation in older children. This ﬁnding implies that NMAT could be a reliablepredictor of children’s musical aptitude.

The Professional Relevance of Music Psychology: An Internet
SurveyRichard Parncutt 1 , Nicola Dibben 2 , Margit Painsi 1 , Manuela Marin 1 ;1University of Graz, Austria; 2 University of Sheﬃeld, UK
2PM2-R04-4
What careers are pursued by music psychology students? How professionallyuseful are music psychology courses? Some 150 ex-students were recruited throughteacher/researchers and email lists. They completed an internet questionnaire“Careers After Music Psychology”. Questions addressed the educational experienceand current profession of participants, and the usefulness and professional relevance of music psychology courses. Most respondents were female and lived inindustrialized English-speaking countries. Their ages covered a wide range. Most
had successfully completed one or more unit/s or program/s in music psychology
at bachelors or masters level, as part of several (typically 5) years of post-secondary
study, mostly in the past 10–20 years. Respondents were mostly working full-timein music therapy, performance, education, technology or research. Most had played
an instrument (often piano or voice) for many years (typically 25). Most rated music
psychology studies as “somewhat” or “quite” useful for later work but would like tohave seen more practical application (applied settings, experience/demonstrations,industry/practitioner contact), career-relevant content (music therapy, neuroscience,
self-healing, performance, teaching), research methods/experience, new research,
intercultural topics, interdisciplinary content/skills, or professional communication
skills. Some wanted less (psycho-) acoustics and more historical/cultural context.
Our ﬁndings can help instructors orient course content towards careers, motivate
the study of music psychology, and promote music psychology among employers.

2PM2-R05 : Computational Models and Analyses II
Room 5, 15:45 – 17:45 Tuesday 26 August 2008, Oral session

Analysis and Automatic Detection of Breath Sounds in
Unaccompanied Singing VoiceTomoyasu Nakano 1 , Jun Ogata 2 , Masataka Goto 2 , Yuzuru Hiraga 1 ;1
University of Tsukuba, Japan; 2 AIST, Japan
2PM2-R05-1
This paper presents a dual approach to the study of breath sounds in singing, consisting of an acoustic analysis of breath sounds, and development of an automatic
breath detection system. Previous work on automatic breath detection were basedon relatively simple features that were postulated to be relevant to the detection. In
contrast, this study starts with a detailed acoustic analysis of breath sounds, withthe aim to explore novel characteristics. The obtained results can be used to enhance79

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ICMPC 10the capability of automatic breath detection.
The acoustic analysis used singing voice recordings of 18 singers with a total lengthof 128 mins (1488 breath events). The results of the analysis show that the spectralenvelope of breath sounds remain similar within the same song, and their long-term
average spectra have a notable spectral peak at about 1.6kHz for male singers and1.7kHz for female singers. A prototype version of a breath detection system was implemented, using HMM based on MFCC, ΔMFCC, and Δpower as acoustic features. Inan evaluation experiment with 27 unaccompanied song samples, the system achieved
an overall recall/precision rate of 97.5%/77.7% for breath sound detection.

Composition Model of Modal Melody Based on the “Core Note”
Concept
Yuriko Hoteida, Yuichi Aizawa, Takeshi Takenaka, Kanji Ueda;
University of Tokyo, Japan
2PM2-R05-2
This study proposes a modal melody composition model based on the “Core Note”
concept. We deﬁne the Core Note as a hypothetical note sounding with the melody.
We then use it as a reference note to calculate sensory dissonance. Sensory dissonanceis used to evaluate composed melodies. First, we speciﬁcally examined Japanese children’s folk songs. The proposed model uses reinforcement learning for decisionmaking. The model includes an agent that perceives the preceding four notes, decides
the next note’s pitch and duration, and learns to compose better melodies based on
sensory dissonance and proximity evaluation. We introduce simulations of melody
composition and psychological experiments using the Semantic Diﬀerential method
to check impressions of composed melodies. For the simulations, we set conditions
using ﬁve diﬀerent Core Notes and a condition without setting Core Notes. Results ofthe simulations reveal that Core Notes determine which notes are likely to be chosen
in the composed melodies. Results of psychological experiments show that impressions of the composed melodies depend on the Core Notes: Core Notes such as E
and G make melodies brighter, whereas D and A make them darker. Results further
show that, given no Core Notes, the agent is forced to earn a reward from proximity
evaluation; consequently, the generated melodies become more stable.

A Spectral Timing Mechanism pour L’ART
Michael Connolly Brady; Indiana University, USA
2PM2-R05-3
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Robert Gjerdingen presented a model called L’ART
pour l’art. It is an artiﬁcial neural network based on Adaptive Resonance Theory (ART)that forms proactive memories for early Mozart melodies. Gjerdingen’s model provides an eloquent introduction to Adaptive Resonance Theory in terms of how thetheory may be applied to complex serial patterns. The model also helps to illustratea recognized limitation of ART concerning the problem of ‘when next’ as opposedto ‘what next’ in serial pattern processing. The artiﬁcial neural network I have beendeveloping, called ART-PaC (Adaptive Resonance with Temporal Pattern Coordination), relates to Gjerdingen’s model and incorporates a spectral timing mechanism,
enabling the network to recognize the temporal relationships of an input pattern andthus to make ‘when next’ predictions. The ART-PaC architecture is employed as acontrol system for a saxophone-playing robot. The objective is for the robot to learn
to improvise melodies based on a bank of melodies it is trained on.

A Theory of ‘Four’ in Igbo Culture and Its Application in the
Harmonic Structures of Oral and Written Musical Compositions
Christian Onyeji; North-West University, South Africa
2PM2-R05-4
The centrality of the number ‘four’ in Igbo cultural milieu is quite signiﬁcant. While
ﬁgures designate statistical/numerical values in most cultures of the world, certain
ﬁgures have deep spiritual and social meaning in Igbo culture, such that understanding the spiritual and physical worlds of the Igbo is, inextricably, tied to the knowledgeof the signiﬁcance of such ﬁgures. Central to the social, spiritual and general cultural
systems of Igbo people, the number ‘four’ manifests in the creative arts in some ways.
The dominance of the interval of ‘fourths’ in harmonic structures of many transcribed
Igbo oral compositions (indigenous music) constrained ﬁeld and literature researchthat revealed interconnection of the number ‘four’ in various aspects of Igbo culture.
The inquiry covered the spiritual/belief system, social rites/rituals and the musical80

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Tuesday 26 August 2008

arts enabling theoretical deductions presented in this discourse. Also discussed is exploitation of harmonic principles based on the intervallic structure of fourths foundin Igbo indigenous music in art music compositions by selected Igbo composers intheir search for a socio-cultural base for their compositions. This presentation spotlights the deep interconnection of musical practices of the Igbo with the social andspiritual aspects of the culture manifested in the special use and meaning of the number ‘four’, revealing the cultural root of harmonic structures that feature dominanceof fourths in Igbo oral compositions.

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ICMPC 103AM1-R02 : Timbre I
Room 2, 8:30 – 10:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Auditory Roughness in East Asian Hybrid Compositions
Steve Everett; Emory University, USA
3AM1-R02-2
Timbre is a primary structuring element in music and one of the most important andrelevant features of auditory events. The auditory sensation of roughness can be
described as a timbral attribute based on the sensation of rapid ﬂuctuations in theamplitude envelope. It is involved in several aspects of sound evaluation. This paper
examines culturally-speciﬁc properties of timbral roughness in compositions ofseveral East Asian composers and proposes a method of interpreting cross-cultural
perceptions based upon ﬁndings in recent neuropsychological investigations oftimbre space and language. Comparisons will be made of the spectral analyses oftimbres in traditional Japanese and Korean musical forms with those found in selectcompositions by modern Japanese and Korean composers. Also a survey of several
spectral analysis programs that use traditional FFT and STFT algorithms will be
discussed. Special prominence is given to compositions involving the male voice in
combination with an instrumental ensemble that mirrors, shadows, or anticipates
the timbral structures of the voice without ever playing in strict unison with it. This
paper concludes that the consequence of a culturally-speciﬁc process of timbral
recognition is an important dimension to ascertaining musical meaning.

Can Pianists Recognize and Consistently Label Gesture-Controlled
Timbre Nuances from Hearing Only the Sound?
Michel Bernays, Caroline Traube; Université de Montréal, Canada
3AM1-R02-3
When discussed amongst professionals, timbre is empirically described throughsubjective descriptions. This study aims to determine the consensus and coherenceof such vocabulary among pianists, at ﬁrst by testing their ability to aurally recognize
timbre and then by examining their consistency in labelling gesture-controlled
timbre nuances. A professional pianist was asked to perform three short pieces witheleven adjectives as successive timbre instructions (bright, round, etc.). The audio
recordings were used as stimuli, ﬁrst in an identiﬁcation task by the pianist himself,then by 17 other pianists, who provided a verbal description of each timbre they
could recognize (in free form, then by forced choice). The control procedure showedthat the pianist himself could easily identify which timbre he had used. An analysisof the listening test revealed the semantic proximity between the descriptors chosen
by the group of pianists and the actual verbal descriptors. The results of this study
indicate that the expressive intentions of a virtuosic pianist can be perceived by his
peers and can be verbally described in a way that concurs with a common ability
among pianists to identify and label timbre.

A Hybrid Model for Timbre Perception — Part 1: The Color ofSound
Hiroko Terasawa, Jonathan Berger; Stanford University, USA
3AM1-R02-4
We propose a hybrid model of timbre integrating two complementary component
models, one of “color” and the other of “texture”. Previous studies on timbre
perception describe a multidimensional space, in which spectral centroid, spectral
ﬂuctuation, and temporal attack and decay characteristics constitute the principal
components. We propose that these factors can be eﬀectively described in terms of a
waveform’s instantaneous spectral envelope (the color), and instantaneous temporal
irregularity (its texture). The color model employs MFCC (Mel-Frequency Cepstral
Coeﬃcients) as the spectral envelope descriptor. Our previous study suggests that
MFCC is well correlated with human perception. In this study, we further investigatedthe degree to which each of twelve MFCC coeﬃcients has a good association to humanperception of timbre, when a single coeﬃcient from MFCC is manipulated in an
isolated manner. Each of the Mel-cepstral coeﬃcients predicts the timbre perception
at the similar level for all the twelve coeﬃcients. At average, MFCC explains 85% of
the subjective judgments of the deviation in spectral envelope and thus suggests
itself as a good representation for the perceptual model of a sound’s color.

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Wednesday 27 August 2008

3AM1-R03 : Computational Models and Analyses III
Room 3, 8:30 – 10:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Computational Model for Automatic Chord Voicing Based on
Bayesian Network
Tetsuro Kitahara 1 , Makiko Katsura 1 , Haruhiro Katayose 1 , Noriko
Nagata 2 ; 1 Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan; 2 JST, Japan
3AM1-R03-1
We developed a computational model for automatically voicing chords based on a
Bayesian network. Automatic chord voicing is diﬃcult because it is necessary tochoose extended notes and inversions by taking into account musical simultaneity
and sequentiality. We overcome this diﬃculty by inferring the most likely chordvoicing using a Bayesian network model where musical simultaneity and sequentiality
are modeled as probabilistic dependencies between nodes. The model represents
musical simultaneity as probabilistic dependencies between voicing and melody
nodes while it represents musical sequentiality as probabilistic dependencies between current-chord and previous- or following-chord voiding nodes. The model
makes it possible to take into account both simultaneity and sequentiality at a single
inference process. Experimental results of chord voicing for jazz musical pieces
showed that our system generated chord voicings that had appropriate simultaneity
and sequentiality.

An Experimental Comparison of Human and Automatic Music
Segmentation
Justin de Nooijer 1 , Frans Wiering 2 , Anja Volk 2 , Hermi J.M.
Tabachneck-Schijf 2 ; 1 Fortis ASR, The Netherlands; 2 Utrecht
University, The Netherlands
3AM1-R03-2
Music Information Retrieval (MIR) examines, among others, how to search musicalweb content or databases. To make such content processable by retrieval methods,
complete works need to be decomposed into segments and voices. One would expectthat methods that model human performance of these tasks lead to better retrieval
output.
We designed two novel experiments in order to determine (1) to what extent humans
agree in their performance of these tasks and (2) which existing algorithms bestmodel human performance. Twenty novices and twenty experts participated in these.
The melody segmentation experiment presented participants with both audio andvisual versions of a monophonic melody. In real time, participants placed markers atsegment borders. The markers could be moved for ﬁne-tuning.
The voice separation experiment presented participants auditorily with a polyphonicpiece. They then listened to pairs of monophonic melodies and chose from these theone that best resembled the polyphonic piece. All possible pairs were ranked.
We concluded that there is high intraclass coherence for both tasks. There is no
signiﬁcant diﬀerence in melody segmentation performance between experts andnovices, and three algorithms model human performance closely. For voice separation, none of the algorithms is close to human performance.

ACE: Autonomous Classiﬁcation Engine
Ichiro Fujinaga, Cory McKay; McGill University, Canada
3AM1-R03-3
Pattern recognition and automatic classiﬁcation techniques are currently being
used for a wide range of tasks in music research. Unfortunately, the variety and thetechnical sophistication of machine learning techniques available can make it diﬃcult
to choose the best approach for a particular problem. The aim of this research isto provide a tool to researchers in general, and in music researchers, in particular,
an easy-to-use software that can empirically determine suitable solutions for theclassiﬁcation tasks at hand.
ACE automatically ﬁnds optimal or near-optimal classiﬁcation methodologies forarbitrary supervised classiﬁcation problems through experimentation. ACE includes
implementations of a wide variety of machine learning techniques and provides
interfaces intended speciﬁcally for the needs of music researchers. The eﬀectiveness83

Wednesday 27 August 2008

ICMPC 10of diﬀerent approaches is analyzed by ACE in terms of classiﬁcation accuracy,
training time, and classiﬁcation time. This allows users to experimentally determine
the best set of techniques to use for their particular priorities.
By using this software, music researchers can reduce the time for selecting thesuitable classiﬁcation approach for a given music-related problem and help interms of both increasing classiﬁcation accuracy and saving signiﬁcant amounts ofdevelopment time.

Computational Modelling of the Cognition of Harmonic Movement
Raymond Whorley, Marcus T. Pearce, Geraint Wiggins; Goldsmiths
University of London, UK
3AM1-R03-4
Our long-term aim is to investigate the extent to which statistical models of harmony
can provide insights into the cognitive processes involved in the harmonisation of
melodies and in harmonic expectancy. We have chosen to use multiple viewpoint
systems to model harmonic movement. We shall propose a number of ways in which
the multiple viewpoint framework can be developed, such that the complexitiesof harmony can be adequately addressed; after all, four-part harmony consists offour inter-related sequences. In this work, the linking of viewpoints is extended
to linking between parts or layers; and this inter-layer linking evolves into a more
ﬂexible form, which has a number of advantages over the strict viewpoint linkingof the original framework. For example, it allows context to be used which would
be unavailable if conventionally linked to an undeﬁned symbol. It also allows theformation of relatively sparse contexts, which cover a longer length of sequence thanconventionally formed contexts containing the same number of symbols. Finally,
Prediction by Partial Match, which combines the predictions of Markov models of
diﬀerent order, is now also able to make use of models employing diﬀerently shaped
contexts of the same order.

3AM1-R04 : Memory and Imagery
Room 4, 8:30 – 10:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Enculturation Eﬀects in Music Cognition: The Role of Age andMusic Complexity
Steven J. Morrison, Steven M. Demorest, Laura A. Stambaugh;
University of Washington, USA
3AM1-R04-1
The purpose of this study was to replicate and extend ﬁndings from previous studies
of music enculturation by comparing music memory performance of children to thatof adults when listening to culturally familiar and unfamiliar music. Forty-threechildren and 50 adults, all born and raised in the United States, completed a music
memory test comprising unfamiliar excerpts of Western and Turkish classical music.
Examples were selected at two levels of diﬃculty — simple and complex — based on
texture, variety of instruments, presence of simultaneous musical lines and clarity ofinternal repetition. All participants were signiﬁcantly better at remembering novel
music from their own culture than from an unfamiliar culture. Simple examples ofboth cultures were remembered signiﬁcantly better than complex examples. Children
performed as well as adults when remembering simple music from both cultures,
while adults were better than children at remembering complex Western music. The
results provide evidence that enculturation aﬀects one’s understanding of music
structure prior to adulthood.

Beyond the Betts: Exploring Ecologically Valid Methods forAssessing Musicians’ Imagery Abilities
Terry Clark, Aaron Williamon; Royal College of Music, UK
3AM1-R04-2
Research suggests that engaging in mental rehearsal can enhance performanceof a skill. However, an individual’s imagery ability can moderate its usefulness.
This study sought to explore the eﬃcacy of approaches for assessing imagery
ability in musicians that go beyond self-report measures. The participants were 25
performance students recruited at the Royal College of Music. They completed arange of imagery questionnaires and gave two live and two mental performancesof a two-minute extract of their choice. The Inter Onset Intervals (IOIs; i.e. the84ICMPC 10

Wednesday 27 August 2008

beat-by-beat tempo) for all four performances were extracted and then averaged
within each of the two conditions. Correlations between the averaged IOIs of the two
conditions were calculated. These correlations were compared to scores obtainedon the imagery questionnaires. A subset of 17 participants underwent a three-week
imagery training programme and completed post-testing identical to that used in
the pre-test. The participants’ ability to produce signiﬁcantly similar performances
between the two conditions is discussed, as well as how these correlations relate toscores attained on the imagery ability questionnaires. Eﬀects from engagement in
the imagery training programme are reviewed.

Music in Everymind: Commonality of Involuntary Musical Imagery
Lassi A. Liikkanen; Helsinki Institute for Information Technology,
Finland
3AM1-R04-3
A new topic within the psychological discipline concerns involuntary semantic
memories. Initial research has suggested that musical memories are the dominant
type of memories that are remembered involuntarily. Interestingly, no reliable
information exists on how common this phenomenon of ‘earworms’, mental replayof music, is among people living in a western culture. Present study intended toinvestigate this issue by examining the topic in retrospect. Study conducted among
12,420 Finnish Internet users showed that 91.7% of people reported experiencing thisphenomenon at least once a week. Several statistical procedures were used to relate
the retrospectively reported frequency of the phenomenon to a set of backgroundvariables. This revealed a positive connection to increased music practice andlistening, and sex (being a female). In contrast, with increasing aged, the frequencyof the incidents decreased. The results are discussed in the paper revealing the mostimportant factors underlying this non-volitional experience.

Music Engagement Predicts Verbal Memory as Eﬀectively asMusicianship
T.C. Chin, N.S. Rickard; Monash University, Australia
3AM1-R04-4
Musicians have been reported to have signiﬁcantly better verbal memory abilities than
do non-musicians. In this study, we examined whether forms of music engagement
other than formal music training might also predict verbal memory performance,
after controlling for gender, educational level, and musicianship variables. We
present the ﬁrst evidence to date that music engagement (particularly aﬀective
engagement and listening frequency) predicts verbal memory measures to a similar
degree as reported for music training. The ﬁndings extend previous research bysuggesting that simply listening to or engaging emotionally with music may be
suﬃcient to enhance cognitive performance.

3AM1-R05 : Performance IV
Room 5, 8:30 – 10:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Coordination of Body Movements and Sounds in Musical Ensemble
PerformancePeter E. Keller 1 , Mirjam Appel 2 ; 1 MPI CBS, Germany; 2 Eberhard Karls
Universität Tübingen, Germany
3AM1-R05-1
The current study tested the reliability and validity of interpersonal body-sway
coordination as an index of ensemble synchrony in piano duos. Seven pairs of
pianists performed two unfamiliar classical duets on a pair of MIDI pianos, with andwithout visual contact. Pianists’ body movements were recorded using a motion
capture system. One-dimensional information about anterior-posterior body sway
was extracted from the normalized movement data associated with a single marker
positioned between each pianist’s shoulder blades. The diﬀerence in pianists’ body
positions across time was estimated by cross-recurrence analysis with a moving
window. Asynchronies between nominally synchronous sounds were computedfrom the MIDI data. Analyses of the pianists’ movements revealed large inter-duo
diﬀerences in the coordination of body sway. These diﬀerences provided an index ofensemble synchronization that was reliable (i.e., constant across contrasting musicalpieces and independent of whether or not pianists were in visual contact) and valid

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ICMPC 10(i.e., body sway coordination was negatively correlated with the degree of asynchrony
between sounds). The ﬁnding that body-sway coordination provides a reliable andvalid index of ensemble synchrony has theoretical implications that bear upon thenotion of music as an embodied phenomenon, as well as practical advantages forquantifying ensemble cohesion.

The Inﬂuence of Another’s Actions on One’s Own Synchronization
with Music
Lena Nowicki, Peter E. Keller; MPI CBS, Germany
3AM1-R05-2
Despite of the wealth of insights into the mechanisms underlying sensorimotor
synchronization with computer controlled sequences, little is known about interpersonal sensorimotor synchronization. In the present study, pairs of musically trained
participants tapped the beat of tonal sequences either on their own or alternatingwith another person. In the latter ‘joint’ condition, the role of auditory feedback wasstudied by manipulating whether participants could hear percussive sound triggeredby their own and/or their partners’ taps. Autocorrelations of intertap intervals (ITIs)
as well as means, variance and autocorrelations of asynchronies were analyzed asmeasures of the mutual inﬂuence of tap timing on sensorimotor synchronization.
The lag-1 autocorrelations of ITIs were most negative in the joint tapping condition,
which is suggestive of timekeeper coupling between the co-actors. Such coupling
could be necessary to correct for the other person’s errors as precisely as possible.
The results of the asynchronies also show that acting with another person has an
impact on one’s own synchronization performance. Mean asynchronies and varianceof asynchronies were highest in the joint condition and the autocorrelations revealed
mutual error correction when acting with a partner. Further, auditory feedback wasfound to play an important role in interpersonal sensorimotor synchronization.

Plus Ça Change: Analyzing Performances of Chopin’s Mazurka Op.
24 No. 2
Neta Spiro 1 , Nicolas Gold 2 , John Rink 1 ; 1 Royal Holloway Universityof London, UK; 2 King’s College London, UK
3AM1-R05-3
Performances of the same piece can diﬀer from one another in innumerable ways
and for many diﬀerent reasons. Such diﬀerences are of considerable interest to musicologists and psychologists. The aim of the current study is to analyze the timing
and dynamic patterns of numerous performances in order to explore the musicalreasons for use as well as diﬀerences in use of those patterns. More speciﬁcally it
investigates the relationship between 1) structural and thematic characteristics ofa piece and the timing and dynamic characteristics of performances of that workand 2) the relationship between patterns of timing and those of dynamics. A new
methodology is developed and applied which enables the systematic analysis andcomparison of diﬀerent performances by identifying patterns of performance, or
performance motives, and their location in performance. The results show that,in general, the structure of a piece emerges from the performance patterns. The
relationship between timing and dynamics is not direct and the sources for use ofparticular patterns seem to be many and varied, including structural and thematicconsiderations. However, the performance patterns at section ends seem to be mostclosely related to the surrounding long-term structural characteristics, while thosewithin some sections seem to be closely related to the motivic patterns driven by
genre-speciﬁc characteristics of the piece.

Spatio-Temporal Cues for Synchronization with Conductors’
GesturesGeoﬀ Luck; University of Jyväskylä, Finland
3AM1-R05-4
The present study investigated the spatio-temporal characteristics of human movement that oﬀer cues for between-person synchronization. The context chosen forthe study was that of conductor-musician synchronization. Participants tapped intime with dynamic point-light representations of traditional conducting gesturesin which the clarity of the beat and overall tempo was manipulated. A numberof spatio-temporal features were computationally extracted from the movement
data, and the relationship between the timing of participants’ synchronizations andthese features examined. A series of linear regression analyses identiﬁed absolute86ICMPC 10

Wednesday 27 August 2008

acceleration along the trajectory as the main cue for synchronization, while beatclarity and tempo inﬂuenced the precise make-up of the emergent models. Overall,
the regression models accounted for 48% – 73% of the variance in participants’
responses. These results support previous work that has identiﬁed acceleration
along the trajectory of a movement as a ‘beat inducer’ using simpler stimuli, andsuggest that temporal features of a movement trajectory may oﬀer more reliable andstable cues for synchronization than spatial features.

3AM2-R07 : Musical Scales and Melody / Harmony andTonality / Timbre / Psychophysics and Music Acoustics
Room 7, 10:40 – 12:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Poster session

Musical Parameters and the Classiﬁcation of Melodic Motives
Zohar Eitan 1 , Roni Y. Granot 2 ; 1 Tel Aviv University, Israel; 2 Hebrew
University, Israel
3AM2-R07-02
Music theorists often maintain that the “primary” musical parameters of pitch
and rhythm determine motivic categorization, while “secondary” parameters likeloudness or timbre do not establish motivic categories. We examined systematicallythe eﬀects of contrasts in “primary” vis-à-vis “secondary” musical parameters onlisteners’ melodic classiﬁcation. Matrices of melodic patterns, each presenting 8
motives, were created by all interactions of two contrasting conditions in threemusical features. In Experiment 1, four matrices manipulated pitch contour, pitchinterval class, and a compound feature involving the “secondary” parameters ofdynamics, pitch register and articulation. In Experiment 2, four diﬀerent matrices
manipulated rhythmic structure (metrical and durational accent), pitch intervals,
and the compound feature used in Exp1. Participants classiﬁed stimuli in eachmatrix into two equal-numbered (4-4) groups of motives “belonging together.” Inboth experiments, most participants used contrast in “secondary” parameters as
a basis for classiﬁcation, while few classiﬁcations relied on diﬀerences in pitchinterval (Exp2) or interval class (Exp2). Musically trained participants’ classiﬁcations
also applied melodic contour and rhythm. Results suggest a hierarchy of musicalparameters that reverses that suggested by most academic music theory. We discuss
the ramiﬁcations of this reversal on perceived musical structure and consequentiallyon cognitively-informed music analysis.

Key Perception in Encountering a Non-Scale Tone
Rie Matsunaga 1 , Jun-ichi Abe 2 ; 1 JSPS, Japan; 2 Hokkaido University,Japan
3AM2-R07-04
The present study investigated how a listener perceives a key when hearing a seriesof tones followed by an additional non-scale tone of the current perceived key.
Here, we examined whether listeners always shifted their key responses in thiscircumstance. To accomplish this aim, we developed two cases: One case presented
an additional tone that was not interpretable as a scale tone of the current key,
but which did ﬁt into the diatonic set of other keys. The other case, presented
an additional, non-scalar tone, which did not ﬁt into either the original key or any
other diatonic key. Musicians and non-musicians had to respond by selecting a key(tonal center) category or an atonal judgment along with a conﬁdence rating for
given tone sequences. Responses made by the musicians and the non-musicians
yielded essentially equivalent results. In both cases, participants did not always shift
their responses to diatonic-congruent key categories (and atonal category), when atone sequence was followed by an additional non-scale tone. This suggests that a
non-scale tone is not always counted against evidence the current perceived key.

Ignore the First Chord, Just Appreciate the Second: Can Listeners
Control the Predisposition to Process the Interrelationship
Between Chords?
Hiroshi Arao; Hiroshima International University, Japan
3AM2-R07-06
The automaticity of processing is a crucial concept for understanding human cognition. Interference paradigms (e.g., the well-known Stroop and other tasks) generally

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ICMPC 10provided a good insight into the nature of such processing. In the ﬁeld of musiccognition, however, there are limited studies that directly examine the automaticity
of processing. In the present study, the author examined the processing automaticityof the relationship between chords. A selective appreciation task, a time-domain
extension of interference paradigms, was utilized. In each trial, listeners were
presented with a ﬁrst chord, a silence, and then a second chord. They were asked toignore the ﬁrst chord, to selectively attend to the second, and to rate the pleasantnessof this chord alone. The rating regarding the second chord, which was inﬂuenced byits own consonance, was aﬀected by the presence of the to-be-ignored ﬁrst chord, ormore precisely, by the relationship between the ﬁrst and second chords. The results
showed that listeners have diﬃculty in inhibiting the predisposition to process
chordal relationships, even in a situation where a deﬁnite empty time interval isinserted between the chords. In music cognition, such sequential processing appears
to be highly automatic and to exert an unavoidable inﬂuence on the appreciation ofbasic aﬀective properties.

Using Kolmogorov-Smirnov to Determine the Eﬀect of Interval
Cycles on the Formation of Krumhansl & Kessler’s (1982) Tonal
Hierarchies
Matthew Woolhouse, Ian Cross; University of Cambridge, UK
3AM2-R07-08
To date, a number of statistical and psychoacoustic models have been proposed that
attempt to account for the pitch hierarchy measurements of Krumhansl et al. in
the 1980s. However, as Krumhansl has pointed out, none oﬀers a complete or fullyplausible explanation of the origin of Krumhansl’s tonal hierarchies (or variations
thereof), leaving open the possibility that, in addition to distributional and psychoacoustic factors, a further cognitive process may be involved in their formation. The
analyses presented in this paper demonstrate that there is a strong statistical link
between interval cycles and the perceptual ratings used by Krumhansl and Kessler toform their major and minor-key tonal hierarchies. (An interval cycle is the minimum
number of iterations of an interval that are required for the original pitch classes
to be restated — a property that is hypothesized to lead to abstract grouping and,
subsequently, pitch attraction). Although correlations are not conclusive proof of
causality, given the size of the data sets and the objective nature of the method, theevidence supporting a link is compelling. The results of the analyses are discussedwith respect to Brown, Butler and Jones’s rare-interval hypothesis. The importantrole played by the interval cycles of dominant harmonies is also be explored.

Sequential Grouping Based on Timbre: Eﬀects of Diﬀerences inSize of Resonant Bodies
Chihiro Takeshima 1 , Minoru Tsuzaki 1 , Toshio Irino 2 ; 1 Kyoto City
University of Arts, Japan; 2 Wakayama University, Japan
3AM2-R07-10
Natural sounds contain information about the shape and size of the resonator, andhumans perceive the sounds as timbre variation. We performed psychoacoustic
experiments to measure the ability of auditory stream segregation (sequential
grouping) based on the timbre change caused by size variation. In the ﬁrst andsecond experiments, eight normal-hearing listeners were presented a six-vowel
sequence, and were required to identify the vowel sequences in the correct order.
Each vowel in the sequence was alternated in the speaker size (Experiment 1), or
ﬁxed to a constant speaker size (either large or small) (Experiment 2). The resultsof Experiment 1 showed that it became diﬃcult to identify the sequences correctlyas the size-alternation became faster and larger, while the results of Experiment 2
showed no signiﬁcant deterioration due to the speaker size. In the third experiment,
listeners were presented a target vowel sound in advance on visual display andasked to judge whether the size-alternated vowel sequence (as used in Experiment1) contains the target. The results showed that the degree of deterioration causedby size-alternation was smaller than that in Experiment 1. These ﬁndings demonstrate that the size-alternation aﬀects the temporal order judgment and does not
signiﬁcantly aﬀect the individual vowel identiﬁcation. Since this situation is typicallyobserved when sequential grouping takes place, fast temporal alternation in size
information would induce sequential grouping.

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Inharmonicity of Sounds from Electric Guitars: Physical Flaw orMusical Asset?
Hugo Fastl, Florian Völk; Technische Universität München, Germany
3AM2-R07-12
Because of bending waves, strings of electric guitars produce (slightly) inharmonic
spectra. One aim of the study was to ﬁnd out — also in view of synthesized musicalinstruments — whether sounds of electric guitars should preferably produce strictly
harmonic or slightly inharmonic spectra. Inharmonicities of typical sounds fromelectric guitars were analyzed and studied in psychoacoustic experiments. Strictly
harmonic as well as slightly inharmonic spectra were realized and evaluated withrespect to audibility of beats, possible diﬀerences in pitch height, and overall preference. Strictly harmonic as well as slightly inharmonic spectra produce essentiallythe same pitch height. Depending on the magnitude of the inharmonicity, beats areclearly audible. Low, wound strings (e.g. E2, A2) usually produce larger inharmonicities than high strings (e.g. E4), and hence beats of low notes are easily detected.
The inharmonicity increases with the diameter of the respective string’s kernel.
Therefore, an unwound G3 string can show larger inharmonicity and more prominent
beats than a wound D3 string. In a musical context, i.e. when playing short melodies
with synthesized strictly harmonic versus slightly inharmonic string sounds, thelatter are somewhat preferred, in particular by players of string instruments. The
slight inharmonicity of sounds from electric guitars is not a physical ﬂaw whichshould be avoided by synthesizing perfectly harmonic sounds, but can be regarded
as a musical asset.

3AM2-R08 : Rhythm and Timing / Body Movement /MemoryRoom 8, 10:40 – 12:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Poster session

Automatic Classiﬁcation of Drum-Rhythm Patterns Employed inPopular Music
Yuki Murakami, Masanobu Miura; Ryukoku University, Japan
3AM2-R08-02
The various styles of drum-rhythm patterns that are often employed in popular music
can roughly be classiﬁed into “basic rhythm” and “ﬁll-in” patterns. Compared to thebasic rhythm pattern, the ﬁll-in is an improvised pattern and is usually employed toﬁll in blanks in accompanying melodies. However, no criteria for objectively classifying these patterns have been reported to date. This study describes a classiﬁcation
method based on similarity in neighborhood. We propose a method of classifying
drum-rhythm patterns by automatically adjusting the criteria based on the context of
excerpts. The method deals with symbolic representations, as provided by MIDI data.
Each sequence of one-measure-length contained in the given excerpt is evaluated ascorresponding to either a “basic-rhythm” or “ﬁll-in” pattern. The characteristics ofsequences for drum-rhythm patterns are obtained by classifying them. In addition,
we implemented the method as a visual application system that plays back MIDI dataand indicates ﬁll-in patterns.

Longitudinal Study of Rhythm Tapping with Visual Feedback
Makiko Sadakata, Alex Brandmeyer, Renee Timmers, Akvile
Miezlaiskyte, Peter Desain; Radboud University Nijmegen, The
Netherlands
3AM2-R08-04
The aim of this study is to investigate the beneﬁt of the visual feedback (VFB) on theimitation and discrimination of three-interval rhythms. A previous study indicatedthat short-term use of the VFB system facilitated learning to imitate loudness
patterns, while it was not for timing patterns or for discriminating loudness andtiming patterns. This study examines the eﬀect of long-term use of the system
which depicts timing information as the shape of a visual object. The experimentemployed a pretest-posttest between-subject design. 24 non-musicians participatedin 6–9 sessions of an imitation task, which took place in 3 weeks. During the test,
participants imitated aurally presented rhythms on a touch sensitive pad. During
the training, participants practiced imitating a subset of test rhythms that were
presented aurally and visually (VFB group). The perceptual discrimination task took
place at the beginning and end of the series of sessions. The analyses revealed (1) that89

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participants signiﬁcantly beneﬁted from the long-term use of the VFB system and (2)that the use of the VFB system did not result in superior perceptual sensitivity.

A Psychophysiological Approach to Auditory Temporal
Assimilation
Takako Mitsudo 1 , Yoshitaka Nakajima 1 , Gerard B. Remijn 2 ,Yoshinobu Goto 3 , Shozo Tobimatsu 1 ; 1 Kyushu University, Japan;
2
Kanazawa University, Japan; 3 International University of Health andWelfare, Japan
3AM2-R08-06
We recorded event-related brain potentials (ERPs) to reveal the mechanisms of human
auditory temporal perception utilizing phenomena of temporal assimilation. Stimulus patterns consisted of two neighboring time intervals marked by three successive
tone bursts (20 ms, 1000 Hz). There were eleven stimuli: seven standard stimuli,
where the ﬁrst time interval (T1) varied from 80 to 320 ms, and the second timeinterval (T2) was ﬁxed at 200 ms, and four dummy stimuli, where the combinations of
T1 and T2 diﬀered from those of the standard stimuli. Participants judged whether
T1 and T2 had the same duration or not by pressing a button as quickly as possible.
Behavioral data showed a clear asymmetrical temporal assimilation; the participants
judged the two neighboring time intervals as the same when -80 ≤ (T1-T2) ≤ +40[ms]. Electrophysiological data showed the following results: (a) A slow component
in the frontal area, that was similar to contingent negative variation (CNV), emerged
at approximately 300 ms after the 1st marker, and lasted until 300–400 ms after the
3rd marker; (b) the responses recorded from the right frontal electrodes were greaterthan those from the left frontal electrodes, but (c) within a range of 200 ms after the
3rd marker, the frontal areas’ activation was smaller when the temporal assimilation
took place. Our results suggest that the attenuation of the frontal negativity thattook place immediately after the stimuli correlates with the perceptual assimilationof auditory temporal patterns.

Measuring Co-Operability in Tapping Dyads
Tommi Himberg; University of Jyväskylä, Finland
3AM2-R08-08
Co-operability between two drummers/tappers engaged in synchronised rhythm
performance can be measured by looking at their phase error correction, and specifically the error correction coeﬃcient (α). This coeﬃcient refers to the proportion of
the synchronisation error (SE) at beat tn that is corrected at the next beat tn+1 . The
model suggests that in co-operative correction, the tappers would correct the error
by meeting each other half-way; in other words, error-correct by approximately equalamounts but in opposing directions. Vorberg (2005) and Repp & Keller (in press) havetested this model by asking people to synchronise with simulated computer tappers.
In the current study, the model was applied post-hoc to co-operative tapping data,
where two people were synchronising with each other, or with computer metronome.
The αh was estimated, and the premises of the model discussed in light of two-tapper
data. It was then suggested that instead of the roles of leader and follower being
ﬁxed, the mutual adaptation to each other might change in the course of the trial. A
method of calculating and visualizing the change in the dependency between tappers
using windowed cross-correlation was then introduced.

The Beat Alignment Test (BAT): Surveying Beat Processing
Abilities in the General Population
John R. Iversen, Aniruddh D. Patel; The Neurosciences Institute, USA
3AM2-R08-10
The ability to perceive a musical beat (and move in synchrony with it) seems
widespread, but we currently lack normative data on the distribution of this ability
in musically untrained individuals. To aid in the survey of beat processing abilities in the general population, as well as to attempt to identify and diﬀerentiate
impairments in beat processing, we have developed a psychophysical test called
the Beat Alignment Test (BAT). The BAT is intended to complement existing testsof rhythm processing by directly examining beat perception in isolation from beatsynchronization. The goals of the BAT are 1) to study the distribution of beat-based
processing abilities in the normal population and 2) to provide a way to search for“rhythm deaf” individuals, who have trouble with beat processing in music though
they are not tone deaf. The BAT is easily implemented and it is our hope that it is
widely adopted. Data from a pilot study of 30 individuals is presented.

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Wednesday 27 August 2008

The Development of Coordination and Expression in Duo
Performance: Body Movements in Focus
Jane Davidson; University of Western Australia, Australia
3AM2-R08-12
This poster reports how a ﬂautist and clarinettist came together in a rehearsal
process to produce an agreed and coordinated timing and interpretation of an
unfamiliar work. The current study builds on the foundations of previous studies
to assess how musicians in a duo coordinate. Two professional musicians wereasked to rehearse individually and then together a piece composed for the task.
All was recorded on video and motion capture system. Results indicated that solo
rehearsal oﬀered a diﬀerent core speed for each player: the ﬂautist remaining close
to the tempo and types of expressive musical eﬀects she had set in her ﬁrst solo
run-through; the clarinettist experimenting extensively with diﬀerent tempi and arange of eﬀects. Each used their bodies very diﬀerently, the clarinettist using much
more expansive movement than the ﬂautist. The clarinettist explored the musicalmaterial in order to ﬁnd an interpretation, whereas the ﬂautist used the run-throughs
to consolidate her interpretation. In duo, it was as if the clarinettist who tried to ﬁnd
how to “dance” (her words) with her duet partner, exploring the musical and physicalspace and noticing the ﬂautist’s responses. The ﬂautist’s movements became much
more like those of the clarinettist, adapting and coming to focus on the tempo andexpressive eﬀects of the clarinettist.

3AM2-R09 : Music Listening and Preferences /Development / Performance / Audio-Visual Interactions/ Psychoacoustics
Room 9, 10:40 – 12:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Poster session

Peak Experience in Music Performance: An Investigation of thePrecursors and Nature Among Choral Performers
John Whaley; Keele University, UK
3AM2-R09-02
The study of Peak Experiences (Maslow, 1968) has received signiﬁcant attention
within music psychology as music is regarded as a reliable trigger of such experiences. Most literature, however, has focused on music listening and disregarded
the potential of music performance to elicit the phenomenon. This study investigates both the causes and nature of peak experiences in music performance, withthree fundamental aims: to demonstrate that peaks occur as a result of music
performance, to investigate speciﬁc internal/personal and external/circumstantial
precursors to these experiences, and to analyze features common to these experiences. Using a single concert performance of a collegiate Choir, the study pre andpost-tested participants using Likert-scale items derived from both music and nonmusic-related peak literature. Findings indicate that music performance can trigger
peak experiences and the data reveal three distinct “types” of performance peaks:
lost/carried away, perfection, and physical reaction. Findings also identify a numberof precursors signiﬁcantly associated with these experiences, including self-rated
quality of performance, degree to which music is liked, perception of audience,attempts to ‘send a message’ to audience, and previous peaks in performance andduring other activities. Discussion includes assessment of the quantitative approachto the Peak Experience and the implications of this research for both performers andfuture research.

The Musical Dimension of Daily Routines with Under-Four
ChildrenAnna Rita Addessi; University of Bologna, Italy
3AM2-R09-04
This paper deals with a research project currently being undertaken about theobservation of young children musical behaviours during the daily routine: changing
the diaper, before sleeping, the lunch, free game.

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ICMPC 10The Impact of Severe Visual Impairment on Musical Development:
A Comparison of Two Syndromes — Retinopathy of Prematurity
and Septo-Optic Dysplasia
Adam Ockelford; Roehampton University, UK
3AM2-R09-06
Accounts from teachers have suggested that children born with little or no sighttend to exhibit more highly-developed levels of musicality than their fully sighted
counterparts, as evidenced, for example, in the possession of ‘absolute pitch’, andprecocious performing skills. However, until recently, no systematic research has
been undertaken in this area. This paper reports on studies that examine the impactof severe visual impairment in the context of two syndromes. Questionnaires were
distributed to three groups of parents, largely in the UK and the US, whose children
had (a) retinopathy of prematurity; (b) septo-optic dysplasia; and (c) no known
long-standing medical conditions. These were supplemented with visits to observe
the children in action. The principal topics covered were parents’ perceptions of: (a)their children’s interest in everyday sounds and in music; (b) the importance of music
to their children in diﬀerent contexts; (c) the time they devoted to musical activity;(d) their musical abilities (including AP); and (e) learning, education and therapy. The
results suggested that both level of vision and type of syndrome had an impact on
developing musicality, as evidenced by the reported levels of AP and the levels ofachievement in terms of performance skills and creative output, expressed throughimprovisation and composition.

A Longitudinal Study of the Process of Acquiring Absolute Pitch
Ayako Sakakibara; Ichi-onkai Music School, Japan
3AM2-R09-08
In the present paper, the process of acquiring absolute pitch was described. 24
young children (2∼6 years old) were trained by a “Chords identiﬁcation method”
with an established success rate of greater than 90%. This method mainly consists oftasks for identifying some chords [Eguchi,1991; Sakakibara,1999,2004]. They needto remember 9 kinds of chords for white-piano key tones and 5–15 kinds of chords
for black-piano key tones.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the transition of cognitive strategies
longitudinally in this training process. According to the view that the attributesof tones have two components : “tone height” and “tone chroma”, absolute pitch
possessors were supposed to have a strategy depending on “chroma” in identiﬁcationof pitch.
Results showed that 2 strategies were observed in the training process: one depending on “height” and the other depending on “chroma”. A typical change proﬁle overtime was evident in virtually all subjects. Initially, subjects tried to identify chords
only by pitch “height”, but later they came to rely upon “chroma”, especially as thenumber of chords increased. The tendency to depend on “chroma” increased overtime in training. Finally subjects succeeded in correctly identifying chords by relying
upon both “height” and “chroma”. After the training in which chords change into
single tones, every subject could identify single tones. Average length of the time it
took to reach 100% accuracy in identifying single tones was 4 years and 5 months.

Towards an Ecological Evolutionary Psychoacoustics of Music
Richard Parncutt; University of Graz, Austria
3AM2-R09-10
Psychoacoustical principles shape and limit musical experience. Why do many music
theorists and musicologists regard psychoacoustics as irrelevant? Here, I situate
psychoacoustics and music in broader ecological and evolutionary contexts. Whatplausible evolutionary-ecological explanations for music-psychoacoustic phenomena
can be developed, tested and applied in music education? Hearing is adaptive
when it promotes recognition and evaluation of sound sources. Typical humanenvironments contain multiple reﬂectors. The signal reaching the ear is often an
unrecognizable superposition of direct and reﬂected/delayed sound. Frequency
analysis enables source recognition: partial frequencies (and rhythmic patterns)
are unaﬀected by reﬂection/superposition, amplitudes are somewhat aﬀected, andphase relations are jumbled (at middle to high frequencies). Ecological-evolutionary
theory thus explains why the ear is more sensitive to frequency (there are roughly
1000 JNDs in the audible range) than intensity (roughly 100 JNDs), and almost phasedeaf. Thus, frequency and time are the most reliable auditory parameters for source

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recognition (Terhardt) and the main axes of both the auditory scene and most music
notation. Ecological-environmental arguments can also explain why a harmoniccomplex tone usually has one pitch although several partials are audible, why thepitch corresponds to the fundamental, and why critical bandwidth is around 2–3
semitones in the mid-high range and increases at lower frequencies — with importantconsequences for musical structure.

Eﬀect of Music on the Performance and Impression in a Slot Game
Yuma Sakabe, Toshimitsu Katsuzaki, Masashi Yamada; Kanazawa
Institute of Technology, Japan
3AM2-R09-12
It is often said that music aﬀects the impression of our environment and also our
behavior. This was evidenced in the context of the virtual environment of a video
racing game. In the present study, we examined the eﬀect of music on the performance and impression of a slot-machine game. Eight players were trained in a fairly
simple mode called “avoiding the alignment” for at least 40 hours, then participatedin the experiment. In the experiment, ten musical excerpts were prepared. One
session consisted of 100 trials of playing the game in the “avoiding the alignment”
mode with listening to a musical stimulus or without music. Each participant played
two sessions for each condition. After each session the participants evaluated theimpression of the game using semantic diﬀerential scales. They also evaluated theimpression of each excerpt without playing the game. Results showed that there
were no excerpts that increased the success rate from the no music condition.
Moreover, principle component analyses and multi-regression analyses showed thatan “agitated” musical excerpt provides “unpleasantness” to the game and, in turn,results in a negative eﬀect on the performance of the game. The results in thepresent study were consistent with the results for the video racing game.

3AM2-R10 : Emotional Aspects / Rhythm and Timing
Room 10, 10:40 – 12:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Poster session

Emotional Connotations of Isolated Instruments Sounds
Tuomas Eerola, Vinoo Alluri, Rafael Ferrer; University of Jyväskylä,
Finland
3AM2-R10-02
Considerable eﬀort has been exerted towards understanding how performanceof music and its psychoacoustic and structural features contribute to emotional
expression, but relatively little attention has been paid to the role of timbre in communicating emotions in music. The aim was to investigate the role of timbre in theperception of emotions in music. Are the sounds played from regular instruments
in isolation enough to convey a sense of emotional attribution to a listener? And
if so, which acoustic correlates of timbre are responsible for these attributions?
The role of timbre to emotional connotations of musical sounds was investigated in
two behavioural experiments. In Experiment 1, musically trained participants rated
valence, energy and tension of isolated instrument sounds. In Experiment 2, anotherset of sounds was rated to extend the results. Acoustic descriptors of the stimuli
such as spectral measures (e.g. Brightness, Spectral ﬂux, Irregularity, with separate
descriptors for diﬀerent parts of the envelope), and onset and decay measures wereextracted in order to explain the perceived emotional dimensions. High agreement
among the emotion ratings of the participants was observed, suggesting that evenisolated instrument sounds carry cues about the emotional expression that areeasily recognized by the listeners. These associations could be explained in acoustic
features as strong correlations between the ratings and acoustic features wereobserved.

Japanese College Students’ Emotional Responses to J-POP-LikeSongs on Physiological and Psychological Measures
Kaori Iwai, Mayumi Adachi; Hokkaido University, Japan
3AM2-R10-04
We examined Japanese college student’s emotional responses to J-POP-like songs byphysiological and psychological measure. We had them listen to either an original
song consisting of the same emotional values of a tune and lyrics or that consistingof contrasting emotional values of a tune and lyrics. First, we recorded each partic-

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ipant’s heart rate and blood pressure while listening to a song, and obtained their
judgment for an emotional value of the song when the song ended. 1–2 days later,
each participant recorded emotional impressions of the same song continuously
while listening for the second time. Results showed that the overall emotional valuesof the songs had no signiﬁcant eﬀects on heart rate or blood pressure. However, thecontinuously recorded valence showed that happy and sad tunes (regardless of lyrics
types) were clearly diﬀerentiated from each other regardless of the time location ofa song. This indicates that Japanese college students tend to rely on the emotional
value of a tune rather than that of lyrics. In the poster presentation, we also explore
relations between physiological and psychological responses by mapping the twocontinuous data.

Aﬀective and Perceptual Responses to Very Brief Musical Stimuli
Richard D. Ashley; Northwestern University, USA
3AM2-R10-06
The nature and time course of emotional responses to music is an open question(cf. Peretz et al 1998, Bigand et al 2005), particularly in the very earliest momentsof a sound. This study aimed to (a) examine the time course of aﬀective and other
responses to very brief musical stimuli, and (b) investigate the inﬂuence of timbre
and other acoustic features in such responses. Stimuli were a subset of those from
Peretz et al 1998, with both positively and negatively valenced excerpts, in solo pianoand orchestral textures, with durations of 25, 50, 100, 250, 500, and 1000 msec.
Participants rated each excerpt on a number of 1–10 scales: sad/happy, slow/fast,
dark/bright, bass/treble, heavy/light, thick/thin, and also as minor or major. The
data indicate main eﬀects of excerpt. In many instances, accurate identiﬁcationof valence and mode were made below 100 msec. For some excerpts, judgmentsof valence reached the asymptote at 100 msec, but others showed no signiﬁcantdiﬀerence from 50 msec on. There was remarkable consistency as well in the otherjudgments, which again tended to resolve at or before 100 msec. Acoustic features,
including register, spectral centroid, and attack time appear to be the underlying
sources of many of these judgments.

Psycho-Physiological Patterns of Musical Emotions and Their
Relation with Music Structure
Eduardo Coutinho, Angelo Cangelosi; University of Plymouth, UK
3AM2-R10-08
This study investigates the dynamics of psychological and physiological reactions
during music listening to determine whether diﬀerentiated psychological and physiological patterns could be related with diﬀerentiated patterns of music variables.
We asked 39 participants to give continuous self-reports of the intensity (Arousal)
and hedonic value (Valence) of the emotions felt while listening to 9 pieces of western
instrumental art (classical) music. Simultaneously we recorded their Heart Rate (HR)and Skin Conductance Response (SCR) for the full length of the pieces.
Arousal was found to increase for higher levels of tempo, loudness, mean pitch,
sharpness and timbral width, and Valence was correlated with variations in tempoand (tonal) dissonance. Psychological and physiological reports showed that increased Arousal and Valence are related with increased SCR, while increased HR
related with higher Arousal. We also found a negative relationship between Valenceand Heart Rate.
Our study supports the idea that signiﬁcant patterns of interactions between music
structure and diﬀerentiated levels of intensity and hedonic value do exist in musicalemotions. Our study also shows diﬀerentiable physiological patterns across diﬀerent
emotions, supporting the claim that physiological arousal is also a component ofmusical emotions. We are currently creating a neural network model to analyse indetail such interactions.

Psychological Study of Strong Experiences in Listening to Music:
Relationship Between Physical Reactions and Acoustic Features ofthe Music
Shoko Yasuda 1 , Toshie Nakamura 1 , Maria Raluca Draguna 1 , Satoshi
Kawase 1 , Kenji Katahira 1 , Haruka Shoda 2 ; 1 Osaka University,
Japan; 2 Hokkaido University, Japan
3AM2-R10-10

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Many people have strong experiences with music (SEM), although the mechanism of
SEM is still obscure. Our previous work that examined SEM quantitatively showedthat at the conclusion of the music, ratings of SEM strongly related to ratings ofﬁve physical reactions: goose pimples, lump in the throat, shivers down the spine,
being close to tears, and arousal. Other studies also suggested that ratings of suchphysical reactions for the entire music related to ratings for each part of the music.
In this light, the present study aimed at clarifying the relationship between physicalreactions and acoustic features, particularly dynamics, for each part of the music.
53 students participated in this study. They were required to listen to two musicalpieces and evaluated how strongly they experienced the ﬁve physical reactions
during each part of the music. As a result, the A-weighted sound pressure level
strongly related to goose pimples, shivers down the spine, and arousal. Additionally,
the ratings of these physical reactions during crescendo were signiﬁcantly higher
than during diminuendo. In addition, the dynamic range and magnitude of change
in loudness within crescendo aﬀected the ratings of these physical reactions. As theﬁve physical reactions showed a relationship with SEM, this study contributes to afurther quantitative clariﬁcation of SEM.

The Eﬀect of Repetitive Music Listening for Days on Anxiety
Reduction
Chiharu Araki 1 , Hiroshi Shimazaki 2 , Akira Imai 3 , Yoshimi Ito 1 ;1Nagoya University, Japan; 2 Taisei Gakuin University, Japan;
3
Shinshu University, Japan
3AM2-R10-12This study investigated whether the diﬀerent eﬀect of repetitive music listening
for three days on reducing state anxiety can be seen between high and low trait
anxiety groups. Sixty undergraduate students classiﬁed into high and low trait
anxiety groups were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (preferred music condition, selected music condition and white noise condition). One session
consisted of 3 steps: (1) completing state anxiety scale of STAI (i.e., pre-test), (2)repetitive music listening for 10 minutes, (3) completing state anxiety scale of STAI
(i.e., post-test). This session was repeated for three days. Results showed that only
in preferred music condition, the state anxiety score in pre-tests reduced day by day.
However, no diﬀerent eﬀect between high and low trait anxiety groups was found in
all conditions. This study demonstrated that listening to preferred music repetitively
for three days reduced state anxiety, regardless of the level of trait anxiety. One
possible explanation is that the good eﬀect of listening to preferred music wasgradually accumulated as the days went on.

3AM2-R11 : Education / Performance
Room 11, 10:40 – 12:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Poster session

VEMUS: An Interactive Practicing Environment for Beginning Wind
Instrument Students — First Year of Evaluations
Petri Laukka 1 , Anders Askenfelt 2 , Kjetil Falkenberg Hansen 2 , Svante
Granqvist 2 , Kahl Hellmer 2 ; 1 Uppsala University, Sweden; 2 KTH,
Sweden3AM2-R11-02
Virtual European Music School (VEMUS) is an EU-FP6 project aiming to develop
and evaluate an interactive learning environment for wind instruments. Vemus
addresses three complementary learning settings for students at beginning tointermediate levels: self practicing, classroom environment, and distance learning.
The interactive self-practicing environment is based on a ‘virtual teacher’ interface
where the ‘teacher’ listens to students’ performances and gives feedback (including
praise and tips on how to correct errors) based on automatic acoustic analysesof the performances. Here, we present results from the ﬁrst evaluations of theeﬀectiveness of self-practice using Vemus with regard to a) motivation for practicing,and b) uses of eﬃcient practice strategies. Beginning music students (12 per instrument) were randomly assigned to either practicing with or without Vemus during afour-week period. The students’ motivation and uses of various practice strategies
were assessed at baseline and weekly throughout the study period using speciallydesigned questionnaires. Performance improvement was assessed by observing thefrequencies of performance errors detected by Vemus. Preliminary results from95

Wednesday 27 August 2008

ICMPC 10recorder and ﬂute students showed that Vemus-students reported signiﬁcantly
increased motivation compared to the controls, and also reported increased use ofsome eﬃcient practice strategies. The students further found Vemus easy to use
in everyday practicing. Analyses of the distribution of various performance errors
are under way. By introducing educational technology, Vemus has the potential tofacilitate practicing by making it more enjoyable and eﬃcient during the ﬁrst yearsof playing.

Teacher-Parent-Pupil Trios: The Impact of InterpersonalInteraction on Pupil Satisfaction, Enjoyment and MusicalAttainment
Andrea Creech; IOE University of London, UK
3AM2-R11-04
Accounts of pupil-parent-teacher relationships within context of one-to-one instrumental lessons suggest that human interaction has the power to shape the musicalperception and cognition of pupils. This paper tests the hypothesis that teacherpupil-parent interpersonal interaction, in the context of musical instrument learning,has an impact on learning outcomes. 337 teacher-pupil-parent trios completed
quantitative measures of control and responsiveness, pupil satisfaction with lessons,enjoyment of violin and musical attainment. A cluster analysis, using dimensions ofcontrol and responsiveness as predictors of cluster membership, revealed six distinct
interaction types. Analyses of covariance, controlling for pupil age and testing fordiﬀerences in satisfaction, enjoyment of violin and musical attainment between thesix interaction types, revealed that where interaction was characterized by three-way
collaboration pupils experienced the greatest enjoyment and satisfaction withlessons. Where pupils were in a subordinate relationship to a strong teacher-parent
dyad relatively higher musical attainment was found. This research suggests thatinterpersonal interaction within instrumental learning contexts is a complex processthat may have implications for musical attainment as well as for enjoyment andsatisfaction experienced by pupils. The ﬁndings point to the need for future researchthat investigates whether interpersonal interaction may be re-framed by teachers inorder to enhance musical perception and cognition amongst their pupils.

Increased Quality and Frequency of School-Based Music Program
Has Limited Beneﬁts on Self-Esteem and Social Skills
N.S. Rickard, P. Appelman, R. James; Monash University, Australia
3AM2-R11-06
Private music tuition has been demonstrated to have non-musical beneﬁts forchildren, such as enhancing self-esteem and general intelligence. However, there has
been limited experimental investigation of the eﬀects of school-based music training.
This research explored eﬀects of a classroom based music programs on primaryschool children’s self-esteem (Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventory-III) and social skills(Social Skills Rating Scales). A Kodaly program was introduced at Preparatory level(treatment n=52, control=25), while a string-based instrumental program was introduced at Grade 3 (treatment n=55, control=37). Control schools continued to receive
their normal music curriculum. Once the eﬀects of age and school were controlled,
ANCOVAs revealed signiﬁcant time by treatment interactions for both social skills(F2,186 =4.07, p<.05) and self-esteem (F2,140 =3.05, p=.05) in the younger cohort after
two years of the program. These eﬀects were largely attributable to improvementsin the ﬁrst year of the program, and did not persist into the second year. In older
children, MT also countered a decrease in general self-esteem experienced by thecontrol group in the ﬁrst year (p=.055). Interestingly, the beneﬁts observed after one
year of the music program were not evident following introduction of an alternative
novel arts-based program (juggling) into the older cohort of several schools for one
year. Therefore, while transient, the music program had beneﬁts that cannot be
attributed to the novelty of introducing a new arts-based program. Music education
may however need to be more intensive (private tuition) than is possible in large
group situations to yield more persistent beneﬁts.

Diﬀerences and Common Features of Performance Anxiety Duringa Musical and a Non-Musical, Social Performance
Susanne Gorges, Georg W. Alpers, Paul Pauli; University of Würzburg,
Germany
3AM2-R11-08

96

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According to questionnaire studies, social anxiety seems to be an important part ofmusical performance anxiety, but there is a lack of studies investigating this in anexperimental design outside of the laboratory. In the current study we comparedself-reported and physiological responses in 31 music students while playing in aconcert or giving a speech in front of an audience, and during two baselines without
an audience. Within a period of 90 minutes, participants repeatedly rated theirperformance anxiety as well as further positive and negative emotions. In addition,
heart rate (HR) was measured. HR and anxiety ratings were signiﬁcantly higher
in the public performances compared to the baselines, and similar in both public
performances. Performance anxiety during the speech and the concert correlated
signiﬁcantly. Whereas HR in the speech condition only correlated with anxiety
ratings, HR changes in the concert condition were also associated with positive
emotions. Results seem to conﬁrm a classiﬁcation of musical performance anxiety
as a subtype of social anxiety, but some special features should be considered,especially with respect to possible interventions.

Eﬀects of the Relationship Between Co-Performers’ Body
Movement on Coordination in Ensembles
Kenji Katahira 1 , Toshie Nakamura 1 , Satoshi Kawase 1 , Shoko
Yasuda 1 , Haruka Shoda 2 , Maria Raluca Draguna 1 ; 1 Osaka
University, Japan; 2 Hokkaido University, Japan
3AM2-R11-10
Performers often display similar body movements with their co-performers inensembles. The occurrence of such distinctive behaviour may be explained byexamining the role of body movement in the coordination of ensemble performances,which has been previously pointed out in research on body movement in musicalperformances (Davidson, 2002). The aim of this study was to investigate whether
coordination during performances depends on the way in which performers use
their body movement; our focus was on ensembles, in which information aboutco-performers’ body movements is available to performers. Two participants werepaired and instructed to synchronize their equal interval tapping on electronic drums
in a face-to-face situation. 5 trials were applied. The synchronization score was
examined based on their tapping timing, and body movements were investigatedbased on time serial data of their body movements. We examined the relationshipbetween their synchronization score and the way they used their body movement
throughout all trials. The results showed that within one pair, the relationship between the participants’ body movements developed into two types, and a diﬀerencein the synchronization scores associated with these types was observed. Based onthese results, the role of body movement was discussed.

The Relationship Between Body Types and Singers’ Breathing inClassical Singing
Hyunhi Kim 1 , Jane Davidson 1 , Viggo Pettersen 2 ; 1 University ofSheﬃeld, UK; 2 University of Stavanger, Norway
3AM2-R11-12
This study aimed to examine the relationship between body types and singers’
breathing in classical singing. Electromyographic activity (EMG) from the intercostals(INT1 & INT2) and in the lateral abdominal (OBL1 & OBL2) muscles was obtained
from twenty four experienced singers (19 undergraduate students, 2 post graduate
students, 2 singing teachers who had an international solo performing career) and 1
amateur singer with two years of private singing lessons. The INT and OBL muscles
on the right side of the body were recorded by surface electromyography (EMG). The
circumference of the lower thorax (LTX) and the abdominal region (ABD) (at the navel
level) were sensed with two strain gauge sensors. The singers’ bodies were mapped
concerning: height, weight, lower thorax, mid-shoulder to mid point, mid point to
hip distance and nipple to lower rib distance. This was done in order to calculate
body type, height to weight ratio and lung volume to weight ratio of the upper
body. Three diﬀerent vocalization tasks were performed: (1) an aria, (2) a sustained
tone, and (3) a glissando. The twenty four singers sang “Voi che sa pete”, chosenfrom Mozart opera, The marriage of Figaro, by the author. The muscle activity wasrecorded in the performances of the repeated tasks. The hypothesis of this study
was that classical singers’ body types would aﬀect the breathing apparatus, andthat the diﬀerent body types would cause diﬀerences in the use of muscles whenbreathing for classical singing. The results showed that singers with normal weighttend to use the intercostal muscles more than those with overweight or obesity.

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ICMPC 103AM2-R12 : Performance / Neuroscience
Room 12, 10:40 – 12:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Poster session

Analysis of the Tuning Process in the Accompaniments
Noriyuki Takahashi 1 , Yoko Oura 1 , Minoru Tsuzaki 2 ; 1 Niigata
University, Japan; 2 Kyoto City University of Arts, Japan
3AM2-R12-02
In musical ensembles, it is necessary for players to anticipate their co-players’
performances and accordingly coordinate their own performances in real time. This
study was conducted to investigate real-time coordination processes in the piano
accompaniments to a solo cello performance. Two university students (pianists A
and B), majoring in piano music and experienced in accompaniment, were asked tothoroughly practice the accompaniment part of ‘Le cygne’ composed by Saint-Saëns.
The melody played by a professional cellist was recorded in advance. In the experiment, the prerecorded cello performance was presented ﬁve times through the use ofa monitor display and speakers, and upon each presentation, the pianists were asked
to play the accompaniment part of the piece on a MIDI piano. The MIDI and sounddata of each performance was recorded on a computer. An analysis of the onset
timing error of the cello and piano revealed that the total timing error of pianist
A was low, even in the ﬁrst trial, while that of pianist B was considerably higher,
and with every subsequent trial, it gradually decreased to end at same level as thatof pianist A. Moreover, pianist A demonstrated relatively lower onset timing errors
except at the beginning of the phrase, where the errors were found to be greater; incontrast, pianist B showed a higher errors not only at the beginning but also in the
middle of the phrase, suggesting that it was not easy for her to ﬂexibly coordinate
her performance with that of the cello. Correlation analysis of the dynamics revealed
that pianist A was signiﬁcantly better than pianist B at harmonizing with the cello.
In terms of the smoothness of the tempo change, pianist A was signiﬁcantly better
than pianist B. These results suggested that the soloist’s skill is unrelated to his/her
ensemble ability, and that playing in a musical ensemble would involve some unique
skill.

Emotional Communication of a Pianist’s Intended Expression via
Acoustical and Visual Information
Haruka Shoda 1 , Toshie Nakamura 2 , Maria Raluca Draguna 2 ,Satoshi Kawase 2 , Kenji Katahira 2 , Shoko Yasuda 2 , Mayumi Adachi 1 ;1
Hokkaido University, Japan; 2 Osaka University, Japan
3AM2-R12-04
We often experience diﬀerent impressions from the same piece of music when
performers change their expressions. Psychological studies suggest that performers’
intentions are communicated via acoustical and visual cues. In this light, we aimed
at clarifying whether visual information can communicate a performer’s emotional
intention. We conducted an experiment in which a pianist and 106 listeners evaluatedtheir intended and perceived emotional expressions of two renditions (deadpan andartistic) for two musical pieces (“Etude Tableaux Op.39-1” and “Prelude Op.32-5”
by Rachmaninoﬀ). As a result, the core emotional components intended by the
pianist were perceived accordingly by the audience in the sound only, and in thematched sound and vision modes. Although visual information could communicate
such components, there were no visual eﬀects on emotional communication of theperformer’s intentions in the matched sound and vision mode. In contrast, visual
information aﬀected the perception of mechanical performance.

Auditory Feedback-Based Error Monitoring Processes During
Musical Performance: An ERP Study
Kentaro Katahira, Dilshat Abla, Sayaka Masuda, Kazuo Okanoya;
RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Japan
3AM2-R12-06
Auditory feedback is important in detecting and correcting errors during soundproduction behaviors. In the context of vocal production, a forward model, in
which a prediction of action consequence (corollary discharge) is created, has been
proposed to explain the dampened activity of the auditory cortex while producing
self-generated vocal sounds. It is unclear how auditory feedback is processed and98ICMPC 10

Wednesday 27 August 2008

what neural substrate underlies the process during musical performances. Clarifying
the similarities and diﬀerences between the modules for vocal production andmusic performance can help clarify the brain mechanisms involved in both cognitive
functions. We investigated the neural correlates of human auditory feedback-based
error detection using event-related potentials (ERPs) recorded during musical performances. Keyboard players of two diﬀerent skill levels played simple melodies using
a musical score. During the performance, the auditory feedback was occasionallyaltered. Subjects with early and extensive piano training evoked a negative ERP
component N210, which was absent in non-trained players. When subjects listened
to music that deviated from a corresponding score without playing the piece, N210
did not emerge but the imaginary mismatch negativity (iMMN) did. N210 may reﬂect a
process of mismatch between the intended auditory image evoked by motor activity,
and actual auditory feedback.

Neuromagnetic Alpha Desynchronization Reﬂects Auditory
Processing to Musical and Non-Musical Sound Diﬀerently inChildren
Takako Fujioka, Bernhard Ross; Rotman Research Institute, Canada
3AM2-R12-08
It is known that alpha-band (8–13 Hz) activities in auditory cortex are modulated byauditory stimulus in children, as in adults. The current study aims to retrospectively
investigate alpha-band activities in our previous magnetoencephalographic (MEG)
data which have shown that non-oscillatory brain response in children matures
diﬀerently according to the stimulus-type (musical and non-musical sound) andchild’s musical experience in Suzuki music lessons (Fujioka, Ross, Kakigi, Pantev,& Trainor, 2006). Time-frequency analysis using Wavelet Transform was applied tosingle-trials of source waveforms observed from left and right auditory cortices in
response to the violin tone and noise stimulus. The results show prominent alphapower decrease with a clear dissociation between the upper (12 Hz) and lower (8 Hz)
range for both stimuli. Interestingly the alpha desynchronization lasted longer in theupper than the lower alpha band only for the violin tone, although the maturationalchange and group diﬀerence were absent. In general the time courses of alpha(onset around 300 ms, peak at 500 ms, oﬀset after 1500 ms) were similar to thosepreviously found for older children and adults with auditory memory related tasks.

Segmentation of Musical Sequence with Statistical Regularities: An
Event-Related Potentials Study
Dilshat Abla, Kentaro Katahira, Kazuo Okanoya; RIKEN Brain Science
Institute, Japan
3AM2-R12-10
Language and music share much in common structurally. To extract chunk as well as
their organization from the speech stream or music, humans must possess eﬃcientcomputational procedures. Several behavioral experiments have reported evidence
that infants and adults readily learn statistically deﬁned patterns in auditory input
sequences. To investigate the neural processes involved in online segmentationand statistical learning, we recorded ERPs while adult participants were exposed tocontinuous, auditory sequences, the elements of which were organized into “tritone
words” that were sequenced in random order, with no silent spaces between them.
Participants were listening to three 6.6-minute sessions of sequences. Results showedthat word onset (initial tone, the less-predictable position) elicited the largest N400
in the early learning session of high learners, but in middle learners, the word-onset
eﬀect was elicited in a later session, and there was no eﬀect in low learners. The
N400 amplitudes were correlated with the transitional probability of continuous tone
streams. The results suggest that the N400 eﬀect indicates not only online word
segmentation but also the degree of statistical learning. This study provides insight
into the neural mechanisms underlying online statistical learning processes.

The Brain Activation of Absolute Pitch Possessors: A
Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Study
Shiho Miyazawa 1 , Shozo Kojima 2 ; 1 Waseda University, Japan; 2 Keio
University, Japan
3AM2-R12-12This study examined the characteristics of the cerebral hemodynamic responses tomusical sound. We measured absolute pitch (AP) and non-absolute pitch (NAP) by99

Wednesday 27 August 2008

ICMPC 10near-infrared spectroscopy (NRS). Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify thepitch without any external reference. Previous studies, from neuroimaging results,
has revealed that Broca’s area is associated with phonetic and verbal process and,right medial temporal lobe is associated with melody retrieval. However, behaviouralstudies have shown that when they retain musical pitch, NAP group use sensory
encoding, whereas AP group use verbal encoding. By using pitch memory task, we
examined hemodynamic response during the task, and we focused Broca’s area andthe homologue in the right hemisphere. 23 volunteers participated this experimentand were classiﬁed by pitch naming test. The result is that AP’s score of pitch
memory test is greater than NAP’s. Furthermore, a larger response to the AP groupthan to the NAP group changes occurred in Broca’s area. These results demonstrated
that the diﬀerence strategy was used between AP group and NAP group in pitch
memory test by using neuroimaging method. We suggested that a new method ofinvestigating music perception using NIRS.

3AM2-R13 : Neuroscience
Room 13, 10:40 – 12:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Poster session

Cortical Processing of Consonance of Pure-Tone Dyads: An
Evoked Potential Study
Kosuke Itoh 1 , Shugo Suwazono 2 , Tsutomu Nakada 1 ; 1 University of
Niigata, Japan; 2 National Hospital Organization Okinawa Hospital,Japan
3AM2-R13-02
Multiple levels of auditory processing are believed to contribute to perceptionof consonance in music. Regarding peripheral processing, consonance has beensuccessfully formalized as the absence of “roughness” perceived when two slightly
mistuned simple tones are unresolved in the cochlea. By contrast, little is known
about the later central processing. To investigate this issue, long-latency components
of auditory evoked potentials (EPs) were recorded while listeners who had received
ﬁve to sixteen years of training in Western music listened to dyads comprising
two pure tones paired at various intervals. Symmetrically over frontal scalp, theamplitude of auditory EP was signiﬁcantly more negative for dissonance than for
perfect consonance at around the N2 latency, and the EP amplitude for imperfectconsonance was intermediate. This eﬀect was not signiﬁcant at the N1 and P2
latencies, by contrast. Thus, the EP was modulated by the interval of pure-tone dyads
in a manner that could not be accounted for by the cochlear “roughness theory”
of consonance, which states that dissonance (or “roughness”) of simple-tone dyads
monotonically decreases with frequency separation. In addition to peripheral mechanisms, cerebral cortical processing likely contributes to perception of consonancein listeners who had received training in Western music.

Brain Activities Evoked by Musical Intervals in an Octave:
Dissonant or Consonant
Reiko Shiba 1 , Kazuhiro Hirai 2 , Iku Nemoto 2 ; 1 RIKEN Brain Science
Institute, Japan; 2 Tokyo Denki University, Japan
3AM2-R13-04
The unpleasantness brought by dissonant cords is common to many people. Thisfeeling is considered due to the beat of sounds. We suppose some innate structuresin our brain to cause this feeling. In this study, we investigate the basic auditory
processing mechanisms of the sensory dissonance perception of musical chords.
(Exp. 1) Intervals synthesized of two pure tones ranging from unison to octave
were presented to 13 adult musically naïve volunteers. Evoked magnetic ﬁelds forthe intervals were recorded by whole head MEG system (Neuromag122). Eighty
responses to each interval were averaged and low-pass ﬁltered and then analyzed.
(Exp. 2) The evoked magnetic ﬁelds for 3-tone musical chords (dissonant; C-C# D,
C-C#-B, consonant; C-E-G, C-F-A) were recorded and analyzed similarly. A signiﬁcantlarge response to the dissonant interval (minor second) was observed in the bothauditory cortex from 200 to 400 ms after sound presented in experiment 1. The
signal source of this activity existed in the vicinity of that of N1m. A relative large
response to dissonant 3-tone musical chord (C-C#-D) was observed from 300 to 400
ms in experiment 2. These responses were supposed to be speciﬁc to the dissonantmusical intervals.

100ICMPC 10

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The Time Needed to Make Decision for Musical Preference andEEG Activities
Tatsuya Iwaki, Tomohiko Makimori; Hiroshima International
University, Japan
3AM2-R13-06
Likes and dislikes can be judged only from listening to the beginning of a musicpiece. Presented study tried to understand the question that how long did listeners
need to listen to music to make decision for musical preference. Furthermore,
there was a possibility that the brain activities during the time taken to decide thepreference diﬀered from that after the period. Twenty participants were asked topush the button when they could judge the preference for a music piece. Presented
pieces were all classical music that were presented for each 100 s. Typical 21 channel
EEGs were recorded through the experimental session. Mean time to need to judge
the musical preferences were 25 s. This means listeners are able to anticipate theirpreference for each music piece at the beginning. Analyzing the correlation between
EEG data and the score of musical preference, alpha band amplitude at frontal area
during 25 s from the presentation of music pieces was lateralized with the greater
score ratings of preference. Relating this diﬀerence of EEG amplitude, EEG coherence
between left and right frontal-temporal sites was also increased. EEG changes implied
the activation of frontal brain area reﬂecting the analytic state of musical preference.

Frontal Brain Activation During Listening to Negative vs. Positive
and High vs. Low Arousal Music: The Moderating Eﬀects of
Impulsivity and Neuroticism-Anxiety Dimensions of Personality
Kari Kallinen; Helsinki School of Economics, Finland
3AM2-R13-08
A considerable body of research has found a relationship between emotions andfrontal cortical activity. Some studies suggest that left and right frontal alphaactivation is related to the experience of positive and negative emotions, respectively(“valence hypothesis”), while others have suggested that the right hemisphereprocesses both positive and negative information (“right hemisphere hypothesis”).
In addition to emotional characteristics of music, it has also been suggested that
there may be individual diﬀerence variables that aﬀect the nature and magnitude
of responses to music, although only a few studies have examined this issue inconnection with music and brain activity. The purpose of the present study was totest the valence and right hemisphere hypothesis by examining the frontal brain
activity during positive (i.e., joyful) vs. negative (i.e., sad and fearful) and high (i.e.,
joyful and fearful) vs. low arousal (i.e., sad) music. In addition we wanted to study
whether the personality dimensions (i.e., impulsivity [Imp] and neuroticism-anxiety[N-Anx]) moderates the activity. The present study gave only partial support for thevalence theory of frontal brain asymmetry, and demonstrated that the individual
diﬀerences (such as personality) may have very fundamental eﬀects on the brain
activity observed in individuals. The results will be discussed from the valence andright hemisphere hypothesis point of view and the role of individual diﬀerences inbrain responses to emotional music will be further explored.

Anterior Portion of Temporal Lobes Participates in the Perceptionof Chords: A PET Study
Masayuki Satoh; Mie St. Cross Hospital, Japan
3AM2-R13-10
I had experienced a case of amusia who showed the impairment of the discriminationof isolated chords (Satoh 2005). Using positron emission tomography (PET), I ascertained the activation of the anterior portion of the temporal lobes in the perceptionof chords in nonmusicians. Eleven right-handed male volunteers performed two
kinds of musical tasks of identical musical pieces: harmony-listening and sopranopart-listening. Six cerebral blood ﬂow (CBF) measurements were determined foreach subject — three during the harmony-listening and three during the sopranopart-listening task. Employing the 15 O-labeled water (H2 15 O) intravenous bolus
technique, I collected emission data for 90 seconds in each measurement following
the intravenous bolus injection of 15∼17 mL (40 mCi) of H2 15 O. PET data analysis
was performed by using an automated PET activation analysis package (Minoshima1993). Subtraction of soprano-part listening from harmony-listening task showedthat signiﬁcant increases in regional CBF were found in the anterior portion of thebilateral temporal lobes, bilateral cingulated gyri, and the cerebellum. Based on the101

Wednesday 27 August 2008

ICMPC 10

results of case and activation study, it is reasonably concluded that the anterior
portion of the bilateral temporal lobes is vital in the perception of chords.

3AM2-R16 : Demonstration III
Room 16, 10:40 – 12:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008,“Seeing Harmony”: A Computer Graphics System for Visualizing
Harmony
Chikashi Fujimoto, Hiroo Konaka, Takefumi Hayashi, Norman D.
Cook; Kansai University, Japan
3AM2-R16-1
Two independent acoustical features (dissonance and tension) contribute to theoverall sonority of musical triads. These features can be calculated from the relative
size of the intervals among the fundamental frequencies and their upper partials inany chord, and then plotted as 3D graphs. The strength of the major/minor “modality” of chords is also determined by the relative size of the two intervals in each
three-tone combination. Precise, quantitative evaluation of these harmonic features
allows for the visualization of chords both in terms of their resolved/unresolved
character (“instability”, deﬁned as the sum of interval dissonance and triad tension)and in terms of their aﬀective valence (the relative size of the upper and lower
intervals among partial triads). Based on this model of harmony perception, we
have developed an OpenGL visualization software system which displays harmonies
as dynamic 3D patterns in response to the input of musical chords. The software
has both visual and auditory output, allowing the user to perceive the relationshipbetween auditory features and a visual analog that is constructed on the basis of
the acoustical properties of the chords. Unlike familiar “screensaver” software that
presents visual patterns in response to music, the Seeing Harmony software has arigorous psychoacoustical foundation.

3AM2-R17 : Demonstration IV
Room 17, 10:40 – 12:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008,

A Psychoacoustical Toolbox for Sound/Music Analysis and Sound
Design/Music Creation
Alexandre Torres Porres; University of São Paulo, Brazil
3AM2-R17-1
This demo session is about a Puredata Library of Patches. This project is still at its
initial phase on a doctorate degree program at USP, under the supervision of Prof. Dr.
Fernando Iazzetta and Prof. Dr. Marcelo Queiroz. The ﬁrst Patch of this library wasdeveloped during a Master’s degree, and was centred on the Psychoacoustical Modelof Roughness. The software was adopted to analyse spectrum of sounds and derive ascale of consonant and dissonant steps. Such a procedure enabled the analysis behind
the Poster presentation from the same author at ICMPC 10. Thus, more information
about it can be found on the full paper submitted to the Proceedings. The softwareand user manual can be downloaded from http://porres.googlepages.com/home.
Besides the Scale derivation from the Spectrum, this tool also analyses Roughness ofaudio signal over time. Because of its creative possibilities regarding the perceptionof tuning, the software has a section of Adaptive Tuning modules that work as
pitch correctors, and were used with theremin-like sensors. The current state ofdevelopment aims to include other Psychoacoustical Analysis of sound/music, as
well as creative interactive tools for sound design and music creation.

3AM2-R18 : Demonstration V
Room 18, 10:40 – 12:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008,

Creating the Expression of Cantablile with Software
Tomoyasu Taguti; Taguti Laboratory of Computation and Analysis,Japan
3AM2-R18-1
Cantabile, or singing, is one of directions concerning the general character of a102

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Wednesday 27 August 2008

piece or section of music, which necessarily directs the player to convey the implied
emotion to the audience in his/her performance. Like other directions such as
dolce, amoroso, agitato, appassionato, and others, the meaning is totally holistic ascompared with the performance marks indicating the tempo, dynamics, articulation,etc. that are more concrete and directly related to the performance practice. The
author will present a descriptive method to realize the desired musical expression
with software. The essential point is a hierarchical superposition of performancevariables corresponding to the dynamics, agogics, articulation, onset-shift, andpedaling. These performance variables, deﬁned in the form of envelope functions in
the beat variable, can be given to any musically meaningful units as well as to theirsubgroups, and sub-subgroups . . . at arbitrary depths, of the entire note structure.
The demonstration will be focused on the cantabile expression for Andante cantabile
con espressione, Second Movement of Mozart’s Piano Sonata No. 9 in A minor,
KV 310, by making use of several simple envelop forms, or envelop elements, ofthe performance variables. Note that the set of the instances of the performancevariables in hierarchical structure is viewed as a decomposition of the desired(complex) musical expression.

3PM1-R02 : Timing and Performance
Room 2, 13:30 – 15:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Accuracy in Time-Interval Production with Contextual Sequences :A Comparison Between Trained and Untrained People
Tomoko Hashida, Takao Sato; University of Tokyo, Japan
3PM1-R02-1
The present study aimed at investigating whether musical training experiences
eﬀect on the accuracy of time-interval production when contextual sequences arepresented, which may provide clues for the prediction of the beat timing and mental
subdivision. We are interested in whether the abilities to use contextual sequences
for producing time-intervals are diﬀerent between trained and untrained people ornot. In the experiment, participants were required to produce 4000ms inter-onsetof tapping-intervals (ITIs) by using key. Seven types of contextual sequences weregenerated depending on the length of key press. Standard deviations of ITIs were
calculated as a measure of production accuracy. The results indicate that people canproduce time-intervals with contextual sequences accurately regardless of musicalproﬁciencies and the types of contextual sequences don’t eﬀect on production
accuracies. In other words, the abilities to produce time-interval by making useof hints for the prediction of beat timing and the mental subdivision provided bysequences are not diﬀerent between trained and untrained people.

Multi-Feature Modeling of Pulse Clarity from Audio
Olivier Lartillot, Tuomas Eerola, Petri Toiviainen, Jose Fornari;
University of Jyväskylä, Finland
3PM1-R02-2
This paper deﬁnes pulse clarity as an introspective understanding of the quality of
the rhythmic structures not merely reduced to questions related to synchronization
capabilities. The objective of this study is to establish a composite model explaining
pulse clarity judgments from the analysis of audio recordings, and to ground thevalidity of the model through listening tests. The models used in this study arebased on a range of musical features usually regarded as important in the perceptionof pulse clarity. Rhythmic periodicity is estimated via the autocorrelation of theamplitude envelope of the audio waveform. Statistical characterization of the
autocorrelation function indicates the prominence of the main pulsation. Harmonic
relations between the main pulsation and the secondary periodicities may also
contribute to the rhythmic clarity. Besides periodicity, descriptors related to theamplitude envelope itself are also considered. The models have been written in
Matlab using MIRtoolbox. To evaluate the models, 25 participants rated the pulse
clarity of one hundred excerpts from movie soundtracks. The mapping between themodel predictions and the ratings is carried out via regressions. Almost a half of thelisteners’ rating variance can be explained with a combination of periodicity-based
and non-periodicity-based factors.

103

Wednesday 27 August 2008

ICMPC 10Eﬀects of Physiological Arousal on Performing Tempo and Artistic
Expression in Pianists
Michiko Yoshie, Takeshi Hirano, Akito Miura, Kazutoshi Kudo,
Tatsuyuki Ohtsuki; University of Tokyo, Japan
3PM1-R02-3
The present study examined whether pianists’ heightened physiological arousal
in stressful performance situations can alter their performing tempo and artistic
expressions. Seven music majors aged 21–37 years (M = 28.4, SD = 5.9) performed
Chopin’s Etude Op. 25-5 on a grand piano under two conditions: (a) In the rehearsal
condition, participants played the piece alone in a practice room. (b) In the competition condition, participants performed in front of ﬁve judges and a large audience.
During their performances, we recorded the mean heart rate (HR), sweat rate (SR),and electromyographic (EMG) activity from four muscles in the left arm and shoulder. The eﬀectiveness of arousal manipulation was conﬁrmed by the signiﬁcantly
increased HR, SR, and EMG activity in the competition condition. The total durationof the piece signiﬁcantly decreased from the rehearsal to competition condition.
Additionally, participants tended to hold the note under a fermata relatively longer
in the competition condition, presumably in an attempt to relieve muscle fatigue.
We conclude that the heightened physiological arousal due to psychological stresscan accelerate the internal tempo (Boltz, 1994) and hence performing tempo inmusicians, leading to the impairment of performance quality. Furthermore, theassociated increases in muscle activity can alter the artistic expressions.

Eﬀect of Pianists’ Expressive Intention on Amount and Type ofBody Movement
Marc R. Thompson, Geoﬀ Luck; University of Jyväskylä, Finland
3PM1-R02-4
Body movement displayed in music performance is said to be an overt manifestationof the musician’s expressive intentions and goals regarding the music being played.
We are interested in studying if diﬀerent levels of expression result in diﬀerent
amounts of body movement and gestures. For this study, musicians were asked in
multiple sessions to play an excerpt from the same piece using three diﬀerent levelsof expression while their movements were recorded using an optical motion capturesystem. Statistical tests show that an increasing amount of expression resulted in
more body movement and that the amount of expression and physical movement
were inter-twined. Also, we present data suggesting that the head and shoulders
travelled a further distance overall, and showed bigger diﬀerences between performance manners, compared to the ﬁngers, wrists and lower back. We hypothesizethat this is related to the contrasting roles these parts of the body play in piano
performance.

3PM1-R03 : Music Listening III
Room 3, 13:30 – 15:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Musical Preferences of Secondary and Post-Secondary Students in
Singapore
Sun-Hee Chang 1 , Eddy Chong 2 ; 1 Seoul National University, Korea;
2
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
3PM1-R03-1
This study seeks to investigate the eﬀect of familiarity, age, gender, ethnicity, andacademic group as well as their interactions on the musical preferences of secondaryand post-secondary students in Singapore. The students whose responses wereanalyzed (n=1529) ranged from age 12 to 23. Five music categories were usedin the listening survey — Jazz, Rap, Rock, Traditional music (comprising African,
Chinese, Indian, Indonesian, Japanese, and Malay) and Western classical music.
Mean preference results showed that western classical music was the most familiar(M=3.58, SD= .86) and most preferred (M=3.47, SD=.80) whereas traditional music
was the least familiar (M= 2.80, SD= .87) and least preferred (M=2.41, SD= .66). The
correlation between familiarity and preference is signiﬁcant for all music categories;
ANCOVA results further showed that familiarity of the corresponding music category
was the most inﬂuential factor aﬀecting preferences in all cases. Of the other four
factors examined, interaction eﬀects between gender and academic group, ethnicity
and academic group, as well as gender and ethnicity were found to be signiﬁcant,104

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aﬀecting the diﬀerent music categories in diﬀerent ways. In terms of main eﬀects,
age was the only factor that did not signiﬁcantly interact with the other factors ininﬂuencing preferences; on its own, it seemed to aﬀect only students’ preference for
Jazz. Of the ﬁve music categories, Rap which was ranked second in terms of preference was more strongly preferred by the lower academic ability secondary-schoolgroups (unlike with all the other music categories), and by both Indians and Malays(as with Traditional music but not with the others).

Relations Between Music Preferences, Personality Characteristics
and Values in a Turkish Sample
Hasan Gurkan Tekman, Gaye Goklu, Vuslat Saglam; Uludag
University, Turkey
3PM1-R03-2
Rentfrow and Gosling (2003) factor-analyzed reported preferences for musical genres
and found that four dimensions (upbeat and conventional, intense and rebellious,
energetic and rhythmic, reﬂective and complex) could summarize musical preferences of US samples. Preference for each one of these dimensions also had reliablecorrelations with some person variables including personality, political, and cognitive
characteristics. We investigated the generality of the four dimensions discovered byRentfrow and Gosling (2003) in a diﬀerent culture and also aimed to see whether
musical genres speciﬁc to this culture would ﬁt into the same classiﬁcation. Furthermore, we examined the relations between music preferences and person variables
including value orientations. The four factors that were observed by Rentfrow and
Gosling (2003) emerged in the data. However, some of the musical genres speciﬁc
to Turkey combined in a ﬁfth factor. Not only personality characteristics but also
value orientations were related to music preferences. The correlations of music
preferences and person variables showed that there may be diﬀerences as well as
commonalities in the functions the same genres serve in diﬀerent cultures.

Music Preference and Sensation Seeking Tendency in Various AgeGroupsMarek Franěk; University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
3PM1-R03-3
Several studies reported that individuals, who score high in the sensation-seeking
tend to prefer certain musical genres, in particular hard rock, punk, heavy metal,
and reggae music. The association between sensation seeking and music preference
was studied only in adolescents or young adults. There is a question, whether thistendency is also manifested in another age groups. Participants (N=521) were asked
to complete the Sensation Seeking Scale V and the test of musical preference. The
multiple regression analysis revealed that jazz, electronica/dance music (dance,techno, jungle etc.) and rock music was positively related to sensation seeking (SS).
It was shown that in (1) adolescents and younger adults (16–25 years) preferenceof jazz and electronica/dance music was positively associated to SS, in (2) adults
from 26 to 39 the preference of rock and electronica/dance music was positively
associated to SS, and in (3) adults from 40 to 57 the preference of jazz and rock was
positively associated to SS. The results showed that in adolescent and young adults
group the preference of electronica/dance music and jazz was related to the highlevel of SS, while in middle age individuals SS was associated with the preference ofrock. It seems that for middle age individuals rock could have a similar arousing
eﬀect as electronica/dance music for younger people.

Relating Personality to Reported Music Preferences and Listening
Behaviour
Greg Dunn, Boris de Ruyter; Philips Research, The Netherlands
3PM1-R03-4
Though music is a ubiquitous and ingrained aspect of our daily lives, little is known
about why people become fond of one music genre versus another. We aim to support previous results relating reported music preferences to personality, and further
extend its validity to listening behaviour. To accomplish this, 395 participants (335males) completed measures for music preferences and personality. Their listening
behaviour was tracked using a music database for a minimum period of 3 months.
Results indicated participants’ reported music preferences were positively correlated
to listening behaviour for 13 of 14 genres. Correlations between music preferences
and personality were not consistent with previous research, however; neither for105

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ICMPC 10reported music preferences nor listening behaviour. Thus, while reported music
preferences reliably indicated listening behaviour, further study is required to fully
establish how music preferences and listening behaviour are related to personality.

3PM1-R04 : Emotion in Music III
Room 4, 13:30 – 15:30 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Dynamic Auditory Parameters and Perceived Musical Tension
Roni Y. Granot 1 , Zohar Eitan 2 ; 1 Hebrew University, Israel; 2 Tel Aviv
University, Israel
3PM1-R04-1
Though the perception of musical tension has recently received considerable attention, the eﬀect of interactions among auditory parameters on perceived tension has
hardly been examined systematically. In this study, 72 participants (30 musicallytrained) listened to short melodic sequences which combined manipulations ofpitch direction, pitch register, loudness change and tempo change, and rated eachsequence for overall tension level and for direction of tension change (increasing or
decreasing). For overall tension, repeated measures ANOVAs show main eﬀects ofloudness, pitch direction, and pitch register (lower more tensional), and several signiﬁcant interactions (e.g., tempo and loudness, pitch direction and register). Tempo
had only a weak eﬀect on overall tension ratings but signiﬁcantly aﬀected ratingsof tension change. Results indicate that the mutual eﬀect of auditory parameterson perceived tension is often strongly interactive, rather than additive. In addition,
pitch register is shown as a strong determinant of perceived tension; in contrast to
previous ﬁndings, lower register enhances perceived tension. We discuss results inlight of an ecological model, bearing on cross-modal and aﬀective connotations ofauditory qualities, in which the degree of tension is aﬀected by auditory cues for
impending threat.

Aﬀective Response to Tonal Modulation
Marina Korsakova-Kreyn, W. Jay Dowling, Joseph Dunlop; Universityof Texas at Dallas, USA
3PM1-R04-2
This study investigated aﬀective response to modulations to all 12 major and minor
steps of the Western tonal schema. The participants were asked to listen to 48
brief chordal progressions and to indicate the intensity of their aﬀective response to
the concluding part of each progression on six bipolar adjective scales: Happy-sad,
Pleasant-unpleasant, Strong-weak, Firm-wavering, Bright-dark, Warm-cold. Thesepairs represent three dimensions: the two semantic diﬀerential scales, Evaluation
and Potency, and a category involving synaesthetic metaphors often involved inmusic perception. There were diﬀerentiated aﬀective responses to the diﬀerent
modulations that depend on key proximity and mode, and, perhaps, stylistic familiarity. Listeners were sensitive to modulation to the Subdominant and Dominant,recognized the “negativity” of the tritone, and sensed as “positive” the popular
modulations into major keys that ascend a half step or descend a major third. This
investigation agrees with other studies on aﬀective response to the major and minor
modes. In addition, the study provides evidence that the Lerdahl-type system of
tonal relationships involved in functional harmony needs to be supplemented withconsiderations of the importance of a semitone approaching the root of the tonic
triad or the mode-deﬁning third.

Music Emotion Classiﬁcation by Audio Signal Analysis: Analysis
of Self-Selected Music During Game PlayDon Knox, Gianna Cassidy, Scott Beveridge, Raymond MacDonald;
Glasgow Caledonian University, UK
3PM1-R04-3
Music emotion classiﬁcation algorithms seek to classify music ﬁles automaticallyby means of audio signal analysis. An overview of these methods is given, and anemotion classiﬁcation algorithm is applied to the preferred music choices madeby test subjects during a game play experiment. Results from the experiment arepresented, in which test subjects were exposed to 3 sound conditions: preferredmusic, game soundtrack and experimenter-selected music. Obtained measures
are heart rate, pedometer rate, game score, completion time and enjoyment. The

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preferred music choices from the experiment are analysed and classiﬁed according tomood cluster, valence and arousal. Obtained measures for these music classiﬁcations
are discussed, as are the implications for automatic mood classiﬁcation in choosing
music for future experiments. It is noted that such mood classiﬁcation schemes are
nascent. A means by which these schemes may be made more robust is proposed,
and initial results toward this goal are presented.

Emotional Cues in Knocking Sounds
Renzo Vitale 1 , Roberto Bresin 2 ; 1 RWTH Aachen University, Germany;
2
KTH, Sweden
3PM1-R04-4
The object of this research is to describe how temporal and dynamic cues in knocking
sounds can communicate emotions, just like in expressive musical performances.
An experiment has been conducted where several emotions were supposed to be
expressed by diﬀerent performers. Participants were asked to knock on a wooden
door according to instructions. Knocking sounds have been recorded both outside
and inside the room, and afterwards they were rated in listening tests.
Together with acoustic measurements, arm movements during the knocking action
were detected through a motion capture system, so that the body behaviour (visualcomponent) could be correlated to the sound evaluation (acoustical component).
Based on previous research on arm movements and music performance, ten diﬀerent
emotions were selected for investigation.
Results conﬁrm the use of the same strategies in both expressive everyday body gestures and expressive music performance. Listeners were able to perceive emotions toa large extent. Strong similarities between the use of acoustical features in knocking
and music performance were found.
The intended emotions were generally perceived correctly. Among the relevant
acoustical features extracted from the recordings, rhythm and IOI as well as loudness
revealed to be strong cues.

3PM2-R02 : Development II
Room 2, 15:45 – 17:15 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Young Children’s Rhythmic Behaviour in Singing: The Inﬂuence ofMother Tongue on Their Development
Nozomi Azechi; IOE University of London, UK
3PM2-R02-1
Diﬀerent rhythmic behaviour in musical performances was reported in some crosscultural studies. Dotted rhythm is one of the ‘need to be trained’ musical skills among
Japanese music students, though it is a favorite rhythm for use in composition andimprovisation among Japanese children. A 3:1 ratio dotted rhythm and a 2:1 ratio
were found to be confused in Japanese students and children’s musical performances.
It has been believed that this phenomenon was caused by the eﬀect of the Japanese
language phonetic system and its rhythm. However, the developmental processof this rhythmic behaviour and inﬂuence of language rhythm has not been examined.
Japanese and English children aged 3–6 singing: “Twinkle, twinkle” (song1) and “If
You’re Happy and You Know It” (song2) were analyzed by nPVI. Preliminary analysis
of song1 indicates that there is a diﬀerence between the two groups at age 4 andabove. Further diﬀerence is expected on dotted rhythm in song2. However, thediﬀerence was found only between the age 5 groups. The nPVI value of the English
3-year-old group was lower than that of the Japanese. The results from the song1
suggest that there is a tendency for language eﬀects to become more evident as thechildren grow up. However, many of singers from the English 3-year-old group sung
dotted rhythm of the same length, which is diﬀerent from the rhythm of motherlanguage. There is a contradiction between results from two songs.

Development of Pitch Processing in Auditory Cortex Between 2
and 4 Months of Age
Laurel J. Trainor, Chao He; McMaster University, Canada
3PM2-R02-2
In the ﬁrst months after birth, infants attend to the pitch patterns of music and107

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ICMPC 10speech. While it is known that auditory cortex undergoes large maturational changes
between 2 and 4 months of age, little is known about how this aﬀects pitch processing.
We are using event-related potentials (ERPs) derived from EEG recordings to track thedevelopment of the brain’s response to changes in pitch and pitch patterns. We havemeasured ERP responses to (a) changes in a repeating tone of one pitch, (b) changes
in a pitch pattern (order of the tones), (c) changes in a melody that is transposed
to a new key, and (d) the pitch of the missing fundamental. Responses to a change
in the pitch of a single tone change dramatically between 2 and 4 months of age,with 2-month-olds showing an increase in a positive slow wave and 4-month-olds anegative mismatch (MMN) response similar to adults. By 4 months, robust responses
to changes in pitch pattern and to the pitch of the missing fundamental can be seen.
We conclude that pitch processing in auditory cortex changes dramatically between
2 and 4 months, with adult-like responses emerging around 4 months.

A Day in the Life Project: Everyday Musical Experiences Among
Two Year Old Girls in Seven Diﬀerent Locations
Susan Young; University of Exeter, UK
3PM2-R02-3
Interest in the everyday musical experiences of children is growing, receiving impetus
from recent activity in the social and anthropological study of childhood. In thisstudy, a single day of home-care for seven two-and-a-half-year-old girls living in different countries (Canada, Italy, Peru, Thailand, Turkey, UK, USA) was video-recorded
by project researchers. In an ecological approach to research other data was alsocollected including preliminary interviews, ﬁeld notes and mappings of the homeenvironment. The project has been long-term and the music strand [one of many
strands being researched by the project team] has evolved into several lines of interest
including: technology assisted musical activity; music as parenting practice; and thehome as a site for young children’s entertainment through music. This presentation
will give an overview of these lines of interest and illustrate them with examples fromthe video data. Developmental psychology has tended to be insuﬃciently interested
in the wider cultural processes which contribute to children’s musical development.
Ethnomusicology and the sociology of music have been insuﬃciently interested inchildren’s musical activities. It will be argued that the integration of interdisciplinaryaccounts of young children’s musical experiences is essential if we are to acquire
fuller understandings of their musicality, the diversity of musical practices and how
children develop musically within heterogeneous contexts.

3PM2-R03 : Audio-Visual Interaction
Room 3, 15:45 – 17:15 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Experiencing Musical Performance: The Eﬀect of a Visual
Component on Appreciation of Complex Musical Sound
Scott D. Lipscomb, Guerino Mazzola; University of Minnesota, USA
3PM2-R03-1
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the presence of the visual
aspect of music performance enhances to a signiﬁcant degree the experience of thelistener-viewer in response to a variety of musical styles.
Participants in the study were assigned to one of three conditions (audio only, audiowith visualization, or audio with visual performance) and were then presented with
examples selected from each musical genre. Musical examples were selected fromboth traditional (relatively “simple”) and modern (“complex”) musical contexts. The
stimuli were presented in a random order to each group of participants. After
experiencing each stimulus, every participant responded on a series of 8-point verbal
scales. Selection of these verbal scales was determined by a preliminary study, theresults of which were presented at SMPC 2007.
Based on the results of the present study, the authors will propose potential applications for visual analogues of musical examples from a wide array of musicalrepertoires to facilitate the music learning process and inﬂuence the evolution ofmusical preferences.

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The Eﬀects of Diegetic and Non-Diegetic Music on Viewers’
Interpretations of Film
Siu-Lan Tan 1 , Matthew P. Spackman 2 , Elizabeth Wakeﬁeld 1 ;1Kalamazoo College, USA; 2 Brigham Young University, USA
3PM2-R03-2
245 participants viewed a ﬁlm excerpt, accompanied by diegetic music (presented
as if originating from within the world of the ﬁlm characters) or the same musicpresented as if an external dramatic score. Diegetic and non-diegetic presentations of
the same music led to diﬀerent interpretations with respect to characters’ emotions,relationship between characters, and the overall mood of the scene.

The Eﬀect of Music on the Fear Emotion in the Context of aSurvival-Horror Video Game
Masashi Yamada; Kanazawa Institute of Technology, Japan
3PM2-R03-3
The eﬀect of music on the fear emotion is investigated using a survival-horror video
game, in the present study. Eight male and two female players participated in theexperiment. Two scenes without music were selected from the game, and eightmusical excerpts composed for the series of the survival-horror game were selected.
In the ﬁrst part of the experiment, the participants listened to each of the excerpts
only and then evaluated the impression of it using semantic diﬀerential scales. In
the second part, each combination of scenes and excerpts was presented to theparticipants. Then they evaluated the impression of the audio-visual stimulus andalso rated their fear emotion. Principle component analyses and multi-regression
analyses showed that the impression of the game is largely determined by music, notvisual information. Moreover, a “heavy” music provides the “potency” and “darkness”
to the game and, in turn, evokes a strong fear emotion for the players. These results
are consistent with a previous study which used a roll-playing game. However, there
were no signiﬁcant diﬀerences between male and female players in the fear emotion
and impression of the game, in the present study. This was inconsistent with theresults for the roll-playing game, in which males were more deeply aﬀected by music
than females.

3PM2-R04 : Music and Language
Room 4, 15:45 – 17:15 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Language, Music, and Modularity: Evidence for Shared Processingof Linguistic and Musical Syntax
L. Robert Slevc 1 , Jason C. Rosenberg 2 , Aniruddh D. Patel 3 ; 1 Rice
University, USA; 2 University of California at San Diego, USA; 3 The
Neurosciences Institute, USA
3PM2-R04-1
The extent to which syntactic processing relies on special-purpose cognitive modules
has attracted considerable debate. The current experiments address this issue
by simultaneously manipulating syntactic processing demands in language and inmusic. Participants performed self-paced reading of garden-path sentences in whicha structurally unexpected word caused temporary syntactic processing diﬃculty. As
participants read, each button press triggered a musical chord, with the resulting
sequence forming a coherent Bach-style chord progression. When a harmonically
unexpected chord was paired with a structurally unexpected word, participants
showed substantially enhanced garden-path eﬀects (as measured by reading times),suggesting that language and music were competing for similar processing resources.
No such interaction was observed when the critical word violated semantic, rather
than syntactic, expectancy, nor when the critical chord violated timbral, rather thanharmonic, expectancy. These results support a prediction of the shared syntactic
integration resource hypothesis (SSIRH, Patel, 2003), which suggests that music andlanguage draw on a common pool of limited processing resources for integrating
incoming elements (such as words and chords) into syntactic structures.

Towards an Ecological Theory of Musical Semantics
Ghofur Eliot Woodruﬀ; University of Cambridge, UK
3PM2-R04-2

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Despite the intimate link between music and language, and the conviction voiced
by many that music has meaning, its semantic content continues to elude scholars
in all ﬁelds. A preliminary aim of this paper is to survey current theories of linguistic and musical meaning, and thereby consider how meaning may be sought
more proﬁtably. One solution is to examine non-verbal communication within
evolutionary paradigms. The recent work of Ian Cross on motivational structures inmusic, derived from Eugene Morton’s model of animal communication, is cited as
exemplary in this respect. The central theme of this paper is dedicated to a theoryof representation developed by Ruth Millikan in which sound is simultaneously
descriptive and directive. It is argued that the semantic mapping functions forthis representation derive from evolutionary, biological, and physical principles as
outlined by Morton and others. Finally, it is proposed that Millikan’s theory accounts
for simple satisfaction conditions in music. These conditions are explored in relation
to three forms of musical engagement: music as cinematic experience, music associal interaction, and music as autonomous activity.

Cognitive Musicology, Automata Theory, and the Empirical
Testability of the Language and Music Faculty Hypothesis
Uwe Seifert; University of Cologne, Germany
3PM2-R04-3
Like for cognitive science the epistemological framework of cognitive musicology is
automata theory. Concerning language and music there are at present two research
programmes within this cognitive science framework: the generative approach
inaugurated by Noam Chomsky and the approach based on ﬁndings on mirror
neurons and Michael A. Arbib’s Mirror System Hypothesis. Empirical research on theevolution of the language and music faculty or on language readiness within these
programmes relies on the idea of recursion, discrete inﬁnity, and self-embedding.
In this paper, the results of this empirical research are discussed and it is argued
that recursion based on a discrete inﬁnity assumption for cognitive domains is atheoretical concept which is empirically not directly observable and testable. This
claim is made evident by showing that the main assumption made by empiricalresearchers — natural languages are not ﬁnite state languages — can only beestablished by proof. Furthermore, it is argued that only computational modeling— especially with robots — might bridge the gap between automata theory andempirical research. The argument is based on the result that computers are ﬁnite
automata and the assumption that within the epistemological framework of cognitive
science computational systems like humans are at present best considered of as
ﬁnite automata.

3PM2-R05 : Harmony and Tonality I
Room 5, 15:45 – 17:15 Wednesday 27 August 2008, Oral session

Revisiting Local versus Global Processing of Cadences in the
Solution of Musical Puzzles
Benjamin Anderson, Richard D. Ashley; Northwestern University, USA
3PM2-R05-1
Many recent studies have used musical puzzles to evaluate the local or global
importance of cadence structure. In one study (Tillmann, Bigand, & Madurell 1998),
participants chose two puzzle pieces to assemble a musical piece that conformed
to what normally occurs in music. The authors concluded that participants (1)were sensitive to temporary modulations, (2) perceived the syntactic function ofhalf and authentic cadences, and (3) had more diﬃculty with modulating minuets
than minuets with half cadences. Looking at their results in terms of surface cues
and associational structures yields clues into how listeners make order judgments.
Lerdahl and Jackendoﬀ (1983) brieﬂy acknowledge the importance of associational
structures in grouping structure, but otherwise deal little with the notion. Using
discourse theory (Wolf & Florian 2005) as a guide, the model introduced here ﬁlls
this gap in theoretical understanding using network hierarchies rather than stricthierarchies to model listener perception. Relationships between themes and motives
can be established and then adapted throughout a piece even if the two statements
are not adjacent. These relationships can demonstrate the diﬀerence between primed
expectations and their later fulﬁlments and oﬀer new insight into puzzle solving
tasks.

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Statistical Properties of Tonal Harmony in Bach’s Chorales
Martin Rohrmeier, Ian Cross; University of Cambridge, UK
3PM2-R05-2
This study aims to contribute empirical computational results to the understandingof tonality and harmonic structure. It analyses aspects of tonal harmony andharmonic patterns based on a statistical, computational corpus analysis of Bach’s
chorales. This is carried out using a novel heuristic method of segmentation developed speciﬁcally for that purpose. Analyses of distributions of single pc sets,chord classes and pc set transitions reveal very diﬀerent structural patterns in bothmodes, many, but not all of which accord with standard music theory. In addition,
most frequent chord transitions are found to exhibit a large degree of asymmetry,or, directedness, in way that for two pc sets A,B the transition frequencies f(A→B)
and f(B→A) may diﬀer to a large extent. Distributions of unigrams and bigrams arefound to follow a Zipf distribution, i.e. decay in frequency roughly according to
1/x2 which implies that the majority of the musical structure is governed by a few
frequent elements. The ﬁndings provide evidence for an underlying harmonic syntax
which results in distinct statistical patterns.
A subsequent hierarchical cluster analysis of pc sets based on respective antecedentand consequent patterns ﬁnds that this information suﬃces to group chords intomeaningful functional groups solely on intrinsic statistical grounds without regard
to pitch content.

Is There a Relationship Between Pitch Attraction and Generative
Grammar in Western Tonal Music?
Matthew Woolhouse, Martin Rohrmeier; University of Cambridge, UK
3PM2-R05-3
Despite recent theoretical and empirical advances linking language and music, an
important question remains unanswered: how is a particular chord and/or tone allotted to a particular position within a grammatically structured musical phrase? For
example, in a statistical study by Rohrmeier of the frequencies of diatonic chord progressions in Bach chorales, chord II was ﬁve times more likely to follow chord IV thanto precede it; chord I followed chord V twice as often as preceding it, and so on. This
research draws together two existing lines of research with the aim of showing how
local and possibly global dependency relationships speciﬁed in Rohrmeier’s generative grammar may be linked to and supported by chord attraction levels as speciﬁed
in Woolhouse’s pitch attraction model. It is argued that, to a signiﬁcant degree, thetransitional regularities of chords in tonal music can be explained and understood interms of generative rules of tonal harmony and pitch attraction. Empirical evidence
is provided which supports the notion that chord transition asymmetries in Bachchorales are linked to chord attraction, mediated by an underlying syntactic process.

111Thursday 28 August 2008

ICMPC 104AM1-R02 : Timbre II
Room 2, 8:30 – 10:30 Thursday 28 August 2008, Oral session

Investigating English Violin Timbre Descriptors
C. Fritz, A.F. Blackwell, Ian Cross, B.C.J. Moore, J. Woodhouse;
University of Cambridge, UK
4AM1-R02-1
Performers often discuss the sound quality of a violin or the sound obtained byparticular playing techniques, calling upon a diverse vocabulary. But how do thosewords relate to each other? How consistent are they between players? How reliably
can they be used by teachers, or performers explaining to violin makers what they
want? This study explores the verbal description of the distinctive timbres ofdiﬀerent violins: what descriptors are used by performers to characterise violins?
61 common descriptors were collected and then arranged by violinists on a map,so that words with similar meanings lay close together, and diﬀerent meanings far
apart. The results of multidimensional scaling demonstrate consistent use among
violinists of a previously informal vocabulary and highlight which words are used
for similar purposes. These terms and their relations will be useful for violin makers
and luthiers, especially specialists in setting up and adjusting instruments during
discussions with performers. They provide a tool for acoustical research into thequality of instrumental sound. Furthermore, identifying word consistency between
players can contribute to development of pedagogical and directorial methods, aswell as ways of annotating music scores for composers and arrangers.

Aggressiveness of the Growl-Like Timbre: Acoustical Features andBiomechanical Mechanisms
Chen-Gia Tsai, Shwu-Fen Wang, Yio-Wha Shau, Tzu-Yu Hsiao;
National Taiwan University, Taiwan
4AM1-R02-2
The term growl is originally referred to as low-pitched, rough sounds uttered byanimals. Humans occasionally use growl-like voice to express excessive emotions.
Growl can be found in singing styles of ethnic and pop musics such as Chinese
opera and death metal. Some rockmusicians believed that death growl is distorted
by use of the guts, although the abdominal function has been unclear. The present
study showed that the deepest abdominal muscle, transversus abdominis, wassigniﬁcantly activated during growling. We proposed a biomechanical model torelate the aggressive characteristic of growl-like timbre to the motor mechanisms
underlying growl production in humans.

Perception of Wind Instrument Vibrato Sounds
Michael Oehler 1 , Christoph Reuter 2 ; 1 IAMP, Germany; 2 University of
Cologne, Germany
4AM1-R02-3
In several experiments it has been shown, that vibrato is an important factor for theperceived naturalness in wind instrument sounds. In the presented study vibrato
and micromodulations were investigated from a source oriented perspective along
the natural sound generating process. This approach seems to be promising, sincea deeper insight into the typical behavior of modulations and the relevance of eachindividual vibrato parameter can be provided. Modulated bassoon and oboe sounds
were synthesized by means of a currently developed synthesis and analysis framework. Based on the pulse forming principle, realistic source-oriented modulations
as well as often used AM and FM-modulations were produced and subsequently
rated in a listening test. A conducted ANOVA showed (p<.01) that the diﬀerent
types of modulation signiﬁcantly aﬀect the perceived naturalness. The stimuli withcombined pulse width and cycle duration modulation were perceived as natural
as the original sounds, whereas all other stimuli were perceived signiﬁcantly lessnatural. The results support the hypothesis, that source-aﬀected timbre modulation
is an important factor for the perceived naturalness of double reed woodwind
vibrato sounds. Further investigations may as well be useful for exploring new soundsynthesis algorithms as for other experiments in the ﬁeld of timbre research.

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Thursday 28 August 2008

Do Key-Bottom Sounds Distinguish Piano Tones?
Werner Goebl, Ichiro Fujinaga; McGill University, Canada
4AM1-R02-4
The timbre of a single piano tone as well as its loudness is primarily determined by
the speed at which the hammer hits the strings (ﬁnal hammer velocity). However, theoverall sound may also be inﬂuenced by impact sounds such as the hammer-stringor the ﬁnger-key impact sounds. Especially the latter can be varied with playing
technique (touch) and is easily perceptible. Little is known about the nature ofsounds that emerge from the interaction of key and keybed. In this study, weinvestigate whether the absence or presence of a key hitting the keybed makes twootherwise identical piano tones distinguishable by expert listeners. A skilled pianist
produced a number of isolated tones on a computer-monitored Boesendorfer grandpiano (“CEUS”) that measures the loudness and onset timing of the tones as well as
the continuous position of the keys. 19 musically trained participants rated tonepairs that were identical in pitch, loudness, and tone length, but with or with out
a key-keybed contact with regard to their identity (same or diﬀerent). Overall, theparticipants performed the task very well, signiﬁcantly better than chance. Even
though the investigated key-bottom sounds are subtle compared to other soundcomponents, our results conﬁrm that they can audibly inﬂuence the timbre of a
piano tone. The investigated eﬀect may indeed have ecological relevance, as many
important listening situations occur in the vicinity of the piano keyboard (e.g., piano
practicing and piano lessons).

4AM1-R03 : Performance V
Room 3, 8:30 – 10:30 Thursday 28 August 2008, Oral session

It’s All in the Timing: Interpersonal Synchrony Increases
Aﬃliation
Michael J. Hove 1 , Jane L. Risen 2 ; 1 Cornell University, USA; 2 Universityof Chicago, USA
4AM1-R03-1
The tendency to mimic and synchronize with others is well established. Although
mimicry has been shown to lead to aﬃliation between co-actors, the eﬀect of interpersonal synchrony on aﬃliation remains an open question. The authors investigated
the relationship by having participants match ﬁnger movements with a visual moving
metronome. In Experiment 1, aﬃliation ratings were examined based on the extent
to which participants tapped in synchrony with the experimenter. In Experiment 2,
synchrony was manipulated. Aﬃliation ratings were compared for an experimenter
who either a) tapped to a metronome that was synchronous to the participant’s
metronome, b) tapped to a metronome that was asynchronous, or c) did not tap.
As hypothesized, in both studies, the degree of synchrony predicted subsequentaﬃliation ratings. Experiment 3 found that the aﬃliative eﬀects were unique tointerpersonal synchrony. We interpret these results in terms of perception/action
links and self/other overlap and suggest that music and dance evolved as a means
for social bonding.

The Visual Feedback System with Interactive Contrast Training
for Fluent Finger Piano Exercises
Makiko Sadakata, Alex Brandmeyer, Renee Timmers, Peter Desain;
Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
4AM1-R03-2
Finger exercises are important for piano students at all skill levels for developing
and maintaining their motor skills. Many exercises aim at improving ﬂuency; that is,to play materials evenly in timing and loudness. However, both the materials andthe training procedures are often monotonous. To make them more interesting, wedeveloped and evaluated a VFB system for two-ﬁnger trill exercises with interactive
contrast training. 24 conservatory piano students participated in the experiment.
Fluency in each trill was tested 5 times with 4 short imitation trainings in between.
The training conditions included 2 within-subject factors: 1) the presence of VFB
and 2) the type of target performance (contrast/even). The system visualized ﬂuency
in timing and loudness as the orientation and size of visual objects. Timing andloudness of target trills were unequal for contrast conditions while they were equal
for even conditions. The preliminary analyses showed that even advanced piano stu-

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ICMPC 10dents improved their ﬂuency in trills over multiple tests and trainings. Furthermore,both VFB and contrast training seemed to help this improvement. Qualitative data
indicated that most participants considered the VFB system and training useful.

Fingering Forces in Violin Playing
Hiroshi Kinoshita, Satoshi Obata; Osaka University, Japan
4AM1-R03-3
When playing the violin, the left ﬁngers press the string against the ﬁngerboard andmake a temporary termination of the string to control the pitch of the sound. The
temporal and spatial features of the string-pressing force (ﬁngering force) can be an
important source of information for understanding sound control by the violinists.
However, the nature of ﬁngering force is totally unknown. A violin that permitted
the online measurement of 3D ﬁngering forces was developed, and the eﬀects ofmusical tempo, sound dynamics, and the ﬁngers used on the nature of ﬁngering
force were studied. Trained violinists performed repetitive A-tone (open) and D-tone
production (force measurement) using the ring ﬁnger at the tempi of 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16
Hz with p, mf , and f dynamics. The force proﬁle was clearly tempo-dependent. At
slow tempi, the proﬁles were characterized by an initial pulse-like force, followed byleveled force during the ﬁnger contact period. At tempi higher than 2 Hz, only pulsed
proﬁles were observed. The maximum ﬁnger force exceeded 4.5 N at 1 and 2 Hz anddecreased with increases in tempo. The minimum ﬁngering force required for soundproduction was assessed to be less than 0.7 N, indicating that the violinists use an
attack force well above the minimum force, most likely reﬂecting their intention tosecure rapid and steady production of a target sound. The sound dynamics as wellas the ﬁnger used also inﬂuenced the magnitude of ﬁngering force.

The Inﬂuence of the Stage Show on the Evaluation of Rock Guitar
Performance
Reinhard Kopiez, Marco Lehmann, Christian Kopp; Hannover
University of Music and Drama, Germany
4AM1-R03-4
Acting on stage (posing) plays an important role in the live performance of popular
music. However, there is only little knowledge about the inﬂuence of stage performance on the spectators’ evaluation. In our exploratory study we assume that
there is a positive correlation between the rated degree of posing and the perceived
instrumental virtuosity. It is also assumed that the rating will be inﬂuenced by aspectator’s own instrumental expertise. A selection of 15 video samples (duration:
15–20 s) of outstanding rock guitarists were used as stimuli. Independent variables
were “instrumental expertise” (music students vs. pupils) and “presentation mode”(audiovisual vs. audio only). 18 music students from a German university of musicand 41 high school pupils with low or no instrumental education (mean age: 16.0)
participated in the group experiment. Evaluation was conducted by means of ananswer sheet, using 11 items on a 6 point likert scale. Stimuli were presented on alarge scale screen (2 × 2 m). Ratings of the show factor signiﬁcantly correlated withnearly all averaged items related to “virtuosity”, such as “challenging” (r = .69, p <.01) and “impressive” (r = .84, p < .01). Music students were inﬂuenced more strongly
by the audiovisual information than were the pupils. This mechanism is independentof a rater’s own instrument.

4AM1-R04 : Neuroscience II
Room 4, 8:30 – 10:30 Thursday 28 August 2008, Oral session

Does Program Music Induce Visual Imagery Better Than Absolute
Music? — An EEG Study
Jun-ok Kim, Moo Kyoung Han, Dongil Chung, Yeojeong Choi,
Jaeseung Jeong; KAIST, Korea
4AM1-R04-2
Program music is a form of Western classical music that carries extra-musical meanings. Compared with absolute music in which artistic interest is supposedly conﬁned
to abstract constructions in sound, it is well known that program music elicits morevisual imagery in listeners than does absolute music. Despite the signiﬁcance of
this long belief in music aesthetics, it has not been proved yet and its underlying
neurophysiological mechanism is unclear. The aim of this study was to examine

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whether the program music indeed evokes more activations of cortical regions
involved in visual imagery than does absolute music using electroencephalograms(EEG). 20 participants of non musician were asked to listen 4 program music and 4
absolute music pieces. And their EEGs recorded. Signiﬁcant activation of corticalregions was estimated using sLORETA. After the EEG recording session, participants
reported their appreciation of visual images if they have. We found that program
music pieces tended to evoke more visual imagery than absolute music (p<.01).
sLORETA analysis revealed that beta band (13 – 30Hz) activation was signiﬁcantin the cuneus and occipital lobe. Self-report analysis showed that absolute music
also evoked visual imagery in listeners which is associated with their own previous
experiences, whereas visual images in listeners during perception of program music
are associated with the theme of music.

Musical Experience Inﬂuences Subcortical Encoding of Pitch,
Timing and Timbre in Vocal Expressions of Emotion
Dana Strait, Nina Kraus, Erika Skoe, Richard D. Ashley; Northwestern
University, USA
4AM1-R04-3
Musicians exhibit enhanced perception of emotion in speech, although the biologicalfoundations for this advantage remain unconﬁrmed. In order to gain a better understanding for the inﬂuences of musical experience on neural processing of emotionallysalient sounds, we recorded brainstem potentials to aﬀective human vocal sounds.
Musicians showed enhanced time-domain response magnitude to the most spectrally
complex portions of the stimulus and decreased magnitude to more periodic, lesscomplex portions. Enhanced phase-locking to stimulus periodicity was likewise
seen in musicians’ responses to highly complex portions. These results suggest thatmusical training engenders both enhancement and eﬃciency of neural response thatis intricately connected with acoustic features important for the communication ofemotional states. Our ﬁndings provide the ﬁrst biological evidence for behavioral
observations indicating that musical training enhances the perception of vocally
expressed emotion in addition to establishing a subcortical role in the auditory
processing of emotional cues.

Automatic Movie Themes Playlist Generation Through Gaps
Across Emotion Loci and Curve of GAEL versus Preference
Tien-Lin Wu, Yuna-Pin Lin, Shyh-Kang Jeng, Jyh-Horng Chen;
National Taiwan University, Taiwan
4AM1-R04-4
An automatic movie-theme playlist generation approach is proposed to achieve
enjoyment of listeners through integration of music-expressed (musical features)and user-felt emotions (physiological signals) to create a varying music-expressed
playlist based on two music-psychology theories as recommendation criterion:“Gap across emotion loci (GAEL)” and “Ω-shaped emotional similarity-preference
curve)”. The music-expressed emotion ground-truth is constructed by 328 users’
8-emotion categories’ online taggings on two hundred 30-s movie-themes and theuser-felt one is collected by playing sixteen representative themes to 26 subjects
and simultaneously and continuously measuring their Electroencephalography (EEG)
signals. Other social and cultural factors on judging the corresponding movies are
extracted by collecting IMDb’s metadata. Then, these three heterogeneous featuresets (musical acoustics and psychoacoustics, EEG asymmetry indices, and moviegoer’tastes) are selected and integrated to reach the best recognition accuracies for bothuser-felt (97.5%) and music-expressed (93.2%) emotions based on the proposed latentmusic emotion taxonomy. The combined GAEL-Ω function grasps three qualities
of music-listening, especially on emotion gaps, musical familiarity, and preference.
Finally, the two users’ subjective evaluations all show a promising result on experiencing the automatic generated playlists.

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ICMPC 104AM1-R05 : Body Movement
Room 5, 8:30 – 10:30 Thursday 28 August 2008, Oral session

Quantifying Children’s Embodiment of Musical Rhythm in
Individual and Group Settings
L. De Bruyn, M. Leman, Dirk Moelants; Ghent University, Belgium
4AM1-R05-1
We empirically quantiﬁed the impact of social interaction on movements made bychildren while listening and responding to music. The methodology was based on
wireless motion capturing, using Wii Nintendo Remote sensors, and subsequentstatistical analysis. We investigated intensity of movement and the amount ofsynchronization with the beat in two conditions: individual, separated by screens,and social, moving together in groups of four encouraging social interaction. Data
analysis showed that there is a social embodiment factor which can be measured
and quantiﬁed. Furthermore there is also an eﬀect found of the type of music on the
gesture response, both in the individual and social context of the experiment.

Spontaneous Movement with Music: Searching for Common
Kinetic Patterns
Petri Toiviainen, Geoﬀ Luck, Marc R. Thompson; University of
Jyväskylä, Finland
4AM1-R05-2
Music listening is often associated with spontaneous body movements, frequently
synchronized with the musical beat. Premised on the notions of embodied cognition and action-perception coupling, one could postulate that these movements
facilitate the perception of the temporal structure of music. We investigated thekinematic and kinetic aspects of spontaneous movements using a high-resolution
motion-capture system. Various kinematic variables were estimated from the data,
while body-segment modeling was utilized to obtain estimates of kinetic variables.
Although the participants produced a wide variety of movement patterns, somecommonalities between them were found. On the kinematic level, it was found thatmusical beat was most clearly represented by movements in the vertical direction,with the points of beat being associated with high downward velocity of the torso.
Movements in the horizontal direction displayed longer periodicities, typically twobeats. On the kinetic level, the instantaneous internal power of the body showed
clear peaks at the instants of musical beat. The results indicate that, regardlessof the wide variety of spontaneous movement patterns, musical beat tends to be
associated with bursts of instantaneous muscular power. This could suggest thatthe perception of the temporal structure of music is associated with imitation-based
corporeal representations.

Analysis of Contemporary Dance Movement in the Presence and
Absence of a Musical SoundscapeCatherine Stevens 1 , Christian Kroos 1 , Shaun Halovic 1 , Johnson
Chen 1 , Emery Schubert 2 , Shuai Wang 2 , Kim Vincs 3 , Julien Tardieu 1 ,Garth Paine 1 ; 1 University of Western Sydney, Australia; 2 University of
New South Wales, Australia; 3 Deakin University, Australia
4AM1-R05-3
Perception of dance, like live music, is multimodal. Participants and/or beholders, atthe very least, respond to visual, temporal, and auditory cues. An experiment was
conducted during a live performance and under controlled conditions to investigate
the eﬀect of the presence and absence of a musical soundscape on the kinematics
and dynamics of a male contemporary dancer. In addition to the recording of dance
movement using 10 Vicon cameras, 20 audience members recorded their emotional
reaction to the work in real-time under visual only, auditory only and auditory-visualconditions. We asked: does dance movement vary as a function of the presence orabsence of a musical soundscape and what is the eﬀect of the presence/absenceof music on audience response? As anticipated, the synchronization of the three
dancers in the visual only condition was good although there was some 5% time compression. Judged arousal recorded from audience members was comparable acrossconditions while valence diverged. Arousal reﬂected the choreographic structure ofa generally more dynamic ﬁrst half compared with the second half. The ultimate goal

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is to use motion capture data to predict and aid interpretation of audience response.
Further strategies for analysis of this rich data set — analysis of speciﬁc sections andcontraction-expansion segments, individual points and distances between speciﬁc
points — are discussed.

The Role of the Body Movement in Listening to a MusicalComposition
Keiko Asakura; Teikyo University of Science & Technology, Japan
4AM1-R05-4
Cross-modal functions have attracted interest. The interest has focused on researches into interaction between auditory and visual sensation. We have the sixth
sensation, proprioception that gathers information from our body. The additionof proprioception increases the amount of sensory information, which leads to thereliable musical perception. The aim of this research is to examine the hypothesisthat in listening to a musical composition, body movements representing its structure
would help us to feel and understand it profoundly. Participants were asked to write
down their feelings, the title they gave in listening to a piece. After practicing body
movements they were asked to do the same again. Comparing the two descriptions,
I examined how the proprioception could inﬂuence upon the audition. The data
showed certain characteristics. Eighty-six percent of descriptions changed fromthe images related to water, quiet scenes and something moving, to the images ofsmall and mysterious creatures, pretty children and someone moving or cooperative
movements, and from consolatory and tender feelings to cheerful and pleasantfeelings. The number of participants who spotted some musical structure increased
from 60 percent to 86. These ﬁndings that body movements play such an importantrole in listening to music should lead to body involvement in music education.

4AM2-R02 : Harmony and Tonality II
Room 2, 10:40 – 12:40 Thursday 28 August 2008, Oral session

Virtual Pitch and the Classiﬁcation of Chords in Minor and Major
Keys
Ludger J. Hofmann-Engl; Croydon Family Groups, UK
4AM2-R02-1
This paper makes use of the virtual pitch model as developed by Hofmann-Englin order to demonstrate that Hugo Riemann’s functional harmonic system has a
psychological basis and that is can be considered to be superior to the Roman
numeral system.
It will be shown that the comparison of tonal chords within a given key, produceshigh similarities between the set of virtual pitches of chord I to VI, of chord IV to
II and of chord V to III. Additionally, the tension between chord I and V can be
explained by its high degree of dissimilarity. This adds momentum to Riemann’s
terminology by relating the tonic (I) to the parallel tonic (VI), the subdominant (IV) to
the subdominant parallel (II) and the dominant (V) to the dominant parallel (III). The
closing eﬀect of the perfect cadence can be seen as an eﬀect of tension and resolution.
These results act in a dual fashion. They add further support to the validity of the
Hofmann-Engl pitch (virtual pitch according to Hofmann-Engl), and suggests at thesame time that the international community might proﬁt from adapting Riemann’ssystem.

Key-Proﬁle Comparisons in Key-Finding by Correlation
Craig Stuart Sapp; Stanford University, USA
4AM2-R02-2
Several improvements to the key-proﬁle weightings used in the KrumhanslSchmuckler key-ﬁnding algorithm have been proposed over the past decade. This
paper describes several tests which can be used to compare the performance of
these new weightings amongst themselves and against the original weights derived
from probe-tone experiments. The proposed tests may also be use to compare
diﬀerent key-ﬁnding algorithms to each other. Weightings are then evaluated using
ﬁve composition cycles in all 24 major and minor keys: Chopin’s op. 28 preludes,
and J.S. Bach’s Well-tempered Clavier preludes and fugues (books 1 & 2).

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ICMPC 10

Nonlinear Time-Frequency Transformation: Implications for Pitch& Tonality
Marc J. Velasco, Edward W. Large; Florida Atlantic University, USA
4AM2-R02-3
A growing body of evidence is consistent with the possibility of nonlinear oscillationin both the peripheral and central auditory nervous systems. We aim to understandthe implications of nonlinear resonance for the perception of pitch and tonality inmusic. Our goals are 1) to introduce a network of neural oscillators, each tuned to a
distinct frequency, arrayed along a frequency gradient; 2) to describe how gradientfrequency networks of nonlinear oscillators transform sound; and 3) to spell out thepredictions of nonlinear resonance for the perception of pitch and tonality in music.
We show how a network of neural oscillators transforms sound stimuli. We derivepredictions about general properties of nonlinear time-frequency transformation,
including amplitude saturation, frequency detuning and higher-order resonances(harmonics, sub-harmonics, integer ratios and combination tones). The perception ofpitch is predicted to arise as a consequence of higher order resonances of nonlinear
oscillators. The perception of tonality is predicted as a global pattern of resonanceregions at frequency relationships of small integer ratios. Neural oscillation provides
a substantive, potentially universal principle underlying the basic materials of music,
namely pitch and tonality. This framework may ultimately be extended to provide
the building blocks of a universal grammar for music.

Can Statistical Language Models be Used for the Analysis ofHarmonic Progressions?
Matthias Mauch 1 , Daniel Müllensiefen 2 , Simon Dixon 1 , Geraint
Wiggins 2 ; 1 Queen Mary University of London, UK; 2 Goldsmiths
University of London, UK
4AM2-R02-4
The availability of large, electronically encoded text corpora and the use of computers in recent decades have made Natural Language Processing (NLP) a ﬂourishingresearch area. A wealth of standard techniques has been developed to serve use
cases like document retrieval, identiﬁcation of a ﬁnite vocabulary and synonyms, andthe collocation of terms. Similarly, social networking among musicians in internet
forums and the advent of automatic chord extraction have led to the establishmentof chord databases, if on a smaller scale. Comparatively little research has been
carried out on these growing corpora of chords. We suspect that one reason for thislack of research lies in the diﬃculty to decide if chords or other harmonic elements
can be treated like lexemes in a text corpus. More simply, the question is: What isa word in terms of harmony? In this paper we propose a bottom-up approach. Inorder to ﬁnd harmonic units whose distributions resemble distributions of words
we consider chord elements diﬀering in (a) length of chord sequence (counted inchord symbols), and (b) chord alphabet. Using lengths from 1 to 4 and two diﬀerent
chord alphabets we obtain a parameter space of size 8. For each of the parametersettings we compute statistical summaries of the resulting frequency distributionof the harmonic unit. As results, we report the parameter settings for two diﬀerent
chord corpora (2500+ songs each) that generate a frequency model corresponding
most closely to the Brown Corpus, a general text corpus of American English.

4AM2-R03 : Music Listening IV
Room 3, 10:40 – 12:40 Thursday 28 August 2008, Oral session

Linguistic Description and Musical Experience
Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis; University of Arkansas, USA
4AM2-R03-1
Perhaps no outreach eﬀort is as ubiquitous as the program note: a practice which
relies on the assumption that extramusical information aﬀects musical experience.
Yet the psychological mechanisms underlying the use of linguistic information
during musical listening remain under-examined. How can reading about a pieceaﬀect the meaning it seems to confer, the enjoyment it makes possible, and the trace
it leaves in memory? More broadly, how can experiences outside of musical listening
come to transform musical experience itself?
In this study, nonmusicians heard excerpts from Beethoven String Quartets prefacedby either a dramatic description, a structural description, or no description. They

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were asked to rate their enjoyment of the music, and in a later stage, to recall
excerpts and descriptions.
Results showed a complex pattern of interaction between description, enjoyment,
and memory. Conceptualizing listening by connecting it to linguistically named
correlates (a practice fundamental to music training) may have more multifarious(and not always straightforwardly beneﬁcial) eﬀects on musical experience thancommonly assumed.

A Global Model of Musical Tension
Morwaread Farbood; New York University, USA
4AM2-R03-2
Musical tension is a high-level concept that is diﬃcult to formalize due to its subjective and multi-dimensional nature. This paper presents a quantitative, parametricmodel of tension based on empirical data gathered in two experiments. The ﬁrst
experiment is an online test with short musical excerpts and multiple choice answers.
The format of the test makes it possible to gather large amounts of data. The second
study requires fewer subjects and collects real-time responses to musical stimuli.
Both studies present test subjects with examples that take into account a number ofmusical parameters including harmony, pitch height, melodic expectation, dynamics,
onset frequency, tempo, and rhythmic regularity. The goal of the ﬁrst experimentis to conﬁrm that the individual musical parameters contribute directly to thelistener’s overall perception of tension. The goal of the second experiment is to
explore linear and nonlinear models for predicting tension given descriptions of themusical parameters for each excerpt. The data from these two experiments are thencorrelated to musical features and ﬁnally used to train and test linear and nonlinear
predictive models of tension.

The Nature of Stylish Expressiveness in Performing Baroqueversus 19th -Century Music
Dorottya Fabian, Emery Schubert, Richard Pulley; University of New
South Wales, Australia
4AM2-R03-3
There has been a growing emphasis on playing European art music according to
the performing traditions of the era when any given piece was composed. Thereis a claim that compositions sound more stylish, when performed according to thestylistic conventions of their time of origin.
We wanted to ﬁnd out whether baroque performing conventions can be applied to aromantic piece, just like late 19th -century stylistic mannerisms are often used when
performing early 18th -century pieces. We also wanted to know the aesthetic responseof listeners to such renderings.
We asked a professional violinist to record Träumerei (by Schumann) played (a) according to romantic and (b) baroque performing conventions. 28 participants (music
students and professional players) listened to the randomized stimuli and rated 20
parameters (e.g. vibrato, portamento, phrasing, tempo preference, expressiveness,stylishness, etc.).
Results conﬁrmed the diﬀerent performance means that create baroque as opposed
to romantic expressiveness. A performance in the baroque style is characterized byshort phrases, detached articulation, frequent punctuation, added ornaments andrelatively strict metre. The romantic style is created by long phrases, prominent
vibrato, legato articulation and strong emotionality. Listeners are able to detect these
diﬀerences. Romantic pieces performed the romantic way were regarded stylish andexpressive.
Listeners prefer historically informed renderings and judge them as being more
stylish than those that employ a generic style of expressiveness. Mainstream
performers should take note, as well as psychologists and computer scientists
investigating and modelling expressiveness in music performance.

Bimusicality: A Dual Enculturation Eﬀect on Non-Musicians’
Musical Tension and Memory
Anil Kumar Roy 1 , Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis 2 , Patrick C.M. Wong 1 ;1
Northwestern University, USA; 2 University of Arkansas, USA
4AM2-R03-4

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ICMPC 10We seek to investigate the eﬀects of mono- and bi-cultural musical exposures on
non-musicians’ responses to music from diﬀerent cultures, eﬀects that could be
analogous to bilingualism. We examined three groups of non-musicians on tasks
related to musical tension and memory (W: Exposure to Western music and minimal
exposure to Indian music, WI: Exposure to Western and Indian music, I: Exposure to
Indian music and minimal exposure to Western music). Musical stimuli consistedof short unfamiliar Indian and Western melodies. We found signiﬁcant interactioneﬀects for both tasks: non-native music was judged to be signiﬁcantly tenser, andnative music showed higher accuracy on the memory task. Interestingly, the WI(bicultural group) did not diﬀerentiate the tension or show increased accuracy
for Indian or Western music, suggestive of a dual enculturation eﬀect in music(“bimusicality”). These results suggest that dual perceptual expertise is not conﬁned
to experiences that include receptive and expressive components as in the caseof bilingualism, but can be observed in simple passive exposure as in the case ofnon-musicians whose expressive musical abilities are relatively limited. [supported
by a grant from the Center for Interdisciplinary Research in the Arts at Northwestern
University, and by NIH]

4AM2-R04 : Emotion in Music IV
Room 4, 10:40 – 12:40 Thursday 28 August 2008, Oral session

Individual Diﬀerence in Music Perception: The Inﬂuence of
Personality and Cognitive Style on the Perception of Musical
Melodies
Kyungil Kim 1 , Sung Yub Kim 1 , Yang-Eon Kim 2 ; 1 Ajou University,
Korea; 2 Hochschule für Kirchenmusik, Germany
4AM2-R04-1
This study suggests that, ﬁrst, chronic individual diﬀerence factors strongly inﬂuence music perception, and, second, these eﬀects are very speciﬁc and independent.
Further, personality and cognitive style can be used as markers of music perception.
To demonstrate these arguments, college students completed cognitive strategyrelated personality tests, language use test, state emotion scale. Then a 2 (mode:
major vs. minor) × 2 (texture: nonharmonized vs. harmonized) × 3 (tempo: 72,
108, 144 bpm) within participants experimental design was employed, in which theparticipants rated subjective happiness.
The results show that the participants’ ratings for the three musical dimensions areindividually and independently correlated to diﬀerent personality traits and/or linguistic variables in meaningful ways. For example, participants’ ratings of subjective
happiness for major mode were positively correlated with cognitive strategy whereas
those for minor mode showed signiﬁcant relationships mainly with anxiety-related
personality. More individual relationships were found between participants’ music
perception and their language use. Participants’ responses for tempo dimensions
were observed to be related with cognitive factors in language use rather than withpersonality factors. People’s perception of harmonized melodies was correlated withsocial anxiety whereas their responses to nonharmonized melodies were inﬂuenced
by cognitive strategy-related factors both in personality tests and language use.

An Intercultural Study of Ecstasy and Trance in Music
Anita Taschler, Richard Parncutt; University of Graz, Austria
4AM2-R04-2
Ecstacy and trance have diverse institutionalised religious and healing functions. In
many cultures, hallucinations, synaesthesia and intense emotions are deliberately
induced by music and dance. We investigated ecstatic experiences in musicalperformance. Participants were twelve musicians with at least six years professional
experience. They were living and working in Graz, and had been born in Austria,
Germany, Italy, Senegal and Morocco. Their main instruments were voice, piano,
keyboard, bass, dance, drums or percussion, and they mainly performed jazz, worldmusic and African folk. Interviews were held after live performances, and content
analyses were compared with results of Gabrielsson and Lindstrom (2003). All participants reported altered states of consciousness that involved intense and mainly
positive emotion (including subjective, physiological and behavioural correlates)and supported the performance process, including thinking, time perception, andphysical control. Altered states generated conﬁdence, motivation, and personal,

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social and musical insights, and were promoted or inhibited by physical/mental
exertion, degree of preparation, stage fright, competition among musicians, setting,individual mood, and identiﬁcation with music. Results suggest that altered states
induced by music promote recovery, healing, creative insight, spirituality, identity,
and motivation — and hence survival in dangerous situations.

The Minor Third Communicates Sadness in Speech and Music
Meagan E. Curtis, Jamshed J. Bharucha; Tufts University, USA
4AM2-R04-3
Musical intervals are associated with emotions, but the origin of these associations
hasn’t been suﬃciently explained by current theories. For instance, the minor thirdis associated with sadness in Western cultures, but the origin of this association isa matter of debate. The current experiments explore the intriguing possibility thatthe associations between intervals and emotions are also present in the prosody ofhuman vocal expressions. Bi-syllabic speech samples conveying happiness, anger,
pleasantness, and sadness were recorded by nine actresses. The speech samples
were rated for perceived emotion. Acoustic analyses were conducted on the speechsamples, and the prosodic contours of the sad speech samples revealed that therelationship between the two salient pitches tended to approximate a minor third,
which is consistent with the emotional associations in the domain of music. Other
patterns were observed for the other emotions. Regression analysis of the speechsample emotional ratings revealed that the minor third was the most reliable acoustic
cue for identifying sadness. The results suggest that there are correspondences
across domains in the use of pitch contours to encode and decode emotion. Theseﬁndings support the theory that human vocal expressions and music share an
acoustic code for communicating emotion.

The Perception of Structure and Aﬀect in Contemporary
Sound-Based and Serial Compositions as a Function of MusicalExpertise, Liking and Familiarity
Freya Bailes, Roger T. Dean; University of Western Sydney, Australia
4AM2-R04-4
Electroacoustic sound-based music is stylistically unfamiliar to most, and it typicallycontrasts diﬀerent timbres and textures rather than clear rhythms and discrete
pitches. This study extends our previous investigations of listener perceptions ofelectroacoustic stimuli, to determine the relationship between continuous measuresof perceived structure and aﬀect (arousal, valence) in full-scale electroacoustic andatonal compositions. We also examine the roles of musical expertise, liking, andfamiliarity for the music. Participants listened to compositions by Dean, Webern,
Wishart and Xenakis. Each piece was presented once in each of a counterbalanced
structure task (continuous indication of perceived change in sound while listening)
and aﬀect task (continuous indication of perceived arousal and valence of the music
while listening). After each item, listeners rated their familiarity with the piece and/or
style of piece, and their liking of it. Early results suggest that changes in continuous
ratings of perceived aﬀect coincide with changes in perceived structure. Arousal
ratings are largely independent of expertise, liking or familiarity, and represent
a relatively stable dimension of aﬀect. Conversely, valence ratings are positively
related to prior experience with the sounds.

4AM2-R05 : Neuroscience III
Room 5, 10:40 – 12:40 Thursday 28 August 2008, Oral session

Aﬀective Responses to Music Performance: An fMRI Study
Heather L. Chapin, Edward W. Large; Florida Atlantic University, USA
4AM2-R05-1
Our goals were to determine the inﬂuence of performance expression on listeners’
emotional responses and neural activity. Ten musically trained and ten untrained
participants listened to two versions of a romantic piano composition. The expressive
performance included natural variations in timing and sound intensity. The mechanical performance, generated by computer, maintained constant tempo and soundintensity throughout. Participants reported emotional responses in a 2-dimensional
response space (emotional intensity and valence) before and after fMRI scanning. In
the fMRI scanner, participants listened to both versions without reporting emotional

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responses. Ratings of emotional intensity correlated signiﬁcantly across trials andwere positively correlated with tempo in 19 subjects. The fMRI analysis revealed amain eﬀect of performance, showing an increased BOLD response for the expressive
performance in an emotion-related network. A main eﬀect of training showed anincreased BOLD response for trained participants in brain areas associated withemotion processing and reward. We also observed increases in BOLD responses
that were temporally correlated with tempo ﬂuctuations. In summary, performance
expression predicted listeners’ dynamic ratings of emotional intensity. Moreover,limbic areas responded to expressive versus mechanical performances, and dynamic
BOLD changes tracked performance expression and reported emotional intensity
over time.

fMRI Study of Diatonic Triads
Norman D. Cook; Kansai University, Japan
4AM2-R05-2
The basic facts concerning the perception of diatonic harmonies are well establishedfrom both laboratory experiments and the statistics on the use of chords in popularand traditional classical music. What has remained unclear, however, is the diﬀerent
contribution to harmonic “stability” of so-called “sensory dissonance” — due primarily to the presence of small intervals — and so-called “musical dissonance”, i.e., theinherently unstable, unresolved quality of certain chords that do not contain smallintervals (notably, the diminished and augmented chords). In order to determine
the eﬀects of sensory dissonance and musical dissonance, we have run behavioral
experiments using isolated chords and 2- and 3-chord sequences and have developed
a psychophysical model of harmony perception that includes both a traditional
2-tone (dissonance) factor and a 3-tone (tension) factor. We have also studied thebrain response to isolated chords and 2-chord sequences using fMRI in order todetermine the brain localization of cortical regions involved in (1) the perceptionof dissonance and harmonic tension, and (2) the perception of major and minor
chords. The ﬁrst fMRI experiment showed diﬀerential brain activation to (1) chords
containing dissonant intervals and (2) unresolved “tension” chords. We interpret
this dissociation as clear indication that sensory dissonance can be distinguishedfrom the musical dissonance produced by triads with two equal intervals (the two
3-semitone intervals in a diminished chord in root position and the two 4-semitone
intervals in an augmented chord). The second fMRI experiment showed that thestrongest response to 2-chord sequences was when the ﬁrst chord was an unresolved
tension chord and the second chord was a resolved major/minor chord that diﬀeredfrom the ﬁrst chord by one semitone. I conclude that the fundamentals of traditional
harmony theory have a clear acoustical basis that can be quantitatively modeled
provided that the eﬀects of 3-tone combinations are considered.

Focal Activations and Properties of Functional Brain Networks
Derived from MEG Data While Listening to Music
Andreas A. Ioannides, Armen Sargsyan, Marotesa Voultsidou, Mari
Aoki; RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Japan
4AM2-R05-3
In our earlier study of how “real” music engages the brain we extracted regional brain
activations from the magnetoencephalographic (MEG) signal recorded while subjects
listened to music as it unfolded over a few-second-long periods of time (Popescu
et al., NeuroImage, 2004). We compared the music score with the timecourses in asmall set of pre-deﬁned brain areas using rhythmogram analysis. Using the average
response of 20 music score presentations, we showed that motor related areas played
pivotal role during the music listening experience that depended on the musicalexpression. Here, we use the rhythmogram analysis for every voxel in the brain andcarried out the analysis for each presentation of the music score. The new analysis
demonstrated that in areas usually associated with linguistic and music processing
like Broca’s area the pattern of activity as captured in the rhythmogram correlateswith the pattern of the music score as long as the music plays. Surprisingly, otherareas correlate with the pattern of activity of the music score immediately before theonset of the music, while after the music has stopped, the activity in some areas of
the brain correlates with derivatives of the patterns in the music score.

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Detecting Imagined Music from EEG
Rebecca S. Schaefer 1 , Marcos Perreau Guimaraes 2 , Peter Desain 1 ,Patrick Suppes 2 ; 1 Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
2
Stanford University, USA
4AM2-R05-4
Previous work has shown a varying, but well above chance result in detecting heard
words and sentences, internally spoken words, and internally imagined rhythms
from EEG [cf. PNAS 94, (1997), 14965; PNAS 95, (2005), 15861, Proc. ICA2004. Kyoto,
Japan, (2004)]. To extend these ﬁndings, we have carried out experiments that aim
to replicate the above results for both heard and imagined music, hypothesizing thatthe temporal structure in music may increase the accuracy of detection.
Two common stimuli and two self-selected stimuli were used for each of six participants, in a perception and an imagery condition, allowing classiﬁcation between 4
diﬀerent musical phrases. Preliminary results show classiﬁcation above chance level(25%) for all participants in the perception condition (38–68%), and for 4 participantsin the imagery condition (33–43%).
Although promising (and still likely to be improved upon) these results are not as
striking as those found for auditory perception (spoken words, up to 97% with 7classes) or imagination (rhythm, 37% with 5 classes). Further analyses will however
ﬁnetune these results and create a clearer image of the brain signature associatedwith hearing and imagining music.

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ICMPC 105AM1-A01 : Ethnomusicology
Atrium 1, 9:15 – 10:45 Friday 29 August 2008, Oral session

Psychoacoustical and Cognitive Basis of Sutartinės
Rytis Ambrazevčius; Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania
5AM1-A01-1
The measurements of pitches and intervals in Sutartinės (Lithuanian type of vocal
Schwebungsdiaphonie) reveal that this style of singing is based on the psychoacoustical principle of maximum roughness. This principle is at work, ﬁrst of all, for thecentral pitches (the “double tonic” composed of two colliding voices) which form
the nucleus of the scale. The stability and salience of the pitches decreases towards
the margins of the scale. The sequential movements of the vocal dyads create theimpression of melodic contours that are akin, in a general sense, to the melodic
contours found in monophony. Thus the element of linear thinking in Sutartinės
is revealed. On the other hand, the tension-resolution patterns analogous, in deep
structure, to the patterns known in the Western music, can be envisaged. The further
comparisons of Sutartinės with other musics in the Baltics might be quite promisingin the discussion on their origins.

Experimental Investigation of Relative Pitch Salience in Northern
Mozambican Damba
Lydia Slobodian, Ian Cross; University of Cambridge, UK
5AM1-A01-2
A series of experiments conducted in Cabo Delgado Province, Northern Mozambique,investigate perception of pitch change by students of Damba, a musical form taught
in madrassas along the coast. To determine relative salience of pitches in short
Damba melodies, we altered the pitches of diﬀerent tones in each melody by +/- 1.0
semitone. Participants listened to the original followed by an altered or unalteredversion and had to determine whether the two melodies were the same or diﬀerent.
Responses show that in most cases participants were better able to hear pitch change
in higher tones and ﬁnal tones, regardless of tone length. Analysis also suggests
consistent hierarchies within certain melodies, as well as the possibility of an overall
tonal hierarchy. These ﬁndings can inform analyses of individual Damba pieces andperformances in the absence of an explicit music theory. This project illustrates boththe constraints and potential inherent in cross-cultural experimentation.

What Emotions do Raags Evoke? An Internet-Based Survey ofListener Responses
Parag Chordia, Alex Rae; Georgia Institute of Technology, USA
5AM1-A01-3
Raag is the melodic framework that forms the basis of Indian music. Raags arethought to consistently elicit certain emotions, with diﬀerent raags creating diﬀerent
moods. We investigate whether this correspondence truly exists cross-culturally.
We undertook a web-based survey (http://paragchordia.com/survey/raagemotion2)
in which participants were asked to listen to ten raag excerpts and rate the extent towhich twelve emotions were evoked. A total of 553 subjects participated.
ANOVA analysis showed that raag was a signiﬁcant factor in emotion responses (p< .001). Using conﬁdence intervals adjusted for multiple comparisons (p < .05), we
found that a clear distinction could be made between many raags. Across many
emotions, raags clustered into groups with positive (Khamaj, Desh and Bageshri),medium (Bhimpalasi and Yaman), and negative valence (Gujari Todi, Marwa, Shreeand Darbari).
Familiarity with Indian music was a signiﬁcant main eﬀect for many emotions.
Experienced listeners tended to rate the excerpts as more intensely emotional than
did listeners with little or no prior exposure.
There is a clear correspondence between valence and scale degrees used. Raags using‘minor’ notes are considered negatively valenced, while raags using ‘major’ notes tend
to be positively valenced, giving further evidence for this cross-cultural phenomenon.
Detailed data and graphs can be found at
http://paragchordia.com/research/raagEmotion/.

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5AM2-S01 : Psychoacoustics IISpace 1, 11:00 – 13:00 Friday 29 August 2008, Oral session

They Were Playing Our Song: A Psycho-Acoustic Explanation of
Why Non-Vocal Musical Instruments Determined How We SingJoe Wolfe, Emery Schubert; University of New South Wales, Australia
5AM2-S01-1
In the last few centuries, musical instruments have inﬂuenced the styles of singing.
This paper uses acoustical arguments to suggest that, even in prehistory, musicalinstruments may have inﬂuenced singing. The codings of speech and music are
diﬀerent and in some ways complementary. The voice operates on acoustical principles distinctly diﬀerent from those of (other) musical instruments. We conjecturethat the pitch stability and the independence of pitch and loudness — features very
important in much music — may have come from imitation of or performing withmusical instruments. Lomax proposed that aspects of a culture are reﬂected in themusic they make. We suggest that peoples exposed to manually played instruments
exhibiting discrete, stable pitches are more likely to sing using categorical pitch.
Peoples who are exposed only to less resource rich, non-musical instrument bearing
regions are more likely to sing in a manner that suits their biological speech apparatus and therefore to sing with more portamento and with correlations between pitch
and loudness. Evidence is presented though sound recording made by Australian
Aboriginal people who had varied access to physical resources in their diﬀering
native environments.

Evaluations of Proﬁciency of Fluctuating Musical Sounds Using
Fluctuation Strength
Nozomiko Yasui, Masafumi Kinou, Masanobu Miura; Ryukoku
University, Japan
5AM2-S01-2
The tremolo played on the mandolin is a continuous sound produced by the repetition of attenuating sounds. The amount of acoustic amplitude of tremolo isusually ﬂuctuated in terms of time, so it is said to be a ﬂuctuating continuous sound.
Therefore, the tremolo is assumed to give a listener the feeling of ﬂuctuation, whichis thought to be concerned with subjective evaluation for performance proﬁciency.
Introduced here is an evaluation method that strongly depends on the “Fluctuation
Strength (FS)”, which has been suggested as an index for evaluating the hearing
sensation produced by ﬂuctuating sounds at low frequencies. Past studies haveinvestigated the index for modulated pure tones and broadband noise. In thisstudy, tremolo ﬂuctuations are described by FS, and the relation between them andevaluations of tremolo proﬁciency was investigated through evaluation experiments.
Speciﬁcally, a relation between factors of ﬂuctuation feeling and subjective evaluationof performance proﬁciency is investigated using simulated sounds. Highly rated
tremolos had a relatively low physical FS, which suggests that the physical FS can beused as an index to evaluate tremolos played on the mandolin. It is thought that askillfully played tremolo satisﬁes both a playing restriction and a psychoacoustical
criterion.

Dynamic Changes of Intensity, Duration and Timbre: Eﬀects on
Judged Loudness and Emotional Arousal
Kirk N. Olsen, Catherine Stevens, Julien Tardieu; University of Western
Sydney, Australia
5AM2-S01-3
Two experiments investigate loudness, intensity change and emotional arousal
in a simple musical context and builds on recent ﬁndings of a perceptual bias totones of increasing intensity. This bias involves an overestimation of loudness
change for increasing intensities (ramps), relative to decreasing intensities (damps)of identical spectral content. Experiment 1 (n=32) tested this hypothesis by systematically manipulating independent variables of stimulus timbre (vowel; violin), layer(monotone; chord) and duration (1.8 s; 3.6 s), presented as counterbalanced pairs of
items over linear intensity sweeps of 60–90dB and 90–60dB. In Experiment 2 (n=17),
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) was measured as an indicator of emotional arousal
as participants heard singular ramped or damped items while judging loudness
change. In Experiment 1, the bias for rising intensities was recovered and extended

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using musical timbres over various durations. The magnitude of this diﬀerence
signiﬁcantly increased as a function of stimulus duration. In Experiment 2, GSR
indicated that both ramped and damped musical stimuli elicit increases in physiological arousal. Our results support the claim that an illusory perceptual response iselicited by simple musical stimuli of gradually increasing intensity. This response iscorrelated with physiological change, namely increased arousal. The implications of
this fundamental, and possibly adaptive, perceptual and physiological response tosimple musical stimuli are discussed.

5AM2-S02 : Music Therapy / Evolutional Perspective /Development / Neuroscience and Disorders /Computational Models and Analyses
Space 2, 11:00 – 13:00 Friday 29 August 2008, Poster session

The Eﬀect on Cognition and Ability by Learning to Play the Pianoin Senior Year
Jie Ren 1 , Xiaoping Luo 2 ; 1 South China Normal University, China;
2
Xinghai Conservatory of Music, China
5AM2-S02-01
There are 47 subjects who come from Guangzhou Elder College in this study. They
have diﬀerent degrees on playing the piano: never played(Group I), have played forless than 2 years(Group II) and have played for 2 or more than 2 years(Group III).
We measured all subjects cognitive processing speed, working memory capacity, andﬂuid intelligence by experimental and testing methods. The results are: Subjects
in each group have faster VPS than APS (d=941.58ms, d=917.86ms,d=866.97ms;
respectively) and subjects in Group II have larger AWMC than VWMC(d=1.10).
Subjects in Group II and Group III have faster VPS (562.33ms,567.74ms respectively)
and larger AWMC (7.60, 7.47; respectively) than those in Group I (638.94ms; 5.17,
respectively). Subjects in Group III have faster APS than those in Group I (1434.71;
1580.52; respectively). There is no signiﬁcant diﬀerence between VWMC and CRT-IQ
in three groups. CRT-IQ closely correlated with VPS and VWMC(r =-.294,r =.289;
respectively). We concluded that learning to play the piano have positive eﬀects on
the development of cognition abilities and a limited eﬀect on Fluid intelligence ofthe elderly people.

A Comparison of the Psychosocial Eﬀects of Music Therapy,
Animal-Assisted Therapy and a ‘Discussion Group’ in Cognitively
Intact, Elderly Participants
S.R. Toukhsati, G. King, L. Greenﬁeld; Monash University, Australia
5AM2-S02-03
The aim of this study was to evaluate the psychosocial eﬀects of exposure to music
therapy in cognitively intact (MMSE ≥ 24), elderly individuals. The eﬀects of music
therapy were compared with an alternative therapeutic (animal-assisted therapy)
and ‘non-therapeutic’ (discussion group) intervention in 31 participants (Mean Age= 86.16 years, SD = 5.64). Each treatment was randomly assigned to two Aged Carefacilities and implemented in small groups, twice weekly for 30 minutes for a periodof four weeks. A nested, mixed-model design compared pre- and post-intervention
cognition, depression, quality of life and physical and emotional well-being scores
between the three treatment groups. The ﬁndings showed a signiﬁcant improvement
over time (p < .01) in cognition (Total MMSE and Recall subscale scores), depression,and physical well-being (RAND-36 Physical Health subscale), but no signiﬁcantgroup or interaction eﬀects. There were no signiﬁcant main or interaction eﬀects
with regard to quality of life. These ﬁndings indicate that there was no signiﬁcantadvantage of exposure to music therapy in comparison to animal-assisted therapy
or involvement in a discussion group. Non-signiﬁcant trends did, however, show
evidence of a greater improvement in cognition and quality of life following music
therapy. Theoretical implications and suggestions for methodological reﬁnements infuture research are discussed.

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Friday 29 August 2008

An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) Study ofMusical Participation by Individuals with Mental Health Problems
Julie C. De Simone, Raymond MacDonald; Glasgow Caledonian
University, UK
5AM2-S02-05
This is a joint study between Glasgow Caledonian University, Greater Glasgow
Health Board and a music charity, Polyphony that provides access to a wide range ofmusic activities for individuals with mental health disabilities in a large psychiatrichospital in the west of Glasgow, Scotland. This paper investigates, from a qualitative
perspective, the subjective experiences of individuals with mental health problems
who participate in structured musical activities. Six community patients took partin this study. All participants were interviewed and interviews were transcribedand analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) as a theoreticalframework. This paper will discuss some of the key issues involved in IPA, a modern
approach which is an increasingly popular qualitative approach to research within
health care contexts. Recurrent and emerging themes will be presented highlighting
key subjective issues for the participants with reference to the music intervention
and also with reference to the importance of music in their lives. This researchhighlights a number of subjective issues for individuals with mental health problems
who participate in music interventions, signalling a range of possible beneﬁts froma subjective perspective such as reduced isolation and improved mood. It also
highlights the utility of IPA as a research approach in this area.

Evolutionary and Neurobiological Foundations of Speech and SongDevelopment
Wilfried Gruhn; Freiburg University of Music, Germany
5AM2-S02-07
Evolutionary psychologists have suggested that music and language evolved from acommon ancestor and share the same neural resources. Therefore, an evolutionary
aspect is evident as well as the neurobiological supposition that resource sharing
networks (RSN) enable humans to speak and sing. Music and language are cultural
phenomena which incorporate a broad variety of arbitrary pattern characteristics.
These are aurally learnt, vocally performed, and cognitively discriminated. Vocal
learning g, i.e. the ability to imitate arbitrary sounds, is supported by a neuralmechanism that directly connects auditory and motor areas. It basically consists ofan anterior and a posterior pathway which perform a phonological loop. By this, theaural perception immediately stimulates a sensorimotor activation in the vocal tract
which then controls the vocal production with the ﬁnal intent to match the aurally
perceived pitch or sound. Neurobiological research on vocal learning in animals,
namely in songbirds, and young children, will be reviewed. By this an evolutionary
perspective will be introduced to the neurobiological foundations of speech andsong acquisition. The underlying neural mechanisms and structural properties areintegrated into a common model of audio-vocal learning which develops at a very
early age when song and speech are not yet separated.

The Role of Musical Environment at Home in the Infant’s
Development (Part 2): Exploring Eﬀects of Early MusicalExperiences on the Infant’s Physical and Motor Development
During the First 2 Years
Izumi Kida, Mayumi Adachi; Hokkaido University, Japan
5AM2-S02-09
The purpose of this study was to examine eﬀects of early musical experienceson infants’ physical and motor development through a longitudinal study. 31
infants and their mothers began participating in this study when the infants were
3- to 4-months old; data collection for each infant continued for two years. The
participants were assigned randomly one of the two conditions: Musical Interaction
and Control. The mothers in the Musical Interaction group were asked to play with
their infants while singing Japanese traditional play songs. The mothers in theControl group were requested nothing special. Data of infants’ physical and motor
development and information of their home musical environment were collected
through semi-structured interviews with the mothers. Permutation tests on the
motor development data up to 12 months revealed no eﬀects of requested musicalinteraction but signiﬁcant eﬀects of home musical environment. Infants raised inricher musical environment acquired gross motor skills earlier than those raised in127Friday 29 August 2008

ICMPC 10ordinary environment. Richer musical environment gives infants more opportunities
in paying attention to music, exploring sound objects, and moving their own bodyto the beat with their parents even without external requests. These opportunities
may facilitate infants’ gross motor development during the ﬁrst year. The poster
presentation includes results of later analyses up to 24 months, and our discussions
for the overview of longitudinal eﬀects of early musical experiences on infants’motor development.

The Role of Musical Environment at Home in the Infant’s
Development (Part 4): Japanese Mothers’ Involvement in Musicand Its Eﬀects on Parenting
Kumi Matsuda 1 , Mayumi Adachi 2 ; 1 Sapporo Specialty School of
Welfare and Child Care, Japan; 2 Hokkaido University, Japan
5AM2-S02-11
In the present study, we considered the Japanese mothers’ everyday involvement inmusic as a part of their personal values, exploring how the degree of their musicalinvolvement would be related to their attitude and aﬀection toward their child aswell as to their beliefs in childrearing. We asked 31 Japanese mothers with 3- to
4-month-olds the types of musical activities they were involved in and the frequencyof each musical activity in their daily lives. As a result, two groups of mothers wereidentiﬁed: “musically active” (MA) and “musically passive” (MP). Semi-structured
interviews revealed that all the mothers in this study held relatively positive attitudes
toward their children and their childrearing. MA mothers held lesser negative
feelings toward their own child than MP mothers, and took their stress on their childless frequently than did MP mothers. MA mothers wished to expose their child tomusic and the arts more strongly than MP mothers. These results may suggest thatthe mother’s own active involvement in music can release her stress and tension,
being able to control her emotion positively toward her child. Alternatively, those
who can control their emotions and manage their stress and tension may bring music
into their lives more actively than their counterpart. Even though the directionalityof the results cannot be determined, this study illuminates that music accompanies
Japanese mothers’ childrearing, at least for music lovers.

Deﬁcits in Detecting Pitch Violations in Music and Language in
Patients with Right Temporal Lobe Lesion
Kohei Adachi 1 , Takayuki Nakata 2 ; 1 Nagasaki Junshin Catholic
University, Japan; 2 Future University-Hakodate, Japan
5AM2-S02-13
We investigated if music and language pitch processing diﬀers for three patientswith lesion on the right temporal lobe. Ninety four undergraduates served as thecontrol group. Using eight short Japanese sentences with ﬁve syllables, sung andspoken versions were recorded as the base stimuli. For each trial, short melody orutterance was repeated twice with half trials repeating the same melody/utterance.
For the other half, the last syllable of the second melody’s or utterance’s F0 was
shifted upward for .25, .5, 1, or 2 semitones. After listening to each pair of stimuli,
participants were asked to judge whether the last syllable was the same or diﬀerent.
For all of the three patients, percentile ranks relative to the control group were lower
for language excerpts than music excerpts at .5, 1, and 2 semitones. One of the threepatients had lesion on Heschl’s gyrus on the right temporal lobe and his performanceat two semitones for language excerpts, but not for music excerpts, was lower thanthe other two patients with Heschl’s gyrus intact. Our results support previously
reported ﬁndings that right temporal lobe is involved with the detection of pitch
deviation both in music and language. Interestingly, we also found that, in detecting
pitch contour violation, trauma on the right temporal lobe, including Heschl’s gyrus,
may lead to a greater increase in threshold for language than music.

The Inﬂuence of Weak Central Coherence in Auditory Processing
Hayato Watanabe, Harumitsu Murohashi; Hokkaido University, Japan
5AM2-S02-15
The autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive neurodevelopmental disordercharacterized by impairments in social interaction, communication, and by restricted
repetitive patterns of behavior. It is thought that the weak central coherence (WCC)
inﬂuences these features which are appeared as local bias in ASD. We used Autismspectrum Quotient (AQ) measure to investigate whether the performances vary128

ICMPC 10

Friday 29 August 2008

according to their AQ scores in hierarchical melody discrimination task. Participants:
typically developed 19 males and 5 females participated in this study. They wereclassiﬁed as high AQ group and low AQ group by AQ score. Stimulus: Nine tones
were grouped sequentially to form a melody. These tones were arranged to form
rising-falling or falling-rising contour of the melody. Condition: All tasks consistedof same-diﬀerent judgements of pairs of melodies. There were 4 kinds of conditions;
global and local que condition, global cue condition, local cue condition, and nocue condition. Performance of low AQ group was improved in global cue condition
regardless of local cue. It was suggested that local cue was important to recognize
global cue for high AQ group. Therefore, it is suggested that the individuals withhigh AQ can not understand global aspect in the melody suﬃciently.

Change of Movement and Behavior by Music in Patients with Rett
Syndrome
Tohshin Go, Yukuo Konishi; Tokyo Women’s Medical University, Japan
5AM2-S02-17
Rett syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by stereotyped hand
movement such as wringing. Although patients with Rett syndrome typically have noverbal skills, they are reported to respond well to music. Therefore, a questionnaire
was sent to participants in an annual summer camp for them in Japan to study
their movement and behavior, and their change by music. The answer was obtained
from 34 patients. All were female aged from 4 to 30 years (11.5 +/- 8.1, mean +/standard deviation). Age of onset was 1.5 +/- 0.7 years. Ambulatory patients withand without help were 32% and 38%, respectively. Stereotyped hand movements andbody swinging were observed in 76% and 38%, respectively. Major response to music
was described as follows. Smile was observed in 85% of patients. Body swinging
started with music in 35% and stopped in 12%. On the other hand, stereotyped
hand movements started in 12% and stopped in 35%. Seizure was induced in 9%. In
conclusion, many patients with Rett syndrome seemed to be pleased with music andmusic had diﬀerent eﬀect on stereotyped hand movement and body swinging.

Chord Estimation Using Chromatic Proﬁles of Sounds Played by anElectric Guitar
Yasushi Konoki, Norio Emura, Masanobu Miura; Ryukoku University,Japan
5AM2-S02-19
This paper describes a system that estimate a chord label in real-time for sounds
played with several electric guitars. We had studied a chord estimation system
for MIDI signals in previous study. Chord labels are estimated by considering the
combination of pitch classes and validity of performed chord progression. We aim
at extending our previous system to be able to use in more practical situations, by
dealing with acoustic signals instead of MIDI signals. Performed pitch classes are
estimated by converting input sounds into the chroma vectors and selecting strong
pitch classes depending on intensity relations in these vectors. Finally, a chord label
for performance is estimated for obtained pitch classes.

Jazzbot: An Anthropomorphic Music Cognition Research Tool
Charles Hart, Michael Connolly Brady; Indiana University, USA
5AM2-S02-21
Recent years have seen a shift in cognitive science where the autonomous robot has
begun to supplant the symbol-processing computer as dominant metaphor. The time
has come to consider music processing and interaction in terms of the behavioral
robot. We introduce JAZZBOT, a saxophone-playing automaton. It uses an air compressor, an electro-pneumatic breath system, and a mechanical mouthpiece to vibrate
the saxophone’s reed and generate a sound source. It then uses solenoid-controlled
mechanical ﬁngers to manipulate the keypads and thus the resonant dynamics ofthe saxophone’s cavity. We ﬁrst report insights from these fabrication eﬀorts. For
instance, the embouchure mechanism is extremely sensitive to combinatorial changes
in air pressure and saxophone ﬁngering. The embouchure control that a professional
saxophonist acquires through years of practice becomes somewhat automated andreﬂexive or “sub-cognitive,” yet it is very diﬃcult to implement this kind of control
in terms of a well-speciﬁed executive signal. This prompts the question: what formshould an executive signal take? Furthermore, based on numerous conversations
and critiques, we came to realize the importance of a social presence in musical129

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ICMPC 10

performance. As a result, we provide the robot with animatronic facial features toallow for the impression of shared attention and to facilitate eventual musical turntaking.

A System Generating Jazz-Style Chord Sequences for Solo Piano
Junko Watanabe 1 , Kaori Watanabe 1 , Norio Emura 2 , Masanobu
Miura 2 , Masuzo Yanagida 1 ; 1 Doshisha University, Japan; 2 Ryukoku
University, Japan
5AM2-S02-23
In composition and arrangement of tonal music, it is important to give appropriate
harmony to a given set of melody and its chord name sequence, though that is a toughtask for non-professionals. Then there are a lot of research works and commerciallyavailable systems, such as systems for automatic arrangement of music pieces given
as note sequences for solo pianos into a piano score in a speciﬁc style. These systems,
however, are usually designed to generate music by concatenation of existing arrangement patterns. Such systems can not meet user requirements. This paper proposesa system that generates jazz-style chord sequences taking the structure of the input
set of melody and chord name sequence into account reﬂecting user requirements.
The system is implemented in an integrated modular structure based on the classicaltheory of harmony and several jazz arrangement techniques described in Jazz theory.
The performance of the proposed system is evaluated by comparing the results givenby the proposed system with those given by a popular arrangement system available
on the market. Experimental results show that the proposed system yields more
preferable outputs then a commercial system available on the market.

MusicKiosk: When Listeners Become Composers — An Exploration
into Aﬀective, Interactive Music
Laurence Pearce 1 , Lassi A. Liikkanen 2 ; 1 XIM Ltd, UK; 2 Helsinki
Institute for Information Technology, Finland
5AM2-S02-25
Music has for long been a one-way medium where professionals compose and others
enjoy. However, with new interactive applications, listeners are receiving a novel opportunity to shape music in real time. Emotions are at the core of music appreciationand thus it appears natural to examine the discipline of aﬀective computing to unite
these two themes.
We present a case study of an interactive, assisted composition system called
MusicKiosk. The system creates a composition based on the emotional states
detected from users’ voices. The experience is augmented by visualizing themusic with interactive, animated characters. Custom made musical elements areadded or removed dynamically according to the detected mood. The input foremotion detection is derived from the fusion of emotional speech recognition andkeyword spotting. In upcoming user evaluation, we will use this system to explore
natural interaction and the capacity of the system ot create emotional feedback loops.
Our presentation will demonstrate how this system is going to be implemented andinvestigated in detail. We attempt to show that developing an interactive, aﬀective
music composing system is becoming feasible with the state-of-the-art technology.
We aim to display MusicKiosk in a museum environment by the end of 2008.

5PM1-S01 : Performance VI
Space 1, 14:10 – 15:40 Friday 29 August 2008, Oral session

Communication of Emotions with Diﬀerent Intensities Through
Performances of Professional Musicians and Non MusiciansTeruo Yamasaki; Osaka-shoin Women’s University, Japan
5PM1-S01-1
This study focuses on the relation between the intensity of intended emotions andmusic performance and consists of two experiments. First experiment was a performance experiment, in which two professional drummers and ten non musicians
expressed three emotions (‘joy’, ‘anger’, and ‘sadness’) at three degrees of intensity
by playing a MIDI drum improvisationally. Second experiment was a listening experiment, in which musically untrained listeners heard the performances in the ﬁrst

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experiment and judged their emotional intentions. In experiment I, performancesby both types of players were compared and analyzed in terms of various acoustic
features. As the results, the close relation between the types of emotions and two
acoustic features, i.e. sound level (MIDI velocity) and interval of beats, were found.
The intensities of emotions were mainly related to sound level and duration between
onset time and oﬀset time. These ﬁndings were common to professional musicians
and non musicians. On the other hand, professional musicians were diﬀerent fromnon musicians in that sound level and interval of beats varied considerably. As theresults of experiment II, the average rate of correct response for the performances ofprofessional musicians was 41.5% and that for the performances of non musicians
was 21.9%. Not only rate for professional musicians but also rate for non musicians
exceeded the chance level signiﬁcantly.

Gestures and Music Analysis in Piano Performance
Roberto Caterina, Mario Baroni, Luisa Bonﬁglioli, Maria Teresa
Storino, Michele Privitera, Iolanda Incasa, Fabio Regazzi; University of
Bologna, Italy
5PM1-S01-2
In our work we tried to see how body expressions in musical performance areimportant elements of the interpreter musical thinking. We asked 7 professional
piano players to perform twice two pieces belonging to diﬀerent historical periods
and styles. The performances were videotaped by 3 cameras in diﬀerent positions(face, body, back). A special device, called Moog PianoBar, was put on the piano
keyboard in order to get data about some interpretative variables. A special grid was
prepared to compare musical aspects with body and facial expressions.
The ﬁrst results of our analyses indicate that facial and body movements are strictlyconnected with dynamic proﬁles and phrase segmentations. Not all the interpreters
use the same signals, but they do use body expressions to stress the same main
points of articulation of musical structure. Body expressions seem to be more
appropriate to express music segmentation, while facial expressions seem to belinked with expression of dynamic and agogic qualities, as we could observe in aprevious study (Caterina et al. 2003).

Discovering the Body: Insights into Music Performance and
Education from Highly Practiced Musicians
Shin Maruyama; Rikkyo University, Japan
5PM1-S01-3
The aim of this study is to describe a role that the sense of bodily movement plays in
the production of music with reference to the theoretical framework of the ecologicalapproach. To do so, I individually interviewed prominent musicians (instrumental
conductor, violinist and cellist) who have rich experience of teaching and asked
them questions about the role of body movement in their performance and about
instructional techniques they usually use when teaching. I report four cases implyingthat knowing physics of the body is a fundamental skill to reach a right expressionof music. These examples strongly support the speculation that the sense of bodily
movement is a necessary element to musical activity. This implies that, without
learning about such physical solutions, we might not access the deeper meaningof music. Although further study is required empirically to qualify the practical
relationship between the body and music, we need to discuss an alternative pedagogy
that enables students to discover and enhance the sensitivity to their own body.

5PM1-A01 : Cognitive Processes and Music Psychology
Atrium 1, 14:10 – 15:40 Friday 29 August 2008, Oral session

Diﬀerences in the Cognitive Processing of Music and Soundscapes
Revealed by Performance on Spliced Stimuli
Jean-Julien Aucouturier; University of Tokyo, Japan
5PM1-A01-1
Considerable eﬀort is spent optimizing computational techniques to simulate humanperception of music and environmental sounds. Most of these techniques take noaccount of time, but rather focus on global statistical distributions. In other words,
machines listen in eﬀect to spliced audio signals, i.e. signals which frames have131

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ICMPC 10been shuﬄed randomly in time. In this study, we investigate how well humans
perform on such kind of signals. We compare human and machine performance inboth a similarity and a categorization task, for spliced versions of both music andsoundscape signals. Splicing is found to signiﬁcantly degrade human categorization
performance, both for music and soundscapes. Concurrently, splicing also degrades
similarity, but signiﬁcantly more so for music than soundscapes. This establishes
that humans are capable of comparing soundscapes in a timeless, amorphous way
which resists well to splicing. On the other hand, humans perform very poorly on
the kind of musical data we typically expect algorithms to succeed on — in factthey’re even worse than machines. Finally, good human performance for soundscapesimilarity doesn’t appear to require identiﬁcation of e.g. constituent sound sources,
which suggests that, contrary to music, soundscapes can be compared in an acousticonly manner, without much semantic analysis.

“Imagery” and “Force”: Conceptual Metaphors in the Early Music
Psychology of the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries
Youn Kim; University of Hong Kong, China
5PM1-A01-2
This paper deals with the early music psychology of the late nineteenth and earlytwentieth centuries (e.g., Herbart 1824–25; Helmholtz 1863; Stumpf 1890; Riemann
1884, 1916; Kurth 1931). It analyses conceptual metaphors found in these writings,
particularly the spatial metaphor of “imagery” (Vorstellungen) and the dynamic
metaphor of “force” (Kraft). The examination of the linguistic and metaphoric formulations in the early music-psychological discourse reveals diﬀerences and changes inconceptions of music and the mind. The change from imagery to force and the useof two diﬀerent notions of force (i.e., physical force and life-force) can be construed
signifying a shift from the mechanistic to the holistic, more intuitive conception ofmusic and the mind — in Berman’s (1984) words, a shift from “disenchanted” to“re-enchanted” music psychology).
Our eyes are not exclusively set on the past: Both imagery and force are frequently
found in the present-day discourses (e.g., Howell, West & Cross, 1991; Godøy &Jørsensen, 2001; Larson 1993; Larson & VanHandel 2005). How do we conceptualize
music and how does this conception shape the ﬁeld of music psychology? Reﬂections
on the early music psychology from the historical and critical perspective may wellserve to provide an opportunity of rethinking current psychology of music.

Cognitive Processes During Piano and Guitar Performance: An Eye
Movement Study
Satoshi Kobori, Katsunori Takahashi; Ryukoku University, Japan
5PM1-A01-3
The purpose of this study is to clarify the cognitive processes during music performance, namely how the players view the music and make the ﬁngers move. This
paper focuses on preview time (hand eye span) in piano and guitar playing. Twoexperiments were conducted, one was for piano and the other was for guitar. In
both experiments, musical score was presented on a computer screen, and subject
was required to play the instrument ﬂuently. The music pieces were well-known
piece, unknown piece and diﬃcult piece, and all were single melody music. The basic
characteristics of eye movements during piano and guitar playing were analyzed.
Also, the preview times were estimated using relation between eye tracking data andﬁnger movement data. The preview for the music was observed in all experimental
conditions for both instruments, but the preview times were diﬀerent among subjects, music pieces, and trial numbers. The preview times were longer in the higher
skill subjects than in the beginner skill subjects. Also, the preview times were longer
for diﬃcult pieces than for easier pieces. The results suggested that skill level of
performers, diﬃculty of music pieces and knowledge for music pieces were crucial
factors which inﬂuenced the preview time.

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5PM1-S02 : Music Listening and Preferences /Development / Methodology
Space 2, 14:10 – 16:00 Friday 29 August 2008, Poster session

Perceived Fitness of Music and Film Genre: Color, Light, Style andPeriod Combinations
Blas Payri; Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain
5PM1-S02-02
This experiment studies whether musical features are systematically associatedwith visual features in an audiovisual context. The visual material consisted in 72
still pictures from recent (2004–2007) Japanese animation series, as animation has
clear genre codes (color palette; character, place and time period design). We used
stills rather than video to avoid interferences of speech, sound, gestures and shotchanges with the music. Music material included 72 excerpts from electroacoustic,
classical instrumental, classical Japanese and pop music works. 288 image-musiccombinations were divided in 5 sets and were presented to 5 groups of subjects (130audiovisual communication). Subjects saw an image while listening to the music
during 15s, then they rated from 1 to 5 the ﬁtness music-image if it were a ﬁlm
music. They rated also music tension and liveliness from 1 to 5.
Results show that 19th European classical music was better accepted for every imagestyle. Electroacoustic music was associated with futuristic images and with dark andfaded colors; 17th and 18th music with historic images, while pop music to brightand light colours regardless of time and location. Diﬀerent codes are used dependingon the music genre and results basically agree with ﬁlm music handbooks.

Development of Infant Cry Acoustics: A Basis of Musical and
Linguistic Skills
Yulri Nonaka, Kentaro Katahira, Reiko Shiba, Kazuo Okanoya; RIKEN
Brain Science Institute, Japan
5PM1-S02-06
Infant cry gains complexity in acoustic and syntactical properties as it develops. This
complexity may be useful for the care giver to identify the need of the infant. Also,
intentional control of vocal apparatus to change pitch and rhythm maybe considered
as an origin of musical skills. In the present study, we obtained developmental
recordings of infant cries from two babies. We analysed unit sounds of cry throughthe development and examined the nature of developmental changes and situational
speciﬁcity. Our analyses revealed that the acoustics of infant cry is monotonous
during the ﬁrst month. When overall tendency is considered, these parameters show
systematic U-shaped changes as the infant mature: duration becomes longer andentropy decreases ﬁrst and then increase. When situational speciﬁcity is considered,each of these parameters showed speciﬁc pattern of development through whichcries gain individuality and situational speciﬁcity. Voco-motor skill necessary to
express situational speciﬁcity maybe a basis of later musical skills.

The Role of Musical Environment at Home in the Infant’s
Development (Part 1): Japanese Mother’s Understanding andPractice of Taikyo and Its Eﬀects on the Mother’s Labor and the
Infant’s Development
Akio Akasaka 1 , Mayumi Adachi 2 , Hitoshi Chino 2 ; 1 Kodoryoku
Kenkyukai, Japan; 2 Hokkaido University, Japan
5PM1-S02-08
In Japan, the word taikyo (prenatal training) is often heard among pregnant womenand their families. Some people believe and share their experiences that taikyo canlead to the safe delivery and the healthy birth of the child, as well as the child’s
language and intellectual development. Do internet self-reports represent averageexperiences of pregnant women in Japan? Can anecdotes of taikyo be veriﬁed
scientiﬁcally? To answer these questions, we conducted two studies, focusing on
eﬀects of the mother’s private music listening, playing music to the fetus, and singing
to the fetus. In STUDY 1, 30 mothers with children up to age 4 were interviewed athome. All the mothers knew about the word taikyo during their pregnancy. The majority considered taikyo as the mother-child interaction in the womb. Private music

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listening was practiced by 10 mothers (3 as taikyo), playing music to the fetus by 11
mothers (6 as taikyo), and singing to the fetus by 12 mothers (7 as taikyo). Eﬀects
of taikyo were examined on the mother’s labor and on the child’s physical and otherforms of development. Children whose mothers listened to favorite music during
pregnancy came to understand easy words faster than their counterpart. In STUDY
2, we replicated the same study with 31 mothers and infants whose development of
vocal expressions and motor skills were recorded longitudinally during the ﬁrst two
years. In the poster, we report results from both studies, discussing implications of
the present study.

The Role of Musical Environment at Home in the Infant’s
Development (Part 3): 3-Month-Olds’ Responses to Music and
Their Subsequent Motor Development
Mayumi Adachi 1 , Akio Akasaka 2 , Izumi Kida 1 , Shunsuke Kon-no 1 ;1Hokkaido University, Japan; 2 Kodoryoku Kenkyukai, Japan
5PM1-S02-10
Earlier studies suggest that music elicits repetitive body movements in 12-monthold infants, and that it functions diﬀerently in 3-month-olds, depending on theirpreferred body positions when they are placed alone. The purpose of this study
was three-folds: (1) to conﬁrm that music reduces 3-month-olds’ movements in asupine position and increases their movements otherwise, (2) to examine whether
3-month-olds’ individual diﬀerences in response to music or in their preferred
position would relate to the musical environment at home, and (3) to explore whether
such individual diﬀerences could predict the course of their motor development
later in infancy. Total of 63 college students watched 5s-long video clips of 10
3-month-olds lying in a supine position and 5 lying or sitting in diﬀerent positions.
They judged how much an infant was moving in each video clip on a 6-point scalewith 1 as “not moving at all” and 6 as “moving a lot.” For 10 infants in a supine
position, their movements with music were judged less than those without music,
supporting the earlier study. Data analyses for 5 infants in other positions (e.g., lying
in a prone position, sitting on the mother’s lap) are still in progress at the time ofthis writing. In the poster presentation, we will provide a full picture of what music
can aﬀord to young infants.

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis and Music Psychology:
An Overview
Raymond MacDonald, Paul Flowers, Jane Oakland, G.N. Caldwell,
Julie C. De Simone; Glasgow Caledonian University, UK
5PM1-S02-12
Qualitative methods are now ﬁrmly established as an important approach to researchwithin the psychology of music. Over the past 15 years there has been a signiﬁcant
increase not only in the volume of published research adopting qualitative methods
but also in the range of diﬀerent qualitative approaches that can be legitimately
utilised. This paper overviews Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) as
a methodology for collecting and analysing qualitative data in Music Psychology
Research. The key elements of IPA are outlined and compared to other forms of
qualitative analysis such as thematic analysis and discourse analysis. A review ofexisting studies within music psychology is presented along with key challenges toresearchers interested in developing IPA. The paper will demonstrate how IPA, as arigorous, innovative and now well established methodology can be employed withinmusic psychology research to further our knowledge over a range of diverse but
related areas. Its utility as a research approach across a range of topics areas such asmusical identities, music therapy, music education and motivation and music will bepresented. This paper highlights the potential to develop IPA as a valuable researchtool that could make a considerable contribution to the growing body of qualitative
work within the ﬁeld of Music Psychology.

The Complex Dynamics of Repeated Musical Exposure
Patrick C.M. Wong 1 , Anil Kumar Roy 1 , Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis 2 ;1
Northwestern University, USA; 2 University of Arkansas, USA
5PM1-S02-14
Repetition is a fundamental part of engagement with the auditory world; it inﬂuences
what gets perceived as important and selected for attention. It also inﬂuences the134ICMPC 10

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mysterious phenomenon of aesthetic enjoyment. This project aims to identify theperceptual and cognitive non-linearities that underlie changes in preference acrossmultiple musical exposures.
We report on a set of experiments that used behavioral measures to assess perceptualchanges across multiple exposures (ﬁve over one week) of a twenty-minute orchestralpiece. The behavioral tests included tasks related to preference, memory, attention,aﬀect, syntax, and error detection. Participants performed these tasks after each of
the ﬁve exposures in response to stimuli drawn from the exposure piece and from acontrol piece.
Across the ﬁve exposures, we found an inverted U-shape preference response,
which possibly is decomposable to the complex interaction of multiple nonlinear
components, represented by performance on tasks relating to memory, attention,aﬀect, syntax, and error detection.
We argue that musical preference has remained a puzzle because the behavior
depends on an underlying complex system with numerous nonlinear cognitive
components revealed by our results. [Work supported by a grant from the Center forInterdisciplinary Research in the Arts at Northwestern University, and by NIH]

A Ground-Truth Experiment on Melody Genre Recognition in
Absence of Timbre
José M. Iñesta, Pedro J. Ponce de León, José L. Heredia-Agoiz;
Universidad de Alicante, Spain
5PM1-S02-16
Music genre or style is an important metadata for music collections and databaseorganization. Some authors claim for the need of having ground truth studies on thisparticular topic, in order to compare results with them and lead to sound conclusions
when analyzing software performances. When dealing with digital scores in any
format, timbrical information is not always available or trustworthy so we haveavoided this information in our computer models, using only melodic information.
The main goal of this work is to assess the human ability for recognizing music
genres in absence of timbre in order to assess comparatively the performance ofcomputer models for this task.
For this, we have experimented with fragments of melodies in absence of accompaniment and timbre, as our computer models do. For this particular paper we haveworked with two well-established genres in the music literature, like classical andjazz music.
A number of analyses in terms of age, group, education, and music studies of thepeople subjected to the tests have been performed. The results show that, on
average, the error rate was about 18%. This value shows the base line to be improvedfor computer systems in this task without using timbrical information.

The Role of Music in Videogames: The Eﬀects of Self-Selected andExperimenter-Selected Music on Driving Game Performance andExperience
Gianna Cassidy, Raymond MacDonald; Glasgow Caledonian
University, UK
5PM1-S02-18
Videogames present a uniquely interactive yet relatively untapped platform formusical experience, with music providing a means of communication, interactionand expression (Lipscomb & Zehnder, 2004; 2006; Whalen, 2004). This raises two
relatively unexplored areas of interest for the psychology of music (1) the uses andfunctions of music during gameplay, and (2) the elucidation of music’s contribution
to gameplay performance and experience. The present paper addresses both theseneeds through a summary of (1) a survey study, and (2) a series of three experimental
studies, which adopted a listener-centred approach to establish investigation ofmusic in videogames. Experiment 1 compared the eﬀects of exposure to self-selected
and experimenter-selected music on driving game performance and experience. The
ﬁndings of Experiment 1 were extended in the subsequent studies, with Experiment
2 focusing on the role of tempo, and Experiment 3 focusing on the role of vocal
content. The collective ﬁndings highlight the eﬃcacy of self-selected music as a tool
to optimise both performance and experience in the gameplay context. Additionally,
the survey ﬁndings highlight the pervasive and highly personalised nature of music
listening during gameplay, and the genre dependent nature of its use.

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ICMPC 10When do People Feel a Sense of Incongruity in Listening to Music?
Takashi Taniguchi; Osaka Gakuin University, Japan
5PM1-S02-20
The purpose of this paper is to collect and classify events and situations related tomusic and a sense of incongruity in order to investigate on what and when people
feel a sense of incongruity in musical behavior, especially listening to music. In Study
1, 118 participants were asked to describe when they feel a sense of incongruity inlistening to music, singing songs, and playing instruments on a free narrative formof questionnaire. Total descriptions were 181 in listening, 170 in singing, and 151 in
playing instruments. Free descriptions showed 6 categories of a sense of incongruity
in music. In Study 2, on the basis of the descriptions collected in Study 1, anotherquestionnaire was constructed of 80 items about a sense of incongruity in listening tomusic. Other 141 graduates participated to ﬁll in the questionnaire. Factor analysis
yielded 7 factors: playing deviation, image inconsistency, situational incompatibility,
unnatural performance, noise and interruption, displeasure, and oﬀ-balance. Itshows various factors contribute to a sense of incongruity in listening to music. The
factor pattern suggests the sense is experienced as a result of interaction between
listening situation and listeners’ condition in addition to musical and acousticalquality.

Musical Trends Among Japanese Young People: The Boom of‘J-Pop’Junko Matsumoto 1 , Shoko Kobayashi 2 ; 1 Nagano College of Nursing,Japan; 2 Suzaka Municipal Oﬃce, Japan
5PM1-S02-22
This study investigated preferences with respect to music in the daily lives ofyoung people and the attraction of Kumi Koda who has become popular among
the youth of Japan, aiming to reveal a relationship among these variables. Results
indicated that most participants preferred listening to music, listened to musicfrequently, and felt it necessary to have music in their daily lives. There were positiveand signiﬁcant correlations among the items related to music, but the correlation
between interests in trends and the items related with music was small. Favorite
musicians were almost always ‘J-pop’ musicians, and participants were attracted to‘J-pop’ music, including both words and melodies. Factor analysis of the attraction to
Kumi Koda yielded three factors: Healing, Appearance, and Fashion. There were few
signiﬁcant correlations between the attraction of her and the items related to music;
however, there were positive, signiﬁcant correlations between the attraction of her
and interests in trends. These results suggest that most young people in Japan listen
to music in their daily lives and prefer the music of ‘J-pop’ musicians. However, theresults also suggest that, with regard to musicians who are currently part of a boom,
young people may prefer them due to their trendiness rather than their music.

Short Term Memory for Music in Patients with MCI and Early Stageof Dementia
Manuela Kerer, Josef Marksteiner, Elisabeth Weiss; Medical University
Innsbruck, Austria
5PM1-S02-24
There is evidence from a variety of sources that the system for short term memory
for pitch is precisely and systematically organized, in several ways along the samelines as the system that processes pitch information at the incoming level. In thisstudy we tested short term memory for music in patients with MCI (Mild Cognitive
Impairment) and early stage of dementia. The most noticeable deﬁcit in thesepatients is short-term memory loss and the consequent problems to acquire new
information. Although memory span varies widely with populations tested andwith material, human short-term memory in general has a forward memory span ofapproximately 7 items ± 2.
A new test was created with 7 tone-lines and 6 intervals. Subjects were presented tothese test items, which were followed by 3 similar and 1 identical items. They were
instructed to choose the right one. 10 patients with MCI and 10 with diagnosis ofearly stage of dementia were compared with 23 controls.
Results are in accordance with the proposed hypothesis that subjects with diagnosed
MCI and early stage of dementia show signiﬁcantly lower results for almost allpresented tasks than controls. Respectively, MCI patients showed better results thanearly-stage-patients.

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Thinking in Two vs. Three Beats: Metric Structure is Represented
in Multiple Cortical Areas as Revealed by
Magnetoencephalography in Skilled Musicians
Takako Fujioka, Benjamin Zendel, Bernhard Ross; Rotman ResearchInstitute, Canada
5PM1-S02-26
People tapping to music often tap to metric structure, deﬁned by strong and week
accents, rather than to each pulse. This internalized metric structure is inﬂuenced
by individual experience involving body and head movement. The current study
investigated where and when diﬀerent brain areas are involved in metric processing
when tapping experience deﬁnes meter even if stimulus are unaccented using magnetocephalography (MEG). Skilled musicians tapped for twelve clicks to every second(2-beat) or third (3-beat) click, alternated with a subsequent resting period of thesame length. Time-averaged MEG data during the resting period were transformed
to source activities in brain volume using beamformer technique to extract multiple
sources without a-priori assumptions about number and conﬁguration of sources.
Results show that in addition to bilateral auditory activities, bilateral sensori-motor,
prefrontal, left inferior gyrus, left pre-supplemental motor area, and then sensorimotor areas became active even before the next click. Similar periodic pattern ofactivation was observed in left angular gyrus, and supra marginal gyrus, cerebellum
but peaking around between the clicks. We suggest that metric interpretation has a
top-down eﬀect on neural activities in multiple cortical areas, likely reﬂecting motor
imagery and timing encoding.

5PM2-S01 : Neuroscience and Pathology
Space 1, 16:10 – 17:40 Friday 29 August 2008, Oral session

A Role for Pitch Memory in Congenital Amusia
Lauren Stewart 1 , Claire McDonald 1 , Sukhbinder Kumar 2 , Diana
Deutsch 3 , Timothy D. Griﬃths 2 ; 1 Goldsmiths University of London,
UK; 2 Newcastle University, UK; 3 University of California at San Diego,USA
5PM2-S01-1
Congenital amusia (CA) is a perceptual agnosia, deﬁned as abnormal musicalperception in the presence of normal hearing and otherwise preserved cognition.
The disorder has been characterized by elevated thresholds for the discriminationof changes in pitch direction. The present study tested the hypothesis that CA
individuals also have diﬃculty with the retention of pitch over time. A group of CA
participants (n=16) was compared with a matched group of non-amusic controls.
Two tones were presented over headphones with an intervening silent pause ofvariable duration (2s, 5s, 8s). The tones were either the same or diﬀered in pitchby two semitones (suprathreshold for pitch discrimination in both groups). There
was a signiﬁcant main eﬀect of group, a signiﬁcant main eﬀect of condition and aninteraction between group and condition. The CA group performed signiﬁcantly
worse than the control group in all conditions, despite normal performance on digit
span — test of verbal working memory. This indicates that pitch retention, and not
only pitch perception, is deﬁcient in amusia and suggests that the disorder might
be considered a deﬁcit of dynamic pitch tracking. Ongoing studies will determine
whether this memory deﬁcit relates to an impairment of storage or rehearsal of pitch
information.

Investigating the Language and Music Lexicons Using Repetitive
TMS
Rebecca Sussex 1 , Sarah Wilson 1 , David Reutens 2 ; 1 University of
Melbourne, Australia; 2 Monash Medical Centre, Australia
5PM2-S01-2
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a technique used to brieﬂy
disrupt brain activity in small areas of the neocortex. It can be used to determine
whether a particular area is necessary for a cognitive function. The current study is
the ﬁrst to use rTMS to disrupt singing and speaking by stimulating regions in thetemporal lobes thought to underpin the music and language lexicons. Participants
underwent a structural MRI scan which was used to co-register scalp locations with137

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ICMPC 10underlying neocortex sites. During two subsequent testing sessions participants
produced three highly familiar excerpts (song, text & melody) while receiving shamand active rTMS on the left and right temporal lobes. Performances were video andaudio recorded for the purposes of analysis. Recruitment for the study is ongoing
and will be completed by July 2008. Pilot data indicates that rTMS of the righttemporal lobe interrupted singing but not speaking. In contrast, rTMS of the left
temporal lobe selectively interrupted speaking, although the disruption was more
subtle than that seen for singing after right rTMS. Further data will determine therobustness of this eﬀect. These preliminary ﬁndings support the results of previous
studies that indicate that music and language functions may in part be mediated byseparate neural networks.

A Neurobiologically Plausible Schema for Auditory Information
Processing Including the Auditory Cortex
Neil McLachlan, Sarah Wilson; University of Melbourne, Australia
5PM2-S01-3
The broad range of neural responses observed in studies of the auditory cortex will bebetter understood in relation to a model of neural mechanisms. This paper presents
a ﬁrst approximation to such a model which can be tested by speciﬁc experimental
studies. The principle feature of the model is a mechanism of streaming information
based on stored templates of activation while the echoic trace is formed. It is
proposed that the echoic trace is formed along an array of neural circuits in thethalamus that are sequentially activated by quality speciﬁc disinhibition from classiﬁcation hierarchies in the primary auditory cortex. The streamed pitch, loudness
and direction information is accumulated in neural arrays in the primary auditory
cortex before being associated with source identity in the associative cortices inthe superior temporal and other brain regions. A successful model will enable an
artiﬁcial listening system to be developed to provide objective and reproducible
predictions of human responses to acoustic stimuli. This will have applications in theanalysis and composition of music outside the Western tonal cannon, the design andanalysis of musical instruments, and automatic music transcription. Such a model
will also have implications in a wide range of ﬁelds including hearing disorders,environmental acoustic monitoring and robotic sensing.

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Author Index
A
Abbott, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-11
Abe, Jun-ichi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K-1

68
5
3AM2-R07-04 87
Abel, Jonathan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-09 53
Abla, Dilshat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-11 66
3AM2-R12-06 98
3AM2-R12-10 99
Adachi, Kohei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-13 128
Adachi, Mayumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-04 93
3AM2-R12-04 98
5AM2-S02-09 127
5AM2-S02-11 128
5PM1-S02-08 133
5PM1-S02-10 134
Addessi, Anna Rita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R05-1 74
3AM2-R09-04 91
Agres, Kat R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R02-1 35
Aiba, Eriko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R03-1 43
2AM2-R07-11 54
Aizawa, Yuichi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R05-2 80
Akasaka, Akio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-08 133
5PM1-S02-10 134
Akinaga, Seiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-1 42
Alluri, Vinoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-02 93
Alpers, Georg W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R11-08 96
Altenmüller, Eckart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R04-3 50
2PM2-R03-1 76
Ambrazevčius, Rytis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM1-A01-1 124Anderson, Benjamin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R05-1 110
Ando, Daichi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R02-2 70
Anta, Juan Fernando . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R02-3 47
Aoki, Mari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R05-3 122
Aoki, Tomoko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-07 65
Appel, Mirjam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R05-1 85
Appelman, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R11-06 96
Araki, Chiharu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-12 95
Arao, Hiroshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R07-06 87
Asakura, Keiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R05-4 117
Ashley, Richard D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-2 40
2PM1-R04-4 73
3AM2-R10-06 94
3PM2-R05-1 110
4AM1-R04-3 115
Askenfelt, Anders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R11-02 95
Aucouturier, Jean-Julien . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-A01-1 131
Augustyniak, Sylvana . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R05-4 75
Azechi, Nozomi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R02-1 107

B
Bailes, Freya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R08-13

56

4AM2-R04-4 121
Bancroft, Tom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-07 63
Barber, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R05-2 51
2AM1-R05-3 51
Baroni, Mario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S01-2 131
Barrett, Margaret S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-2 11
1PM2-R01-04 13
Bartlett, James C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R08-11 56
Bartlette, Christopher . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-01 64
Barwick, Linda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R08-13 56
Beken, Munir N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-4 40
Bennett, P.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R05-2 51
2AM1-R05-3 51
Benson, James D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-5 18
2PM2-R01-04 19
Berger, Jonathan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-09 53
3AM1-R02-4 82
Bernays, Michel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R02-3 82
Beveridge, Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R04-3 106
Bharucha, Jamshed J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R04-3 121
Bigand, Emmanuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-01 59
Birchﬁeld, Jack D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R08-11 56

Bjurling, Johan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R03-4 49
Blackwell, A.F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R02-1 112
Boerner, Sabine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R05-3 46
Bonﬁglioli, Luisa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S01-2 131
Bongard, Stephan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-7 22
3PM1-R01-03 23
Borck, Ashley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R04-1 38
Brady, Michael Connolly . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R05-3 80
5AM2-S02-21 129
Brandmeyer, Alex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R08-04 89
4AM1-R03-2 113
Brattico, Elvira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-6 20
3AM1-R01-02 21
3AM1-R01-03 21
3AM1-R01-04 21
Bregman, Micah R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R03-1 32
Bresin, Roberto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R01-01 20
SUMMARY-9 24
3PM2-R01-01 25
2AM1-R03-4 49
3PM1-R04-4 107
Briellmann, Regula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-11 68
Broughton, Mary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R03-2 77
Bueno, José Lino Oliveira . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-01 59

C
2AM2-R17-1 69
1PM3-R01-2 41
5PM1-S02-12 134
Cangelosi, Angelo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-08 94
Caplin, William E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R04-1 44
Carlton, Lana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-07 63
Carr, Sherilene M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R02-4 36
9Cassidy, Gianna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-1
1PM1-R01-02 10
3PM1-R04-3 106
5PM1-S02-18 135
Caterina, Roberto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S01-2 131
Caurgati, Felice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R05-1 74
7Chang, Sun-Hee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APSCOM3
2AM2-R10-13 61
3PM1-R03-1 104
Chapin, Heather L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R05-1 121
Chen, Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R05-3 116
Chen, Jyh-Horng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R04-4 115
Chew, Elaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R03-2 37
Chin, T.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R04-4 85
Chino, Hitoshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-08 133
Choi, Yeojeong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R04-2 114
7
Chong, Eddy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APSCOM38
5AM1-S01-05
3PM1-R03-1 104
Chordia, Parag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM1-A01-3 124
Chung, Dongil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R04-2 114
Clark, Terry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R04-2 84
Clift, Stephen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-7 22
Clynes, Manfred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R03-2 48
Cohen, Annabel J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-10 27
4AM1-R01-03 28
Cohen, Leslie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R04-1 38
Cook, Norman D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-03 67
3AM2-R16-1 102
4AM2-R05-2 122
Costa-Giomi, Eugenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-1
9
1PM2-R04-1 38
Coutinho, Eduardo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-08 94
Creech, Andrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-2 11
1PM2-R01-01 12
1PM2-R01-02 12
1PM2-R01-03 13
3AM2-R11-04 96
Cross, Ian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-5 18
3AM2-R07-08 88
3PM2-R05-2 111
4AM1-R02-1 112
5AM1-A01-2 124Cabrera, Densil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Caldwell, G.N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

139

Curtis, Meagan E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4AM2-R04-3 121

DDahl, Soﬁa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R03-1
Daniels, Ryan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R01-02
Danielsen, Anne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R03-2
Davidson, Jane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R04-4

76
18
32
39
2AM2-R08-03 55
2AM2-R11-05 63
3AM2-R08-12 91
3AM2-R11-12 97
Davis, Caroline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R09-03 57
Dean, Roger T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R04-4 121
De Bruyn, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R05-1 116
Demorest, Steven M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-4 40
2AM2-R11-09 63
3AM1-R04-1 84
de Nooijer, Justin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R03-2 83
de Ruyter, Boris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R03-4 105
Desain, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R03-3 33
1PM1-R03-4 33
3AM2-R08-04 89
4AM1-R03-2 113
4AM2-R05-4 123
De Simone, Julie C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-1
9
1PM1-R01-04 10
5AM2-S02-05 127
5PM1-S02-12 134
Deutsch, Diana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5K-4
5PM2-S01-1 137
Devaney, Johanna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-05 53
Dibben, Nicola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R04-4 79
Dixon, Simon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R02-4 118
Dowling, W. Jay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R04-2 106
Draguna, Maria Raluca . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-10 94
3AM2-R11-10 97
3AM2-R12-04 98
Duncan, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R01-2 41
Dunlop, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R04-2 106
Dunn, Greg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R03-4 105

E
SUMMARY-6 20
SUMMARY-9 24
3PM2-R01-03 26
2AM2-R07-07 53
3AM2-R10-02 93
3PM1-R02-2 103
Egermann, Hauke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R04-3 50
2AM2-R13-09 68
Eitan, Zohar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-10 27
4AM1-R01-02 27
2PM1-R03-1 71
3AM2-R07-02 87
3PM1-R04-1 106
Emura, Norio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-1 42
5AM2-S02-19 129
5AM2-S02-23 130
Estrada-Rodríguez, Luis . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R04-4 35
Evans, Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R04-4 39
Everett, Steve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R02-2 82

Eerola, Tuomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FFabian, Dorottya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R03-3 119
Farbood, Morwaread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R03-2 119
Fastl, Hugo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R07-12 89
Faulkner, Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R04-4 39
Faux, Ashley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R09-09 58
Ferguson, Sam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R17-1 69
Ferrer, Rafael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-02 93
Fletcher, Janet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R08-03 55
Flossmann, Sebastian . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R03-1 48
2AM1-R03-3 49
Flowers, Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R01-1 41
5PM1-S02-12 134

Fornari, Jose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-07

53

3PM1-R02-2 103
François, Alexandre R. J. . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R03-2 37
Franěk, Marek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R03-3 105
Fredrikson, Maija . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R05-2 74
Friberg, Anders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R01-01 25
3PM2-R01-02 25
Frieler, Klaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R02-2 47
Fritz, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R02-1 112
Fujimoto, Chikashi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R16-1 102
Fujinaga, Ichiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-05 53
3AM1-R03-3 83
4AM1-R02-4 113
Fujinami, Tsutomu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R03-3 37
2PM2-R03-3 77
Fujioka, Takako . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-1 39
3AM2-R12-08 99
5PM1-S02-26 137
Fujisawa, Takashi X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-03 67
Furuya, Shinichi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-09 61
2AM2-R12-07 65

G
Galley, Niels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-09
Geissmann, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-11

68
29
4AM2-R01-04 30
Gerry, David W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R09-09 58
6
Gingras, Bruno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM3-R01-1
Ginsborg, Jane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-7 22
3PM1-R01-04 23
2AM2-R08-09 56
Giordano, Bruno L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM3-R01-1
6
Go, Tohshin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-17 129
Goebl, Werner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R03-3 49
4AM1-R02-4 113
Goklu, Gaye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R03-2 105
Gold, Nicolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R05-3 86
Gorges, Susanne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R11-08 96
Gosselin, Nathalie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R02-2 75
Goto, Masataka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R05-1 79
Goto, Yoshinobu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R08-06 90
Grachten, Maarten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R03-1 48
2AM1-R03-3 49
Grahn, Jessica A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-3 40
Granot, Roni Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R07-02 87
3PM1-R04-1 106
Granqvist, Svante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R11-02 95
Gray, Patricia M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-5 18
2PM2-R01-01 18
2PM2-R01-02 18
Greaves, William Southworth . . . . SUMMARY-5 18
2PM2-R01-04 19
Greenﬁeld, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-03 126
Grewe, Oliver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R04-3 50
Griﬃths, Timothy D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM2-S01-1 137
Grillitsch, Doris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R03-2 71
Grossbach, Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R03-1 76
Gruhn, Wilfried . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-07 127

H
Hajda, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-10
Hallam, Susan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R05-3

27
74
2PM2-R04-1 78
Halovic, Shaun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R05-3 116
Halpern, Andrea R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R02-3 36
2AM2-R08-11 56
Han, Moo Kyoung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R04-2 114
Han, Yo Jung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-13 61
Hansen, Kjetil Falkenberg . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-6 20
3AM1-R01-01 20
3AM2-R11-02 95
Hara, Masaki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-13 66
Hargreaves, David J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-3 14
2AM1-R01-04 15
SUMMARY-6 20

140

Hart, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-21 129
Hashida, Mitsuyo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-8 24
Hashida, Tomoko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R02-1 103
Hasuo, Emi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R02-3 76
Hayashi, Takefumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R16-1 102
Hayashi, Takuya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-01 67
He, Chao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R02-2 107
Hellmer, Kahl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R11-02 95
Henry, Molly J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-3 31
Heredia-Agoiz, José L. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-16 135
Heuser, Frank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R04-1 34
Himberg, Tommi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R08-08 90
Hiraga, Yuzuru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R05-1 79
Hirai, Kazuhiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R13-04 100
Hirano, Takeshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R02-3 104
Hirata, Keiji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-8 24
Hirokawa, Eri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R05-2 45
Hodapp, Volker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R01-03 23
Höfel, Lea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R01-03 21
Hofmann-Engl, Ludger J. . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R02-1 117
Honing, Henkjan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R02-1 70
2PM2-R02-4 76
Hoshino, Etsuko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-05 60
Hoteida, Yuriko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R05-2 80
Hove, Michael J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R03-1 113
Hsiao, Tzu-Yu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R02-2 112
Huang, Patty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-09 53
Huron, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-4 16
2PM1-R01-04 17
2AM1-R04-1 49

I
Iba, Hitoshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R02-2 70
Iida, Hidehiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-01 67
Imai, Akira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-12 95
Incasa, Iolanda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S01-2 131
Iñesta, José M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-16 135
Inoue, Yoichi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-11 29
4AM2-R01-03 30
Ioannides, Andreas A. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R05-3 122
Irino, Toshio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R07-10 88
Istók, Eva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R01-02 21
SUMMARY-9 24
3PM2-R01-02 25
Itakura, Shoji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R04-3 39
Ito, Yoshimi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-12 95
Itoh, Kosuke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R13-02 100
Iversen, John R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R03-1 32
2PM2-R02-1 75
3AM2-R08-10 90
Iwai, Kaori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-04 93
Iwaki, Tatsuya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R13-06 101
7Iwamiya, Shin-ichiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APSCOM38
5AM1-S01-04
SUMMARY-10 27
4AM1-R01-04 28
Iwasaka, Masakazu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-13 66

J
Jackson, Graeme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-11 68
Jacobsen, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R01-03 21
James, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R11-06 96
Janata, Petr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R08-05 55
Jeng, Shyh-Kang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R04-4 115
Jenkins, Sue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-05 63
Jeon, Keun-Ah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-1 31
Jeong, Jaeseung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R05-4 51
4AM1-R04-2 114
Jobst, Johanna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R05-3 46
Johnson, Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-4 40
Johnson, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-4 32

K
Kakigi, Tatsuya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-09 66
Kallinen, Kari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R13-08 101

Kamekawa, Toru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R03-3
Kamiyama, Keiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-11
Kantor-Martynuska, Joanna . . . . . . 2AM1-R04-4
Katahira, Kenji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-10

43
66
50
94
3AM2-R11-10 97
3AM2-R12-04 98
Katahira, Kentaro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-11 66
3AM2-R12-06 98
3AM2-R12-10 99
5PM1-S02-06 133
Katayose, Haruhiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-8 24
2AM2-R13-07 67
3AM1-R03-1 83
Kato, Hiroaki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R03-1 43
Katsura, Makiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R03-1 83
Katsuzaki, Toshimitsu . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R09-12 93
Kawakami, Hiroshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R03-3 72
Kawakami, Masato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R03-3 37
Kawase, Satoshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-10 94
3AM2-R11-10 97
3AM2-R12-04 98
Kazai, Koji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-07 67
Keller, Peter E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R02-4 71
3AM1-R05-1 85
3AM1-R05-2 86
Kendall, Roger A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-10 27
4AM1-R01-01 27
Kerer, Manuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-24 136
Kharsas, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R05-3 51
Kida, Izumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-09 127
5PM1-S02-10 134
Kim, Hyunhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R11-12 97
Kim, Jin Hyun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-03 64
Kim, Jun-ok . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R04-2 114
7
Kim, Kyungil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APSCOM38
5AM1-S01-03
1PM1-R02-1 31
4AM2-R04-1 120
Kim, Sung Yub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R04-1 120
Kim, Yang-Eon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R04-1 120
Kim, Youn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-A01-2 132
King, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-03 126
Kinoshita, Hiroshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-09 61
2AM2-R12-07 65
2AM2-R12-09 66
4AM1-R03-3 114
Kinou, Masafumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S01-2 125
Kitahara, Tetsuro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-8 24
2AM2-R09-13 59
3AM1-R03-1 83
Knox, Don . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R04-3 106
Kobayashi, Shoko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-22 136
Kobori, Satoshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-A01-3 132
Kojima, Shozo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R12-12 99
Konaka, Hiroo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R16-1 102
Konishi, Yukuo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-17 129
Kon-no, Shunsuke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-10 134
Konoki, Yasushi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-19 129
Kopiez, Reinhard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R04-3 50
2AM2-R07-03 52
2AM2-R13-09 68
2PM1-R03-4 72
4AM1-R03-4 114
Kopp, Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R03-4 114
Korsakova-Kreyn, Marina . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R04-2 106
Kraus, Nina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-2 40
4AM1-R04-3 115
Kreutz, Gunter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-7 22
3PM1-R01-01 22
3PM1-R01-04 23
2AM2-R10-03 60
Kroos, Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R05-3 116
Krumhansl, Carol L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-4 16
1PM2-R02-1 35
Kubota, Yuriko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R03-4 38

141

Kudo, Kazutoshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R02-3 104
Kudo, Noriko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R01-02 29
Kumar, Sukhbinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM2-S01-1 137

L
Ladinig, Olivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R02-1
Lagrandeur-Ponce, Tamara . . . . . . . 3PM3-R01-1
Lange, Andrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-05
Langendoerfer, Franziska . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R01-03
Large, Edward W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-5

70
6
63
23
18
2PM2-R01-01 18
1PM2-R05-1 39
4AM2-R02-3 118
4AM2-R05-1 121
Lartillot, Olivier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R02-2 103
Latchoumane, Charles-François . . 2AM1-R05-4 51
Laukka, Petri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R09-05 57
3AM2-R11-02 95
Lee, Irene Eunyoung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R05-4 51
Lee, Kyung Myun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-2 40
Lehmann, Andreas C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-09 68
Lehmann, Marco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-03 52
2AM2-R13-09 68
2PM1-R03-4 72
4AM1-R03-4 114
Leman, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R05-1 116
Lewin, Gill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-05 63
Liikkanen, Lassi A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R04-3 85
5AM2-S02-25 130
Lin, Yuna-Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R04-4 115
Lipscomb, Scott D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-3 14
SUMMARY-10 27
1PM1-R04-1 34
2AM2-R11-01 62
3PM2-R03-1 108
London, Justin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R02-4 71
9
Lonie, Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-1
1PM1-R01-03 10
2AM2-R09-07 58
Louhivuori, Jukka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R04-2 73
Luck, Geoﬀ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R05-4 86
3PM1-R02-4 104
4AM1-R05-2 116
Luetkenhoener, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-4 32
Lundell, Dee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-01 62
Luo, Xiaoping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-01 126
Lusher, Dean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-11 68
Lynch, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R05-2 51

M
9
SUMMARY-1
9
1PM1-R01-01
1PM1-R01-02 10
1PM1-R01-04 10
1PM1-R01-05 11
SUMMARY-2 11
SUMMARY-3 14
2AM1-R01-02 15
1PM3-R01-1 41
1PM3-R01-2 41
2AM2-R11-07 63
3PM1-R04-3 106
5AM2-S02-05 127
5PM1-S02-12 134
5PM1-S02-18 135
Maeda, Shin-ichi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-3 42
Makimori, Tomohiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R13-06 101
Makimoto, Shimpei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-3 42
Makomaska, Sylwia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-4 16
2PM1-R01-01 16
Mang, Esther Ho Shun . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R04-3 79
Marco, David J.T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-2 31
Margulis, Elizabeth Hellmuth . . . . 4AM2-R03-1 118
4AM2-R03-4 119
5PM1-S02-14 134

MacDonald, Raymond . . . . . . . . . . . .

Marin, Manuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R04-4
Marks, Lawrence E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-1079
27
4AM1-R01-02 27
Marksteiner, Josef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-24 136
Martens, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R03-1 36
Marui, Atsushi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R03-3 43
Maruyama, Shin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S01-3 131
Marvin, Elizabeth W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-4 16
2PM1-R01-02 17
Masuda, Sayaka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R12-06 98
Masuko, Tsutomu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-09 61
Matsubara, Masaki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-2 42
Matsuda, Kumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-11 128
Matsui, Toshie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-07 67
Matsuka, Toshihiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-13 66
Matsumoto, Junko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-22 136
Matsunaga, Rie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R07-04 87
Mauch, Matthias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R02-4 118
Mazzola, Guerino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R03-1 108
6
McAdams, Stephen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM3-R01-1
1PM3-R04-1 44
McAuley, J. Devin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-3 31
2AM2-R08-01 54
McCormick, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R04-2 78
McDonald, Claire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM2-S01-1 137
9
McDowall, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R01-01
2AM2-R10-03 60
McKay, Cory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R03-3 83
McLachlan, Neil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-2 31
5PM2-S01-3 138
McNamara, Bev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-05 63
McPherson, Gary E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R04-4 39
2PM2-R04-2 78
Miezlaiskyte, Akvile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R08-04 89
Miralles-Bono, José-Luis . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R03-2 43
9Mitchell, Laura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-1
9
1PM1-R01-01
1PM1-R01-05 11
SUMMARY-7 22
2AM2-R10-03 60
Mito, Hiromichi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-3 14
2AM1-R01-01 14
Mitsudo, Takako . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R08-06 90
Miura, Akito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R02-3 104
Miura, Masanobu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-1 42
3AM2-R08-02 89
5AM2-S01-2 125
5AM2-S02-19 129
5AM2-S02-23 130
Miyazaki, Ken’ichi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-4 16
Miyazawa, Shiho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R12-12 99
Moelants, Dirk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R08-07 55
2PM2-R03-4 77
4AM1-R05-1 116
Moore, B.C.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R02-1 112
Morita, Shinya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-1 42
Morrison, Steven J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-4 40
3AM1-R04-1 84
Müllensiefen, Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R02-3 36
2AM1-R02-1 47
2AM1-R02-2 47
4AM2-R02-4 118
Müller, Mira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-6 20
3AM1-R01-03 21
Murakami, Yasuko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R04-3 34
Murakami, Yuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R08-02 89
Murao, Tadahiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-8 24
2PM2-R04-3 79
Murohashi, Harumitsu . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-15 128

142

N

O
1PM3-R01-1 41
5PM1-S02-12 134
Obata, Satoshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-09 61
4AM1-R03-3 114
Ockelford, Adam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-3 14
2AM1-R01-03 15
3AM2-R09-06 92
O’Connor, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R05-2 51
2AM1-R05-3 51
Oda, Ryo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-11 29
Oehler, Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R02-3 112
Ogata, Jun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R05-1 79
Ogata, Taiki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R02-3 70
Ogawa, Yoko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R04-3 79
Ogden, Jenni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-11 68
Ohtsuki, Tatsuyuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R02-3 104
Okanoya, Kazuo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-11 29
4AM2-R01-02 29
4AM2-R01-03 30
2AM2-R12-11 66
3AM2-R12-06 98
3AM2-R12-10 99
5PM1-S02-06 133
Okuma, Hideharu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-3 42
Okuno, Hiroshi G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R09-13 59
Olsen, Kirk N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S01-3 125
Ono, Michiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-13 66
Onyeji, Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R05-4 80
Oura, Yoko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R12-02 98

Oakland, Jane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

P
1PM2-R04-2 38
2PM1-R05-2 74
Paine, Garth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R05-3 116
Painsi, Margit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R04-4 79
Papageorgi, Ioulia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-2 11
1PM2-R01-01 12
1PM2-R01-02 12
1PM2-R01-03 13
2AM2-R12-05 65
Park, Eunsil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R04-3 44

Paananen, Pirkko A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2AM1-R02-4 48
2AM2-R07-01 52
2PM1-R03-2 71
2PM2-R04-4 79
3AM2-R09-10 92
4AM2-R04-2 120
Patel, Aniruddh D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-11 29
4AM2-R01-01 29
1PM1-R03-1 32
2PM2-R02-1 75
3AM2-R08-10 90
3PM2-R04-1 109
Pauli, Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R11-08 96
Payri, Blas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R03-2 43
5PM1-S02-02 133
Pearce, Laurence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-25 130
Pearce, Marcus T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R02-2 47
3AM1-R03-4 84
Peebles, Crystal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R02-2 35
Pell, Gaby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-11 68
Peretz, Isabelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-9 24
2PM2-R02-2 75
Perreau Guimaraes, Marcos . . . . . . 4AM2-R05-4 123
Pettersen, Viggo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R11-12 97
Phillips-Silver, Jessica . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R02-2 75
Piché, Olivier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R02-2 75
Pitkin, Jenny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R08-09 56
Pohland, Glenn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R04-1 34
Ponce de León, Pedro J. . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-16 135
Porres, Alexandre Torres . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-13 54
3AM2-R17-1 102
Prem, Daniela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-01 52
Privitera, Michele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S01-2 131
Pulley, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R03-3 119

Parncutt, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Nagata, Noriko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R03-1 83
Nakada, Tsutomu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R13-02 100
Nakahara, Hidehiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-09 61
2AM2-R12-07 65
Nakajima, Yoshitaka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R16-1 69
2PM2-R02-3 76
3AM2-R08-06 90
Nakamura, Toshie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-10 94
3AM2-R11-10 97
3AM2-R12-04 98
Nakanishi, Yuriko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-11 61
Nakano, Tomoyasu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R05-1 79
Nakata, Takayuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-11 61
2AM2-R11-13 64
5AM2-S02-13 128
Nakayama, Ichiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
K-2
Nakayama, You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-13 66
Nakra, Teresa M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-8 24
3PM1-R06-01 24
Narushima, Terumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R02-4 48
Nemoto, Iku . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R13-04 100
Newport, Elissa L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-4 16
2PM1-R01-02 17
Nieminen, Sirke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-6 20
3AM1-R01-02 21
Niizuma, Masahiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-2 42
Nishiyama, Masahiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R09-13 59
Nonaka, Yulri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-06 133
6Norton, Andrea C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM3-R01-2
Nowicki, Lena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R05-2 86

Q
Quiroga-Murcia, Cynthia . . . . . . . . .

SUMMARY-7
3PM1-R01-02

22
23

R
5AM1-A01-3 124
SUMMARY-4 16
2PM1-R01-01 16
Ramos, Danilo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-01 59
Rautio, Riitta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R05-1 45
Regazzi, Fabio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S01-2 131
Reid, Katie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-07 63
Remijn, Gerard B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R08-06 90
Ren, Jie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-01 126
Renwick, James M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R04-2 78
Repp, Bruno H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R02-4 71
Reutens, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM2-S01-2 137
Reuter, Christoph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R02-3 112
Richards, Todd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-4 40
Richardson, Cerin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-07 63
Rickard, N.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R02-4 36
2AM2-R10-07 60
3AM1-R04-4 85
3AM2-R11-06 96
Rink, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R05-3 86
Rinta, Tiija . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R04-1 78
Risen, Jane L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R03-1 113
Rizwi, Farhan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R17-1 69
Rogowski, Piotr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-4 16
2PM1-R01-01 16
Rohrmeier, Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R05-2 111
3PM2-R05-3 111
Rosenberg, Jason C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R04-1 109
Rosenwax, Lorna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-05 63
Ross, Bernhard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-1 39
3AM2-R12-08 99
5PM1-S02-26 137
Rothschild, Inbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R03-1 71
Rowe, James B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-3 40

Rae, Alex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rakowski, Andrzej . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

143

4AM2-R03-4 119
5PM1-S02-14 134
Russo, Frank A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R01-01 29

Roy, Anil Kumar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SSaarikallio, Suvi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R04-1
Sadakata, Makiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R08-04

72
89
4AM1-R03-2 113
Saglam, Vuslat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R03-2 105
Saikawa, Minori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R09-11 59
Saito, Hiroaki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-2 42
Sakabe, Yuma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R09-12 93
Sakakibara, Ayako . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R09-08 92
Saling, Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-11 68
Sapp, Craig Stuart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R02-2 117
Sargsyan, Armen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R05-3 122
Sasahara, Kazutoshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-11 29
Sasaki, Takayuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R04-2 44
Sato, Hiroshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-01 67
Sato, Takao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R02-1 103
Satoh, Masayuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R13-10 101
Schaefer, Rebecca S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R05-4 123
Schiemer, Greg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R02-4 48
6Schlaug, Gottfried . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM3-R01-2
7
Schubert, Emery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APSCOM37
5AM1-S01-02
2AM1-R02-4 48
2AM2-R10-03 60
2AM2-R17-1 69
2PM1-R04-3 73
2PM2-R03-2 77
4AM1-R05-3 116
4AM2-R03-3 119
5AM2-S01-1 125
Schulz, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R03-1 32
Schulz, Irena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R03-1 32
Schupak, Assi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-10 27
4AM1-R01-02 27
Scripp, Larry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-01 62
Seifert, Uwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R01-02 25
3PM2-R04-3 110
Seither, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-4 32
Seither-Preisler, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-4 32
Sevett, Corey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-01 62
Shau, Yio-Wha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R02-2 112
Shenker, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R04-1 44
Shiba, Reiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R13-04 100
5PM1-S02-06 133
Shimada, Yohko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R04-3 39
Shimazaki, Hiroshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-12 95
Shoda, Haruka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-10 94
3AM2-R11-10 97
3AM2-R12-04 98
Shoji, Kenta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R04-2 49
Siau, Yee-May . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-10 27
4AM1-R01-03 28
Sigmundsdottir, Linda . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R02-1 75
Silvey, Brian A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R09-01 57
Skoe, Erika . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-2 40
4AM1-R04-3 115
Slevc, L. Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R04-1 109
Slobodian, Lydia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM1-A01-2 124
Smith, Leigh M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R02-4 76
Solan, Danielle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R04-1 38
Spackman, Matthew P. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R03-2 109
Spiro, Neta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R05-3 86
Stambaugh, Laura A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R05-4 40
2AM2-R11-09 63
3AM1-R04-1 84
Stevens, Catherine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
APSCOM37
5AM1-S01-02
2PM2-R03-2 77
4AM1-R05-3 116
5AM2-S01-3 125
Stewart, Lauren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM2-S01-1 137
Storino, Maria Teresa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S01-2 131

Strait, Dana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R04-3 115
Sundt, Henrik G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R03-2 32
Suppes, Patrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R05-4 123
Sussex, Rebecca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM2-S01-2 137
Suwazono, Shugo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R13-02 100
Suzuki, Kenji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-8 24

T
Tabachneck-Schijf, Hermi J.M. . . . 3AM1-R03-2 83
Taguti, Tomoyasu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R18-1 102
Takahashi, Katsunori . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-A01-3 132
Takahashi, Noriyuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R12-02 98
Takahasi, Miki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R01-02 29
Takenaka, Takeshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R02-3 70
2PM2-R05-2 80
Takeshima, Chihiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R07-10 88
Tan, Daphne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R04-1 44
Tan, Siu-Lan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R03-2 109
Tanaka, Satomi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R03-1 43
2AM2-R07-11 54
Taniguchi, Takashi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-20 136
Taniguchi, Yuusaku . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-3 42
Tanji, Makoto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM1-R02-2 70
Tardieu, Julien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R05-3 116
5AM2-S01-3 125
Taschler, Anita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R04-2 120
Tekman, Hasan Gurkan . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R03-2 105
Teramura, Keiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-3 42
Terasawa, Hiroko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-09 53
3AM1-R02-4 82
Tervaniemi, Mari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R01-02 21
3PM2-R01-02 25
Thaut, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R05-2 51
2AM1-R05-3 51
Thibault, Paul J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-5 18
2PM2-R01-03 19
Thomas, Mike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R01-04 23
Thompson, Marc R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R02-4 104
4AM1-R05-2 116
Thompson, William F. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R02-1 75
Tierney, Adam T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R01-01 29
Timmers, Renee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R03-3 33
1PM1-R03-4 33
3AM2-R08-04 89
4AM1-R03-2 113
Tobimatsu, Shozo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R08-06 90
Toiviainen, Petri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-9 24
2PM2-R02-2 75
3PM1-R02-2 103
4AM1-R05-2 116
Toukhsati, S.R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R05-2 51
2AM1-R05-3 51
5AM2-S02-03 126
Toyoda, Kiyomi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R03-3 77
5Trainor, Laurel J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K-3
SUMMARY-5 18
1PM2-R05-1 39
2AM2-R09-09 58
3PM2-R02-2 107
Traube, Caroline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R02-3 82
Trehub, Sandra E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-4 16
2PM1-R01-03 17
2AM2-R11-13 64
Tsai, Chen-Gia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R02-2 112
Tsuzaki, Minoru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R03-1 43
2AM2-R07-11 54
2AM2-R13-07 67
3AM2-R07-10 88
3AM2-R12-02 98

U
2PM1-R02-3
2PM2-R05-2
Uetsuki, Shizuka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-09
Unoki, Masashi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R07-11

Ueda, Kanji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

144

70
80
66
54

V

Y

Vallières, Michel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R04-1
Velasco, Marc J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R01-01

Yamada, Masashi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44
18
4AM2-R02-3 118
Velik, Lauren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R10-07 60
Vincs, Kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R05-3 116
6Vines, Bradley W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM3-R01-2
2AM2-R08-05 55
Vinke, Louis N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R08-01 54
Vitale, Renzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R04-4 107
Volk, Anja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R03-2 83
Völk, Florian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R07-12 89
Voultsidou, Marotesa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R05-3 122

W
Waadeland, Carl-Haakon . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R03-2 32
Waites, Anthony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-11 68
Wakeﬁeld, Elizabeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R03-2 109
Wang, Shuai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R05-3 116
Wang, Shwu-Fen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R02-2 112
Washikita, Kohei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R09-11 59
Watanabe, Hayato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-15 128
Watanabe, Junko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-23 130
Watanabe, Kaori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S02-23 130
Watkins, Ashley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2PM2-R01-04 19
Weiss, Elisabeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-24 136
Welch, Graham Frederick . . . . . . . . SUMMARY-2 11
1PM2-R01-01 12
1PM2-R01-02 12
1PM2-R01-03 13
West, Patrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R01-03 10
2AM2-R09-07 58
Whaley, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R09-02 91
Whorley, Raymond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R03-4 84
Widmer, Gerhard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM1-R03-1 48
2AM1-R03-3 49
Wiering, Frans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM1-R03-2 83
Wiggins, Geraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM2-R02-3 36
2AM1-R02-1 47
2AM1-R02-2 47
3AM1-R03-4 84
4AM2-R02-4 118
Wigley, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R08-03 55
Williamon, Aaron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R01-04 23
3AM1-R04-2 84
Wilson, Graeme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R01-03 10
SUMMARY-3 14
2AM1-R01-02 15
2AM2-R09-07 58
Wilson, Sarah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-2 31
2AM2-R13-11 68
5PM2-S01-2 137
5PM2-S01-3 138
Wolfe, Joe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S01-1 125
Wong, Patrick C.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R03-4 119
5PM1-S02-14 134
Woodhouse, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R02-1 112
Woodruﬀ, Ghofur Eliot . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R04-2 109
Woolhouse, Matthew . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R07-08 88
3PM2-R05-3 111
Wu, Tien-Lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM1-R04-4 115

2AM1-R04-2 49
2AM2-R09-11 59
3AM2-R09-12 93
3PM2-R03-3 109
Yamamoto, Akihide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-01 67
Yamasaki, Teruo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S01-1 130
Yamauchi, Miho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R13-01 67
Yanagida, Masuzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM3-R02-1 42
5AM2-S02-23 130
Yasuda, Shoko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3AM2-R10-10 94
3AM2-R11-10 97
3AM2-R12-04 98
Yasui, Nozomiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5AM2-S01-2 125
Yi, Suk Won . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R02-1 31
Yokoyama, Kazumasa . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R12-09 66
Yoshie, Michiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM1-R02-3 104
Yoshino, Iwao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2AM2-R11-03 62
Yosida, Shigeto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4AM2-R01-03 30
Young, Susan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PM2-R02-3 108

Z
Zendel, Benjamin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5PM1-S02-26 137
7Zhang, Qian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APSCOM37
5AM1-S01-01
Zhou, Shibin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
APSCOM37
5AM1-S01-01
Zhukov, Katie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1PM1-R04-2 34

145