Discussion Paper No.223

Learning Monopolies with Delayed Feedback
on Price Expectations
Akio Matsumoto
Chuo University

Ferenc Szidarovszky
University of Pécs

May 2014

INSTITUTE OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH
Chuo University
Tokyo, Japan

Learning Monopolies with Delayed Feedback
on Price Expectations
Ferenc Szidarovszkyz
University of Pécs

Akio Matsumotoy
Chuo University

Abstract
We call the intercept of the price function with the vertical axis the
maximum price and the slope of the price function the marginal price.
In this paper it is assumed that a monopolistic …rm has full information
about the marginal price and its own cost function but is uncertain on the
maximum price. However, by repeated interaction with the market, theobtained price observations give a basis for an adaptive learning processof the maximum price. It is also assumed that the price observations
have …xed delays, so the learning process can be described by a delayeddi¤erential equation. In the cases of one or two delays, the asymptotic
behavior of the resulting dynamic process is examined, stability conditions
are derived. Three main results are demonstrated in the two delay learning
process. First, it is possible to stabilize the equilibrium which is unstablein the one delay model. Second, complex dynamics involving chaos, which
is impossible in the one delay model, can emerge. Third, alternations ofstability and instability (i.e., stability switches) occur repeatedly.

Keywords: Bounded rationallity, Monopoly dynamics, Fixed timedelay, Adaptive learning, Hopf bifurcation

JEL Classi…cation : C62, C63, D21, D42
This is a revised version of Matsumoto and Szidarovszky (2013). Its latter half of Section
2 and Section 3 (the main part of the paper) have been extensively changed and mathematically more regorously revised. The authors highly appreciate the …nancial supports from
the MEXT-Supported Program for the Strategic Research Foundation at Private Universities 2013-2017, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (Grant-in-Aid for Scienti…cResearch (C) 24530202, 25380238 and 26380316) and Chuo University (Grant for Special
Research).
y Professor, Department of Economics, Senior Researcher, Institute of Further Developmentof Dynamic Economic Research, Chuo,University, 742-1, Higashi-Nakano, Hachioji, Tokyo,
192-0393, Japan; akiom@tamacc.chuo-u.ac.jp
z Professor, Department of Applied Mathematics, Universeity of Pécs, Ifjúság, u 6, H-7624,
Pécs, Hungary; szidarka@gmail.com

1

1

Introduction

This paper uses the familiar monopoly model in which there is only one …rm
having linear price and cost functions. Implicit in the text-book approach isan assumption of complete and instantaneous information availability on priceand cost functions. In consequence, the textbook-monopoly can …nd its optimal choices of price and quantity to maximize pro…t with one shot. Thus the
traditional monopoly model is static in nature. It is now well-known that theassumption of such a rational monopoly is questionable and unrealistic in real
economies, since there are always uncertainty and a time delay in collecting
information and determining optimal responses, and in addition, function relations such as the market price function cannot be determined exactly based ontheoretical consideration and observed data. Getting closer to the real world
and improving the monopoly theory, we replace this extreme but convenientassumption with the more plausible one. Indeed, the monopolistic …rm is assumed, …rst, to have only limited knowledge on the price function and, second,
to obtain it with time delay. As a natural consequence of these alternations, the…rm gropes for its optimal choice by using delay data obtained through market
experiences. The modi…ed monopoly model becomes dynamic in nature.
In the recent literature, it has been demonstrated that a boundedly rationalmonopoly may exhibit simple as well as complex dynamic behavior. Nyarko(1991) solves the pro…t maximizing problems without knowing the slope andintercept of a linear demand and shows that using Bayesian updating leads tocyclic actions and beliefs if the market demand is mis-speci…ed. Furthermore,in the framework with discrete-time scale, Puu (1995) shows that the boundedly rational monopolist behaves in an erratic way under cubic demand witha re‡ection point. In the similar setting, Naimzada and Ricchiuti (2008) represent that complex dynamics can arise even if cubic demand does not have are‡ection point. Naimzada (2012) exhibits that delay monopoly dynamics canbe described by the well-known logistic equation when the …rm takes a special
learning scheme. More recently, Matsumoto and Szidarovszky (2014a) demonstrate that the monopoly equilibrium undergoes to complex dynamics througheither a period-doubling or a Neimark-Sacker bifurcation.
This paper considers monopoly dynamics in continuous time scale and presents
a new characterization of a monopoly’s learning process under a limited knowledge of the market demand. It is a continuation of Matsumoto and Szidarovszky(2012) (MS henceforth) where the monopolist does not know the price function
and …xed time delays are introduced into the output adjustment process basedon the gradient of the marginal expected pro…t. It also aims to complement
Matsumoto and Szidarovszky (2014b,c) where uncertain delays are modeled bycontinuously distributed time delays when the …rm wants to react to average
past information instead of sudden market changes.1 Under a circumstance in
1 There are two di¤erent ways to model time delays in continuous-time scale: …xed timedelay and continuously distributed time delay (…xed delay and continuous delay henceforth).
The choice of the type of delay results in the use of di¤erent analytical tools. In the cases of…xed delay, dynamics is described by a delay di¤erential equation whose characteristic equation2

which price is uncertain and the price information is delayed, this paper examines the learning scheme in the cases of a single delay and two delays. It is anextended version of MS and thus has similarities and dissimilarities to MS. Its
main purpose to show that cyclic and erratic behavior can emerge from quite
simple economic structures when uncertainty, information delays and behavioral nonlinearities are present is the same. Gradient dynamics without optimal
behavior in MS is replaced with the learning scheme with pro…t maximizing
behavior. In spite of this behavioral di¤erence, derived mathematical equations
and their solutions are the same. However the ways to arrive at the solutions arevery di¤erent; an elementary method applicable only to the very special form of
the mathematics equation is used in MS while we apply a more general method
developed by Gu et al. (2005). As a result, the stability/instability conditions
are simpli…ed and clari…ed. Since economics behind the mathematical equations
are di¤erent, the results to be obtained have di¤erent economic implications.
This paper develops as follows. The basic mathematical model is formulated
and a single delay equation is examined in Section 2. In Section 3, it is assumed
that the …rm formulates its price expectation based on two delayed observations
by using a delay feedback. Complete stability analysis is given, the stability
regions are determined and illustrated. The occurrence of Hopf bifurcation isshown when one of the two delays is selected as a bifurcation parameter. The
last section o¤ers conclusions and further research directions.

2

The Basic Model

Consider a single product monopolist that sells its product to a homogeneous
market. Let q denote the output of the …rm, p(q) = a bq the price function
and C(q) = cq the cost function.2 Since p(0) = a and j@p(q)=@qj = b; we call a
the maximum price and b the marginal price. There are many ways to introduce
uncertainty into this framework. In this study, it is assumed that the …rm knows
the marginal price but does not know the maximum price. In consequence it
has only an estimate of it, which is denoted by ae . So the …rm believes that its
pro…t ise
= (ae bq)q cq
and its best response is
qe =

ae c
:
2b

is a mixed polynomial-exponential equation with in…nitely many eigenvalues. Bellman andCooke (1963) o¤er methodology of complete stability analysis in such models. On the other
hand, in the cases of continuous delay, Volterra-type integro-di¤erential equations are used
to model the dynamics. The theory of continuous delays with applications in population
dynamics is o¤ered by Cushing (1977). Since Invernizzi and Medio (1991) have introduced
continuous delays into mathematical economics, its methodology is used in analyzing many
economic dynamic models.
2 Linear functions are assumed only for the sake of simplicity. We can obtain a similar
learning process to be de…ned even if both functions are nonlinear. It is also assumed forthe sake of simplicity that the …rm has perfect knowledge of production technology (i.e., costfunction).

3

Further, the …rm expects the market price to bepe = aebq e =

ae + c:2(1)

However, the actual market price is determined by the real price function
pa = abq e =

2aae + c:2(2)

Using these price data, the …rm updates its estimate. The simplest way foradjusting the estimate is the following. If the actual price is higher than the
expected price, then the …rm shifts its believed price function by increasing thevalue of ae ; and if the actual price is the smaller, then the …rm decreases thevalue of ae : If the two prices are the same, then the …rm wants to keep its
estimate of the maximum price. This adjustment or learning process can bemodeled by the di¤erential equationa_ e (t) = k [pa (t)pe (t)] ;where k > 0 is the speed of adjustment and t denotes time. Substituting relations(1) and (2) reduces the adjustment equation to a linear di¤erential equation withrespect to ae as
a_ e (t) = k [a ae (t)] :(3)
In another possible learning process, the …rm revises the estimate in such a waythat the growth rate of the estimate is proportional to the di¤erence between
the expected and actual prices. Replacing a_ e (t) in equation (3) with a_ e (t)=ae (t)yields a di¤erent form of the adjustment process
a_ e (t)= k [aae (t)ae (t)]or multiplying both sides by ae (t) generates the logistic modela_ e (t) = kae (t) [aae (t)] :(4)

This equation is proposed by Verhust (1845) and has been extensively studied,especially as a biological model of single species dynamics in the theoreticalbiology. It has already been shown that the positive equilibrium ae (t) = a ofequation (4) is globally stable. We adopt this nonlinear equation as the basic
learning process henceforth.3
If there is a time delay in the estimated price, then we can rewrite theestimated price and market price at time t based on information available attime taspe (t; t) = ae (t) bq e (t; t)
3 The linear approximation of nonlinear equation (4) to be considered below is essentiallyequivalent to the linear equation (3).

4andpa (t; tbq e (t; t

)=a

);

where q e (t; t) is the delay best reply determined at time t depending on the
expected maximum price at time t,q e (t; t

)=

ae (t

)

c

ae (t

)]

2b

:

Then equation (4) have to be modi…ed asa_ e (t) = kae (t) [a(5)which is the delay logistic equation. It has two equilibria as well, a = 0 anda = a > 0: If F (ae (t); ae (t)) denotes the right hand side of equation (5),then the linear approximation in a neighborhood of an equilibrium (a ; a ) isa_ e (t) =@F@Fae (t) +@ae (t) (a ; a )@ae (t) (a ; a )

ae (t

);

where ae (t) = ae (t) a. Small perturbations from the trivial equilibrium satisfy
the linear equation,a_ e (t) = akae (t)which implies that a = 0 is locally unstable with exponential growth. We
thus draw our attention only to the positive equilibrium The linearized versionof equation (5) around the positive equilibrium is written as a linear delaydi¤erential equation,a_ e (t) = akae (t):(6)
Introducing the new variable z(t) = ae (t) and the new parameter
reduce equation (6) toz(t)_ + z(t) = 0:= ak > 0(7)

Apparently z(t) = 0 is the only equilibrium of the modi…ed delay equation (7).
If there is no delay (i.e., = 0), then equation (7) becomes an ordinarydi¤erential equation with characteristic polynomial + : So the only eigenvalue is negative implying the local asymptotic stability of the zero solution ofequation (7). In consequence, the positive solution of equation (5) corresponds
to the true value of the maximum price a = a and the monopolist can learn
the true demand function through a comparison with the real data.4 We expect
asymptotical stability for su¢ ciently small positive values of by continuity ofvariables with respect to . However, as the length of delay changes largely, thestability of the zero solution may also change. Such phenomenon is referred toas stability switch. The essentially same equation as equation (7) is fully studied
in MS. Applying their Theorem 1, we obtain the following results concerning
dynamics of equation (5):
4 This scheme of learning is now well-known.

5See, for example, Bischi, et al. (2010).

(R1 ) There is a critical value of ;
=

2ak

:

(8)

(R2 ) The positive equilibrium a = a is locally asymptotically stable for <; loses stability at =and bifurcates to a limit cycle through Hopf
bifurcation for > .
(R3 ) It is numerically con…rmed that the Hopf bifurcation is supercritical.5
These results imply that the stability switch occurs at =and a destabilized trajectory does not diverges globally but keeps ‡uctuating around thepositive equilibrium. According to equation (8), the critical value
becomessmaller as a and/or k increases. Since a is the maximum demand and k is theadjustment speed, larger demand and a high adjustment speed can be destabilizing factors for the positive equilibrium. Taking a = 1 and k = 1 that
leads to= =2 ' 1:57, we perform simulations. Figure 1(A) is a bifurcation
diagram with respect to 2 [1:4; 2] and numerically con…rms the …rst two
analytical results above. Figure 1(B) illustrates a supercritical Hopf cycle fore
a = 1:8 under which the Hopf cycle has the maximum aM ' 2:3 and the min6e
imum am ' 0:197: These two values are depicted as black dots on the upperand lower branches of the bifurcation diagram and also on the maximum andminimum points of the limit cycle.

(A) Bifurcation diagram(B) Hopf cycle

Figure 1. Dynamics of delay logistic equation (5)5 It may be possible to analytically show this by applying the normal form theory.
6 These values are numerically determined by the rule of thumb.

6

3

Delay Feedback

Under the logistic dynamic process, learning takes place only for <andbecomes unsuccessful for >under which cyclic behavior occurs. If the monopolist behaves along a periodic orbit, then he may realize that his expectations
are systematically wrong. Under such circumstance, although he is assumed to
be boundedly rational, the monopolist may change the way he forms expectations somehow. One possible and simply way is to use the information obtained
7in the past two di¤erent time, t
1 and t2 . It is assumed that 1 < 2eand the expectations formed at time t
1 (i.e., a (t1 )) are the most recent
information available to the monopolist at time t due to the bounded rationale
ity. The expectations formed at time t
2 (i.e., a (t2 )) are also known.
ee
The di¤erence between a (t1 ) and a (t2 ) is referred to as delay feedback.
The monopolist employs a di¤erent learning mechanism with taking account
this delay feedback intoa_ e (t)= k [aae (t)ae (t1 )] +[ae (t1)ae (t2 )] ;

where is a coe¢ cient of the feedback. The growth rate of the expectation
adjustment is determined by two factors, the observed price di¤erence and thedelay feedback. This equation is equivalently written asa_ e (t) = kae (t) [a!ae (t1)(1!)ae (t2 )] ;(9)

where the coe¢ cient ! is de…ned by
!=1

k

:

Notice that equation (9) is reduced to equation (5) if = 0 or = k: Thus
6= 0 and 6= k are assumed. If k > > 0; then 1 > ! > 0 under which
the monopolist uses interpolation between the observations. Further, he puts
more weight on the expectation at time t
1 if ! > 1=2 and time t
2 if! < 1=2. If < 0 or > k; then ! > 1 or ! < 0 under which the monopolist
uses extrapolation to predict the current price. It is natural to suppose that themonopolist uses interpolation and the more recent observation is more valuable(i.e., 1 > ! 1=2), we make the following assumption:
Assumption 1> 0 and k

2 .

Equation (9) is the logistic equation with two delays and has two equilibria, the zero equilibrium, a = 0 and the positive equilibrium, a = a > 0;
both of which are equilibria of the logistic equation with one delay (5). Let
7 If the monopolist is supposed to use all the past data up to time
1 , it is appropriate to
introduce continuously distributed time delay. See Matsumoto and Szidarovszky (2014 b, c)
for detail.

7e
G(ae (t); ae (t1 ); a (t2 )) be the right hand side of equation (9). The linear
approximation in a neighborhood of the equilibrium a = (a ; a ; a ) isa_ e (t) =@G@Gae (t) +ee@a (t) a
@a (t

1) a

ae (t

1) +

@G
@ae (t

2) a

ae (t

2 ):

Similarly to the one delay logistic equation, it can be shown that the zeroequilibrium is locally unstable. On the other hand, the linear approximation ina neighborhood of the positive equilibrium a = (a; a; a) is
a_ e (t) =[ !ae (t1)(1!)ae (t

2 )]

(10)

where we can remember = ak.
To study the change of stability of equation (10) as the delays 1 and 2
vary, we follow the method developed by Gu et al. (2005).8 If ae (t) = e t u; thenthe corresponding characteristic equation is
+ !e

1

+ (1

!)e

2

= 0:

(11)

We introduce the following functions,p0 ( ) = ; p1 ( ) = ! and p2 ( ) = (1!)

and con…ne our analysis to the case where the following four conditions are
satis…ed:(I) deg[p0 ( )]max fdeg [p1 ( )] ; deg [p2 ( )]g :(II) p0 (0) + p1 (0) + p2 (0) 6= 0:(III) The polynomials p0 ( ); p1 ( ) and p2 ( ) do not have any common roots.
p1 ( )
p1 ( )+
p0 ( )
p0 ( )(IV) lim !1< 1:

Equation (11) satis…es these conditions. Since deg[p0 ( )] = 1 and deg [p1 ( )] =deg [p2 ( )] = 0;9 condition (I) is satis…ed. If this condition is violated, then theequilibrium cannot be stable for any positive delays (see, for example, Bellman
and Cooke, 1963). Condition (II) is clearly satis…ed as p0 (0) + p1 (0) + p2 (0) =k 6= 0. It prevents = 0 being a solution of equation (11) for which no asymptotical stability is possible. Condition (III) is natural. pi ( ) for i = 0; 1; 2apparently have no common roots. If polynomials have a common root 0 suchthat qi ( ) = (0 )pi ( ) for i = 0; 1; 2, then equation (11) can be factored as(

0 )(q0 () + q1 ( )e1

+ q2 ( )e2)=0

8 In Matsumoto and Szidarovszky (2012), an elementary method is used to solve equation(10). It is applied only to a special form of the two delay equation. On the other hand, Gu’s
method is highly advanced and systematic. It is applicable to a more general form. In our
special case, both lead us to the same solution in di¤erent forms.
9 "deg" means the degree of polynomial.

8

where qi ( ) for i = 0; 1; 2 now satisfy condition (III). Since equation (10) is adelay di¤erential equation of retarded type, the limit in our case is zero and thus
condition (IV) is satis…ed. Notice that condition (IV) is a restriction of condition(I). If condition (I) is violated, then the limit becomes in…nity. Condition (IV) isa necessary condition for the continuity condition which states that if the delays( 1 ; 2 ) continuously vary within the …rst quadrant of R2 , then the number ofzero of equation2
1=0+ p2 ( )ep0 ( ) + p1 ( )ewith positive real parts can change only when a zero appears on or crosses theimaginary axis. This fact is the basis for identifying the stability switch curvewith zeros on the imaginary axis.
We de…nea1 ( ) =p1 ( )=
p0 ( )!

and a2 ( ) =p2 ( )=
p0 ( )(1!)

and then rewrite equation (11) as
1 + a1 ( )e1

+ a2 ( )e

2

=0

(12)

We examine the stability switch of the positive of the non-trivial solution of
dynamic equation (10) as the delays ( 1 ; 2 ) vary. The modi…ed characteristic
equation (12) must have a pair of pure conjugate imaginary roots at the criticaldelays for which the stability switch occurs. So let = i with > 0 which isthen substituted into equation (12) to obtain
1 + a1 (i )e i
where
a1 (i ) =i!

1

+ a2 (i )e i

and a2 (i ) =

i

2

=0

(1

!)

(13)

:

(14)

The absolute values of these pure imaginary roots areja1 (i )j =!

and ja2 (i )j =

(1

!)

(15)

and the arguments arearg [a1 (i )] =3
3
and arg [a2 (i )] =
:
2
2

(16)

We can now consider the three terms in the left hand side of equation (13) as
three vectors in the complex plane with the magnitudes 1; ja1 (i )j and ja2 (i )j.
The right hand side is zero, which implies that if we put these vectors headto tail, then they form a triangle as illustrated in Figure 2. Since the sum oflengths of the two line segments is not shorter than that of the remaining line
segment in a triangle, these absolute values satisfy the following three inequality
conditions
1 ja1 (i )j + ja2 (i )j ();9

ja1 (i )j

1 + ja2 (i )j () (2!

1)

andja2 (i )j

1 + ja1 (i )j ()

0

(2!

1):

The third condition is always ful…lled under Assumption 1. So the …rst andsecond conditions determine the feasible domain of ,
(2!

1)

:

(17)

Let 1 and 2 be the right hand and left hand internal angles of the triangle in
Figure 2. They can be calculated by the law of cosine as1() = cos 1

1 + ja1 (i )j ja2 (i )j
2 ja1 (i )j= cos 12(

) = cos 1

1 + ja2 (i )j ja1 (i )j2 ja2 (i )j= cos 12

+ 2 2!
2 !

2

(18)

and
2

2 2! + 2
2 (1 !):(19)

Figure 2. Triangle formed by 1; ja1 (i )j andja2 (i )j
The arguments in (16) and the internal angles just obtained in (18) and (19)satisfy the following relations
1 =arg a1 (i )e i

1

+ 2m

2 =

arg a2 (i )e i

2

+ 2n

and

10

:

Using the formula arg a2 (i )e i 2 = arg a2 (i )] + arg[e ican solve these equations for the delays 1 and 2 and obtain
1 =

and
2 =

1

3
+ (2m
2

1)

1(

) ;

1

3
+ (2n
2

1)

2(

) :

2

and (16), we

We then have two sets of curves in the …rst quadrant of the region of ( 1 ; 2 ) andthe characteristic equation has a pair of pure imaginary roots on these curves:
8
1 3
>
>
+ (2m 1) + 1 ( )
=
> +
>
< 1
2
+
(20)
C (m; n):
>
>
3
1
>
+
>
+ (2n 1)
: 2 =
2( )
2

where

+
1

m = m0 ; m0 + 1; m0 + 2; ::: such thatn= n0 ; n0 + 1; n0 + 2; ::: such thatandC (m; n):

8
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
:

1

=

1

3
+ (2m
2

1

3
+ (2n
2

+
2

1)

0:

1(

2(

m = m0 ; m0 + 1; m0 + 2; ::: such that

1

n

)
(21)

1) +

where

0;

2

=

= n0 ; n0 + 1; n0 + 2; ::: such that

2

)

0;
0:

Notice that m0 and m0 are the smallest positive integers so that 1
0 andwhile n0 and n0 are the smallest positive integer so that 2 0: Given (m; n),C (m; n) constructs a segment of ( 1 ; 2 ) for 2 [ (2! 1); ]: The next resultshows that these segments are smoothly connected as one continuous curve. All
the proofs of the theorems are collectively given in the Appendix.
Theorem 1 With …xed value of m; the segments of C + (m; n) and C (m; n) form
a continuous curve as n increases.

11Figure 3 numerically con…rms Theorem 1 and illustrates the segments C + (m; n)
and C (m; n) with the value of varying from (2! 1) to for n = 0; 1; 2
and m = 0. The parameter values are ! = 0:8; a = 1 and k = 1; the last
two of which imply = 1. The positive sloping line in the lower part of Figure 3 is the 45 degree line10 so that the condition 1 < 2 is violated in thegray color region, which will be eliminated from further considerations. The
red curves are C + (m; n) and the blue curves are C (m; n). The green dots
are the initial points of the segments and the black dots are the end points.
Notice that two curves are connected at these points, in particular, for the initial points, I + (0; n + 1) = I (0; n) at for n = 0; 1 and for the end points,
E + (0; n) = E (0; n) for n = 0; 1; 2: The red and blue curves shift upward whenn increases (i.e., increments of the initial and end points are 2 =( (2! 1)) and
2 = ; respectively) and move rightward when m increases. In order to keep 2
positive, C + (0; 0) is de…ned only for < 01 ' 2:35:11 Further, m
1 ' 1:493 is theminimum 1 -value of the segments C (0; n) while M
'
2:733
is
the maximum
1+
1 -value of the segments C (0; n). To determine these numerical values, wesolve d 1 =d = 0 and d +to obtain the minimizer m ' 0:956
1 =d = 0 for
and the maximizer M ' 0:621; both of which are substituted into 1 and +1;M
respectively, to obtain m
and
:
1
1

Figure 3. Partition curve in the ( 1 ;plane
1 0 The aspect ratio of Figure 3 is appropriately adjusted.

2)

In particular, 1
2:8 and119.
p
1 1 Taking m = n = 0 and solving + ( ) = 0 yields=
2! 1: Substituting it into +
2
1 ( )
gives
1
2! 1
p
+ cos 1!
2! 1 2
which is approximately 2:35 for = 1 and ! = 0:8:
0

2

12

Concerning stability, the next result examines two cases, one with 1 = 0
and the other with 0 < 1 < m
1 and show that the positive equilibrium is locallyasymptotically stable. Those delays that do not a¤ect stability are referred toharmless.
Theorem 2 The positive solution of equation (9) is locally stable (i) if
and 2 0 and (ii) if 0 < 1 < m
1:
1 and 2

1 = 0

The positive equilibrium is locally asymptotically stable with harmless delays. However transient dynamic could be a¤ected by the delays. Taking= k = 1 and ! = 4=5; we perform several simulations with the same initial function and di¤erent values of the delays. Figure 4 geometrically summarizes the results. In Figure 4(A) 1 = 1:1 and three di¤erent values of 2 areRB
2 and G
3 where R; B and G stand for red, blue
2 = 1:1; 2 = 1:1
2 = 1:1and green. The caption of Figure 4(A) means the sequence of the convergence
speed, that is, the red trajectory with the smallest delay of 2 converges …rst,
then the green trajectory follows and …nally the blue trajectory comes. The
captions of another …gures have the same meaning. In Figure 4(B) the values ofBG
the delays are changed to 1 = 1:4; R
2 = 1:4; 2 = 1:4 2 and 2 = 1:4 3: As
a result, the green trajectory with the largest delay of 2 converges …rst. In
Figure 4(C), 1 = 1:4 is kept and the multipliers are changed to 3 and to 6
leading to B
3 and G
6: In consequence, the blue trajectory
2 = 1:4
2 = 1:4
with the medium delay of 2 converges …rst. It is clear that di¤erent lengths of
2 a¤ect convergence speed but it is unclear whether a shorter delay speeds up
convergence.

(A) R > G > B(B) G > R > B(C) B > R > G

Figure 4. Harmless delay a¤ects convergence speedM
We now turn to the general case where m
1
1
1 and 2 > 1 : The
outer part of the red-blue connected curve in Figure 3 is called a stability switch
curve since, as will be shown, a stability is switched on the curve from stability
to instability (i.e., stability loss) or from instability to stability (i.e., stabilitygain).12 Before proceeding to the stability analysis, we discuss the direction of
1 2 This curve is often called a partition curve as it separates the positive region of the delays
into two subregions.

13stability switch in which the solution of equation (12) cross the imaginary axis
as ( 1 ; 2 ) deviates from the partition curve. We …rst show the following result.
Theorem 3 The sign of Q is negative on C + (m; n) and positive on C (m; n)where Q is de…ned ashi
Q = Im a1 (i )a2 ( i )ei ( 2 1 ) :As in Gu et al. (2005), we call the direction of any segment of the stability
switch curve with increasing the positive direction. As we move along the
curve in the positive direction, the region on the left hand side is called theregion on the left which will be denoted as L and the region on the right handside the region on the right denoted as R. We now can state Proposition 6.1 of
Gu et al. (2005) as follows.
Theorem 4 As ( 1 ; 2 ) moves from R to L; a stability loss occurs if Q > 0
and so does a stability gain if Q < 0.
Theorems 3 and 4 imply that the positive equilibrium of equation (9) islocally stable in the yellow region of Figure 3 and unstable in the white region.
We numerically con…rm the stability switch on the stability-switch curve. To
this end we …rst …x a1 = 1:7, a little bit larger than m
1 and increase 2 from
1:7 to 19 along the vertical dotted line starting at point ( a1 ; a1 ).13 As is seen in
Figure 3, the line crosses the stability-switch curve from below four times, andeach intersection has a purple dot. Figure 5(A) is a bifurcation diagram withrespect to 2 and shows that the stability switch occurs at each intersection,
stability to instability at points c and e and instability to stability at points band d: The equilibrium point bifurcates to a limit cycle that expands, shrinks
and then merges to the equilibrium point as 2 moves from points a to b orpoints c to d: According to Theorem 4, we have the following analytical results
which are coincide with the numerical results obtained above:(i) stability is gained at points b and d since ( 1 ;to R and Q > 0 on C (0; 0) and C (0; 1):(ii) stability is lost at points c and e since ( 1 ;R and Q < 0 on C + (0; 1) and C (0; 2):2 ) crosses the curve from L2 ) crosses the curve from L to

Much more complex dynamics can arise when 1 takes a larger value. In
0
Figure 5(B) 1 is changed to a1 = 2:5 and then 2 is increased from the00point ( a1 ; a1 ) on the 45 degree line to 19. As in the …rst example, stability
is gained at point b0 and lost again at point c0 : After losing stability, di¤erent
from the …rst example, the positive equilibrium goes to complex dynamics via
a period-doubling-like bifurcation and then merges to a limit cycle via a period
1 3 Notice that point ( a ;1line.

a ) is on the 45 degree line and thus
1

14

2 >

1 holds on the verticalhalving-like bifurcation.14 At point d0 ; the real part of another eigenvalue pairbecomes positive. So two parts of eigenvalues have positive real part after point
d0 . After point e0 ; the equilibrium is still unstable because the real part of only
one of the two eigenvalue pairs turns to be negative and thus there is still aneigenvalue pair with positive real part. Therefore the equilibrium is unstable
after point c0 even though the vertical dotted line crosses the stability-switch
curve. Let L and R be the the numbers of intercepts of the vertical line with
C + (m; n) and C (m; n); respectively. Then it is true that the equilibrium isstable with ( 1 ; 2 ) if R > L and unstable otherwise.

(A)

1 = 1:7(B)

1 = 2:5

Figure 5. Bifurcation diagrams
The end points of C + (0; 0) and C (0; 0) coincide and are denoted as theblack dots at the intersection of the 45 degree line and the stability-switch
curve. If 1 = 2 ; then the two delay equation (9) is identical with the one
delay equation (5). So along the 45 degree line in Figure 3, the positive equilibrium is stable if 1 = 2 <and unstable if 1 = 2 > where= 2 =ak.
For < m
;
both
the
two
delay
equation
and
the
one
delay
equationarestable.
1
The second delay is harmless in this case. For m
<
<
;
the
one
delay
1
1
equation is still stable and deviating ( 1 ; 2 ) from the 45 degree line destabilizes
the positive equilibrium of the two delay equation. The second delay is a destabilizing factor. Lastly for 1 > ; both equations are unstable. Increasing thevalue of 2 can make the equilibrium stable. So the second delay is a stabilizing
factor in this case.
Comparing these stability/instability results and returning to the original
spirit of equation (9), we numerically con…rms the roles of the second delay 2
in the learning process which are summarized as follows:(S1 )2 does not a¤ect the learning process as far as

1 <

m
1 .

1 4 Although it is not depicted in Figure 5(B), the period doubling-halving bifurcation isrepeated as 2 increases further.

15

(S2 ) The delay feedback can help to realize the true value of the maximum
demand if an appropriate value of 2 is selected. In other word, the delay
feedback can stabilize the equilibrium that is unstable in the one delay
equation.
(S3 ) Since the stability region becomes smaller as
more di¢ cult for a larger value of 1 :1 increases, learning become(S4 ) When alternations of stability and instability take place several times
along the vertical line segment connecting points ( 01 ; 01 ) and ( 01 ; 2 ) with0
2 > 1 , the stabilizing and destabilizing e¤ects of 2 alternately a¤ect
the positive equilibrium.
(S5 ) Various dynamics ranging from periodic cycles to chaos can emerge depending on the choice of 2 when the equilibrium is unstable.
Mm
Stability switches can occur for m
1 < 1 < 1 : These threshold values, 1
M
and 1 ; are !-dependent and Figure 6 illustrates how they depend on !: There,! is increased from 0:55 to 0:99 with an increment of 0:01:15 For each value ofM!; m
1 and 1 are calculated from the …rst equations of (20) and (21) in theMsame way as explained above. Connecting these m
1 s and 1 s forms downwardsloping and slightly upward-sloping curves. Painting the region surrounded byM
these curves in yellow yields Figure 6. As can be seen, m
1 increases and 1
decreases as ! increases. When ! = 1; the two delay equation (9) becomes theone delay equation (5) having the critical value= =2 ' 1:57 for = 1. So,M
both of mandconvergetoas!
approaches
unity.
1
1

Figure 6. Interval [ m
1 ( );
1 5 Since

M
1 (

)]

M becomes very large for ! close to 1=2, we start from 0:55.
1

16

Finally we examine whether the roots
Theorem 5 The roots= i are single or not.

= i are single.

So at each point where stability is lost, only one pair of roots change thesign of their real part from negative to positive, and at any point where stability
might be regained, only one pair of roots change the sign of their real part frompositive to negative.

4

Conclusion

This paper proposed a learning process of the monopolistic …rm that knows its
cost function and the marginal price but has uncertainty about the maximum
price. It is able to update repeatedly its belief of the maximum price by comparing the actual and predicted market prices. The paper focuses on the casein which the …rm’s prediction is obtained by interpolation based on two delay
price data and examines the asymptotical stability of the delay learning process.
When the process is asymptotically stable, learning is successful because the …rm
can arrive at the true value of the maximum price. Local stability conditions
are derived, the stability regions are determined and illustrated. Furthermore,
the global behavior of the trajectory is numerically examined.
Three main results are demonstrated in the two delay model. First, it ispossible to stabilize the equilibrium which is unstable in the one delay modelby adopting the delay feedback of the past price information in the two delay
model. Second, complex dynamics involving chaos, which is impossible in the
one delay model, can emerge in the two delay model, especially when the delays
are large enough. Consequently it can be mentioned that the delay feedback isa double-edged sword. On one hand, the belief of the …rm about the maximum
price might converge to the true value under a simple adaptive rule. On theother hand, the …rm might su¤er from unsuccessful learning process. The new
aspect shown in the present paper is the repeated alternations of stability andinstability (i.e., the stability switches) and this is the third result. Introducing
delay allows us to dispense with the restrictive assumption on instantaneous
availability of price information which in turn ensures that a delay model isapplicable to a large class of dynamics models in which uncertainty and timedelays are often observed.
The dynamic model (3) is linear, when local asymptotical stability implies
global asymptotical stability. However (4) and (5) are nonlinear, where only
local asymptotic stability can be guaranteed under the derived conditions. The
learning processes (3) and (4) can be generalized asa_ e (t) = g(aae (t))

where function g is sign preserving, that is, for allg( ) > 0:
17

6= 0;

This extension carries over to two delay models like (9). In our future research,di¤erent types of such nonlinear learning schemes will be introduced in ourmodel and we will investigate the asymptotical behavior of the resulted dynamics. Uncertainty, time delay and learning of other model parameters will be
additional subjects of our study.

18

Appendix
In this appendix, the proofs of the Theorems given in this paper are presented.
Proof of Theorem 1:
As is seen in (17), the domain of
initial point = (2! 1); we have2

+ 2 2!
2 !

is the interval [ (2!

22= 1 and

2 2! + 2=
2 (1 !)

1); ]. At the1

implying
1(

and at the end point2(2!

1)) = 0 and

2(

(2!

1)) =

= ; we have+ 2 2!
2 !

2

2= 1 and

2 2! + 2=1
2 (1 !)

implying
1() = 0 and2(

) = 0:+

Therefore the initial and end points of C (m; n) are
I + (m; n) =

1
(2!

and
E + (m; n) =

1)
1

3
+ 2(m
2

1)

;

3
+ (2m
2

1)

;

1
(2!
1

1)

3
+ (2n
2

3
+ (2n
2

1)

1)

:

Similarly, the initial and end points of C (m; n) are
I (m; n) =

1
(2!

and
E (m; n) =

1)
1

3
+ (2m
2

1)

;

3
+ (2m
2

1)

;

1
(2!
1

1)

3
+ (2n
2

3
+ (2n
2

1)

1) +

:

Notice that E + (m; n) = E (m; n) and I + (m; n + 1) = I (m; n); that is,
C + (m; n) and C (m; n) have the same end points and C + (m; n+1) and C (m; n)have the same initial points. So with …xed value of n; these curves from a continuous curve when the segments of C + (m; n) and C (m; n) are attached toeach other at the initial and endpoints.
Proof of Theorem 2.
(i) If 1 = 0, then the characteristic polynomial (11) has the form
+ ! + (1
19

!)e

2

= 0;

and if= i with> 0; theni + ! + (1!)(cos

i sin

2

2

) = 0:

Separation of the real and imaginary parts gives(1!) cos(1!) sin

=

2

!

and
= :

2

By adding the squares of these equations
2

!)2 =

(1

2

!2 +

2

or
2

2

=

(1

2!)

which is impossible since !
1=2: If in addition 2 = 0; then the positive
solution is also stable, since the characteristic equation becomes+ ! + (1!) = 0

implying a negative eigenvalue, =:(ii) if 1 = 2 ; then the two delay equation (10) is reduced to the one delay
equation (5) which is stable for < : As m
; equations (10) and (5)1 <are stable as far as ( 1 ; 2 ) moves along the 45 degree line. Any other ( 1 ; 2 )with 0 < 1 < m
1 and 2 > 1 ; does not solve the characteristic equation (13)
implying that no stability switch occurs. Thus the positive equilibrium is locallystable.
Proof of Theorem 3.
From (14) we have
Q =

!

Im
2

=

(1

i

!)
i

!(1

!)

2

(cos ( 2sin ( 2

1 ) + i sin

( 2

1 ))

1 ):

We consider …rst C + (m; n). From (20)sin ( 2
wherecos 1 A1 ) = sincos 1 B222
+ 2 2!
2 2! + 2> 0 and B =:2 !
2 (1 !)
pp
Notice that B 0 if
2! 1 and B < 0 as <2! 1: Furthermore,both cos 1 A and cos 1 B are between 0 and : SoA=sin ( 2

1)=sin(cos 1 A) cos(cos 1 B)

=

p
A 1

B2

B

p
1

20

A2

cos(cos 1 A) sin(cos 1 B)

which can be positive only when B < 0 andpp
B 1 A2 > A 1

that is,B2

B > A: It can be written as
2

2 2! + 2>
2 (1 !)

2+ 2 2!
2 !

2or equivalently
< (2!

1)

which cannot occur. So at every point of C + (m; n); Q < 0:
We next consider C (m; n): From (21),sin ( 2

1)=

sin cos 1 A + cos 1 B=

sin(cos 1 A) cos(cos 1 B) + cos(cos 1 A) sin(cos 1 B)

= B
which is positive if Bpp
A2 + A 11

B2

0 or if B < 0 andpp
A 1 B2 > B 1

A2 :The last inequality can be written as A > B or
the case. So at every point of C (m; n); Q > 0:(2!

1) which is always

Proof of Theorem 4.
It is given as Proposition 6.1 in Gu et al. (2005).
Proof of Theorem 5.
If a root is multiple, the it solves two equations,
+ !e

1

!e

1

+ (1

!)e

2

=0

(A-1)

and
1

1

=

1+ 2
!( 1

2

(1

!)e

2

= 0;

(A-2)

from which we have
e

1

2)

and e

2

=

(1

1+ 1
!)( 2

From (A-3) we see that
cos

1

i sin

1 =

21

1+i
!( 1

2
2)

1)

:

(A-3)

implying that
sin

1 =

2 cos

1

(A-4)

2 =

1 cos

2:

(A-5)

and from (A-3) we also havesin

However comparing the imaginary parts of (A-2),! 1 sin1+(1!) 2 sin

2 = 0:(A-6)

By using (20), we have
@ +
1
=
@

1
2

+
1

+

=

q

1

p

1

@A
A2 @

1

where
p
1
since

A2 =
1(

r
1

+
1

cos2

) 2 (0; ) and so

2
+
1 2(
2

@A
=
@

+
1

sin2

1

= cos

+
1

=

cos

+
1;

=2 + 2m ; 3 =2 + 2m ): Furthermore,+ 2 2 2!
B(1 !)=
2 ! 2!

implying that
@ +
1
=
@

1
2

B(1 !):! cos +
1

+
1

(A-7)

Notice that from the second equation of (20),B = cos

+
2

2

+
2

= sin

and by using (A-4) and (A-6), the derivative (A-7) can be further simpli…ed:
2
3
+
+
1
+
sin
+
1 7
1
sin 2 (1 !)
1 6 +
+
2
=
1 +
1
+
+ 5
2
2 4
! cos 1
cos 1
+
1
+
2
cos
2

=

+
2 cos

+
1

=0
+
1:

meaning that any multiple root is a stationary point ofConsider next +2 as function of . Notice …rst that
@ +
2
=
@

1
2

+
2

+

1

22

p

1
1

@B
B2 @

+
1 + sin+2

where from the second equation of (20),rqp+
1 B 2 = 1 cos2
1
=
2
2
+
2 2(

since cos 1 B 2 (0; ) and so
@B
=
@

2

@ +
2
=
@

1

+
2

sin2

= cos

+
2

+
2;

= cos

=2 + 2n ; =2 + 2n ): Furthermore,2

A(1 !)+ 2 2!
=
2 (1 !) 2(1 !)implying that
+
2

2

A!
!) cos

(1

+
2

:

(A-8)

Notice that from the second equation of (20),+1

A = cos

2

+
1

= sin

and by using (A-5) and (A-6), the derivative (A-8) can be further simpli…ed:
2
3
+
+
2
+
sin
+
2 7
1
sin 1 !
1 6 +
+
1
=
2 +
2
+
+ 5
2
2 4
(1 !) cos 2
cos 2
=

+
2
2 + cos
1

+
2

+
1 cos

+
2 + sin+2=0+meaning that any multiple root is a stationary point of both +1 and 2 , which
is impossible, since we cannot have both horizontal and vertical tangent lines
simultaneously at any point of the stability switch curve.

23

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24