PREFACEWELCOME FROM THE RECTOR OF UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA
It is both a pleasure and honor for me to welcome you all to the 15th
International Conference on QiR (Quality in Research) 2017 in Nusa
Dua, Bali, Indonesia.
Universitas Indonesia strives to be one of the leading research
universities and the most outstanding academic institution in theworld. UI is distinctive among research universities in its commitment
to the academic invention and research activities through various
scientific programs. QiR 2017 is our main academic conference in thefield of engineering and technology which has been successfully held
for the last two decades. It is our hope that this world class scientificprogram would showcase our scientists and researchers achievements
and provide forums for scientific exchanges in their respective fields.
The theme this year of ‘Science, Technology and Innovation for Sustainable World’, is very
relevant with the fact that the globalization today results in very competitive atmosphere in
all aspects. However, this flourishing competition should consider the harmony and balance
between human needs and the environment quality for creating favorable sustainable future.
Scientists and researchers, hand in hand with industrial experts are creating and developing newsustainable technologies that enable us to make products and services more efficient, design
better buildings, produce safer cars, keep people healthier and building smarter cities.
I extend my sincere thanks to the Faculty of Engineering Universitas Indonesia, supporting
parties and institutions for their participation and contributions in QiR 2017. I would also thankour colleagues from Universitas Udayana and Politeknik Negeri Bali for their gracious supportand hospitality. Additionally, I extend a hearty thank you to the members of the organizing
committees for dedicating their valuable time so that each one of us enjoys an exceptional
conference program over the next several days. May we have a successful, stimulating, fruitfuland rewarding conference.
Prof. Dr. Ir. Muhammad Anis, M.Met.
RectorUniversitas Indonesia

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PREFACE
WELCOME FROM THE DEAN OF FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA
Welcome to the 15th International Conference on QiR (Quality in
Research) 2017. The Faculty of Engineering Universitas Indonesia isdelighted to host our flagship international academic event this year
back in Bali, Indonesia. This two-day, biennial conference is presented
together with our co-hosts Universitas Udayana and Politeknik Negeri
Bali with the hope that this would be able to provide an international
media for exchange of the knowledge, experience and research aswell as the review of progress and discussion on the state of the art
and future trend of prospective collaboration and networking in broad
field of science, technology and innovation.
The main theme for this year conference, “Science, Technology and Innovation for Sustainable
World” is consistent with the mission of our faculty to be a leading institution with the initiatives
that responds to local, national and global societal needs. In that context, the Faculty ofEngineering Universitas Indonesia is performing state-of-the arts research and development inengineering and architecture areas which results in technology and innovation which contributeto sustainable development at both national and global level. QiR 2017 provides platforms andforums to disseminate our scientific achievements and exchange information with our counterparts
from Indonesia and all over the world. This event will allow for further research and education
collaborations between Universitas Indonesia and its partners worldwide.
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to our sponsors, supported parties and various
contributors for their never ending supports of this conference. I would also like to convey mygratitude to all of our distinguished speakers for making the time to share their knowledge withus. To our fellow researchers and/or practitioners from Indonesia and overseas, welcome andenjoy your stay in this Nusa Dua, Bali. I would also like to invite all participants in expressing ourappreciation to all members of the QiR 2017 organizing committee for their hard work in making
this conference success.
Prof. Dr. Ir. Dedi Priadi, DEA
Dean Faculty of Engineering
Universitas Indonesia

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PREFACE
WELCOME FROM THE QiR 2017 ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
On behalf of the organizing committee, it is a great pleasure for us towelcome you to the 15th International Conference on Quality in Research(QiR) 2017 to be held in Bali, Indonesia on July, 24 – 27, 2017. This biennial
event is co-organized with the Faculty of Engineering Universitas Udayana
and Politeknik Negeri Bali.
The main theme for this year conference is “Science, Technology andInnovation for Sustainable World”. Under this theme the conference
focuses on the innovative research and contribution in science and technology toward achieving
sustainable world. In line with this theme, it is our utmost pleasure to hold the QiR 2017 in conjunction
with the 6th IEEE-International Conference on Advanced Logistics and Transport (ICALT), the 2nd
International Symposium on Biomedical Engineering (ISBE 2017), International Conference in Saving
Energy in Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (ICSERA) and the 3rd Biannual Meeting on Bioprocess
Engineering.
The QiR 2017 brings together national and international academicians, researchers, executives,
government, industrial and business officials, practitioners and leaders to present and discuss a vast
range of engineering, architectural designs and community development based on green and smart
technology. It is our hope and aim that this conference would be able to provide an international
media for exchange of the knowledge, experience and research as well as the review of progressand discussion on the state of the art and future trend of prospective collaboration and networking
in broad field of science, technology and innovation. Furthermore, QiR 2017 benefits industry sector,
since it would create a close contact between and among the audiences. The audiences mostly comefrom different job and activities: therefore this is a great potential and opportunity to meet eachother, creating fruitful discussions and broaden business relationship.
QiR has been growing, since its first event two decades ago, into our flagship academic event withinternational reputation. This year, we have received almost 1000 submissions from more than 26
countries. Along with our events in conjunction, more than 500 oral and poster presentations isscheduled with expected 700 participants gather in the event.
On behalf of QiR 2017 committee, we would like to thank all of our speakers, participants,
contributors, partners and professional associations for their generous contributions. We also would
like to acknowledge the support from our International Advisory Board members and distinguishedreviewers. Last but not least, a special thanks to our local co-organizer, Universitas Udayana andPoliteknik Negeri Bali.
We wish all of you a productive and rewarding conference, also a pleasant and memorable stay in
Nusa Dua, Bali, Indonesia.
Thank you and we hope to see you again in QiR 2019.
Ardiyansyah, Ph.D.
General Chair of QiR 2017 Organizing Committee

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CONFERENCE ORGANIZERADVISOR• Prof. Prof. Dr. Ir. Dedi Priadi, DEA.,• Dr. Ir. Muhamad Asvial, M.Eng.
• Ir. Hendri DS Budiono, M.Eng• Dr. Badrul Munir, ST., M.Eng.Sc• Jos Istiyanto, S.T., M.T., Ph.D.
• Dr. Ir. Wiwik Rahayu,DEA.
• Prof. Dr. Akhmad Herman Yuwono, M.Phil., Eng.
GENERAL CHAIR
Ardiyansyah, PhD., Universitas Indonesia
CO-CHAIR
Dr. Eny Kusrini, Universitas Indonesia
INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD• Prof. Muhammad Anis, Universitas Indonesia• Prof. Rosari Saleh, Universitas Indonesia• Prof. Dedi Priadi, Universitas Indonesia• Prof. Hiroshi Murase, Nagoya University, Japan• Prof. Manabu Tanaka, Director of JWRI
• Prof. Kazuhiro Ito, Professor at JWRI
• Assoc. Prof. Yosuke Kawahito, Associate Professor at JWRI
• Prof. Afshin Ghajar, Oklahoma State University• Prof. Josaphat Tetuko Sri Sumantyo, Chiba University• Prof. Pega Hrnjak, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign• Prof. Greet Vanden Berghe, KU Leuven• Prof. Joong Kee Lee, KIST, Korea• Prof. Pekka Leviäkangas, University of Oulu
• Prof. Marie-Anne Guerry, Vrije Universiteit Brussel• Prof. Rainer Leisten, University of Duisburg Essen• Prof. Hamid Ullah – Universiti Teknologi Brunei
STEERING COMMITTEE• Dr. Tri Tjahjono, Universitas Indonesia• Prof. Yulianto S. Nugroho, Universitas Indonesia• Prof. Benyamin K., Universitas Indonesia• Prof. Winarto, Universitas Indonesia• Dr. Ing. Dalhar Susanto, Universitas Indonesia• Prof. Widodo Wahyu Purwanto, Universitas Indonesia• Prof. Isti Surjandari Prajitno, Universitas Indonesia• Prof. Suardana, Universitas Udayana• I Made Rajendra, M.Eng, Politeknik Negeri BaliSCIENTIFIC PUBLICATION PARTNER• Dr. Nyoman Suwartha• Dr. Mohammed Ali Berawi
TECHNICAL PROGRAM COMMITTEE• Dr. Cindy Rianti Priadi• Sugeng Supriadi, Ph.D
• Dr. Basari• Chairul Hudaya, Ph.D
• Wahyuaji N. Putra, MT• Dr.-Ing. Yulia Nurliani Lukito

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CONFERENCE ORGANIZER
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Dr. Bambang Heru SusantoKomarudin, Ph.DI Dewa Gede Ary Subagia, PhD
Dr. Wayan Nata Septiadi
Dr. I Nyoman Suamir

Secretariat and Registration
Herra Astasusmini, SE
Agnes Sagita Nauli, S.I.A.
Indah Sari Dewi
Treasurer• Evy Surpiningsih, S.Pd., MM• Nuri Nugraini, Amd
Programme and Protocol
Tikka Anggraeni, M.Si.
Design and Documentation• Rengga Wibisono, S.Sos.
• Muhammad Badi
Web and Information System• I Gede Dharma Nugraha, S.T., M.T.
• Boma Anantasatya Adhi, ST., M.T.
• Ruki Harwahyu, S.T., M.T., M.Eng.
• Ardiansyah, ST., M.Eng.
• Gunawan Heri Saputra, Amd
Exhibition and Sponsorship• Dr. Ir. Nahry., MT.
• Dr. Adi Surjosatyo, M.Eng.
• Dr. Muhammad Suryanegara• Kemas Ridwan Kurniawan, ST., MSc., PhD.
• Dr. Tania Surya Utami, S.T., M.T.
• Ir. Erlinda Muslim, MEE.
Venue and Facilities• Jumiardi, S.Ars• Hadi Mulyadi
Meal• Yunita Dewi Hapsari• Indri Feriani

Conference Organizing Committee :Faculty of Engineering Universitas Indonesia
Dekanat Building 3th Floor Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia
Phone : +62-21- 7863503, Fax : +62-21 – 7270050
Email : qir@eng.ui.ac.id,
Website : http://qir.eng.ui.ac.id
www.eng.ui.ac.id

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REVIEWER
Agung Saragih, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Agus Pamitran, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Ahmad Gamal, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Akhmad Hidayatno, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Akhmad Herman Yuwono, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Andi Rustandi, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Andyka Kusuma, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Anne Zulfia Syahrial, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Ardiyansyah Ardiyansyah, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Ayomi Dita, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Badrul Munir, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Cindyrianti Priadi, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Deni Ferdian, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Djoko M Hartanto, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Donanta Dhaneswara, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Dwi Marta Nurjaya, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Dwinanti Rika, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Dwita Sutjiningsih, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Ellen Tangkudung, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Eny Kusrini, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Erly Bahsan, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Ghiska Ramahdita, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Gs Boedi Andari, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Herr Soeryantono, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Heru Purnomo, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Imam Jauhari Maknun, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Jachrizal Soemabrata, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Jaka Fajar Fatriansyah, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Jessica Sjah, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Kemas Ridwan Kurniawan, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Komarudin Komarudin, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Maya Arlini Puspasari, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Misri Gozan, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Mohammed Ali Berawi, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Muhamad Sahlan, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Muhammad Arif, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Muhammad Ibadurrohman, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Nahry Yusuf, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Nofrijon Sofyan, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Nuraziz Handika, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Nyoman Suwartha, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Paramita Atmodiwirjo, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Radon Dhelika, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Riko I Made, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Romadhani Ardi, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Sigit Hadiwardoyo, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Sotya Astuningsih, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Sri Harjanto, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Sugeng Supriadi, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Sunaryo Sunaryo, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
T, Ilyas, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Tjandra Setiadi, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Toha Saleh, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Tri Tjahjono, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Triatno Yudo Harjoko, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Vika Rizkia, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Wahyuaji Narottama Putra, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia

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REVIEWER
Wardhana Sasangka, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Widjaja Martokusumo, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Widjojo Prakoso, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Widodowahyu Purwanto, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Winarto Winarto, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Wiratni Budhijanto, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Yandi Andri Yatmo, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Yudan Whulanza, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Yudha Pratesa, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Yulianto Snugroho, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Yulianurliani Lukito, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Zulkarnain Zulkarnain, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Abdul Halim, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Abdul Muis, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Ajib Setyo Arifin, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Alfan Presekal, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Arief Udhiarto, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Basari Basari, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Catur Apriono, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Chairul Hudaya, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Diyanatul Husna, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Eko Tjipto Rahardjo, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Filbert Hilman Juwono, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Fitri Yuli Zulkifli, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Gunawan Wibisono, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Muhamad Asvial, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Muhammad Salman, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Muhammad Suryanegara, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Prima Dewi Purnamasari, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Purnomo Sidi Priambodo, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Ruki Harwahyu, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Taufiq Alif Kurniawan, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Tomy Abuzairi, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Achmad Munir, Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia
Denny Setiawan, Ministry of Communication and Informatics, Indonesia
Faiz Husnayain, Ajou University, Indonesia
Fauzan Hanif Jufri, Ajou University, Indonesia
Hana Baili, Centrale Supelec, Indonesia
Hugeng Hugeng, Multimedia Nusantara University, Indonesia
Mudrik Alaydrus, Mercu Buana University, Indonesia
Ratno Nuryadi, Agency for Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT), Indonesia
Sri Purwiyanti, Lampung University, Indonesia
Victor Widiputra, Ajou University, Indonesia
Yohandri Yohandri, Padang State University, Indonesia
Yoyok Dwi Setyo Pambudi, National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN), Indonesia
Aji Nur Widyanto, Universität Duisburg-Essen, Indonesia
Boma Anantasatya Adhi, Waseda University, Indonesia
Budi Sudiarto, Universität Duisburg-Essen, Indonesia
Dwi Riana Aryani, Seoul National University of Science & Technology, Indonesia
Faiz Husnayain, Ajou University, Indonesia
Fauzan Hanif Jufri, Ajou University, Indonesia
Kazuyuki Saito, Chiba University, Indonesia
Muhammad Firdaus Lubis, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Indonesia
Naufan Raharya, The University of Sydney, Indonesia
Victor Widiputra, Ajou University, Indonesia

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KEYNOTE SPEAKER•••

Dr. Thomas J. Goldsby | Ohio State University, USA.
Prof. Jackie Yi-Ru Ying | Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology in Singapore
Prof. Dr. Drs. Benyamin Kusumoputro, MSc. | Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia

INVITED SPEAKER•

Dr. Bambang Trigunarsyah, Ph.D., PMP. | King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
KSA

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Prof. Dr. rer. nat. habil Uwe Lahl | Technische Universitat Darmstadt (TUD), Germany
Dr. Guillermo Rein | Imperial College London, United Kingdon
Prof. Jae Dong Chung, B.S., M.S., Ph.D | Sejong University, South Korea
Prof. Dr. Yifan CHEN, FIET, SMIEEE | University of Waikato, New ZealandProf. Dr.-Ing Ir. Kalamullah Ramli, M.Eng. | Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Prof. Dr. Ir. H.J. (Erik) Heeres | University of Groningen, Netherland
Prof. Nishikawa Hiroshi | Joining and Welding Research Institute Osaka University, Japan
Ashok K. Das, B.Arch., M.A., M.Arch., Ph.D | University of Hawai’i Manoa, USA
Professor Margaret Petty | Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Professor Kousuke Hiromori | Tohoku University, Japan
Professor Masafumi Yohda | Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan
Dr. Mark Harrison | Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Prof. Joe da Costa | The University of Queensland, Australia
Dr. Volkan Degirmenci | University of Warwick, United Kingdom
Prof. Marie-Anne Guerry | Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgia
Prof. Pekka Leviakangas | University of Oulu, FinlandPeter Simmonds | ASHRAE Instructor

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The 15th International Conference on QiR (Quality in Research) Organizing Committee wishes toexpress its gratitude and appreciation to :Prof. Dr. Ir. Muhammad Anis M.Met., Rector of Universitas Indonesia
for consenting to be the guest of honour
All invited speakers session, moderators and conference speakers, for their participation.
All conference Sponsors, Supporters, Exhibitors and advertisers for their generous support.
All participants and others who have in one way or another contributed towards the success of thisconference.

PLATINUM SPONSORSILVER SPONSOR

SUPPORTED BY

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KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Thomas Goldsby
Ohio State University
Dr. Thomas J. Goldsby is a Harry T. Mangurian, Jr. Foundation
Professor in Business and Professor of Logistics at The Ohio State
University. He holds a B.S. in Business Administration from the
University of Evansville, M.B.A. from the University of Kentucky, andPh.D. in Marketing and Logistics from Michigan State University. He is
the Co-Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Business Logistics and former
Editor of Transportation Journal. He serves as Associate Director of
the Center for Operational Excellence (COE), a Research Fellow of
the National Center for the Middle Market, and a research associate of the Global Supply Chain
Forum, all housed at Ohio State’s Fisher College of Business.
His research interests include logistics strategy, supply chain integration, and the theory andpractice of lean and gile supply chain strategies. He has published more than 50 articles inacademic and is the co-author of five books and is a proud recipients of: the Best Paper Awardat the Transportation Journal (2012-2013), Bernard J. LaLonde Award at the Journal of Business
Logistics (2007), and has twice received the Accenture Award for best paper published in theInternational Journal of Logistics Management (1998 and 2002). Dr. Goldsby has received
recognition for excellence in teaching at Iowa State University, The Ohio State University, and The
University of Kentucky.

Jackie Yi-Ru Ying
Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology in Singapore
Prof. Jackie Yi-Ru Ying was born in Taipei in 1966. She earned a B.Eng.
degree, graduating summa cum laude from Cooper Union in 1987. She
then attended Princeton University, receiving her MA in 1988 and her PhD
in 1991, both in chemical engineering. She spent a year as a Humboldt
Fellow at the Institute for New Materials in Saarbrücken and researchednanocrystalline materials with Herbert Gleiter. Prof. Ying became aprofessor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1992. She was made a full professor in
2001; at 35 she was one of MIT’s youngest full professors. She returned
to Singapore in 2003 to serve as the first executive director of the Institute of Bioengineeringand Nanotechnology, a division of the Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR).
Her research concerns the biomedical and catalytic applications of nanostructured systems andmaterials.
She was elected to the Singapore Women’s Hall of Fame in 2014. She was one of the recipientsof the inaugural 2015 Mustafa Prize awarded by the Mustafa Science and Technology Foundation.
She was also awarded the “Top Scientific Achievement” award for “her great scientific andtechnological contributions and achievements to the synthesis of well-designed advanced
nanostructured materials and systems, nanostructured biomaterials and miniaturisedbiosystems
for various interesting applications”.

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KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Benyamin Kusumoputro
Universitas Indonesia
Prof. Dr. Drs. Benyamin Kusumoputro, MSc is a Professor in ComputerIntelligence in the Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty ofEngineering Universitas Indonesia. He was born in Bandung on
November 17th, 1957. He graduated from Bandung Institute ofTechnology in 1981 with a Bachelor Degree in Physics and wasawarded a Master of Engineering Science in Optoelectronics and Laser
Applications from Universitas Indonesia, and a Doctoral degree inEngineering from Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department,
Bio- sensors, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan in 1993. Hisinterest area of research includes: Development of Computational Intelligence and Methodology
for Artificial Senses.
He is a member of Institute of Electrical Engineering of Japan (IEEJ), International Society for
Optical Engineering (SPIE), International Association of Science and Technology for Development(IASTED), and World Scientific and Engineering Academy and Society (WSEAS). Some of theawards he has received are: Bronze Medal of Civil Servant, Government of Indonesia, 2005;
University Research Achievement, Universitas Indonesia in 2005; and representing Universitas
Indonesia in the National Outstanding Lecture Competition in 2016.

INVITED SPEAKER
Uwe Lahl
Technische Universitat Darmstadt (TUD)
Prof. Uwe Lahl was born on 20 March 1951. Prof. Uwe Lahl holds a
doctorate (Dr.rer. nat.) and a professorial degree (PD, Habilitation). Since
April 2014, he is Head of the Ministry of Transportation of the German
federal state of Baden-Württemberg. Before, he was manager at the
BZL Kommunikation und Projektsteuerung GmbH (2009 – 2014) andHead of the Directorate General for Environmental Health, Air Pollution
Control, Safety of Installations and Transport, Chemical Safety at theFederal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear
Safety (2000-2009).
Since 2008, he is, too, associated Professor at Technical University of Darmstadt. In 2010, hestarted teaching at the University of Indonesia at the Faculty of Engineering in the Department ofEnvironmental Engineering and became adjunct Professor at the University of Indonesia in 2011.

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INVITED SPEAKER
Bambang Trigunarsyah
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dr. Bambang Trigunarsyah is an Associate Professor in the Construction
Engineering and Management Department, King Fahd University ofPetroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He earned
his BSc in Engineering (Civil) from Colorado School of Mines in theUSA, a Master degree in Civil Engineering (Construction Management)from the University of Indonesia, and a PhD in Engineering ProjectManagement from the University of Melbourne, Australia. Dr. Bambang
Trigunarsyah research interests are in the area of: Construction
management and economic, Constructability and operability of infrastructure project, Knowledge
management in project based organization, Post-disaster reconstruction project management,
Quality management in construction, and Infrastructure project delivery and infrastructure asset
management.
Previously, Dr. Bambang Trigunarsyah was an Associate Professor and the Course Leaders for
Master of Project Management and Master of Infrastructure Management in the School of Civil
Engineering and Built Environment, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Australia,
from 2007 to 2013. He continues his association with QUT as an Adjunct Associate Professor.
Dr. Bambang Trigunarsyah was the Head of the Civil Engineering Department at Universitas
Indonesia (2004-2006) and an Associate Professor in Construction Project Management. Dr.
Bambang Trigunarsyah started his full time tenure at Universitas Indonesia in 2001, following thecompletion of his PhD study from the University of Melbourne, Australia

Guillermo Rein
Imperial College London
Dr. Guillermo Rein studied Mechanical Engineering at University ofCalifornia at Berkeley (MSc 2003, PhD 2005) and before then was at
ICAI Universidad Pontificia Comillas (Ingeniero Industrial, 1999). Dr. Reinis editor in Thermal Energy at the Department of Mechanical Engineeringof Imperial College and Editor-in Chief of the Journal Fire Technology.
His research is centered on heat transfer, combustion and fire science.
Over the last 15 years, he has been best known in three areas: 1) how
polymers and wood ignite and how to avoid it; 2) how engineers candesign better structures that resist fires; and 3) how wildfires spreadin the forest and how to manage them. Dr. Guillermo Rein is known in the building sector forchanging the way UK fire engineers design modern infrastructure. His work has been recognizedinternationally with a number of research awards (e.g. Lund Award, Wildfire Early Career Award,
Hinshelwood Prize, and Distinguished Paper in the Combustion Symposium). Dr. Guillermo Rein
has been featured in several international media (e.g. Financial Times, BBC Radio, and New YorkTimes) for his expertise.

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INVITED SPEAKER
Jae Dong Chung
Sejong University
Prof. Jae Dong Chung received his Bachelor of Science in 1990 fromSeoul National University and continued on to finished his Master of
Science in 1992 and Ph.D in August 1996 from the same university.
He is currently a Professor at the Department of MechanicalEngineering, Sejong University Korea. His research fields include (1)thermal energy storage and transport; (2) Refrigeration Driven by
Low Temperature Energy Sources: Desiccant Cooling, Adsorption Cooling; (3) Phase Change; (4)Nano-scale Heat Transfer.
In 2016, Prof. Jae Dong Chung received the Best Paper Award by Minister of Land, Infrastructure andTransport. He was also awarded as Outstanding Academic Award by Society of Air Air-conditioning
and Refrigerating Engineers of Korea in 2014, and also Best Paper Award by Minister of Ministry ofTrade Industry and Energy in 2014. Prof Jae Dong Chung also joined professional association i.e.
The Korean Society of Mechanical Engineering, Thermal Division as an Director of General Affairs
since 2009 until present, Chairperson of the division of Low Temperature Facilities Engineering in
SAREK, Vice president of B1 commission of IIR from 2015 until present, International Journal of AirConditioning and Refrigeration as an Editor from 2009 until present, Journal of Mechanical Scienceand Technology as an Associate Editor from 2008 until present and so forth.

Yifan Chen
University of Waikato
Dr. Yifan Chen is a Professor of Engineering and the Associate Dean ofExternal Engagement for the Faculty of Science and Engineering andthe Faculty of Computing and Mathematical Sciences in the University ofWaikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. His current research interests include
electromagnetic medical imaging and diagnosis, transient communication
with application to healthcare, touchable communication and computation
with application to targeted drug delivery and contrast-enhanced medical
imaging, fundamentals and applications of nanoscale and molecularcommunications, and channel modelling for next-generation wirelesssystems and networks.
He is the Coordinator of the European FP7 “CoNHealth” project on intelligent medical ICT, an elected
Working Group Co-leader of the European COST Action TD1301 “MiMed” project on microwave
medical imaging, an Advisory Committee Member of the European Horizon 2020 “CIRCLE”
project on molecular communications, a Voting Member of the IEEE Standards Development
Working Group 1906.1 on nanoscale and molecular communications, an Editor for IEEE ComSoc
Best Readings in Nanoscale Communication Networks and IEEE Access Special Section in Nanoantennas, Nano-transceivers, and Nano-networks/Communications, and a Vice Chair of the IEEE
Nano-scale, Molecular and Quantum Networking Emerging Technical Subcommittee. He is a Fellowof IET and a Senior Member of IEEE.

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INVITED SPEAKER
Kalamullah Ramli
Universitas Indonesia
Prof. Kalamullah Ramli is a Professor in Computer Engineering since
July 1, 2009. He finished his Master in Telecommunication Engineering
at University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia, in 1997. He then continued
his Doktorarbeit on Computer Networks in year 2000 at Universitaet
Duisburg-Essen, NRW, Germany, and obtained his Dr.-Ing. in year
2003. His research interests include embedded system, network andinformation security, computer and communications, and intelligent
transportation system. Prof. Kalamullah Ramli was the Director Generalof Post and ICT Operations of the Ministry of Communication andInformation Technology (2013 - 2016). Prof. Kalamullah Ramli has many collaboration work
between universities from German, Italy and Malaysia. One of his collaboration received an“AsiaLink” grant from the European Comission between 2005 - 2007 to deliver an initiative named“Improving Mobility of Student between Europe and ASEAN” which resulted in a prototype modelof Credit Transfer System Platform between ASEAN and Europe. Based on this experience he waselected as one of the speaker on ASAIHL Conference on December 2008 in Jakarta. This ASAIHL
is managed by ASEAN Universities to implement a platform for Credit Transfer System between
Universities in ASEAN.

H.J. (Erik) Heeres
University of Groningen
Prof. Dr. Ir. H.J. Heeres was born in 1963. He graduated in 1990 fromthe University of Groningen, with a thesis on the development of novel
homogeneous lanthanide catalysts for the conversion of unsaturatedhydrocarbons. Afterwards, he performed a post-doctoral research at the
University of Oxford, in the group of J.M. Brown on asymmetric catalysis
from 1990 to 1991. In 1995 he graduated from Technical University Twente
in Chemical Engineering and achieved a Master Degree. From 1991 to
1999, he was employed at Shell Research, in Amsterdam and Pernis, andworked on a range of applied catalysis topics. He joined the chemical
reaction engineering department of the University of Groningen, in 1999, as an assistant professor.
Four years later, he was appointed full professor in green chemical reaction engineering.
His research interest concerns on the development of efficient catalytic technology for acidand metal-based catalytic biomass conversions, with an emphasis on biofuels (catalytic
pyrolysis, pyrolysis oil upgrading), platform chemicals (levulinic acid, hydroxymethylfurfural) andperformance materials from biomass (starch modifications). The group is actively involved innational and international consortia (for example, the European Union 6th framework project
Biocoup) dealing with catalytic pyrolysis oil upgrading. Prof. Dr. Ir. H.J. Heeres is the (co-)
author of 185 papers in international peer reviewed journals (h-index 44) and 12 patents in thefield of applied catalysis and chemical reaction engineering. Heeres is also a member of theKoninklijkeHollandscheMaatschappij der Wetenschappen and an associate editor of the Journalof fuel processing technology.

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INVITED SPEAKER

Nishikawa Hiroshi
Joining and Welding Research Institute Osaka University
Nishikawa Hiroshi was born at Japan in 1973. He is an Associate
Professor at Joining Welding Research Institute, Osaka University from2007 until present. Nishikawa Hiroshi finished his Bachelor Engineeringin 1997 at Department of Welding and Production Engineering, Osaka
University and continued to finish his Master of Engineering in 1999
at Department of Adaptive Machine Systems, Graduate School ofEngineering, Osaka University. On 2002, he achieved his Doctoral ofEngineering from the same university.

Ashok K. Das
University of Hawai’i Manoa
Ashok K. Das, Ph.D received his Bachelor of Architecture from the
School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi India in 1996. He
continued to finish his master degree in Environmental Planningand Management at Kansas State University, Manhattan andreceived his Master of Art and Master of Architecture in 2001. In
2008, he started pursuing his doctoral degree in Urban Planning
at University of California, Los Angeles. His research interests
revolve broadly around issues of urban poverty in developing
countries, primarily in South and Southeast Asia. His current research areas are: (1) community
participation and empowerment, (2) slum upgrading, basic services and low-income housing,(3) integrated community-based microfinance for urban poverty alleviation, (4) local planningand governance for disaster preparedness and risk education, and (5) the role of civil society
and NGOs in urban planning and development. Currently Ashok is an Assistant Professor at the
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Hawai’i. He is also an Affiliate Facultyat the Center for Southeast Asian Studies at the same university. Since 2009, Ashok has been
involved with the Cleanopolis Energy System India Private Limited (CESIPL) as an Adviser. He
was invited as an expert to a discussion on “Rural-urban linkages and drivers of inequality in Asia”
in May 2017 with representatives, directors and vice presidents of the Ford Foundation to explore
ways for its global philanthropic mission to transcend the rural-urban dichotomy.

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INVITED SPEAKERMargaret Petty
Queensland University of Technology
Prof. Margaret Maile Petty studied Art History at the University ofOregon, Eugene to obtain her Bachelor of Art with Summa Cum
Laude in 2000. After graduation, she continued her study for a
Master Degree at The Bard Graduate Center, New York City andobtained her Master of Art in 2002. Before she received her Doctoral
Degree in Architectural History at Victoria University of Wellington
in 2016, she took the doctoral course work and qualifiying exams
at The Bard Graduate Center, New York City in 2005. Currently she
is Professor and Head of the School of Design in the Creative Industries Faculty at Queensland
University of Technology, Australia. Her research broadly investigates the discourse, production,and consumption practices of the modern built environment, with a particular focus on artificial
lighting and interiors. She has published broadly in academic journals such as the JSAH, Journalof Design History, Home Cultures, Interiors, and PLAT and is co-editor of Cities of Light: Two
Hundred Years of Urban Illumination (Routledge, 2015), as well as Architectures of Display:
Department Stores and Modern Retail (Ashgate, 2017). She is co-founder and member of theAdvisory Board of DesignCo, Society of Architectural Historians (SAH), Society of Architectural
Historians of Australia and New Zealand (SAHANZ) and International Committee on the Historyof Technology (ICHOTEC).

Kousuke Hiromori
Tohoku University
Kousuke Hiromori is a Ph.D candidate in the Department of Chemical Engineering, Tohoku
University. He was awarded a Bachelor of Science and Master of Science both from Chemical
Engineering, Tohoku University. His Thesis topic is: Recovery of Vitamin E from Rice Bran
Deodorizer Distillate Using Ion-Exchange Resins.
Kousuke Hiromori has also won ICRBO 2016 Best Poster Presentation Award and Incentive Student
Award of the Society of Chemical Engineers’ Japan in 2017. His list of publication includes: “Novel simple process for tocopherols selective recovery from vegetable oils by adsorption anddesorption with an anion-exchange resin (published in Food Chemistry, 2016), Development ofNovel Process for Efficiently Seperating and Purifying Tocotrienols (published in Japan Society
for Food Engineering Journal, 2016).

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INVITED SPEAKER

Masafumi Yohda
Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology
Professor Masafumi Yohda received his Bachelor Degree in 1982
from The University of Tokyo and continued to finished his Master
Degree in 1984 and Ph.D. in 1987 from the same university. He is a
Professor at Department of Biotechnology and Life Science, Tokyo
University of Agriculture and Technology from 2003 until now.
Currently, he serves as the Vice Dean of Institute of Global Innovation
Research, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology. His research interests including
Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Biophysics, System Engineering and Environmental Science.
In 1999, Professor Masafumi Yohda was rewarded for the excellent paper award of Journal of
Bioscience and Bio Engineering. He joins many professional memberships such as The Japanese
Biochemical Society as a Councilor, Protein Society of Japan as a Director, The Society of
Biotechnology as a Director, Manager of East Japan Branch, The Chem-Bio Informatics Society
as Director.

Mark Harrison
Queensland University of Technology
Dr. Mark Harrison obtained an undergraduate degree inbiochemistry from the University of Queensland in 1992. Hecompleted his PhD (2001) at the University of Queensland,
researching the molecular mechanisms by which cells transport,
store, and detoxify essential metal ions. He then undertook postdoctoral work at Newcastle University (Newcastle-upon-Tyne,UK) researching the biological chemistry of metalloproteins andtheir role in essential metal ion homeostasis. Dr. Mark Harrison
returned to Australia in 2003 and was awarded a 3 year Queensland State Government Smart State
Fellowship in 2004 to produce enzymes in a model plant. The development of this technology insugarcane was a key part of the $3.8 million research collaboration between Syngenta, one of theworld’s largest integrated agribusiness companies, and QUT.
Dr. Mark Harrison is a biochemist with extensive basic, applied, and commercial researchexperience. He is a Senior Research Fellow and foundation member of the QUT Centre forTropical Crops and Biocommodities (https://www.qut.edu.au/research/our-research/institutescentres-and-research-groups/centre-for-tropical-crops-and-biocommodities). Dr. Mark Harrison
also provides consulting services to the Australian food and bio-industrial sector. Research in his
group is focused on the conversion of agricultural wastes and residues into more valuable food,feed, fibre, fine chemical, and fuel products, (https://research.qut.edu.au/biorefining/).

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INVITED SPEAKER

Joe da Costa
The University of Queensland
Prof. Joe da Costa is an Australian Research Council (ARC) Future
Fellow and a Professor in the School of Chemical Engineering at the
University of Queensland, Brisbane Australia. He is also the Directorof the FIM2Lab – Functional Interfacial Materials and Membranes
Laboratory. Prof. Joe da Costa has over 30 years working experience
in industrial, consultancy and academic roles in Brazil, England, andAustralia. Currently, he leads several research projects in the areaof H2, CO2, O2, ethanol separation and desalination using inorganic
membranes and membrane reactors, in addition to catalysts for wastewater processing. Prof. Joeda Costa has over 250 international publications including 13 book chapters, and he is an editorial
board member of Nature’s Scientific Report open source journal. Also, he held a prominent
leadership position as a member of the Independent Scientific Panel advising the Queensland
Government on underground coal gasification, and a member of the International Panel of Experts
assessing the Brazilian programs of Centers of Excellence. His work has been cited over 6800
times, and his h-index is 44. He is a Chartered Professional Engineer in the Colleges of MechanicalEngineering and Chemical Engineering of the Institution of Engineers Australia.

Volkan Degirmenci
University of Warwick
Dr Volkan Degirmenci is an Assistant Professor in School ofEngineering in the University of Warwick, UK. Dr. Degirmenci
obtained his PhD in Chemical Engineering from Middle East
Technical University, Ankara, Turkey, in 2007. Then he joined to theMolecular Heterogeneous Catalysis research group at Eindhoven
University of Technology, Netherlands as a postdoctoral fellow in2008. Next he moved to UK to the Queen’s University Belfast in2012 where he was promoted to Assistant Professor in Chemical
Engineering.
Recently he joined the School of Engineering at University of Warwick in 2015. The researchinterests of Dr. Degirmenci are in the field of heterogeneous catalysis and reactor design with afocus on microporous and mesoporous materials. The topics of his recent research are directed
towards the development of sustainable processes for biomass conversion, in-situ spectroscopy forthe understanding of the reaction mechanisms and structure-activity relations in heterogeneous
catalysis.

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INVITED SPEAKER

Marie-Anne Guerry
Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Prof. Marie-Anne Guerry pursues her Doctoral Degree in mathematicalsciences on 1985 at Vrije Universiteit Brussel and received her PhD
in 1992. At the moment, Prof. Marie-Anne Guerry is a Professor
at the Department of Business Technology and Operations, Vrije
Universiteit Brussel since 2012. Her research expertise are Markov
modeling, manpower planning and career studies.
Prof. Marie-Anne Guerry is an active reviewer for Linear Algebra
and its Application, Elsevier (since 2009), British Journal of Applied
Science & Technology (since 2013), Applied Mathematical Modelling,
Elsevier (since 2013), TOP Journal of Operations Research, Springer Publishing Company (since2014), Central European Journal of Operations Research, Springer Publishing Company (since2014), Applied Stochastic Models in Business and Industry, John Wiley & Sons (since 2014),
Personnel Review, Emerald (since 2015) and many more.

Pekka Leviakangas
University of Oulu
Prof. Pekka Leviakangas (born in 1962, PhD in technology) has
several experiences as an expert in civil service, business andresearch. He is currently the Principal Scientist at VTT TechnicalResearch Centre of Finland Ltd. In 2012-2016 he acted as
Associate Professor at Curtin University in the School of Built
Environment, Programme Director of the Australasian Centre
for Building Information Modelling and Research Professor at
University of Oulu in industrial engineering and management. His
previous positions include Chief Research Scientist, Team Leader
and Customer Manager at VTT, Vice-President of Jaakko Pöyry Group subsidiary (JP-Transplan),
Corporate Analyst of Finnish Railways (VR-Group Ltd), R&D Manager of Finnish National Road
Administration’s South-eastern region, and private consultant. He was an adjunct professor of
Tampere University of Technology in the department of Logistics and Business Information for
2008-2014. His own research covers innovation management, value analysis, impact analysis,
service sciences, project finance, investment, financial and socio-economic analysis, restructuringissues and new technology deployment. His primary research area has been on transport sector,
but his activities have extended to other fields such as bioeconomy, climate change, meteorology,
education, construction and infrastructure management.

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INVITED SPEAKERPeter Simmonds
ASHRAE Instructors
Peter Simmonds is managing director/principal of Building and
Systems Analytics LLC. Peter has been involved in the design andoperation of tall, supertall and megatall buildings around the world
for more than 30 years. An ASHRAE member since 1989, Peter
has twice chaired Technical Committee 9.12 Tall Buildings, and isa member of TC 2.1 Thermal Comfort and Human Physiology, andTC 7.5 Smart Building Systems. He also serves on the Standards
Committee and is Secretary of the College of Fellows.
Peter has authored or coauthored more than 60 technical papers,
articles and books. Most recently, he was the author of the new
ASHRAE Design Guide for Tall, Supertall and Megatall Building
Systems (2015). He was also a co-author of the ASHRAE/REHVA Active and Passive Beam
Application Design Guide (2014).
He has one Bachelor of Science degree in Mechanical Engineering and another in Researchand Development from Reading Technical College in England; a Master’s degree from Hogere
Technische School, Den Bosch, The Netherlands; and a Ph.D. from Technical University of Delft,
The Netherlands.

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PROGRAM AT GLANCE

Date 		Location: 24 – 27 July 2017
: BICC the Westin, Nusa Dua, Bali.

The Arrangement of the QiR 2017 Conference can be seen at the table below

Date
24 July
25 JulyTime

Program

03.00-05.00 p.m
Full Day

Registration and Welcome Cocktails
Exhibition

08.30-10.15 am

Opening Ceremony

10.15-10.30 am

Coffee break

10.30-11.15 am

Plenary Lecture 1 Prof. Benyamin Kusumoputro

11.15-12.00 pm

Plenary Lecture 2: Prof. Thomas Goldsby
Parallel Session

01.00-03.00 pm

03.00-03.30 pm

26 July

Each parallel session will be started with presentation by
Invited Speakers
Poster Session Day 1
Coffee break

03.30-06.00 pm

Parallel Session

06.00-07.00 pm

Poster Session Day 1

07.00-09.00 pm

Banquette Dinner

Full Day

Exhibition
Parallel Session

08.30-10.00 am

10.00-10.30 am
10.30-12.00 pm
12.00-01.00 pm

27 July

Each parallel session will be started with presentation by
Invited Speakers
Poster Session Day 2
Coffee break
Parallel Session
Lunch
Poster Session Day 2

01.00-02.00 pm

Plenary Lecture 3 Prof. Jackie Y. Ying

01.00-03.00 pm

Parallel Session

03.00-03.30 pm

Coffee break

07.00-09.00 pm

Dinner and Closing Ceremony

08.00am-08.00 pm

Social Tour

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The 15th International Conference Quality In Research (QIR) 2017
DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT SYSTEM BETWEENQUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND
SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORK AND
PUBLIC HOUSING – A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKRINGGY MASUIN1, YUSUF LATIEF2, T. YURI ZAGLOEL3, LENI SAGITA4
1

Doctoral Program Student Civil Department Faculty of Engineering University ofIndonesia
2
Professor,
Civil
Department
Facultyof Engineering University of Indonesia
3
Professor, Industrial Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering University ofIndonesia
4
Lecturer, Civil Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia
ABSTRACTThis paper reviews the literature on integrated management system (IMS) between quality
management system and occupational health and safety management system. The term
integrated management system is clarified as it is typically applied to integrated risk,
integrated process, and integrated audit in order to achieve orderly construction. The
objective of the present study is to analyze the evolution of IMS research, presenting its
contributions and gaps in the IMS scope. The analysis was conducted through a theoreticalframework of IMS. Some clarification in terms of integrated risk, integrated process andintegrated audit of engineering and its theoretical developments. Methodology used in thispaper is comprehensive literature review of integrated management system between quality
management system and occupational health and safety management system to influence
performance of integrated risk, integrated process and integrated audit of quality and safetysystem in orderly construction. This paper piloting project in time phase of activities In
Ministry of Public Work and Public Housing as a core activities. Results of this study
shows conceptual framework for development of integrated management system between
Quality Management System and Occupational Health and Safety Management System. All
management systems were used Deming Cycle (PDCA) theory and have common feature.
In this study, author found that Fayol Theory based on activities management can develop
management system into integrated management system. Based on activities in System
Engineering Phase, authors found that life cycle system in construction are the best system
suited in Integrated Management System between Quality Management System andOccupational Health and Safety Management System as the state-of-the-art of this research.
This integrated management system was piloting in Ministry of Public Works and Housing
Provision that application of independent system management. Implementation of
integrated management system assumes can achieve orderly construction with less ofrework, less risk of accident, and risk of waste. It is suggested the gaps found in this paper
are explored in future studies.
Keywords: Integrated Audit, Integrated Management System, Integrated Process, Integrated
Risk

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1. INTRODUCTION
Economic globalization and the intensification of competitiveness has led manyorganizations to adopt management tools that enable them to obtain high-quality products
and processes without harming employees’ life quality. (Simon, Honore Petnji Yaya et al.
2014). In construction management the discussion on quality management systemproblems, health and safety management system and environment are generally notdiscussed simultaneously. The quality management system and health and safety
management system and environment are still done separately and are still done
independently, whereas in reality these two systems interact and have the same process
through the PDCA cycle (Beckmerhagen et al., 2003; Labodova, 2004; Zeng et al., 2007;
Karapetrovic and Casadesús, 2009; Oliveira, 2013; Abad et al., 2014). About 80% of theactivities of the quality management system, safety and environmental management arecommon to every management system (Jørgensen, 2008).
An Integrated Management System (IMS) is a construction to avoid duplication of tasks
that aims to take advantage from the elements common of two or more separate systems,
putting them to work together in a single and more efficient IMS (Beckmerhagen et al.,
2003; Labodova, 2004; Zeng et al., 2007; Karapetrovic and Casadesús, 2009; Oliveira,2013; Abad et al., 2014). Organizations often operate in turbulent environmentscharacterized by intense competitiveness, constant technological progress, new market
requirements, and scarce natural resources. This scenario imposes the constant need forchange in the operation and organization management. The integration of certifiable
management systems is an effective alternative to integrated standard and risk management
as strategic decision (Octavian, 2016; Hoyle et.al, 2009; Oprean et.al, 2006). The proposed
subject was integration process, integration risk, integration audit and system information
At the last decade, several approaches to IMS have being studied, such as evaluation of
motivations, benefits and drawbacks of integration (see i.e. Simon et al. 2012; Bernardo etal. 2015; Gianni and Gotzamani, 2015), characterization of the integration levels (Bernardo
et al. 2012; Abad et al. 2014), integration of audits (Karapetrovic and Willborn, 2000;
Bernardo et al. 2010; Simon et al. 2011), integration strategy (Zeng et al. 2007; Savino and
Batbaatar, 2015) and models and guidelines for the integration process (Domingues et al.
2016; Oliveira, 2013).
2. INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT SYSTEM APPROACH
Both scholarly literature and the practical activities of organizations, indicate twodominant approaches to identification and description of the management process. One ofthese was developed by H. Fayol and other by E.W. Deming. H. Fayol identified five
managerial function constituting the management process. These are: organization,planning, coordination, control and command. In accordance with the spirit of Fayol’s
theory, the key managerial functions include: planning, organization, command, control andcoordination. Of course, this basic set of managerial functions can be combined with otherelements such as knowledge management, information management, decision making, etc.
In Fayol’s approach, several factors result in the integrative character of the management
process. E.W Deming’s proposal constitute an interesting supplement to H. Fayol’s theory.
While Fayol concentrated generally on managerial activities in their entirely, Deming
stressed the never ending cyclical nature of such activities. Over the last decade,Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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management systems standards have become more aligned. This alignment is characterized
by a common base that supports the structure of management system: the PDCA cycle(Plan, Do, Check, Act) of continual improvement (Bernardo et al. 2015; Oliveira, 2013;
Zeng et al. 2007).
3. EVALUATION OF QMS AND OHSAS IN MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS
AND PUBLIC HOUSING
In fact, Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing implemented Quality
Management System (QMS) and Occupational Health and Safety Management System(OHSAS) independently. Evaluation used survey to 37 project sampling (average 1 project
per province) from 340 project (average 10 project per province). Evaluation divided into 6
regions including: Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Bali / NTB, and Papua. The
sampling project is divided into 4 project categories consisting of Bina Marga (BM)project, Water Resources (SDA), Cipta Karya (CK), and Housing (Pera). The results
evaluation of QMS shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 The Results of QMS in 2015 (Executive Summary Ministry of PUPR, 2015)
Figure 1 explained that all construction projects in Ministry of Public Works and Public
Housing already implemented QMS (50 -74% or yellow block) but not based on QMS
regulation. It is expected to achieve the best results and international standards that canmeet the needs and expectations of service users and even beyond it (beyond the
expectation) and improve the performance of service providers.

Figure 2 The Results of OHSMS at 37 Construction Projects in 2015
Source: Executive Summary Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing, 2015

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The results evaluation of health and safety shown in figure 2 explored that Ministry of
Public Works and Public Housing have “unsaved activities/red blocks” (implementation
range was 0 – 49%)” for health and safety.
Figure 1 and Figure 2 expressed that QMS is done their process activity independently
with OHSAS, evaluate their audit independently, documenting the process independently
and have different regulation. Figure 2 explored several cases of occupational accidents inIndonesia have shown a significant impact both on the side of corporate performance
decline, causing delay projects, cost overrun, and humanitarian aspects. For both results in
Figure 1 and Figure 2, only Directorate General of The Housing Provision that hasn’t
implemented quality management system and occupational safety and health management
system.
4. STATE-OF-THE-ART
Evaluation of system management implementation in Ministry of Public Works andPublic Housing, shown in figure 1 and figure 2 that QMS and OHSAS independently insingle system probably have the same risk of rework and risk of accident that can causes
time-consuming in order to achieve orderly construction. In fact, doing construction isalmost always deal with QMS and OHSAS in same time in same activities. Those processof activity are manage shape into knowledege management as shown in the figure 3 as thestate-of the-art of this paper.
SystemInformation

SystemInformation

SystemInformation

Figure 3 State-Of-The-Art (Author Own Research)Integration process used in construction is linier system engineering such as concept
development phase, development phase, and post development phase (Kossiakof, 2011;
Benjamin, 2015). Organizations need to evaluate quality, health and safety risk. They
require risk evaluation within organization which control in the highest risk item (Chadet.al, 2015; Bogdul et.al, 2015). Integrated risk management as the second level has therole to play in making the public service more effective. It contributes to better
program management (Office of the Auditor General of Canada, 2003). The third
elements of integration is integration audit. Integration audit can only be conducted when

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the process within organization are integrated (Chad et.al, 2015; Bogdul et.al, 2015;
opincaru et.al., 2004). Implementation of integration management system is depend tosystem information (Trols, 2015), stakeholders and resource management (Nunhes et.al,
2015; Nunhes et.al, 2016). Process for achieving orderly construction in Figure 3 (concept
development phase, engineering development phase, post development phase) have various
variable as in table 1.
Table 1 Variable used in Each System Engineering System Phase(Concept Development, Engineering Development, Post Development)(Author Review based on Literature Review in Table 2)
X.1.1.1 Scope
X.3.1.1 Context of the organization
X.1.1.2 Normative references
X.3.1.2 Leadership
X1.1 Work
X.1.1.3 Terms and definition
X.3.1.3 Planning
Breakdown Structure
X.3.1 Audit Plan
X.1.1.4 Context of the organization
X.3.1.4 Support
X.1.1.5 Leadership
X.3.1.5 Operation
Variable X3.
X.1.2.1 Plan Activities
X.3.1.6 Performance evaluation
Integrated Audit
X.1.2 Business
X.1.2.2 Flow Activities
X.3.1.7 Improvement
Process
Variable X1.
X.1.3.1 Support resources
X.3.2 Audit teamIntegrated
X.3.3 Audit Appraisal
X.1.3 Support Process X.1.3.2 Support activites
Process
X.1.3.3 Flow Support Activities
X.3.4 Audit Schedule & checklist
X.1.4.1 Operation process
X.4.1.1 Scope
X.1.4 Operation
X.1.4.2 Flow operation activites
X.4.1.2 Normative references
process
X.1.5.1 Analysis of performance
X.4.1.3 Terms and definition
X.1.5 performance
X.1.5.2 Performance evaluation
X.4.1.4 Context of the organization
evaluation
X.1.6.1 Process control
X.4.1.5 Leadership
X.1.6 improvement
X.4.1 IT Plan/Procedur
X.1.6.2 improvement
X.4.1.6 Planning
Variable X4.
System
X.2.1.1 Scope
X.4.1.7 Support
Information
X.2.1.2 Normative references
X.4.1.8 Operation
X.2.1 Identify Risk
X.2.1.3 Terms and definition
X.4.1.9 Performance evaluation
X.2.1.4 Context of the organization
X.4.1.10 Improvement
X.2.1.5 Leadership
X.4.2 Software & hardware
Variable X2.
X.2.2.1 Planning
X.4.3 Data
Integrated Risk X.2.2 Analysis Risk
X.2.2.2 Support
X.4.4 Flow Communication
X.2.2.3 Operation
x.2.3.1 Evaluation
X.2.3 Evaluation Risk
X.2.3.2 Performance evaluation
X.2.4.1 Control risk
X.2.4 Control Risk
X.2.4.2 Improvement

Variables are work breakdown structure, business process, support process, operation
process, performance evaluation and improvement for integration process variable (Thaís
Vieira Nunhes, et.al, 2017; Maria Gianni and Katerina Gotzamani, 2015; Merce Bernardo,
2014, Mercè Bernardo, 2015; Alexandra Simon, Juan Jose Tarí, Jose F. Molina-Azorín,
2015; Calcedo et.al, 2015; Mercè Bernardo, Marti Casadesus, Stanislas Karapetrovic, Inaki
Heras, 2009). Identify risk, analysis risk, evaluation risk, and control risk for integrated risk
variable (Merce Bernando et.al, 2015; Yarahmadi et.al, 2015; Alexandra Simon, 2012;
Alena Labadova, 2004; Beatrix Barafort, et.al, 2016; T.Karzkozka et.al, 2017). Audit plan,
audit team, audit appraisal, and audit schedule and checklist for integrated audit (Sendil
Mourougan, 2015; Cristinel Roncea, 2016; Merce Bernardo et.al., 2010; Simon, Merce
Bernardo et.al, 2015; Merce Bernardo et.al, 2011; Ajay D Jewalikar, Dr. Abhijeet Shelke,
2016; Alexandra Simon, et. al., 2011; Zoé Hoy and Andrea Foley, 2015; Richard Roessler
and Hannes Schlieter, 2015; Alexandra Simon et.al, 2012; Alexandra Simon et.al, 2012).
Through an information technology management system, it can provide added value to theorganization as a whole such as IT plan/procedures, software & hardware, data, and flow
communication for system information (Iveta Mezinska et.al., 2015; Florida Veljanoska
and Majlinda Axhiu, 2015; Dorin Maier et.al, 2015). That is explored from table 2.

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Rebelo, 2017

Nunhes, Ferreira Motta etal. 2016
Nunhes, Motta Barbosa et
al. 2016

Merce Bernardo, 2016

El MorrChristo, 2016
Truls Löfstedt, 2015

Abrahamsson, Isaksson etal. 2010
Manzanera et all, 2014

Veljanoska, 2013

2.

3.

5.

6.
7.

8.

10.

9.

4.

Chairini, 2017

Author1.

No

Features

Deming Cycle

√

√

√
√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√
√

√

√

√

√

H. Fayolcycle
Core
Activities
Systeminformation
Stakeholder
Management
√
√

√

√

√

√
√

√

Integrated
Risk
Integrated
process√

Integrated
audits√√Government
Focus

Table 2 State-of-the-Art

IMS is a devices and systems that managers use to ensurethat the behaviors and decisions of their employees are
consistent with the organization’s objectives and strategies
and documented in an IT
Results show that there are advantages in integration, butthat the scope and level of integration often is limited.
Dividing the design process in other sectors as well as
strategies that can be generalized to the government
applicable
IT used to capture integrated management systemtransaction, support system, decision making system.
√√

Less risk of death in IT e-Health√√

The results indicated the most integrated elements are thehigh management responsibility, work instructions, control
of documents and records, internal communication andstructure and accountability
Findings state of the art for future research, especially data
for lack analysis of studies approaching IMS andperformance

Identify research gaps in the scope of IMS.

Majority of risk in production is nonconformance product,untrained employee and less of awareness.
Integrated Management System can reduce hazard in doing
business.

Results

√

√

√

√

Employee
Focus

8

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Gapp, Fisher et al. 2008

Badreddine, Romdhane etal. 2009
Alena Labodová, 2004

Present research

15.

16.

18.

Deming Cycle

√

√

√

√

√

√

H. Fayol cycle

Source: Author own research, 2017

Asif, de Bruijn et al. 2009

14.

17.

M. Sokovic , D. Pavletic,
K. Kern Pipan, 2010

Raisiene, 2011

12.

13.

Simon et.al, 2012

Author11.

No

Features

√

√

√

√

√

√

CommonfeatureSysteminformation
Stakeholder
Management√√√

Integrated
Risk
Integrated
process
√

√

√

√

√

√

Integrated
audits√√Government
Focus
√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

Employee
Focus

Explored evolution of integrated management system,
benefit and difficulties and implemented IMS in chemical
firms
Seeing the potential advantages and weaknesses IMS for
organizations that seek to optimize the management
processes
Advantage organizations to know the challenges andconstraints of the organization in carrying out the integrationof the system / standard. If these challenges are not detected
early will cause delays organization.
IMS implementation can be facilitated through enablers suchas securing senior management’s full support, addressing
strategic planning, allocating and prioritizing resources,
establishing goals, targets and milestones, involvement of
end-users in the design and implementation phase, support of
IMS experts, fostering a culture of teamwork, and throughemployees’ training.
The findings show the importance of technical factors
approach (visible) and philosophy (invisible) than cultural 5S
management framework using Kaizen
Integrating to achieve satisfaction at the level ofcorrespondence, coordination and integration
The implementation of integrated management system basedon risk analysis on greenfield.
Advantage organizations to know the challenges andobstacles in the organization in implementing integration ofsystems / standards to achieve orderly construction

Results

Table 2 explored the journey of in integrated management systems in academic review
that Integrated Management System consist of integration process, integration risk,
integration audit, and system information. Variable explore in Table 1 which is integrated
process, integrated risk, integrated audit, and system information are review in table 2.
Table 2 describe that previous studies about integrated management systems concerned incontractor’s view or employee’s view to achieve continuous improvement with high quality
product without harming employees life. In fact, the present of government in standardized
the integrated management system is very important and not have been studied. This
studies concerned in government view (Ministry of Public Work and Public Housing) toachieve orderly construction with less risk of rework, less risk of accident and less risk ofwaste in orderly time phase construction. This variable assumes can reduce risk of rework
and risk of accident that can causes time-consuming in order to achieve orderly
construction.
5. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
80% of activities in QMS and OHSAS have the same activities (Jørgensen, 2008). Allprocess is combined in integrated process. All management system process used PDCA
cycle or we used to know as Deming cycle. This basic approach has common requirementsin each steps of the PDCA cycle for the multiple standards. These common requirements ofmanagement systems can be met by common procedures or process. This is a fundamental
truth in the path to integrated management system standards (Thaís Vieira Nunhes, et.al,
2017; Maria Gianni and Katerina Gotzamani, 2015; Merce Bernardo, 2014, Mercè
Bernardo, 2015; Alexandra Simon, Juan Jose Tarí, Jose F. Molina-Azorín, 2015; Calcedo
et.al, 2015; Mercè Bernardo, Marti Casadesus, Stanislas Karapetrovic, Inaki Heras, 2009;
Merce Bernando et.al, 2015; Yarahmadi et.al, 2015; Alexandra Simon, 2012; Alena
Labadova, 2004; Beatrix Barafort, et.al, 2016; T.Karzkozka et.al, 2017; Sendil Mourougan,
2015; Cristinel Roncea, 2016; Merce Bernardo et.al., 2010; Simon, Merce Bernardo et.al,
2015; Merce Bernardo et.al, 2011; Ajay D Jewalikar et.al., 2016; Alexandra Simon, et. al.,2011; Zoé Hoy and Andrea Foley, 2015; Richard Roessler and Hannes Schlieter, 2015;
Alexandra Simon et.al, 2012; Alexandra Simon et.al, 2012; Iveta Mezinska et.al., 2015;
Florida Veljanoska and Majlinda Axhiu, 2015; Dorin Maier et.al, 2015).
That common requirement, procedures and process is summarized in knowledge
management such as integration process (Thaís Vieira Nunhes, et.al, 2017; Maria Gianni
and Katerina Gotzamani, 2015; Merce Bernardo, 2014, Mercè Bernardo, 2015; Alexandra
Simon, Juan Jose Tarí, Jose F. Molina-Azorín, 2015; Calcedo et.al, 2015; Mercè Bernardo,
Marti Casadesus, Stanislas Karapetrovic, Inaki Heras, 2009), integrated risk (Merce
Bernando et.al, 2015; Yarahmadi et.al, 2015; Alexandra Simon, 2012; Alena Labadova,
2004; Beatrix Barafort, et.al, 2016; T.Karzkozka et.al, 2017), integrated audit (Sendil
Mourougan, 2015; Cristinel Roncea, 2016; Merce Bernardo et.al., 2010; Simon, Merce
Bernardo et.al, 2015; Merce Bernardo et.al, 2011; Ajay D Jewalikar, Dr. Abhijeet Shelke,
2016; Alexandra Simon, et. al., 2011; Zoé Hoy and Andrea Foley, 2015; Richard Roessler
and Hannes Schlieter, 2015; Alexandra Simon et.al, 2012; Alexandra Simon et.al, 2012).
That variables are formed into an integrated management system.
Integrated management systems (IMS) also requires an information technology
management system (Iveta Mezinska, Inga Lapin et al., 2015; Florida Veljanoska andProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

9

Majlinda Axhiu, 2015; Dorin Maier et.al, 2015). The implementation of IMS assumes to beorderly construction with less risk of rework, less risk of accident and less risk of waste inorderly time phase construction (concept of development, engineering development, postdevelopment) as illustrated in the conceptual framework in Figure 4.
Figure 4 the Conceptual Framework (Author Own Research)

This conceptual framework will examine the relationships among the integration
process, the integration risk, the integration audit and the system information with theelements of the Orderly Construction’s block. To prove this concept, each relationship canbe formed as a hypothesis as shown below:
H1: The integration process has a positive impact on risk reduction
H2: The integration process has a positive impact on achieving orderly construction
H3: The integration risk has a positive impact on risk reduction
H4: The integration risk has a positive impact on achieving orderly construction
H5: The integration audit has a positive impact on risk reduction
H6: The integration audit has a positive impact on achieving orderly construction
H7: The System information has a positive impact on risk reduction
H8: The System information has a positive impact on achieving orderly construction
Later those hypothesis will be tested through the next survey asking the opinions from theexperts related.
6. CONCLUDING REMARKSThis paper is a comprehensive literature review of quality management system andoccupational health/safety management system to form an integrated management
system (IMS). The IMS aims to improve the performance of construction process by
integrating process and audit of quality/safety system. Results of this study found theconceptual framework the integrated management system between Quality Management
System and Occupational Health /Safety Management System.

10

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7. REFERENCES
Abrahamsson, S., et al. (2010). Integrated management systems: advantages, problems andpossibilities. 13th Toulon-Verona Conference.
Asif, M., et al. (2009). "Process embedded design of integrated management systems."
International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management 26(3): 261-282.
Badreddine, A., et al. (2009). A new process-based approach for implementing an integrated
management system: quality, security, environment. Proceedings of the International
MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists.
Bugdol, et.al., 2015, integrated Management System, Springer, Poland
De Oliveira, O. J. (2013). "Guidelines for the integration of certifiable management systems inindustrial companies." Journal of cleaner production 57: 124-133.
El MorrChristo, Ginsburg Liane, Nam Victor (Seungree), Susan Woollard, Bojay Hensen, IT
integration and Patient Safety the case of a software tool, ELSEVIER, Science Direct, Procedia
Computer Science 98 ( 2016 ) 534 – 539
Florida Veljanoska, Majlinda Axhiu, Information Systems as support to corporate management,
Management Information Systems Vol. 8, 4/2013
Gapp, R., et al. (2008). "Implementing 5S within a Japanese context: an integrated management
system." Management Decision 46(4): 565-579.
Hoyle, D., (2009), ISO 9000 Quality Systems Handbook, sixth edition, Buttherworth
Heinemann/Elsevier Ltd Great Britain
Holdsworth, Rodger, 2016, Practical applications approach to design, development andimplementation of an integrated management system, Elzevier
Kymal, et.al.,2015, Integrated Management System, ASQ quality press, Milwauke Wisconsin
Manzanera, et.al., 2014, Design of an integrated management system (IMS) in a government-run
medical evaluation organisation, The TQM Journal
Nunhes, T. V., et al. (2016). "Evolution of integrated management systems research on the Journalof Cleaner Production: Identification of contributions and gaps in the literature." Journal ofcleaner production 139: 1234-1244.
Nunhes, T. V., et al. (2016). "Identification and analysis of the elements and functions integrable inintegrated management systems." Journal of cleaner production.
Octavia, Andrei, Risk Management and Quality Management an Integrate Approach, Economy
Transdisciplinarity Cognition, 2016
Popescu, S.G., Petruş, A.A., Metode de analiză a riscului în managementul proiectului, Calitatea
acces la succes, Journal, Vol.13, No.127/April, p. 8-14
Raisiene, A. G. (2011). "Advantages and limitations of integrated management system: thetheoretical viewpoint." Socialines Technologijos 1(1).
Saleh Binobaid, Mohammed Almeziny,Ip-Shing Fan, Using an integrated information system toreduce interruptions and the number of non-relevant contacts in the inpatient pharmacy attertiary hospital, www.sciencedirect.com, 2015
Simon, A., et al. (2014). "Can integration difficulties affect innovation and satisfaction?" Industrial
Management & Data Systems 114(2): 183-202.
Simon, A. Karapetrovic, S. and Casadesus, M (2012) Evolution of Integrated Management System
in Spanish Firms. Journal of Cleaner Production, 23 (2012), 8-19

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Simon, A. Karapetrovic, S. and Casadesus, M (2012). Difficulties and benefits of integrated
management systems . Industrial Management and Data Systems, 112 (5), 828-846.
Simon, A. Bernando, M, Karapetrovic, S and Casadesus, M (2012). Implementing integrated
management system in chemical firms. total Quality Management & Business Excelence.
Simon, A. Bernando, M, Karapetrovic, S and Casadesus, M. (2011) Integration of standardized
environmental and quality management systems audits. Journal of Cleaner Production, 19 (1718), 2057-2065.
Truls Löfstedt, 2015, Exploring Integrated Management Systems - Challenges and Potential in
Relation in IT Governance, Conference Paper
Yang, Heechun, 2016, Impact of time management for IT services management, Science Direct
Zutshi, A. and A. S. Sohal (2005). "Integrated management system: the experiences of three
Australian organisations." Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management 16(2): 211-232.
Zeng, S., et al. (2007). "A synergetic model for implementing an integrated management system:
an empirical study in China." Journal of cleaner production 15(18): 1760-1767.
Zeng, S., et al. (2008). "Towards occupational health and safety systems in the constructionindustry of China." Safety science 46(8): 1155-1168.

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION OF FEEDER TRANSIT OF TRANSJAKARTACORRIDOR PULO GADUNG – DUKUH ATAS 2, JAKARTA: STRUCTURALEQUATION MODELING ANALYSIS
Jachrizal Sumabrata1, Samuel Edy Mataram Simanjuntak2, Jachryandestama3
1
2

Centre for Sustainable Infrastructure Development FTUI, rjs@eng.ui.ac.id

Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia
3

Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies, University of Sydney

ABSTRACT
PT. Transportasi Jakarta, supervised by Government of DKI Jakarta, tries to improve
Transjakarta BRT services for its customers. To support the BRT system, PT. Transportasi
Jakarta provides Transjakarta feeder buses that operate to transporting passengers outside
Transjakarta bus lanes to Transjakarta bus stops. Along with Transjakarta feeder buses,
private owned public transports are also used as feeders of Transjakarta despite theircondition. Private owned public transport has begun aging, and its service quality has been
decreasing. Moreover, customer satisfaction is crucial because it influences consumers’
decision to use public transport. PLS-SEM (Partial Least Square- Structural Equation
Modeling) analysis conducted to determine customer satisfaction to quality of service. The
studies are limited to feeder transport users in the corridors 4 (Pulo Gadung - Dukuh Atas 2).
The results are that Transjakarta feeder bus users are very satisfied with the service andtransport facilities variable. On the other hand, private owned medium size bus transport(Metro Mini) users are very satisfied with the information and technology variables mainlyon the availability of public transport information while private owned small bus transport(Mikrolet) users are very satisfied with the safe and security variable mainly on security incarrying passenger goods.
Keywords: Service quality, passengers’ satisfaction, SEM (Structural Equation Modeling),
Transjakarta Feeder Transit.
1. INTRODUCTION
The high use of private transport will lead to problems such as congestion (Peter Newman,
1999; Prabhat Shrivastava, 2006). By increasing the public to use public transport asTransjakarta feeder, it will be more effective and efficient transportation system in general.
The existence of the feeder transit is very important because appropriately implemented
feeder transit can increase the number of public transport users particularly from along theroutes area (Yannis Tyrinopoulos, 2008). Nowadays, Public transport users are decreasing
because of unpleasant services because feeder transit of Transjakarta has become old andworn. Passengers who used to rely on public transport will move to use private vehicles
which are more secure and comfortable. If there is no improvement, then service quality will
decrease while user complaints will increase which affect the satisfaction level of public
transport users.
The concept of quality has been extensively applied to public transport as it covers so many
diverse topics such as comfort and safety inside the vehicle, journey times and even theconvenience of the service and the existence of supporting infrastructure (Litman, 2008;

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

13

Hensher et al., 2003; Hensher and Houghton,E., 2004, de Oña, de Oña, Eboli & Mazzulla,2013). Furthermore, consumer satisfaction is important to the service providers oftransportation (Laura. & Mazulla. 2007; Laura & Mazulla, 2011; Harifah, 2014; Mouwen,2015), companies or organizations in transport should be able to find ways to improvecustomer satisfaction (De Borger, 2002).
Some authors proposed A structural equation modeling (SEM) in public transport (Bamberg
and Schmidt 1998; Fillone et al. 2005). Specifically, SEM was adopted for describing
customer satisfaction in public transport services (Andreassen 1995; Karlaftis et al. 2001;
Eboli and Mazzulla 2012). Structural equation modeling was applied to measure passengers’satisfaction with public city transport services and to verify how much some service
characteristics could influence the perceived quality (de Oña, de Oña, Eboli and
Mazzulla,2013 and Antonucci, L. et al., 2014). Authors claim that factors affecting customer
satisfaction with public city transport can be grouped into latent variables consisting service
organization, safety and reliability, human resources and comfort and cleanliness.
Therefore, this study analyzes the factors in determining users’ satisfaction of feeder transitof Transjakarta by quantifying its factors and identify the most important factors influencing
customer satisfaction with feeder transit of Transjakarta as an integral part of mass transit.
2. METHODS
The data are obtained by distributing a questionnaire containing a number of statements
regarding the quality of feeder transit services of Transjakarta on the bus stop along corridor
4 Pulo Gadung - Dukuh Atas 2 as shown in figure 1. The questionnaires were distributed to
211 respondents who are in Transjakarta bus stop where previously used public transportation
including the private owned medium bus (metromini and kopaja) and private owned smallbus (mikrolet and angkot) to get to the bus stop.

Figure 1. Bus stop on corridor 4, Pulo Gadung (A) – Dukuh Atas 2(B)This research explores the relationship between global customer satisfaction (i.e., passenger
satisfaction about overall service) and service quality attributes, based on needs andexpectations expressed by the customers of public transport services.
The model that used are the relationship between customer satisfaction and service quality
variables as shown in the figure 2.

14

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Figure 2. Research Model
Data were analyzed using SEM-PLS. First, the data must be processed using descriptive
analysis to describe the characteristics of the respondent. Then for the model analysis ofresearch conducted with SmartPLS version 2.0 software. SmartPLS Software is one of thetools to do model forms Partial Least Square (PLS), which is part of the Structural Equation
Modeling (SEM) based variants that can simultaneously perform testing measurement modeland structural model at a time (Wong K. K., 2013).
SEM PLS consists of three components, namely the structural model, the measurement modeland the weighting scheme (Bacon, 1999; Hwang, 2010; Wong, 2011; Monecke & Leisch,2012). The third part is a characteristic of SEM with PLS. The model will be described asshown in figure 3.

Transport Services
and Facilities

Driver’s behavior

ComfortCustomer
Satisfaction

Information andTechnology

Safe and Secure

Figure 3, Model SEM-PLS

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

15

SEM using PLS models only allow the relationship between variables that recursive (samedirection) only. It is similar to the path analysis (path analysis) model but is not the same as
the SEM based covariance that also allows non-recursive (reciprocal) relationship.
In the structural model, which is also known as inner model, all the latent variables byconnected one to another based on the theory of substance. The latent variables are divided
into two, namely the exogenous and endogenous. Exogenous latent variables are the cause
variables or variables without preceded by other variables with arrows leading to the othervariables (endogenous latent variables).
Measurement model, which is also known as outer model, connecting all manifest variables
or indicators with latent variables. Within the framework of PLS, the manifest variables canonly be associated with one latent variable. All manifest variables that associated with thelatent variable are referred to as a 'block'. Thus, each latent variable has a variable block
manifest. A block must contain at least one indicator. A block associated with latent variables
can be reflective (manifest variables as indicators that are affected by the same concepts andunderlying) or formative (indicators that make or cause changes in latent variables)
Partial Least Square (PLS) as the family regression based method that introduced by Herman(Wold, 1985) to review the creation and development models and methods for the social
sciences with a prediction oriented approach. PLS has assumptions of freely distributed
research data, meaning that the research data do not refer to any particular distribution. PLS
is an alternative method of SEM that can be used to solve relationship problem between thecomplex variables, but the small data sample size between 30 and 100, considering that SEM
has 100 of a data sample size.
SEM with PLS is to predict and develop theories. It is different with SEM based covariancethat use to test and confirm existing theories. Furthermore, PLS-SEM was also used to predict
endogenous latent variables or to identify main variables if the research is exploratory
research or extension of an existing structural theory.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Descriptive analysis conducted on 211 respondents’ data of Transjakarta feeder bus transit
users as shown on table 1.
Table 1 Respondent Data of Transjakarta Feeder Transit User
Variables

Percent

Variables

Percent

Male

61 %

Trip Origin

Female

39 %

House

79 %

School7%

Office18 %GenderAge

16> 40 years

4%

Shopping Centre

3%

30 – 39 years

14 %

MD

1%

20 – 29 years

52 %Relatives15 %< 20 years

30 %Others0%

Variables

Percent

Variables

Percent

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Occupation

Trip Purpose

Priv. employees

37 %Feeder Transit

Housewife

3%

Work

37 %

Student

44 %School39 %Gov. Employees

4%

Shop

9%

TNI /POLRI

1%Treatment

1%

Entrepreneur

3%

Visit Relatives

9%

Unemployed

7%

Others5%

Others1%

Formal Education

Travel Time To the Bus Stop

Junior High School3%< 5 minutes

23 %High School62 %5 – 10 minutes

51 %Undergraduate

32 %> 10 minutes

27 %Postgraduate

3%Type of Feeder Transit
Bus feeder

17 % (operated by PT Transjakarta)

KWK

8 % (informal small size bus)

Mikrolet

36 % (informal small sixe bus)

Kopaja

13 % (informal medium size bus)

Metromini

26 % (informal medium size bus)

The PLS SEM analysis conducted to determine the relationship between the variables ofservice quality and customer satisfaction according to the research model. The model for each
three types of bus using SEM with PLS approach are as follows:a. Feeder Bus of Transjakarta
This model uses a sample of 36 respondents which has five main measurement dimensions
that were used as the measuring tool of satisfaction. By using Structural Equation Modeling(SEM) approach Partial Least Squares (PLS), the test and analysis results of bus feeder
Transjakarta model is shown in table2:
Table 2 Coefficient table Between Transjakarta Bus Feeder Construct
Code

Exogenous
Variables

T Statistics(|O/STERR|)A ->SATISFACTION

Transport
Services
andFacilities

6.4123

Code

Exogenous
Variables

T Statistics(|O/STERR|)

Code

Manifest Variables

a1
a3
a4
a5
a7
a2

neat and maintained vehicles
seats with ample leg roomclean windows
space for luggage
vehicle not broke down
clean seats

Code

Manifest Variables

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Loading Factor
0.7896
0.76960.74670.70580.68830.6261
Loading Factor

17

C ->
SATISFACTION

Comfort5.4728E ->SATISFACTION

Safe and
Secure2.9824D ->SATISFACTION

Information
andTechnology

2.3769

Driver’s
Behavior

0.2815B ->SATISFACTION

c7
c8
c9
c3
c1
c5
e2
e1
e4
d3

easy moved to other transport
bus stop location
cheap and affordable fares
temperature
operate timeother passenger behavior
emergency door
feel safe and secure during trip
feel safe carrying goods
fares information

0.85260.70960.70720.65390.54090.52460.81750.81230.75040.9345d4

information service complaints

0.8544

b2
b4
b1
b3

dress neatly
give attention
drive carefully
friendliness0.91120.81080.7986
0.6346

Table 2 shows it each path coefficient and loading factor on the satisfaction variable with thetransport services of feeder bus of Transjakarta, and facilities variable is felt best whencompared to other satisfaction parameters that have been tested.
b. Medium size bus
This model uses a sample of 83 respondents with five main measurement dimensions which
are used as the measuring tool of satisfaction. Test and analysis results of bus feeder
Transjakarta model as shown in Table 3 :Table 3 Coefficient table Between Medium Size Bus Construct
Exogenous
Variables

T Statistics(|O/STERR|)D ->SATISFACTION

Information andTechnology

3.8647A ->SATISFACTION

Transport
Services andFacilities

1.9608B ->SATISFACTION

Driver’s
Behavior

1.7254C ->SATISFACTION

Comfort1.1662Code

Code

Manifest Variablesd2

availability
information service
complaints
fares informationroute trip informationneat and maintained vehicles
clean seatsclean windows
seats with ample leg room
friendlinessgive attention
dress neatly
drive carefully
temperaturesmellease of carrying goods
operate timecheap and affordable fares
easy moved to othertransportother passenger behavior
emergency door
feel safe carrying goods
provide first aid
feel safe and secure during
trip

d4
d3
d1
a1
a2
a4
a3
b3
b4
b2
b1
c3
c4
c2
c1
c9
c7

E ->
SATISFACTION

18

Safe and Secure

0.5946

c5
e2
e4
e3
e1

Loading
Factor
0.78420.74520.67750.65860.80010.782
0.6006
0.54130.86750.8405
0.57
0.513
0.829
0.63810.63050.58670.584
0.56790.49980.8032
0.78450.642
0.6057

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Table 3 shows each path coefficient and loading factor on the variable satisfaction. For
medium-size bus transportation, satisfaction to information and technology felt best whencompared to other satisfaction parameters that have been tested. In the satisfaction variablewith the information and technology, respondents feel that the availability of public transport
is felt most well demonstrated by the greatest loading factor among other manifest variables
that make the latent variable of information and technology.
c. Small size bus
This model uses a sample of 92 respondents with five main measurement dimensions which
are used as the measuring tool of satisfaction. By using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
approach Partial Least Squares (PLS), test and analysis results of bus feeder Transjakarta
model as shown in Table 4:
Table 4. Coefficient table Between Small Size Bus Construct
Code
E ->

SATISFACTIONB ->SATISFACTION

Exogenous
Variables

T Statistics(|O/STERR|)
4.6267A ->2.0889
Driver’s Behavior

Transport Services
and Facilities
0.7074D ->SATISFACTION

Information andTechnology

C ->Comforte4

feel safe carrying goods
feel safe and secure during
trip
emergency door
provide first aid
friendlinessdress neatly
give attention
drive carefullyclean windows
clean seatsneat and maintained vehicles
seats with ample leg room
vehicle not broke down
space for luggage
availability
fares information
information
servicecomplaints
route trip information
No overcrowded
other passenger behavior
ease of carrying goods
temperatureeasy to moved to othertransportsmell
bus stop location
cheap and affordable fares
operate time

e2
e3
b3
b2
b4
b1
a4
a2
a1
a3
a7
a5
d2
d3
d4

0.4862SATISFACTION

Manifest Variables

e1

Safe and Secure

1.0314SATISFACTION

Code

d1
c6
c5
c2
c3
c7
c4
c8
c9
c1

Loading
Factor
0.83370.79010.68570.58810.82870.79940.74450.719
0.77960.77040.69790.63850.55550.54890.86310.73610.725
0.7026
0.76330.73710.71540.6832
0.67410.67350.624
0.5977
0.5266

Table 4 shows each path coefficient and loading factor on the variable satisfaction. For thesmall size bus type, satisfaction with the safe and secure variable is felt best when comparedto other satisfaction parameters that have been tested. Within the safe and secure variable,
respondents felt that their safety when carrying goods in public transport is felt most,

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19

demonstrated by its greatest loading factor among other manifest variables that make up thelatent variable E
4. CONCLUSION
Through the research results obtained, then the conclusions can be drawn from this researchare:
1. It can be concluded that the factor that customer are most satisfied for Transjakarta
feeder transit, are as follows:a. Feeder Bus Transjakarta
Transjakarta users show that they are very satisfied with the transport services
and facilities compared with the other satisfaction parameters. In quality
service variables which are considered the best is vehicle neat and wellmaintained.
b. Private owned medium size bus
Medium size bus users show that they are very satisfied with information andtechnology variable compared with the other satisfaction parameters. In
quality service variables which are considered the best is the information
about the availability of the vehicle.
c. Private owned small size bus
Small size bus users show that they are very satisfied with safe and secure
variable compared with the other satisfaction parameters. In quality service
variables which are considered the best is feel safe carrying goods.
2. Factors that customer are least satisfaction with the quality of service for Transjakarta
feeder transit are:a. Feeder Bus Transjakarta
The level of customer satisfaction with service quality variables of bus feeder
Transjakarta is the variable of the driver’s behavior. Respondents perceived
that friendliness is the lowest among other driver’s behavior indicator.
b. Private owned medium size bus
The level of customer satisfaction with service quality variables of medium
size bus is the safe and secure variable. Respondents perceived that feel safe
and secure during the trip is the lowest among other safe and secure indicator.
c. Private owned small size bus
The level of customer satisfaction with service quality variables of small sizebus is the comfort variable. Respondents perceived that operational time is thelowest among other comfort indicators.
The recommendation that can be given to the feeder transit of Transjakarta operator andfurther researches are:1. Feeder Bus Transjakarta
The lowest factor of the driver’s behavior is friendliness. This type of vehicle
has to set the standard procedure operational about how to interact withpassengers.
2. Private owned medium size bus
The lowest factor within safe and secure factors is safe and secure feeling
during the trip. It can be noted that public transportations commit numerous
violations such as embark and/or disembark of passengers regardless of bus
stops, unmaintained bus condition, and the drivers often violate the rules oftraffic. Suggestion that should be considered by the transport operator is the20

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car must pass roadworthiness and consider replacing vehicles that conditions
are not roadworthy.
3. Private owned small size bus
The lowest factor amongst comfort factors is operational time. Having no
setting for operational schedule made passengers unable to know theoperational schedule certainly. Adjustment to operational schedule should bemade so that passenger know when using public transport.
5. REFERENCES
1. Andreassen, T.W., (1995), (Dis)satisfaction with public services: The case of public
transportation, Journal of Services Marketing 9, pp 30–41.
2. Antonucci, L., Crocetta, C., d’Ovidio, F.D., Ernesto T., (2014), Passenger
satisfaction: A multi-group analysis, Quality and Quantity, 48(1), pp 337-345.
3. Bacon, L. D., (1999), Using LISREL and PLS to Measure Customer Satisfaction,
Sawtooth Software Conference Proceedings, Feb 2-5, pp 305-306.
4. Bamberg, S., Schmidt P., (1998), Changing Travel-Mode Choice as Rational Choice:
Results from a Longitudinal Intervention Study, Rationality and Society, 10(2), pp
223-252.
5. De Borger, B. C., (2002), Public transit performance: what does one learn fromfrontier studies?, Transport Reviews, 22(1), pp 1–38.
6. de Oña, J., de Oña, R., Eboli L., Mazzulla, G., (2013), Perceived service quality inbustransit service: A structural equation approach, Transport Policy, 29, pp 219-226.
7. Fillone, A. M., C. M. Montalbo, N. C. Tiglao, (2005), Assessing urban travel: A
structural equations modeling (SEM) approach, Proceedings of the Eastern Asia
Society for Transportation Studies 5, pp 1050-1064.
8. Harifah, Mohd. Noor, Na’asah, Nasrudin., and Foo, Jurry, (2014), Determinants ofCustomer Satisfaction of Service Quality: City Bus Service in Kota Kinabalu,
Malaysia, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 153, pp 595-605.
9. Hensher, D.A., Houghton,E., (2004), Performance-based quality contracts for the bus
sector: delivering social and commercial value for money, Transportation ResearchPart B 38, pp 123-146.
10. Hensher, D.A., Stanley,J., (2003), Performance-based quality contracts in bus service
provision. Transportation Research Part A 37, pp 519-538.
11. Hwang, H. M., (2010), A comparative study on parameter recovery of three
approaches to structural equation modeling, Journal of Marketing Research, 47, pp699-712.
12. Karlaftis, M. G., J. Golias, E. Papadimitriou, (2001), Transit quality as an integrated
traffic management strategy: Measuring perceived service. Journal of Public
Transportation 4 (1), pp 27-44
13. Ken Kwong-Kay Wong, (2013), Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling(PLS-SEM) Techniques Using SmartPLS, Marketing Bulletin, Technical Note 1, pp
1-32.

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14. Laura Eboli, Gabriella Mazzulla, (2007), Service Quality Attributes Affecting
Customer Satisfaction for Bus Transit, Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 10,
No.3, pp 21-34
15. Laura Eboli, Gabriella Mazzulla, (2011), A methodology for evaluating transit service
quality based on subjective and objective measures from the passenger’s point ofview, Transport Policy, 17, pp 172–181.
16. Laura Eboli, Gabriella Mazzulla, (2012), Structural Equation Modelling for Analysing
Passengers, 15th meeting of the EURO Working Group on Transportation, Paris,
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 54, pp. 96-106.
17. Litman, T., (2008), Valuing transit service quality improvements, Journal of Public
Transportation 11(2), pp 43-64
18. Monecke, A., Leisch F., (2012), SEM PLS: Structural Equation Modelling Using
Partial Least Square. Journal of Statistic Software, pp 1-32.
19. Mouwen A., (2015), Drivers of Customer Satisfaction with Public Transport Services,
Transportation Research: Part A, Policy And Practice (78), pp 1-20.
20. Peter Newman, J. Kenworthy, (1999). Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming
Automobile Dependence, Washington DC, Island Press.
21. Prabhat Shrivastava, M. O., (2006), A model for development of optimized feeder
routes and coordinated, Transport Policy, pp,413-425.
22. Wold, H., (1985), Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences. In S. K. Johnson, Partial Least
Squares), New York, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., (pp. 581-591
23. Wong, K., (2011), Review of the book Handbook of Partial Least Squares: Concepts,
Methods and Applications, by V. Esposito Vinzi, W.W. Chin, J. Henseler & H. Wang
(Eds)., International Journal of Business Science & Applied Management, 6(2), pp
52-54.
24. Yannis Tyrinopoulos, C. A., (2008), Public transit user satisfaction: Variability andpolicy implications, Transport Policy, pp 260-272.

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MAPPING OF THE SUB-SIAK WATERSHED BASED ON REMOTE SENSING
AND SIMULATION OF ITS PERFORMANCES BASED ON THE SWATSANDHYAVITRI Ari 1), FAUZI Manyuk 2), SUTIKNO Sigit 3), FAJRI Mardan 4)*,IQBAL Muhammad 5)
1,2,3,4,5
Civil Engineering Department, University of Riau, Pekanbaru, 28293, Indonesia*ari.sandhyavitri@lecturer.unri.ac.id
ABSTRACTOne of the deepest and important rivers in Indonesia was Siak River. The objectives ofthis study were to develop watershed map of sub-Siak using remote sensing (RS) Landsat
ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) images data 2002, 2007, 2012, and simulate 4
indicators performance of the existing sub-Siak watershed, Riau, Indonesia based on 2
scenarios; (i) an existing condition in 2012, and (ii) projection the condition after
conservation schemes. The simulated conservation schemes may include replanting
bushes and arid areas with the local vegetation such as Waru (Hibiscus tiliaceus), andKayu Ara (Ficus sp). After conducting the simulations, it was revealed that the watershedindicators performance encompassing; (i) the percentage of vegetation coverage areas(PPV) will be better, (ii) percentage of critical land areas (PLK) will decrease, (iii) waterflow regime coefficient (KRA) will improve, and (iv) annual flow coefficients (KAT)
become better. The hydrological models of this watershed were developed using the Soiland Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The hydrological model of this watershed is
acceptable as the determination coefficient (R2) was 0.50 > 0.4 and NS was 0.5 > 0.36.
Hence, it proves that RS data were useful to develop time series maps concerning thechange of the sub-Siak watershed coverage areas in 2002, 2007, 2012, identified themagnitude of land use changes, and the SWAT may simulate the hydrological model of
the watershed.
Keywords: Landsat, Remote Sensing, Watershed Performances, Land Use Change,
SWAT, Simulation, Conservation
1. INTRODUCTION
In 2015, the Ministry of Public Work Department, Indonesia stated that the Siakwatershed, Riau Province, Indonesia was classified as a critical one. This was based on
the fact that a decreasing in the quality and quantity of the Siak river water (Ministry of
Public Work, Indonesia, 2015). Before the 1980s, the Siak river water depth was about
20-30 meters with the total length was 672 km and width of 50-75 m (Yesi Gusriani,2012). This river was considered as the deepest river in Indonesia. In 2015, the riverbed
depth was limited to remain 8-13 meters (Yesi Gusriani, 2012, Fatimah Ratna Sari and
Denny Zulkaidi, 2014). This indicates that this watershed health performance was at therisks (Asdak, C., 1995). Hence, there is a need to develop the sub-Siak watershed map
based on remote sensing, and investigate its performances based on the Soil and Water
Assessment Tool (SWAT), which is currently relatively rarely applied in Indonesiancases (Asdak, C., 1995; Ari Sandhyavitri, et all, 2015).

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Large scale plantation activities within the area of Siak watershed have converted theexisting vast forested lands to become plantation areas (especially these area allocated tothe development of palm oil plantation area), settlement/residential areas, farming andagricultural ones. These activities were assumed to reduce the existing watershedperformances (Ari Sandhyavitri, et all, 2015).
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 WATERSHED PARAMETERS EVALUATION PERFORMANCES
There are 4 main watershed parameter performances was evaluated in this paper. This isbased on based the Minister of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia Decree, Number: P.
61 / Menhut II / 2014 concerning A Guideline for Monitoring and Evaluation of
Watershed (The Minister of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia Decree, 2014).
This decree highlights four main parameters in order to evaluate the watershedperformances encompassing; (i) the percentage of critical land areas, (ii) the percentage
of vegetation coverage areas, (iii) water flow regime Coefficient (KRA), and (iv) annualof water flow coefficient. The valuation parameters can be seen in table 1 below:
Table 1. Evaluation Criteria for Watershed Performances.
CRITERIA
SUB- CRITERIAPARAMETERS
A. Land
Percentage of criticalArea
land areas (PLK)..........................(1)Percentage ofvegetation coverage.............(2)areas (PPV)B. Quality
Water flow regime.....................................(3)andCoefficients (KRA)
Q
=
rate
of
flow
(m3/second)
Quantity
Annual flow
(Watercoefficients (KAT)............................(4)Managem
Q = rate of flow (m3/second)ent)
P = annual precipitation thickness
2.2 RESEARCH LOCATIONThe research was conducted in the sub-Siak watershed, Rau, Indonesia. The automaticwater level record (AWLR) station was located in Pantai Cermin village, Kampar District
with the geographical location of 00 ° 35 '24 "latitude and 101 ° 11' 46" East (Figure 1
and 2). Data of the AWLR was obtained from the Pantai Cermin Station 2001 to 2012.
The
climatic
data
including
precipitation
was
obtainedfrom
http://globalweather.tamu.edu/. The existing land cover data was obtained from theWatershed Management Board (BPDAS, 2012).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 MAPPING OF SUB-SIAK WATERSHED BASED ON REMOTE SENSING(RS)The RS images data were obtained from the NOAA satellite of Landsat ETM+ (Enhanced
Thematic Mapper) with 30 m spatial resolution for 2002, 2007 and 2012 images.

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Supervised classification method and images interpretation techniques were then appliedin obtaining the land use map of this watershed.

AWLR

Figure 1. The location of the automatic water level record (AWLR) station was at
Pantai Cermin, sub-Siak Watershed, Riau Province, Indonesia
In order to obtain the topographic data, this research used the ASTER GDEM (Global
Digital Elevation Model) with a resolution of 30 m. It may be downloaded fromhttp://gdem.ersdac.jspacesystems.or.jp/. A spatial map of the sub-Siak watershed was thedeveloped based on Geographic Information System (GIS) (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Interpretation of satellite image of sub-Siak Watershed using GIS.
Multispectral Classification criteria were applied to classify the existing land use change
in the period of 2002, 2007 and 2012. Supervised classification methods (maximum
classification, MLC) and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) were then used
to produce spatial watershed area.

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Land Use 2002

Land use 2007

7,40%

3,73%

37,12%

43,19%

23,76%

3,25%

0,58% 3,34%

8,08% 3,63%

46.62%

25,43%

24.20%

4,48%

7,28%
8,82%

Land use 2012

5,60%

0,58% 3,43% 9,14%

4,43%

5,02% 0,70% 4,79% 8,31%

4,09%
5,13%

Notes:

Tropical forest, Industrial forest, Rubber plant, Oil palm plantation, Settlement, water bodies, Agriculture, Bushes and shrubs, Arid area

Figure 3. Land use change (%), 2002, 2007, 2012.
There was a trend that the sub-Siak watershed land use has been fluctuating during theperiod of 2002, 2007, and 2012. The significant land coverage area was dominated by oilpalm plantation (46%), agriculture (24%), and Bushes and shrubs (8%).
Proposedareas toconserve

Figure 4. The existing land use of the sub-Siak watershed in 2012 (Scenario 1):
The north and south parts of this sub-Siak watershed (in the circles) are proposed to beconserved, as there are numbers of critical areas scattered within these locations. These
conservation areas encompass sub districts of Kampar, Rokan Hulu and Bengkalis(Figure 4).
Table 2 Land use data of sub-Siak watershed, in 2012Land use
Tropical forest
Industrial forest
Rubber plant
Oil palm plant
Settlement
Water bodies
Agriculture
Bushes and shrubs
Arid

26

Percentage
7.16 %
7.31 %
2.30 %
46.62 %
1.99 %
0.01 %
24.20 %
8.19 %
2.22 %
Total

Area (ha)12186.32
12441.62
3914.679347.24
3386.9817.02
41188.4
13939.38
3778.44
12186.32

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The critical land in this study was mainly consisted of bushes and arid areas (13,939 ha +3,778 ha = 17,717 ha). These critical areas were then planted with Waru (Hibiscus
tiliaceus rubra) or Red Cottonwood, and Kayu Ara (Ficus sp). These vegetation werevery common to find around the river banks in the sub-Siak watershed (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Waru (Hibiscus tiliaceus rubra) and Kayu Ara (Ficus sp).
It is acknowledged that there are several soil and water simulation models may examine
the impacts of different land use practices on the water watershed areas, including theSoil and Water Assessment Tool (Neitsch SL, et all. 2005).
The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is one of water assessment tools that is
capable of simulating the impacts of land management practices on the watershed, andmeasuring sedimentation process over time (Arnold, J.G., R. Srinivasan, R.S. Muttiah,
and J.R. Williams. 1998; Neitsch SL, et all. 2005). The SWAT is one of the widely used
tools for modeling agricultural and mixed land uses within a watershed (Migliaccio,
K.W., and P. Srivastava, 2007).
Table 2 showed that in 2012 the oil palm plantation area covers 79,006 ha (>46% of thewatershed total areas of 17,020 ha). The remaining primary tropical forest area was
12,118 ha (7%). The total bushes and arid areas were 18,092 ha (10.63%) and these lastareas were classified as a critical land. This critical area is then simulated to be conserved
and planted with the local vegetation, for example Waru (Hibiscus tiliaceus), and Kayu
Ara (Ficus sp). Then, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) applied to simulate
the hydrological model of this sub-Siak watershed (Neitsch SL, et all. 2005, Migliaccio,
K.W., and P. Srivastava, 2007).
3.2 SIMULATION WATERSHED PERFORMANCE
Simulation is focused on the development of hydrology model of the existing watershed
condition in 2012 (scenario 1), and after conservation scenario has been applied (scenario2). The conservation scenario 2 would be implemented in the scrubs and arid areas(critical land areas) (Figure 3). The watershed map was developed using remote sensing
data obtained from the extraction of Landsat satellite images data, which have a spatial
resolution of 30 m. Supervised classification method and image interpretation techniques
were then applied in obtaining the land use map of 2012.
The following watershed indicators performance were presented as follow:
1.
Percentage of vegetation coverage areas (PPV). It was identified that the total

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27

vegetation coverage areas in 2012 were 121,829 ha and the total watershed area was
170,200 ha. The percentage of vegetation coverage areas was calculated based on the total
vegetation area (121.829 ha) divided by the total watershed area (170.200 ha) = 71,6%.
After simulating of scenario 2 and implementation of conservation scheme, it was
revealed that the percentage of vegetation coverage areas becomes 124,286/170,200 = 73%. Based on the Minister of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia Decree, Number: P.
61 / Menhut II / 2014, this value was classified as a fairly watershed condition (TheMinister of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia Decree, 2014). Hence there is noattention required to manage the watershed based on the parameter of vegetation coveragearea for both scenario 1 and 2.
2.
Percentage of critical land cover performance (PLK). The percentage of theexisting critical land (Scenario 1) was as the following calculation. PKL = Critical Land
Area/ Watershed Area x 100% = (13,939 + 3,778)/170,200 x 100% = 10.41%. After
implementing conservation scheme (Scenario 2), the scrubs and arid land areas weredecreased to become 9,989 ha and 1,221 ha respectively. The percentage of the criticallands cover would decline from 10.41% to 6.47% (<10%). This 6.47% figure means that
there is no attention required as the watershed critical level is considered low. This
scenario 2 result was better than that scenario 1 result.
3.
Water flow regime coefficient (KRA). This is obtained from the ratio of the
maximum flow rate (Qmaks) with a minimum flow rate (Qmin) of the watershed. Qmaks
Value of sub-Siak watershed in 2012 was 191.52 m3 / sec, while Qmin is 13.14 m3 / sec.
Then the KRA value of sub-Siak watershed in 2012 was 191.52 / 13.14 = 14.58.
However, in the period of 2002-2012 the KRA coefficient was relatively fluctuated, thecondition of KRA was considered very good as KRA < 20 (very low) except in 2003, thecondition was dropped to 31. This was because of in 2003 there was a period of long dry
season condition caused by the El-Nino effect. The KRA are dynamic functions of varioushydrology parameters including global weather conditions such as rainfall, temperature,humidity and wind speed. KRA<20 means that the watershed may capture most of therainwater into its soil, or the infiltration rate was relatively high and the rainwater runoff
was relatively low (Hambali, R. 2008).
4.
Annual Water flow Coefficient (KAT). This parameter was obtained from thecomparison between the annual river water flows (Q) with the precipitation thickness (P).
The annual water flow (Q) was obtained from the data observation of the discharge ofwater volume and it is divided by the total area of this watershed. The result was thenconverted into units of mm. while the value of precipitation (P) was taken fromhttp://globalweather.tamu.edu/. The existing of Q value of water discharge in 2012 was
1398.27 mm, and P value was 3117.64 mm. The annual flow coefficient was 0.45. After
simulating conservation, it was identified that the water flow Q = 1390.36 and the valueof P = 3117.64. Then the annual flow coefficient was 1390.35/3117.64 = 0.44 (< 0.45).
This scenario 2 result was better than that in the scenario 1.
3.3 THE HYDROLOGICAL SIMULATION MODEL USING SWAT
In order to yield the acceptable output of the hydrological model, the analyses have been
applied in 4 stage such as; GIS processing, the configuration of input files in SWAT,
model run, and last but not least conducting a reading out-put. Obviously, this stages
required several iterations in order to yield optimum results complying with the output
parameter standards (R2 dan NS) (Table 3 and 4). These results also need to be validated.

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The statistical methods used to validate the model by calculating the coefficient ofdetermination (R2) and the Nash - Sutcliffe efficiency model (NS) as presented inequations of (1) and (2).

……..…………...(1)…………………….(2)Which are:
Qobs = rate of flow observation (m3/second),
Qcal = simulated rate of flow obtained from the SWAT (m3/second),Ǭobs = an average rate of flow observation (m3/second),Ǭcal = an average simulated rate of flow obtained from the SWAT (m3/second).
Determination coefficient criteria (R2) were defined as the following table.
Table 3. Criteria of Determination coefficient
R2 ValueInterpretation20,7 < R < 1,0High impacts
0,4 <R2< 0,7
Medium impacts
0,2 <R2< 0,4
Low impacts
2
R < 0,2
No impacts(Source: Hambali, 2008)
Motovilov, Y.G., Gottschalk, L., Engeland, K. & Rodhe, A. 1999, recommended NashSutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) as the following table.
Table 4. Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) criteria
NSE
Interpretation
NSE > 0,75
Good
0,36 < NSE < 0,75
Moderate
NSE < 0,36
Low
(Source : Motovilov, Y.G., Gottschalk, L., Engeland, K. & Rodhe, A. 1999)
Scenario 1. The Watershed Existing Condition
The SWAT simulation has been applied to the existing condition of watershed (scenario
1) using 5 main input data, such as; (i) the digital elevation data (DEM) which wereobtained from the satellite data (http://gdem.ersdac.jspacesystems.or.jp/), (ii) land use
data, and (iii) soil classification data (obtained from the Watershed Management Board,
BPDAS, 2012), (iv) water level data 2012 (obtained from AWRL in Pantai Cerminstation, Sub-Siak River, Riau, Indonesia), and (v) global weather data including
precipitation data 2012 (http://globalweather.tamu.edu/).
The hydrograph results of scenario 1 were presented in figure 6. This hydrograph showsthat the fluctuation of water level was a function of rain fall. During the period of rainseason in January to April, and October to December showed a trend that the river water

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29

level was relatively higher compared to the dry season period (May to September).
However, in this case the global climate change and El-Nino effect were not put into an
account in this scenario.

WetseasonWet season
Dry season

Figure 6. Hydrograph model for the year 2012 developed using the SWAT
Based the SWAT simulation, it was identified that the determination coefficient (R2) ofthis model was 0.59 > 0.4 and NS was 0.5 > 0.36. Thus this hydrological model for thiswatershed in 2012 was considered acceptable (Neitsch SL, et all. 2005; R. Rosso, A.
Peano, I. Becchi and G. A. Bemporad, 1994).
Scenario 2. After Conservation
Based the SWAT simulation, after conservation, it was revealed that the determination
coefficient (R2) was 0.50 > 0.4 and NS was 0.5 > 0.36. Thus this hydrological model forthis watershed was also considered acceptable (Figure 7).

WetseasonWet season
Dry season

Figure 7. Comparison of 3 hydrographs based on Q observation, and 2 models after
calibration
It was identified that, the simulated hydrograph (before and after conservation) wererelatively smooth compared to the real conditions as, these simulations take into accountstatistic approaches which accommodate a certain level of errors (Neitsch SL, et all. 2005;

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D. C. Garen and D. S. Moore, 2005). The water balance parameters were calculated using
the curve number method (D. C. Garen and D. S. Moore, 2005) for the surface runoff.
The Hargreaves method (G. Hargreaves and Z. A. Samani, 1985) was used for the
potential evapotranspiration process.
This study utilized 24 input parameters in the SWAT simulation in order to maintain theirless complexity in the calculation process (G. Hargreaves and Z. A. Samani, 1985). These
24 input data have yield R2 and NS values of > 0.4 and 0.36 respectively which areconsidered acceptable. Hence, the hydrological model for this watershed is consideredvalid. After 9 times of iterations process using SWAT, some of the final input data andtheir fitted values were presented as follow; R__CN2.mgt (SCS runoff curve number)
fitted value=54.005, V__ALPHA_BF.gw (Baseflow alpha factor) = 0.989,
V__GW_DELAY.gw (Groundwater delay)= 164.646, V__REVAPMN.gw (Threshold
depth of water in the shallow aquifer required for return flow to occur)= 614.213,
V__CH_L1.sub(Longest tributary channel length in subbasin) = 0.218, and
V__OV_N.hru (Manning's "n" value for overland flow) =1.415.
4. CONCLUSION
The remote sensing data from the Landsat ETM+ have yield land cover maps of the subSiak watershed for 2002, 2007 and 2012. Based on the watershed existing condition, it
was identified that PLK value was 10,41%, the percentage of vegetation coverage areas(PPV) 71,6%, KRA was 14,58 and KAT= 0,45. After an application of the conservation
scheme the condition of the watershed including PLK improve by 37%, PPV 2%, KRA
60%, and KAT 2%. These values show that the overall watershed performances inscenario 2 were better than those in scenario 1. The hydrograph simulation model for thiswatershed was also considered acceptable as the determination coefficient (R2) was 0.50
> 0.4 and NS was 0.5 > 0.36.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank the Civil Engineering Faculty, Universitas Riau and Research andDevelopment Board (Balitbangda), Riau Province, Indonesia for technically facilitating
this research study.
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ASTER GDEM (Global Digital Elevation Model) with a resolution of 30 m. It may be

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downloadedfrom
http://gdem.ersdac.jspacesystems.or.jp/
andhttp://www.jspacesystems.or.jp/ersdac/GDEM/E/4.html
BPDAS, 2012, Siak Watershed Land Cover, Riau, Indonesia, 2-012.
D. C. Garen and D. S. Moore, 2005, Curve Number Hydrology in Water Quality
Modeling: Uses, Abuses, and Future Directions, Journal of the American Water
Resources Association, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 377-388
Fatimah Ratna Sari and Denny Zulkaidi, 2014. Managing Zonation Principles forDeveloping River Area (Prinsip Pengaturan Zonasi Untuk Pengembangan Kawasan
Tepi Sungai), Studi Kasus: Sungai Siak, Kota Pekanbaru, Jurnal Perencanaan
Wilayah dan Kota,Vol. 2, No. 2, Sekolah Arsitektur, Perencanaan dan
Pengembangan Kebijakan ITB, 211-219.
G. Hargreaves and Z. A. Samani, 1985, Reference Crop Evapotranspiration from
Temperature,” Applied Engineering in Agriculture, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 96-99
Hambali, R. 2008. Water Potential Analyses using Mock Model (Analisis Ketersediaan
Air dengan Model Mock). Bahan Ajar. Yogyakarta: Universitas Gadjah Mada
Migliaccio, K.W., and P. Srivastava, 2007. Hydrologic components of watershed-scalemodels. Transactions of the ASAE, 50(5): 1695-1703.
Ministry of Public Work, Indonesia, 2015, Siak River Condition Deteriorating (Kondisi
Sungai Siak Makin Memprihatinkan), Available at GoRiau.com,:<
http://www.goriau.com/ berita/siak/kondisi-sungai-siak-makin-m, 1-2.
Motovilov, Y.G., Gottschalk, L., Engeland, K. & Rodhe, A. 1999. Validation of aDistributed Hydrological Model Against Spatial Observations. Elsevier Agriculturaland Forest Meteorology. 98 : 257-277.
Neitsch SL, et all. 2005. Soil and Water Assessment Tool, Theorical Documentation
Version 2005. Grassland Soil and Water Research Laboratory, Agricultural
Research Service, Blackland Research Center- Texas Agricultural Experiment
Station. USA.
R. Rosso, A. Peano, I. Becchi and G. A. Bemporad, 1994, An Introduction to SpatiallyDistributed Modelling of Basin Response,” Water Resources Publications, Highland
Ranch, pp. 3-30.
The Minister of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia Decree, 2014, Number: P. 61 /Menhut II / 2014 concerning A Guideline for Monitoring and Evaluation of
Watershed. 7-15
Yesi Gusriani, 2012, A Strategy for Managing of Water Pollution in Siak Watershed(Strategi Pengendalian Pencemaran Daerah Aliran Sungai (Das) Siak), Kabupaten
Siak, Program Studi Ilmu Administrasi Negara FISIP Universitas Riau, Pekanbaru,
2-3.

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GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL MODELLING IN CENTRAL LAMPUNGUSING RESISTIVITY METER METHOD (GEOELECTRIC METHOD)(Case Studi in Bumi Ratu Nuban District Central Lampung)
Eva Rolia¹, Dwita Sutjiningsih², Herr Suryantono³¹Doctoral Program Student CivilEngineering Departement Faculty of Engineering University ofIndonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia. Email : roliaeva@yahoo.com²CivilEngineering Departement Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia, Depok 16424,
Indonesia. Email : dwita@eng.ui.ac.id³CivilEngineering Departement Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia, Depok 16424,
Indonesia. Email : herr.soeryantono@ui.ac.id

ABSTRACT
Water plays a central and critical role in the life of every living creature. Thus, thepresence of the groundwater should be administered properly both in its quality and quantity
to fulfill the human demand. Groundwater consuming tends to increase along with the
population growth rate, therefore planning and wise groundwater consuming is required topreserve and protect the water resources in the District of Bumi Ratu Nuban Central
Lampung regency. The groundwater research was conducted using Geoelectric tool with
Schlumberger configuration.
This study is aimed to determine groundwater movement pattern, describe recharge
and discharge groundwater zone to govern groundwater conservation. But, the main points
carried out in this research are to know the layer type of rock and the presence ofgroundwater aquifers using the Geoelectric tool Schlumberger configuration and to conduct
the modeling using Ip2Win software in Bumi Ratu Nuban district areas; Bumi Rahrjo, Bumi
Rahayu and Tulung Kakan with the measurement in 13 spots. Schlumberger configuration
was used in this research due to its accuracy to measure under surface conditions vertically
based on the resistivity value of rocks.
The study reveals that resistivity value of rocks in Bumi Ratu Nuban districts isdominated by the value between 100 -5000 Ωm. It can be assumed that thick layers of rock inthis area are sand and gravel aquifers. The aquifer in this area is phreatic aquifer with the
thickness of at least 3.53 m and maximum of 74.95 m. The good potential aquifier was foundin Tulung Kakan and Bumi Raharjo villages. The rock layers dominated in the study area areclay, sand, sand argillaceous and sandy loam.
Keyword : Geoelectric, Groundwater
1.  

INTRODUCTION

National Geological Agency states that Lampung province has 9 groundwater basins; 4basins across the provinces, 3 basins across districts/towns, and two basins in one of the
districts. Overall, the groundwater in Lampung Province has a potential of 2335.91 million
m³ / year for free ground water and pressure ground water to 1123 million m³ / year. The
problem that often arises in the ground water drilling process is to obtain potential groundwater both in quality and quantity.
Thus, the availability of groundwater maps is very important. Based on this map, thegroundwater conditions, ranging from patterns and flows, stored places, and the time-to-timeamount can be easily known or even more efficiently predicted. By knowing the map ofgroundwater, it is relatively easy to determine the zoning of recharge and discharge areas toestablish the type of business or activities which can be done on it, the right way to do

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33

conservation attemps, restriction of uptake, and how wise and prudent in use. In theframework of sustainable development, it is necessary to conduct groundwater zoning, notonly to meet the Sustainable Development Goals, but also the environtmental awareness andeconomic principles of justice between generations, to filfil the demand of present and future
generations.
Bumi Ratu Nuban is a district located in the southern part of Central Lampung, whichborders directly with Pesawaran District. Bumi Ratu Nuban district consists of 10 villages,
with bounded area of 65.14 km² and the population of 30,000.
Guoliang Cao (2015) assessed the variable rate recharge areas in North China byconnecting the groundwater balance model on the basis of monthly meteorology data,irrigation and soil moisture monitoring data. The method used is to integrate groundwater
unsaturated flow model MODFLOW. The model results show the effect of thickening theunsaturated zone in the recharge area. Thickening of the unsaturated zone can result in an
average reduction of up to 70% on clay.
Liang Xiuyu (2012) covered the dynamics of groundwater by estimating groundwater
recharge time with the numerical solution of the equation, because the percolation inrecharge-discharge areas cannot be measured in real terms. The method used was monitoring
wells for 100 days to estimate the recharged parameters by rainfall and evapotranspiration,
which is then simulated with numerical equations using MODFLOW.
The concept of groundwater basin rests on the stratigraphy and lithology of the rocks ina region. In the groundwater theory, it is known that both the magnitude and direction ofgroundwater movement can be calculated with the aid of the flownet concept. By knowing
the flownet shape of a region the recharge and discharge area can be determined (Jacob,2012). This research are to know the layer type of rock and the presence of groundwateraquifers using the Geoelectric tool Schlumberger configuration and to conduct the modelingusing Ip2Win software in Bumi Ratu Nuban
In this study the stratigraphy and lithology of the rocks are determined based on
measurements of geoelectric. Geoelectric method utilizies electrical resistance properties of
the rocks, which are influenced by values such as metallic and non-metallic mineral content,
the content of electrolytes (salts), water content, porosity rock, rock permeability, texture /compactness of rocks, as well as temperature (Todd, 1980). Hence, the detection of thepresence of groundwater aquifers is required, particularly in the district of Bumi Ratu Nuban
Central Lampung regency by using geoelectric Schlumberger configuration. Geoelectric data
were processed by software IP2Win to determine the lithology of rocks in the study area andthe location of the depth of the aquifer. The Software IP2Win data processing results only
display pictures of rock layers, while the groundwater flow pattern treated with SIP2D and
MODFLOW will be done in future studies.
	
  

2.  

METHODOLOGY

2.1

Data Collection Method

The method used in collecting the data is geoelectric resistivity sounding with
Schlumberger configuration. The tools used in this research are:a.   Geoelectric (Resistivity Meter) Naniura type equipped with two current electrodes, twopotential electrodes, two wire rolls of current electrode, two wire rolls of potential
electrodes, accumulator, and a hammer to plant electrode.
b.   GPSThis configuration is used to determine variations in vertical resistivity value. Thisconfiguration uses four electrodes; two electrodes for current flow and the other twoelectrodes for potential flow. Potential electrode spacing is altered along 0.5 m, 5 m and 10

34

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

m. Potential electrode is less likely to be changed despite the current electrode distance isalways changing. In this study, the electrode currents spread of at least 150 meters and amaximum of 200 meters, depending on the field conditions. This measurement is performed
in four villages, with 13-point soundings with the aim to obtain sufficient information foranalysis, modeling and interpretation of the data.
Several things required for measuring the ground water aquifer resistivity using
geoelectric comprise of:a.   The distance between two current electrodes (AB)This distance is varied to obtain the picture of each layer. The farther the distance
between the current electrode, the deeper the geoelectric device can detect the
groundwater aquifer underneath.
b.   The distance between two potential electrodes (MN).
c.   Electric current (l) injected in to the groundd.   The potential difference (ΔV) between two potential electrodes.
e.   From AB and MN can be obtained geometry correction factor (K),

where
2.2

𝐿𝐿	
   = 	
  Data Processing

,.

;

𝐾𝐾	
   = 	
  𝜋𝜋	
  

𝑙𝑙	
   = 	  (&' (	  ) ' )

01

)

(1)

.

The data obtained from measurements in the field are a large current (I) and thepotential difference (V) carried out in the calculations to determine the price of the apparent
resistivity ρa, which is the product of the geometry factor K with potential and current
comparison. The formulation is shown as follows:ρa = kΔVI(2)Having obtained the value of pseudo resistivity, 1D modeling is then made to get thevalue of the actual resistivity. The software used for the data processing of 1D and 2D is
Ipi2Win. The data input in this software is the apparent resistivity and distance between thecurrent electrode (AB / 2). The relationship graph between apparent and actual resistivity
formed from IP2Win data processing will produce a picture of the type of rock layers and therock thickness with numbers of corrections or less than 5%. If it is more than 5%, then thegraphic depiction is repeated.
Geoelectrical sounding data can be calculated and analyzed digitally by using IP2Win
Software. IP2 Win software can analyze induced polarization data with some electrodeSchlumberger configuration. IP2Win is software for analyzing geoelectrical data from one ormore VES (Vertical Electrical Sounding) points. Using IP2 Win includes some steps. The
first step in using IP Win is data input, the second step is data error correction, the next step isadding data point, and the last step is cross section creation. Data input can be done directlyfrom field data (sounding data consist of AB/2, V, I, and K) or indirect field data (sounding
data consist of AB/2 and Rho).
  Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

35

3.  

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1

Map of Research Location

Geoelectric measurements conducted at 13 observation points. Coordinates x, y andelevation z obtained from measurements using GPS.
Table 1. Geoelectric Measurement Point
Village

Sidowaras

Bumi Rahayu

Bumi Raharjo

Tulung Kakan

Measuring
Point
1
2
11
12
4
5
10
8
9
13
3
6
7

Locations
Residential
Residential
Residential
Residential
Oil Palm Plantation
Chicken Farm
Residential
Residential
Residential
Residential
Cassava Plantation
Residential
Pemukiman Warga

Elevation
(MSL)
+64 m
+ 66 m+ 90 m+ 90 m+70 m+60 m+ 66 m+ 68 m+ 67 m+ 69 m+67 m+ 64 m+ 65 mThe picture below shows 13 measuring point in the Bumi Ratu Nuban District. The
area having the highest elevation is Sidowaras village, points 11 and 12 with a height of 90 m
above sea level. The area having the lowest elevation measurement point is Bumi Rahayu,
whose measurement spot is behind the chicken farm, with a height of 60 m above sea level.

	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  

Figure 1. Geoelectric Measurement Map in the Bumi Ratu Nuban district Central Lampung
Based on the results of geoelectric estimation and measurement of water level, thenobtained a description of the type of rock layers, aquifer type and depth of the aquifer in the
research area which can be described as follows:

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

3.2

Groundwater Aquifer Characteristics of Sidowaras Village

Figure 2. Graph of resistivity value at the measurement point 1
The picture above is a graph of the actual type of resistivity that has been processed,
and the samples were taken at the measuring point 1. The measurement at measuring point
one is at Sidowaras village in residential areas, with the coordinates X = 05º03'238 "and Y =105º14'385" and elevation of 64 m above sea level. There are three layers of rock ; the layer
surface, sand, and clay. Sand was detected at a depth of 1.56 to 6.05 m, so that the thicknessof the sand layer is 6.05 m. Clay of impermeable layer which is at a depth of 6.05 m - 17.3 mfrom ground level. The sand is a type of aquifer layer that is able to carry and store water
because it is permeable. It is seen that the resistance value type is 1125 Ωm, classified as alayer of sand with a range of 102 - 5x10³ Ωm.
There were 4 measurement points taken in Sidowaras village, and the depth aquifer
layout was obtained as in the table below:
Table 2. Characteristics of Aquifer Sidowaras Village
Coordinates
No.

Measuring
Point

X

Y

1.
2.
3.
4.

1
2
11
12

05003'238"
05003'012"
05002'925"
05002'833"

105014'385"
105014'323"
105013'855"
105013'945"

The Depth of
The Aquifer
From Ground
Surface (m)-1,56 s.d -6,05-0,832 s.d -3,75-1,01 s.d -24,4-0,832 s.d -3,95

The
Thicknessof TheAquifer
(m)
4,49
3,582
23,43
4,782

Types of
Aquifers

Error (%)

Phreatic
Phreatic
Phreatic
Bebas

5,18
4,04
4,40
4,01

From the above table it is shown that the aquifer type in Sidowaras village (measuring
point 1, 2, 11, 12) is a phreatic aquifer with little groundwater potential. The thickness of thelayer of groundwater aquifers containing less than 5 m is just below the measuring point 11
with the adequate thickness of aquifer. The average rate on the data processing error was
4.40%. Rock layer indicated as groundwater is a layer of sand or gravel that are permeable,
and underneath the aquifer in the form of clay layer that is impermeable. From the results ofmeasurement and data processing in the four points in Sidowaras village, it can be concluded
that the ground water in the area is less potential and it can be found at a maximum depth of 30 m above the ground (phreatic aquifers).

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37

3.2

Groundwater Aquifer Characteristics of Kampung Bumi Rahayu
Here will be displayed a graph for the actual resistivity of measuring point 4:

	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  

Figure 3. Point 4 Measurement of Actual Resistivity Value
Point 4 measurement was done in front of the chicken farm in residential areas of
Bumi Rahayu village, with X = 05º04'464 "and Y = 105º14'345" as well as the elevation of
70 m above sea level. Rock layers lying in this research area are sand (permeable layer), clay
(impermeable layer), and sandy loam (semi-permeable layer). The lowest resistivity value
was 16.4 Ωm indicated as a layer of silt. A layer of clay is not an aquifer, this layer canabsorb water, but cannot remove the water. The maximum depth that can be detected fromthe data processing is 30.4 m above the ground. There are two types of aquifers lying in thisarea; phreatic aquifer located at a depth of 1.32 m - 4.86 m from ground level, and semi
confined aquifer at a depth of 18.4 m - 30.4 m. The error rate on data processing was 4.91%.

  Table 3. Aquifer Characteristics of the Bumi Rahayu Village
Coordinates
No.

Measuring
Point

X

Y

1.

4

05004'464"

105014'345"

2.

5

0

05 04'597"

0

105 14'265"

The Depth of
The Aquifer
From Ground
Surface (m)-1,32 s.d -4,86-18,4 s.d -30,4-0,75 s.d -4,73

The
Thicknessof TheAquifer
(m)
3,53
12,0
3,98

Types of
Aquifers
Phreatic
Semi Confined
Phreatic

Error
(%)
4,91
3,43

Aquifer types in Bumi Rahayu village are phreatic and semi confined aquifers. It iscalled phreatic aquifer because the location is above the local ground water aquifer depth
level of 1.5 m. Geoelectric measurement was conducted in July 2016 during the dry season.
Potential groundwater aquifer is not good because the maximum thickness of 3.98 meters. At
the measuring point 4 there were found two types of aquifers, phreatic and semi confined
aquifers. At the measuring point 5 only 1 phreatic aquifer layer was found. The average rate
on a data processing error was 4.17%. This is acceptable because the value of the error rate is
below 5%. The maximum depth read on the data processing in Bumi Rahayu village was ±30 meters. This is possible because the maximum cable distance when measuring was only

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

200m. The limitations for excavation in the measuring process on the land were the power
cables, population density and the severity of ground surface as the pavement. It was
impossible for us to plug in electrical electrodes into the ground, so that the maximum stretchof cable could nor be reached.
3.3

Groundwater Aquifer Characteristics of Bumi Raharjo Village

The data processing of Bumi Raharjo village, measuring point 8, is extracted as follows:
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  

Figure 4. Point 8 Measurement of Actual Resistivity Value
  Point 8 measurement was located in a residential area of Bumi Raharjo village, with
X = 05º05'248 "and Y = 105º14'150" as well as the elevation of 68 m above sea level. The
stretch of the maximum current cable was 200 meters. The rock layers were detected up to
19.3 m and a data processing error rate was 4.36%. This data can be used as the value of theerror rate was below 5%. Constituent layers of rock were composed of sand and clay,
detected from the actual reading resistivity value. There was a layer of sand with resistivity
value of 812 Ωm, and clay 29.4 Ωm. Geoelectric measurements in Bumi Raharjo village
performed at 4 measuring points are presented in the table below.
Table 4. The Aquifer Characteristics of Bumi Raharjo Village
Coordinates
No.

Measuring
Point

X

Y

1.
2.
3.
4.

8
9
10
13

05005'248"
05005'237"
05005'559"
05004'033"

105014'150"
105013'925"
105013'625"
105057'145"

The Depth of
The Aquifer
From Ground
Surface (m)-0,75 s.d -8,04-0,75 s.d -75,7-0,5 s.d -5,91-1,02 s.d -53,8

The
Thicknessof TheAquifer
(m)
7,29
74,95
5,41
52,78

Types of
Aquifers

Error
(%)

Phreatic
Phreatic
Phreatic
Phreatic

4,36
4,44
4,17
3,60

The average error rate on a 4 point measurement carried out in Bumi Raharjo was 4.15%.
The results of data processing can be accepted because the value of error is below 5%. The

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

39

aquifer type in this area is phreatic aquifer located above the ground water level of 1.5
meters. The potential groundwater aquifer is quite large because the thickness of the aquifer
in this area reaches ± 75m. Groundwater is easy to obtain in this area so that it can be said
that Bumi Raharjo is a potential groundwater because of its promising availability. At a depthof -0.5 meters, shallow ground water has already been found. The aquifer layer type in thisregion is a layer of sand and gravel.
  3.4

Groundwater Aquifer Characteristics of Tulung Kakan Village

Geoelectric measurements in Tulung Kakan Village were performed at 3 measuring
points ; point 3, 6, and 7. Being displayed is the actual resistivity measuring point 3:
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  

Figure 5. Point 3 Measurement of Actual Resistivity Value
The measurement in measuring point 3 was located in front of Sido Bangun security
post in residential areas Tulung Kakan Bumi Ratu Nuban, with X = 05º03'885 "and Y =105º12'019" as well as the elevation of 67 m above sea level. A layer of sand aquifer withresistivity value ˃ 1000 Ωm was located at a depth of ± 1.5 meters. The type of aquifer isphreatic because it is located above or equal to the local ground water table. The error ratemeasurement and data processing was 3.68%. The rock layers that dominate in this area aresand and argillaceous sand. The aquifer type formed in Tulung Kakan village is shown in thetable below:

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Table 5. Aquifer Characteristics of Tulung Kakan Village
Coordinates
No.

The Depth of

Measuring

The Aquifer

Point

X

Y

From Ground
Surface (m)

0

0

The
Thicknessof TheAquifer

Types of
Aquifers

Error (%)

(m)

1.

3

05 03'885"

105 12'019"-1,58 s.d -6,07

4,49

Bebas

3,68

2.

6

05004'401"

105013'034"-0,50 s.d -21,7

21,2

Bebas

3,57

-0,5 s.d -38,7

38,3

Bebas

4,57

3.

7

0

05 03'964"

0

105 12'124"

The three measurement points in Tulung Kakan village were identified as a phreaticaquifer of sand layer. The location of aquifers is above the local water level at a depth of 1.2
meters from the ground. Potential groundwater in this area is quite good because thethickness of the aquifer reaches ± 38 meters. The average error rate of data processing with
IP2Win was 3.94%. This data can be used for data processing error rate is less than 5%.
Aquifer layer of sand is interpreted based on the value of resistivity between 100 to 5000 Ωm.
Of the four villages and 13 points of measurements made in the District of Bumi Ratu
Nuban, it reveals that the Bumi Raharjo and Tulung Kakan villages have an aquifer with
better potential compared to Sidowaras and Bumi Rahayu villages. Measuring point 9 and 13
have a thickness of the aquifer to more than 50 meters. Aquifer layer in this area is a layer ofsand and is generally a type of phreatic aquifer. Rock layers making up on the study area arein the form of sand, loam, sandy loam or sand argillaceous.
Geoelectric method can be used as a device to identify the type of rock layers thatexist in the study area based on the value of the electrical resistivity. For further research, it isinvitable to conduct data processing with multiple software such as GMS, MODFLOW, andGeostudio to determine groundwater recharge and discharge areas. Thus, the recharge anddischarge areas zoning can be applied so that soil water conservation awareness and actions
can be implemented optimally.
4.   CONCLUSION
From the research results of geoelectric measurements conducted in the District of Bumi Ratu
Nuban as many as 13 measurement points,with the longest current electrode span 200
meters, it can be concluded that:a.   Rock layers formed in the research areas are identified as a layer of clay rocks, sand,sandy loam, sand argillaceous while bedrock at a depth that further undetected for a
maximum electrode stretch only 200 meters, and maximum readings of actual resistivity± 75 meters.
b.   Type of aquifer layers identified as aquifer layer of sand is phreatic because it is locatedon the face of the local groundwater. The result of the measurement of ground waterlevel of wells population is 1.2 m to 1.5 m above the ground.
c.   The minimum thickness of the aquifer is 3.53 m at Bumi Rahayu village, while thethickest layer of the aquifer in Bumi Raharjo with 74.95 meters thick.
d.   Aquifers with good potential are in Tulung Kakan and Bumi Raharjo as the thickness of
the aquifer reaches 74.95 meters. Potential aquifers in Bumi Rahayu and Sidowaras are
not good because the average thickness of the aquifer that is very thin which is between 3
m to 5 m.

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41

5.  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors thanks to Kemeristek Dikti and LPDP for scholarship in order the completion of
doctoral studies at University of Indonesia, National Geological Agency states that Lampung
Province, Dr. Muh. Sarkowi, Diah Indriana Kusumastuti, Ph.D., Ahmad Zakaria, Ph.D., (MyLecture at Lampung University), Muhammadiyah University of Metro Lampung, Dr. RR.
Dwinanti Martanti (University of Indonesia)
6.  

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

Dry Dams Performance on Consecutive Rainfall During Rainy Season
at Upper Ciliwung Watershed

Evi Anggrahenia, Dwita Sutjiningsiha, Airlangga Mardjonob and Teuku IskandarcaCivil Engineering Department, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, 16424, IndonesiabIndonesian commision on Large Dam (Inacold), Jakarta, Indonesiac
Ciliwung-Cisadane River Basin Agency, Jakarta, Indonesia

ABSTRACTJakarta is the capitol of Indonesia which located at the downstream part of Ciliwung.
Flooding is a most natural hazard at Jakarta, almost every years its occur at Jakarta. Many
infrastructure and researches have been done to decrease risk of flooding. Ciawi and
Sukamahi Dams is one of the structural method proposed by government to decrease thepeak flood through the retention capacity. That Dams will be constructed with the dry dam
type which contain without gates or turbines. Bottom outlet combine with the spillway was
design for Ciawi and Sukamahi dam. Dry dam is designed to hold an excess water in timesof flooding and allow water to move freely in normal conditions, in the future, its can beused to sediment and water quality control also. The concept is considered a long-term andpermanent flood mitigation strategy. Benefit of this dam High maintenance is required
especially after the event of a flood to remove debris and sediment deposits. Dry dam
inundation area must be control strictly because when the area is not properly control, its
will be occupying by habitant. Win Tr 20 has been chosen as the hydrological model thatwill represent the Upper Ciliwung watershed behavior. The production function of its model
adopt the Soil Conservation Service Curve Number as we called SCS-CN. Consecutive
rainfall will be applied by the rainfall distribution on the WIN TR 20. Flood routine withconsecutive rainfall compute using level pool routine combine with spillway and bottom
outlet. The objective of this study is to analyze the dry dam performance when theconsecutive rainfall occurs during rainy season. The initial idea from this dry dam is toprolong the time lack before flood arrived in Jakarta to give sufficient time for evacuation.
First Result from simulation with single design rainfall show that the Ciawi and Sukamahi
increase the time lack of flood peak into downstream.
Keywords: Flooding; Dry Dam; Consecutive Rainfall; Flood Routine and Time Lack

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1. INTRODUCTION
Jakarta is the capitol of Indonesia, its located between 5°19’12’’ to 6°23’54” south and
106°22’42” to 106°58’18” east latitude with the average elevation about 7 MSL (Mean Sea
Level). Area of Jakarta around 664 km2, with the population 9.6 million people in 2.2 million
households in 2010 (Abidin, 2001). As a capitol of Indonesia, center of administration,
economic and governance located at Jakarta. Since the rapid economic growth, population is
growing and development at Jakarta is expanding around the city. Ciliwung River is one of
13 rivers which through into Jakarta and the most affected river to Jakarta. The length of themain stream of this river is almost 120 km, with the river basin covering an area of 400 km2.
Ciliwung river flows across Bogor City, Bogor, Depok, South Jakarta and East Jakarta. Its
upstream located in the border of Bogor and Cianjur (Gunung Gede-Pangrango and Puncak).
According to (Bhakti, 2015), Ciliwung watershed is one of critical watershed in Indonesia.
The river is regarded as the worst affected rivers than other rivers flowing in Jakarta. Asideof that, the shape Ciliwung basin from upstream to Katulampa weir areas have dendritic
shapes. This form characterizes that the increase in the flow with decreased flow during
floods have equal duration, while the downstream direction has parallel shape (elongated)and narrowing. With this shape, the headwaters has an important role, the contribution of
runoff from this area is quite large. If the physical conditions, especially land-use, changes,
it will lead to changes in the amount of flooding or runoff. (Siti Murniningsih, 2016).
Flooding is the natural hazard that occur each year at Jakarta. The biggest flood in the last
three centuries on 2007 inundated about 40 % of the city, killed 80 people and forced about
340.000 to flee (Brinkman, 2008). Many research and infrastucture have been developed todecrease the flooding risk, however its not efective yet to solve the flood problem at Jakarta.
Recently, the government propose to build two dry dam at the upper Ciliwung Watershed
named Ciawi and Sukamahi Dams. Both of them will build in order to reduce the peak flow
and increase the peak flood time into Jakarta. Ciawi and Sukamahi are the first dry dams inIndonesia. Dry dam is designed to hold an excess water in times of flooding and allow water
to move freely in normal conditions, in the future, its can be used to sediment and water
quality control also. The concept is considered a long-term and permanent flood mitigation
strategy. (Lempérière, 2006).
The objective of this study is to analyze the dry dam performance when the consecutive
rainfall occurs during rainy season. The initial idea from this dry dam is to prolong the timelack before flood arrived in Jakarta to give sufficient time for evacuation. First Result fromsimulation with single design rainfall show that the Ciawi and Sukamahi increase the timelack of flood peak into downstream.
The first simulation has been done by single design rainfall for 50 years return period and
100 year return period. Second simulation using consecutive rainfall base on the rainfall
event on February 2007. Drainage area is delineated by Arc.GIS 10.1 software base on digital
elevation model (DEM) map which is generated from contour data at scale 1:25.000.

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2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Study Area and Rainfall Data
Ciliwung river is flowing from Gunung Gede Pangrango into Java Sea at North Jakarta. The
Upper Ciliwung delineate from Gede Pangrango until Katulampa Weir at Bogor City. The
area from its watershed about 150 km2 and length 25 km. Ciawi Dam located at the meeting
point of Cisarua, Ciawi and Ciliwung Hulu Rivers. Sukamahi Dam located at Cisukabirus
River. Upper Ciliwung Watershed affected by 3 rainfall station, Gadog, Cilember andGunungmas. The discretization of ciliwung watershed based on Ciawi and Sukamahi Dam
can be show at the following figure.

Figure 1a. Upper Ciliwung Discretization, 1b. Rainfall Station
Design rainfall in this study is using log pearson type III. This method considers to statisticalparameters, mean, standard deviation and skewness, and is a most flexible and reliable
method. It is nothing more but an analysis process and is comparatively complicated thanothers. (Lee, 2005). This research using 14 years data set from 2003 until 2016 from 3 station
with rainfall area using thiessen polygon (Figure 1b.). Rainfall data set can be seen from thetable 1.

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45

Table 1. Rainfall Data at Upper Ciliwung Watershed
No

Years

Percentage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016

Gadog
26.7
0.18
161
97
112
72
144
158
125
145
97
113
145
150
110
78

Rainfall Stations
Cilember Gunung Mas Rainfall
47.13
76.92
Data
0.31
0.51
1
110
118
123
70
78
79
101
157
132
66
127
98
108
156
139
135
105
124
122
152
138
131
106
121
95
115
106
78
80
85
131
120
128
75
120
111
131
56
89
87
90
87

2.2. SCS-CN Model
The computation of effective rainfall (production) is performed on each sub watershed byusing the Soil Conservation Service - Curve Number (SCS-CN) function. SCS-CN model
was developed by USDA (United Stated Department of Agriculture) by adopting thewatershed characteristic. Curve number (CN) value estimated for each sub watershed depend
on 3 parameters: land use or land cover, soil characteristic and 5 days antecedent rainfall. It
assumes that the flood flow are essentially composed of surface runoff water or at least
responding runoff processed. The hypothesis of the SCS-CN method is about the ratios of
the two actual potential quantities are equal as the following equation (Chow, 1988):
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎=
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
From the continuity principle:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
By study of result from many experimental watersheds, en empirical relation was developed
thus the equation of SCS-CN:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃−𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )2
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃−𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 +𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =where as 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0.2𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 0.2𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)2
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 0.8𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆:
The evolution of the runoff coefficient as follows:

46

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 0.2𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 0.2𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)�2 −�
(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 0.8𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 0.8𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)
Where Ct is the runoff coefficient and Pt is the total rainfall amount in millimeter at time (t),S is the retention capacity of catchment area in mm. In the following equation the runoff
coefficient called as the parameter CN, and parameter CN is called “Curve Number”, thevalue of CN is between 0 and 100,1000
− 10�.
S = 25.4 �
CNThe Custom of CN data used to be standard Cover Description using assumptions on theLand Use Detail.
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =2.3. Hydrological Model Win-TR 20
TR 20 was first developed by the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) in 1973
and then refined into Win TR 20 by the same institution in 1992. Win TR 20 is a surface
water hydrological model that can simulate the amount of flooding spatially within the scaleof river basin. This model can be used to analyze the current river basin conditions or simulate
the impact of changes in land use in the river basins to adopt the principle of work of the
SCS-CN models. Direct runoff / flood by rain hypothetical or real rainy conditions. (Evi
Anggraheni, 2016).
WinTR20 represents the watershed as a system of sub-areas and reaches. Sub-areas are theseparate individual drainage areas that generate the hydrographs that feed into the upstream
end of a stream reach. “Stream Reaches” represent the main flow paths that the hydrographs
are routed through. They can accommodate one of two forms of routing: Storage Routing(lakes, dams, wetlands, etc.) or Reach Routing (stream or river channels) ( (NRCS, 2015).

Figure 2. Win TR 20 Procedure

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47

Structure routine on WIN TR 20 based on the level pool routine method and the channelroutine based on Muskinggum method.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Upper Ciliwung Watershed CharacteristicMore than 30% land cover at Upper Ciliwung watershed is a buildup area (See Figure 3). In
order to compute using Win TR 20, we divide the Upper Ciliwung Watershed into 5 subwatershed (figure 1a). Sub Area and reaches parameter are presented at the table 2 below.

Figure 3. Land Cover at Upper Ciliwung Watershed

Figure 4. Win TR 20 Schematic

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Table 2a Sub Area Parameter
Watershed
Ciawi
Sukamahi
CiesekCibalok
Ciseusepan

2

A (km )
87.7
16.90
27.04
4.40
14.82

Length (km)
19.67
14.20
12.50
2.50
9.20

Reach Parameters
Receiving Reach
Reach Type
Reach Length (m)

L (m)
19670
14200
12500
2500
9200

Slope
0.05
0.05
0.17
1.15
0.32

Table 2b Reach Parameter

Reach A
Reach 1
Structure-

Reach B
Reach 1
Structure-

TC (minutes)
125.07
97.32
54.76
7.64
34.02

Reach 1
Reach 2Channel2600

Tc (hr)
2.08
1.62
0.91
0.13
0.57

CN
83
70
83
86
83

Reach 2
OutletChannel4300

3.2. Simulation Results
First simulation discharge result based on the single design rainfall data recorded from 3
station using thiessen polygon method. This simulation using 50 years return period and 100
year return period with the rainfall value 155 mm and 161 mm. This simulation neglecting
the antecedent rainfall condition. Maximum discharge from 50 years return period about 595
m3/s at the upstream of Ciawi Dam and 582 m3/s at the downstream, 97 m3/s and 91 m3/s at
the upstream and downstream Sukamahi Dam and 909 m3/s at Katulampa Weir or the outlet(Figure 5a, 5b and 5c)

Figure 5a. Ciawi Hydrograph, 5b. Sukamahi Hydrograph and 5c. Katulampa Hydrograph

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

49

Second simulation using real rainfall data on February 2007 (biggest flood). On January 2007
there are 3 days that have big consecutive rainfall about 156 mm, 144 and 110 mm.
Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) has been used also for this simulation based on thereal condition. First day using AMC 1 (mean dry condition), second day AMC II (Normal
Condition) and third day using AMC III (saturated condition). Hydrograph for the threelocation can be seen on the following figure (Figure 6a, 6b and 6c)

Figure 6a. Consecutive Rainfall at Ciawi, 6b. Sukamahi, 6c. Katulampa
4. CONCLUSION
The result shown that the magnitude discharge between upstream and downstream at Ciawi
Dam seem small either at Sukamahi Dam. Sukamahi Dam reduce 5% and Ciawi reduce 2%
peak discharge. However, the peak time at Ciawi prolong until 20 minutes and Sukamahi
more 10 minutes than Ciawi. Storage effect at Sukamahi seem more effective than Ciawi
because the catchment area of Sukamahi is smaller than Ciawi.
Second simulation shown that the discharge from the consecutive rainfall produce three peakdischarge. First rainfall approximately with the 50-year rainfall value however we use AMC
1 (dry condition) so the peak discharge was decrease than the first simulation. Rainfall that
occur during the AMC 1 will fill the soil storage first before flowing to be surface runoff.
Due to that condition the discharge at the first day decrease than the first simulation.
However, at the third day when the rainfall is small (smaller than 2 year return period), the50

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

discharge still rises up. That condition is caused by the simulation of AMC III. At the thirddays, the soil is already saturated so almost all rainfall became the surface runoff. Further
research is still needed to find the optimum model to decrease the peak discharge and to holdthe exceed rainfall longer than before at the upper Ciliwung Watershed. Integration theseveral technologies still possible to applied at that location.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgements are addressed to Cecilia Ratna, Novi Susanti as well as to the staff in the
Hydraulics, Hydrology and River Laboratory, and the Environmental Engineering
Laboratory, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia,
for their contribution in conducting field surveys, data processing, and computation using theWinTR-20 application
6. REFERENCES
Abidin, H. D. (2001). Land subsidence of Jakarta (Indonesia) and Its Geodetic Monitoring
System. Natural Hazard Vol 23, 365-387.
Bhakti, W. Y. (2015). Prediksi Laju Erosi Potensial dan Laju Timbulan Sampah Potensial
pada Luasan Penutup Lahan Kedap Air (Studi Kasus DAS Ciliwung) Berbasis
Sistem Informasi Geografis (SIG). Depok: Universitas Indonesia.
Brinkman, J. a. (2008). Jakarta Flood Hazard Mapping Framework. Jakarta.
Chow, V. t. (1988). Applied Hydrology. Mc Grown Hill.
Evi Anggraheni, a. D. (2016). Effectiveness Of Hypotetic Retention Ponds Simulation on
The Integrated Flood Management System. International Conference of Asosiationof Indonesian Hydraulic Engineer.
Lee, C.-Y. (2005). Application of Rainfall Frequency Analysis on Studying Rainfall
Distribution Characteristics of Chia-Nan Plain Area in Southern Taiwan. Journal of
Crop, Environment & Bioinformatics.
Lempérière, F. (2006). The role of dams in the XXI century, Achieving a Sustainable
Development Terget. Hydropower and Dams.
NRCS, U. (2015). Hydrology Model Basic Tutorial.
Siti Murniningsih, a. E. (2016). Identification the effect of spatial land use variability using
GIS at The Upstream Ciliwung Watershed. ARPN Journal of Engineering andApplied Sciences.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

51

15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

Analysis of Retrofit on School Building with Shear
Wall and Steel Bracing
Fauzana1, Febrin A. I.b, Farizzi A. S.c, Yogi I. R.d, Zev A. J.ea,bLecturer at Department of Civil Engineering, Andalas University, Padang City, 25163, IndonesiacConstruction Engineer at PT Total Bangun Persada, 11440, IndonesiadEnginner Staff at PT Waskita Karya, 13340, IndonesiaeStudent at Department of Civil Engineering, Andalas University, Padang City, 25163, Indonesia

ABSTRACTThe earthquake on 30 September 2009 with 7,6 magnitude occurred in West Sumatera andit caused the damage to both physical public facilities and infrastructures. The education
sectors suffered from structural damage to the school buildings. In order to establish of the
new Indonesian Seismic Code, SNI 03-1726-2012, it will affect to the performance ofstructures which was built before the establishment of the new seismic code, in which thebuilding may not be adequate to withstand the working loads. In this study, theperformance and strucutral strength of a two-story RC school building (SMAN 3
Batusangkar) designed using previous seismic code (SNI 03-1726-2002) and it wasconstructed before 2009, was evaluated based on the new seismic code. The result of
evaluation on the SMAN 3 Batusangkar building shows that the building can not resist theworking loads applied to the structure, especially the earthqukae loads, so the building
structure needs to be retrofitted. Two retrofitted methods of the builiding were proposed inthis study, they are using shear wall and steel bracing systems, which installed on thebuilding frame with different locations. The addition of shear wall and steel bracing arevery effective in strengthening the building structure, where the load-bearing capacity ofthe structure increased significantly and the building is able to resist all working loads.
Keywords: Earthquake, Retrofit, Shear Wall, Steel Bracing, School Building.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address:fauzanrn@yahoo.com

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, some parts of Indonesia experienced large earthquakes. It started fromAceh on December 26, 2004, Nias and Mentawai on March and April 2005, Bengkulu on
September 12 and 13, 2007, and the last earthquake in Pariaman on September 30, 2009.
After the earthquake on September 30, 2009, the education sector suffered from structural
damage of the school buildings. The 2132 classrooms were heavily damaged, 1335 weremoderately damaged, and 1144 were minor damaged [1]. Schools area is strategic target as
the dissemination of disaster information center. Therefore, as a disaster risk reduction
efforts of schools in Indonesia, the government of Indonesia throughs the National Agency
for Disaster Management (BNPB), Ministry of Public Works, and Ministry of Education
and Culture make a program called SAFE school.
Based on a history of the earthquakes that occurred in recent years, it is known that theearthquake has peak ground accelaration (PGA) greater than the PGA that has been set in
the earthquake map in SNI 03-1726-2002 Code [2]. So, this code is not applicable withcurrent condition. The government through BSNI (Indonesian National Standardization
Agency) has established a new seismic code, SNI 03-1726-2012, Earthquake Resilience
Planning Standards for Structural Building and Non-Building [3]. Therefore, an evaluation
or assessment of the existing building designed using the old seismic code, including schoolbuilding, should be done based on the new seismic code.
2. EVALUATION OF THE EXISTING BUILDINGIn this study, the performance and strucutral strength of a school public building in West
Sumatera, Senior High School (SMAN) 3 Batusangkar Building, was evaluated. The school
was two-story RC building, which is designed using previous seismic code (SNI 03-17262002) and constructed before 2009, so it is necessary to evaluate based on the new seismiccode. The details of building are described in the Figure 1 and Table 1.
Table 1 Details of The SMAN 3 Batusangkar Building
Structural Elements

Beam size
Column size
Slab thickness
Total height of frame
Number of column
Compressive strength of concrete
Yield strength of reinforcement (fy)Plan area

Properties
B1 (30 cm x 65 cm)
B2 (25 cm x 40 cm)
B3 (25 cm x 30 cm)
B4 (30 cm x 40 cm)
K1 (30 cm x 40 cm)
K2 (30 cm x 30 cm)
12 cm
7.2 m
56
K-225 (fc'= 18.675 MPa)
320 MPa52.5 m x 10 m

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53

Calculation and structural analysis are applied by a three-dimensional structure made of acomputer program, ETABS 9.7.1 [4]. The loads are taken into account included the deadload/ weight of its own building, live, and seismic load. An analysis of the seismic load
used dynamic analysis based on SNI 03-1726-2012 Code. The minimum load for design ofbuildings and other structures code, SNI 1727-2013 Code, was used to calculate theworking loads [5]. The dynamic analysis used seismic response spectrum design for
Batusangkar City, as seen in the Figure 2 (source: http://puskim.pu.go.id, application design
spectra of Indonesia 2011) [6].

1.30

1.30

1.30

B2'

K4

K1

B2

B2'

K2

B2"

B1"

B1

K2

B2"

K2

B2"

K2

B1'

B1"

B2"

K2

B2"

K2

B1"

B1"

B2"

B1'

K2 B2"

K2

B1"

B1"

B2"

K2

B2"

K2

B2"

B1"

B1'

K2

B2"

B1"

K2

B2"

K2

B2"

B1"

B1'

K2

B2'

B1"

K1

B2'

B2

B1

K4

4.00

K4
B5'

B5

B5'A

B5'A

B5'A

B1"

B1"

B1

B2

B5'A

B5'A

K4

K1
B2'

K2

B2'

B4

B3

B2L

K3

B2'L

B2'AL K3

K2

K2

B5L

B5O

B1'

B1'

B1"

B1"

K3'

A

K4

K2

B2"

B4

B2"

B3

B2"

B2'AL

K3

B2'AL

K3

B2'AL

B4
K3

K2
B2"

K2

B2"

B3 B2"

B4
K3

B2'AL

K3

B2'AL

B5L

B1"

B1"

K2

B2"O K2

B4

B4

K3 B2'AL K3

B2'AL

K2
B3

B2'AL K3

K2
B2"

B4

B2'AL K3

B5'A
B1"

B1"

B1'

B2"

B5'A

B5'B

B4

B2'AL K3

B2'AL K3

B4

B2'AL

K3

K1

K2

K2

B3 B2"

B2"
B2'AL

B4
K3

B

B5
B1

B1"

B1"

K2
B2"

B5'

B5'A

B1'

K2
B2"

B5'A

B2

4.00

B2L

2.00

K4

B2'

B3

B2'

B2'AL

K3

B2'L

C

K3'

D
1.30

1.30

4.00

1

3.00

2

3.00

3

3.00

4

3.00

5

3.00

6

3.00

7

3.00

8

2.50

9

3.00

10

3.00

11

3.00

12

3.00

13

3.00

14

3.00

15

3.00

16

4.00

17

1.30

18

Figure 1 Perspective and plan of the school building

VariablePGA (g)
Ss (g)
S1 (g)
CRs
CR1

Value
0.602
1.398
0.600
1.906
0.955

Figure 2 Response spectrum graph for Batusangkar City based on SNI 1732-2012

54

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

2.1. The Flexural Capacity of Existing Columns
Figure 3 shows the P-M interaction diagram for columns of the building structure. It can beseen in the figure, there are several points of axial forces and bending moments exceed theinteraction diagram, this means that the capacity of column is not strong enough to resist
the working loads.

Figure 3 Interaction diagram of the existing column
2.2. The Shear Capacity of Existing Columns
Table 2 shows the shear capacity of the columns. As seen in the table, the shear capacity ofcolumn K1 is sufficient, nominal shear is higher than the ultimate shear (Vu). However, theshear capacity of both columns K2 (1st and 2nd floors) could not meet the requirement.

Story

Table 2 Column shear capacity of the existing structure
Shear ReinforcementVu
φVn Explanation
Code
Installed(ETABS)(kN) (Vu ≤ φVn)
Diameter (mm) Space (mm)(kN)

1st Floor K1 30/40

10

200

67,15

103,99OK

K2 30/30

10

200

71,25

55,71

NOT OK

2nd Floor K2 30/30

10

200

60,4

55,71

NOT OK2.3. Inter Story Drift (SNI 03-1726-2012 Code)
Table 3 Inter story drift of the existing structure

H
Story (m)
2
1

UX
(m)

Drift X Dir.
X (m) (m)
s

a

s≤
a

UY
(m)

Drift
Y (m)

Y Dir.
(m)
s

a

s≤
a

NOT
NOT
0.0474 0.025 0.041667 0.04154
OK
OK
NOT
0.0224 0.0224 0.037333 0.04154 OK
3.6 0.0277 0.0277 0.0462 0.04154
OK
3.6 0.2096 0.1819 0.3032 0.04154

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55

Table 3 shows the value of inter story drift in x and y-directions. From the table, it can beseen that maximum of the story drift for x and y-direction are 0.3032 m and 0.04167 m,
respectively. These values are less than the allowable inter story drift of 0.04154 m.
Based on the above analysis result of the existing building by using the new Indonesian
seismic code, it can be said that the SMAN 3 Batusangkar building structure is not capable
to resist the working loads.
3. RECOMMANDATION OF THE RETROFITTING
3.1. Retrofitting of Structures
Retrofitting is a method to increase the resistant capacity of structure. A seismic retrofit
provides existing structures with more resistance to seismic activity due to earthquakes.
Retrofitting techniques can be classified as local and global retrofitting. Local retrofitting is
the maintenance of local deficiencies in building like crushing of columns, flexure andshear failure of beams, columns and shear walls, also rebuilding infill masonry. Global
retrofitting is maintenance of global deficiencies in building like plan and verticalirregularities. The global retrofit includes the addition of shear wall and steel bracing [7].
In this study, there are two retrofitted systems, shear wall and steel bracing systems which
was analysed. The systems were attached on the building frames with different locations.
3.1.1. Retrofitted with Shear WallShear wall system is one of the most commonly used lateral-load resisting systems in
multi-story buildings. Shear wall has very high in-plane stiffness and strength which canbe used to simultaneously resist large horizontal loads and support gravity loads [8]. The
proposed thickness of shear wall is 25 cm with compressive strength of concrete (fc’) is 25
Mpa. The yield strengh of the D-16 mm logitudinal reinforcement is 390 MPa. The yieldstrengh of the D-10 mm transversal reinforcement is 240 MPa. Specification detail of theshear wall in the retrofitted structure can be seen in the Figure 4.

S p e c i a l B o u n d a r y E le m e n t

S p e c ia l B o u n d a r y E le m e n t

900
64 56

900
152

28 4

300

300

284

152

6d

6d
6d

Hoop
D 1 0 @ -1 0 0
1 2 -D 1 9

6d56

C r o s s T ie
D 1 0 @ -1 0 0

H oop
D 1 0 @ -1 0 0

2 -D 1 6

C r o s s T ie
D 1 0 @ -1 0 0

Hoop
D 1 0 @ -1 0 0

Figure 4 Specification detail of shear wall

Four different locations that added to the shear wall system on the building were modelled,
as shown in Figure 6:

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

- Model A, shear wall attached on a core area of stairs in the1st floor (Figure 6a)- Model B, shear wall attached on a core area of stairs in the1st and 2nd floors (Figure 6b)- Model C, shear wall attached on a corner area of the building in the1st floor (Figure 6c)- Model D, shear wall attached on a corner area of the building in the1st and 2nd floors(Figure 6d)
3.1.2. Retrofitted with Steel Bracing
Bracing system is one of structural system which forms an integral part of the frame.
Bracing is efficient because the diagonals work in axial stress and therefore it is called forminimum member sizes in providing the stiffness and strength against horizontal shear [9].
In this study, steel bracing with the V-inverted was selected to retrofit the existing structure.
Based on the results of bracing designed calculations (with input parameters: yield strengthof 390 MPa, ultimate strength of 520 MPa and elastic modulus of 200.000 MPa), IWF
profile with dimension of 250.250.9.14 provides enough lateral stiffness and stability. The
specification detail of the steel bracing can be seen in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Specification detail of steel bracing
Four different locations that added to the steel bracing system on the building weremodelled, as shown in Figure 6:- Model E, the bracing attached on X direction both front and rear on 1st floor (Figure 6e)- Model F, the bracing attached in corners area X and Y directions (L shape) on 1st floorand 2nd floors (Figure 6f)- Model G, the bracing attached in X and Y directions (U shape) on 1st and 2nd floors(Figure 6g)- Model H, the bracing attached in Y direction and central part of the building in X
direction on 1stand 2nd floors (Figure 6h)(a) Model A(b) Model B

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(c) Model C(d) Model D(e) Model E(f) Model F(g) Model G(h) Model H

Figure 6 The 3-D modeling of retrofitted structures
3.2. Analysis of Retrofitted Structures
Structural analysis using ETABS v9.7.1 was carried out for all models. From the eight
retrofitted building models analyzed, the result of interstory drift shows that the fourmodels (Models A,C,E, and H) do not meet requirement based on new seismic code, SNI
1726-2012, where the story drift exceeds the allowable drift, as shown in Table 4.
Therefore, there are four models recommended for retrofitting structures: models B and D
using shear wall system and models E and H using steel bracing system. The comparison
for recommanded models of the retrofitted building are discussed below.

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Model
A
B

C

D

E

F

G

H

Sto
ry

H
(m)

UX
(m)

2

3.6

1

Table 4 Interstory drift of all retrofitted model
Drift
X (m)

sX
Dir. (m)a0.02790.02550.08500.054

3.6

0.00240.00240.00802

3.6

0.00810.00591

3.6

0.00220.0022

s≤
a

UY
(m)

Drift
Y (m)

sY
Dir. (m)as≤a0.02170.014

0.0450

0.054

OK

0.054

NOT
OK
OK

0.00790.00790.02630.054

OK0.01970.054

OK0.01820.012

0.03870.054

OK0.00730.054

OK0.00660.0066

0.022

0.054

OK

0.01640.012

0.0397

0.054

OK

2

3.6

0.02340.02250.0750

0.054

NOT
OK

1

3.6

0.00090.00090.00300.054

OK0.00450.0009

0.015

0.054

OK

2

3.6

0.01490.0141

0.047

0.054

OK

0.0169

0.012

0.041

0.054

OK

1

3.6

0.00080.00080.00270.054

OK0.00460.00460.0153

0.054

OK

0.021

0.012

0.04

0.054

OK

2

3.6

0.02320.023

0.0767

0.054

NOT
OK

1

3.6

0.00020.00020.00070.054

OK0.00890.00890.0297

0.054

OK

2

3.6

0.016

0.016

0.0533

0.054

OK

0.012

0.00950.0317

0.054

OK

1

3.6

0.00010.00010.00000.054

OK0.00210.0021

0.007

0.054

OK

2

3.6

0.01620.0162

0.054

0.054

OK

0.012

0.00980.0327

0.054

OK

1

3.6

0.00010.00010.00000.054

OK0.00210.0021

0.007

0.054

OK

0.021

0.0138

0.046

0.054

OK

0.00760.00760.0253

0.054

OK

2

3.6

0.026

0.02380.0793

0.054

NOT
OK

1

3.6

0.00220.00220.00730.054

OK3.3. The Location Point of Columns and Beams to Compared the Structural Response
The location point of columns and beams to compare structural response can be seen in
Figure 7. The positions are taken from one interior beam and another one interior column ofthe center of each floor.

Figure 7 Location point of columns and beams to compare the structural response

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59

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. The Internal Force in Beams
The comparison of shear force on the beam between existing and retrofitted building isshown in Table 5. From the table, it can be seen that the building using steel bracing andshear wall have smaller value than the existing structure. The retrofitting provides great
rigidity to the structure, so it reduces the shear force in the structure by around 90%. Table
6 shows a comparison of bending moment on the beam. As seen in the table, the bending
moment of the beam was also reduced up to 70% due to the present of shear wall and steel
bracing in the building.
Table 5 Comparison of shear force in the beam between existing and retrofitted structures
Shear Force (kg)
Location of
Story
View
Existing Model B Model D Model F Model G
1
20684
17732
14746
15423
15615
The Interior
Beam
2
3337
2553
1906
1867
1791
1
6649
4298
3152
3560
4025
The Exterior
Beam
2
376
248
248
219
242
Table 6 Comparison of bending moment in the beam between existing and retrofitted
structres
Bending Moment (kg.m)
Location of Story
View
Existing Model B Model D Model F Model G
1
19018
17226
14046
15773
16223
The Interior
Beam
2
5347
2469
1409
1199
1121
1
5092
3822
2815
3421
3797
The Exterior
Beam
2
258
131
127
119
125
4.2. The Internal Force in Columns
The comparison of internal force in the columns (axial, shear, and bending moment)
between exsisting and retrofitted buildings can be seen in Tables 7, 8, and 9, respectively. It
can be seen from Table 7, the axial force on Models B and D were lower around 20 – 35%
than existing building, however, on Models F and G, were higher around 32 – 35% thanexisting building.
From Table 8, shear force in the retrofitted structures were smaller than the existing
structure. The percentage of reduction that occurs in the shear force of the columns arearound 90 – 95%. This is mainly due to the retrofit can resist the lateral loads, especially theearthquaked load.
Adding the shear wall and steel bracing systems on the building structure can reducebending moment. The percentage of bending moment reduction around 95% compared tothe existing structure, as seen in the Table 9.

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Table 7 Comparison of axial force in the columns between the existing and the retrofitted
structures
Axial Force (kN)
Location of Story
View
Existing Model B Model D Model F Model G
1
76,6
29,89
16,53
121,8
123,63The Interior
Column
2
24,86
10,97
6,22
9,46
8,61
The Exterior
1
61,16
4,37
57,16
64,62
64,87
Column
2
17,55
0,89
0,56
12,14
12,15
Table 8 Comparison of shear force in the columns between the existing and the retrofitted
structures
Shear Force (kN)
Location of Story
View
Existing Model B Model D Model F Model G
1
68,91
2,77
0,68
0,61
0,73
The Interior
Column
2
22,09
9,83
8,65
0,51
0,6
The Exterior
1
77,53
24,71
3,26
14,62
14,93
Column
2
6,83
6,18
0,74
3,16
3,52
Table 9 Comparison of bending moment in the columns between the existing and theretrofitted structures
Bending Moment (kN.m)
Location of
Story
View
Existing Model B Model D Model F Model G
1
134,86
8,44
4,22
3,27
4,04
The Interior
Column
2
38,78
19,28
17,57
0,87
1,04
1
145,25
28,1
1,79
17,61
17,65
The Exterior
Column
2
40,47
38,8
22,07
20,26
20,21
4.3. Displacement

Figure 8 Comparison of X-dir. displacement between existing and retrofitted structures

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61

Figure 9 Comparison of Y-dir. displacement between existing and retrofitted structures
Comparison of X and Y direction displacements in interior and exterior columns between
exsisting and retrofitted structures can be seen in Figures 8 and 9. As seen in the figures,the displacement of the exterior column in x and y direction in retrofitted structure was
reduced around 99% of the existing structure.
4.4. Interaction Diagram of The Columns After Retrofitting
Figure 10 shows the P-M interaction diagram of column on the four models of retrofitted
building structures. From the figure, it can be seen that the axial forces and bending
moments for all models are not exceeded the interaction diagram, that means the capacityof column is strong enough to resist the working loads.

(a) Model B(b) Model D

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(c) Model F(d) Model G
Figure 10 Interaction diagram of columns in the retrofitted structures
4.5. Cost and Volume of The Work
Table 10 shows the comparison of the cost of retrofitted building for the four retrofitted
building models which analyzed by Unit Price of Work of Batusangkar City, 2017 [10].
The table shows that the use of shear wall has cost minimum Rp. 253.044.039,- (Model B),
whereas the use of steel bracing required lower cost, particularly of Model F, whichamounted Rp. 192.125.000,-.
Table 10 Comparison of the retrofit structure cost
VolumeCost of Material
Retrofit Method (1)Unit Price (3)(2)(4) = 2 x 3Model B (Shear Wall)
Model D (Shear Wall)
Model F (Steel Bracing)
Model G (Steel Bracing)

39,6 m3
50,4 m3
15370 kg
17291 kgRp. 6.390.001/ m3
Rp. 6.390.001/ m3
Rp. 12.500,-/ kg
Rp. 12.500,-/ kg

Rp. 253.044.039,Rp. 322.056.050,Rp. 192.125.000,Rp. 216.140.000,-

From the above cost comparison, the steel bracing system installed on corners area X and Y
directions (L shape) on the 1st floor of the building (Model F) is more economical and more
effective in the ease of implementation than the shear wall system.

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63

5. CONCLUSION
From the above structural analysis, it can be concluded that:(i) The building of SMA N 3 Batusangkar is unable to resist the working loads basedon the evaluation of the feasibility structure which analyzed using SNI 1726-2012.
The structure should be rettrofitted.
(ii) Retrofitted of the building by adding steel bracing and shear wall systems are very
effective for reducing the displacement by 60-99% and the internal force by 1095% compared to the existing structure.
(iii) Models B and D which used shear wall system, and models F and G used steel
bracing system can be applied in the retrofitted school building to reduce theinternal force and displacement due to the working loads.
(iv) Retrofitted using steel bracing system is more economical and easier to be installed
than the shear wall, so the method of retrofit using steel bracing models F and G
are very recommended for strengthening the structure of SMA N 3 Batusangkar,
which it can also be applied to other typical school buildings.
6. REFERENCES[1] Disaster of Management Coordination Board of West Sumatra, (2009), The Map ofTotal Damage Public Facilities caused Earthquake in West Sumatra, Indonesia.
[2] National Standardization Agency of Indonesia, (2002), Design Standard of Earthquake
Resistance for Buildings, SNI 03-1726-2002, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[3] National Standardization Agency of Indonesia, (2012), Design Method of Earthquake
Resistance for Buildings and Other Structures, SNI 1726-2012, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[4] Computers and Structures, Inc., (2005), Manual ETABS (Integrated Building Design
Software). California, USA.
[5] National Standardization Agency of Indonesia, (2003), Minimum load for the design ofbuildings and other structures, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[6] http://puskim.pu.go.id/Aplikasi/ desain_spektra_indonesia_2011/[7] Central Public Works Department and Indian Building Congress, (2007), Handbook on
Seismic Retrofit of Buildings. Association Indian Institute Technology.
[8] S., Anshuman, et al., (2011), Solution of Shear Wall Location in Multi-Story Building.
IJSCE vol. 2 no. 2. Civil Engineering Group, BITS Pilani, India.
[9] M., Adhitya, et al., (2015), Study on Effective Bracing Systems for High Rise Steel
Structures. SSRG-IJCE vol. 2 issue 2. Civil Engineering East West Institute ofTechnology, Bangalore-91, India.
[10] Central Public Works Department of Batusangkar City, (2017), Work Unit Price
Triwulan I 2017, Indonesia.

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIFIC LAND USE CATEGORIES AND
IMPERVIOUSNESS FOR PREDICTING THE IMPACT OF EXCESSIVE LANDDEVELOPMENT IN URBAN AREA AT SEMARANG, CENTRAL JAVA
Dwita Sutjiningsiha, Yosef PrihantobaDepartment of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok
16424, IndonesiabEnvironmental Science Programme, School of Postgraduate, Universitas Indonesia,
Jakarta Pusat 10430, Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Most researchers agree that imperviousness is the key predictive variable in simulation andempirical models used to estimate the stream quality as response variable. Therefore, thedecision in selecting the imperviousness estimation method is crucial. This study aims at
testing the accuracy of land use and population density methods to estimate the directly
connected impervious area (DCIA) of subwatershed for predicting the impact of landdevelopment especially the flood discharge in a moderately urbanized city. The DCIA
consists of rooftops and road network and elaborated based on nine land use categories on
administrative- and watershed-based area inSemarang, Central Java. The digitized World
View Satelite Imagery 2012 combined with in-situ observation by Geospatial Information
Agency in 2013 and repeated in 2016 are used for calibration purposes. In predicting flood
discharge, the land use method shows accurate results in all four cases, while the population
density method shows somewhat overestimated results, especially in the area dominated bygreen open space, agricultural, and industrial area as well. In cases where direct measurement
is impossible due to time and money constraints, the land use method is more accountable
than population density method in accurately predicting the DCIA in the watershed.
Keywords: DCIA (Directly Connected Impervious Area); Imperviousness; Land use method;
Population density method; Semarang.
1. INTRODUCTIONAs claimed by numerous researchers, the difficulty in maintaining urban stream quality infacing the development in the watersheds is underlined by the strong relationship between
imperviousness and stream quality. Researchers agree that the percentage of impervious
cover on the watersheds, which represents the imperviousness in Reformulated Impervious
Cover Model (ICM) and in most simulations and empirical models as well, is the key
predictive variable used to estimate the stream quality as response variable (Schueler, 2009).
According to former work of Schueler (1995), imperviousness consists of two primary
components, namely the rooftops and the transport system. He cited the report based on actual
measurement in 1994 at City of Olympia, Washington, that traditional zoning has strongly
emphasized and regulated the rooftops and largely neglected the transport component,
despite transport-related imperviousness consisting of 63 to 70% of total imperviousness atthe site in 11 residential, multifamily and commercial areas.
Center for Watershed Protection (2003) studies indicate that the size of one-hundred-year
floods can potentially double in watersheds with impervious cover levels greater than 20 toProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

65

30%. The study of Canters et al. (2006) shows that mapping of impervious surface
distribution using remote-sensing data produced substantially different estimates ofdischarge than traditional approaches based on expert judgment of average imperviousness
for different types of urban land use. Said (2014) described that based on its degree ofimperviousness an urbanized watershed is composed of Directly Connected Impervious Area
(DCIA), Non-Directly Connected Impervious Area (NDCIA), and Pervious Area (PA). From
DCIA runoff flows directly into the drainage system, while from NDCIA runoff may passthrough a PA before it reaches the drainage system. The sum of DCIA and NDCIA is equal
to Total Impervious Area (TIA).
Although in most urbanized watersheds the impervious cover is the dominant factor, it isreally difficult to estimate its amount. Kelly and McGinnis (2002) stated that the decision on
selecting method for estimating the degree of imperviousness should consider the three basic
attributes, namely: relatively accurate, easy to do, and easy to derive the required information.
Other important considerations are available time, skill and funding, required accuracy, andability to predict future imperviousness. In general, there are four methods commonly usedin the watershed, namely direct measurement, based on specific land use categories, basedon road density, and based on population density. Direct measurement is the most accurate
method, but it is also the most expensive one, while the last method is the cheapest but leastaccurate method. The majority of researchers has the opinion that land use method is the bestcompromise of accuracy and cost. Referring to Lee and Heany’s (2003) suggestion, theimpact on stream quality as response variable should be estimated using DCIA as key
predictive variable; however, the required data/information as well as the availability of funds
and skilled workers to estimate the DCIA in the watershed is in general very limited.
This study aims at testing the accuracy of two selected methods, namely the land use method
and the population density method in estimating the DCIA of subwatershed in predicting theimpact of land development, especially in terms of flood discharge in a moderately urbanizedcity. The DCIA is an impervious area with a direct hydraulic connection to the drainage
system or a water body via continuous paved surfaces, gutters/drain pipes, and/or
conventional conveyance structures (Holyoke Community College, 2011). In this study,
DCIA is defined as part of the district and/or subwatershed consisted of rooftops and road
network as commonly found in urban areas elsewhere in the developing countries. The
calibration of estimated DCIA used the digitized digital data derived from interpretation ofWorld View Satelite Imagery 2012 combined with in-situ observation by Geospatial
Information Agency in 2013, and repeated in 2016.
Semarang consists of 16 Districts (Kecamatan), where the eastern part of the city is more
densely populated in comparison to the western part. Nine land use categories are applied oneach district, as well as on eleven subwatersheds covering the whole area of the city. Only
four subwatersheds (Banjir Kanal Timur, Bringin, Plumbon and Silandak) are fully locatedin the city and therefore further elaborated. The assessment of the results is based on thecoefficient of determination (R2) and the Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) criteria.
2. METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTThe computation procedure consists of three steps:
The First Step: derivation and calibration of the relation between DCIA and total land use
area dominated by impervious cover through elaboration of administrative-based

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

(district/kecamatan) land use data and also the relation between percentage of DCIA and the
population density data. Land use area dominated by impervious cover comprises of wellorganized residential area, unorganized residential area, industrial area, public/social
facilities, and commercial & services area.
The Second Step: computation of Curve Number (CN) values through elaboration ofwatershed-based approach land use data needed for computing the flood discharge using
WinTR-20 application. Estimation of DCIA in the subwatershed is based on the assumptionthat the relation between DCIA and total land use area dominated by impervious cover, as
well as the relation between percentage of DCIA and the population density data, which has
been derived in the first step, are also valid in the subwatershed area. The CN value forindividual land use type refers to the USDA (1989).
The Third Step: simulation of flood discharge in each subwatershed using hydrology model
basic WinTR-20 version 3.10 developed by USDA-NRCS (2015). The subwatersheds
characteristics covering area and time of concentration are elaborated based on theinformation from topographical map (RBI and BIG map), while the delineation of the
subwatershed boundary referred to the information from Ministry of Public Works & Human
Settlements. The land cover is interpreted from satellite imagery in 2012. The amount of
rainfall intensity and its distribution is hypothetic.
2.1. Size of datasets
Semarang is a moderately urbanized city, which consists of 16 Districts (Kecamatan) namely
Banyumanik, Candisari, Gajahmungkur, Gayamsari, Genuk, Gunungpati, Mijen, Ngaliyan,
Pedurungan, Semarang Barat, Semarang Selatan, Semarang Tengah, Semarang Timur,
Semarang Utara, Tembalang, and Tugu. The eastern part of the city is more densely
populated in comparison to the western part.
The area of each district is measured based on digital administrative map of Semarang, in the
document of Semarang City Spatial Planning 2010-2030 published by Regional
Development Planning Agency (Bappeda) of Semarang. The data of districts, villages,
population as well as the number of households are retrieved from “Semarang dalam Angka2014” published by Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS) of Semarang City (See Table 1).
Nine land use categories are applied on each district. Detailed information of land use
distribution as presented in Figure 1 is processed based on digital data derived frominterpretation of World View Satelite Imagery 2012, combined with in-situ observation by
Geospatial Information Agency in 2013, and repeated in 2016.

Figure 1. Land Use Distribution of Semarang City.

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67

Table 1. Description of Administrative Region of Semarang City.
Nr.

District (Kecamatan)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Banyumanik
Candisari
Gajahmungkur
Gayamsari
Genuk
Gunungpati
Mijen
Ngaliyan
Pedurungan
Semarang Barat
Semarang Selatan
Semarang Tengah
Semarang Timur
Semarang Utara
Tembalang
Tugu
Total

District Area
(Hectares)
3,093
661
941
643
2,746
6,151
5,382
4,489
2,200
2,360
615
535
562
1,243
4,145
3,078
38,844

Number of
Villages
11
7
8
7
13
16
14
10
12
16
10
15
10
9
12
7
177

Number ofHouseholds
37,11019,84015,126
19,71525,50622,04017,93445,02345,82844,281
22,266
20,783
21,83632,28545,235
8,733
443,541

Population(Persons)
131,404
79,646
63,66073,85095,21877,33359,425
124,195
178,544
158,510
79,95270,72778,019128,134
154,697
31,592
1,584,906

Population Density(Persons per Hectare)
42
120
68
115
35
13
11
28
81
67
130
132
139
103
37
10
71 (Average)

The same categories of land use are also applied on eleven (Babon, Banjir Kanal Barat, Banjir
Kanal Timur, Barat, Blorong, Bringin, Plumbon, Silandak, Tengah, Timur, and Tugu)
subwatersheds covering the whole area of the city (See Table 2). Further elaboration are
conducted only on four subwatersheds (Banjir Kanal Timur (BKT), Bringin, Plumbon andSilandak), which are fully located in the city.
Table 2. Distribution of Subwatersheds Area in the District of Semarang City.
District
Nr.
(Kecamatan)
Babon BKB BKT*
1
Banyumanik
1,960
954
284
2
Candisari
18
663
3
Gajahmungkur
2
4
Gayamsari
19
5
Genuk
2
6
Gunungpati
6,360
7
Mijen
1,735
8
Ngaliyan311
9Pedurungan
117
10
S.Barat232
11
S. Selatan
69
181
12
S Tengah2
13
S.Timur
60
14
S.Utara10
13
15
Tembalang
2,300
1,988
16
Tugu
Total Area
4,260
9,691 3,329* Subwatersheds fully located in Semarang City.

Barat
155
1,918
452
2,525

Subwatersheds in the Districts (Hectares)
Blorong Bringin* Plumbon* Silandak*
1,394
994
1,443
2
6.00
2,116
813
767
129
31
39
106
1,400
3,141
2,295
1,004

Tengah
4
386
552
520
1,156
2,618

Timur
646
2,822
2,202
1
5,671

Tugu
472
2,438
2,910

2.2. Determination of directly connected impervious area (DCIA)
Referring to the birdview from Google Map and in-situ observation in Semarang City, mostof rooftops and road-network are directly connected into the drainage system, as is commonly
found in urban areas in the developing countries. Therefore, the DCIA in Semarang City isdetermined based on recognized rooftops and road-network.
2.2.1. DCIA in Semarang City
Roof area is obtained through the calculation of digital data of roof mapping from Ministryof Public Works in 2011. It was improved based on SPOT 5 satellite imagery interpretation

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

of 2014 record based on 1: 25,000 scale information. Computation of length and area of roadnetwork is based on mathematical approach using digital road-network data from
topographical map (RBI map 1:25,000). The results are improved based on World View
satelite imagery interpretation recorded in 2012, and in-situ observation in 2013, andcombined with the data in the document of Semarang City Spatial Planning Year 2010-2030
published by Public Works Service of Semarang City. The distribution of rooftops and roadnetwork area in Semarang City as presented on Table 3 shows the DCIA in the district as
sum of rooftops and road-network area in each district.
Table 3. Distribution of Rooftops and Road-network Area (DCIA) in Semarang City.
Nr.

District (Kecamatan)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Banyumanik
Candisari
Gajahmungkur
Gayamsari
Genuk
Gunungpati
Mijen
Ngaliyan
Pedurungan
Semarang Barat
Semarang Selatan
Semarang Tengah
Semarang Timur
Semarang Utara
Tembalang
Tugu
Semarang City

Rooftops Area
(Hectares)(%)
503.8216.29
199.0730.10
196.4820.87
151.91
23.61
422.3715.38
272.694.43
308.295.73
810.4918.05
451.61
20.53
555.2723.53
214.3734.87
212.1239.63
183.7832.72
291.3723.44
463.8511.19
134.394.37
5,371.89
13.83

Road-network Area
(Hectares)(%)
135.81
4.39
60.40
9.13
72.79
7.73
58.71
9.12
109.15
3.98
95.08
1.55
93.61
1.74
145.71
3.25
150.646.85
170.15
7.21
63.64
10.35
55.87
10.44
58.56
10.43
106.228.55
139.86
3.37
22.10
0.72
1,538.30
3.96

Rooftops & Road-network Area (DCIA)(Hectares)(%)
639.63
20.68
259.4739.24
269.2728.60
210.6232.73
531.5219.36
367.775.98
401.91
7.47
956.2021.30
602.2527.38
725.4230.74
278.0145.22
267.9950.06
242.3543.15
397.5931.99
603.71
14.56
156.495.08
6,910.19
17.79

2.2.2. Application of Land Use Method in the Subwatershed
The relation between measured land use area dominated by impervious cover in the district(X) and measured DCIA in the district (Y) is presented on Figure 2a, whereas Figure 2b
presents the calibration result to test its validity. The result shows that the R2 (=0.8141) of
the line of perfect agreement indicates that the estimated DCIA in the district is acceptable.
Calibration of Estimated DCIA
in the District

1,000

900

y = 0.5277x - 16.444
R² = 0.8701

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100

300

400

500

600

700

800

900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500

Measured Land Use Area Dominated by Impervious Coverin the District (Hectares)

Estimated DCIA in the District(Hectares)

Measured DCIA in the District(Hectares)

Relation Between Measured Land Use Area Dominatedby Impervious Cover and Measured DCIA in the District
Based on Land Use Method

1,000

900
800
700
600
500

y = 0.8431x + 67.543
R² = 0.8141

400
300

200
100

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1,000

Measured DCIA in the District (Hectares)
Linear (Estimated DCIA Based on Land Use Dominated by Impervious Cover in the District)Linear (Line of Perfect Agreement)

Figure 2a.

Figure 2b.

Figure 2. (a) Relation Between Measured Land Use Area Dominated by Impervious Coverand Measured DCIA in the District Based on Land Use Method; (b) Calibration of
Estimated DCIA in the District.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

69

60

Relation Between Population Density
and Percentage of DCIA in the District Based on
Population Density Method

Calibration of Estimated Percentage of DCIA
in the District
Estimated Percentage of DCIA
in the Disrict

Measured Percentage of DCIA
in the District

Hence, the equation that will be used for estimating the DCIA in the subwatershed is,(1)
Y  0.5277 X 16.444 ; R2 = 0.8701
by taking into account the weighted average of the district-areas contained within the
subwatershed.
2.2.3. Application of Population Density Method in the Subwatershed
The similar procedure as above is applied. Figure 3a present the relation between population
density in the district (X) and percentage of measured DCIA in the district (Y). The
calibration result presented on Figure 3b shows that the line of perfect agreement (R2 = 0.887)
indicates that the estimated percentage of DCIA in the district is acceptable.

50

40
30
20

y = 0.2845x + 6.362
R² = 0.9142

10
0

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Population Density in the District

160

60

50
40
30

y = 0.8954x + 2.8247
R² = 0.887

20
10
0

0

10
20
30
40
50
Measured Percentage of DCIA in the District

60

Linear (Estimated Percentage of DCIA Based on Population Density in the District)Linear (Line of Perfect Agreement)

Figure 3a.

Figure 3b.

Figure 3. (a) Relation Between Population Density and Percentage of DCIA in the District
Based on Population Density Method; (b) Calibration of Estimated Percentage of DCIA in
the District.
Hence, the equation that will be used for estimating the DCIA in the subwatershed is,(2)
Y  0.2845 X  6.362 ; R2 = 0.9142
by taking into account the weighted average of the district-areas contained within the
subwatershed.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Land use maps of four subwatersheds fully located in the city are based on information from
topographical map, while the delineation of subwatershed boundary is referring to theinformation from Ministry of Public Works & Human Settlements. The land cover isinterpreted from Satellite Imagery in 2012. Table 4 presents the land use distribution and
Figure 4 shows the land use map of four subwatersheds. Table 5 presents the weighted factors
needed to convert the DCIA from district-based into subwatershed-based.
Table 4. Land Use Distribution in Banjir Kanal Timur, Silandak, Bringin and Plumbon
Subwatersheds in Semarang City.

70

Nr.

Land Use

1
2
3
4
5

Well-organized Residential
Unorganized Residential
Industrial Area
Publics/Social Facilities
Commercial & Services Area

Banjir Kanal Timur
Area (Ha)%527.3215.84
682.51
20.50
24.31
0.73
456.1613.70
191.25
5.74

Silandak
Area (Ha)
%
85.21
8.48
154.6215.38
172.9617.21
144.80
14.41
26.36
2.62

Bringin
Area (Ha)%137.71
4.39
177.59
5.66
71.09
2.26
128.81
4.10
23.01
0.73

PlumbonArea (Ha)
%
57.09
2.49
127.84
5.57
5.94
0.26
55.72
2.43
26.21
1.14

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Nr.

Land Use

67
8
9Green Open Space
Agricultural Area
Water Body
Others
Total

Banjir Kanal Timur
Area (Ha)%631.0018.95
610.47
18.33
39.89
1.20
167.095.02
3,330.00
100.00Silandak
Area (Ha)%200.2319.92
121.65
12.10
15.66
1.56
83.52
8.31
1,005.00
100.00Bringin
Area (Ha)%999.1631.82
1,458.41
46.45
26.24
0.84
117.983.76
3,140.00
100.00PlumbonArea (Ha)%489.1521.31
1,427.93
62.22
12.97
0.57
92.14
4.01
2,295.00
100.00LAND USE MAP
Banjir Kanal Timur Subwatershed

Silandak Subwatershed

Legend: Land Use Classification
Publics/Social Facilities
Industrial Area
Agricultural Area
Green Open Space
OthersCommercial/Services Facilities
Well-organized Residential
Unorganized Residential
Water Body
Subwatershed Boundary

0 0.7 1.4

Bringin Subwatershed

Plumbon Subwatershed

2.8
Km

N
W

E

S

Figure 4. Land Use Maps of Banjir Kanal Timur, Silandak, Bringin and Plumbon
Subwatersheds.
Table 5. Distribution of Weighted Factor for Banjir Kanal Timur, Silandak, Bringin andPlumbon Subwatersheds in Semarang City.
Nr.

Distric (Kecamatan)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Banyumanik
Candisari
Gajahmungkur
Gayamsari
Genuk
Gunungpati
Mijen
Ngaliyan
Pedurungan
Semarang Barat
Semarang Selatan
Semarang Tengah
Semarang Timur
Semarang Utara
Tembalang
Tugu
Total

Banjir Kanal Timur
Area (Ha)
%
284
8.53
663
19.92
2
0.06
19
0.57
2
0.06
117
3.51
181
5.44
1
60
1.80
13
0.39
1,988
59.72
3,330
100.00Silandak
Area (Ha)
%
2
0.20
767
76.39
129
12.85
106
10.56
1,005
100.00Bringin
Area (Ha)
%
994
31.65
2,116
67.37
31
0.99
3,140
100.00

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

PlumbonArea (Ha)
%
1,443
62.88
813
35.42
39
1.70
2,295
100.0071

The proportion of DCIA of each subwatershed based on Land Use Method is computed using
equation (1) in combination with the data from Table (4) and (5). The result is presented in
Figure 5a. Meanwhile, Figure 5b presents the result using Population Density Method, which
has been computed using equation (2) in combination with the data from Table (1) and (5).
Proportion of DCIA in
Subwatershed
BKT
Subwatershed
Silandak
Subwatershed
Bringin
Subwatershed
PlumbonSubwatershed

8.5
8.6

Proportion of DCIA in
Subwatershed

29.3
27.2
43.5
29.0
29.1
41.9

5.6
6.3

BKT
Subwatershed

82.9
88.1

Estimated DCIA in the Area Dominated byImpervious Cover (%)
Estimated NDCIA and PA in the Area
Dominated by Impervious Cover (%)
Green Open Space, Agricultural Area, Water
Body and Others (%)

24.3

75.7

Silandak
Subwatershed

15.2

84.8

Bringin
Subwatershed

12.7

87.3

PlumbonSubwatershed

11.2

88.8

Estimated Percentage of DCIA in
Subwatershed
Estimated Percentage of NDCIA and PA in
Subwatershed

Figure 5a.

Figure 5b.

Figure 5. Proportion of Estimated DCIA in Subwatersheds (a) Based on Land Use Method;(b) Based on Population Density Method.
The two methods show similar tendency, where BKT has the highest percentage of DCIA,
followed by Silandak, Bringin and Plumbon. A significant difference is present in Silandak,where the estimated value using Population Density Method is far less than the estimatedvalue using Land Use Method. The most probable cause is the type of land use, where
Silandak is dominated by industrial area with low population density, while BKT isdominated by residential area with relative high population density. Another interesting fact
is that these four subwatersheds can be grouped into two categories based on its land uses
distribution, namely urbanized (BKT and Silandak) and less-urbanized (Bringin andPlumbon) subwatersheds.
The scenarios for flood hydrograph simulation use hypothetical rainfall intensity 100 mm/day
with hypothetical distribution starts at noon and lasting in 3 hours (60%; 20%; 20%). Table
6 summarizes the required information for flood discharge simulation using WinTR-20.
Table 6. Input Data for Flood Discharge Simulation Using WinTR-20.
Subwatershed

Area(Hectares)

Banjir Kanal Timur
Silandak
Bringin
Plumbon

3,330
1,005
3,140
2,295

Time ofConcentration Tc(Hours)
2.24
1.28
3.19
3.39

Direct Measurement
Method (Observed)
79.75
79.24
72.52
73.12

Weighted CN Value
Land Use Method
Population Density(Estimated 1)
Method (Estimated 2)
79.02
83.62
78.69
81.89
72.11
81.42
73.14
81.13

The simulation results are presented in Figures 6a and 6b as flood hydrographs. Table 7
summarizes the comparison of main parameters, which consisted of peak discharge (QP),
time to peak (TP) and flood duration (TB). To be noted that index-1 is used formeasured/observed value, whereas index-2 for estimated value based on Land Use Method,and index-3 for estimated value based on Population Density Method.

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Figure 6a. Flood Hydrograph Simulation in Urbanized Banjir Kanal Timur and Silandak
Subwatersheds.

Figure 6b. Flood Hydrograph Simulation in Less-Urbanized Bringin and Plumbon
Subwatersheds.
Table 7. Flood Discharge Simulation Results in Four Subwatersheds at Semarang City.
SubwatershedBanjir Kanal Timur
Silandak
Bringin
PlumbonPeak Discharge (cms)
QP1
QP2
QP3
143.0
139.50167.30
53.30
51.80
60.70
90.90
89.30
128.30
65.90
65.90
90.30

TP1
2.76
1.68
3.75
3.95

Time to Peak (hours)
TP2
TP3
2.77
2.57
1.68
1.64
3.75
3.62
3.95
3.62

Flood Duration (hours)
TB1
TB2
TB3
9.00
9.00
9.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00

As depicted in Figure 6 and Table 7, the differences of simulated peak discharge (QP2) andtime to peak (TP2) based on Land Use Method with the observed/measured values (QP1 andTP1) are infinitesimal. However, the simulation results based on Population Density Method(QP3 and TP3) give quite meaningful differences from the observed/measured values (QP1 andTP1), especially on less-urbanized subwatersheds such as Bringin and Plumbon. There is nodifference of flood duration (TB) between the two methods (TB2 and TB3) with the observed
value (TB1), since flood duration is more dependent on the size of the watershed and rainfall
intensity. Table 8 summarizes the accuracy of both methods in predicting the floodhydrographs using the coefficient of determination (R2) and using the Nash Sutcliffe
Efficiency (NSE) criteria.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

73

Table 8. Degree of Accuracy of the Simulation Results Using Land Use Method andPopulation Density Method.
SubwatershedBanjir Kanal Timur
Silandak
Bringin
PlumbonCoefficient of Determination (R2)
Population Density
Land Use Method
Method0.99990.99620.99980.99771.00000.98561.00000.9851Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE)
Population Density
Method
0.99850.95250.99880.96950.99980.63961.00000.7163

Land Use Method

Based on the Coefficient of Determination (R2) and Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) criteria,
the Land Use Method shows consistent results for all four subwatersheds, with R2 and NSE
values close to 1.0, whereas the Population Density Method is only accurate forsubwatersheds with high and uniform level of urbanization, such as in Banjir Kanal Timurand Silandak. In subwatersheds dominated by green open space and agricultural area, theresults using population density method are somewhat overestimated, as depicted by the NSE
values in Bringin and Plumbon. Nevertheless, the results of both methods are still acceptable
and in line with the statement by Lee and Heany (2003), where the Land Use Method isproved to be more accurate than the Population Density Method in predicting flood discharge
in all four subwatersheds.
4.CONCLUSION
The results show that both methods are acceptable, where the Land Use Method proved tobe more accurate than the Population Density Method in predicting flood discharge in all
four subwatersheds. However, based on Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) criteria, the Land
Use Method is more appropriate for estimating the DCIA in urbanized subwatersheds likeBanjir Kanal Timur and Silandak, since the predicted flood discharge in less-urbanized area
(Bringin and Plumbon) the Population Density Method results in higher flood discharge
compare to the simulation using Direct Measurement Method. Therefore, in case of lack ofresources for direct measurement of DCIA, the Land Use Method is proven to be morereliable for estimating the DCIA.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank all parties for their support in all or parts of the works. Special
thanks goes to the Management of Geospatial Information Agency (Badan Informasi
Geospasial), who provided us with all the required maps and data and to the staffs who
graciously provided us with land use analysis of Semarang. We would like to thank theanonymous reviewers for their useful comments as well.
6. REFERENCES
Badan Informasi Geospasial (BIG). Geospatial Information Agency of the Republic ofIndonesia.
Canters, F., Chormanski, J., Van de Voorde, T., and Batelaan, O., (2006), Effects of different
methods for estimating impervious surface cover on runoff estimation at catchment level.
In: Proceedings of 7th International Symposium on Spatial Accuracy Assessment in
Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences 2006, Lisbon, 5th-7th July, Portugal.

74

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Gerald, K., Rimpiläinen, U-M., and Salminen, O., (2013), How does imperviousness develop
and affect runoff generation in an urbanizing watershed? Fennia 191: 2, pp. 143−159.
ISSN 1798-5617.
Holyoke Community College, (2011), EPA Region 1 MS4 Stormwater General Permits and
LID Training Clinic: Tools and Methodologies for Tracking/Reducing Impervious
Cover, Horsley Witten Group, Inc., Holyoke, MA, USA.
Kelly, F., and McGinnis, S., (2002), Estimating Impervious Cover and Its Impact on Water
Resources, A Technical Report for the Upper Delaware Watershed Management Project
May 2002, North Jersey Resource Conservation and Development, Annandale, NJ.
Lee, J.G., and Heaney, J.P., (2003), Estimation of Urban Imperviousness and its Impacts on
Storm Water Systems, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 129(5),pp. 419-426.
Said, A., (2014), Generalized Method for Estimating Variability in Directly Connected
Imperviousness Area, Global Journal of Engineering Science and Research Management,
1(8), pp. 65-79.
Schueler, T.R., (1995), Site planning for urban stream protection, Chapter 2: The Importanceof Imperviousness, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Washington, DC.
Schueler, T.R., Fraley-McNeal, L., and Cappiella, K. (2009), “Is Impervious Cover Still
Important? Review of Recent Research”, Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, Vol. 14,
No. 4, pp. 309-315, April 1, 2009.
USDA, (1989), Engineering Hydrology Training Series, Module 104. Soil Conservation
Service.
USDA-NRCS, (2015). WinTR-20 version 3.10.

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75

Reliability of Smoothed Particles Hydrodynamics Method in Simulating 3D Fluid
Flow Towards Conservation of Mass and Energy(Simulated on Constriction in a Vertical Pipe)
Betania Caesariratih Lydiana, Dwinanti Rika M, Herr Soeryantono
Departemen Teknik Sipil, Fakultas Teknik, Depok, Indonesia
E-mail : betania.caesar@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Numerical method of modelling flow of surface water is currently evolving towards
particle-based method as an alternative to grid-based method due to the difficulties andlimitations of the grid based methods in simulating high velocity impact (HVI)
phenomena as free surfaces, moving material interfaces, deformable boundary and large
deformation based on (Liu & Liu, 2003). Particle-based method is still developing andis nearly in its mature stage, hence reliability testing is needed. The purpose of thisstudy is to evaluate the ability of the Smoothed Particles Hydrodynamics method in
simulating a 3-dimensional fluid flow through constriction of a vertical pipe.
Examination of this method is done by reviewing the results based on the Conservationof Mass and Conservation of Energy. The simulations are done by using visual basic for
excel as the program platform. The model used in this simulation is a square-verticalpipe with a constriction segment right in the middle of it. The scenarios on thesesimulations are varied by the number of particles and the value of rest density. The
results from these simulations are, the value of velocity generally increases while thevalue of pressure decreases in the constriction segment, so that the principles of theConservation of Energy have been fulfilled, despite in some scenarios the pressure
value is altered in some segments of the constriction. The percentage difference
between the particle’s density with the rest density value still fluctuates even though thevalue of rest density has been varied. The set of particles visually expand on higher
value of rest density, and is visually dense on the lower value of rest density. The results
show that the Conservation of Mass has not yet been completely fulfilled. Overall, theresults from some of the simulations are not stable because of the ability of the program
platform. Therefore, in general, the results show that the simulation still has to be
improved due to the incapability of the program platform that is not stable in doing
simulation of fluid flow phenomenon. But on the other hand SPH method is able tosimulate three-dimensional fluid flow through constriction of vertical pipe.
Keywords: Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics; 3-dimension simulation; fluid flow simulation;
constriction; vertical pipe

1.   INTRODUCTION
Numerical modelling of hydraulic flow phenomenon often encountered problems due tothe unfixed domain. The common methods of numerical modelling that are used today
are the Finite Difference and Finite Element Method. With these methods, nodes are thediscretization form. A set of nodes forms a grid within the limits fixed domain. So as tomodel hydraulic flow phenomenon, these methods are less precise because somephenomenon has an unfixed domain boundary in space and time. Therefore, in the fieldof hydraulics, other methods with the potential to model that kind of phenomenon, areneeded. We see potential in the Smoothed Particles Hydrodynamics (SPH) method,76

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

because the result of its numerical computation is more effective, accurate and stable insolving partial differential equation in every possible boundary condition (Liu & Liu,
2010). SPH method was developed by Gingold and Monaghan (1977) and Lucy (1977).
In the early days of its development, this method was used for modelling in theastrophysics field, but then was developed to model a free-surface flow by (Monaghan,1994) (Gomez-Gesteira, et al., 2010).
SPH method assume the flow of fluid as a bunch of particles, and each particle isequipped with node. Nodes in this method are also a discretization form. Nodes are not
fixed by space so it can move along by the movement of the particles. Each node isequipped with smoothing kernels that has an ability to interpolate the value of thevariable reviews of other surrounding particles. Character of nodes on this method
indicate that modelling is no longer restricted to a fixed space form. So the model’sdomain with this method does not have to be fixed according to time and space, thenthis method has the potential to model the hydraulic flow phenomenon.
Nowadays lot of fluid flow model is done by the SPH method, but it’s only simulating
the flow without reviewing its hydraulic characteristics. Thus, the purpose of this study
is to examine the ability of the SPH method in simulating a 3-dimensional fluid flow
through constriction of vertical pipe. The examination will be done by using parameterssuch as Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy. Variables review from thissimulation results; velocity, density, and pressure.

2.   METHODOLOGY
In this research, model of the phenomenon was simulated by Visual Basic for excel.
Governing equation in fluid flow consists of 3 fundamental conservation laws,
conservation of mass, energy, and momentum (Liu & Liu, 2003). From conservation ofmass we know that mass of system should be constant, and flowrate of a flow should
also be constant. From the conservation of energy, we know the relationship between
velocity and pressure (Potter, et al., 2012).
Fluid flow can be modelled using a differential equation form of fluid motion with theNavier-Stokes equations, which is one of the governing equations of fluid flow. Thismodel can be applied only on an isotropic, homogeneous and incompressible fluid flow
(Potter, et al., 2012). Navier-Stokes equations in the Lagrangian formulation is asfollows,
𝜌𝜌

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= 	
   −∇𝑝𝑝 + 	
  𝜇𝜇∇	
  . ∇𝑢𝑢 + 𝑓𝑓
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

(1)

./

on the left side of the equation,
	
  shows the change of velocity against time, the.0acceleration. On the right side shows a total force consisting of internal forces andexternal forces. Then by the equation, the value of the acceleration can be determined asfollows,
𝑎𝑎2 = 	  𝑓𝑓34566/45 +𝑓𝑓72689620: + 𝑓𝑓;4<720: + 𝑓𝑓=/4><85	
  ?5@629@ + 𝑓𝑓A/9:<@8:𝜌𝜌

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(2)

77

SPH formulation is derived by discretizing the Navier-stokes equations spatially,leading to a set of ordinary differential equations with respect to time (Liu & Liu, 2003).
SPH method is a numerical method with node as a discretization form on each particle
reviews. Nodes along with particles in the domain model can move freely in space andtime. Each particle has its own entities value. Entities own a value of mass (mi), velocity(ui), forces (Fi), position (ri), density (ρi), and pressure (pi). Basically, this method is aninterpolation method to approximate values and derivatives of continuous field
quantities by using discrete sample points (Vijaykumar, 2012). The interpolation
equation for various quantities observed using the SPH method is as follows,
𝐴𝐴6 𝑟𝑟 = 	
  

D

𝐴𝐴D

𝑚𝑚D
𝑊𝑊 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑟𝑟D , ℎ
𝜌𝜌D

(3)

Where AS(r) is the value of the quantity to be determined. j is a symbol for surrounding
particles. mj is the mass of the particle j, ρj is the density of j particles, and	
  𝑊𝑊 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑟𝑟D , ℎ
is a smoothing kernels with rj indicates the position of the particle j, and Aj is the j’svalue of quantity A. Each particle is equipped with Smoothing Kernels as a boundary
for interpolating value of quantities among particles. The uses of kernels are divided
into three types of kernels, the default kernel, pressure kernel and viscosity kernel. For
default kernel, we use Poly6 kernel types, and it’s used for all equation except forinternal forces equation. For pressure equation, we use spiky kernel and for viscosity
equation, we use viscosity kernel (Kelager, 2006).
Particle’s mass is a constant that has been identified in the beginning, butparticle’s density is a continuous variable that has to be recomputed during the particle’s
movement (Kelager, 2006). By the general SPH equation we can see that density take a
big role on it. The density equation used is as follows,
𝜌𝜌2 =

D

𝑚𝑚D 	
  𝑊𝑊 𝑟𝑟2 − 𝑟𝑟D , ℎ(4)

The force due to the pressure can be set using the formulation of the ideal gas law. But
for fluid, the equation must be modified by adding the value of the pressure in a state ofcalm, in order to show the internal cohesion and has a constant density (Desbrun &Gascuel, 1996), so that the formulation is,𝑝𝑝	  	
   = 𝑘𝑘(𝜌𝜌 − 𝜌𝜌9 )(5)
According to the Navier-Stokes equations, the particle’s acceleration can be computedby knowing the internal forces and external forces. Internal forces consist of pressureand viscosity forces,
𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗

𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒊

𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑

𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒊

=

=−

𝜇𝜇
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌

D`2

D

𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 	
  𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚	  45(ℎ − 𝑟𝑟 )	
  
2𝜋𝜋ℎZ

45 𝑟𝑟
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − Z𝜋𝜋ℎ 𝑟𝑟2𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ − 𝑟𝑟

(6)
_

	
  

(7)

By the suggestion from (Muller, et al., 2003), this pressure equation will result a morestable value of pressure forces because it symmetrized the interpolation by calculate thearithmetic mean of the pressures of interacting particles. External forces consist ofgravity and surface tension forces,

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𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒊

	
   = 	   −𝜎𝜎	
  

𝑛𝑛2
	
  
𝑛𝑛2

(8)

	
  𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒊 𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 = 	
   𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔
D

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
945
	
   −
ℎ_ − 𝑟𝑟 _ 3ℎ_ − 7 𝑟𝑟 _𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
32𝜋𝜋ℎh(9)

Sum of these internal and external forces then will be divided by density value todetermine the acceleration of each particle. We use Leapfrog Scheme for calculate thetime integration. The leap interval is 1 2 ∆𝑡𝑡. Structural integration is implicit Euler, theequation is as follows,𝑟𝑟0l	
  ∆0 = 	
   𝑟𝑟0 + 	
   ∆𝑡𝑡𝑢𝑢0lm ∆0
(10)
_
𝑢𝑢0 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   ≈ 	
  𝑢𝑢0om ∆0 + 𝑢𝑢0lm ∆0

(11)

𝑑𝑑
∆𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢2

(13)

_

_

2
Model of this simulation uses a constriction pipe form as a boundary container.
Boundary container is made as a restriction of fluid flow, so that when the fluid
particles collides or touch the boundary, there will be a collision momentum that effects
the position and velocity of the fluid particle. The responsive process to the collision iscalled collision handling. Collision handling processes are divided into two, namely thecollision detection and collision response. Collision detection is a detection process that
occurs collision on the particle. Meanwhile, collision response is the handling of
information obtained from the collision detection. The position and speed that havebeen modified as a result of the collision is formulated as follows,
ri = ri + dn
(12)
𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢2 − 1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑢𝑢2 . 𝒏𝒏

Model domain form is one of the physical parameter. The model used in this simulation
is a square-vertical pipe with a constriction segment right in the middle of it,

Figure 1. Model Domain

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79

Initial condition of this model should be identified in the beginning. Amount, initial
position, and initial velocity of particle are the initial condition and it depend on the
scenario. Some water properties are also needed. Water properties that we need are as
follows,
Density (𝜌𝜌s )Viscosity
Surface Tension
Gas Stiffnes: 998.29 kg/m3: 3.5 (1.003 x 10-3) Pa.s
: 0.0728 N/m:3J

3.   RESULT AND DISCUSSION
This research uses 12 scenarios that varies by the number of particles and the value ofrest density. At first, we just use 4 scenarios that was varied only by the number ofparticles, but the result showed that the value of density and pressure was not stable. So
we assume that if we vary the value of rest density, it will result a more stable value of
density and pressure. So the scenarios became like this,Table 1. Scenarios
Scenario
1
2
3
4
1a
2a
3a
4a
1b
2b
3b
4b

Number of Particle
800
1200
1800
2100
800
1200
1800
2100
800
1200
1800
2100

Value of Rest Density
Rest density:
998.29 kg/m3
Rest density:
200 kg/m3
Rest density:
1500 kg/m3

The results of all simulations are presented in a flow-path diagram for velocity, density,pressure and energy value. From these flow-path we can see the change in theproperty’s value as follow,

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Figure 2. Scenario 1 – 4 Flow-path

Figure 3. Scenario 1a – 4a Flow-path

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81

Figure 4. Scenario 1b-4b Flow-path
Velocity value was reviewed in every t (time) and we observed the change on every
observable segment. The average of velocity value in every scenario generally increases
on every part. On the second part of the pipe (constriction part), velocity value of theparticles that hit the boundary, were decreased. However, on the third part (after
constriction part) the velocity value was increased again. The reduction of this value
was occurred by the insistence of the boundary and particles. To fulfil the continuity
equation, every part of the pipe should have a constant value of flowrate, so we computethe average flowrate of the particles in every part. The result is, not every scenario has aconstant value of flowrate in every part, but the difference is not significant. Flowrate
value looks more stable on the scenarios that use 998.29 kg/m3 as the rest density value.
In every scenario, the density value still is not stable. Percentage of the differences arequite diverse, ranging from 0.04% until 100%. The difference percentage increase in the
scenario that use more amount of particles than the less one. By the average density
value on every observable segment, we compute the average mass of every particle. The
result is the average mass value is not much different from the values that was identified
in the beginning.
The movement of particles still looks like balls. Some of the particles are accelerated toevery direction randomly. On the constriction part, particles were insistence and cause a
big increment on pressure value in every scenario. Pressure increment also occurred by
the increment of density on that part. Generally, the average pressure value wasdecrease on every observable segment. Pressure and density value were act the same
because of their relationship is linear. Bernoulli equation almost fulfilled because
generally, the average value of pressure decrease while the average value of velocity
increase. But in some scenarios, pressure value was irrelevance. In 2100 particles
scenario, pressure value increase significantly on the constriction part. From figure 1 –figure 3, we can see that the colour on constriction part is red (high pressure), but afterthat part, the colour change significantly to blue (low pressure). The increment of82

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pressure and density value on constriction part indicated that the particles are in acompressible condition, however it was not what we expected.
From all scenarios, the differences of the simulation can be seen on the particles
movement visualization. Example of the movement can be seen on this figure,

Figure 5. Particles movement (t = 0.2, 0.3, 0.4)
Particle’s movement on the normal density (998.29 kg/m3) simulation, visually looks
like there’re tugged and form like a ball then collectively move downward. The lower
density (200 kg/m3) simulation, visually looks like the particles on the boundary sidestuck on it while the others are moving downward. Then, the higher density (1500kg/m3) simulation, visually looks like every particle are move apart each other thenmove downward. Particles on the normal density simulations looks more cohesive thanthe others. Particles on the lower density looks stick to the boundary. And particles on
the higher density looks very loose.
4.   CONCLUSION
SPH Method has potential in simulating a hydraulics phenomenon, not only visuallycapable, but also from the quantity properties. Conservation of mass and energy can beused as parameters for testing its reliability. Variable reviews on this research are;density, mass, pressure, velocity, flowrate, and energy. Flow phenomenon used on thisresearch is a 3D fluid flow through constriction of vertical pipe. This 3 dimensional
fluid flow simulation conclude as follow,–   Generally, average value of velocity increase on every part of the pipe. The
increment of this value is influenced by the gravity force and the pressure forces by
its neighbouring particles. Velocity value increase along the decrement of pipe’s
cross-sectional area, so this proves the conservation of mass.
–   Average value of density still not really stable. The differences between its density
and the rest density on the observable segment is not significant. Density andpressure value will always behave the same because of the relationship between
them is linear. The largest density and pressure value occurred on the constriction
part and on the boundary. Different value of rest density effects the simulation
results visually.
–   Generally, the average value of pressure decreased, but on the constriction part, itsvalue increased because of the insistence of each particles and boundary. While theaverage velocity value increased, the average pressure value decreased. It has
fulfilled the principle of the conservation of energy despite in some scenarios thepressure value altered in some segments of the constriction.
–   Energy value on this research still does not result an appropriate value. The energy
value is still not stable on every part.

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The main problem on this research is the density value is not stable. Density value
affects the pressure value, so maybe the equation of density still has to be improved.
5.   ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
the authors would like to thank Evi Anggraheni and Dwita Sutjiningsih for their support
on this paper.
6.   REFERENCES
Desbrun, M. & Gascuel, M.-P., 1996. Smoothed Particles: A new paradigm foranimating highly deformable bodies. iMAGIS - GRAVIR / IMAG.
Gomez-Gesteira, M. et al., 2010. Foreword: SPH for free-surface flows. Journal of
Hydraulic Research.
Kelager, M., 2006. Lagrangian Fluid Dynamics Using Smoothed Particle
Hydrodynamics, Denmark: DIKU.
Liu, G. R. & Liu, M. B., 2003. Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics : a meshfree particle
method. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
Liu, M. & Liu, G., 2010. Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH): an Overview andRecent Developments. Arch Comput Methods Eng, February, Volume 17, p. 52.
Monaghan, J., 1994. Simulating Free Surface Flows with SPH. Journal ofComputational Physics, pp. 399-406.
Muller, M., Charypar, D. & Gross, M., 2003. Particle-Based Fluid Simulation forInteractive Applications. SIGGRAPH Symposium on Computer Animation , p. 7.
Potter, M. C., Wiggert, D. C. & Ramadan, B. H., 2012. Mechanics of Fluids.
Stamford(CT): Cengage Learning.
Vijaykumar, A., 2012. Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics Simulation for Continuous
Casting, Stockholm: KTH SCI.

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EROSION AND TRANSPORT RATES OF SEDIMENTS AT DEGRADED
COASTAL WATERS IN BEDONO VILLAGE, SAYUNG DEMAK, CENTRAL JAVA
Max Rudolf Muskananfola1*, Haeruddin1, Pujiono Wahyu Purnomo1, Bambang Sulardiono1
1

Department of Aquatic Resources, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Universitas
Diponegoro, Tembalang, Semarang 50277, Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Bedono village, which lies at the coast of Demak Northern Java, is characterized by a numberof rivers, estuaries with important habitats such as mangroves, and silty-clay coasts. The
village has experienced severe degradations in terms of erosion and coastline changes as well
as damages of houses, buildings, roads, tambaks (fishponds), and mangroves. This condition
has affected the social and economic lives of local people as well as the environmental
ecosystem in the area. Therefore, it is crucial to enforce coastal development andmanagement of the affected area to restore its quality. This study is aimed to investigate
erosion patterns and transport rates of sedimentsas a basis for coastal development andmanagement. The study was conducted in December 2016 to represent west rainy season.
Sediment transport and erosion rates were examined using data of current velocity and grain
size of surface sediments. Current velocity were measured using a current meter fixed at 100
cm above seadbed during high tides. Current speeds were recorded every hour during one
tidal cycle at day time. Surface sediment samples were taken using a Van Veen grab forfurther analysis of mean grain size distribution and sediment textures in the laboratory.
to 1.641
at stations
The results show that friction velocities range from 0.547
1, 2 and 3. Bed shear stresses range between 0.12
and 0.27
at stations 1, 2, 3.
Bed load sediment transport rates range between 0.164 g
and 4.419 g
and32.045 ginsuspended load transport rates range between 0.015 g
December west rainy season. Sediment textures in the study area are dominated by clay
fractions followed by fine sands.
Keywords: Erosion and transport rates of sediments, coastal waters, Bedono Sayung Demak

*Corresponding author’s email: maxmuskananfola@yahoo.com

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1.INTRODUCTION
Bedono village at Sayung sub-district Demak regency is a coastal village which is directly
influenced by the processes in the sea as well as in mainland (Dahuri et al.,1996). The main
characteristic of this coastal ecosystem is influenced by the dynamics of sea causing theregion to be more vulnerable to erosion and deposition of sediments due to the interactions
between these two constricting characteristics (Pinet, 1992; Muskananfola et al., 2016).
Researches conducted in the coastal region of Demak reveal that the western part ofDemak;Bedono and Timbulsloko villages,has experienced heavy degradation. Ecologicaleffects, among others, include loosing of mangroves, damage of fishponds (tambaks) andchanges in biodiversity in the surrounding waters and estuaries (Rositasari et al., 2010; Putriet al., 2014; Adinugroho, 2015).
Extensive erosion occurred in Bedono village is assumed to be caused by stronger effects
from the seaside through changes in hydrooceanographic conditions and increase in sea
level. These effects fluctuate depending on the seasons and will be intensified byanthropogenic influences from inhabitants activities in mainland. On the other hand, increase
in sea level can lead to negative effects of erosion (Wirakusumah & Lubis, 2002; Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change, 2007). Increase in sea level in Semarang area hasreached 39 cm since year 1950 (Wirakusumah & Lubis, 2002; Anindya et al., 2006; Suripin,
2002).
The investigation of sediment transport in marine environment is concerned mainly with:determination of the direct of net sediment transport; estimation of sediment transport rates;
and identifying the location of accretional or erosional conditions. Approaches based uponempirical equations for transport rates, related to tidally-and wave-induced near bed shear
stresses have shown to be variable (Owen & Thorn, 1978; Middleton & Southard, 1984;
Pattiaratchi & Collins, 1985).
Sediment transport rates can be calculated using data of current velocities and grain sizes ofsediments (Heathersaw & Hammond, 1979; Pau & Hammer, 2013). In this respect, numerous
studies have examined the profile of current velocity within 1 or 2 m above the sea bed inareas of fully turbulent tidal currents (Sternberg, 1966; Nece & Smith, 1970, Amos et al.,2010). These studies have verified that under conditions of natural conditions of natural
stability and steady flow, the velocity profile close to a hydraulically rough bed can be
represented by the von Karman- Prandtl equation:(1)
Where is the friction velocity that equals √sea bed, which is the roughness length equals 0.4 andis the shearing stress on theis the roughness length.

The present study applies the above technique to the microtidal coast of Bedono Coastal
waters to measure velocity profiles at 100 cm above the sea bed; estimate sediment transport
rates; and forecast the stability of the sea bed on the basis of the relationship between bed
shear stress and grain size of the bed sediments.
Bedono Waters was selected for this study because it has experienced severe damaged due towaves actions and coastal erosion in Northern Coast of Java. The area functions as fishingponds/Tambaks, tourisms, place for living for local people.Therefore,the aims of the study
are to analyze the velocity profiles patterns and grain size distribution around Bedono
Village, to estimate the rates of sediment transport around coastal waters of Bedono, andto

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predict sea bed stability of the study area. The information is of paramount importance to there-suspension of fine-grained sediments into the water column.
This information will be useful for local authorities and interested people in deciding thesuitability of the area for specific developments. The information can also be used in theestimation of sediment transport rates (from seaward) into the coastal regions of Bedono.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Data Collection
The study was conducted in December 2016 at Coastal waters of Bedono, Demak torepresent rainy season where waves are high. There are 3 stations for measuring current
velocities and sediment grain size distribution: station 1,which is located at the midle of water
channel, station 2 near mangrove forest (East)and station 3 near the old cemetery (West).
This location is one of the main stream where water from Java sea (North) flows into Bedono
region (South) during high tide and water from Bedono region (South) flows out into open
Java Sea (North). There is an old cemetery located at west site; while the East site is coveredby heavily populated mangrove forests. These two sites also function as the two main
tourimsm sites in Bedono area where visitorscome not only from Central Java, but also fromother provinces. Water depth during high tide is 2-3 metres.
This area is considered to represent topographical and environmental settings of Bedono
Village where incoming high tide water flow into Bedono area and outgoing low tide waterflow out of Bedono area to open Java sea.

Figure 1 Study area at Bedono Waters, Demak

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87

Primary data collections consisted of the measurements of currents velocity, collection of thesurface sediment samples, visual observations of wave characteristics, measurementofseawater temperature and salinity.
2.2. Currents Measurements
Currents velocity measurement over one tidal cycle was undertaken at 100 cm above sea bed,using one current meter. The currentmeter was dropped from a boat which was connectedwith a cable. The current velocity was measured (recorded) every hour during one tidal cyclefrom 08.00 am to 16.00 pm (WIT). By applying the ‘Quadratic Stress Law’ (Sternberg, 1972)
to the obtained data, bed shear stress ( ) and friction velocity ( ) can be calculated. It has
been shown experimentally (Sternberg, 1966) that in a turbulent flow the boundary shear
stress is proportional to the fluid density and the square of the mean velocity:(2)or introducing a proportionality coefficient:
(3)
Where
is the drag coefficient relating to the mean velocity near the seabed to the force
exerted by the fluid per unit area of the bed. If the velocity is measured at a standard distancefrom the bed (generally 100 cm in oceanographic research) then equation (3) becomes:(4)or, in terms of the friction velocity:(5)
Investigations in the laboratory (Nikuradse, 1933) and in the sea (Sternberg, 1968) haverevealed that for hydrodynamically rough flows the drag coefficient assumes a constant value
the boundary
related to the bed configurations. Hence, given a representative value ofshear stress can be estimated from a single measurement of mean velocity within theboundary layer.
The results of Sternberg (1972) indicate that for naturally sorted sand sediment textures anestimate of boundary shear stress ( ) from measurements ofis best obtain from thefollowing equation:(6)
or, in terms of friction velocity:(7)
The data obtained in the present investigation is applied to equation (6) and (7) to estimate
the shear stress exerted on the bed and shear velocity of the flow. By knowing the shear stress
operating on the seabed, then it is possible to predict sediment movements.
2.3. Grain Size Measurements
Nine samples of surface sediments were collected during the field data collections. Sediment
samples were collected using a Van Veen grab sampler. The samples were then analysed fortheir grain size distributionin the laboratory (McManus, 1988).To estimate sediment stability

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in the study area, the data on mean grain size were then compared with friction velocity anddiscussed (Miller et al., 1977).
2.4. Sediment Transport Rates
The rate of sediment transport is the mass of sediment that is moved over a given distance ina set time. This sort of information is required, for instance, when breakwaters, jetties andgroins are to be built to prevent the loss of beach sand. Sediment transport rates are usuallyand suspended load (qs).
calculated as bedload (Experiment findings and theoretical considerations have shown that the rate of bedloadtransport is proportional to the cube of the shear velocity (Dyer, 1970; Dyer, 1986):(8)
For the transport of suspended load, Dyer (1980) showed that it is related to shear velocity as
follows:(9)
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1.Current Velocity Profiles
The measurements of current velocity profiles, friction velocity and bed shear stress arepresented in Table 1.
Table 1 Current velocity profiles at study area, Bedono

No

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Local
Time
(WIT)

08.00
09.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
16.00

Station 1
110,484 BT / 6,9149 LS
Current
Velocity at
τ0
100 cm
U*
-1
-2
above
(cm s )
(Nm )seabed-1(m s )

0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2

0.27
0.27
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.03
0.12

1.641
1.641
1.094
1.094
1.094
1.094
1.094
0.547
1.094

Station 2
110,483 BT / 6,9135 LS
Current
Velocity
τ0
at 100 cm
U*
-1
-2
above
(cm s )
(Nm )seabed-1(m s )

0.2
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2

0.12
0.12
0.27
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.03
0.12

1.094
1.094
1.641
1.094
1.094
1.094
1.094
0.547
1.094

Station 3
110,483 BT / 6,9151 LS
Current
Velocity
at 100 cm τ0
U*
-1
-2
above
(cm s )
(Nm )seabed-1(m s )

0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1

0.12
0.12
0.27
0.27
0.03
0.12
0.03
0.12
0.03

1.094
1.094
1.641
1.641
0.547
1.094
0.547
1.094
0.547

The results in Table 1 show that current velocities at 100 cm above seabed at the study area
range from 0.1 m s-1 to 0.3 m s-1. Currrent velocities are higher during the onset of high tide,
become relatively stable at full tide at noon, and decrease towards low tide in theafternoon.These conditons correspond with and influence friction velocity and bed shear
stress occurring at the sea bed.

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For the logarithmic profiles, friction velocity (increases with an increase in water depth.
reaches a maximum at the beginning and peak of the high water, it then decraeses andstable during full high tide,and gradually decreases towards the end of the low water period.
Friction velocities range from 0.547
to 1.641
at station 1, 2 and 3. Bed shear
stresses range from 0.12
to 0.27
at station 1, 2, 3. This conditions indicate thatthe bed shear stress exerted on the sea bed is higher enough to move sediment grains during
the period of high tide.Therefore, there is a net transpot of suspended sediments from the sea
towards coastal region of Bedono during high tide while there is a seaward transport ofsuspended sediments from coastal coastal and mangrove areas of Bedono to open sea. Thismeans that in December the sea surface condition was hydrodynamically rougher. Thesefindings verified the fact that mean grain size of surface sediments was coarser in higher
energy areas especially the site close to mangrove trees which was supported by findings ofMiddleton & Southard, (1984); Dyer, (1986); Amos et al., (2010).
3.2. Sediment grain size distribution
The results obtained from the analysis of sediment textures and grain size distribution arepresented in Table 2.
Table 2 Sediment grain size distribution in the study area, Bedono Demak
StationFine Sand (%)

Silt (%)

Clay (%)

1

33,44

0,19

66,37

2

52,08

0,08

47,84

3

11,52

0,04

88,44

The results in Table 2 shows that sediment texture distribution consists of fine sand, silt andclay. Sediments in station 1 is dominated by clay (66.37%); station 2 isdominated by finesands (52.08%); and station 3 is dominated by clay (88.44%). These patterns indicate thathydrodinamically station 1 and 3 are relatively low energy areas, while station 2 is a higher
energy area. This is because location of station 2 is more open to the sea, while station 1 and
3 are protected from wave actions by breakwaters at the front of these two stations.Thesefindingson low energy and high energy regions with grain size distributionswere suppoted by
the research results of Dyer (1986), Middleton & Southard (1984) that finer grain size
sediments reperesent low energy and coarser sediment grains reperesent higher energy
regions.
3.3. Sediment Transport Rates
The rate of sediment transport is the mass of sediment that is moved over a given distance ina set time. This sort of information is required, for instance, when breakwaters, jetties andgroins are to be built to prevent the loss of beach sand.
The obtained results by applying friction velocities data to equations (8) and (9), shows thatand 4.419 g
and
bed load sediment transport ranges between 0.164 gsuspended load transport ranges between 0.015 g
32.045 ginDecember. The estimated friction velocities from velocity measurements in the present
investigation indicated that at the beginning of the flow (high water) the shear stress is not
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strong enough to move the grains at the seabed. The movement occurs near the peak of highwater where current velocity is sufficient to produce high shear stress at the seabed.
The mean diameter of bottom sediments range from 2
to 94
in December west rainy
to 1
season. The threshold friction velocity required to move these grain are 0.8
respectively (Miller et al., 1977). Finer grain size obtained in station 1 and 3 samples
may be due to the influence of high river discharges during rainy season where a greatamount of sediment budget enter the sea and it may also be due to calm weather conditions
occurring at the time of field data collections as calm water condition (less energy) allows
finer sediment to sink (Dyer, 1970; Pinet, 1992; Amos et al., 2010).
4. CONCLUSION
Friction velocities at coastal waters of Bedono range from 0.547
station 1, 2 and 3. Bed shear stresses range from 0.12
to 0.27
The mean diameter of bottom sediments range from 5
velocity required to move these grain are from 0.8

to 125
to 1

to 1.641
at
at station 1, 2, 3.
. The threshold friction
respectively.

The condition of surface sediment at the sea bed around the coast of Bedono waters are
relatively stable during the beginning of the high tide. With an increase in water level, thiscondition changes to be unstable (incipient motions of sand grains start to occur) where bed
shear stress increases to a level where it is sufficient to cause sediment movement.
It is concluded generally that the transport rates of bed load sediment is relatively low.
However, it seems that during rough sea conditions (peak of western monsoon) the transport
rates of sediment is higher. This may be amplified by sediments carried by river discharges
during west moonson rainy seasons.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was funded by PNBP UNDIP 2016. We would like to thank Jumsar, Irman andMarius for field data collection. We also thank Prof. Dr. Ir. Sahala Hutabarat,M.Sc. and Prof.
Dr. Ir. Agus Hartoko, M.Sc. for their suggestions and comments given at the earlier versionof this paper.
6. REFERENCES
Adinugroho, M. (2015),Correlation of Heavy Metal Concentration Pband Cd with Fish
Larvae Distribution in Semarang Bay. MSi Thesis of MSDP Study Program, Faculty ofFisheries and Marine Science, Universitas Diponegoro Semarang, 197 pp.
Anindya, W., Hartoko, A., Suripin,(2006), Study of Sealevel Rise as a Base forRob
Problem Solving in Coastal Region of Semarang City, Jurnal Pasir Laut, Vol. 1, No.2,
Januari 2006, pp. 31-42
Amos, C.L., Umgiesser, G; Ferrarin, C., Thompson,C.E.L., Whitehouse,R.J.S., Sutherland,
T.F., Bergamasco, A., (2010),The erosion rates of cohesive sediments in Venice lagoon,
Italy, Continental Shelf Research 30, pp. 859–870.
Dahuri, R., Rais, J., Ginting, S.P., Sitepu, M.J., (1996),Intergrated Coastal and Ocean
Resource Management, PT Pradnya Paramita. Jakarta.
Dyer, K.R.,(1970), Current velocity profiles in a tidal channel,Geophysical Journal of theRoyal Astronomical Society, 22, pp. 153 -161
Dyer, K.R.,(1980), Velocity profiles over a rippled bed and the threshold of movement ofsand, Estuarine and coastal marine science, 10, pp.181-199.

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Dyer, K.R.,(1986). Coastal and estuarine sediment dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,342
pp.
Heathershaw, A.D., Hammond, F.D.C.,(1979), Offshore sediment movement and its relation
to observed tidal current and wave data.Swansea Bay (SKER) project, topic report: 6.
Inst. Oceanogr. Sci. Rep. No. 92
IPCC.,(2007), Mitigation of Climate Change. Working Group III Contribution to the Fourth
Assessment, Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
McManus, J.,(1988), Grain size determination and interpretation, In: Techniques in
Sedimentology (Turker, M., ed.), Blackwell Scientific Publication, Oxford, pp.63-85.
Middleton, G.V., Southard, J.B.,(1984), Mechanics of sediment movement.The Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 401 pp.
Miller, M.C., McCave, L.N., Komar, P.D.,(1977). Threshold of sediment motion underunidirectional currents, Sedimentology, 6, pp.303 - 314.
Muskananfola, M.R., Purnomo, W.P., Sulardiono,B.,(2016),Rehabilitation Model of
Degraded Coastal Area in Bedono Village for Conservation and It’s Utilization .Research
Report, Universitas Diponegoro Semarang, 43 pp.
Nece, R.E., Smith, J.D.,(1970), Proc. A.S.C.E., 96:WW2, 335 pp.
Nikuradse, J. (1933), Laws of flow in rough pipes,Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronautics Tech.
Mem.1292 (translation from German, 1950).
Owen, M.W., Thorn, M.F.,(1978), Effect of waves on sand transport by currents.Proc.
16thCoastal Eng. Conf., pp. 1675-1687.
Pau, M., Hammer,Ø., (2013),Sediment mapping and long-term monitoring of currents andsedimentfluxes in pockmarks in the Oslofjord, Norway, Marine Geology, pp. 262 – 273.
Pattiaratchi, C.B., Collins, M.B.,(1985), Sand transport under the combined influence ofwaves and tidal currents: an assessment of available formulae, Marine Geology, 67,
pp.83-100.
Pinet, P.R.,(1992), Oceanography, An introduction to the planet oceanus, West Publishing
Company, New York, 570 pp.
Putri, M.P; Supriharyono, Muskananfola, M.R., (2014),Hydro-oceanographic Characteristics
and Participation Rate of Society in Reducing Coastal Damages at Bedono Village,
Sayung Sub-district, Demak Regency. Journal of Aquatic Resources Management,
Volume 3, Nomor 4, Year 2014, pp. 225 - 234
Rositasari, R., Witasari, Y., Lestari, M. Puspitasari, Surinati, D.,(2010),An Analysis of
SemarangCoastal Environment Based on the Characteristics of Sediments,
Oceanography, Heavy Metals Contaminats and Toxicity. Progress Report of Activities
Phase 1, Insentive Program for LIPI Researcher 2010. Oceanography Research Center,Indonesia Institute of Sciences, 49 pp.
Sternberg, R.W., (1966), Boundary layer observations in a tidal current.J. Geophys. Res., 71,
pp. 2175-2178.
Sternberg, R.W.,(1968), Friction factors in tidal channels with differing bed roughness. Mar.
Geol., 6, pp. 243-260.
Sternberg, R.W.,(1972), Predicting Initial Motion and Bedload Transport of SedimentParticles in the Shallow Marine Environments. In:Shelf Sediment Transport, Process andPattern (Swift, D.J.P., Duane, D.B. and Pilkay, O.H., eds.). Dowden, Hutchinson andRoss, pp. 61 – 82.
Suripin (2002), Conservation of soil and water resources. Publisher: Andi, Yogyakarta.
Wirakusumah, A. D., Lubis,(2002),The anticipation of the impacts of Global Warming
towards Investment and DevelopmentOpportunities,National Seminar on the Influence of
Global Warming towards the Coast and the small Islands in terms of Sea Level Rise andFlooding, Jakarta.

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EFFECTIVENESS OF HORIZONTAL DRAIN FOR SLOPE STABILITY OF COALMINING, CASE STUDY OF SLOPE FAILURE IN TAMBANG GUNTUR, SOUTH
KALIMANTAN

Yulian Firmana Arifina, Setyo Mulyo Kurniawanb, Ellyn NormelanicacUniversity of Lambung Mangkurat, Banjarbaru 70714, Indonesia
Coal Mine Manager, PT. Utami Jaya Mulya, Banjarbaru 70714, Indonesiab

Abstract
Slope failure occurred in Tambang Guntur PT. Borneo Indobara in Tanah Bumbu,
South Kalimantan results in not only technical problems but also a financial problem.
The mining operation was terminated. An investigation was conducted to determine thecause of the landslide and obtain methods to prevent further landslides. This study
focused on the inquiry into the slope failure occurred in the location mentioned above.
Several boreholes were performed to determine detail sub-soil layers and soil properties
especially the shear strength of soils. A piezometer was installed and used to obtain the
pore-water pressure data located close to the landslide. Additional data such as rainfall
data and topography data is also used. A calculation using computer program was also
used to model and obtain the safety factor of the slope. The result shows that thelandslide occurred due to extremely high rainfall and extended period of rain. A
horizontal drain was installed to reduce pore-water pressure as a method of slope
stabilization. This paper presents and discusses the effectiveness of the horizontal drainin the field to stabilize the slope.
Keywords: landslide; coal mine; horizontal drain; rainfall; slope stability
1. INTRODUCTION
Landslide is a disaster that resulted not only damage to infrastructure but also casualties.
Djamal (2002) reported that from 1990 to 2002 more than 800 slope failure occurred inIndonesia that claimed more than 1000 dead and hundreds injured. It also results indamage to more than 500 infrastructure and dozens of kilometers of roads. In 2016,
National Disaster Management Authority of Indonesia (BNPB) reported that there were
625 incidents of landslides in Indonesia (BNPB, 2016). The landslides occurred not
only on natural slopes that are close to public property but also in the excavation workfor example in open pit mines.
Tambang Guntur is active block coal exploitation in the district of Tanah Bumbu, South
Kalimantan. Mining activities have been carried out by the open pit mine system with aladder on each slope. Although the slopes of the pit have been designed very well with asafety factor of more than 1.3, landslide with a diameter of approximately 30 meters,and 20 meters high occurred (Figure 1.a). The landslide coincided with the very highrainfall. Seepage of 700 ml/s was observed close to the first landslide. After a month, atthe same location, a larger landslide with a diameter up to 60 meters and a height of 30
meters happened (Figure 1.b).

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Landslide
Leakage(a)(b)
Figure 1. Slope failure at Tambang Guntur (a) first landslide, and (b) further landslide

In Indonesia, many slope failures coincided with or followed an extremely high rainfall(Djamal, 2002; Apip et al., 2010; Hirnawan, 2010; Liao, 2010; Arifin, 2010; Prayuda,
2012; Sumaryono, 2014; Zakaria, 2015). In other countries, some studies have alsopresented the effect of rainfall on landslides. For example, Singapore (Rahardjo et al.,
2002; Rahardjo et al., 2003), Malaysia (Ng et al., 2015; Ismail et al., 2016), Thailand(Kanjanakul et al., 2016), and Philippine (Orense, 2004). During periods of rain, water
infiltrates into the soil to raise the water table, increase the pore-water pressure, andsubsequently enhance the risk of landslides. According to Rahardjo et al. (2002),
prolonged heavy rain destroyed matric suction that plays a significant role in thestability of earthworks.
One method commonly used to decrease the ground water level on the slopes is the useof horizontal drain that is defined as holes drilled into a cut slope or embankment andequipped with a perforated metal or slotted plastic liner (Royster, 1980). Some studies
have been done to examine the effectiveness of horizontal drain application (Rahardjo etal., 2003; Carrol et al., 2011; Jude et al., 2014; Ng et al., 2015; Ismail et al., 2016;
Mukhlisin and Aziz, 2016). The effectiveness of the horizontal drainage system isaffected by the location, length and spacing, soil properties, and slope geometry (Ismail
et al., 2016). Horizontal drains should be placed as low as possible in the slope forlowering the water table since horizontal drains located in the upper regions of the slope
are unnecessary in the long term (Rahardjo et al., 2003). By mean parametric study,
Ismail et al. (2016) concluded that horizontal drains might effectively decrease thegroundwater level for cut slopes with high groundwater level by installing it sufficiently
deep into the slope to intercept the groundwater from the fractured rock. Ng et al.
(2015) and Ismail et al. (2016) suggested that the use of geophysical resistivity toidentify the best location and the length of the horizontal drain by analyzing thedelineation of high water content zone and the possible seepage flow path. Jude et al.
(2014) used value-engineering analysis to define the inclination of slope and horizontal
drain material.
Due to the successful design and utilization of horizontal drain in slope stabilization areoften governed by local experience, the information about the application in the field yet
required. This paper presents the effectiveness of horizontal drain use at Tambang

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Guntur Mine in Tanah Bumbu District, South Kalimantan. The effectiveness is
described regarding the increase in slope factor of safety as compared to the element of
security for the case without horizontal drains.
2. SOIL INVESTIGATION AND INSTRUMENTATIONThe study of subsoil and sampling was conducted using a drilling machine Jakro 200
types of wireline systems with penetration capability of 200 m. The points of the drill
locations are shown in Figure 2. Soil as a result of drilling with a diameter of 89 mm
was placed in core boxes, for example as illustrated in figure 3(a). Samples were taken
at intervals of 5 m and adjusted to rock lithology before being sent to the laboratory.
The pore-water pressure was measured using a vibrating wire piezometer. The
piezometer was installed at a depth of 47 m in BH12 after the core drilling process has
been completed. The drilling and installation were conducted in Desember 2013 torespond to the seepage on the slopes. The pore water pressure reading was carried out
efficiently on 1st January 2014. The data was collected daily. Figure 3(b) shows thephoto of the pore-water pressure measurement in the field.

BH 15

BH13

Landslide
BH 1 BH8 BH9
BH 12

BH 2
BH 10
BH 11
BH 4

Figure 2. Bore hole locations

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95

(a)
(b)
Figure 3. (a) Example of core box, and (b) pore-water pressure measurement
The research was focused on bore holes BH1, BH8, BH9, and BH12, and a crosssection B-B because it is the nearest location to the first landslide (Figure 4). As shownin the figure, BH8 has a depth of 60 m placed approximately 15 m over the toe, andBH12 has 77-m deep with an inclination of 40o placed in the top of the slope. Figure 4
also shows the surface of the slope before and after the landslide occurred. Before
landslide, the ground surface has a slope of 40o. The landslide changed the slope to be
21o.
Based on the borehole profiles, it was determined that the soil being studied was eightlayers of mudstone namely ms-1 to ms-8 (Figure 4). The volumetric weight of thematerial and unconfined compression test (UCT) results vary from 21.00 to 23.06
kN/m3 and from 0.18 to 0.87 MPa, respectively. The mudstone was brittle and easily
broken. By strength, the material is classified as very low strength rock (Deere andMiller, 1966) or fragile (Brown, 1981; Marinos and Hoek, 2000).
BH12After landslide
Before landslide

BH8
Horizontal drain
Piezometer

Figure 4. Cross section B-B

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3. HORIZONTAL DRAIN INSTALLATIONOn June 1st 2014, a horizontal drain was installed to reduce pore-water pressure in theslope at the bottom of the slopes. Drilling horizontally was carried out to a length of 50
m using the crawler drill-type with a maximum capacity of 100 m. Figure 5(a) shows
horizontal drilling process. As shown in the figure, a little water flows out of theborehole. The problems faced during the drilling process were stuck rod, water loss,
rain, and puddles. A perforated galvanized pipe was installed in the hole after drillinghas been completed. Immediately after the pipe was installed, the water flows throughthe pipe as shown in Figure 5(b). The debit was measured manually using a plastic
bucket and a stopwatch. The highest debit recorded after pipe installation reaches 1200
ml/s.
4. RAINFALL EFFECT ON PORE-WATER PRESSURE IN THE SLOPE
Figure 6 shows pore-water pressure and rainfall data at monitoring period March andApril 2014. As shown in Figure 6(a), the pore-water pressure data is almost constant at
112 kPa with a slight change in response to rainfall condition. For examples, on 1 and
14 March, the pore-water pressure increased to reach pressures of 121 and 115 kPa in
response to rainfall of 50 and 37 mm/day, respectively. It appears that the pore waterpressure increases due to rainfall higher than 30 mm/day. In addition, the pore waterpressures are controlled by relatively high existing groundwater level and seepage that
occurs on the slopes. In April, pore-water pressure rose to 120 kPa to respond four days
rain with maximum rainfall of 50 mm/day. It resulted in a landslide on 10 April 2014
with a diameter of 30 m and 20-m high as shown in Figure 1(a). After the landslide,pore-water pressure decreased gradually. A Similar trend occurred in May that larger
landslide coincided with extremely long and high rainfall on 13 Mei 2014.

(a)(b)
Figure 5. (a) Horizontal drilling process, and (b) installation of the perforated
galvanized pipe

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97

90

130

70
110
60
100
50
90
40
80
30

80
Daily rainfall (mm)120

Pore wa ter pressure

70

130
120

1 st landslide
10 April 2014

110

60
100
50
90
40
80
30
20

70

60

10

60

50

0

50

70

10
0

1
5
9
13
17
21
25
29

20

1
5
9
13
17
21
25
29

Daily rainfall (mm)80

RainfallPore-water pressure (kPa)

90

140

100

140
RainfallPore water pressure

Date (March)

Date (April)

Pore-water pressure (kPa)

100

(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Pore-water pressure reading and rainfall data (a) monitoring period: 1-31
March 2014, and (b) monitoring period: 1-30 April 2014
Figure 7 shows a 9-month data set of average rainfall and pore-water pressure. The
figure also shows the times of events (i.e., landslides and installation of the horizontal
drain). From January to March, pore-water pressure increased from 105 to 112 kPa. In
April and May when the landslide occurred, the pore-water pressure decreased to 74 and
71 kPa, respectively. It was because of the water flowed out through fracture and slide
surface formed by the landslide. In June, the horizontal drain was installed. Increase inpore-water pressure in response to high rainfall and extended period of rain in July has
not ever resulted in the landslide. This was one proof of the effectiveness of horizontal
drain to prevent a landslide. Pore-water pressure decreased in August and September in
response to rainfall and the use of the horizontal drain.
5. EFFECT OF HORIZONTAL DRAIN ON SAFETY FACTOR OF SLOPE
Another way to observe the effectiveness of horizontal drain on slope stability is toconsider the factor of safety. The slope stability analysis was performed using the limit
equilibrium slope stability software (i.e., Slide). Several simplifications were made to
analyze slope safety factors. (1) The slopes with the soil layers were modeled with thefeatures present in the Slide software. (2) The horizontal drainage hole was not directly
applied to the model. (3) the changes in pore water pressure due to horizontal drain wereconverted to the height of ground water level (GWL) in the slope. (4) Only slope safety
factors were obtained from this calculation.
Figure 8 is an example of slope stability analysis performed in this study at thecondition before the first landslide. Based on computation result, a safety factor of slope
on March with the pore-water pressure of 112 kPa converted to the ground water levelof 11.4 m under ground surface was very close to 1 (i.e., 1.058). In the field, a landslide
occurred.

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140
piezometer reading
January 1 st , 2014

Monthly rainfall (mm)35Horizontal drain
June 5 th, 2014

120

30
100
25
80
First landslide
April 10 th, 201420

Second landslide
May 13 th, 2014

60

15
40
10
20

5
0

Average pore-water pressure (kPa)

40

0
Jan

Feb

Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Month
RainfallPore-water pressure

Figure 7. Average rainfall and pore-water pressure from Jan-Sep 2014
In July where the horizontal drain has been installed, the safety factor of slopes with aninclination of 20o and pore-water pressure of 90 kPa (i.e., GWL of 13.18 m) was 1.3.
The safety factor increased by decreasing pore-water pressure in August and September.
For long-term mining exploitation, deeper excavation is planned to a depth of 65 m.
Stability of slope with a depth of 65 m, the inclination of 20o, and pore-water pressureof 120 kPa (i.e., assumed as the highest pore-water pressure occurred in the slope) was
conducted using Slide. The safety factor obtained was 1.0. Higher safety factor (i.e.,>1.3) can be reached by maintaining the pore-water pressure at a maximum of 70 kPa.
The result reveals that another horizontal drain at the location as low as possible in theslope should be installed to increase the stability of the slope.
Besides height of ground water level, pore-water pressure influences the shear strengthof the rock. Positive pore-water pressure results in decreasing the shear strength ofsaturated rock (Mesri et al., 1972). Its variation affects alteration in the stresses and the
behavior of rock and soil thus triggering rupture and deformation of the crust(Mohammed, 1997). The cohesive and frictional properties of rock mass weresignificantly reduced from drained to the undrained condition. Since horizontal drainthat allows water to flow out from rock mass can be equated with the drained condition,
its presence in the slope will maintain the shear strength of rock mass forming the slope.
Mudstone which is dominant in the slope being studied is another reason of landslide
due to its sensitivity to water absorption and desorption. The strength of mudstone
decreases significantly when it is in contact with water (Lee et al., 2007). Jiang et al.
(2014) found that rapid crack growth occurred in the first 72 hours of water infiltration.
Moreover, the presence of discontinuity in mudstone as shown in Figure 3 provides
channels for water to intrude the mudstone. The longer time mudstone in contact withwater, the wider its crack and cause a new fracture in the material. In the field, highpore-water pressure drives water to penetrate into the discontinuity of mudstone. The
decrease in shear strength of mudstone due to in contact with water was not consideredin safety factor calculation using Slide.

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99

Figure 8. A model using the limit equilibrium slope stability software.

6. CONCLUSION
The effectiveness of horizontal drain for slope stability of coal mining has been
analyzed using pore-water pressure data in the field and computer program. The
landslide at Tambang Guntur coincided with or followed not only extremely highrainfall but also an extended period of rain. The horizontal drain installed in the slope
has been successful to reduce the pore-water pressure that is highly influenced byrainfall. In the field, increase in pore-water pressure in response to high rainfall andextended period of rain during the term of study has not ever resulted in a landslide.
The safety factor of slope obtained using a computer analysis increases by decreasing
the pore-water pressure. For long-term mining exploitation, another horizontal drain
located as low as possible in the slope is required.
7. REFERENCES
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Deere, D.U., Miller, R.P., (1966) Engineering classification and index properties ofrock. Technical Report No. AFWL-TR-65-116, University of Illinois, Illinois.

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Jiang, Q., Cui, J., Feng, X., Jiang, Y., (2014), Application of computerized tomographic
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Jude, T.M.H., Afshar, N.R., Selaman, O.S., Taib, S.N.L., (2014), Application of value
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Liao, Z., Hong, Y., Wang, J., Fukuoka, H., Sassa, K., Karnawati, D., Fathani, F., (2010)
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University.
Mukhlisin, H., Aziz, N.A.B.A., (2016), Study of horizontal drain effect on slope
stability. Journal geological society of India. Vol. 87. pp. 483-490.
Ng, S.M., Ismail, M.A.M., Abustan, I., (2015), A Preliminary Study of Continuous
Discharge Flow from Horizontal Drains using 3-Dimensional Resistivity Model,
KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 19(6), pp.1865-1869.
Orense, R.P., (2004), Slope Failure Triggered by Heavy Rainfall. Philippine
Engineering Journal. Vol. 25(2), pp. 73-90.
Prayuda, D.D., (2012) Temporal and spacial analysis of extreme rainfall on the slope
area of Mt. Merapi, Civil Engineering Forum, Vol.21(3), pp.1285-1290.
Rahardjo, H., Hritzuk, K.J., Leong, E.C., Rezaur, R.B., (2003) Effectiveness ofhorizontal drains for slope stability, Engineering Geology, 69, pp. 295-308.
Rahardjo, H., Leong, E.C., Rezaur, R.B., (2002) Studies of rainfall-induced slope
failures. Proceedings of the National Seminar, Slope 2002. 27-April 2002. Bandung,Indonesia. pp.15−29.

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Royster, D.L. (1980) Horizontal drains and horizontal drilling: an overview.
Transportation Research Record.
Sumaryono, Arifianti, Y., Triana, Y.D., Ika, W., Irawan. W., Suantika, G., (2014) The
Aplication of Landslide Inventory Data Base of Indonesia (LIDIA) For Supporting
Landslide Susceptibility Mapping in Cianjur Regency, West Java, Indonesia, GSTF
International Journal of Geological Sciences (JGS)Vol.1 No.2.
Zakaria, Z., Hirnawan, F., Widayati, S., (2015) Rain and Earthquake-Induced
Landslides in West Java, Indonesia, Case Study in Subang Area Near the Baribis
Fault, with Implications for an Early Warning System. In: Lollino G. et al. (eds)Engineering Geology for Society and Territory - Volume 2. Springer.

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EFFECTS OF VEGETATION DISTRIBUTION ON EXPERIMENTAL MICRODRAINAGE CHANNEL
Robby Yussac Tallara, Erick Wijayaa, Reinaldoa and Jian-Ping Suenb
Universitas Kristen Maranatha, Jln. Surya Sumantri No. 65, Bandung 40641
National Cheng Kung University,No. 1 University Road, Tainan 701, Taiwan R.O.C
ab

ABSTRACT
Waterbodies are facing a diversity of threats in many parts of the world. To restore andpreserve waterbodies environments, it is necessary to implement eco-hydraulics concept
design into waterbody restoration projects. Eco-hydraulics is an integrated approach that
deals with natural ecosystems as well as environmental impacts and mitigation measures. It
incorporates species-habitat relationships and interactions of ecological and biologicalaspects within waterbodies. Physical habitat components including vegetation in the bed
channel are considered affected the characteristics of flows in micro-drainage channels.
Therefore, this paper aims to evaluate the characteristics of flows in vegetated microdrainage channel with different scenarios. A laboratory study to explore the effect ofvegetation in terms of roughness of vegetation on the hydraulics of flow in 8 m length x
40 cm width a rectangular channel is presented. The study consists of an extensive set ofrectangular flume experiments for flows with certain slope and gravel bed with Sirih
Gading (Epipremnum aureum) as selected flexible vegetation both submerged andunsubmerged. Two types of vegetation distribution patterns were set up to observe thehydraulic parameters and characteristics of flows in channels such the flow-resistance due
to vegetation. Parameters affecting flow-resistance due to vegetation for both scenarios are
discussed, compared and results are summarized and presented. The relationships
dependencies of hydraulic parameters are presented. The results shown that the flowresistance due to non-uniformly distributed vegetation pattern (λ = 167.56) is higher thanuniformly distributed vegetation pattern (λ = 38.24). We also compared experiments withthe two forms of vegetation distribution methods to control experiments without
vegetation. For further research, the changes type of vegetation, position and others can beinvestigated. Hence, the study can be improved by checking the water quality within.
Analysis and comparisons with rigid vegetation has also should be investigated with thepresent experimental work on flexible vegetation.
Keywords: Eco-hydraulics; Flow-resistance; Hydraulic parameters; Micro-drainage;
Vegetation distribution

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1. INTRODUCTION
Waterbodies are facing a diversity of threats in many parts of the world (Acreman, et. al.,
1993; Djuangsih, 1993; Boothby, 1997; Zhao, et al., 2010; Ye, et. al., 2013). Humanactivity plays a determining role in the formation of the waterbody’environments (Niemi
et.al., 2007; Wang et.al., 2010). To restore and preserve waterbodies environments, it isnecessary to implement eco-hydraulics concept design into waterbody restoration projects(Skute et.al., 2008; Tallar, R.Y and Suen, J.P., 2015). This concept links the disciplines ofhydraulics with many aspects such as aquatic ecology, water engineering, river engineeringand other aspects. Basically, eco-hydraulics is an integrated approach that deals withnatural ecosystems as well as environmental impacts and mitigation measures (Putra et.al.,2008). The core concept of eco-hydraulics is to detain and/or retain water flow as long as
possible and to reduce the velocity flowing in waterbodies. It also incorporates specieshabitat relationships and interactions of ecological and biological aspects withinwaterbodies. In term of channel system, physical habitat components including vegetationin the bed channel are considered affected the characteristics of flows in micro-drainage
channels. Therefore, this paper aims to evaluate the characteristics of flows in vegetatedmicro-drainage channel with different scenarios.
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Hydraulic Model
A length 8m x width 40cm x height 60cm, rectangular flume with glass on the lateral sides
was used for this experiment. Certain slope has been set up with a schematic physicalmodel to run different scenarios of simulation (Fig. 1 and 2).

Figure 1 Schematic Design of Physical Model

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Figure 2 Two Types Patterns of Distribution of Vegetation
2.2. Simulation Scenario
This research was conducted several scenarios with several constraints. Based on previous
results study, it is indicated that flow-resistance in vegetated micro-drainage channel will
be affected if the discharge above 20% and below 60% of Qmax, therefore we set the
scenarios as follow in Table 1.
Discharge
30% of Qmax
40% of Qmax
50% of Qmax

Table 1 Simulation Scenario of the Study
Distribution Pattern 1Distribution Pattern 2
Scenario 1
Scenario 4
Scenario 2
Scenario 5
Scenario 3
Scenario 6

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The study consists of an extensive set of rectangular flume experiments for flows withcertain slope and gravel bed with Sirih Gading (Epipremnum aureum) as selected flexible
vegetation both submerged and unsubmerged (Figure 3). Two types of vegetation
distribution patterns were set up to observe the hydraulic parameters and characteristics offlows in channels such the flow-resistance due to vegetation (Figure 4).

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105

Figure 3 Sirih Gading (Epipremnum aureum)

Figure 4 Two types of vegetation distribution patterns
The analysis includes flow velocity both two types of vegetation distribution patterns andthe result can be seen on Figure 5. The percentage of difference can be seen on Table 2.

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Figure 5. Comparison Flow Velocity of Pattern 1 and Pattern 2(upstream and downstream position)
Table 2 % Difference Pattern 1 and Pattern 2% Difference
Q
Type 1
Type 2
30%
15,44
27,22
40%
20,63
16,87
50%
10,43
12,59
Then, calculating the flow-resistance due to distribution of vegetation pattern by using
Equation 1.
(1)
The results shown that the flow-resistance due to non-uniformly distributed vegetation
pattern (λ = 167.56) is higher than uniformly distributed vegetation pattern (λ = 38.24). We
also compared experiments with the two forms of vegetation distribution methods toProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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control experiments without vegetation. Reduced velocity due to vegetation occurred in theexperimental flume.
4.CONCLUSION
The present study focuses on straight simple vegetated rectangular channel with slightly
slope. Based on the study, it is indicated that vegetation distribution in micro-drainage
channels contributed in the effects of characteristics of flows which consisted of thehydraulic parameters (discharge, depth, Manning’s coefficient) and flow-resistance.
Vegetation is a very important factor and plays an important role in lining of water courses.
Vegetation in micro-drainage channel retards the flow of water by causing a loss of energy
through turbulence and by exerting additional drag forces. For further research, the changes
type of vegetation, position and others can be investigated. Hence, the study can be
improved by checking the water quality within. Analysis and comparisons with rigid
vegetation has also should be investigated with the present experimental work on flexible
vegetation.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the research supported in part by Universitas Kristen
Maranatha, Indonesia and in part by Ecological Water Resources Management Laboratory,
Hydraulic and Ocean Engineering Department, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
R.O.C
6. REFERENCES
Acreman, M. C., J. R. Meigh & K. J. Sene (1993) Modelling the decline in water level of
Lake Toba, Indonesia. Advances in Water Resources, 16, 207-222.
Boothby, J. (1997) Pond conservation: towards a delineation of pondscape. Aquatic
Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 7, 127-132.
Djuangsih, N. (1993) Understanding the state of river basin management from anenvironmental toxicology perspective: an example from water pollution at Citarum
river basin, West Java, Indonesia. Science of the Total Environment, 134, Supplement
1, 283-292.
Niemi, G. J., J. R. Kelly & N. P. Danz (2007) Environmental indicators for the coastal
region of the north American great lakes: Introduction and prospectus. Journal of Great
Lakes Research, 33, 1-12.
Putra, S. S., C. Hassan, Djudi & H. Suryatmojo (2013) Reservoir Saboworks Solutions in
Limboto Lake Sedimentations, Northern Sulawesi, Indonesia. Procedia Environmental
Sciences, 17, 230-239.
Škute, A., D. Gruberts, J. Soms & J. Paidere (2008) Ecological and hydrological functionsof the biggest natural floodplain in Latvia. Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 8, 291-306.
Tallar, R. Y & J. P. Suen (2015) Aquaculture Water Quality Index: a low-cost index toaccelerate aquaculture development in Indonesia. Aquaculture International, 1-18.
Wang, J., L. Zhu, Y. Wang, J. Ju, M. Xie & G. Daut (2010) Comparisons between thechemical compositions of lake water, inflowing river water, and lake sediment in Nam
Co, central Tibetan Plateau, China and their controlling mechanisms. Journal of Great
Lakes Research, 36, 587-595.
Ye, X. C., Q. Zhang, J. Liu, X. H. Li & C. Y. Xu (2013) Distinguishing the relative impactsof climate change and human activities on variation of streamflow in the Poyang Lake
catchment, China. Journal of Hydrology, 494, 83-95.
Zhao, Y., Z. Yang & Y. Li (2010) Investigation of water pollution in Baiyangdian Lake,
China. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 2, 737-748.

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ANALYSIS OF FLOOD EMERGENCY RESPONSE INSTRUMENT IN INDONESIA
Toha Saleh1,a1

Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesiaatoha@eng.ui.ac.id

ABSTRACTOne of measures to reduce the flood impact in Indonesia has been done by flood emergency
response action plan. The action plan is generated from decision making process assisted byinstrument such computer models which have capability in producing scenarios and decision to betaken. This research is conducted to identify how the written procedures (delivered by internationaland national agencies) related to flood emergency response, being accommodated by those(computer) models. By using qualitative analysis, the element procedures of an effective flood
emergency response model have been reviewed. The result shows that the detailed information suchhuman and material resources, facilities information, and warning time-lag, have not been properly
and entirely accommodated by the (computer) model. Highlights are also given to propose more
effective instrument to improve the management of flood crisis.
Keywords: flood emergency response, flood management, computer model

1. INTRODUCTION
In the last decade (2003-2012), about 42% of natural disasters are caused by flood hazards, killing
more than 50.000 people and causing over 180 million US$ of damage [1]. Asia was the mostaffected continent, where Indonesia contributed to more than 70 times flood events, more than 5
million affected, and about US$ 5 billion damages.
Specifically for Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia who suffered from flood almost every year, it isrecorded that in 2007, the flood inundated about 70 percent of the Jakarta's area. It killed at least 57
people and sent about 450,000 fleeing their homes. The flood paralyzed the centre of Indonesia's
economy for several days and businesses claimed to lose about US$1 billion [2]. In 2011, floodcaused severe flooding in several neighborhoods with a 50-centimeter-deep flood that submerged
the main road and caused up to US$ 1 million damages [3]. In 2013, the floods killed at least 20
people and sent at least 33,502 fleeing their houses as reported by the National Disaster Mitigation
Agency (BNPB) [4]. The fact that there are losses and casualties in every flood event, indicate thelevel of flood measures still not in a good manner.
In reduce and avoid the numerous damages, loss, or even casualties resulted from a flood
disaster, the management of such event should be done, and this can be done by providing the local
authorities, and also the community, with flood crisis management models as decision support tools.
However, decision support tools really depend on the information as the input. The questions are:how this tool (such computer model) can give an accurate result? What kind of information shouldbe placed and recognized to produce a better suggestion or alternative of decision? Based on whatparameters the information is collected and listed? Therefore, it is necessary to assess the structureof parameter used in the computer model whether those models have accommodated the principle
and procedures which have been written in flood emergency response management strategy andpolicy.
By analyzing and recognizing parameters that should be considered in such tool(s), it is expected
to produce more effective flood management models in supporting the formulation of management
plans and best alternative for flood emergency response.

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2. METHODOLOGY
Many decision support made by utilizing computer models as the tool, or known as Decision
Support Systems (DSS). DSS is defined as computer-based tools having interactive, graphical, andmodeling characteristics to address specific problems and assist individuals in their study and search
for a solution to their management problems [5].
DSS have evolved from a simple model-oriented systems to advanced multi-function entities.
DSS provides varying analysis without much programming effort and is usually directed towards
non-technical users/managers. The fist important aspect of DSS is that they provide information
which are used in the decision making process. The emphasis here is not on the quantity of
information, but rather the quality. There are multiple factors that qualify information as having
good quality (such as timeliness, relevant, accurateness, consistency, unbiased, etc.) but theimportant consideration factor is how information is used in order to attain a certain goal [6].
In the context of flood management, the Flood Emergency Planning introduced by World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) addressed some steps that have to be taken in order to gain
better management and decision making process [7]. Those steps are illustrated as follows:
Establish

Carry Out

Develop

Adopt

Put in Place

Local
emergency
management
committee

Local floodrisk
assessment

Floodemergency
plan

Flood
emergency
plan

Flood warning,
Evacuation,
and Recovery
sub-plan

Figure 1. Flood Emergency Planning (WMO, 2006; adapted from ARMCANZ, 2000)

Flood emergency response can be defined as the implementation of pre-planned activities during
flooding to reduce the adverse impacts to the population and material values and infrastructure at
risk. [8].
A Flood Emergency Plan (FEP) outlines the roles and responsibilities of all parties to be
involved, actions to be taken, coordination arrangements and communication channels to be usedprior to, during and after a flood event. The purpose of planning for flood emergencies is to reduce
the risk to health and life and the damage caused by flooding. Local plans should describe how
flood hazard threats are identified. Specifically, the plan should include:• Areas likely to flood and the extent and depth of flooding• Frequency of occurrence (both historical and predicted or probable)• Magnitude and intensity duration, seasonal pattern, speed of onset• Location of critical infrastructure at risk
• Spatial extent (either around the known location of the hazard or as an estimate fornon-localized hazards)• The location of flood defense resources (equipment, sandbags, etc.)• Traffic and evacuation routes and corridors• Warning mechanisms
It is expected that in the development of the concept model, has to involve the improvement of
information sharing and collaborative decision-making at different levels of scale (shared, common
community, department), and between the main actors in the diagnostic process of the threats andintervention on the ground. It will introduce a complete system including a method and a tool tocompile and organize all relevant information on floods and useful for crisis planning.
The output of this study is a concept model that can assist the simulation of flood crisis
management, together with alternatives measures for decision support based on integrated flood
management planning and principles. The model must be able to simulate several alternatives and110

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scenarios in selected case, as well as providing good and relevant information to the needs ofdecision-making process. The actual problem solving and application in the field will be a separate
constituent in selecting alternatives generated by the model. The methodology in comparing themodels is based on OSIRIS-Model approach.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 2. OSIRIS simplified data model in UML

The result shows that the detailed information such human and material resources, facilities
information, and warning time-lag, have not been properly and entirely accommodated in the(computer) model.

Figure 3. Interaction Platform of OSIRIS-Flood (Shows the results)

Simple comparative analysis between applications of some decision support tools is conducted togain better understanding of the characteristics of each tool, the principle, the method, as well as theobjective and purpose of each tool.

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The comparation of the tools is limited only to those tools which used for disaster managementwith focus on flood disaster management tools.
Name and Info of
DSS

OriginHAZUS (Hazards
US)US, 2003

Estimating potential losses fromearthquake, floods, and hurricanes

SAHANA-FOSS

Srilanka,
2004

Provide a set of modular, webbased disaster management
applications

UN-SPIDER

2006

FLOODSITE

UK, 2008

Objective and Purpose

Focus on the need to ensure
access to and use of such
solutions during all phases of thedisaster management cycle,
including the risk reduction phase
Tool for risk information on flood
event to the investment andeconomic values

OSIRIS Flood

France, 2005

Tool for the preparation andmanagement of flood crisis(provide flood-operational
solutions) for local officials

INASAFE

Indonesia,
2011

Produces realistic natural hazard
impact scenarios for better
planning, preparedness andresponse activities.

CEDD

Spain, 2006

DSS tool for flood mapping

Method and Function
GIS technology; to estimate
physical, economic, and social
impacts of disasters
Synchronization between multiple
instances, allowing for responders
or district offices to capture data on
victims in the field
Integrated communication

Communication and dissemination
Set of procedure to follow tocompile and organize all relevant
information on floods and usefulfor crisis planning: sources of data
for forecasting, flood maps andscenarios, and vulnerability issues,action plans and procedures to beprovided to limit the damage,human and material resources
available
Combines one exposure layer (e.g.
location of buildings) with one
hazard scenario (e.g. flooding
footprint) and returns a spatial
impact layer along with textual
statistical summary and action
questions.
Fuzzy Logic; Interact andsynchronize stakeholders in flood
managemet in order to follow
mapping result.

Specific for Indonesia case, InaSAFE is free software that produces realistic natural hazard impact
scenarios for better planning, preparedness and response activities. It provides a simple but rigorous
way to combine data from scientists, local governments and communities to provide insights into
the likely impacts of future disaster events. However, there was a lack of human and material
resources, facilities information, and warning time-lag considered in the model.
As for the parameters considered in the concept model, based on various type of tools andreferences, it can be tabulated as below
Table 1. Matrix of variables in flood emergency response
Variable
Location
Hydrological
112

Activity/Description

Data

Location identification
Geo regference (connection to
GIS)
Generate hydrological data

Map
Geo-spatial referencing
Zoning/sector
General data

Model which
represents
All
Haz, OS, UNS
Haz, OS, UNS
All; exc. UNS

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information

Information of flood
ReportInfrastructure atstakesResources

Identify the stakes and location
Identify the impact
Resources identification
Access to resources

Scenario foractionCommunicationand plan

Assess the possibility scenario
Action plan generation
Regulation support
Flow of communication

Flood status
Flood scale
Bulletin (past records)
Land use info
Position and level of
exposure
Number of occupants
Human resources
Material and equipment
resources
Accessibility info
Organization (PIC)
Classification
Data support
Regulation for action
Flow of information
Institutional/stakeholder

AllAllOS, InaS
OS, UNS, SF, InaSOS, SF, InaSOS, SF, InaSOS, InaSOS
OS
OS
OS, InaS, Haz
OS, InaS
OS, SFAll
OS, UNS, InaS

4. CONCLUSION
This assessment has concluded some points:-

Mapping is the most important step but has to be done manually
Data requirement of each steps has to be adjusted in order to keep track for each iteration
The detailed information for human resources data is more complicated (to obtain)
Variation of stakes identified in the location still need to be validated
The selection of flood states is the key issue in generating the preference graphs
Some obstacles related to the language justification and translation

DSS are there to facilitate a manager in making operational decisions, but the ultimate burden of
responsibility lies with the manger. Managers can sometimes be over-optimistic in their
expectations of a DSS and develop a unrealistic reliance on the system (Power, C.J; Caveat
Emperor).
The effective operation of the total floodplain management process is determined by how well thevarious agencies are coordinated as they perform their individual tasks and how well they
communicate with other stakeholders in the basin.
5. ACKNOWLEDMENT
The wirter would like to thank to Prof. Jean-Louis Batoz, Dr. Gilles Morel and Dr. Dwita for their
guide throughout the study and providing adequate references.
6. REFERENCES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

EM-DAT IDD, 2013. (http://www.emdat.be/result-disaster-profiles?disgroup= natural&dis_type=Flood &period=2003$2012)
BAPPENAS, 2007. The Jakarta Flood Report. (http://bappenas.go.id)
Indonesia’s Urban Studies, 2011. (http://indonesiaurbanstudies.blogspot.com/2011/02/
jakarta-annual-flooding-in-february.html)
National Disaster Mitigation Agency (BNPB), 2013. www.bnpb.go.id
Loucks, D.P., and J.R. daCosta, (editors), 1991, Decision support systems: Water Resources
Planning. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
Sauter, V, Louw, R.E, 2002, Decision Support Systems, University of Missouri St. Louis
WMO, 2006. adapted from ARMCANZ, 2000
WMO, 2011. IFM Tools Series No.11, World Meteorological Organization

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9
10
11
12
13
14
15

16
17
18
19

114

G. Morel, F. Hissel, 2010. OSIRIS-inondation: a support tool for local flood crisis
planning and management. Colloque SHF : «risques inondation en Ile de France», Paris,
24-25 mars 2010.
APFM (Associated Programme on Flood Management), 2011. Integrated FloodManagement Tools Series: Flood Emergency Planning.
Jonkman, S.N., Bockarjovab, M., Kokc, M., Bernardinid, P., May 2008. Integratedhydrodynamic and economic Modelling of flood damage in the Netherlands. Ecological
Economics 66 (1), 77-90.
Marnix van der Vat, et.al. 2004. Methodology for Decision Support Systems for Flood
Event Management; Floodsite Project Report
OPPENHEIM, Nobert, 1980, Applied Models in Urban and Regional Analysis, PrenticeHall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
OSIRIS-Inondation Guideline, 2008
Qi, Honghai, Altinakar, M.S., Ying, X., Wang, S.S.Y, 2005. Risk and Uncertainty
Analysis in Flood Hazard Management Using GIS and Remote Sensing Technology. In:
Proceeding of American Water Resources Association Annual Conference, Seattle, Nov
2005.
Taliercio, G., 2010. Flood Crisis Management in the Meuse Basin: General framework ofstrategies, methods, tools and technologies used at different territorial scales and by different
stakeholders, AMICE Flood – EPAMA.
Saleh, T., Orientilize, M., Rasul, R., 2008. Policy Study on Public Participation in FloodControl Infrastructure and Facility Management. Quality in Research Conference 2009,
Universitas Indonesia.
Simonovic, S.P., 2002, A Spatial Fuzzy Compromise Programming for Management of
Natural Disasters, ICLR Research Paper Series, No. 24.
Government of Indonesia, 2007. Disaster Management Law (UU No.24 tahun 2007) tentang
Penanggulangan Bencana (Pasal. 48 – 50)

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MEASUREMENT OF TOLL ROAD SERVICE QUALITY (TRSQ) USINGSTRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL APPROACH
Herry T. Zunaa, Adani T. Zafiraa, Muhammad Ismail H. Sadjidullaha*aIndonesia Toll Road Authority, Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Better service is an essential prerequisite for customers’ satisfaction. As a service, toll roadapplied Minimum Service Standard (SPM) to achieve the level of service expected byusers. Understanding which of the attributes preferred by users becomes necessary. Toll
Road Service Quality (TRSQ) model is the modification of SERVQUAL model thatperceived toll road services from users’ perspective. It consists of seven attributes namely
information, accessibility, reliability, mobility, security, rest areas, and responsiveness.
This study aimed to measure TRSQ model using Structural Equation Model (SEM) with
Partial Least Square (PLS). Results suggest the correlation of service attributes in TRSQ
model and users’ satisfaction. Out of 11 toll roads being surveyed, accessibility has thegreatest impact on users’ satisfaction and deemed to be the most important aspect on tollroad services.
Keywords: Structural Equation Model; Toll Road Service Quality; User Satisfaction; Toll
Road
1. INTRODUCTION
In order to intensify economic growth and mobility, toll road as one of the provision of
infrastructures plays a significant role to intensify economic growth and mobility. Tollroad gives alternative route to users, travel time savings and efficient distribution toachieve economic equity across the nation (Zuna et al, 2015). Toll road is distinguishedfrom non-toll road by the service it grants. The implementation of tariffs in toll roads
equals with the services given to users. Therefore, by paying the fees, expectation rises intheir perception.
To meet user expectation, Minimum Service Standard (SPM) is applied for toll roads inIndonesia to maintain the quality of the services. However, the provided level of services
sometimes fails to fulfill user’s expectation (Zeithaml et al., 1990). This problem happens
because the government misses to deliver user expectations into the operational service
standard. The fact that service quality of toll road used in Indonesia is not yet affected byuser perception adds the gap between user’s expectation and services that provided. Thissituation occurs because toll roads do not have a competitive market. Despite of thedissatisfaction, Zuna et al. (2016) said users will continue to use toll roads in needs formobilization.
It is known that the concepts of service quality and service satisfaction have been
considered in management activities (Mosahab et al., 2010). Customer satisfaction holds
an important effect to measure company’s accomplishment. It is necessary to determine theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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attributes of toll road service quality and how it influences users by understanding theirsatisfaction standard.
Toll Road Service Quality
Toll roads are seen as goods because of the tangible nature of the roads. However, tollroads can also be considered as services because of the better services it gives to users than
non-toll roads (Zuna, et al, 2015). The service includes faster route, safer environment,
shorter travel time, and comfortable surrounding throughout the journey. Those will be
alternated to the fees users have to pay in accordance with the Indonesia Ministry of Public
Works and Housing’s Decree Number 16/PRT/M/2014, concerning toll road minimum
standards.
Bateson (1995) remarked that service quality has unique characteristics; intangibility,
heterogeneity, inseparability and perishability, which makes it difficult to measure.
Customer’s expectations and perceptions could be used to measure service quality (Ebolli
and Mazzulla, 2008). Service quality is formed from customers’ points of view andperception of a service (Heide and John, 1992). Kotler (1995) described customer
satisfaction as a comparison between expected service and perceived service. The
perspectives of both the provider and the receiver have to be included in every research onservice quality (Czepiel, 1990).
The SERVQUAL model established by (Parasuraman et al., 1988) proposes to qualify aservice based on five distinct dimensions: reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy,
and tangibles. The SERVQUAL instrument consists of 22 statements assesses the gap
between customers' expectations of the service and their perception of the 6 actual service
received. SERVQUAL has been designed to be applicable in an extensive spectrum ofservices and the format could be adapted to fit specific needs (Parasuraman et al., 1988).
Despite being criticized as imperfect model, it remains the most widely applied measure ofservice quality (Sivadas and Baker-Prewitt, 2000). Ladhari (2009) stated that to receive
reliable and valid results when using the SERVQUAL model to measure service quality
was choosing the right dimensions that fit into specific service being measured. Customer’s
expectation as well as their perceptions takes a roll in which best way to measure service
quality in service sector (Shahin, 2005).
Zuna et al. (2016) created Toll Road Service Quality (TRSQ) developed from the
combination of SERVQUAL and SPM. The data were obtained and analyzed using the
ANN approach. TRSQ considers SERVQUAL dimensions, but also considers the physicalaspects addressed by SPM. TRSQ has seven dimensions: accessibility, reliability, mobility,
safety and security, rest areas, and responsiveness.
Structural Equation Model
Structural Equation Model (SEM) is a statistical modeling technique which is widelyused in the behavioral sciences (Hox and Bechger, 2007). When dealing with relations
between constructs such as satisfaction, role ambiguity, or attitude, SEM is likely to be themethodology of choice (Monecke and Leisch, 2012). SEM offers advantages over somefamiliar methods and provides a general framework for linear modeling since it is designed
for working with multiple related equations simultaneously. Special cases of SEM areregression, canonical correlation, confirmatory factor analysis, and repeated measures
analysis of variance (Kline, 1998).

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There are only two types of variables in SEM exogenous or endogenous. An exogenous
variable has path arrows pointing outwards and none leading to it. Meanwhile, an
endogenous variable has at least one path leading to it and represents the effects of othervariables. SEM has several distinct approaches based on its function such as Covariancebased SEM (CB-SEM), Partial Least Squares (PLS), Generalized Structured Component
Analysis (GSCA), and Nonlinear Universal Structural Relational Modeling (NEUSREL).
CB-SEM uses software packages such as AMOS, EQS, LISREL and MPlus. PLS, which
focuses on the analysis of variance, can be carried out using PLS-Graph, VisualPLS,
SmartPLS, WarpPLS, as well as the PLS module in the “r” statistical software package.
While GSCA is implemented through VisualGSCA or a web-based application called
GeSCA. NEUSREL’s Causal Analytics software has been used for NEUSREL approach(Wong, 2013).
PLS is a soft modeling approach to SEM with no assumptions about data distribution,
unlike CB-SEM where it aims at reproducing the same covariance matrix (Vinzi et al.,2010). Hence, PLS-SEM can be a better option rather than CB-SEM when the similar
situations are encountered (Bacon, 1999). SmartPLS is a stand alone software specialized
for PLS path models. The model is specified via drag and drop by drawing the structuralmodel for the latent variables and by assigning the indicators to the latent variables(Monecke and Leisch, 2012).
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
This study is based on questionnaires of the customer satisfaction survey at 2013 gathered
by Indonesia Toll Road Authority (BPJT). The data were obtained from 11 toll roads inJava which varies from urban/rural toll roads and operated by government/private sector.
The data from questionnaires combined with Toll Road Service Quality (TRSQ) model areused as an approach for modelling the service quality that explained the relationshipbetween satisfaction and expectation from toll roads user perspective.
Toll Road Service Quality Modelling:
As described above, TRSQ model is used as a model that can explain the correlation
between expectation and perspective from toll road user based on research from Zuna, etal., (2016). TRSQ model is a combination of SERVQUAL model and service dimension in
Toll Road Minimum Standards (SPM) that has 7 dimensions such as information,accessibility, reliability, mobility, safety and security, rest area, and responsiveness.
Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modelling:
Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) with Partial Least Squares (PLS) approach is used toestimate causal relationship in path models that involve latent variables and its manifest.
PLS is used to estimate the connection between 7 dimensions from TRSQ and 33 manifest
variables from questionnaires. With PLS modelling, those variables and dimensions are
created to two steps of calculations as a model like a picture below.

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Figure 1 SEM – PLS Modelling with TRSQ Dimensions
The 7 TRSQ dimensions serve as a reflective construct for satisfaction and hope. For PLS
modelling to be able to calculate the models, satisfaction variable use D1 as an input unit
and hope variable used variable from E1 to E5 in which value had been switched to the
opposite for each variable to create a models with equal level of value to analysis.
Table 1 Endogenous variables and its indicator

S

Endogenous
Variable
Satisfaction

H

Hope

Code

Code

Indicator

D1
e1
e2
e3

level of satisfaction
Accident caused by road condition
Accident caused by other toll road user
Crime events when using the road
The easiness to get fare information,
entrance and exit toll road access, or helpline
accessillegal charge, including illegal towing along
the toll roade4
e5

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSEM PLS Model Analysis: The statistical software application Smart PLS 2.0 is used toanalyze the correlation between satisfaction and hope factors that being tested. PLS uses a
two steps process to evaluate 11 PLS models. The PLS path model evaluation steps consistof: Measurement model (Outer model)
Model evaluation with PLS Algorithm to determine manifest and construct’s
reliability and validity.
 Structural model (Inner Model)

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Model evaluation with Bootstrapping process to estimate correlation between eachendogenous variables.
The steps that is taken into consideration are meant to evaluate reliability and validity ofmeasurements indicator, and henceforth estimate the relationship between satisfaction andhope from toll road user’s perspective.
Measurement model (Outer model)First step that we analyze is the models with PLS Algorithm to get loading factor scoringfrom each manifests. After each running process, we reduce the number of manifests
variables that receive score less than 0.5. Thus, this means if they have less than 50%
capability to explain their own construct variables. After reducing manifests variable withloading factor selection, we analyze the models with other criteria for validity andreliability test.
For Average Variance Extracted (AVE), composite reliability, R2 and cronbachs alpha, theresults from its analysis are shown in the table below:
Table 2 Validity and reliability test results
Toll
Composite
R
Cronbachs
Road
Indicator AVE
Reliability
SquareAlpha
SampleNumberH
1
1
0.52271
1S
1
10.05361H
1
10.19481
2S
1
10.06451H
1
10.80081
3S
1
10.21471H
1
10.51841
4S
1
10.01431H
1
10.33611
5S
1
10.05441H
1
10.3332
1
6S
1
10.11841H
0.61060.86230.35840.78887S
1
10.20361
H
0.61680.7507
0.628
0.665
8
S
1
1
0.24461H
1
10.4362
1
9S
1
10.09431
H
0.57640.80090.72050.759510S
1
10.39851H
1
10.53251
11S
1
10.0677
1

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From validity and reliabilty test with PLS Algorithm, 11 toll roads that had been tested
show insignificant result of R2 test for satisfaction variable from toll road samples number
1, 2, 4, 5, 9, and 11. The results reflect the correlation between satisfaction and its TRSQ
models have less than 10% capability to explain. Meanwhile, other validity and reliability
test results such as AVE, cronbach alpha, and composite reliability had already passed thelimits to be considered as a valid and reliable variables.
Structural model (Inner model)
For inner model, correlation between each construct that form endogenous indicator isshown in the table below:
Table 3 Inner model test results

120

No.

Toll Road
SampleMost
Significance
TRSQ
Satisfaction

Most SignificanceManifest for
Satisfaction

Most
SignificanceTRSQ Hope

1

Jakarta – Bogor– Ciawi(Jagorawi)

S3(Reliability)

I01 (Comfort whiledriving along the tollroads)

H2(Accessibility)

2

Jakarta –Tanggerang(Janger)

S4(Mobility)

I10 (Smoothness / nobarriers / no jams
when driving road
toll)

H1
(Information)

3

Semarang
Seksi A, B, C

S3(Reliability)

I06 (The number andquality of ornamental
plants along the sideand median road)

H2(Accessibility)

4

Jakarta –Cikampek(Japek)S4(Mobility)

I10 (Smoothness / nobarriers / no jams
when driving road
toll)

H5
(Safety &Security)

5

Serpong –Pondok Aren
(BSD)

S3
(Reliability)

I01 (Comfort whiledriving along the tollroads)

H3(Reliability)

6

Tanggerang –Merak (Merak)

S2(Accessibility)

I33 (Quality of service
personnel substation)

7

Cikampek –Purwakarta –Padalarang(Cipularang)

H5(Safety &Security)

S2(Accessibility)

I32 (Officer honesty
when transacting
substation)

H2(Accessibility)

Most SignificanceManifest for Hope
P32 (Officerhonesty whentransacting
substation)
P05 (The positionand location ofsigns / traffic
information
boards)P33 (Quality ofservice personnel
substation)
P11 (The level ofsafety (number ofaccidents) whiledriving along the
motorway)P07 (The number
and size of trees
on the side of the
highway as ashade)
P20 (Security at
the resting placeof crime)
P32 (Officerhonesty whentransacting
substation)

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Most
Significance
TRSQ
Satisfaction

Most SignificanceManifest for
Satisfaction
I15 (The quality andavailability of parking
at a rest area)No.

Toll Road
Sample8

Padalarang –Cileunyi(Padaleunyi)

S6 (Rest
Area)

9

Palimanan –Plumbon –Kanci(Palikanci)

S3(Reliability)

10

Kanci –
Penjagaan

S2(Accessibility)

11

Surabaya –Gempol(Surgem)

S2(Accessibility)

I07 (The number andsize of trees on theside of the highway asa shade)I32 (Officer honesty
when transacting
substation)
I33 (Quality of service
personnel substation)

Most
SignificanceTRSQ Hope
H1(Information)

H6 (Rest
Area)

Most SignificanceManifest for Hope
P05 (The positionand location ofsigns / traffic
information
boards)P15 (The quality
and availability ofparking at a restarea)

H5 (Safety &Security)

P18 (Rest area
without charges)

H6 (RestArea)

P15 (The quality
and availability ofparking at a rest
area)

From 11 toll roads that had been modelled, there are 4 toll roads, on each with reliability(S3) and accessibility (S2), serve as dominant satisfaction indicator. This indicatesreliability and accessibility as a general factor that explains satisfaction from TRSQ model.
However, there are 3 toll roads each with accessibility (H2) and safety and security (H5),serve as dominant hope indicator, which means as a representative for user toll roads
expectation. For accessibility that got chosen as a main indicator for satisfaction and hope,it explains that from 11 toll road samples, mainly from toll roads samples that tested havebeen able to answer their user’s expectation for accessibility indicator. Meanwhile, for 33
manifests variables each from 7 TRSQ dimensions, there are 2 toll roads each with officerhonesty when transacting (I32), comfort while driving along the toll road (I01), and qualityof service personnel substation (I33) as manifest with the biggest factor that got chosen bymajority of toll road samples for satisfaction. As for variable of hope, 2 toll roads each got
officer honesty when transacting (P32), the position and location of signs / traffic
information boards (P05), and the quality and availability of parking at a rest area (P15)
got picked as a manifest variable with biggest loading factor comes from a mostsignificance TRSQ dimensions for hope. With several similarities between manifest thatgot picked for satisfaction and hope, variable officer honesty when transacting (32) comesas an manifest with highest loading factor.
4. CONCLUSIONTRSQ is a reliable tool to describe performance of toll road operator from users
perspective. The results from PLS modelling with TRSQ shows correlation between
satisfaction and expectation from toll road users. Based on this correlation, accessibility
appear to be the most significant dimension for both users satisfaction and expectation.

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Meanwhile, officer honesty in transaction indicates the highest loading factor among othermanifests in general. However, this study results in low value of R square on 6 out of 11
toll road samples. It is caused by the use of SEM method with PLS approach to process non
parametric data. This approach is done to match the questionnaire data obtained and get thesize of the relationship between the variables tested (the value of statistical test results) andthe picture of the relationship between the variables indicated by the arrows in the SEM
model that was analyzed. The disadvantages of the method used in this study is the lack ofmatching questionnaire form with the desired model so that some adjustments to thevariables are used. This implies that the model needs another type of based on SEM
assumption to accommodate each variable’s indicators.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Indonesia Toll Road Authority (BPJT), the Ministry of
Public Works and Housing, for supporting our study by providing primary data from theirsurvey on 2013.
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Kline, R. B., 1998. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York:The Guilford Press.
Kotler, P., 1995. Marketing Management. Jakarta: Erlangga [in Bahasa].
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Monecke, A. & Leisch, F., 2012. semPLS: Structural Equation Modeling Using Partial
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Mosahab, R., Mahamad, O. & Ramayah, T., 2010. Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction
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Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A. & Berry, L. L., 1988. SERVQUAL: A Multiple-Item
Scale for Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality. Journal of Retailing,
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Finite Mixture Partial Least Squares Theoritical Foundations and an Application to
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Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M. & Schlittgen, R., n.d. Finite Mixture and Genetic Algorithm
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Segments in Complex Path Models.
Shahin, A., 2005. SERVQUAL and Model of Service Quality Gaps: A Framework for
Determining and Prioritizing Critical Factors in Delivering Quality Services. Iran:
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Sihombing, L. B., n.d. Toll Road Infrastrcture Development in Indonesia: A System
Dynamics Perspective.
Sivadas, E. & Baker-Prewitt, J. L., 2000. An Examination of the Relationship Between
Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction and Store Loyalty. International Journal of
Retail and Distribution Management, 28(2), pp. 73-82.
Vinzi, V. E., Trinchera, L. & Amato, S., 2010. PLS Path Modeling: From Foundations to
Recent Developments and Open Issues for Model Assessment and Improvement.. Berlin,
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Road and Its Relation with Customer Satisfaction in Indonesia using Multivariate
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Service Quality using an Artificial Neural Network Approach. International Journal ofTechnology, Volume 4, pp. 562-570.

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EFFECT OF PLANTS VETIVERA ZIZANIOIDES (AKAR WANGI) ON
PERFORMANCE OF FIELD PLANT SUBSURFACE CONSTRUCTEDWETLANDS -MULTILAYER FILTRATION WITH VERTICAL FLOW
Ariani Dwi Astuti *)Muhammad Lindu *)Ramadhani Yanidar *)Maria Manda Kleden *)ariani_da@trisakti.ac.id*)Department of Environmental Engineering, FALTL, Trisakti University, Jakarta
ABSTRACT
Canteen wastewater contains high-organic content that have to be treated before being
discharged and not contaminating the water stream. Most of Senior High Schools in
DKI Jakarta do not have canteen wastewater treatment plant. Nowdays there are morethan 172 Senior High Schools in DKI Jakarta. A subsurface constructed wetland (SCW)
field plants were designed, implemented and operated at a Senior High School, in
Jakarta Selatan. The type of SCW was multilayer filtration (MLF) type with verticalflow and have successfully been used for the treatment of a real canteen wastewater.
The SCW-MLF field plants was operated at a hydrolic load of 6.9 m3/day and theorganic loading rate was 1.43-8.3 kg BOD/day. The SCW-MLF field plants units wereplanted with Vetivera zizanioides. Monitoring and evaluation of the performance of theunits were carried out through regular physico-chemical of the inlet and outlet
wastewater. The results indicated significant removals of different pollutants in SCWMLF in terms of COD, BOD, TKN, TP and oil and grease. The removal efficiencies of
COD, BOD, TKN, and TP were 70.5%, 75%, 62.6%, and 54.3%. The COD and BOD
organic loading at SCW-MLF were 917.08 – 4.126,84 kg COD/Ha/day and 309.78 –
850.73 kg BOD/Ha/day. In order to study the influence of vegetation in TN and TP
removal processes, a pilot unit multilayer filtration (MLF) was operated with the same
surface hydrolic loading. The removal effciencies of COD, BOD, TKN, and TP were
41.9%, 51.4%, 19.8%, and 36.6% in MLF. The SCW-MLF proved to be more efficientthan MLF not only in COD, BOD, oil and grease removals but also for TKN, TP
because of the vegetation. In conclusion SCW-MLF is proved to be effective forcanteen wastewater treatment due to its function as a garden and high quality effluentthat complied with Ministry of Environment and Forestry’s Standard for wastewater Nr.
P.68/2016 for COD, BOD, and TKN.
Keywords: Multilayer Filtration, Organic loading, Removal Efficiency, Subsurface
Constructed Wetlands, Vegetation
1. INTRODUCTION
In Jakarta, there are more than 176 Senior High School and Vocational School, but mostof them do not have a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), wastewater generated
directly discharged into receiving water bodies. Wastewater produced by the schools not
only wastewater from toilets or bathrooms but also from the canteen/cafeteria. Canteen
wastewater contains high-organic content that have to be treated before being
discharged.

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Constructed wetland is planned or controlled system which has been designed andconstructed using natural processes that involve vegetation, media, and microorganisms
to treat wastewater (Mengzhi, 2009). Constructed Wetlands are widely used asadvanced treatment of wastewater, in various countries to treat domestic and nondomestic wastewater, but not for canteen wastewater treatment that containing highconcentrations of organic compound. Some researches in constructed wetlands
conducted to process wastewater containing low concentrations of heavy metals and do
not use multilayer filtration. Vertical wetlands treated domestic wastewater achieved
99% COD removal (Tanner et al. 2012). Therefore, it is necessary to study the canteen
wastewater treatment by combining biofilter and constructed wetlands that are expected
to be a canteen wastewater treatment alternative which is simple because it does not
require complicated technology, it is cheaper in terms of cost of manufacture andoperation as well as maintenance, and more natural (US EPA, 2000). Vetiveria
zizanioides can reduce dissolved P by 99% after three weeks and 74% N dissolved after
five weeks. This study was carried out to evaluate the potential of Vetiveria zizanioides
in subsurface constructed wetland multilayer filtration (SCW-MLF) vertical flow
treated high-organic wastewater. The performance of planted subsurface constructedwetland Multilayer Filtration (SCW-MLF) versus unplanted Multilayer Filtration(MLF) was evaluated. Based on the performance data, removal rate constants were
calculated dan the growth of Vetiveria zizanioides were measured. The study aims to
document for the first time that Vetiveria zizanioides can be used in constructed wetland
multilayer filtration systems for the treatment of high-organic wastewater.
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Experimental Setup
The wastewater treatment unit was located at a Senior High School in Jakarta Selatan
and consisted of collecting tank (0.75 m x 0.84 m x 0.55 m) and aeration tank (1.5 m x
0.84 m x 0.7 m) as prelimenary treatment process, then flowed in parallel to biofilter
tank (Multilayer filtration-MLF) and subsurface constructed wetland multilayer
filtration type vertical flow (SCW-MLF) for advanced treatment (Figure 1).

1, 2, 3 and 4 : point of sampling

Figure 1. Scheme of SCW-MLF and MLF Units

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Due to topography of the site and water distribution, the facility was equipped withpump. The depth of the reactor also being adjusted to surface water level and the depthof existing drainage system. The SCW-MLF (15 m x 0.84 m x 1.05 m) with Vetivera
Zizanioides unit was designed with vertical flow type and has detention time of 17.76
hours. SCW-MLF and Multilayer filtration-MLF is designed with the same surface
loading rate.
2.3 Water analysis
Water samples were collected from sampling point and analysis was performed
immediately for dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH. Chemical oxygen demand (COD), total
Kjedal nitrogen (TKN), and total phosphorus (TP) were determined according to theStandard Methods (APHA, 1998). Removal efficiency was calculated by the percentage
of deduction in concentration for each pollutant as follows: removal efficiency = (1 −Ceff/Cinf) × 100%, where Cinf and Ceff the influent and effluent concentrations in
mg/L. Environmental physical factor such as temperature and humidity also has been measured.
2.4 Area Contants

Area contants were calculated according to Moshiri (1993)
A = Q x ln Ci ...........................................................................................(1)K
Ce
A = Areaconstructed wetland (m2); Q = flowrate influent (m3/day); Ce = concentrationof efluent (mg/L); Ci = concentration of influent (mg/L); K = Area contants (m/day).
Organic loading rate (kg/Ha/day) were calculated as below:
Organic loading rate = (Ci – Ce) mg/L x 1000
106

x Q ........................... (2)A

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Subsurface Constructed Wetland Multilayers Filtration with Vetivera
Zizanioides Unit (SCW-MLF)
The result of study on SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides in order totreat COD, BOD, TKN, and TP in canteen’s wastewater is shown in Figure 2, and 3.

Figure 2. Removal Efficiency of COD and BOD in SCW-MLF
Based on Figure 2, SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides has effectively
removed COD and BOD parameter. The removal efficiency of COD treatment in steadystate was 64.29% - 80%. The SCW-MLF type vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides

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has organic loading rate as much as 971.08 - 4126.84 kg COD/Ha/day. The research
result showed that COD concentration of effluent was 83 mg/L and complied with thequality standard of domestic wastewater Nr. P.68/2016 according to the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forestry. The standard of COD concentration is 100 mg/L.
Based on observation and water analysis, plant has quite significant effect in reducing
BOD as indicated by laboratory analysis result on day-30 on which the effluent standard
was 30 mg/L and thus complied with the regulation requirement. The highest BOD
concentration in outlet was on day-2 at 382.55 mg/L and the lowest was 26 mg/L on
day-30. Based on the graph, BOD treatment efficiency at steady state was 61.2% 70.8%. During high concentration on day-24 at 225 mg/L, treatment efficiency was
61.2%, while on low concentration at 94 mg/L the efficiency was 70.8%. The SCWMLF type vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides has organic loading rates as much as
309.78 – 850.73 kg BOD/Ha/Day, this results much higher compared to organic loading
rate of CW for Domestic wastewater according to Moshiri (1993) 150 kg BOD/Ha/Day.
Result of analysis of TP and TKN on outlet of SCW-MLF type vertical flow with
Vetivera Zizanioides shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Removal Efficiency of TP and TKN in SCW-MLF
The removal efficiency of TP on SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides
was 45.71% - 76.54%, while the removal efficiency of TKN was 10.37% - 77.13%.
This result indicates that the unit is effective in reducing the two parameters and in linewith research conducted by Zheng et al. in China (1997) that Vetivera Zizanioides canbe used to treat high concentration of dissolved N and P in a eutrophicated river,removal efficiency of dissolved P reached to 99% after three weeks and 74% of
dissolved N after five weeks. This shows that SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera
Zizanioides is very effective in the removal of these two organic matters. The plant has
the ability to reduce TKN and TP parameter in wastewater and use TKN and TP as
nutrient for its growth and reproduction. TKN and TP substance in SCW-MLF wastransformed into organic and inorganic matter by microorganism throughdecomposition and synthesis process.
The removal of TP in SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides was possible
due to soil adsorption, plant absorption and removal by microorganism living in theroots and stem. Phosphate was converted into orthophosphate and was able to beabsorbed by the plant. Transformation process was affected by environment’s abiotic
factors; sunlight, air medium and biotic factors such as microbes and plant.

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The removal of nitrogen concentration in SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera
Zizanioides was possible due to ammonification which followed by nitrification,
assimilation, fixation and denitrification processes. Nitrogen fixation is conversion of
nitrogen in gas form into organic nitrogen by certain microorganism with nitrogenase
enzyme. The reaction can take place in aerobic and anaerobic condition by bacteria.
Nitrogen fixation occurred in water surface, sedimentation, plant rhizosphere and leaves
surface as well as stem. Nitrogen assimilation is the process on which plant assimilate
the nitrogen. Plant reduce inorganic nitrogen into organic nitrogen that will be used byplant tissue. Plant use a large amount of nitrogen during growth phase.
The dissolved oxygen on outlet of the treatment unit was 3.02 - 3.36 mg O2/L whichindicates the process was aerobic. The measurement of pH of SCW-MLF outlet with
Vetivera zizanioides was 6.5 - 7.6 which shows that the average pH condition is
optimum and is a supporting factor in bacterial growth.
Organic loading rates of phosphate was 0.66 – 17.08 kg/Ha/day or 0.24 6.15 ton/Ha/year, while organic loading rates of nitrogen removed was 3.09 60.18 kg/Ha/day or 1.12 – 21.66 ton P/Ha/year. Several authors mentioned that Vetivera
zizanioides has the potential to remove 54 Ton P/Ha/year and 102 ton N/Ha/year. Changet al. (2012) treated domestic wastewater using Typha orientalis and Arundo donax var.
versicolor and has mean mass removal of rate 44.3 gr/m2/day or 443 kg/Ha/day for
COD; 1.27 gr/m2/day or 12.7 kg/Ha/day for TN; 0.39 gr/m2/day or 3.9 kg/Ha/day forTP.
3.2 Multilayers Filtration Unit (MLF)
The objective of treatment using MLF was to evaluate the effectiveness of Vetivera
Zizanioides on SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera zizanioides. The MLF unit isdesigned at the same setting and layer without any plant. Attached growth process isalso known as biofilter method in which microbes mass grow attached to the medium.
The medium used in MLF unit is similar those in SCW-MLF vertical flow with
Vetivera Zizanioides.

Figure 4. Removal Efficiency of COD and BOD in MLF
Based on Figure 4, COD concentration removal in MLF unit at steady state (day-21 –day-30) was 20% - 40% which indicate that there was biological treatment occurred inthis unit eventhough with lower efficiency compare to that of SCW-MLF vertical flow
with Vetivera Zizanioides. The removal efficiency of this unit has declining trend due tothe high input loading. COD concentration of MLF outlet in steady state was 749 – 166

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mg/L. The standard required by the regulation of Ministry of Environment and Forestry
Nr. P.68/2016 which is 100 mg/L. The figure also pointed out that BOD concentration
removal in MLF unit at steady state (day-21 – day-30) was 15% - 48.51%.
Concentration of MLF BOD outlet at steady state was 181 - 62 mg/L. This
concentration is higher than regulation which is 30 mg/L. This MLF unit has COD
organic loading rate as much as 9.24 - 545.41 kgBOD/Ha/day.
Removal efficiency of TP concentration in MLF was 0.56% - 41.08%, while removal
efficiency of TKN was 2.56% - 33.33% as can be seen in Figure 6. Treatment efficiency
in MLF unit was fluctuated with a declining trend and lower when compared to SCWMLF type vertical flow with Vetivera zizanioides. Dissolved oxygen rate of 3.69 - 4.02
mg O2/L indicates that the process was in aerobic flow condition. The measurement of
pH was 6.7 – 7.3 shows that average pH condition is optimum pH and a supporting
factor in bacterial growth.

Figure 5. Removal Efficiency of TP and TKN in MLF
3.3 Effect of Vetivera Zizanioides to the Efficiency of Canteen Wastewater
Treatment
The removal of COD in SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides unit was
69.24% - 80%, while MLF unit without plant was 20% - 40.7%. The BOD removal in
SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides unit was 61.2% - 70.8% while MLF
unit without plant was 15% - 48.51%. The comparison of COD between aeration tankoutlet, outlet of SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides unit and outlet of
MLF unit without plant is shown in Figure 6.
On the first week, effluent concentration on each unit for both COD and BODparameter was almost in the same level, however the difference was significant afterthat period. Treatment efficiency on SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides
increased linear with the growth of plant. According to Vymazal (2010), Abou-elela etal. (2013) vertical flow SCW results high removal efficiency of TP, TN and NH 4-N.
The higher the plant and the more leaves growth, the roots also growth and thus plantability to absorb organic material was higher. Furthermore, the deeper and spread out
the roots were, the microorganism around the roots were more abundant. These
increased the removal efficiency of SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera zizanioides.
SCW-MLF were affected by medium, the roots of Vetivera zizanioides andmicroorganism living in both medium, while MLF unit affected only by 2 factors, themedium and microorganism living in it. That is the explanation why microorganism

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capacity in MLF unit was less effective compared to SCW-MLF with Vetivera
Zizanioides unit. The result was similar with the analysis of Negisa et al. (2014) on oilpalm industry. Vetivera zizanioides was able to remove COD on low concentration
Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) by 94% and 39% at high concentration POME.
Vetivera Zizanioides was able to remove BOD by 90% at minimum concentration
POME and 60% at maximum concentration POME, while control set (without plant)
was only able to remove 15% of BOD.

Figure 6. COD Concentration in Outlet Units

Figure 7. BOD Concentration in Outlet Units
Removal efficiency of TP in SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides was
45.71% - 76.54%, while removal on MLF unit without plant was 0.56% - 41.08%.
Removal efficiency of TKN with Vetivera Zizanioides unit was 10.37% - 77.13% while
MLF unit without plant was 2.56% - 33.33%. The graph compared TP and TKNparameter in aeration tank outlet, in outlet of SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera
Zizanioides and outlet of MLF without plant is shown in Figure 8 and 9.

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Figure 8. TP Concentration in Outlet Units

Figure 9. TKN Concentration in Outlet UnitsTKN removal on SCW-MLF unit was possible due to ammonification which followedby nitrification, assimilation and fixation processes. In MLF unit, only ammonificationand nitrification process occurred because assimilation process can only be done whereplant existed. It caused the removal efficiency of SCW-MLF is higher compared to
MLF. Plant use biomass from microorganism metabolism into N, P, CO 2, H2O andsimple organic compound to provide nutrient for its growth and reproduction. The
biomass surplus will be cultivated in roots. Aerobic microorganism uses the remaining
carbon, phosphate and nitrogen to form new cells and convert some of them into energy.
Oxygen function as electron acceptor during oxidation of organic material and thereaction will stop when oxygen was no longer available. Plant has an important role in
reducing pollutant : organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus (Gikas & Tsihrintzis2012). This results is similar with research by Hoang et al. (2011) with Sesbania sesban
and Konnerup et al. (2008) with Canna and Heliconia. There are four function/benefit ofplant; as filter for suspended solid material, growth medium of microorganism, root
supply oxygen into the medium and maintain substrate (Tchobanologlous, 1987, Brix,
1993 in Moshiri, 1993).

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In this study, indication of growth and reproduction of Vetivera Zizanioides were heightand growth of new shoots. The average plant height after acclimatization (during
planting) was 60.5 cm. Height of plant was measured for 30 days during research
period. In addition, Vetivera zizanioides also remove the odor and vector that usually
lived in wastewater or stagnant water such as mosquito, flies, etc. Further more,
Vetivera Zizanioides in canteen wastewater treatment unit give a beautiful landscapeview. Area contants in each unit were calculated and compared to area contants
according to Moshiri (1993) as can be seen in Table 2.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Table 2. Area Contants at SCW-MLF and MLF
Parameter
K of SCW-MLF
K of MLF(m/day)(m/day)COD
0,568 – 0,887
0,1229 – 0,284
BOD
0,55 – 0,78
0,009 – 0,320
TKN
0,35 – 0,98
0,09
TP
0,08 – 0,79
0,09 – 0,20

K of Moshiri(m/day)0,055 – 0,16
0,027 – 0,18
0,033 – 0,55
0,027 – 0,033

Two-sided t test was used to detect any significant differences on the mean with andwithout plants of different parameter and pollutant removal efficiencies of the two units,with p < 0.05 defined that there is significant difference in SCW-MLF with plants
compare to MLF without plants, t calculation more than t table as can be seen at Table
3.
Table 3. T-Test Results
No.
Parameter
T calculation
T Table1. COD
6.166
1.729
2. BOD
5.172
1.729
3. TKN
2.417
2.015
4. TAPI
2.358
2.015
5. Oil and Grease
2.471
2.015
4. CONCLUSION
SCW-MLF vertical flow with Vetivera Zizanioides unit is effectively reduced
concentrations of COD, BOD, TP, TKN in the canteen wastewater compared to those in
MLF. SCW-MLF were affected by medium in multylayer, the roots of Vetivera
zizanioides and microorganism living in both medium, while MLF unit affected only by
2 factors, the medium and microorganism living in it. SCW-MLF can be an alternative
canteen wastewater treatment that is low cost in operational and give a beautiful
landscape view. Besides no odors or insects were detected during the operation of
SCW-MLF.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by grants from Directorate for Research and Community
Services Directorate General of Strengthening Research and Development Ministry for
Research, Technology and Higher Education In accordance with the Agreement
Assignment Implementation Research Grant Nr. 003 / SP2H / LT / DRPM / III / 2016
and Nr. 214 / SP2H / LT / DRPM / III / 2016, February 17th, 2016 and March 10th,
2016.

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6. REFERENCES
Abou-elela, S.I. et al., (2013). Municipal wastewater treatment in horizontal and verticalflows constructed wetlands. Ecological Engineering, 61, pp.460–468. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.10.010.
APHA, (2012), Standard Menthods For The Examination of Water and Wastewater,
American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water
Environtment Federation, Washighton DC, United State of America.
Chan Y.J., Chong M.F., Law C.L., Hassell D.G., (2009), Chemical Engineering Journal,
Volume 155, pp. 1–18.
Chang, J. et al., (2012). Treatment performance of integrated vertical-flow constructedwetland plots for domestic wastewater. Ecological Engineering, 44, pp.152–159.
Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.03.019.
Crites, R., Tchobanoglaus, G., (1998), Small and Decentralized Wastewater
Management Systems : Wetlands and Aquatic Treatment Systems, Mc Graw-Hill,
Singapore.
Gikas, G.D. & Tsihrintzis, V.A., (2012). Short communication A small-size verticalflow constructed wetland for on-site treatment of household wastewater.
Ecological Engineering, 44, pp.337–343. Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.ecoleng.2012.04.016.
Hoang, T. et al., 2011. Treatment of high-strength wastewater in tropical constructedwetlands planted with Sesbania sesban : Horizontal subsurface flow versus vertical
downflow. Ecological Engineering, 37(5), pp.711–720. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2010.07.030.
Konnerup, D., Koottatep, T. & Brix, H., 2008. Treatment of domestic wastewater intropical , subsurface flow constructed wetlands planted with Canna and Heliconia. ,5, pp.248–257.
Moshiri, G.A., (1993), Constructed Wetland for Water Quality Improvement, Lewis
Publishers, London.
Ministry of Environment and Forestry’s Regulationn for domestic wastewater standard
Nr. P.68/2016
Negisa et al., (2014), Phytoremediation Potential of Vetiver System Technology for
Improving the Quality of Palm Oil Mill Effluent. Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering. Volume 2014, Article ID 683579,
10 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/683579
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configurations. Ecological Engineering, 42, pp.112–123. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.01.022.
US-EPA, 2000. Constructed Wetland Treatment for Municipal Wastewater. UnitedStates Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/625/R-99/010. Office of Researchand Development, Cincinnati.
Vymazal, J., (2010), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. Water 2010,
Volume 2, pp. 530-549, www.mdpi.com/journal/water

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Identification of Country Standard Measureable Influence Indicators on
Construction Project Duration Performance in Indonesia
4

Basuki Anondho,1; Ayomi Dita Rarasati2; Yusuf Latief3; Khrisna Mochtar,

Abstract:
The duration of construction project implies a complex interaction with various aspects that
affect or influence the duration itself. Developing a descriptive model to determine thosedominant influence variables should give an alternative option on duration prediction models andprovide convenience to understand the practical purpose. This practical purpose needs ameasureable indicator factor that commonly provides such like official country statistical data.
Since there are lot of country statistical data, identifying measureable indicators become
important as dominant influence indicators on construction project duration. The current research
describes step by step identifying dominant influence external factors in building construction
project in Jakarta, Indonesia. The process started with literature selection to identify factors
influence the performance of construction industry. The output of literature study was followedby exploratory phase to analyzing the output of questionnaire based on the literature study.
Exploratory phase reduce and grouping factors by identifying dominant factors so it
accommodates the practical purpose. The next phase was confirmatory by analyzing dominantfactors in an integrated relation system. At this phase, the floor area and number of story areincluded in the system using Partial Least Square – Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM).
The results show that the rates of exchange currency value, interest, inflation, GDP, absorb of
new technology, labor availability, materials price are the dominant indicators out of 12 origin
indicators.
Keywords:
Measureable Indicators, Factors Analysis, PLS-SEM, Influence Variable, Project Duration
Introduction
There is no doubt that duration prediction is a one of key success factors since it becomes
the base of budgeting, planning, implementation, monitoring and even for litigation purposes(Skitmore et al. 2003). Construction project duration prediction is one of several key factors to
be considered before starting the project. It determines the success or fail of a construction
project (Nguyen et al. 2013). Therefore, developing a supporting model for construction project
duration prediction is the first and essential step in a project construction. The duration of
construction project implies a complex interaction with various aspects that affect or influenceeach other. A descriptive model that can determine the dominant variables should provide
variation on the developed prediction models and provide convenience to understand thepractical purpose (Dursun and Stoy, 2012). Several previous studies have already identified thisproblem as construction productivity factors that affect the overall company performance and
1

Ph.D Candidate at Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Lecturer at Tarumanagara University, Jakarta.
Lecturer at Construction and Project Management Postgraduate Program, Department of Civil Engineering
Universitas Indonesia.
3
Professor at Construction and Project Management Postgraduate Program, Department of Civil Engineering
Universitas Indonesia.
4
Lecturer at Construction and Project Management Postgraduate Program Department of Civil Engineering
Universitas Indonesia, Professor at Department of Civil Engineering Institut Teknologi Indonesia.
2

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country development (El-gohary et al, 2014). The problem is for a difference area, where
uncertainty occurs; there will be a difference construction project performance. A Need ofprevalent influence factors or indicators becomes one of the solutions for duration estimation.
The study carried out by Chan et al, (2004) show that there are five major group of latent
independent variables influence the project success, including duration prediction. The result
identifies 6 external factors influenced the project performance, which are: Economic
environment, Social environment, Political environment, Physical environment, Industrial
environment and Technology advanced. The research was aimed at conducting a review onliterature for identifies critical success factors on construction project. This descriptive research
conducted by using seven major journals and one of the outputs is external environment that has
several factors. Dai et al (2009) was also conducted a qualitative research to identify several
latent variables that influenced human resource productivity by using analysis factor method.
Some identify latent factors were: Tool equipment which represents technology, Project
management and human resource qualification. Political risks, Economic risks, Adequacy offunding also represent of economic, Constructability and Pioneering represent of technology aresome influence external factors (Hwang, 2013). A further study on external factors by Anondho
et al (2014) was conducted by using questioner with factors analysis and structural equation
model method to indicate dominant country standard measureable indicators. The choice ofcountry standard measureable indicators is to meets difference area requisite. Those summarizeof previous research shows that external latent variables could be divided into 3 main influenced
variables which are: Economic, Human Resource and Technology. Base on this concept,
indicators identify by search on BPS tables related to those variables.
The different between this research with the previous one is that this research add floor areaand number of storeys as internal factors in the integrated system, corresponding to someresearcher recommendation as describe below. Both methods were used for reducing indicatorand accommodating the latent variables. Starting with literature study on 38 journals as
descriptive indicators and variables identification of other previous researches. The resume of thestudy was used as questions on the questioner. Those previous research approaches on
construction duration prediction have some notes as side conclusions. Kumaraswamy and Chan
(1995) state that the construction duration also depends on technical parameters such as the total
gross floor area and the number of storey in a building. Several researches based on Bromillow’s
BTC duration estimation formula, also found that the speed of construction tends to decrease
when gross floor area decreases and/or the number of floor levels increases (Love et al. 2005). A
repetition research in Germany, conducted by Dursun et al, (2012), state that the researchanalyses indicated gross external ﬂoor area is relating to the construction of the building fordescribing construction duration.
This paper describe a propose development model to accommodate both influence external
factors and technical internal parameters such as the total gross floor area and the number ofstorey in a single frame of partial least square method to identify dominant and useful factors on
duration estimation. The result of factors identification and reducing makes number of an
influence factors less for practical use on estimating project duration purpose, especially forIndonesia as a developing county.
Methodology
Based on previous study stated above, a systematic step is planned as a methodology of thepresent research. It started with literature study to indicate at least the latent variables as main

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variables. Furthermore, those identified latent variables are broken down into factors orindicators contained in the official statistics agency, which generally provided by the local
government. By doing this, an indicator has a specific measure for a certain area.
Base on those indicators, a questioner is being constructed and distribute to estimator, sitemanager or project manager as respondent in several construction projects. Input questioners
processed by factor analysis to reduce indicators and grouping new latent variables as
identification dominant indicators.
Factors analysis result processed in an integrated model with floor are and number ofstoreys, internal factors as recommended, in partial least square method as the last stage ofindicators identification. Detail of the methodology shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Identification step to reduce and select dominant indicator
Step 1: The goal of literature selection is to integrate and summarize what is known in an area. A
review pulls together and synthesizes different results. It collects what is known up to a point intime and indicates the direction for future research (Neuman, 2006). It starts with identification
main group or latent variables that influence the performance or duration of construction project
derive on development study. Next, literature selection is to breakdown each latent variable into
factor based on previous study in journals. Last literature identification is matching each factor
with indicator provide by official institution which transform them into measureable indicator.
Step 2: Factor analysis is being used in exploratory to practical used purpose. Factor analysis isa multivariate technique and the primary advantage of multivariate techniques is their ability toaccommodate multiple variables in an attempt to understand the complex relationships notpossible with univariate and bivariate methods. Dominant factors, grouping and factor reduction,
can be achieved by identify the separate dimensions of the structure and then determine theextent to which variable is explained by each dimension. Once these dimensions and the
explanation of each variable are determined, the two primary uses for factor analysissummarization and data reduction can be achieved. Data reduction can be achieved by
calculating score for each underlying dimension and substituting them for the original variables

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(Hair et al., 1998). The starting point in factor analysis, as with other statistical techniques, is theresearch problem. The general purpose of factor analytic techniques is to find a way to condense(summarize) the information contained in a number of original variables into a smaller set of
new composite dimensions or variates (factors) with a minimum loss of information, to search
for and define the fundamental constructs or dimensions assumed to underlie the originalvariables.
Step 3: The aim of using partial least square based structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) is
to predicting or develops a theory (Sarwono et al, 2015). Structural equation modeling based on
Partial Least Square is used to predict and develop a theory as research goals. It different fromstructural equation modeling based on covariant. Covariant base is used to test an existing
theory. In this research, confirmatory is the main purpose on indicators and variables produced
by step 2 in an integrated model. The benefit of using PLS-SEM it doesn’t need normality and alarge amount of data. Since construction project data naturally has a few amounts in a particulararea, using PLS SEM is a proper method to multivariate analyzes. Another advantage of SEMPLS method, it accommodate both formative and reflective at the same time so the construction
duration depends on both technical parameters and external influence factors include in a one
system.
Results and Discussion
Step 1: Literature Study Identification
According to Budiono (2009), factors that affect the growth of a country are economic
factors that influenced the investment in construction, quality of human resources, and the levelof used technology. It is similar with above previous researches summarize. The search on BPS
data gives 12 standard measureable indicators identified in this first part which grouped in threelatent variables which are: Inflation(A1), Materials price index(A2), Gross domestic
product(A3), Exchange rate(A4) and Interest rate(A5) on Economics latent variable, Labor
availability rate(B1), Works experience rate(B2), Education level rate(B3), Health human indeks(B4) on Human Resource latent variable and New technology availability(C1), Absorb of newtechnology rate(C2) and Innovation rate(C3) on Technology latent variable . Those 3 latentvariables group is also derived from literature study, including several economics development
text books. The 12 indicators become a question in the questioner that distributed to certain
respondents with range of qualification between estimators to project manager.
Step 2: Exploratory (Reduce and Dominant Factors Identification)
Component
1
2
A4 .885.140
A5 .861.180
A1 .801.324
A3 .794.347
B3 .564.231
C2 .563.531
B1 .351.734
A2 .074.691
B2 .200.674
C1 .436.506

Exchange currency value
Interest rate
Inflation rate
GDP rate
Education rate
Absorb of new technology ratelabor availability rate
Materials price rate
Labor Experience rate
New technology availability

Figure 2: SPSS® v.20 Factors Analysis output

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Identify dominant variables analysis using analysis factor reduces 12 indicator into 10
dominant selected indicators and grouping into 2 exploratory variable groups
The output of factors analysis using SPSS® program version 20 tool grouping indicators into
2 groups with certain indicators each which are:
 Group 1 consists of: Exchange rate (A4), Interest rate (A5), Influence rate (A1), GDP(A3), Level of education rate (B3), Absorb new technology index (C2) in decline loading
factor order as dominant factors.
 Group 2 consist of: Labor availability index (B1), Materials price rate (A2), Labor
experience rate (B2) and Avaibility new technology index (C1) also in decline loading
factor order as dominant factors.
It gives 2 major influence variables with several measureable Country Standard influence
indicators each. Each group could be used as factor influence on duration performance ofconstruction project separately. The reduce of indicators and variables groups through factor
analysis technique has successfully explore interdependent factors covariant which eliminate
some factors with less loading factor and grouping in similar factors dimension. It wellrecommended as appropriate tools to determine number of latent variables and identify limited
dominant influence factor.
Step 3: Confirmatory (Dominant Factors Identification in Integrated Model)
Build the partial least square model in this research, started by modeling each condition as
stated. There are three main group stated:

Figure 3: Output of PLS program on factors influence on duration
1. Relation between duration with latent variables
The first step, identify that duration is influenced by 2 group of latent variables as research
output. This output is derived from factor analysis.
2. Relation between duration with technical parameter
Several previous research recommend that gross floor area and number of storey factor need
to be consider as influence factor on construction project duration. Figure 3 show the
represent of the recommendation.
3. Relation between latent variables with its indicators.

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Factor analysis in the first step reduces factors and identifies dominant factors and grouping
them in several latent group variables. It means that certain latent variables influenced bysome indicators.
The next step is merging all components above to integrated external indicators, latent variables
and external technical parameter factors as confirmatory. Identification Indicators on
construction project duration by applying result factor analyzes data on this PLS model and run
the program provide an output that has opportunity to reduce another factor and identify
dominant factors in an integrated system. The result of partial least square analysis drops anotherthree factors since those has loading factor less than 0.5. Those three are: B3 (education rate), B2(Labor experience rate), and C1 (new technology viability) as seen in figure 3. Reducing somefactors give researcher an opportunity to choose several method on duration prediction.
Conclusion
This step by step approach in identifying influence and dominant Country Standard Indicator
quite successfully reduce 2 indicators and clustering the rest in same category indicators in agroup. Further analysis by PLS with involving floor area and number of storey reduce another 3
indicators in an integrated system. The result remains 7 out of 12 indicators divided into 2
groups, which are:Group I:
Exchange rate (A4), Interest rate (A5), Influence rate (A1), GDP (A3), ,Absorb new technology index (C2)Group II:
Labor availability index (B1), Materials price rate (A2).
On the basis of the work above, it is shown that factors identification through factors
analysis exploratory, followed by least square analysis as confirmatory orderly, has reduced
factors in a more systematic way.
Those 2 dimension groups show that duration of certain building construction project
influenced by either group I or group 2. By knowing this, a duration estimate method could be
improved by considering those 2 groups. This is another gain of the research in addition to
reduce number of influence factors for practice purpose.
However, developing more basic factors as the input variables is still possible, since avarious country development rate indicators is available for further research to explore. Numberof respondent is another alternative to develop an incisive research.
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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
AN ASSESSMENT ON SUSTAINABILITY OF THE RAILWAY – AIRPORT LINKAS AN ALTERNATIVE MODE OF TRANSPORTATIONTO RADIN INTEN II AIRPORTIka Kustiani
Amril Ma’ruf Siregar
Abstract
The rapid economic development in the Province of Lampung is indicated by, among otherthings, the increase of air transportation mode users. The data shows that for the last four
years, the number of passengers of the Radin Inten II Airport increased by 52% and thenumber of cargos increased by 257%. To support these demand, cost-effective and efficienttransportation systems are vital, therefore the government has recently completed theconstruction of the Radin Inten II Airport expansion. Moreover, currently the government isplanning to build a link between the airport facilities with railway transportation mode. This
link provides additional alternative of transportation to airport. This research was carried out
to assess the future demand for railway transportation mode to airport and to measure how
this can achieve financial, environmental and social performance for sustainability. The
assessment methods were utilizing dynamic, purposive and random sampling method toreview the opinion of stakeholders of transportation system to airport. Stakeholders’ opinion
survey also reviewed a set of physical and managerial interventions that could potentially be
implemented to improve the performance and sustainability of the railway transportation
system. These interventions were drawn from suggestions made by experts in transportation
system. The review of these proposed interventions was executed by integrating the resultsfrom a stakeholders’ opinion survey with a Triple Bottom Line (TBL) sustainability
framework. The integration of these two methods was designed to identify an alternative
solution that was not only robust but also preferred by the stakeholders of railway and airport
transportation system. The results showed that the physical changes that required large
capital cost were less desirable and the managerial changes that give private company agreater authority were less favourable by all stakeholders.
Keywords: Transportation mode; Sampling method; Stakeholders opinion survey; physicaland managerial interventions; Triple Bottom Line sustainability framework;
I.
INTRODUCTION
Based on the data provided by the Province of Lampung Department of Transport, there are
significant increase of the number of passengers at Radin Intan II Airport by 58% from 2010
to 2014 as well as the number of cargo by 257%. The airport provides services for domestic
flights as well as embarkation flights for hajj pilgrims and overseas Indonesian workers.
Currently, the airport serves for about 25 arrival and 25 departure flights a day from major
cities in Indonesia. From January to September 2016, the average passenger that arrived
were 2,455 per day and the number of passengers that departed were 2,521 per day. The
airport operates 14 hours a day and peak hour is at 17 to 18 o’clock with 8 flights. Airport isone of transport nodes that play an important role in intermodal transportation systems, inparticular among air, road and railway modes. To improve airport operational service, itneeds to be supported by reliable and quality public transportation. The challenge to provide
a better, faster cheaper and safe public transportation becomes more important along with the
dynamics development of the region.

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At the moment, the only access to the airport from Bandar Lampung Central BusinessDistrict is through Trans Sumatra Highway. On average travel time is 45 minutes for private
cars and taxis. Longer time is needed for Airport Bus. Every year, the travel time isincreasing since the number of vehicles are increasing. This problem is exacerbated by theprediction of potentially high increase in the number of airport passengers in the future. It
can be predicted that the current transportation mode to access the airport can no longer
supports the demand. Therefore, an alternative mode of transportation is urgently needed toshorten the travel time from and to the airport. Fortunately, the airport location is close torailway track and utilizing it is one of possible options to effectively and efficiently transport
people in mass from and to the airport.
Railway services has many advantages compare to other forms of transportation mode suchas: enable to transport people in mass, lower/affordable cost, lower pollutant emission, lower
land requirement, comfortable, safe, and free from traffic. There are some criteria thatgovern the type, size or class of a train station such as: operation facilities, number of tracks,
supporting facilities, frequency of traffics, number of passengers and goods, revenues, andlevel of service (safety, security, reliability, comfort, easiness and equality). Based on thosecriteria, an airport train is considered as a short distance type railway service in which the
distance is between 10 to 100 kilometers or the time travel is between half to three hours. In
general, a high frequency or a short headway type of trains are needed with a maximum
headway of 10 to 15 minutes or minimum there are 4 trains in one hour.
The current Branti Railway Station is classified as a small station and operates as longsiding
and transfer station. At the moment, the railway provides services to transport passengers inshort distance from Tanjung Karang to Kotabumi and medium distance from Tanjung Karang
to Kertapati. The railway runs 2 return trains for economy and executive classes for medium
distance and 1 return trains for short distance. The railway also provides services fortransporting goods such as coals, pulp and others. The travel speed for passengers’ trains are
36 – 52 km per hour and for goods carriages are 25 – 40 km per hour.
Airport Terminal

National Road

Train Station

Figure 1. Airport – Train Station Link Concept
Based on the previous assessment, there are some problems exist in developing a mass rapidtransportation system from Tanjung Karang CBD to the airport via railway. The nearest train
station to the airport (Branti) is about 1.3 kilometers. Therefore, it is needed to relocate thecurrent location of Branti Station to enable it to be operated as an airport train station. It isplanned that a skybridge will be constructed to connect the train station with the airport
terminal as can be seen from Figure 1. In addition to that, a double track railway is a must as
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well as separation of track for passengers and goods. Improvements of facilities at Tanjung
Karang and Labuhan Ratu Stations to support airport train station operation are also needed.
For Indonesia Railway Authority, pioneering airport train to provide transportation services
that accommodate passengers’ mobility from one transportation mode to another in mass andin accordance to passengers’ preferences is the challenge that must be done as soon as
possible. Therefore, studies were required to understand the factors that influence users toswitch to rail service as well as factors that influence the sustainability of the Railway –Airport Link. This study was conducted to find out the characteristics of passengers of eachtransportation mode to airport (taxi, private cars, and Trans Lampung bus), the number ofpassengers that might switching to train; and the technical and managerial intervention
alternatives that favourable to stakeholders.
II. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Opinion survey
According to Abernethy, Jinapala, and Makin (2001) the objectives of measuring andquantifying stakeholders opinions are to:
1. Assist users to exert some influence on policies that affect their lives and economies,
2. Assist project planners in identifying the project components that are most likely tosatisfy the concerns of affected users,
3. Provide a balanced view of alternative strategies and estimate differences of opinion
between stakeholders, and
4. Provide a means of continuing mixed (quantitative and qualitative) evaluation ofpeoples’ reaction to the impact of a project.
Among different stakeholders of transportation projects, users are the most fundamental.
Opinion survey of the people most affected by transportation project is aimed to capture
opinion and discourse on the current level of service, expectation of future service levels andwillingness to bear the consequences of possible upgrades to service levels and/or
infrastructure. It is very important to increase local support, co-operation, and benefit.
Abernethy, Jinapala and Makin (2001) explained aspects to be considered when gathering theopinion of people are: technique/methodology, preparation of questionnaires, and analysis offindings. Reported works on opinion surveys generally used a quantitative design with aquestionnaire method. It is widely uses since it is an easy, quick and economical method; andreliable and capable of analysing large sample size subsets containing variations of possible
determinant factors such as age, gender, or income. In designing the questionnaire, thefollowing should be considered carefully:
1. As short as possible: based on a brief interview via 10 to 15 questions/statements,
2. Should be in written/spoken in the local language,
3. Consider the respondents might have low education level.
In general, the users’ perceptions that need to be taken into account are:1. Service delivery (operational): adequacy/sufficiency, reliability/predictability,
tractability/convenience/flexibility, equity;
2. Asset/infrastructure condition (maintenance): railway, station, train
3. Economic aspect: fare
4. Environmental aspect: air quality and green corridors
5. Management aspect: effectiveness and efficiency of the services
2.2. Travel Fare
Travel fare is the most important aspect in choosing a mode of transportation. If the fare tobe paid is considered too expensive, people tend to choose cheaper alternatives. However,3

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when there is no choice, they are forced to use this mode of transportation. Basically, fare aredetermined based on the following aspects: users, operator and regulator (government). In
determining train service fee, it is needed to compare the ability to pay (ATP) and thewillingness to pay (WTP) of train users to pay a sum of money for services provided. The
value of ATP and WTP also affect the frequency of using the facility.
When the fare are determined based on ATP and WTP, user aspect is the subject who
determine the amount of fare applied. The fare applied follows the following principles:
1. The fare applied cannot exceed the ATP of target communities. When the fare applied ishigher than ATP, government intervention in the form of subsidy (direct or crosssubsidy) or other government supports are needed to obtain a fare that equal to ATP.
2. Since the WTP is the function of level of service of public transportation, the opportunity
to increase fare still exists by increasing performance of service.
3. In case that fare applied is far below the ATP and WTP, there is flexibility in thecalculation or application of the new fare.
Basically, ATP is transportation budget to travel intensity ratio. It measure the ability of
public to pay the service provided based on ideal income. There are two type of ATP that are
general ATP and ATP based on occupation, however both can be calculated using household
budget method. ATP is influenced by income, travel frequency, estimation on dailytransportation cost, and other costs.
WTP can be defined as the average amount of money that passengers willing to incur as apayment for service received. It is affected by several factors such as: quantity and quality ofservice, purpose of utilization and users’ income. One method to analyse WTP for train
services is based on users’ perception on fare and service of the public transport such as:
expected rates, service priority expected, and willingness to pay more for improved safety.
2.3. The Triple Bottom Line Sustainability
Sakthivadivel et al. (1999) stated that performance assessment is an integral part ofperformance-oriented management. It can be used to measure the general health of a system,
the impact of interventions and to diagnose the constraint threats and institutional strengths.
The most popular type of performance assessment is a measurement on sustainability
performance. The triple bottom line (TBL) sustainability performance is a concept proposed
by John Elkington in 1995. The TBL is an expanded spectrum of values and criteria formeasuring organisational (and societal) success that takes into account ecological and social
performance in addition to financial performance. Because of its goal of sustainability, theTBL is famously described as ‘people, planet, and profit’.
To measure sustainability in a complex system, a structured approach is appropriate to
identify the main issues of concern for stakeholders, or the objectives relating tosustainability, and it then should address these objectives using selected indicators andperformance measures. Sustainability citeria and incators for transportation infrastructurefrom various research from 2000-2013 are summarized in Table 1. From these research theframework indicators of sustainable infrastructure development for this study weredeveloped. The study employed three sustainability criteria and two facilitating criteria thatcan be further break down into 40 indicators.

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Table 1. Sustainability Citeria and Indicators for Transportation Infrastructurefrom Previous Research
Sustainability Citeria and Indicators

AuthorFacilitating Citeria and Indicators

AuthorSocial Criteria (People):

1

2

3

4

5

Technology Criteria

1

2

3

4

5

1.

Public safety (including traffic accidents level)

X

X

X

X

X

1.

Capacity of infrastructure (supply)

X

-

-

-

X

2.

Public security (traffic disruption level)

-

X

X

X

X

2.

Quality of infrastructure

-

-

-

-

X

3.

Public health

X

X

X

-

X

3.

Technology and design of infrastructure

-

-

X

-

-

4.

Public welfare (including savings from othertransportation mode)

-

-

-

-

X

4.

Levels of service (performance)

X

X

X

-

X

5.

Equity / fairness

-

X

-

X

-

5.

Integration of infrastructure (transportation mode)

-

-

-

-

X

6

Facilities for the disabled and elderly

-

X

X

X

X
6

Ability to cope with population / private vehicle /road network growth and diversification oftransportation mode

-

X

X

-

X

7

Facilities for pedestrians and non-motorcycle
vehicle / bike

-

-

X

-

X

7

Access to public services

X

-

-

X

X

8.

Social interaction and social access

-

-

-

-

-

9.

Tradition/cultural protection

-

X

-

-

-

-

X

X

-

X

Behaviour of community as user (as an effect of10
education & skill rate)
Environmental Criteria (Planet):

Governance Criteria:

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

1.

Air pollution (ambient air quality)

X

X

X

X

X

1.

Regulation and institution

X

-

-

-

-

2.

Land pollution (including waste) & landdegradation (e.g. permanent puddle and flood)

-

-

X

X

X

2.

Cooperation with other institutions

-

-

-

-

X

3.

Noise pollution

-

X

X

X

X

3.

Budget for R & D

X

X

X

-

X

4.

Water resources / ground water pollution

X

X

X

-

X

X

X

-

X

X

X

X

X

X

Conformity with the spatial planning & land use
control-

5.

Use of energy (fuel consumption and efficiency of
movement / mobility)

4.
5.

Quality of human resources

-

-

X

-

X

6

Use of renewable energy / efficiency of natural
resources

-

X

-

X

X

6

Community / users participation

X

X

X

X

-

7

Disruption to landscape / conversion rate of land
(land use)

X

X

-

X

X

7

Law enforcement / sanctions / control / call center

X

-

X

-

X

9.

Green area and ecological network (hubs, nodes,
corridors)

-

-

-

-

X

-

X

X

X

-

1

2

3

4

5

10 Protection of wildlife / habitat / biodiversity
Economic Criteria (Profit):
1.

Cost of infrastructure (capital & MOM)

X

X

X

X

X

2.

Revenue from trip / service / users fee (willingness
to pay)

X

X

X

X

X

3.

Local government revenue (savings on O&M onother transportation mode, revenue per capita)

-

X

-

-

-

4.

Locals & regional economic opportunities (creationof jobs, absorption of labor) and effect on Gross
Regional Domestic Product

-

X

-

-

X

5.

Supporting growth center / investment
development (business, education, industrial, etc.)

X

X

-

-

X

6

Increase land value

-

-

-

-

X

Note: 1 (Sahely, et al.,2005); 2 (Litman and Burwell, 2006); 3 (Tamin, 2007); 4 (Haghenas dan Vaziri, 2012), 5(Kusbimanto, 2013)

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Opinion surveys conducted for this study consist of three different surveys that were twousers’ opinion survey and one key stakeholders’ opinion survey. As a result, each survey
required different respondents and methodologies; however, the stages were typical that are:defining the population of concern, specifying sampling frame, specifying sampling method,developing questionnaires, conducting field surveys, analysing and interpreting data.
3.1. Users’ opinion survey
1. Measuring interest on train service to airport
Passengers’ opinion survey was carried out through questionnaires to gather information
about passengers’ interest on choosing airport train service, and origin and destination ofpassengers. The survey method utilized Random Sampling and the number of respondents
was calculated based on Slovin equation as follow: n = N / (1 + N e2). Where: n = minimum
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number of samples, N = number of passengers per day, and e = prediction on passengers’
increase.
Based on the data, the average number of passengers per day in 2016 was 2,448. It waspredicted that the rate of passengers’ increase of 5% per year applied following the rate of
Sukarno – Hatta Airport. As a result of the equation above, the minimum number of samples
needed is 345 per day.
Opinion survey on airport passengers’ interest in using train service to access airport was
conducted on Thursday, Friday and Saturday in the month of September 2016 against 450
respondents. From 441 valid respondents, 61% of respondents comes from Bandar Lampung
and 74% said interested to choose train service.
Based on the number of passengers in the Year 1998 to 2015, a polynomial regression graphs
was drawn to predict the number of passengers in 10 and 20 years (Year 2026 and 2036).
Based on the graph, it can be predicted that in the Year 2026: the number of passenger from
Bandar Lampung would be 378 passengers and 280 of them would prefer to use train totransport from Bandar Lampung. The number is becoming more striking in the Year 2066.
The number of passengers from Bandar Lampung would become 1,704 per day and 1,200 ofthem would choose train to transport to the airport.
2. Measuring the Ability to Pay (ATP) and the Willingness to Pay (WTP)
The questionnaires survey utilized a Dynamic Method in which the respondent was chosen
based on incidental sampling (anytime and anywhere) as long as they fulfil the requirements
as a sample of a population (Amirin, 2011). Respondents were passengers of three different
type of transportation mode that exist in the airport at the moment that were: bus, private car
and taxi. The number of respondent was 350 passengers that consist of 151 private cars, 148taxi, and 51 taxi. The responds gathered from the survey was analysed using multiple
regression with SPSS. With 95% of confidence level, the value of R2 for formula obtained
was 0.72. The questionnaires were designed in four sections as follow:
a. Characteristics of passengers:
It consists of 12 questions that addressed to find out the characteristics of airport
passengers at Radin Inten II Airport as follow: age, gender, education, frequency to
airport, means of transport most frequently used, alternatives of transport that can beselected, time travel to airport, travel origin, travel destination, purpose of travel, numberof dependents, and the one-time cost travel to airport.
From about 350 respondents, 56% of travel purpose was for work, 23% for social
activities, 13% for business, and the rest was for others such as holiday and family
matters. In addition to that, 51% of respondents who work were private employees,
education level of passengers was dominated by under graduate level by 71%, and family
income for taxi and bus passengers were 1 to 3 million Rupiahs per month while forprivate car passengers were 3 to 5 million Rupiahs per month.
Since the majority of passengers’ purposes is for work, they choose air transportation
because its punctuality. Since most of the passengers’ purpose is for work, the frequencyof passengers to airport 59% travel twice a month, 32% travel 4 times a month, and 9%
travels more than 4 times a month. Only a very small fraction of the passengers are one
time travellers.
b. Ability to pay (ATP)There were four questions asked to measure the ATP for train service in this study:
average income per month, percent of income allocated for transportation per month,
percent of income allocated for transportation to airport per month and frequency to
airport per month. Hence, respondents’ ATP can be calculated.
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Based on the calculation, the minimum ATP of respondents was USS 0.75 and maximum
was USS 3.75 with an average of USS 2.6. The most ATP was in the range of < USS 1.5(25%), then followed by USS 2.25 - 3 (16.67%), > USS 3 (16.67%) and USS 1.5 – 2.25
(15%). If the airport train fare are in the range of USS 0.75 – 2.25, the ATP of
respondents are 60%. However, if the fare is increased to USS 2.25 – 3.75 the ATP of
respondents decrease to 40%.
c. Willingness to pay (WTP)
The questions asked for this study consist of for questions as follow: appropriate airport
train fare, highest priority of airport train service, willingness to pay more for improved
safety, and added costs for the program. Hence, the respondents’ WTP can becalculated.
Based on the calculation, minimum WTP of respondents was USS 0.75 and maximum
was USS 4.5 with an average of USS 2.1. The most WTP of respondents was in therange of USS 1.5 – 1.9 (26.67%), then followed by USS 0.75 – 1.5 (20%) and USS 1.9 –2.25 (20%). If the airport train fare are set in the range of USS 1.5 – 2.25, the WTP of
respondents are 78,33%. However, if the fare is increased to USS 2.25 – 3 the WTP of
respondents decrease to 50%.
The study results show that the average ATP was higher than the average WTP. Thismeans that the respondents' ability to pay is greater than the desire to pay for theservices. This condition is caused by: Low utility of public services often caused by users with relatively high income notwilling to utilize it because the service are below their expectation. In this case, users
are called choice riders since they have a choice on transportation modes. They tend
to utilize transportation modes with a better service or using their own car even with ahigher cost.
 Respondents’ perception on airport train are is still influenced by the assumption thatall public transportation have similar level of service, as a result they expected the fare
would be similar.
d. Respondents’ expectation
The questionnaire was designed to assess respondents expectations on service provided.
The results can be he results can be used to determine the priority of service.
From about 350 respondents, 35% of taxi passengers and 37% of private car passengers
were not willing to switch modes of transport to bus. On the other hand, the respondents
were willing to switch from previous transportation to train because they expect the train
will have shorter travel time/avoid congestion (49.3%), much cheaper (17.6%) andcomfortable (10.3%).
Based on the survey on priority of services, respondents prioritize punctuality of service
was 51%, comfort of service was 20%, convenience in obtaining service was 17% andothers (responsibility, completeness, politeness and friendliness in providing services andother supporting attributes). In addition to this, 80% of respondents are willing to pay
more than the original rate to increase safety.
3.2. Measuring sustainability of proposed railway – airport link
Opinion survey also carried out to gather key stakeholders preferences on the planning(physical and managerial interventions) to assess the sustainability of the planning.
Stakeholders’ opinion survey was carried out based on Purposive Sampling Technique.
The sampling units or respondents in a purposive sampling method are selected based on
certain consideration, characteristics or criteria. For this research, the selection of experts toserve as respondents were based the assumptions that someone was: (1) having sufficient
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experience for the research field; (2) having position, reputation and credibility as
stakeholders; and willing to be a respondent and can be met for an interview. The key
stakeholders consisted of representatives from South Sumatra Region Railway Engineering
Institution, Lampung Railway Development Office, Regional Division IV Tanjung Karang –Indonesia Railway Authority, the Province of Lampung Local Transport Authority, Radin
Inten II Airport Office, Radin Inten II Railway Station Development Team, the Province of
Lampung Local Planning Office, the Province of Lampung Office - National Road Planningand Supervision, the Province of Lampung Road Authority - the Department of Public Work,the Directorate General of Airport Transportation, the consultant companies of Radin Inten II
Airport Development Planning (PT. Aria Graha and PT. Muara Consult) and the Universityof Lampung.
Table 2. The TBL Assessment on Proposed Interventions

Environmental, andpublic health andsafety aspects

Social,institutional, andlegal aspects

Technical and economic aspects

Key Issue

TECHNICAL IMPROVEMENT

Goal/objective

Criteria

MANAGERIAL IMPROVEMENT

Install Automatic Machines for Construction of New Track Construction of Airport Train Increase Fare for Additional Diversifying Business by Turnover Management of Airport
Ticketing and Gates(Double Track)
StationServices such as City Check-in Opening Airport Link Service Link Service to Private Sector

3
3
3
1
3
3
3
3

Real score =Real score =Real score =Real score =Real score =Real score =Score Weight
Score Weight
Score Weight
Score Weight
Score Weightscore * weightscore * weightscore * weightscore * weightscore * weightscore * weight
1.2
3.6 3
4.8
14.4 2
1.7
3.4 2
1.6
3.2 3
2.7
8.0 1
1.1
1.1
1.2
3.6 3
4.8
14.4 3
1.7
5.1 2
1.6
3.2 2
2.7
5.3 2
1.1
2.3
1.2
3.6 3
4.8
14.4 3
1.7
5.1 3
1.6
4.8 2
2.7
5.3 2
1.1
2.3
1.2
1.2 2
4.8
9.6 1
1.7
1.7 2
1.6
3.2 2
2.7
5.3 2
1.1
2.3
1.2
3.6 3
4.8
14.4 3
1.7
5.1 2
1.6
3.2 3
2.7
8.0 2
1.1
2.3
1.2
3.6 3
4.8
14.4 3
1.7
5.1 3
1.6
4.8 3
2.7
8.0 2
1.1
2.3
1.2
3.6 3
4.8
14.4 3
1.7
5.1 2
1.6
3.2 3
2.7
8.0 2
1.1
2.3
1.2
3.6 3
4.8
14.4 3
1.7
5.1 3
1.6
4.8 3
2.7
8.0 2
1.1
2.3

3
3
3
3
3

1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2

3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6

2
3
1
3
2

4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8

9.6
14.4
4.8
14.4
9.6

1
2
1
2
2

1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7

1.7
3.4
1.7
3.4
3.4

2
2
3
3
3

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6

3.2
3.2
4.8
4.8
4.8

1
2
1
3
3

2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7

2.7
5.3
2.7
8.0
8.0

2
3
3
3
3

1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1

2.3
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4

2
2
2
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
1
3
2

1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2

2.4
2.4
2.4
3.6
3.6
2.4
3.6
3.6
3.6
2.4
1.2
3.6
2.4
82

2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
2

4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
1.4
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8

9.6
14.4
14.4
9.6
9.6
2.8
9.6
9.6
9.6
14.4
14.4
14.4
9.6
305

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
2

1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7

3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
5.1
3.4
3.4
3.4
96

1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
2
2
2

1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6

1.6
1.6
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
4.8
4.8
4.8
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
94

3
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2

2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7

8.0
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
5.3
174

2
2
2
2
1
1
3
3
3
2
2
2
2

1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1

2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
1.1
1.1
3.4
3.4
3.4
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
64

Score Weight
Reliability (punctuality)
Efficiency
Technical
Operation and maintenanceviability
Utilise existing infrastructure
Upgradeability
Future demand
Technical Flexibility
sustainability Long-term operation andmaintenance
Investment cost*
Economical O&M cost efficiency
viability Pricing users accurately
Productivity
Economical Financial sustainability
sustainability
Complain/dissatisfaction*
Social viability Acceptance
Trust/confidence
Institutional Local capacity
viability Acceptance
Legal viability Legislation/regulation
Pollution*
Environmental
Waste production*
viability
Resources effieciency
ComfortPublic health Health & safety
and safety Security
Education/awarenessTotal score

8

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As mentioned before that there some problems exist in developing a mass rapidtransportation system from Tanjung Karang CBD to the airport via railway. The proposed
alternatives of physical and managerial improvements to enable this link operated are shownon the Table 2. These proposed interventions then were tested against three key
sustainability issues i.e., the goals to be achieved in implementing the alternatives. The three
key sustainability issues were: technical and economic; social, institutional and legal issue;and environmental, public health and safety. These key issues were then developed further
into several criteria of sustainability/viability that determined whether the goals wereachievable. The key sustainability issue and its criteria were framed based on previous
researches as summarized in Table 1.
Each criteria of the three key sustainability issues was measured through examining
statements in which a score was imposed based on the ability to satisfy the statements. The
scores were 1 for low, 2 for moderate and 3 for high. Weights were also allocated to eachcriteria based on the rank of the options obtained from the key stakeholders opinion survey
analysis using the Pairwise Comparison Matrix and Analysis. The higher the value obtainedby an action, the more viable. Further discussion on the TBL sustainability viability
assessment of proposed intervention priorities is presented in the Table 2. From the table, it
can be seen key stakeholders preferences were: constructing a double track, diversifying
business by opening airport link service and constructing a new airport train station.
IV. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
Based on the analysis on potential airport train users’ responds, airport train station authority
must provide transportation services with satisfactory level of service and appropriate fare,so the potential users are willing to utilize airport train services. In addition to these, torealize the plan to link railway and airport, there are physical and managerial alternatives thathas to be taken by Indonesia Railway Authority. The following are conclusions andsuggestions resulting from the study:
1. FareAppropriate fare (basic fare) for airport train service from Tanjung Karang Station to
Branti Airport Station based on the study was about USS 2.6.
2. Travel Time with Express Train and Special Track
Average travel time for train services in Indonesia is 60 km/hour. With travel distance of
24.5 km (Tanjung Karang to Branti Airport Station), it is expected that the airport train
travel time would be 30 minutes without stopping (express train). Since the travel timeof private car for the same origin and destination is about one hour in normal condition,
it is expected to attract users since it provides punctuality for passengers. Even withstopping at two places will not affect the travel time too much since it only needs to stopfor 5 minutes each. This will greatly increase users’ access to airport train. In addition
to this, providing a special track for airport train also become an alternative to guarantee
no delays.
3. Travel Schedule (Frequency and Punctuality)
Frequent and punctuality of departure as well as train schedule according to flightschedule will greatly affect the interest of airport users. It provides convenience andcomfort to choose the time to go without fear of missing the train or the flight as well as
reducing waiting time at station and airport.
4. Supporting Facilities for Comfort
Since it is a short distance travel, facilities such as toilet and free wifi are not crucial.
However, air conditioner will greatly enhance travel comfort. In addition to this, somerules also needed to be enforced to maintain the cleanliness, health and comfort ofProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

149

5.

6.

7.

passengers. Smoking, eating (bottled water is permitted) and littering in the train areprohibited. Since it is a short distance train, there will be no restriction for the number ofpassengers and there is possibility of standing passengers.
Safety and Security (Access In and Off Station)
Rules regarding only people with ticket may enter the station must be upheld. In
addition to this, security officers have always ready at the entrance and exit of thestation. This will also remove hawkers from the station so that the station safer, cleaner
and more comfortable. It is needed to consider to provide automated ticketing andautomated entrance and exit gate.
Additional Services
City check-in enables airport passengers to check-in their flight and baggage at Tanjung
Karang Station and arrive at the airport 30 minutes before departure time. This will also
reduce queues and waiting time at the airport. This service is very helpful for visitors, sothey have extra time to stroll, shop or do other activities without carrying heavy luggage.
Priority of intervention alternatives
In order the railway - airport link plan can be realized, several physical and managerialintervention alternative needs to be taken. Several phases are needed and the first threepriorities are: constructing a double track, diversifying business by opening airport link
service and constructing a new airport train station.

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank for the support of the University of Lampung and theconsultants PT. Aria Graha and PT. Muara Consult for providing some data for the study.
VI. REFERENCES
Abernethy, C. L., Jinapala, K., and Makin, I. W., (2001), Assessing the opinions of users ofwater projects, Irrigation and Drainage 50(3): 173-193.
Haghenas, H. and Vaziri, M., (2012), Urban sustainable transportation indicators for global
comparison, Ecological Indicators 15: 115–121.
Kusbimanto, I.W., (2013), Models of sustainable urban transport infrastructure development
policies in Metropolitan Mamminasata Southern Sulawesi, Dissertation, Graduate
School IPB Bogor.
Litman, T. and Burwell, D., (2006), Issues in sustainable transportation, International Journalof Global Environmental Issues 6(4): 331-347.
Sakthivadivel, R., Fraiture, C. D., Moden, D. J., Christopher, P. and Kloezen, W., (1999),
Indicators of land and water productivity in irrigated agriculture, International
Journal of Water Resources Development 15(1-2): 161-179.
Sahely, H., Kennedy, C.A. and Adams, B.J., (2005), Developing sustainability criteria forurban infrastructure system, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 32(1): 72-85.
Tamin, O.Z., (2007), Towards sustainable transportation system in Bandar Lampung City,
Proceeding of Sustainable Transportation Seminar, Bandung Institute ofTechnology.
Amirin, T.M., (2011), Research population and sample: Sampling from infinite andunspecific populations, Accessed 8 March 2017, https://tatangmanguny.wordpress.
com/2009/06/30/.

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CALCULATION THE EDGE OF SLAB DEFLECTION OF MODIFIED CAKARAYAM SYSTEM BY APPLYING THE DISPLACEMENT
FACTOR FROM PURI’S GRAPH

Anas Puria,1*, Rony Ardiansyaha,2aCivil Engineering Departement, Universitas Islam Riau, Pekanbaru
12
anaspuri@eng.uir.ac.id, ronyardiansyah@eng.uir.ac.id

ABSTRACT
Simple method in Nailed-slab pavement ssystem analysis was proposed by previous
researcher. This method uses equivalent modulus of subgrade reaction (k’). This modulus
consists of the modulus of sub grade reaction from plate load test (k) and additional
modulus of sub grade reaction due to pile installing (k). The additional modulus of sub
grade reaction has been also proposed by some authors. Displacement factor was used indetermining the additional modulus of sub grade reaction. The curve of this factor was
proposed by Puri (2017) for soft clay, and the curve of the invers one was proposed by
Hardiyatmo (2011) for stiff clay. This paper will disscuss the application of the curve ofdisplacement factor from Puri’graph (2017) to calculate the deflectios of Modified Cakar
Ayam (MCA) pavement system. Calculated deflections based on this curve were comparedto the observed deflection. The deflection was calculated by using Beam on Elastic
Foundation method. Full scale test result from MCA pavement system was used. The
concentric and edge loading points were considered. The calculated deflection based on
single-row shell of MCA pavement system was compared to the observed deflection fromthree-row shell. Results show that the calculated deflection in good agreement with theobservation, althought it was very over-estimated about 390% to 665%. In this case, Overestimated was caused by ignoring the end bearing resistance of shell in determining theadditional modulus of subgrade reaction k. It could be also because of neglecting the leanconcrete, shell connector, and vertical wall barrier. The Puri’s graph can be used todetermind k for MCA analysis, but in further research it should be considered the end
bearing resistance of shell.
Keywords: rigid pavement; Modified Cakar Ayam System; slab deflection; subgrade
modulus; displacement factor.

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151

1. INTRODUCTION

Designing of road pavement on soft subgrade needs also about potential settlement thatwould be accour during and after construction and how to maintance the deformation.
Hence, it is needed a such kind of system that can reduce the deflection of pavement. Oneof the system that can be used is Sistem Cakar Ayam. This system has two types; original
type which uses cylindrical concrete shell and modified type which uses cylindrical steel
shell (calls Sistem Cakar Ayam Modifikasi). In Modified Cakar Ayam System (MCA), theutilization of cylindrical steel shell was proposed by Ir. Maryadi Darmokumoro (Suhendro,2006). Several analysis method of MCA were proposed such as Suhendro’s Chart,
Hardiyatmo method by using Beam on Elastic Foundation (BoEF), and Hardiyatmo’s Chart(Hardiyatmo, 2010; Suhendro and Hardiyatmo, 2010). BoEF was used in MCA analysis
such as Pempadi (2000), Muhu (2007), Afriliyani, et.al. (2017) and Agustin, et.al. 2017.
MCA can be analyzed also by 3D finite element method (Suhendro, 1992; Romadhoni,
2008; Firdiansyah, 2009; Puri, 2015; Setiawan, 2015).
Hardiyatmo (2008) introduced a new method that was developed from the pavement of the
MCA by changing the cylindrical foundation with short micro piles. This system is called
the nailed-slab system. Hardiyatmo (2011a) proposed an analysis method for determining
the additional modulus of subgrade reaction (k). The additional modulus of subgrade
reaction is the additional modulus developed by a pile. Mean while, the modulus ofsubgrade reaction is the modulus considered from a slab. Puri et al. (2012) modified theHardiyatmo method by considering the tolerable deflection or allowable deflection of apavement slab (δa) as an approach to safety construction. This modified method has good
validation (Puri et al., 2013). Puri (2017a) proposed curve of displacement factor (α =δ0/δs) for calculating the k.
This research is aimed to apply the analysis method of the additional modulus of subgrade
reaction (k) by using Puri’s graph (Puri, 2017a) to calculate the slab deflection of MCA
system. Calculated deflection will be compared to observation results.
Hardiyatmo (2011a) used the displacement factor for determining the additional modulus ofsubgrade reaction. The displacement factor is the ratio of the relative displacement between
piles and soils (δ0) and the pile head settlement (δp). The pile head settlement is assumed tobe similar to the slab deflection (δs). The inverse of the displacement factor is the ratio of
δ/δ0. Hardiyatmo (2011b) developed the curve of the δ/δ0 ratio based on the full-scale testof a single pile in stiff clay. The pile and slab were connected by bolts. In this paper, thecurve of the δ/δ0 ratio based on a full-scale test of a single-pile nailed slab in soft clay isdeveloped. The pile and slab were connected monolithically. The curve of the δ/δ0 ratio isalso presented as the curve of the displacement factor. Validation based on the single-pilenailed slab will be explained.
The analytical approach in determining the equivalent modulus of subgrade reaction (k’) is
given as follows (Hardiyatmo, 2011a; Dewi, 2009; Puri et al., 2012):
k ' = k + k

(1)
Where k: modulus of subgrade reaction from plate load test (kN/m ) and k: additional
modulus of subgrade reaction due to pile installation under slab (kN/m3). The modulus of3

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subgrade reaction from a plate load test (k) is usually taken by using a circular plate, and it
should be corrected to the slab shape of the nailed slab. The secant modulus isrecommended. Hardiyatmo (2011a) proposed Eq. (2) in determining the additional modulus
of subgrade reaction (k). The relative displacement between the pile and soil isconsidered.
δ A
k = 0 s (a d cu + p 0 K d tan ϕ d )δ s2 s 2(2)
Where δ0 : relative displacement between pile and soil (m), δs : deflection of surface of slab(m), As : surface area of pile shaft (m2), s : pile spacing (m), ad : adhesion factor (nondimensional), cu : undrained cohesion (kN/m2), po’ : average effective overburden pressure
along pile (kN/m2), Kd : coefficient of lateral earth pressure in pile surroundings (nondimensional), and φd : soil internal friction angle (degree).
Hardiyatmo (2011b) re-published the relation between δ0/δs and slab deflection for a fullscale model while the pile and slab were connected by bolts. The pile diameter was 20 cm,
and the length of the pile varied between 1.0 m and 2.0 m. Puri (2017a) proposed curve ofdisplacement factor (α = δ0/δs) as shown in Figure 1. This curve for soft clay which the
Nailed-slab System was a full-scale model while the pile and slab were connectedmonolitichally. Then, the Equation (2) can be rewriten as (Puri, 2017b)
αAs(ad cu + p0 K d tan ϕ d )
k =
δ ss2
(3)
Displacement factor, α=δ
δ0 /δ
δs

0,35
0,30
0,25
0,20
0,15
0,10
0,05
0,00
0,00

0,01

0,02

δs/D Ratio

0,03

Figure 1. Curve of displacement factor α (Puri, 2017a).
Slab deflection can be calculated by BoEF while the input modulus is k’ from Equation (1).
Roark formula will be used for finite beam.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Research object
The research object was a full-scale model of MCA from Setiawan (2015). MCA wasconsisted a slab with 6.00 m x 6.00 m in widht and lenght and 0.15 m in thickness. The slab

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

153

was constructed by reinforced concrete. Concrete compression strenght characteristic, fc’
was 32.16 MPa. MCA was constructed in soft clay. Soft clay properties were presented inTable 1. Vertical modulus of subgrade reaction, kv was taken from Plate Load Test by using
30 cm in plate diameter. Nine cylindrical steel shell were installed under the slab andconnected monolithically. Shell spacing was 2.00 m. Shell had dimension 0.72 m indiameter, 1.015 m in length and 1.4 mm in thickness. Schematic diagram of MCA ispresented in Figure 2. This sistem was loaded by vertical compression loading on point A(edge of slab) as shown in Figure 3. Load variations were 0 kN, 20 kN, 60 kN, 100 kN.
Loads was transfer to slab surface by steel plate 30 cm in diameter.
Table 1. Properties of soft clay (Setiawan, 2015)
No.
Properties
Value
Unit
1 Undrained cohesion (c)15 kN/m2
2 Degree of soil field density
92 %3 Vertical modulus of subgrade
5,498.4 kN/m3
reaction, kv
4 Soil classifaction (USCS)
CH r
i
s
a
p
n
a
s
i
p
a
L
i
w
a
g
N
g
n
u
p
m
e
l
h
a
n
a
T
m
2
,
0
m
8
,
0

i
l
a
k
u
t
a
b2
,
g0
nl
i
d
a
nb
i
e
D
t
m
2
7
,
0

0
4
/
m0
24
K

0
4
/
0
4
K

m
6
m
6
,
5
0
4
/
m
0
42
K

n
om
t
e
5
b1
t
a,
0
l
e
=
Pt

0
4
/
0
4
K

m
2
,
m 0
8
,
0

m
8
,
0

m
2

m
5
7
,
0

m
2
,
0

mm
6,
5
,
5
7

m
2

m
8
,
0
m
5
7
,
0

m
2
,
0

a) Plan
m
c
5
1
=
t
n
o
t
e
B
t
a
l
e
P

n
a
a
k
u
m
r
e
P0
h,
0
a
0
n
a
.
l
T
e
m
2
,
1

m
7
0
,
1
m
m
a
j,
4
a
1
B
l
aa
p
b
i
e
P
t

r
i
s
a
P

m
5
,
0
m
5
1
,
0

"
2
=
D
e
s
a
n
i
a
r
D
a
p
i
P

m
2
7
,
0

m
5
,
0

k
i
t
s
a
l
P
n
a
s
i
p
a
L
m
2
,
1

l
i
k
i
r
e
K
+
r
i
s
a
P
m
7
,
0

m
5
7
,
1

m
2

m
2

m
5
7
,
1

m
7
,
0

m
5
,
7

b) Cross section
Figure 2. Shcematic diagram of MCA (Setiawan, 2015).

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2.2. Method of analysis
Considered MCA in BoEF analysis was only one shell row as shown in Figure 3a.
Simplication was done by neglecting the lean concrete, shell connector, and vertical wallbarrier (Figure 3b). Ddeflection of surface of slab (δs) was taken from observation. Fromsoil properties and MCA dimension, the k’ was calculated. Slab deflection was calculated
by input the k’, MCA dimension and properties to BoEF.

m
m
4
,
1
l
,a
a
b
j
e
a
BT
am
p2
i
P
7
,
r0
a
.
ka
ai
CD

m
c
5
1
=
t
n
o
t
e
B
t
a
l
e
P

D
m
2

m
6

a) Plan of one shell row to be considered
Concrete slab, t= 0.15m

A

Steel pipe,
dia. 0.72 m
1.4mm thick

1.07m

1.00m

2.00m

2.00m

1.00m

6.00m

b) Cross section
Figure 3. One shell row of MCA to be considered in anaylsis.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Equivalent Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
Vertical modulus of subgrade reaction was corrected due to plate shape and dimension
according to Das (2011). Hence, the kv was 641.48 kN/m3. Considering the 2.00 m slab
width, it was found k = 1,282.96 kN/m3. Based on soil cohesion cu = 15 kPa, the adhesion
factor ad was 1,0 according to Tomlinson’s curve in McClelland graph (1974). Hence, unit

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

155

friction ratio fs was 15 kPa. The surface area of shell shaft As was 2.30 m2 and slab area
which supported by one shell s2 was 4.00 m2. Slab deflection δs for 20 kN load was 0.558
mm. By 0.72 m in shell diameter D, we found the ratio of δs/D = 0.000775. Thendisplacement factor α from Figure 1 was 0.05. By using Equation (3), the additional
modulus of subgrade reaction k was 772.85 kN/m3. According to Equation (1), theequvalent modulus of subgrade reaction was 2,055.81 kN/m3. Since the edge of slab
equiped by vertical wall barrier, the equivalent modulus should be considered theadjustment factor about 1.5 (Puri, dkk., 2013). So, the equvalent modulus of subgrade
reaction k’ beMCA e 3,083.72 kN/m3. Similar step of calculation also done to other load
and the calculation results are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Modulus of subgrade reaction for one shell row based on observed deflection
Load, Q
Load point A(kN)
δs (mm)Δk (kN/m3)k’ (kN/m3)*
20
0,558
772.85
3,083.72
40
1,195505.232,682.28
60
1,970
612.94
2,843.85
100
3,774
525.642,712.90* Multiplied by adjustment factor 1.5.
3.2 Calculated Deflection
Table 3 presented the calculated deflection results. All calculated deflections were very
over-estimated more than 260%, and higher than allowable deflection 5 mm (Puri, 2015).
Over-estimated was caused by ignoring the end bearing resistance of shell in determining
the additional modulus of subgrade reaction k as in Equation (2) and (3). It could be also
because of neglecting the lean concrete, shell connector, and vertical wall barrier. It meansthat the Puri’s graph (Figure 1) can be used to determind k. Figure 4 shows the P-δrelationship on loading point.
Table 3. Calculated deflection on loading point
Load, Q
Deflection (mm)Defferentiation(kN)(%)
CalculatedObserved
20
4,273
0,631
665,77
40
8,284
1,347
593,2260
11,204
2,215
468,71
100
18,525
4,222
390,86The deflection along the slab is shown in Figure 5. Althought claculated deflections werevery over-estimated, it can be seen that the deflection shapes of calculated deflections weresimilar with the observed one.

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00Slab deflection, δs (mm)Load, Q (kN)
50
100

150

5
10

CalculatedObserved

15
20

Figure 4. P-δ relationship for edge load.
Q
A
Distance from left edge of slab (m)5Deflection (mm)

0
-5

0

1

2

3

4

5

-10
-15
-20
-25

Q= 20 kN-observed

Q= 40 kN-observed

Q= 60 kN-observed

Q= 100 kN-observed

Q= 20 kN-calculated

Q= 40 kN-calculated

Q= 60 kN-calculated

Q= 200 kN-calculated

Figure 5. Deflection along the slab.

4. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the analysis method of the additional modulus of subgrade reaction (k) byusing Puri’s graph was applied to calculate the rigid pavement deflection of Cakar Ayam
Modifikasi (MCA) system. Calculated deflections were also compared to abserved
deflections. All calculated deflections were very over-estimated around 390% to 665%, andhigher than allowable deflection 5 mm. Over-estimated was caused by ignoring the end
bearing resistance of shell in determining the additional modulus of subgrade reaction k. It
could be also because of neglecting the lean concrete, shell connector, and vertical wall

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157

barrier. The Puri’s graph can be used to determind k for MCA analysis, but in further
research it should be considered the end bearing resistance of shell.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Universitas Islam Riau, Pekanbaru
and to Novia Afriliyani for her help in calculation.
6. REFERENCES
Afriliyani, N., Puri, A., and R. Ardiansyah, (2017), Penerapan Modulus Reaksi Subgrade
Ekivalen Metode Puri, dkk (2012) dalam Perhitungan Lendutan Pelatpada Perkerasan
Sistemcakar Ayam Modifikasi, In: Proceeding Konferensi Nasional Teknik Sipil dan
Perencanaan (KN-TSP) 2017, Program Studi Teknik Sipil, Universitas Islam Riau,
Pekanbaru, 9 Februari 2017, pp. 29-35.
Agustin, D.R., Puri, A., and R. Ardiansyah, (2017), Perhitungan Lendutan Perkerasan Jalan
Sistem Cakar Ayam Modifikasi dengan Variasi Faktor Aman pada Tambahan Modulus
Reaksi Subgrade, In: Proceeding Konferensi Nasional Teknik Sipil dan Perencanaan(KN-TSP) 2017, Program Studi Teknik Sipil, Universitas Islam Riau, Pekanbaru, 9Februari 2017, pp. 76-84.
Dewi, D.A., (2009), Study on Effect of Single Pile Due to the Value of Equivalent Modulus
of Subgrade Reaction from Full-scale Loading Tests. Master’s Thesis, Graduate
Program Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Firdiansyah, A., (2009), Evaluasi Dimensi Sistem Cakar Ayam Akibat Pengaruh Variasi
Letak Beban dan Kondisi Tanah, Thesis, Program Studi Teknik Sipil, Program
Pascasarjana UGM, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Hardiyatmo, H.C., (2008), Nailed-slab Ssystem for Reinforced Concrete Slab on Rigid
Pavement. In: Proceedings of the National Seminar on Appropriate Technology for
Handling Infrastructures, MPSP JTSL FT UGM, Yogyakarta, 12th April, Indonesia, pp.
M1-M7
Hardiyatmo, H.C., (2010), Perancangan Sistem Cakar Ayam Modifikasi untuk Perkerasan
Jalan Raya, Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta
Hardiyatmo, H.C., (2011a), Method to Analyze the Deflection of the Nailed-slab System,
International Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering IJCEE-IJENS, Volume 11
Number 4, pp.22-28.
Hardiyatmo, C.H., (2011b), Designing of Pavement Roads and Soil Investigation: Flexible
Pavement, Rigid Pavement, Modified Chicken Foot Foundations, Nailed-Slab System.
Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Muhu, H.L.Y., (2007), Kajian Lendutan Pada Sistem Cakar Ayam Akibat Variasi Lebar
Pelat (Model Sistem Cakar Ayam dari Pelat Baja), Diploma Thesis, Program Studi
Teknik Sipil dan Lingkungan, UGM, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Pempadi, I., (2000), Analisis Lendutan Pelat dengan Metode Beams on Elastic Foundation
Aplikasi untuk Perancangan Fondasi Cakar Ayam dan Sumuran, Diploma Thesis,
Jurusan Teknik Sipil & Lingkungan, Fakultas Teknik Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Yogyakarta

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Puri, A., (2015), Studi Parametrik Jalan Beton Sistem Pelat Terpaku pada Tanah Dasar
Lunak, In: Proceeding The 1st Annual Civil Engineering Seminar (ACES), Fakultas
Teknik Universitas Riau, 22 November, pp. 305-313.
Puri, A., (2017a), Developing the Curve of Displacement Factor for Determination The
Additional Modulus of Sub Grade Reaction on Nailed-slab Pavement System,
International Journal of Technology, Vol. 1, pp. 122-131. ISSN 2086-9614.
Puri, A., (2017b), Infrastruktur Jalan Beton Sistem Pelat Terpaku untuk Pembangunan
Jalan Berkelanjutan pada Tanah Dasar Lunak dan Ekspansif, In: Proceeding Konferensi
Nasional Teknik Sipil dan Perencanaan (KN-TSP) 2017, Program Studi Teknik Sipil,
Universitas Islam Riau, Pekanbaru, 9 Februari 2017, pp. 1-17.
Puri, A., Hardiyatmo, H.C., Suhendro, B., dan Rifa’i, A., (2012), Determining Additional
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction Based on Tolerable Settlement for The Nailed-SlabSystem Resting on Soft Clay, International Journal of Civil and Environmental
Engineering IJCEE-IJENS,Vol. 12 No. 03, pp 32-40
Puri, A., Hardiyatmo, H.C., Suhendro, B., dan Rifa’i, A., (2013), Penerapan Metode
Analisis Lendutan Pelat Terpaku Pada Model Skala Penuh dan Komprasi Dengan Uji
Pembebanan, In: Proceeding Konferensi Nasional Teknik Sipil 7 (KoNTekS7),
Universitas Negeri Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, 24-26 October 2013, pp. G201-G211.
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Disertasi, Program Studi Teknik Sipil, Program Pascasarjana UGM, Yogyakarta,
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Suhendro, B., (2006), Sistem Cakar Ayam Modifikasi Sebagai Alternatif Solusi Konstruksi
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Suhendro, B., and Hardiyatmo, H.C., (2010), Sistem Perkerasan Cakar Ayam Modifikasi(CAM) Sebagai Alternatif Solusi Konstruksi Jalan di Atas Tanah Lunak, Ekspansif, dan
Timbunan, In: Proceeding Seminar dan Pameran Sehari 2010 Inovasi BaruTeknologi
Jalan dan Jembatan, DPD HPJI Jatim, Surabaya, 31 Maret 2010.

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PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF PUBLIC SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENT (PSA) ON
TRANSPORTATION SAFETY AWARENESS THROUGH TELEVISIONIN SURABAYA
Endang Widjajanti
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and Planning, Institut Sains &Teknologi Nasional (ISTN)
Jl. Moh Kahfi 2, Srengseng Jagakarsa
Jakarta 12640, Indonesia
ABSTRACTOne form of transportation safety awareness carried out by the Ministry of Transportationof the Republic of Indonesia is the socialization through television known as PublicService Announcement (PSA) or in Indonesian known as “Iklan Layanan Masyarakat”.
This study is part of the activities of Ministry of Transportation of the Republic ofIndonesia in capturing responses and perceptions to the aired PSA in Surabaya. The survey
method is an interview with a questionnaire. The results showed that only 5% -40% of
respondents who noticed five PSA were aired. Approximately 57%-93% of respondents
said PSA interesting. Factors of the less attractive PSA is the actors/actress are notinteresting. Most respondents suggested in order to be understood and respected by thecommunity, the PSA should be more attractive, the duration should be longer and its
frequency should be increased and aired continuously.
Keywords: safety; transportation; public service announcement
1. INTRODUCTION
WHO data shows that, in the last two years, traffic accidents are the number three cause ofdeath in Indonesia after heart disease and TBC. Global Status Report on Road Safety(2013) stated that “Rapid motorization in Indonesia over the past few decades has beenaccompanied by an increasing number of road traffic fatalities,”. Motorcyclists accounted
for the biggest segment of fatalities, at 36 percent, followed by bus passengers at 35
percent. Pedestrians were the next most vulnerable at 21 percent, while car drivers andpassengers accounted for just 1 percent of fatalities. It also noted that while motorcycle
drivers wore a helmet in 80 percent of cases, their passengers only wore a helmet 52
percent of the time.
Moreover, passenger and air freight transportation growth have been increasingly
significant. Referring to Indonesia National Air Carriers Association (INACA) data, there
is a projected 15 percent growth in air transportation passengers in Indonesia in 2013. The
association also reported there were over 51.5 million passengers flying from or arriving at
Soekarno-Hatta International Airport in 2011, which far exceeds the 23 million passenger
capacity of the airport. Unfortunately, Indonesia has been classified as a Category 2 country

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by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), which is below international flight safety
minimum requirements.
To increase the transportation safety in Indonesia, Ministry of Transportation of the
Republic of Indonesia had produced and aired several PSAs in television during September
2013. This study is part of the Ministry of Transportation of the Republic of Indonesia
survey in capturing feedback and the public perception of PSA which is presented on
television.
The research’s objective is to evaluate public perception and impression of five PSAs ontransportation safety awareness that were aired through the medium of television in
Surabaya, Indonesia.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.Public Service Announcement (PSA)
The advertising messages can be in the form of text, pictures, films, or a combination of allthese elements. Television announcement has unique advantages compared to advertisingin printed media. The advantages of television announcement allow us to receive threekinds of power at once, such as narration, sound and visual. Those three powers thenformed a labeling system that works to influence the audience. Of the three powers, thetelevision announcement works effectively because it presents a message in the form of
verbal and nonverbal as well.
A public service announcement (PSA) is an advertisement that a television or radio station
airs for a cause or a charity. A PSA can tout the importance of medical check-ups forchildren or ask you to donate to the Salvation Army's bell ringers. (The Balance, 2016).
Public service advertising is designed to inform the public on issues that are frequently
considered to be in the general best interests of the community at large. Typically, it
notion. It is also commonly referred to as a public service announcement (PSA) or acommunity service announcement (CSA). The ads are usually broadcast on radio or
television, but may also appear in newspapers or magazines. They are prevalent inindustrialized countries throughout the world. PSAs are commonly aimed at altering public
attitudes by raising consciousness about particular issues. Health, conservation and safety
themes are prevalent in many PSAs. The public service advertising campaigns are often
sponsored by trade associations, civic organizations, non-profit institutions or religious
groups.( http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-public-service-advertising.htm).
2.2. Content and Delivery of PSA
Elder R.W et al (2004) stated two aspects of mass media campaigns may influence theireffectiveness. These can be categorized into variables related to message content and tomessage delivery.
 Message content. One important aspect of message content involves the themes used tomotivate the desired behavior change.

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 Message delivery. A mass media campaign cannot be effective unless the target
audience is exposed to, attends to, and comprehends its message. Two important aspectsof message delivery are control over message placement and production quality.
3. METHODOLOGY
The survey was conducted one week after the airing of several PSAs in television, which is
on September 2013. The title of five public service announcements that are evaluated are as
follows:
1. Do not Using Motorcycles for Long Distance Trip
2. Do not Using Motorcycles for “Mudik” (Mudik is the annual homecoming tradition that
occurs ahead of major religious holidays, especially “Eid” holiday.)
3. Discipline in Driving
4. Be Alert and Obey the Rules at the Railroad Crossing
5. Air Transportation Safety.
The criteria of the respondents is as follows: The respondent selected are those who have never participated in the survey with thesame purpose.
 Respondents have ages in the range of 17-50 years. The selection range so that there
is no significant difference in expressing opinions.
 Respondents were not employees of the public transport operators or regulators,
either Government or private
 The respondents have been watching PSA that aired on television
One of the respondent criteria the respondents have been watching PSA that aired on
television.
The fact shows that it is difficult to get respondents to ever watch a PSA. Anticipation
against these conditions, the surveyor is equipped with a PSA video that will be shown to
the respondents. This step was taken because the majority of respondents watch a PSA only
briefly and rarely watch the PSA.
The questions which were asked to the respondents include:
1. background of the respondents, namely: gender, age, education, experience of trauma
when using public transportation in the last three years, the estimated average
expenditure for transport in a month.
2. perceptions of the respondents against PSA, namely:a. the PSA viewing experience;b. the amount of PSA who has seen and understood its purpose by respondentc. suggestions for the PSA that aired on television: concepts, actors/actresses, amessage that has been delivered, the duration, frequency broadcast
d. Evaluation of the PSA: Impressions of the PSA, message delivered, the durationof the PSA, suggestion to PSA that had been broadcasted.

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Background of the Respondents
Respondents are 53% male and 47% female with daily mode of transportation as shown on
Table 1. Most respondents use motorcycles for transportation (78.41%), while users of
public transport (public transport-buses, public transport-car, and taxi) only 2.27% of total
respondents. The age of respondents are 17-25 years old (55%) and has undergraduate level
education (70%).
A great number of the respondents (82%) did not have transportation accident trauma.
Respondents who have experienced the transportation accident trauma are around 18%,
with the incidences especially on public transport modes, such as public transport-buses,
public transport-car and motorcycles.
Most respondents have salary/month in the range of 2 million rupiah (43%) and 2.5 – 5million rupiah (30%) per month and the biggest expenses for transportation is < 250.000
rupiah per month (47%) and 250,000 – 500,000 rupiah per month (32%). Based on theamount of revenue and transportation expenses per month, it is found that the average
respondent in Surabaya has to expense 10% of their total revenue for transportation permonth. Respondents’ background is shown on Figure 1.
GenderAge

Education
1%

1%

16%

7%

1%
6%

22%

55%

21%

70%

< 25 years

25‐30 years> 40 years

not answer

Traumatic Experience

Salary/month
13%

11%

82%

yes

no

Elementary & Junior H School
Senior High School
Undergraduate
Post graduate
Not answer

Transportation
Expenses/month
3%

3%

18%

30‐40 years

43%

7%
47%

32%

30%
< 2 millions
5‐10 millions
not answer

11%

2‐5 millions> 10 millions< Rp.250,000
Rp.250,000‐Rp.500,000
Rp.500,000‐ Rp. 1 million> Rp. 1 million
not answer

Figure 1. Background of the Respondents

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Table 1. Mode of Transportation Used by Respondents
Transportation Mode
Walking/cycling
Motorcycle
Private car
Public transport
Not answer
Total

Frequency

%

20
207
30
6
1
264

7.58%
78.41%
11.36%
2.27%
0.38%
100%

4.2 Experience of Watching PSA on Television
From 264 respondents, 41 respondents said that they had watched PSA 1 (Do not Using
Motorcycles for Long Distance Trip), 71 respondents had watched PSA 2 (Do not Using
Motorcycles for “Mudik”), 106 respondents had watched PSA 3 (Discipline in Driving),
65respondents had watched PSA 4 (Be Alert and Obey the Rules at the Railroad Crossing)and only 13 respondents had watched PSA 5 (Air Transportation Safety). Most watched ad
is PSA 3 chosen by 40.15% of respondents.
Respondents who had the experience of watching the PSA, usually less attentive to theagencies that produce PSA. 40% chose not to answer the question, only 22% of respondents
who viewed, while 38% of respondents not paying attention. Most of the respondents saw
the PSAs only one time (44%), 25% have watched it twice, 14% watched it three to fivetimes, 14% have watched it more than five times and 3% chose not to answer the question.
Respondents’ attention to the agency and their watching frequency are shown on Figure 2.
Table 2. Experience of Watching PSA on Television
Audience
PSA
Number
%1 Do not Using Motorcycles for Long Distance Trip41
15.53%
2 Do not Using Motorcycles for “Mudik”
71
26.89%
3 Discipline in Driving
10640.15%Be Alert and Obey the Rules at the Railroad
465
24.62%
Crossing
5 Air Transportation Safety
13
4.92%

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understanding of the producer

22%

40%

watching frequency

nonot answer

44%

14%

25%

38%

yes

3%

14%

1 times a week

2 times a week

3‐5 times a week

5‐10 times a week

not answer

Figure 2. Attention to the Agencies and Frequency of Respondents Watch PSA
4.3 Respondents Impression
More than half of the respondents said that all PSA is interesting. Most respondents wereinterested in PSA 3 (“Discipline in Driving”) and 4 PSA (“Be Alert and Obey the Rules at
Railway Crossing”) chosen by 90% and 93% of respondents. PSA 5 (“Air Transport
Safety”) has the least number of respondents who are interested (selected by 57% of
respondents). The reasons of respondents about why PSA unattractive shown on table 4.

PSA
1
2
3
4
5

Table 3. Respondents Impression
Respondents Impression (%)
interesting Not interesting Not answer
63
36
1
73
27
0
90
9
1
93
7
0
57
41
2

Table 4. The Reason about Why the PSA Unattractive
PSA

Reason1
2
3
4
5

The actors/actress are not interesting, less expressive
Boring, the actors/actress are not interesting
Not special, monotonous, less expressive
Out of date, less attractive, not fun
Exaggerating, the message is not clear

The understanding on the message delivered by PSA is shown in the Table 5.
Approximately 36%-75% of respondents in Surabaya captures the message that has beendelivered by PSA. Messages that are captured by the respondents is the importance ofProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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safety and discipline in driving. Constraints are often mentioned by the respondents to obey
the message is because they “often break the rules”. This condition is extremely dangerous
because it has become a culture that is bad for users of transportation in Surabaya.
Table 5. Understanding on the PSA’s Message
PSA 1 PSA 2 PSA 3 PSA 4
capture the message clearly
54%
65%
68%
75%
capture the message only a part
40%
30%
30%
23%
cannot understand the message
5%
4%
2%
2%
not answer
1%
1%
0%
0%

PSA 5
36%
34%
28%
2%

Table 6 shows the overall evaluation that is marked with the percentage of respondents who
gave a moderate and good value of all PSA which has aired on television in Surabaya as
follows:• Moderate to good concept: 76%• Moderate to good actors/actress: 76%• Moderate to good messages that were delivered in PSA: 82%• Moderate to good duration: 71%• Moderate to good frequency: 56%
Table 6. Respondents’ Evaluation which were aired on television in Surabaya

goodmoderate
not good

concept

actors/ actress

38%
38%
24%

22%
54%
24%

message duration frequency
32%
50%
18%

8%
63%
30%

8%
48%
44%

4.4. Reccomendaton for the PSA
Most respondents state that the PSA should 'more attractive' and “aired continuously”. They
also expect that the PSA be aired to public continuously, not only during “Mudik” activities/Eid, but also aired throughout the year. According to some respondents advertisement
made by the government is less attractive. Only 9%-26% respondents stated that the PSA
are good enough. 46%-55% respondents want the PSA 'more attractive' and 15%-35%
respondents state the PSA “be aired continuously”. The respondents’ recommendations toeach PSA is shown on Table 7.
Table 7. Reccomendaton to the PSA
Recommendation for the PSA
PSA 1
PSA 2
PSA 3 PSA 4 PSA 5
good enough
10%
26%
23%
9%
17%
should be more attractive
55%
46%
47%
71%
68%
should be aired continuously
35%
29%
30%
19%
15%

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5. CONCLUSION Most respondents are interested on PSA 3 (Discipline in Driving”) and PSA 4 (Be Alert
and Obey the Rules at the Railroad Crossing) which has chosen by 90% and 93% of
respondents.
 The reason why PSAs are unattractive predominantly because of the actors/actress are
not interesting Around 36% - 75% of the respondents captures clearly the message that had delivered byeach PSA. The most captured message is PSA 4 (captured by 75% of respondents).
Obstacle often mentioned by respondents when not complying message delivered in
PSA, is because they “often break the rules”. This condition is quite dangerous because
it tends to be a bad culture of transportation users in Surabaya.
 The overall evaluation of the respondents is shown by percentage of respondents whogive moderate and good value of all PSAs that had aired on television in Surabaya forthe concept is 76%, for actors/actress is 76%, for messages that were delivered in PSA is82%, for duration is 71% and for the airing frequency is 56%.
 Most respondents suggested in order to be understood and respected by the community,
the PSA should be more attractive, the duration should be longer and its frequency
should be increased and aired continuously.
6. REFERENCES
Boyle Linda et al (2015), Effectiveness of Safety and Public Service Announcement (PSA)
Messages on Dynamic Message Signs (DMS), FHWA, Washington DC
Daniel, W. W. (1989). Statistika Non Parametrik Terapan. PT. Gramedia
Elder R.W et al (2004), Effectiveness of Mass Media Campaigns for Reducing Drinking
and Driving and Alcohol-Involved Crashes - A Systematic Review, Elsevier Inc, Am J
Prev Med 2004;27(1):57–65) © 2004 American Journal of Preventive Medicine
Gyo¨rfi, La´szlo et al, (2002), A Distribution-Free Theory of Nonparametric Regression,
Springer-Verlag New York, Inc
Haskins JB (1985). The role of mass media in alcohol and highway safety campaigns. J
Stud Alcohol Suppl 1985;10:184–91
Kasali, Rhenald. (1992). Manajemen Periklanan. Bandung : PAU-Ekonomi-UI.
Lastovicka JL (2004), Highway safety mass media youth project. Washington DC: U.S.
Department of Transportation 1987 (contract DTNH22-85-C-15404).
Roberts, Howard et al, (2015), Improving Safety Culture in Public Transportation,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
https://www.thebalance.com/public-service-announcements-are-a-vital-part-of-media2315189
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-public-service-advertising.htm

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IMPACT ON RIDERSHIP OF NEW RAILBASE TRANSIT DUE TO THE
OPERATION OF EXTENSIVE BUS SEMIRAPID TRANSIT NETWORK(CASE STUDY: JABODETABEK PUBLIC TRANSPORT NETWORK)
Edy Hadiana, Alvinsyahb
Transport Research Group,Civil Engineering Department, University Of Indonesia,
Depok, IndonesiabTransport Research Group,Civil Engineering Department, University Of Indonesia,
Depok, Indonesiaa

ABSTRACTThe objective of this research is to observe the implication of an extensive bus semirapidtransit network operation on the new railbase transit ridership. A transport demand model
based on the four step modeling approach is utilized to analyze the change on the ridership.
The model is developed from previous works and adjusted through a calibration andvalidation procedure with various data collected from the field. Model of the base year OD matrix is calibrated by trip length frequency distribution through a matrix balancing
process. While the passenger flow is validated through transit assignment procedure withpassenger counting data on the existing bus routes. Based on the assumptions made anddifferent operational characteristics and fare system scenarios, a simulation through thedeveloped model on new railbase transit ridership is conducted. From the analysis, when
operated individually, the new railbase transit ridership will reduce significantly due to theoperation of bus semirapid transit network. Yet, if both transit modes are operated as anintegrated system, the simulation result yield to a better ridership.
Keywords: Bus Semi Rapid Transit; Railbase Transit; Ridership; Transport Model
1. INTRODUCTION
In the near future Jabodetabek (Greater Jakarta) area will have a new railbase mass transit
system which consists of Central Government Light Rail Train (CG-LRT) and Jakarta
Local Government Light Rail Train (DKI-LRT). Currently, two CG-LRT corridors
connecting Cibubur (Southeast of Jakarta) area and Bekasi (Eastern of Jakarta) area with
City of Jakarta and DKI-LRT phase-1 of the first corridor connecting Kelapa Gading areawith Velodrome at Pulo Mas area are under construction. Besides, the construction of
Jakarta North-South MRT stage 1 connecting Southern part of Jakarta with Central part of
Jakarta is also on progress. These new railbase mass transit shown in Figure 1, are expected
to be in operation in the year of 2020. Meanwhile, in early 2016, the Central Government
established a new agency under Ministry of Transportation called Badan Pengelola
Transportasi Jabodetabek (BPTJ) which is responsible for all transportation issues in
Jabodetabek (Greater Jakarta) Area.
Unfortunately, due to current prevailing regulation almost all public transport service are
ruled and managed under different authority, and consequently this new established agency

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cannot function optimally as it supposed to be. In the worst case, these all public transport
include the new railbase mass transit could be potentially managed and operated
independently. Hence, the sustainability of operation of such technology could be inhazard, if public money should be minimized in supporting this kind of public service. On
the other hand, the most potential program of BPTJ that could be implemented in a very
short period is the extensive high capacity bus network service as shown in Figure 2.

DKI-LRT
Integration MRT-LRT

BTC-LRT
Free Transfer LRT to LRT
MRT: NS Phase 1

CCD-LRT

Figure 1. LRT & MRT Network in 2020

ID_KOR
Koridor
BPX1
Bekasi-Senen
BPX2
Depok-BlokM
BPX3
Bogor-Senen
BPX4
Poris-BlokM
BPX5
Cikarang-BlokM
BPX6
Cibinong_Grogol
BPX7
TnAbang-Bekasi
BPX8
Depok-Senen
BPX9
Depok-TNAbang
BPX10
Poris-Senen
BPX11
Poris-TnAbang
BPX12
PdCabe-Senen
BPX13
PdCabe-TnAbang
BPX14
PsAnyar-Senen
BPX15
BSDCity-Senen
BPX16
BSD-TnAbang
BPX17
Ciledug-TnAbang
BPX18
Depok-Manggarai
BPX19
HrIndah-Cikarang

Figure 2. BST Network in 2020

Having reviewed to the Master Plan and the existing TransJakarta Busway system, andreferring to Vuchic (2002), this kind of high capacity bus system can be categorized as Bus
Semirapid Transit (BST). Referring to the Public Transport Master Plan (IUTRI, 2016),
there are many BST services that share the route with the new railbase mass transit.
Therefore, when all those mass transit are already in operation, number of ridership of eachsystem could be a very potential issue if they are operated independently. Considering theflexibility and accessibility of BST service and its improved operational characteristics
such as travel time, method of transaction, and directness of service (ITDP, 2007; Vuchic,
2002), the ridership of new railbase mass transit could possibly be affected in a verysignificant way.
Based on previous paragraphs, this research tries to analyze the implication of the proposed
BST service to the new LRT ridership especially along the ovelapping routes. The
following sections describe the research framework, and model simulation, the result
analysis and discussion and finally the research conclusion.
2. RESEARCH FRAMEWORKThe first step in this research is to prepare a transport model for the analysis. Generally, thepreparation of public transport passenger demand forecasting model is based on network
development on supply side and the projected socio-economic framework on demand sidewhich involves network scenario development for mass transit system. The passenger
traffic demand is forecasted by applying the four-step method. Diagramatically, theresearch framework is summarized in Figure 3. A base year model both the network anddemand model is adopted from previous work (Alvinsyah and Hadian, 2016; BSTP, 2009;
BSTP, 2010; ; IUTRI, 2016; JICA, 2004; CTS, 2004) which has been calibrated andProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

169

modified several times (Alvinsyah and Hadian, 2016; IUTRI, 2016; JICA, 2012; KOICA,
2011).
Base Year

Future Year
Socio-Economics
data series

Previous
Works

Socio-Economics
Projection

Base year SocioEconomics data
Bas e year OD
Trip Matrix

Generation
Model

Public Transport
Generated Trip

New Railbase Mass
Transit Network
Plan
New Roadbase
Mass Transit
Network Plan

Model Calibration
Observed
Person Trip
LengthDistribution
Model
Base Transport
Network
Model
Validation

Future Public
Trans it OD
MatrixFuture Network
Plan

Ridership
Scenario

Load Factor, Travel
Time, Speed,frequency&Occupancy
Ridership
Analiysis &Assessment

Figure 3. Research Framework
The modeling stage begins with difining a zone and network system based on the city basemap and zoning system as well as the surrounding area. The traffic analysis zone (TAZ)
system will be defined based on the administrative jurisdiction, namely kelurahan (district).
Hence, it will ease in utilizing socio economic data based on the census data. Then, thedistribution model is calibrated using trip length data from the field (Kemenhub, 2013;
Kemenhub, 2014; Alvinsyah&Hadian, 2016). The distribution model used in this research
adopts the gravity method as follows (Papacostas and Prevendeoros,2001);


A j .Fij .K ij 
Tij  Pi  A .F .K  x x ix ix (1)where:Tij= Nuber of trip between zone i and zone j
Pi= Total trip Production in zone i= Total trip attraction Total in zona j
Aj
Fij= Friction factor or trip impedance between zone i and zone j
Kij= Socio-economics constant
While the impedance function in the gravity model is developed through the following
basic formula (FHWA, 2010);
𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐴𝐴(𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛 )𝑒𝑒 (−𝛽𝛽𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)

170

(2)

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where,dijeA, n, β= friction factor (impedance/time) between zone i and zone j= base natural of logarithms= calibration constants

Utilizing the travel time and person trip data (Alvinyah and Hadian, 2016; Kemenhub,
2014; Kemenhub, 2013) a calibration procedure, an iterative process in curve fitting
between trip length data and that of model is conducted to obtain an impedance function.
Once the gap between data and model reaches convergency as shown in Figure 4, theimpedance function parameters, A, n, and β are determined.
Trip Length Frequency Distribution by Income Categories and Purposes
25%

20%
Income1_HBW

Income1_HBO

15%

Pct Trips

Income1_NHB
Income2_HBW
Income2_HBO

10%

Income2_NHB
Income3_HBW
Income3_HBO

5%0%

Income3_NHB

0

40

80

120

160

200

240

time (minutes)

Figure 4. Transit User Trip Length Frequency Distribution
Having dertermined the impedance function for each transit user category, the base year
synthesized O-D Matrix (i.e. Distribution Model) is developed by applying Furness Method(Ortuzar and Willumsen, 2011) for balancing trip between zone. The next step, based on
the updated network, the synthesized O-D Matrix, passenger flow, and travel time datafrom the survey, is validate the model by applying transit assignment. The transit
assignment includes links and section of the services running between two stops or stations.
The concept of link capacity is associated to the capacity of each unit and its corresponding
frequency. The travel time has an-in vehicle component and components for waiting atstops and access and egress time. The other component, the monetary cost (i.e. farevariable) for particular transit lines is converted to ‘time’, and is weight-combined withtotal travel time to represent “generalized costs” as shown in the following (INRO, 2015);

Cij= a1 t ijv  a 2 t ijw  a3 t ijt  a4 t ijn  a1  n  a5 Fij

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(3)

171

where,tijv= In vehicle time from i to j

t

w
ij

= Walking time fromstation or to station

t

t
ij

= Waiting time at the station

t

n
ij

= Transfer Time at station


Fij= Penalty for transfer= Fare from i to jn

a1 to a 5 = Coefficients.
In the validation process, the person trip from the O-D matrix is assigned to the transit
network and adjustment to all parameter values in the generalised cost are made until thepassenger flow from the assignment process is conformed with that of from field data. The
macro planning software called EMME is used to execute the assignment process where thestandard transit assignment model implemented in this software is based on the concept of
optimal strategies which minimize transfer, waiting and in-vehicle time (INRO, 2015). The
most general formulation of this model is described in Spiess (1989), where the cost of astrategy is the sum of link travel times, ca, weighted by the probability of traveling on linka, and the waiting time at nodes i is weighted by the probability of traveling through node i.
The assigning of the trips from all origins to destination r, according to the optimal
strategy, corresponds to solving the following linear optimization problem:

Subject to(4)

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∑ 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + ∑ 𝑖𝑖
𝑎𝑎∈𝐴𝐴

𝑖𝑖∈𝐼𝐼

∑𝑎𝑎∈𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 − ∑𝑎𝑎∈𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 = 𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 ∈ 𝐼𝐼,

𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖
𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 > 0𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 + , 𝑖𝑖 ∈ 𝐼𝐼,
𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴

Variables ωi as in formula (4) represent the total waiting time (in person minutes) at node i.
Further and detail explanation on the mathematical derivation of the above objectivefunction can be found in Spiess (1989). Using this generalized formulation any transit
network T can be represented,and the mechanics that are involved in constructing the links
and the nodes of the generalized network depend very much on the particularities of thetransit network and the degree of aggregation considered. The fundamental concept of thisstrategy is based on the assumption that a passenger arrived at a station select an optimum
route from a group of route randomly to reach his or her destination and board the the firstvehicle arrived. This mechanism is done repetitively until reaching the final destination.
Prior to conducting a simulation, future O-D Matrix is developed by applying the gravity

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model and the forecasted trip generation. Finally, based on several assumptions andscenarios set in this research, a simulation to ridership is conducted through the validated
transit assignment procedure.
3. ASSUMPTIONS AND SCENARIOS
To obtain the ridership through model simulation, some basic assumptions and scenarios
related with trip generation, public transport share, and operational parameter of the systemneed to be established first. Referring to previous work (IUTRI, 2016), the growth rate for
Jabodetabek area from 1971 to 2005 is about of 4,7% per annum and that for DKI Jakarta isaround 2,0% per annum. In 2020, the growth rate prediction is about 1,32% and 0,49% perannum for Bodetabek and Jakarta respectively. While in 2030, the predictionis about 1,03%
and 0,19% per annum for Bodetabek and Jakarta respectively. Based on these growth rate
prediction, the trip growth for each district (kelurahan) in Jabodetabek area is derived asshown in Table 1.
Table 1. Trip Growth for Jabodetabek Area (person/day)
Administrative
2020
2025
2030
Jurisdiction
Kota Depok
1.58% 1.30% 1.12%
Jakarta Barat
0.82% 0.53% 0.40%
Jakarta Pusat
0.81% 0.52% 0.40%
Jakarta Selat
0.78% 0.50% 0.38%
Jakarta Timur
0.77% 0.50% 0.38%
Jakarta Utara
0.81% 0.52% 0.40%
Kab Bekasi
1.64% 1.39% 1.20%
Kab Bogor
1.67% 1.39% 1.21%
Kab Tangerang 1.99% 1.60% 1.43%
Kota Bekasi
1.45% 1.24% 1.08%
Kota Bogor
1.63% 1.35% 1.17%
Kota Tangerang 1.99% 1.58% 1.40%
Average
1.38% 1.10% 0.95%

The public transport share adopted for this research is taken from the survey conducted in
the previous work (JICA, 2011), which is 24% from the total motorised person trip in
Jabodetabek area. While, all each public transport mode parameter and and the tariff rate
are adapted from the previous work (IUTRI, 2016). Basically there will be two basic
scenarios that will be simulated in obtaining new LRT ridership, namely base case scenario
and alternative case scenario, and these two basic scenario will be tested with three BST
speed design, namely optimistic, moderate and pesimistic BST. The design speed are 40
km/hr, 25 km/hr and 17 km/hr respectively. The time horizon used for the ridershipforecasting is only for year 2020 and, the predetermined scenarios are shown in Table 2.

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Table 2. Scenario for Simulation
Scenario
Base Case(BC)
Alternative
Case-1 (AC-1)
Alternative
Case-2 (AC-2)
Alternative
Case-3 (AC-3)
Alternative
Case-4 (AC-4)a)b)Description
Consider no BST service, Fare integration applies for thesame technology only, except for the existing bus
systema, while for physical integrationb applies for all
type of public transport mode, excepts for the existingbus system.

Remarks

Similar with the BC, but considers BST service
Similar with AC-1, but fare integration applies between Discount fare Rp
new railbase mass transit, but not with BST/ BRT and 1,000,- between MRTwith KCJ.
and LRT
Discount fare Rp
between
Similar with AC-2, but fare integration applies for all 1,000,BST/BRT, MRT andnew proposed mass transit, but not with KCJ
LRTDiscount fare Rp
between
Similar with AC-3, but fare integration applies for all 1,000,BST/BRT,
MRT,
new proposed mass transit and KCJ
LRT and LRTFare integration is referred to IUTRI (2016)
Physical integration means that passenger is able to transfer to all alternatives modes depend on his/her
journey characteristics.

4. SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS
Based on the simulation result to the base case scenario, the potential demand (i.e.
ridership) for new LRT system represented in total boarding passenger (in the peak hour) is
shown in Table 3. While, simulation result to all alternative case is presented in Figure 5.
Table 3.Potential Demand of LRT System in 2020 (pax/hour in thousands)
DKI-LRT(Kelapa Gading-Kebayoran Lama)

23,761

CCD-LRT

BTC-LRT

50,55650,017(Cibubur- Cawang-Dukuh Atas) (Bekasi Timur – Cawang)

Looking at Table 3, seems that the CG (i.e. CCD & BTC) LRT ridership in peak hour isvery promising where this potential demand is considerably significantly high for such
system. Taking into account the actual condition represented in the BC scenario, thissimulation result is quite logic, because there are no reliable and good transit service thatclose to that of LRT in the origin area and mostly trip in the peak hour is dominated bycommuting trip. In addition, the traffic performance reflected in travel speed along theexisting toll and the arterial road where the LRT corridor lies are severely congested(IUTRI, 2016), while, on the other hand the LRT commercial speed is relatively high (40km/hr). A bit different with the first corridor of DKI-LRT, the ridership is not as high asthat of CG-LRT where it accounts only 47% of CG-LRT ridership. This is quite logic due
to various public transport services in term of type of service and mode, includes

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TransJakarta Busway, are available along and around this LRT corridor. Yet this figure is
still within acceptable range for this kind of system (Deen and Pratt, 1992; Vuchic, 1992;
Wright and Feljstorm, 2003).
Scenario

LRT Corridor

AC-1

AC-2

AC-3

AC-4

BST Speed: 40 km/hr
DKI-LRT: Kelapa Gading-Kebayoran Lama

21,88921,88924,00923,996

CCD-LRT: Cibubur- Cawang-Dukuh Atas

21,40522,487

24,40924,999BTC-LRT: Bekasi Timur – Cawang

16,062

16,16817,122

17,279

BST Speed: 25 km/hr

Pax/hr (x1000)

30

DKI-LRT

28
26
24
22

BST Speed 40 km/hr

20

DKI-LRT: Kelapa Gading-Kebayoran Lama

22,741

22,74324,162

24,138

CCD-LRT: Cibubur- Cawang-Dukuh Atas

43,34743,43947,51548,741

BTC-LRT: Bekasi Timur – Cawang

42,71642,32545,856

46,521

DKI-LRT: Kelapa Gading-Kebayoran Lama

22,77022,76324,12924,107

CCD-LRT: Cibubur- Cawang-Dukuh Atas

49,20749,89954,93256,123

BTC-LRT: Bekasi Timur – Cawang

49,45149,54553,27453,923

BST Speed: 17 km/hr

BST Speed 25 km/hr

18

BST Speed 17 km/hr

16
14
12

Pax/hr (x1000)

10
BC

AC1

AC2
Scenario

AC3

AC4

Pax/hr (x1000)

60

60

55

CCD-LRT

50
45

55

BTC-LRT

5045

40

BST Speed 40 km/hr

35

BST Speed 25 km/hr

30

BST Speed 17 km/hr

25

40

BST Speed 40 km/hr

35

BST Speed 25 km/hr

30

BST Speed 17 km/hr

25

20

20

15

15
10

10
BC

AC1

AC2
Scenario

AC3

AC4

BC

AC1

AC2
Scenario

AC3

AC4

Figure 5. Simulation to all Alternative Scenarios
In contrary, when BST services with the same commercial speed as that of LRT are in
operation reflected in AC-1 scenario, the CG-LRT ridership is significantly reduced, where
the potential passenger is dropped around 57.66% for CCD-LRT and 67.89% for BTC-LRT
compared with that of BC scenario. This significant change indicates that most of CGLRT potential demand is shifted to the BST. There are several reasons that can be
explained about this fenomenon, among others are; the BST routes have more accessibility
to the passenger origin and destination compared with CG-LRT routes; its commercial
speed is comparable with that of LRT due to the HOV lane provision along the tollroad;their services apply multiroute and direct service, so most passengers do not need totransfer several times to reach his or her destination. Furthermore, in Jakarta area, they are
fully integrated with TransJakarta Busway in term of sharing the exclusive lane andstations, and also the transaction, so passengers get a high acessibility to fulfill his/hertravel need without additional paymen if they have to transfer to Transjakarta Busway andvice versa.
In contrary, this situation does not occur on DKI-LRT ridership, where the change isrelatively small, around 7.89%. As explained previously, since DKI-LRT serves the areathat becomes destination for the commuter from Bodetabek area, the existance of BST
service does not have any significant infulence to the DKI-LRT. If this situation is kept

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175

going on without any intervention from the government to improve the CG-LRT ridership,
as explained in previous section, in the long run it will endanger the sustainability of theCG-LRT operation due to revenue shortfalls.
One potential policy that can be implemented is to apply a full integration between all masstransit system in Jabodetabek by reinforcing the role and level of authority of BPTJ.
Consequently, this kind of policy will reduced other related institution authority both atcentral government and local government level. To observe the impact of the above policy
to the CCG-LRT ridership, three scenarios that mimic the policy as shown in Table 2 are
introduced. But, since the fare system for BST is different with that of LRT, a discountmethod is applied to represent the fare integration between different system. Simulation
result shows that there is an increase in ridership for LRT system. Although the increase is
not significant, but at least this shows that such policy can help. In the other hand, if the
HOV lane provision along the toll road is assummed cannot be realized, reflected by BST
speed reduction to 17 km/hr, the simulation results show that the BST operation with low
design speed does not significantly affect the LRT ridership where it decrease only 1.33%
for CCD-LRT and 2.67% for BTC-LRT compared with BC scenario. While, if the fare is
fully integrated as reflected by AC-4, the LRT gain additional ridership around 7.81% for
BTC-LRT and 11.01% for CCD-LRT as shown in Figure 5. Now, assumming if BPTJ
cannot provide HOV lane along the tollroad but still want to have an ideal BRT speed
performance (ITDP, 2007), another scenario with the BST design speed set at 25 km/hr istested. The simulation result indicates that with this design speed BST are able to attract the
LRT ridership around 14.26% from CCD-LRT and 14.59% from BTC-LRT, and if fully
integrated fare system is applied to all mass transit (AC-4) LRT ridership decrease only
3.59% for CCD-LRT and 6,69% for BTC-LRT. It is seen that if the proposed BST service
is designed and operated in a very good way, and no fare or system integration policy isapplied to manage these all mass transit, there will be a contra-productive situation will
occur as indicates by significant reduction on LRT ridership.
5. CONCLUSION
An analysis has been conducted on the impact on the proposed LRT ridership due to theintroduction of BST route network in Greater (Jabodetabek) area. The analysis is focusedon the forecasted demand in term of total boarding passenger at peak hour for each LRT
corridor by utilizing a transit model. Asumptions and scenarios which account for transit
operational characteristics, fare setting, and trip growth rate are set for the analysis.
Simulation results to the predetermined scenarios yield that the BST service will potentiallyattract a very significant number of passenger from the CG-LRT if this proposed BST is
designed, operated and managed in a very porper and good method. In contrary, suchsituation does not occur for DKI-LRT in all alternative cases tested. When, a full system
integration is applied to all mass transit, the simulation result shows that an increase in LRT
ridership can be expected. This indicates that the government needs to enforce a strong andgood policy to integrate all these proposed mass transit in all aspects when they are in
operation in order to have a sustainable, reliable and satisfactory service for the
Jabodetabek people.

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REFERENCE
Alvinsyah dan Hadian E. (2016), Analisis Dampak Aktifitas Kawasan Reklamasi Panturaterhadap Kinerja Jaringan Jalan di DKI Jakarta, Jurnal MTI Vol. 1 No. 1, hal. 43-58.
BSTP (2010), Studi Pedoman Perencanaan Trayek Pengumpan (Feeder) untuk Angkutan
Massal Berbasis Jalan, Direktorat Jendral Perhubungan Darat, Final Report
BSTP (2009), Studi Penyusunan Master Plan Pola Transportasi Makro (PTM) Jabodetabek
Tahap I, Direktorat Jendral Perhubungan Darat, Final Report
CTS (2004), Pola Transportasi Makro Jakarta, Final Report, Dishub DKI - CTS UI.
Deen, T.B. and Pratt, R.H. (1992), Evaluating Rapid Transit, in Public Transportation edt.
Gray, G.G and Hoel, L.A., Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs New Jersey, pp. 293 331
FHWA (2010), Travel Model Validation and Reasonableness Checking Manual 2nd Ed.,
Federal Highway Administration, USA.
INRO (2015), User Manual, EMME Suite, Montreal
ITDP (2007), Bus Rapid Transit Planning Guide, Institute for Transport Development &Policy, New York.
IUTRI (2016), Capacity And Demand Analysis Of Jabodetabek Mass Transit Network,
Final Report, JICA.
JICA (2011), Study On Jabodetabek Urban Transportation Implementation Plan (Review
On Sitramp-2004), 2nd Draft Final Report
JICA (2004), Studi on an Integrated Transport Master Plan for Jabodetabek Area, Final
ReportKemenhub (2014), Survey Wawancara Rumah Tangga di Kota Bekasi, Depok dan Bogor,
Laporan Akhir, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kementerian Perhubungan.
Kemenhub (2013), Survey Wawancara Rumah Tangga di Kota Tangerang dan TangerangSelatan, Laporan Akhir, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kementerian
Perhubungan.
KOICA (2012), Master Plan for Jabodetabek Railway, PMC Service for Master Plan andFeasibility Study for Jabodetabek Railway in Indonesia, Final Report.
Ortuzar, J.D., and Willumsen, L.G. (2011), Modelling Transport Fourth Edition. Wiley
Inc., West Susex, UK
Papacostas, C.S. and Prevendeuros, P.D. (2001), Transportation Engineering & Planning,
3rd, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey, USA
Spiess H., and Florian, M., (1989), Optimal Strategies: A New Assignment Model forTransit Networks, Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, Volume 23B No.
2, pp 83-102
Vuchic V. R. (2002), Bus Semirapid Transit Mode Development and Evaluation, Journal of
Public Transportation, Volume 5, Nomor 2.
Wright, L. (2004), Bus Rapid Transit, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.
Wright, L. And Fjellstrom, K. (2003), Mass Transit Options, Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.

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177

CAPACITY AND DUCTILITY ANALYSIS OF EXTERNALLY
STRENGTHENED R/C COLUMNS USING STEEL PLATES
1

I Ketut Sudarsana*, 1Putu Deskarta, 2Kadek Bangkit Tilem Sentosa
1 Civil Engineering Department, Udayana University

2 Alumni Civil Engineering Department , Udayana University
1,2Jln Kampus Udayana, Jimbaran, Badung, Bali, Indonesia

Email : ksudarsana@unud.ac.id (*)

ABSTRACT
Strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) members is usually done to increase themembers’ capacity and ductility. An external strengthening using steel plates is one ofcommonly used materials to strengthen columns. This paper presents analysis results of
RC columns strengthened with steel plates. The main parameter on this study is thevariation of steel plate arrangement on column sides of a controlled column section (KK)
which having dimension of 300 x 300 mm and longitudinal reinforcement ratio of 1.8%.
Four variations of strengthening sections (KPS, KPP, KPPP and KPSP) are analyzed toobtain their capacity and ductility. The average ratio of the steel plate area to that of RC
sections in all sections is 4.7%. Sectional analysis was conducted to obtain axial forcemoment interactions and moment-curvature diagrams to evaluate the capacity and ductilityof the column sections for considering both confined and unconfined concrete. Threemodels of the stress-strain diagrams for concrete used in the analysis are Hognestad model(1951), Mander et.al model (1988) and Sakino and Sun model (1994), respectively, forunconfined concrete, confined concrete by hoops and confined concrete by steel plates or
tube. Analysis results shows that using the steel strengthening ratio of 4.7% can improvethe column capacity and ductility significantly regardless the arrangement of the steel
plate. However, the highest improvement on the capacity is given by the section with steel
plate concentrate at four corner sections (KPS) and then follows by KPSP, KPPP and
KPP. Comparing to the control section (KK), the curvature ductility also increases by 12%
to 22% for unconfined and 38% to 46% for confined sections.
Keywords: capacity, ductility, reinforced concrete, strengthening column section

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1. INTRODUCTION
Column is one of the structural frame components to resist loads transferred from beams
and slabs in the form of axial force, bending moment, shear force and torsion. Therefore,columns must have enough strength to resist and transfer the internal forces to foundations.
However, in dealing with earthquake load, the columns must also have enough ductility toresist in-elastic reverse deformations without losing their strength significantly.
Indonesian seismic code (SNI 1726:2002) has been updated becomes SNI 1726:2012
which mostly refers to ASCE/SEI 7-10 and IBC 2009, therefore, 22 cities in Indonesia
have changed the seismic design spectral (Afriadi, 2013). Due to changing in seismic
loading, many buildings may need to be strengthened or retrofitted. The strengthening may
only apply to some part of the structural elements such as columns, beams, and slabs or thewhole structure. There are many ways to strengthen the columns, one of them is column
jacketing using steel plate or combination of steel angles and plates.
Many researchers have done works on column steel jacketing such as Belal et al.(2014),
Tarabia et al.(2104) and Abdel-Hay et al. (2015). It is found that the methods can increaseload carrying capacities of column and improve the column behaviors. In practicalapplications, combinations of welded steel angles and plates are possibly used since mostcolumn sections are rectangular or square. Sudarsana (2017) studied the application of thismethod to retrofit SPS Building in Jimbaran-Bali, It is found that the strengthening system
works very well to improve the capacity of the structural elements. However, the ductilityof the strengthening section is not known, therefore, this research is done to investigate theeffect of variation on steel angles and plates on the column’s capacity and ductility. The
column capacity and ductility are studied based on interaction P-M diagram and curvatureductility, respectively.
2. METHODOLOGY
Sectional analysis was conducted to obtain capacity and ductility of the strengthened
column sections by considering the effect of confinement by hoops and steel plates on
concrete. There are two confined concrete models were considered in the analysis such as
Mander et.al.(1988) and Sakino and Sun (1994).
2.1. Concrete Materials
2.1.1. Unconfined concrete
The stress-strain unconfined concrete diagram commonly accepted for normal strength
concrete is Hognestaad Model (1951). The curve consists of two parts such as ascending
branch OA and descending branch AB as shown in Figure 1. The equations of these twoparts are given in Equation 1 and 2.
For ascending branch OA ( 0   c   0 ):
 2    2 
fc  f ' c  c   c    0   0  
For descending branch AB (  0   c   cu ):Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

(1)

179

f c  f 'c (1  100 ( c   0 ))(2)

Figure 1. Stress-strain curve Hognestad Model (1951)
2.1.2. Confined concrete by hoops
Stress-strain concrete diagram proposed by Mander et al. (1988) has been accepted for
confined concrete as shown in Figure 2 in which the confined concrete diagram iscompared with unconfined concrete diagram. The curve is represented using a single
Equation 3.

Figure 2. Stress-strain concrete diagram by Mander et al (1988)fc 

where:
x

c
 cc


 f'

 cc   o 1  5 cc  1 f 'co rEc
E c  Esec

f 'cc .x.rr  1  xr

(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

Definition of the parameters in Equation 3 to 6 and other details on the model can be foundin Mander et al. (1988).

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2.1.3. Confined concrete by steel plates or steel encase
Sakino and Sun (1994) proposed equations for stress-strain curve of concrete sections
confined with steel plates on whole section surfaces as follows:f c  K . f 'cwhere:K(7)

a.x  (b  1) x 2
1  (a  2) x  bx 2fy  t 
f 'cc
 1  11,5


f 'c
f 'c  B  2t 

(8)

2

 B 
t  
 1
 B  2t 
Ec Ec . co

(9)
(10)

a


Esec K . f 'c
 co 1  4,7( K  1), o 3,35  20( K  15),b  1,5  0,017 f 'c 2,4

K  1,5
K  1,5( K  1) f 'c
23

(11)
(12)

For more details on the model and definition of the parameters in Equation 7 to 12 can befound in Sakino and Sun (1994).
2.2. Model of strengthening column sections
The column section as a control specimen (KK) is chosen to meet the minimum
requirements of special moment frame in SNI 2847:2013. The application ofstrengthening material such as steel angles and/or plates to the control section (KK)
follows the steel requirements in SNI 1729:2015. Figure 3 and Table 1 show properties of
the control section and strengthening sections (KPS, KPP, KPPP and KPSP).

(a) Section KK(d) Section KPPP(b) Section KPS(c) Section KPP(e) Section KPSP

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181

Figure 3. Control and strengthening column sections
All strengthening sections have similar area of steel angles and/or plates. The steel angles
and plates are fixed using bolts and grout materials to fill empty spaces between existing
concrete and steel. In the analysis, a perfect bound between concrete and steel angle orplates was assumed.
Table 1. Properties of strengthening column sections
SectionID

Dimension(mm)

KK

300 x 300KPS

300 x 300

KPP

300 x 300

KPPP

300 x 300

KPSP

300 x 300

Longitudinal
rebars and
Hoops
8D16
D10@125
8D16
D10@125
8D16
D10@125
8D16
D10@125
8D16
D10@125

Steel
Strengthening
ratio (ρsteel)

4.49%
4.72%
4.72%
4.77%

Remarks
Control section
Column strengthening with steel
angle (KPS)
Column strengthened with half
steel plates (KPP)
Column strengthening with full
welded steel plates (KPPP)
Column strengthening with weldedsteel angles and plates (KPSP)

2.3 Sectional analysis
Sectional analysis was conducted to develop Pn-Mn and Mn- diagram in order toevaluate capacity and ductility of strengthening column sections. The steel angles andplates on the section sides is divided into some elements to have more accurate moment
lever arms, however, for the steels at end of the sections (tension or compression fibers) areconsidered as one resultant forces. Figure 4 shows internal strain and stress diagram of thestrengthening sections (KPSP) as one of the example. The analysis procedures follow thereinforced concrete sectional analysis procedures where equilibrium and compatibility
principles apply. The only difference is there is steel plate or angles outside of the sections.

(a) Section KPSP(b) Strain diagram(c) stress diagram
Figure 4. Section strain and stress of section KPSP

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Stress-Strain Concrete Diagram
Stress-strain curve for all concrete models considered in this study such as Hognestad(1951), Mander et al. (1988) and Sakino et al. (1994) as shown in Figure 5. All models are
based on unconfined concrete strength of 20 MPa. The important point of the curve such as
the stress and strain at peak and assumed failure points are given in Table 2 for all models.
The models are developed base on an unconfined concrete strength of 20 MPa.
Table 2. Stress-strain value at peak and assumed
concrete failure

Compression stress (f'c, MPa)

30
25

Model

20

15
10

Hognestad (1951)
Mander et.al (1988)

50

Sakino and Sun (1994)
0

0.002

0.004

0.006 0.008 0.01
Strain (ɛ)

0.012

0.014

0.016

Figure 5. Stress-strain all concretemodelsHognestad(1951)
Manderet.al.
(1988)
Sakino andSun (1994)

f’c
(MPa)
20.00

eo
(mm/mm)0.00200

f’c,85
(MPa)
18.00

e85
(mm/mm)0.003025.60

0.0035022.76

0.014622.53

0.0032019.15

0.0082

Table 2 and Figure 5 show that confinement can increase the concrete strength. Comparing
the confined concrete models to Hognestad Model (1951), the concrete strength increases
by 28% and 12.65% respectively for Mander Model (1988) and Sakino Model (1994).
However, Sakino model (1994) gives lower concrete strength than Mander Model (1988)
although a full confinement given by the steel plates to the concrete surface.
3.2. Interaction Pn-Mn of strengthening column sections
Sectional analysis was conducted to develop interaction diagram between axial force andbending moment for all column sections. Two concrete condition are considered such as
without and with considering the effect of confinement.
3.2.1. Without considering concrete confinement
In this analysis, the concrete strength in all models follows stress-strain diagram of
Hognestad model (1951). The only difference among the column sections is the ratio ofstrengthening steel as shown in Table 1. The results of the analysis are plotted in Figure 6
and the maximum value of section capacity is given in Table 3.

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4500

NOMINAL AXIAL FORCES (KN)

Table 3. Axial forces and bending moment at
three conditions

KK
KPS
KPP
KPPP
KPSP

4000
3500
3000

Section
ID

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

0

50

100
150
200
250
300
NOMINAL BENDING MOMENT(KN.M)

350

KK
KPS
KPP
KPPP
KPSP

Axial
ConcentricPn(kN)
2146.302
3834.302
3846.302
3845.902
3863.502

Condition
BalancePn(kN)
631.733
1147.490
1164.700
1163.473
1157.208

Mn(kNm)
102.121290.808
253.185272.156286.149

Pure
Bending
Mn(kNm)
68.570283.367256.221269.636
281.072

Figure 6. Interaction Diagram for allcolumn sections
Figure 6 shows that the strengthening column using steel angle and/or steel plate by theratio of 4.69-4.77% can significantly increase the column strength. Using steel angles at forcolumn corners give greater nominal moment than using steel plate at middle sides of thesection as shown by section KPS and KPP. This is due to longer distance of couple force
for steel at corner. However, axial capacity of KPP a little bit higher than KPS due tohaving higher steel ratio (4.69% to 4.72%).
3.2.2. With considering concrete confinement

NOMINAL AXIAL FORCES (KN)

In the analysis of the column section KK, KPS and KPP, the concrete core bounded by thehoops follows Mander et al (1988) and the concrete cover outside the hoops follows
Hognestad model (1951). For the column section KPPP and KPSP in which all concrete
cover are confined by welded steel angle and/or plates, the concrete core and the concrete
cover follow Mander et al (1988) and Sakino and Sun (1994) models. The analysis results
are shown in Figure 7 and Table 4.
5000
Table 4. Axial forces and bending moment for
KK
4500
KPS
three conditions
4000
KPP
KPPP
KPSP

3500
3000

Section
ID

2500
2000
1500
1000

500
0

0

50

100
150
200
250
300
NOMINAL BENDING MOMENT (KNM)

350

400

Figure 7. Interaction Diagram for allcolumn sections

KK
KPS
KPP
KPPP
KPSP

Axial
concentricPn(kN)
2371.470
4148.418
4160.418
4461.213
4478.813

Conditions
BalancePn(kN)
649.6311177.748
1200.416
2428.279
1964.666

Mn(kNm)
103.615293.034
257.631246.869
293.459

Pure
Bending
Mn(kNm)
68.611
283.670258.963348.255
378.2023.3. Ductility of column sections
The ductility of the column is measured base on curvature ductility. For comparison
purposes, all column sections are assumed having ultimate axial force (Pu) of 20% Po =343.41 kN. Two concrete conditions are considered such as unconfined and confinedconcrete.
3.3.1. Without considering concrete confinement
Moment-Curvature diagrams for all column sections without considering the effect ofconfinement are shown in Figure 8.

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Table 5. Curvature ductility without considering
confinement concrete

480
KK
KPS
KPP
KPPP
KPSP

420

MOMENT (KNM)

360
300

Section
ID

240

180
120
60
0

0

5

10
15
20
CURVATURE .10-6 (RAD/MM)

25

30

Figure 8. M-diagram for all column
sections without confinement

KK
KPS
KPP
KPPP
KPSP

Yield Conditions
My
kNm
148.60357.79317.46329.53350.91φy10-6rad/mm
16.67
12.82
12.34
12.24
12.20

Ultimate
Conditions
φu
Mu
10-6
kNm
rad/mm153.7427.30
405.5624.88
361.9522.67
376.2523.88
400.75
24.40

µφ

1.63
1.94
1.83
1.95
1.99

All strengthening columns have higher bending capacity than the control section (KK).
This is mainly due to additional of strengthening steel angle and/or plates. The column
ductility does not differ significantly. By increasing the strengthening ratio of 4.69% to4.77%, the column ductility increases about 12% to 22% as shown in Table 5. It is also
shown in Table 5 that the addition of strengthening steel reduces yield and ultimate
curvature of the strengthening sections.
3.3.2. With concrete confinement
The analysis moment-curvature (M-) for all section by considering confinement by hoops
and steel plates is given in Figure 9. The curvature ductility is shown in Table 5. For
Section KK, KPS and KPP, there is a drop in the section moment capacity due to reduction
on the cover of column section after unconfined concrete reaches maximum concrete
strain. For the section KPPP and KPSP, drop in the moment capacity occur after confinedconcrete cover according to Sakino and Sun (1994) reaches maximum strain.
Table 5. Curvature ductility with considering
confinement concrete

450
400

MOMENT (KNM)

350
300

All confinedconcrete cover reachmaximum strain

250
200

KK
KPS
KPP
KPPP
KPSP

SectionID

150
All unconfinedconcrete cover reachmaximum strain

100
50
0

0

20

40

60
80
100
120
CURVATURE .10-6 (RAD/MM)

140

160

Figure 9. M-Diagram for all column
sections with confinement

KK
KPS
KPP
KPPP
KPSP

Yield conditions
My
kNm
148.61354.77317.37332.30350.74φy10-6rad/mm
16.60
12.18
12.31
11.99
12.15

Ultimateconditions
φu
Mu
10-6
kNm
rad/mm139.78 138.2
392.74 149.0
349.97 141.4
363.52 145.9
387.79 147.5

µφ

8.3
12.2
11.4
12.1
12.1

The curvature ductility increases due to steel strengthening about 37.35% to 47% when
considering the effect of concrete confinement. Comparing the ductility of column sections
for unconfined and confined concrete, the ductility of confined column section is about 5 to
6 times of that unconfined column sections.

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4. CONCLUSION
Based on the analysis and discussions have been done, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
a. Confinement provided by hoops (Mander et.al, 1988) and full steel plates (Sakino
and Sun, 1994) increases the concrete strength by 28% and 12.65% respectively.
b. Strengthening of column sections using steel ratio of 4.69 to 4.77% significantly
increases the column capacity both without and with considering confinement.
c. Curvature ductility of the strengthening column sections using steel ratio of 4.69 to
4.77% increases in average of 18.25% and 31.5% for without and with considering
concrete confinement, respectively.
d. Curvature ductility of the strengthening column sections due to the effect ofconfined concrete is about 5 to 6 times higher.
e. Strengthening of the concrete columns with steel jacketing can improve bothcolumn’s capacity and ductility.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research has been possible with financial supports from Department of Civil
Engineering at University of Udayana. Special thanks to colleagues at the department for
their input and comments during various stages of the research program.
6. REFERENCES
Abdel-Hay, A.S. and Fawzy Y.A.G., (2015), Behavior of Partially Defected R.C Columns
Strengthened Using Steel Jackets, Journal of Housing and Building National ResearchCenter (HBRC Journal).Vol 11, pp.194-200.
Afriadi, Y. dan Satyarno, I. (2013). Perbandingan spektra desain beberapa kota besar diIndonesia dalam SNI gempa 2012 dan SNI gempa 2002, In Prosiding Konferensi
Nasional Teknik Sipil 7, Surakarta, 24-25 Oktober.
Badan Standarisasi Nasional, (2002), SNI 1726:2002 Standar Perencanaan Ketahanan
Gempa untuk Bangunan Gedung, Jakarta.
Badan Standarisasi Nasional, (2012), SNI 1726:2012 Standar Perencanaan Ketahanan
Gempa untuk Bangunan Gedung, Jakarta.
Badan Standarisasi Nasional, (2013), SNI 2847:2013 Persyaratan beton struktural untuk
bangunan gedung, Jakarta.
Badan Standarisasi Nasional, (2015), SNI 1729:2015 Spesifikasi untuk bangunan gedungbaja structural, Jakarta.
Belal, M.F., Mohamed H.M. and Morad S.A., (2014), Behavior of Reinforced Concrete
Colummns strengthened by Steel Jacket, Journal of Housing and Building National
Research Center (HBRC Journal).
Hognestad, E., (1951), A study of combined bending and axial load in reunforced concrete
members. Universitas of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin Series No.
399 University of Illinois, Urbana.
Mander, J, B., Priestley, M. J. N. and Park, R., (1988), Theoretical stress-strain model for
confined concrete. Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol.114, No.STB,
pp.1827-1849
Sakino, K. and Sun, Y., (1994), Stress-Strain Curve of Concrete Confined by Rectilinear
Reinforcement, Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering, Transactions ofAIJ, No. 468, pp.94～103. (in Japanese)

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Sudarsana, IK., (2017), Retrofitting of Low Rise Reinforced Concrete Building Using
External Bolted Steel plates: Case Study SPS Building, Jimbaran-Bali, Procedia
Engineering 171, pp. 1147-1156.
Tarabia, A.M. and Albakry, H.F., (2014), Strengthening of RC columns by steel angles andstrips, Alexandria Engineering Journal. September, Vol 53, pp.615-626.

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187

DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONAL FUNDING MODEL OF DEEP DISCOUNTBOND ON TOLL ROAD PROJECTS
Muhammad Haikal Syarief, Yusuf Latief, Ayomi Dita Rarasati*
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI
Depok, Depok 16424, Indonesia*corresponding author: ayomi@eng.ui.ac.id
ABSTRACTThe high investment in infrastructure projects including toll roads makes government seek
new funding schemes without charging the entire construction budget on the State Budget.
Therefore, an alternative funding scheme is necessary to attract investors to fund anddevelop toll roads in Indonesia especially at the Trans-Sumatera Toll Road (TSTR). The
answer might be found with the Deep Discount Bond (DDB) funding scheme which ispotentially positive for the development of toll roads in Indonesia. This answer can address
new issues, but to ensure that it can be implemented, an institutional model is needed toregulate stakeholders’ involvement. Realizing that interactions among stakeholders are very
influential on the success of the project, the effective institutional model is aimed at
avoiding possible conflicts. This institutional model cannot be properly designed without
knowing the success factors required to effectively implement DDB funding scheme. This
research has three objectives: firstly, to identify relevant stakeholders involved in providing
DDB funding schemes; secondly, to identify DDB institutional model’s success factors;
and thirdly, to determine the appropriate DDB funding scheme institutional model forTrans Sumatera Toll Road. This research methodology included data collection, and threephase in-depth interviews and Relative Importance Index and Multi Criteria Analysis. The
results identified ten stakeholders with their roles, ten institutional success factors and an
institutional funding model to implement DDB for TSTR.
Keywords: Deep Discount Bond; Institutional Model; Stakeholder; Toll Road
1. INTRODUCTION
Toll road development policies and strategies are aimed to increase and improve roadavailability, including their effective management systems like operation and maintenance(O&M), which can also support local communities’ social and economic activities(Manarung, 2006). Referring to the Master Plan for the Acceleration and Expansion ofIndonesia Economic Development (MP3EI), Sumatera is one of the economic corridors for
local production and processing center of national energy resources. Therefore, it is crucial
to develop connectivity between these economic corridors, one of which is by building atoll road across Sumatera (Trans-Sumatera Toll Road). However, this project (± 2,713 Km)
requires 330 Trillion Rupiah worth of funding (Ministry of Public Works, 2011). Such highinvestment in toll road and the low rate of financial interest rate of return (FIRR) make it

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difficult to attract investors to this project (Berawi, et al., 2015). TSTR is also projected to
be a part of the Asian Highway Network, and will serve as an artery network in theSoutheast region, as described in the Master Plan on ASEAN Connectivity (MPAC)(Berawi, et al., 2015).
The Indonesian Government (GoI) has already taken an initiative not to charge the above
entire budget on its State Budget (APBN) (Manarung, 2006) hence in need of an alternative
funding scheme to attract investors to the Trans-Sumatera Toll Road. The answer canprobably be found in the DDB, which is potentially positive for the development of tollroads in Indonesia (Rarasati, et al., 2016). The DDB model is funded by loans sourced fromfinancial markets in the form of Zero Coupon Bond (Reilly & Brow, 2012). With thecurrent lack of funding sources for infrastructure development, public investment withbonds has become an interesting alternative for the Government.
Bond is any interest-bearing, discounted government, or corporate security that obligates
the issuer to pay bond-holders a specified sum of money, usually at specific intervals, andto repay the principal amount of the loan at maturity (Downes & Goodmand, 1998; Fitch,2012). Although bond-holders have an IOU from the issuer, they do not have ownershipprivileges as stockholder. Raising fund from capital market has become an alternative
source of financing and bond is one of the most popular debt instrument (Lam, et al., 2011).
The DDB, also called pure discount bond, was first published by a US company in 1980’s
with only one time cash-in in the cash-flow until maturity. DDB does not provide a steadyincome; rather its appeal is in the low initial purchase price of its bonds (Elton, et al.,2014). DDB is said to be similar to Zero Coupon Bond, with its primary definition “cheap
prices traded bonds by the issuer because of discount” (Reilly & Brow, 2012). The
investor’s source of profit is the difference between the purchasing price when the (cheap)bond is issued at its par value and the value to be paid by bond-issuer at maturity (Faerber,2009).
The use of bond funding scheme directly from project assets is driven by economic crisis inmany countries around the world. As such, many infrastructure projects with great
investment value currently use bonds as their source of funding (Latham & Watkins, 2009).
Some of them are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Projects Using Bond Funding Scheme

Publisher / Project
Dolphin Energy
RasGasMaritimes & Northeast Pipeline
Black Hills
407 Highway
Plenary Health Niagara

Location
UAE
Qatar
US & Canada
US
CanadaCanadaPublish Date
August 2009
July 2009
May 2009
May 2009
April 2009
March 2009

Nominal$ 1,25 billion$ 2,23 billion$ 500 million$ 250 million$ 425 million$ 125 million

Project Type
Natural Gas Pipes
Natural Gas Liquefaction Facility
Gas Pipes Procurement
Power Plants
Highway
Health Infrastructure

Source: (Latham & Watkins, 2009)

DDB has a characteristic of longer maturity time (>10 years) compared to bank loans. Thisputs DDB in a good position to become a potential instrument for financing infrastructure
projects because such projects take a long time and has the potential to generateconsiderable revenue, making bonds an alternative means of financing the much-needed
infrastructure in Asia. The success of infrastructure bonds depends on the overall economic

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189

environment and a few institutional factors; research on these the institutional successfactor is therefore needed before implementing bond to finance infrastructure projects(Lam, et al. 2011) in Indonesia. In addition, stakeholders’ interaction is very influential on
the success of such projects and an effective institutional model can help avoid possible
conflicts (Yudi, et al., 2016; Yuttapongsontorn, et al., 2008).
Institutional means an effort to plan, organize, steer, coordinate and monitor activities toachieve the desired goal effectively and efficiently (Reksohadiprodjo, 2000). An
appropriate institutional model can overcome problems that arise due to the gap among
stakeholders involved in the project (Grigg, 2005), one of which is by implementing
Public-Private Partnership (PPP) scheme. PPP is an agreement or contract between public(government) and private parties in which the private sector holds some government
functions in a certain period (Parente, 2006; Djunaedi, 2007).
The involvement of private parties in the concession is aimed at overcoming problems
faced by the government while implementing the development and management of public
facilities in urban areas, especially on funding issues (Grigg, 2005). In general, there areseveral stakeholders involved in Public Private Partnership, such as (1)Grantor/Government; (2) Project Company; (3) Shareholders; (4) Lenders; (5) Construction
Contractor; (6) Operator and/or; and (7) Off taker/User (Sarmento & Renneboog, 2016;
Sari, 2014).
The institutional model cannot be designed properly without the success factors required to
implement DDB. It is important to know which stakeholders bear the investment costs,
provide facilities and infrastructure, and engage with third parties. Therefore, stakeholder
identification is required. The success factor of private sector participation to finance tollroad project depends on the responsive financial proposal proposed by special purpose
vehicle (SPV) candidates. Private sector should have financial engineering techniques,resources, capital structure, as well as strong risk management capabilities and quality(Ashuri & Mostaan, 2015).
Considering the above background study, this paper has three aims: (1) to identify the
stakeholders involved in providing DDB funding schemes; (2) to identify the successfactors for the DDB institutional model; and (3) to determine appropriate institutionalmodel for DDB funding scheme for Trans Sumatera Toll Road.
2. METHODOLOGY
A qualitative method is used in this research to find an effective institutional model to
implement Deep Discount Bond (DDB) for a study object (Trans-Sumatera Toll Road). The
variables were analyzed using Relative Importance Index (RII), ranked as institutional
success factor and weighted with the Multi-Criteria Analysis. RII method is used tomeasure the importance of each variable as calculated using predefined parameters(Odusami, 2002).
Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) in this research is used to develop selected institutional
funding models. MCA can determine the best institutional model analyzed based on

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stakeholder and institutional success factors for DDB funding scheme. Current MCA offers
much help for practical decision making (Mendoza, et al., 1999).
In-depth interviews were conducted as instruments for data collection, and were divided
into three phases to answer each research-question. The output of interview phase one is to
identify related stakeholders and their roles, the second is to identify the success factor, andthe third is to serve as input for the multi-criteria analysis. The aim of the in-depth
interviews was to explore information or contents of the respondents’ historical perspective,
and to explore in detail as well as to get an understanding based on the respondents’experience (Seidman, 2005).
Start
Background Study

Literature Review
Alternative
Institutional Model

Institutional Model
Deep Discount Bond Funding
Trans-Sumatera Toll Road

Input

In-Depth
Interview
Phase 2

Identified
RelatedStakeholder
and Their
Roles

Identified
Institutional
Success Factors

To Answer

To Answer

RQ-1

RQ-2

MultiCriteria
Analysis

In-Depth
Interview
Tahap 3

Research Methodology
In-Depth
Interview
Phase 1

Decision
Model

OutputRating Decision
Criteria

Relative
ImportantIndex
Analysis

OutputRanking
Institutional
Success Factor

Input

Selected
Institutional
Model

Institutional
Funding
Model Deep
Discount BondTo Answer

RQ-3
FinishFigure 1 Flowchart of Research Methodology
The various literature studies found some key factors in a successful implementation of
PPP institutional model, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Institutional Success Factor Variables

Institutional Success Factor
Government EffectivenessQuality of Regulation
Openness of Market
Easy to Starting a Business
Investor Protection
Duration of Concession
Company Experience
Financial Package
Readiness of Financial Proposal
Effective Management

Reference
Panayides, et al. (2015)
Panayides, et al. (2015)
Panayides, et al. (2015) & Romalis (2008)
Panayides, et al. (2015) & Kaufman, et al. (2009)
Panayides, et al. (2015) & Zhang (2005)
Panayides, et al. (2015)
Panayides, et al. (2015)
Gupta, et al. (2013) & Zhang (2005)
Ashuri & Mostaan (2015) & Zhang (2005)
Liu, et al. (2015)

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The 10 identified Success Factors used as the assessment criteria for DBD institutional
funding model are a) Readiness of Financial Proposal; b) Effectiveness of Government; c)Company Experience; d) Ease of Starting a Business; e) Investor Protection; f) Effective
Management; g) Openness of Market; h) Financial Package; i) Duration of Concession; andj) Quality of Regulations. These ten identified institutional success factors will be coveredin an in-depth interview to discuss the success factors for Deep Discount Bond financing
scheme.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe selected respondents for the in-depth interviews in this research were nine experts on
toll road infrastructure from government institutions, funding institutions, toll roadcompanies and private individuals. The interviews were conducted at the locations
specified by the interviewees themselves, all of which occurring between January 27, 2017
and April 11, 2017. The details of these respondents are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Respondents’ Background and Participation
No

Code

Experience(years)

Education

Institution

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9

22
20
35
24
30
21
32
16
25

DoctoralDoctoralDoctoral
MasterDoctoral
MasterDoctoral
MasterMaster

Ministry of Public Work
Toll Road Regulatory Agency
Government Coordination Committee
Infrastructure Financing
Toll Road Company
Infrastructure Financing
Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs
Ministry of FinanceToll Road Company

In-Depth
Interview
Phase 1
√
√
√
√
√
√

In-Depth
Interview
Phase 2√√In-Depth
Interview
Phase 3

√
√
√
√
√

√
√
√
√
√
√
√

Related Stakeholders in a Deep Discount Bond Funding Scheme
The identified stakeholders involved in the Deep Discount Bond funding scheme are a)Special Purpose Vehicle; b) Credit Rating Agency; c) Bond-Holder; d) Financial Services
Authority; e) Ministry of Finance; f) Infrastructure Guarantee Fund; g) Trustee; h)Mandated Lead Arranger; i) Securities Depository; and j) Stock Exchange Market.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Table 4 Stakeholders and Their Roles in Deep Discount Bond Funding Scheme

Stakeholder
Special Purpose Vehicle
Credit Rating Agency
Bond-Holder / Investor
Financial Services Authority
Stock Exchange Market
Ministry of Finance
Infrastructure Guarantee Fund
Mandated Lead Arranger
Trustee
Securities Depository

Role
Issuers (DDB Publisher) and/or Design, Build, Finance, Operate & Maintain (DBFOM)
Bond Rating Issuer
Bond Buyer
Bond Publishing Regulator
Capital Markets & Bond Securities Code Issuer
Bond Guarantee as “Full / Government Guarantee”
Guarantor of Loans and Political Risk
Facilitating and Steering Bond Investors Associations / Selling Agencies
3rd Parties Represented Bond-Holder
Payment Agency / Custodian Services

Institutional Success Factors for Deep Discount Bond Scheme
In the second phase of data collection using in-depth interview, the respondents were asked
to explain about institutional success factors. Based on the calculation of Relative

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Important Index (RII) analysis as shown in Table 5, these factors then became the criteria
applied in Multi-Criteria Analysis.
Table 5 Scores and Ranks Obtained from RII Analysis
No
K-1
K-2
K-3
K-4
K-5
K-6
K-7
K-8
K-9
K-10

Criteria
Government EffectivenessQuality of Regulation
Openness of Market
Easy to Starting a Business
Investor Protection
Duration of Concession
Company Experience
Financial Package
Readiness of Financial Proposal
Effective Management

Score RII
0.88570.60000.71430.80000.74290.65710.85710.6857
0.94290.7714

Rank RII
2
10
7
4
6
9
3
8
1
5

The highest rank factor at RII analysis was the “Readiness of Financial Proposal” but all of
the 10 identified Success Factors became the assessment criteria for institutional funding
model DDB: a) Readiness of Financial Proposal; b) Effectiveness of Government; c)Company Experience; d) Ease of Starting a Business; e) Investor Protection; f) Effective
Management; g) Openness of Market; h) Financial Package; i) Duration of Concession; andj) Quality of Regulation.
Deep Discount Bond Institutional Funding Model for Trans-Sumatera Toll Road
Based on the results of the literature study and in-depth interviews, three alternative
institutional models of Deep Discount Bond (DDB) funding were identified. The
fundamental differences between the three models are (M.1) Bond is issued under acorporate bond scheme using Mandated Lead Arranger as Selling Agency; (M.2) Bond isissued under a project bond scheme without a mandated selling agent; (M.3) Bond is issued
under a project bond scheme using Mandated Lead Arranger as Selling Agency. Table 6
shows the calculation results of the combined weight from the multi-criteria analysis.
Table 6 Multi-Criteria Analysis Results

Code

Rank

K-1
K-2
K-3
K-4
K-5
K-6
K-7
K-8
K-9
K-10

2
10
7
4
6
9
3
8
1
5

Alternative Score
M.1
M.2
M.3
16.36%
0.25000.12500.62501.82%
0.37500.50000.12507.27%
0.75000.00000.250012.73%
0.25000.75000.00009.09%
0.25000.00000.75003.64%
0.37500.37500.250014.55%
0.50000.50000.00005.45%
0.25000.12500.625018.18%
0.50000.00000.500010.91%
0.37500.12500.5000Sum-Combined Weight
RatingCombined Weight
M.1
M.2
M.3
0.04090.02050.10230.00680.00910.00230.05450.00000.01820.03180.09550.00000.02270.00000.06820.01360.01360.00910.07270.07270.00000.01360.00680.03410.09090.00000.09090.04090.0136
0.05450.23180.37950.3886After the calculation based on the relative important index ranking, the value of the
combined weight is obtained from ratings equal to alternative scores, while the sumcombined weight resulted in the decision of which institutional model will be selected.
Table 6 shows that alternative institutional model one (M.1) was selected with the highest(0.3886) multi-criteria analysis weight. To obtain the institutional model that can be
implemented at the study object, the selected model was validated and corrected based on

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current regulations. Afterwards, the effective institutional model obtained from this process
can be implemented as the DDB financing scheme for Trans Sumatera Toll Road.
Based on the in-depth interview process with the respondents, this research obtained a valid
and correct institutional model for Hutama Karya as the Direct Appointed Company to run
Trans-Sumatera Toll Road Project (TSTR). Deep Discount Bond (DDB) scheme was issued
in the form of Corporate Bond, because the use of project bond with TSTR will render thecredit risk too high due to several conditions required, namely (1) High FIRR condition; (2)Mature land acquisition; (3) Bond guaranteed from Government or Guarantor (FullGuarantee); and (4) New regulation governing the issuance of project bond.
Hutama Karya (HK), appointed as the executor of Trans-Sumatera Toll Road (TSTR)
project, received a Bond Guarantee from the Ministry of Finance to raise investors’interests. As can be seen after the guarantee was issued, HK bond rating which started as A
became Triple A (idAAA) (PT Hutama Karya (Persero), 2016). According to respondents,
HK bond has the lowest interest rate at AAA in their rating system. Bond Guarantee (fullguarantee/government guarantee) is required because the existing TSTR project has a low
level financial feasibility (FIRR). Therefore, the project’s ability to leverage by applying
loans or debt becomes low without guarantee. Figure 2 below illustrates the relationships
among stakeholders in a DDB scheme.
Ministryof FinanceToll Road
Authority

Submission of
Guarantee
Recomendation

Guarantee
PolicyBond
Guarantee

Ministryof Public
Works

Cost of Land
Acquisition

1

EquityCredit Rating
Agency3aTrustee

3b

9

10b

Revenue
Security
Depository

8b
4

5 6b 5Mandated
Lead Arranger

Steering
Local State
Owned
Company

Special Purpose Vehicle(SPV)

Establish
8a

7a

Local
Government

Concession
Agreement

Loan
Guarantee

PT. HUTAMA KARYA(State Owned Company)

National
Land
AgencyLocation
Assignment

Toll Road
Regulatory
AgencyInfrastructure
Guarantee Fund

2

Pengadaan
Tanah

11

7b
Stock Exchange
MarketFinancial
Service
Authority

EquityContract

Contractor

Sponsor

Debt

Lender

O&M

User

6a
In Control ofFinancial Service Authority

Bond
Holder

10a

Figure 2 Deep Discount Bond Institutional Funding Model for Trans-Sumatera Toll Road

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Hutama Karya issues Deep Discount Bond (DDB) with a corporate bond scheme because
the existing regulations and project conditions make DDB issuance with project bondscheme highly risky. The institutional model also invites Local Government to support the
project by involving Local State Owned Company (BUMD) to be sponsors. The above
relationships in DDB institutional model are listed below:- [1] Issuer appoints Trustee in a Trustee Agreement Letter. [2] Issuer appoints Mandated
Lead Arranger (MLA) as Investment Bank (Selling Agency) in Agreement Appointmentof MLA.
- [3a] Trustee provides Documents Credit Rating Assessment conducted by Credit Rating
Agency (CRA). [3b] CRA provides Independent Rating regarding Rating Bond, in thisprocess Rating Bond will be issued.
- [4] Trustee conducts Preparation of Bond Prospectus with MLA [5] Issuance ofProspectus & Underwrites Bond by Trustee to MLA as Investor Representative.
- [6a] MLA takes Preliminary to Investor & Conduct Market Condition to Investor.
Facilitated by MLA, bond investors express an interest in purchasing DDB to bedelivered to Trustee [6b] MLA submits bond interested from bond-holder candidates. In
this process MLA delivers the bond marketing result and determines the Allocation andDistribution of DBB by MLA.
- [7a] Issuer submits a Listed to Issue the Bonds by filling in the Securities Registration
Form (Bond) for Stock Exchange Market (SEM), SEM will then issue the Bond Code inaccordance with the Number of Bond Series issued by Issuer, which is subsequently
granted to Securities Depository [7b]- [8a] Issuer conducts Bond Registration Agreement and Payment Agent Agreement with
Securities Depository as Custodian Bank, which is subsequently given to Financial
Service Authority to obtain Registration Statement on Bond Issuance [8b]- [9] Distribution of DDB Allocation to Securities Depository for data recording with Listof Allocation/Marketing DDB and Making Ownership List according to MLA
distribution.
- [10a] After obtaining Proof of Listing of DDB Issuance, MLA transfers the proceeds of
DDB allocation to Securities Depository. It is then transferred through Securities
Depository to Issuer Account [10b]- [11] SPV is facilitated by Trustee to issue DDB at Stock Exchange Market in accordancewith the applicable Stock Exchange Mechanism.
DDB is influenced by bond rating and the rating can be improved by a guarantee. Thus, as
illustrated in Figure 2, the Ministry of Finance issues a bond guarantee (with fullguarantee/government guarantee characteristic) and guarantee policy, through infrastructure
guarantee fund institution, in order to have lower bond interest rate and to be easily able
accepted in the capital market. In addition, the appointment of Mandated Lead Arranger
will be able to facilitate and to create a capital market more attractive. Therefore, it isexpected that DDB can improve the toll road projects feasibility. Additionally, in order tocomplete this research, financial calculation is needed to identify the incremental feasibility
level in toll road projects.

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4. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, based on research data that has passed the analysis phase and shown inresults and discussions, the following have been identified: ten stakeholders in Deep
Discount Bond (DDB) funding scheme along with their roles, ten institutional successfactors, and an institutional funding model with Bond issued under a corporate bondscheme using Mandated Lead Arranger as Selling Agency to implement DDB for TransSumatera Toll Road.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express gratitude to the University of Indonesia for granting its
support through PITTA scheme No. 742/UN2.R3.1/HKP.05.00/2017 in completing thisresearch, and also to all participants in this research for their openness and excellent
cooperation.
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N. S., 2005. Institutional Analysis of Infrastructure Problems: Case Study of Water Quality inDistribution Systems. Journal of Management in Engineering, Volume 21, pp. 152-158.
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Manarung, N., 2006. Public-Private Partnership in Toll Road Development: Case Study JogjaSolo-Kertosono, Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia. [In Bahasa]
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Private Partnership Success in Ports. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice,
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Hutama Karya Year 2016 with Target Funds Given 6.5 Trillion Rupiah. [Online] Available at:
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EREP/201701/2f91a94e5a_8c1539e7da.pdf
Rarasati, A. D., Sihombing, L., Wibowo, A. & Latief, Y., 2016. The New Toll Road Financing
Model Determination. Sarawak, Integrated Solutions for Infrastructure Development, pp. 1-6.
Reilly, F. K. & Brow, K. C., 2012. Investment Analysis and Portfolio Management. 10 ed. Mason,
OH: South-Western College Pub..
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Romalis, J., 2007. Market access, Openness and Growth, Cambridge, MA: National Bureu of
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Sari, W., 2014. Project Financing Agreements - The Role of Advisors in Project Finance Deals,
Depok: Faculty of Economic, Universitas Indonesia.
Sarmento, J. M. & Renneboog, L., 2016. Anatomy of Public-Private Partnerships: Their Creation,
Financing, and Renegotiations. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business,
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the Social Sciences. 3 ed. New York: Teachers College Press.
Yudi, K., Rarasati, A. D. & Adiwijaya, A. J. S., 2016. Stakeholder Management of Jakarta's LRTUsing Stakeholder Analysis. Symposium I University Network for Indonesia Infrastructure
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1

15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
PARTIAL PHASE I ENVIRONMENTAL SITE ASSESSMENT OFPIYUNGAN LANDFILL AND ANAEROBIC FLUIDIZED BED REACTOR(AFBR) PILOT STUDY FOR LEACHATE TREATMENT

Christina Browninga,1, Sholahudin Al Ayyubib, and Wiratni Budhijantob,2aEnvironment and Resource Management Department, Arizona State University, United State of America
Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Grafika 2 Yogyakarta 55281 IndonesiabCenter for Energy Studies, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip K-1A Yogyakarta 55281 Indonesiab

Abstract
An abbreviated Phase I Environmental Site Assessment was performed to identify areas ofpotential contamination within the leachate management system at Piyungan landfill in
Yogyakarta and to evaluate the mitigating effects of an Anaerobic Fluidized Bed Reactor(AFBR) pilot study on the recognized environmental conditions. The AFBR pilot system
was found to reduce the quantity and hazardous components of the Piyungan leachate thus
reducing the landfill’s negative impact on surface waters and air emissions. The AFBR
pilot system allows more quantities of high-organic content leachate to reach themethanogenic phase of decomposition in a shorter amount of time than in the naturally
occurring process of untreated leachate, preventing the production of organic acids,
alcohols, methane and nitrogen which can cause an adverse effect on vegetation, animal
species and humans when exposed to unnatural levels of these compounds. The AFBR
system is also effective in reducing methane emissions; a significant result due to the highglobal warming potential of this gas. However, these mitigation efforts are limited in thepilot system’s current state. In order to have a more effectively alleviate the recognizedenvironmental conditions (RECs) on site, the AFBR system would require scale up andcalibration to reach maximum efficacy with additional treatment systems for hazardous
non-organic contaminants.
Keywords: Phase I Environmental Site Assessment, Leachate Treatment, Anaerobic
Treatment of Leachate, Anaerobic Fluidized Bed Reactor, Municipal Solid Waste Landfill
Environmental Impact
1. INTRODUCTION
The Piyungan landfill (site) is located in the Bantul Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta
in Indonesia. The site was established in 1995 and utilizes an area of 12.50 hectares to1

Christina Browning is a graduate student in Environment and Resource Management Department, ArizonaState University, USA, who took internship in CLEAN Project, Chemical Engineering Department under the
support of USAID R&I Fellowship (May-August 2017)
2
Corresponding email: wiratni@ugm.ac.id

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landfill municipal solid waste (MSW) of the surrounding area. Approximately 595,000 m 3
of MSW is disposed of annually while the waste already on site is estimated to be
2,700,000 tonnes with a depth of 20m. The majority of the MSW found at Piyungan isorganic material with plant waste at 41.1% and food waste at 27.4 %. These organic wastes
are ideal for decomposition and methanogenesis of leachate. The remaining waste is
11.19% glass, plastics and iron, 10.24% paper, 6.11% wood, and 3.94% textiles (Kristanty
et al., 2016). The site is currently emitting a considerable amount of leachate, which istreated in seven leachate ponds. The flow of the treated leachate into a natural channel tothe irrigation channels is illustrated in Fig. 1. The proximity of the leachate ponds to theaquifer system highlights the importance of the effort to improve the efficiency of leachate
treatment for Piyungan Landfill Site.
RIVER
IRRIGATIONCHANNELIRRIGATIONCHANNELIRRIGATIONCHANNEL
NATURAL
CHANNELLEACHATE
PONDS
PIYUNGANLANDFILL SITE

Fig. 1. Illustration of Piyungan Landfill leachate channel (Van Best, 2016)
Poor solid waste landfill management practices endanger public health and theenvironment. The purpose of this abbreviated Phase I Environmental Site Assessment is to
identify areas of potential contamination within the leachate management system at
Piyungan Landfill Site, as well as evaluate the impacts the AFBR pilot study would haveon the recognized environmental conditions (RECs). RECs would include, but are not belimited to, hazardous/toxic wastes spilled on the site; discharge of toxic leachate tosurrounding bodies of water or soil; and identification of off-site communities potentiallyaffected by the contamination of the subjected site. It is theorized that the AFBR pilot study
would reduce the quantity and hazardous components of the Piyungan leachate thus
reducing the landfill’s negative impact on the environment.
An overhead view of the seven leachate ponds and an illustration of the AFBR pilot system
is presented in Fig. 2. The pilot system diverts a portion of untreated landfill leachate to betreated through anaerobic digestion within a fluidized bed reactor. Untreated leachate from
retention pond #1 is diverted to a holding section of pond #5. The isolated leachate in pond
#5 is pumped to an equalization feed tank, referenced as feed tank in Fig. 2. The leachate isthen mixed with chemical reagents to modify the pH and C/N ratio.

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FRESH
LEACHATEAFBRCHEMICALSFEED TANKAERATION TANK WITH
MBG
SLUDGESEPARATORANAEROBICFLUIDIZED BED
REACTORDISCHARGE
CHEMICALTREATMENTMICRO BUBBLE
GENERATORSYSTEM

Fig. 2. The AFBR pilot system in Piyungan Landfill Site Yogyakarta
Once the proper parameters are achieved, the leachate is pumped to the fluidized bed
reactor with zeolite as microbial immobilization medium seeded with naturally occurring
microbes collected from bovine fecal matter. The immobilized microbes substantiallyreduce the dissolved organic content of the leachate. Nutrient imbalance can cause
difficulties in maintaining an effective biological treatment, particularly in the start-up
phase of system operations; If necessary, a small amount of fertilizer may be added during
start-up to enhance the microbial population. Methane and other biogases are produced
from the digestion of leachate which is then captured and measured through a gas meter.
The effluent is pumped to a sludge separator and then an aeration tank for further
decomposition of the organic matter, and then chemically treated, if necessary, before
discharged to a nearby body of water.
2. METHODOLOGYThe ASTM Standard Practice E-1527-05 was intended to define a customary practice inthe United States of America for conducting an Environmental Site Assessment of a parcelof commercial real estate with respect to the range of contaminants within the scope ofComprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA).
The subject site is not for sale as commercial realestate, but an industrial property which
may pose hazards to the surrounding environment and community. This report does notaddress all of the elements of the ASTM standard and is an abbreviated assessment of thesite’s leachate, surface waters and air emissions. This ESA may be used as an additional
resource to GMU and the AFBR pilot system research project.

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2.1 Assessment approach
The tasks of this report are in conformance with ASTM standard and are listed as followed:
1. A detailed walk-through inspection of the landfill site, or representative areas of thesite, and the AFBR pilot system.
2. A review and detailed walk through inspection of the AFBR system design.
3. Identification of surrounding property use and human health exposures.
4. A review of historical maps and topographical maps and aerial photographs.
5. Review of sampling analysis.
Findings and conclusions are based on the careful consideration of the results of the above
research. Any recommendations made are formulated with respect to maintaining orprotecting the collateral value of the property and providing protection from environmental
or human health hazards.
2.2. Measurement approach
At this early stage of environmental assessment, the target was limited to the identificationof potential impacts and was not yet intended for verification with field data. However, toguide the theoretical assumptions, measurements were taken on samples from the leachate
pond and AFBR outlet. The analysis of the samples was focused on the measurement ofsoluble Chemical Oxygen Demand (sCOD) and volatile fatty acids (VFA) following the
APHA standard procedure (APHA, 1985).
3. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Based on the results of the research performed the Piyungan landfill leachate ponds andwaste piles pose a significant risk to human health and the environment, and the AFBR
pilot system has an effect of reducing the hazards of the RECs found within this report.
3.1 Leachate Assessment
The landfill site was designed to include a geo membrane liner and a drainage piping
system to manage the discharge of landfill leachate. Leachate is the aqueous effluent
generated from MSW accumulated by the decomposition of organic material, inherent
waste moisture, and the percolation of rain water through the refuse. The leachate discharge
is approximately 10-20 m3/day (based on field measurement during 2016). The drainage
system directs the leachate into a series of leachate ponds for minor treatment. The liquid
passes through seven leachate ponds (Fig.3) in total with five designed as a reservoir andused for chemical treatment, while the remaining two are for aeration. The leachate is thendischarged to a nearby stream which ultimately leads to the Indian Ocean via the Kali OpakRiver. The surface area of each leachate pond is 96m2 with a depth of 3m and a total
volume of 2,016m3. Each pond is open to air and exposed to rainfall measured at 185.5cm
annually (2016).

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Fig. 3. Leachate ponds in Piyungan Landfill Site (Gadjah Mada University, 2015)
3.1.1 Leachate Environmental and Human Health Hazards
MSW leachate composition varies depending on a number of factors, but the pollutants canbe categorized in four main groups; dissolved organic matter, inorganic matter, heavy
metals and xenobiotic organic compounds (XOCs) (Kjeldsen et al, 2002). The
contaminants vary and fluctuate depending on a variety of factors including waste
composition, age of landfill, weather, temperature, moisture content and other deciding
factors. The composition of leachate and their hazardous effects have been extensively
researched and documented, providing a deeper understanding of the potential risks tohuman health and the environment.
The dissolved organic material found in leachate is derived from the decomposing anddegradation of naturally occurring materials. Dissolved organic matter, Total Organic
Carbon (TOC), Chemical Oxygen Demand and the Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs), whichaccumulated during the acid phase of waste decomposition, reflect the organic
contamination. (Slack, et al, 2005). The organic matter is further biodegraded naturally bycertain microbial processes such as hydrolysis, fermentation, acidogenesis andmethanogenesis. (Luo, et al., 2015). This produces organic acids, alcohols, methane andnitrogen which can cause an adverse effect on vegetation, animal species and humans when
exposed to unnatural levels of these compounds. The organic matter within the leachate is
reduced until these naturally occurring processes can no longer be sufficiently facilitated.
The effects of organic matter on the environment are considered in later sections of thisreport.
Inorganic materials found in MSW leachate include calcium, magnesium, sodium,
potassium, ammonia-nitrogen (ammonia), non-heavy metals such as iron and magnesium,and more. (Kjeldsen et al., 2002). Ammonia-nitrogen in particular is found in levels ofgreat magnitude in MSW landfill leachate. Leachate samples collected from the Piyunganleachate ponds revealed an ammonia content of 1,056 mg/L, within the expected range oflandfill leachate which may fall anywhere between 500 to 2000 mg/L (Kristanty et al.,202

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62016, Kjeldsen et al., 2002). The effects of inorganic material on the environment areconsidered in later sections of this report.
Heavy metals and XOC’s will not be considered in depth in this report due to the lack ofavailable data for review. Heavy metals include cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickeland zinc which may be present in the landfill leachate at the site. Leachate samples
collected revealed cadmium content at 0.027 mg/L at its peak, well above the Indonesianenvironmental standard for surface waters of 0.01mg/L but almost an entire magnitude
above
the
U.S.
EPA
standardof
0.005mg/L
forsurfacewaters(https://www.epa.gov/regulatory-information-topic/regulatory-information-topic-water#)Due to the lack of analytical samples available for assessment, XOC’s and theirenvironmental effects are not included in this assessment. XOCs in municipal solid wasteleachate include aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, pesticides, plasticizers and other volatileorganic compounds (VOCs) but are typically present in relatively low concentrations
because of the initial low levels in household waste and volatilization to air. Monoaromatichydrocarbons, such as benzene, toluene, and xylenes, as well as halogenated hydrocarbons,such as tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene, are consider some of the most hazardous
compounds found in leachate (Christensen et al., 2001). The U.S. EPA has identified
several of these compounds as priority pollutants due to their extremely harmful effects inthe aquatic environment. There is insufficient data to make a site specific analysis, thoughestimates are made in this report for practical measures.
3.1.2 AFBR Pilot System Effect on Leachate
The AFBR pilot system primary aim is to control the natural microbial processes to reduceorganic matter in leachate by containing and enhancing these reactions within the tank of a
fluidized bed reactor using immobilized microbes. The chemical oxygen demand isreduced to prevent these biological processes from occurring in nature as it would if theleachate were released without treatment. Additionally, the AFBR would only be effective
if the minimum nutrient requirements for methanogenesis were present to allow for thereaction to occur. Young leachate has high organic content which has not yet reacted istypically less than 5 years old and would viable for the treatment system. Older leachate
will have naturally undergone the biological processes, losing the required COD and DO
for AFBR treatment. This report recognizes this as a significant finding in regards to using
the AFBR pilot system to reduce the hazardous components of leachate.
The AFBR pilot system must consider the influent characteristics such as COD and pH
while also maintaining ideal operation conditions which affects both the microorganism
growth and organic biodegradations by altering enzyme activity. These operational
conditions include hydraulic retention times, temperature, volumetric flow, and organic
loading rate. The pilot system began start up on 10 March 2017 and has experienced
operational performance complications due to the fluctuating properties of the influent
leachate. The biochemistry of anaerobic digestion begins with hydrolysis, converting
complex organic molecules to the soluble organic molecules found in leachate. Then, thesmall organic molecules undergo acidogenesis to Volatile Fatty Acids. The Volatile fatty

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acids are necessary for acetogenesis to produce the acetic acid required formethanogenesis, the final step to produce methane. Both Volatile Fatty Acids and COD
efficiency will reveal the performance for the removal of dissolved organic matter.
Previous studies have shown the anaerobic processes within an AFBR to treat leachate
could achieve 90% of COD removal efficiency with methane contents ranging from 60 –
90% (Luo et al., 2015). There has been difficulty meeting the nutrient requirements for themethanogens during the anaerobic digestion process as the leachate is inconsistent in its
composition. The COD in the startup phase has not been consistent because the leachatecollected from the landfill body is in various stages of decomposition. The system requires
soluble organic molecules to undergo acidogenesis and produce volatile fatty acids for the
next phase of the reaction. These VFAs are also naturally occurring in the leachate as theliquid naturally undergoes the digestions process. The effluent from the system maintains
soluble organic material, COD, and VFAs necessary for the microbial processes to occur
outside of the controlled AFBR environment, posing a risk to the environment.
The methanogens require acetic acid, which is referred as VFAs. The fluctuating VFA
levels in the influent during the start up of the pilot AFBR, as shown in Fig. 4, reduces theefficacy of the system evident by the VFA in the effluent which had not been fully
converted to methane. The immobilized microbes require a reliable steady feed toadequately convert all present VFAs to acetic acid. The VFA in the effluent shows areduced potential for methanogenesis and the production of methane and carbon dioxide.
An ideal reactor will have the same composition at all points at a given instant so thewhole system is undergoing the same chemical reactions, and the biochemistry is the same
throughout. This will facilitate efficient anaerobic digestion as there will be a lesser impact
on a limiting reagent. As the system stabilizes, and the reactor becomes more homogenous
VFA conversion may improve. The data shown in Fig 4. are promising but cannot be
conclusive until system start-up is completed and the microbial population strengthened
and stabilized. The nutrient requirements of the influent leachate feed and systemparameters must be determined in start- up for optimization.

Fig. 4. Start-up data of the AFBR pilot

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8During the methanogenic phase, VFA are reduced. Calcium, magnesium, iron andmanganese are lower due to the higher pH and lower DO. A higher pH enhances sorption
and precipitation while the lower DO allows complex cations to form (Kjeldsen et al.,2002). Microbes reduce sulfate to sulfides in the methanogenic phase which lowers theoverall concentrations of sulfates in the leachate. These sulfides may then lead toprecipitation with miscellaneous metals present (2002). The AFBR pilot system allows
more quantities of leachate to reach the methanogenic phase of decomposition in a shorteramount of time than in the naturally occurring process of untreated leachate.
3.2 Discharge to Surface Waters Assessment
The topography and geological conditions at the Piyungan landfill site prevent leachate
penetration to the soil preventing contamination of surface water from the contaminatedsoil. However, the leachate ponds are inefficient to handle the quantity of leachate
generated. It was observed that the landfill leachate exceeded the height of the reservoir
ponds and overflowed. A steady stream of leachate from the leachate treatment ponds wasdischarged directly to a nearby river through a natural channel located near the leachate
ponds. The necessary chemical treatment in the pond is subject to the fluctuating
concentration of the fresh leachate. Should the treatment fail, there is significant risk forcontamination of fresh surface waters surrounding the site.
Insufficient top cover and lack of vegetation has likely also led to leachate runoff and thevolume of water that enters the site is uncontrolled. The waste is exposed to the region’s
heavy rainfall during the wet seasons and experiences 185.5cm annually. The moundedshape of the waste pile and resulting slope results in more infiltration of rainwater on thebottom edge. The waste piles at Piyungan are a recognized environmental condition due tothe likelihood that leachate runoff may occur. Due to the historical and ongoing discharge
at the site, the leachate drainage system represents a recognized environmental condition. It
can be reasonably assumed that the overflowing retention ponds, and cracks found in theleachate retention dam is contaminated the surrounding the soil which will then impact
surface waters which flow over the soil. Each of these findings represent a recognizedenvironmental condition as the surface waters are expected to be impacted.
3.2.1 Discharge to Surface Waters Environmental and Human Health Hazards
As identified in the previous section, the surface waters surrounding the Piyungan landfill
are likely contaminated with the pollutants of the linearly treated leachate in the leachate
ponds. The organic material in the leachate may facilitate the acidogenesis andmethanogenesis processes once released to the surface waters, further adding irregularcompounds to the environment. The leachate’s dissolved organic material will produce
organic acids, alcohols, and nitrogen which may damage the flora and fauna who utilize
the waters surrounding the site.
While Ammonia is not classified as a hazardous compound under the US. EPA or inIndonesia, there is the potential for the compound to act as a dominant environmental
pollutant due to the magnitude of the contaminant levels which are at concentrations ofgreater magnitude than other pollutants found at the site (Kjeldsen et al., 2002). Discharge

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of high ammonia content leachate to surface waters can cause ammonia toxicity byproviding nutrients for eutrophication and facilitating in situ nitrification. The oxygen
depletion of the surface waters would cause harm to plant and animal reliant on the surface
water (2002). Ammonia has been frequently references as the most common groundwaterpollutant stemming from MSW landfills (Christensen 2001).
The only heavy metal analytical data available for review is for cadmium. Cadmium
exposure can result in renal system complications such as kidney stones, osteoporosis andosteomalacia, hypertension and further health complications. Cadmium is also a
recognized carcinogen causing lung, kidney and prostate cancer. The same study whichsampled the leachate on site, also analyzed surface water samples at three points; upstream
from the leachate discharge, downstream, and a tributary intersection. Levels found at theirpeak were 0.014, 0.022, and 0.017 mg/L respectively (Kristanty et al., 2016). It is not clear
if the surface waters are monitored or safeguarded by local authorities, so the potential foringestion by human and animals is probable, therefore posing a serious risk. Other heavy
metals may be present posing additional health risks from exposure of the contaminatedsurface waters. While the XOCs levels are likely low in the leachate at this landfill due tovolatilization, there is a possibility for surface water contamination. The contamination of
surface waters is a recognized environmental condition and mitigation efforts are needed toprotect the environment and human health.
3.2.1 AFBR Pilot System Effect on Surface Waters
The AFBR pilot system technologies has been demonstrated to be effective for thetreatment of high-strength organic waste waters, such as the leachate found at this site.
(Luo et al., 2015). This pilot system promotes anaerobic degradation of the organic
pollutants found in the waste water, therefore reducing the potential for contamination oforganic pollutants in the surface waters surrounding the site. The performance of thereactor is measured in terms of COD removal, VFA production and methane production
yield, which will be address in a later section.
Research on AFBR technology has not been found to effectively reduce ammonia inleachate (Renou et al., 2008, Luo et al., 2015). On the contrary, Ammonia is highly stablein anaerobic conditions like that of the AFBR and may accumulate within the system.
Effects of high free ammonia concentrations can negatively impact the performances ofanaerobic bioreactors. This inorganic compound inhibits methanogenesis so its presence
may theoretically reduce the effectiveness of the pilot system (2015). The AFBR pilot
study is not a reliable technology to treat Ammonia concentrations in leachate and theeffluent from the system would need to undergo further treatment before discharged tosurface waters. Heavy metals and XOCs are not targeted pollutants of the system there
may be reduced concentration of heavy metals as compounds are reduced during thetransition from the acid to methanogenic phase because of increased sorption and metal
precipitation with the sulfates present in the leachate (Kjeldsen et al., 2002). XOCs exhibit
different behaviors depending on the specific compounds and so it cannot be definitelydetermined if the AFBR pilot system would have a positive effect on all XOCs present in

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the leachate (Slack et al., 2005). The effluent from the AFBR would need to undergo
further treatment to address heavy metal and XOC contaminants.
3.3 Air Emission Assessment
Air emissions from landfill take the form of gaseous emissions of volatile organic
compounds, airborne particulate matter, and greenhouse gases. The emissions may containsimilar hazards to the liquid leachate as the degradation products produced because duringin the methanogenic phase the degradation products in the acid anaerobic stage may
volatilize (Christensen et al., 2001). The large percentage of organic material from theoverall waste deposited will have an increased effect on the amount of emissions.
Landfill emissions typically contain 45 – 60% methane and 40 – 60% carbon dioxide(ATSDR, 2001). Other VOC emissions may also be present, but as the majority of the
Piyungan waste composition is organic material (68.5%), the VOC’s, including saturated
and unsaturated hydrocarbons, acidic hydrocarbons and organic alcohols, aromatichydrocarbons, halogenated compounds and sulphur compounds may be reasonably
assumed to be low. Particulate matter (PM) emitted from landfills may also be
contaminated with heavy metals (Christensen et al., 2001). The Piyungan site had a visible
cloud of PM, as well as large debris picked up by the slight winds during the site
inspection. Gases are produced under the landfill surface as the material under goes thestages of microbial decomposition.
The facility inspection performed and review of aerial photographs show no cover or cap
on the waste piles. This will allow the methane and carbon dioxide produced to migrate up
and out to the ambient air due to its density lower than air. The leachate ponds are also
open to air, allowing for the migration of the contaminants. There were no gas collection
and recovery systems present at Piyungan except the AFBR pilot study. Both the leachate
ponds and waste piles themselves are considered a recognized environmental condition due
to the potential for air emission releases.
3.3.1 Air Quality Environmental and Human Health Hazards
The landfill gases emitted to the ambient air tend to migrate from the landfill to theenvironment and communities surrounding Piyungan. The gases pose a series ofenvironmental and human health risks which have been documented elsewhere. In thecontext of this report, the focus is on the gas emissions impact the environment. Bothmethane and carbon dioxide are greenhouse gases which contribute to global climatechange. Greenhouse gas emissions have been categorized in their global warming potential(GWP) to compare the influence of the different GHG on the global climate. The GWP ofcarbon dioxide is equal to 1 while methane has a GWP of 25 for a time horizon of 100
years. Essentially, 1 kg of methane has the equivalent global warming effect as 25 kg ofcarbon dioxide (IPCC, 2007). Global warming threatens all life, not only in the local areasurrounding Piyungan and the emissions from the site contributes to this global effect.
There is the potential for other human health impacts due to the many minor constituents,
such as heavy metals and VOCs, which are likely present at low concentrations. The

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specific human health risks cannot be determined without air quality sampling andanalysis.
3.3.2 AFBR Pilot System Effect on Air Quality
Over a start-up period of 75 days from 10 March 2017 to 24 May 2017, the AFBR pilot
study captured 186 m3 of methane that would have otherwise been released to air. There
are indicators that predict the AFBR pilot system may be able to produce more methane
than has been measured during this start up face. Both VFAs and COD efficiency will
reveal the systems potential for additional biogas production. The anaerobic fermentationof the biodegradable organic matter results in VFAs which are then converted to methaneand carbon dioxide as the methanogenic phase occurs ((Christensen et al., 2001.Similarly
COD removal efficacy will reveal the potential of further methane production as the COD
available will be able to use in the microbial reaction. As reviewed in Fig. 4 of this report,
there is the opportunity to increase the efficacy of the system to covert more organic
material to methane for recovery.
The mitigating effect of the pilot system on the site’s air emissions is minimal, particularly
due to the volume of air releases predicted at many magnitude larger than the quantity
produced by the system. However, the demonstrated yet slight reduction of 186m3 ofmethane is preferable to zero mitigation efforts. There is potential for increased
optimization and ability to scale up this system to a more impactful size to further reduce
air emissions. The AFBR pilot system is a proven mitigation technology to reduce theimpact of methane (Luo et all, 2015). The carbon dioxide gas produced from the processes
within the reactor are released to air, therefore this technology is not considered aneffective mitigation tool for carbon dioxide emission release. The AFBR pilot system also
does not address other minor constituents which may be present in the leachate.
Ultimately, the AFBR pilot study has a positive impact on the environment by mitigating
the air releases of methane to the atmosphere.
4. CONCLUSION
The Piyungan landfill presents a number of environmental and human health hazards due tothe pollutant releases and recognized environmental conditions present on site. In assessing
the landfill leachate, surface waters, and air emissions, the potential for environmental
contamination is likely. The anaerobic treatment of leachate through an AFBR Pilot systeminstalled on site was found to slightly reduce the hazards but these mitigation efforts arelimited in its current state. The significant findings of this report are as follows:



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The targeted leachate pollutants of this treatment system are only organic pollutants,
requiring further treatment for other hazardous constituents before release to theenvironment.
The pilot study, while still in start-up phase, has shown effective in reducing
dissolved organic material, but has not reached the peaked efficiency of 60 – 90%
COD removal. Likewise, methane production levels may be similarly improved.

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


The system may be inhibited by inorganic compounds which build up within thesystem (Table 1) and inconsistent influent leachate composition.
The reduction of methane releases is a significant environmental mitigation effectbecause of the high GWP of this gas

This abbreviated Phase I Environmental Site Assessment requires further investigatory
actions to meet the ASTM standards and determine the extent of the site’s impact of humanhealth and the environment. It is recommended that additional sampling and document
review be performed to enhance this report.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The report supports the USAID PEER-Science CLEAN Project. Both the pilot study andprimary author are supported by the US Agency for International Development. The
authors also expressed the highest appreciation to the Global Development Research
Program at Arizona State University, as well as the Chemical Engineering Department of
Gadjah Mada University. The previous research and data collected by authors referenced
in this document have been invaluable to the completion of this report.
6. REFERENCES
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2001), Landfill Gas
Emissions, website: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/landfill/html/ch2.html
Annual Book of ASTM Standards (1976), “Phase I Environmental Site Assessment:
Standard E-1527-05”.
APHA (1985) “Standard Method for the Examination of Water and Wastewater”, 16th ed.,American Public Health Association, Washington DC.
Christensen T.H., Kjeldsen P., Bjerg P.L., Jensen D.L., Christensen J.B., A. Baun, et al.
(2001), Biogeochemistry of landfill leachate plumes, Appl. Geochem., 16, pp. 659–718
Gadjah Mada University Chemical Engineering Department, (2015), Clean Project: Usaid
Peer Science Grant Report, Yogyakarta, July 2015.
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC). (2007), Guidance for the Treatment ofLandfill Leachate, Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC).
Kjeldsen P., Barlaz M.A., Rooker A.P., Baun A., Ledin A. and Christensen T.H. (2002),
Present and Long-Term Composition of MSW Landfill Leachate: A Review, Critical
Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, Volume 32, Issue 4, pp. 297 -336.
Kristanty T., Sudibyo H., Mellayanawaty M., and Budhijanto W., (2016), Mathematical
Modeling to Evaluate the Distribution of Leachate Discharge into the Water Streams
Around Piyungan Landfill Site,
Luo J., Qian G., Liu J., Xu Z.P., (2015), Anaerobic Methanogenesis of Fresh Leachate from
Municipal Solid Waste: A Brief Review on Current Progress, Renewable andSustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 49, pp. 21-28.
Renou S., Givaudan J.G., Dirassouyan F., Moulin P., (2008), Landfill Leachate Treatment:
Review and Opportunity, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Volume 150, Issue 3, pp.
468–493.

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Slack R.J., Gronow J.R. and Voulvoilis N. (2005), Household Hazardous Waste in
Municipal Landfills: Contaminants in Leachate, Science of the Total Environment,
Volume 337, Issue 1-3, pp. 119-137.
Van Best S., (2016) Risk Assessment of Potential Hydrogeological Pollution of the on Site
Ground and Surface Waters Located at the Piyungan Municipal Solid Waste Landfill in
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MODELLING AND SIMULATION CFD ANALYSIS FOR FLOW INECONOMIZER HOPPER
Gun Gun Ramdlan Gunadi1,2,*, Ahmad Indra Siswantara 1,†, Budiarso1,‡, Asyari
Daryus1,3,§, and Hariyotejo Pujowidodo1**
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Jawa Barat,
Indonesia (16424)
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Indonesia (16424)
3Department of Mechanical Engineering. Universitas Darma Persada. Jl. Radin Inten II(Terusan Casablanca) Pondok Kelapa
1

Abstract
Increasing the mass of fly ash accumulation of coal ash in the electrostatic precipitator (ESP) and corrosion anderosion of the IDF, ESP, Air Pre Heater, because the system does not use an economizer hopper that can hold most of
the fly ash. Therefore, the study of engineering design economizer hopper and ash distribution system becomes
important. As an initial analysis, numerical simulation has more advantages in saving time and costs compared withexperiments. Variations in flow conditions and geometry can be adjusted easily to get results. Modeling and
Simulation CFD on economizer hopper aims to analyze the flow of particulate fly ash in the flue gas stream at theeconomizer hopper. Modeling and Simulation CFD process for flow analysis on economizer hopper is done by
CFDSOF (r) software using the three-dimensional geometry model with turbulent flow model of the standard (STD)k-ε multiphase Eulerian. Economizer inlets, is Gas = 2.1 m / s and Particulate = 1 m / s. The results of modeling andsimulation CFD calculations on economizer hopper indicate that the installation of economizer hopper significantly
reduces the amount of particulate fly ash in the flue gas stream. At the time of inception, the particulate deposition
rate highest 27%. Over time, the particulate deposition rate will drop due to the deposition of particulate matter oneach hopper. The particulate deposition rate at 6 economizer hopper A began to stabilize in 11:25 - 25.00 hours,
amounting to 6% to 5%.
Keywords: numerical simulation, CFD, particulate, fly ash, geometry, economizer hopper;

1. INTRODUCTION
Energy, especially electricity, has a very important role in supporting regional
development, for it is the goal of energy development is to provide sufficient energy ataffordable prices by purchasing power. Along with the growth of regional development
and other sectors, then the demand for energy, especially electricity, will continue toincrease.
Problems in the Steam Power Plant, which involves the accumulation of masses of fly
ash coal in Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) and corrosion and erosion of the Induced
Draft Fan (IDF), ESP, Air Pre Heater, because the system does not use the economizer
hopper can accommodate a portion of fly ash coal, therefore, study Engineering Design
economizer Hopper and Distribution System of ashes becomes important.
As a preliminary analysis, numerical simulations have advantages in saving time andcosts compared to the experiment. Simulations of turbulent flow by using a model,
simply done simulations on the computer hardware. Flow phenomena can be quickly
gun2rg@gmail.com; gungun.rg@mesin.pnj.ac.id
a_indra@eng.ui.ac.id‡
budiarso@ui.ac.id§
asyari@yahoo.com**
hariyotejo.pujowidodo@gmail.com
*
†

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obtained thus saving time and costs. The STD k-ε turbulence model, also called the k-ε
turbulence model, is a simple model which only requires the input of boundary
conditions, is mostly used for industry applications and is stable and widely validated.
(Versteeg & Malalasekera 1995). Two different turbulence models, standard (STD) k-ε
and renormalization group (RNG) k-ε, could be used to represent the combustion
process phenomenon in micro gas turbine combustor without many significant
differences. (Daryus et al. 2016). Standard (STD) k-ε, renormalization group (RNG) kε, and reynolds stress model (RSM) were applied for simulations of the turbulent flowin the wind tunnel. (Gunadi et al. 2016).
This paper will discuss the study Engineering Design Economizer Hopper andDistribution System of Ashes.
2. METHODS
Turbulence Model
The STD k-ε turbulence model has two additional transport equations for turbulent
flow: the kinetic energy transport equation, k, and the dissipation transport equation, ε.
Transport equation k is given by (Versteeg & Malalasekera 1995):


(k)
 div( kU)  div t gradk  2t Eij .Eij   ……………………………………… (1)tkand transport equation ε is given by (Versteeg & Malalasekera 1995):



2
()
 div( U)  div  t grad  C1 2t Eij.Eij C2  …………………….………………… (2)
t
k
k



where:

k2………………………………………………………….……………… (3) is density, U is the velocity vector, μt is the viscosity eddy and Eij. Eij is the average
speed of deformation. If i or j = 1, it relates to the x-direction; if i or j = 2, it relates tothe y-direction; and if i or j = 3, it relates to the z-direction. Cμ, σk, σ, C1 and C2 areconstants.
 t  C 

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Geometry

Figure 1. Geometry economizer flue gas tube ducting
Model geometry for economizer flue gas tube ducting can be seen in Figure 1.
Meshing
A 3-dimensional model was used for the simulation. The grid used was a type ofstructured cell with dimensions 49x22x49. Construction grid is shown in Figure 2 Figure 6, for Economizer Without Hopper (Flat) (Figure 2), Economizer 3 Hopper(Figure 4), Economizer 6 Hopper A (Figure 5), Economizer 6 Hopper B (Figure 6),shows the construction of grid.
Dependence on the grid was tested on various dimensions of the grid, where the test
results were consistent but not influenced by the size of the grid.

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Figure 2. Meshing simulation model of economizer without hopper (Flat).
Economizer 1 to 3 is defined by Porous 1 to 3.

IntakePorous 1 to 3

OutletFigure 3. Meshing simulation model of porous.

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Figure 4. Meshing simulation model of economizer 3 hoppers.

Figure 5. Meshing simulation model of economizer 6 hoppers A

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Figure 6. Meshing simulation model of economizer 6 hoppers B.

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Boundary Conditions
The simulation model is a three-dimensional model with a total grid 52822. Movement
direction intake gas and particulate matter in line with the y-axis. The flow consists ofgas and particulate phase so that the condition of multiphase Eulerian models enabled.
The movement of gases and particulate matter causing turbulence so that the k-ε
turbulence model is enabled. The flow of gas and particulate matter is influenced bygravity, so the gravity (gaya badan) are activated. Parameter values that are intended tosoftware are as follows:- Gas velocity intake = 2.1 m / s, particulate velocity intake = 1 m / s, volume fraction =3,5x10-5- Porosity porous = 1 m2
- Particulate density = 1,312x103 kg / m3
- Mean diameter of particulate = 1 x10-4 m
Inlet

OutletFigure 7. Computation parameter.
Verification
Verify to see how changing the time step on the simulation results, conducted threedifferent time step; step 30 s, 45 s, and 60 s. The simulation results shown by gas
magnitude velocity contours, as in Figure 8. The simulation results showed comparable
contour better to steps 30, 45 and 60 s. Similarly, comparable conditions are shown invelocity vector graphics at i28, J8, K25 with a time step of 30 s, 45 s and 60 in Figure 9.
Then, for the next simulation use time step of 60 s.

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(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 8. Gas magnitude velocity contour on economizer without hopper (flat) a) time
step 30 s b) time step 45 s c) time step 60 s

Figure 9. Velocity vector graphics at i28, J8, K25 with difference time step
Validation

Validation is comparing the simulation results with secondary/primary data. Validationis required to look at the suitability of the simulation results against actual data takenfrom surveys. The parameter is the volume fraction of particulate matter in comparison.
The validation results can be seen in Figure 10, particulate volume fraction contours at
the economizer without hopper (flat), showed in a corner of the flat area occurs highparticulate concentrations, comparable with the ash build up data in the economizer
bottom area indicated in Figure 11.

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The
concentration ofparticulate
volume fraction

Figure 10. Particulate volume fraction contours on economizer without hopper (Flat).

The ashbuildup

Figure 11. Ash buildup in economizer bottom area.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 12 shows the particulate magnitude velocity contours on the economizer without
hopper (flat), a portrait of flow along the wall, also in the flat area is quite low whichallows particulates will be more concentrated on that area due to the force of gravity.
Figure 13 shows that a flat area on the corner of formation of particulate concentration.
In these areas, the accumulation of particulates, to stabilize at a certain time.

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Figure 12. Particulate magnitude velocity contours on economizer without hopper (flat).

Figure 13. Particulate volume fraction contours on economizer without hopper (flat).

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Figure 14 shows the particulate volume fraction contours on 3 economizer hopper,
describe the flow in the hopper area, in addition to the low speed occurs also flow
circulation, which will increase the higher particulate matter concentrated in these areas
due to the force of gravity.

Figure 15 shows the particulate concentration is very high in the hopper area. In theseareas, there will be an accumulation of particulates with a higher deposition rate.

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Figure 14. Particulate magnitude velocity contours on economizer 3 hopper.

Figure 15. Particulate volume fraction contours on economizer 3 hopper.

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Comparable conditions are shown in

Figure 16 andFigure 17, which shows the particulate magnitude velocity contours at 6 economizer
hopper A, describe the flow at hopper area, low velocity and occurs the circulation flow,which will increase the higher particulate matter concentrated in these areas due to theforce of gravity. Very high particulate concentrations in the hopper area. In these areas,
there will be an accumulation of particulates with a higher deposition rate.

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Figure 16. Particulate magnitude velocity contours on economizer 6 hopper A.

Figure 17. Particulate volume fraction contours on economizer 6 hopper A.
The graph on Figure 18 shows the particulate deposition rate matter over time. At thetime of inception, the particulate deposition rate highest 27%. Over time, the particulate
deposition rate will drop due to the deposition of particulate matter on each hopper. The
particulate deposition rate at 6 economizer hopper A began to stabilize in 11:25 - 25.00

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hours, amounting to 5% to 5%. Such conditions can be taken into consideration todetermine the optimum time for issuing periodic particulate matter from the hopper.

Figure 18. Particulate deposition rate economizer hopper.
4. CONCLUSION
The results of modeling and simulation CFD calculations on economizer hopper
indicates that the installation economizer hopper will significantly help reduce theamount of particulate fly ash in the flue gas stream.
At the time of inception, the particulate deposition rate highest 27%. Over time, theparticulate deposition rate will drop due to the deposition of particulate matter on eachhopper. The particulate deposition rate at 6 economizer hopper A began to stabilize in
11:25 - 25.00 hours, amounting to 6% to 5%. Such conditions can be taken into
consideration to determine the optimum time for issuing periodic particulate matterfrom the hopper.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thanks, DRPM Universitas Indonesia for funding thisresearch through “Hibah Publikasi Internasional Terindeks untuk Tugas Akhir
Mahasiswa UI 2016” and to PT. CCIT Group Indonesia for CFDSOF® software
license.
6. REFERENCES
Daryus, A. et al., 2016. CFD simulation of turbulent flows in proto X-3 bioenergy micro
gas turbine combustor using STD k-ε and RNG k-ε model for green building
application. , pp.204–211.
Gunadi, G.G.R. et al., 2016. Turbulence model and validation of air flow in windtunnel. , pp.1362–1371.
Versteeg, H.K. & Malalasekera, W., 1995. An Introduction to Computational Fluid
Dynamics - The Finite Volume Method.

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15th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON QUALITY IN RESEARCH (QIR2017)
OPEN FLUME PICO-HYDRO TURBINE BLADE DESIGN BY ANALYTICAL
AND NUMERICAL METHOD
Budiarso, Ahmad Indra, Dendy Adanta, Hans Vohra*, Reza Dianofitra
Department Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Universitas Indonesia,
Kampus Baru Depok 16242
ABSTRACT
Bengkulu is a province located in southwest coast of Sumatera, Indonesia. Bengkulu isquite underdeveloped when compared to other provinces in the country. The
electrification ratio is as low as 51% in the region. The geographical condition of theregion which includes mountains and hilly areas has contributed more to the difficulty inexpanding the national grid. The lack of infrastructure such as roads have made theproblem worse. As a result, the cost of expanding the national grid becomes high. Due tothis condition, the only option left is to build off grid systems. Fortunately, there are many
water sources in Bengkulu and the energy potential is high. With all these information, it
can be concluded that a pico-hydro system is the right one to be developed. Selecting theright turbine for the right environmental conditions is therefore important as this will havea huge impact on the power output. Many studies have proved that the propeller type open
flume turbine is the best choice for remote areas in Indonesia. The area that is focused on
has a head of 2.7 m and flow rate of 0.041 m3/s. The right blade configuration is required
to produce turbine with the best efficiency. This study compares turbine having different
blade numbers i.e. 5 and 6 bladed turbines. In the design stage the blade number is kept
as the free variable while the others are kept fixed. This ensures that the blade number isthe only factor that influences the differences in the results that are obtained. Analysis
was done with simulation using CFD. The turbulence parameter taken is STD k-𝜀𝜀. CFD
simulation results showed that the greatest hydraulic efficiency is generated by the 6
bladed turbine and thus it is the right choice.
Keywords:k- ε; Open Flume; Pico-Hydro; Runner; Rural Area
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Rural areas, by definition include all the areas outside major towns and cities. These areas
often have mountainous terrains which are not suitable for development compared toplain fields and lands that are available in the city. (Ho-Yan, 2012) The question arises
then as to how we can provide electricity to these areas. With the current state of the world
where non- renewables are depleting, using renewable sources of energy would be a good
option. Other than that, a power generation system for small rural areas should be cheap
to manufacture, reliable and also efficient. (Prabu, 2012) Indonesia, is a country locatedin Asia, right under the equatorial line. It is now one of the fastest developing countries
in the world and it has a population of 255 million people. Despite the growth, there aremany areas in Indonesia that have little to no access of electricity. (BPS, 2015) One of it
is Bengkulu, a province located in southwest coast of Sumatera, Indonesia. Bengkulu isquite underdeveloped when compared to other provinces in Indonesia. This province will

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be the area that this research will be focused on as it has a huge water potential, it is arural area and also a low electrification ratio. Bengkulu has mountainous terrains withmany rivers and water streams with low flow rate and low head. This means that we candevelop small hydro-power plants. The scale of this power plant is decided to be less than
5 KW or in other words, it will be of a pico-hydro level. The main component of a picohydro power plant is the turbine and thus selecting the right turbine for the job is a must.
The turbine is designed based on the conditions of Salam Lake, inside the University ofIndonesia area. To be precise, the head is 2.7 𝑚𝑚 and the flow rate is 0.041 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠. Basedon Figure 1, it can also be concluded that the best turbine for the condition of Bengkulu
is the propeller turbine. The propeller will be of open flume type as it is simpler ascompared to other turbines and thus it would be easier to repair. Other than designing aturbine, this study also aims to find out the effect of the number of blades on turbine
performance.

Figure 1 Flow rate vs Head (Sayeed, 2015)
1.2 Previous ResearchOver the years students in University of Indonesia’s Fluid Mechanics Laboratory havedesigned several open flume turbines. This design is aimed at producing a turbine that ismore efficient. The changes made in this turbine are:
 New overall turbine design Using different NACA airfoils
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Turbine Design
Available information:
 H = 2.7 𝑚𝑚
Q = 0.041 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠

N = 1500 RPM

2.1.1 PowerThe first step is to calculate the power from the water. The formula used is:
𝑃𝑃 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 𝑄𝑄 𝑥𝑥 𝐻𝐻

228

(1)

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2.1.2 Specific Speed
The next step is to find specific speed 𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠 and 𝑛𝑛𝑞𝑞 . The specific speed 𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠 is based on the
power developed of the turbine while the specific speed 𝑛𝑛𝑞𝑞 comes from the flow rate of
the turbine. Specific speed 𝑛𝑛𝑞𝑞 is used in determining the hub to tip ratio as well as thediameter of the turbine.
𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠 = 𝑛𝑛

√𝑃𝑃

(2)

5

𝑛𝑛𝑞𝑞 = 𝑛𝑛

𝐻𝐻 4

√𝑄𝑄
3

𝐻𝐻 4

(3)

2.1.3 Hub to Tip Ratio, Diameter
Following the specific speed is the hub to tip ratio and diameter calculation. After finding
the specific speed, we can use Figure 2 to find the variables needed. (Simpson, 2011) For
this case, the resulting specific speed 𝑛𝑛𝑞𝑞 is near the borderline of the 6 and 5 bladed
turbine, thus there is a slight confusion on which configuration should be chosen and thus
this study is dedicated to find the answer.

Figure 2 Runner Design Parameters (Simpson, 2011)
Insert the variables to the formula (Simpson, 2011):
𝐾𝐾𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 =𝑟𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁√2 𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 ℎ 𝑥𝑥 60(4)

2.1.4 Velocity Triangle
The velocity triangle helps in finding the velocity components of the turbine and in return
the angle of attack of blades of the turbine. The blades used are NACA 4 series airfoil.

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Figure 3 Velocity triangle at the tip (Punit Singh*, 2010)
The angle of attack and thus select the airfoil type for the blades.
𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 tan ((𝑢𝑢−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 )𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 tan ((𝑢𝑢−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 )𝛽𝛽2 = 90° − 𝜃𝜃2𝛽𝛽3 = 90° − 𝜃𝜃3𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =

𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚

𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥

(5)

)

(6)
(7)

)

(8)

𝛽𝛽2 +𝛽𝛽3

(9)

2

(10)

𝛼𝛼 = 𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝛽𝛽22.1.5 Design Summary
Table 1 shows the design summary as obtained from the calculations using the formulamentioned earlier. Table 1 shows the obtained angle of attack and selected NACA airfoil
for the water turbine while Table 2 shows the design summary.
Table 1 Angle of attack and NACA airfoil at every hub to tip

230

𝑎𝑎°

Airfoil(NACA)

𝑑𝑑ℎ/𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
0.5

10.51

4418

0.6

17.17

4415

0.7

20.36

4412

0.8

21.93

2412

0.9

22.65

2409

1.0

22.90

2406

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Table 2 Design summary
Description

Value

Unit

Power

1.085

KW

N

1500

RPM

𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠

450

RPM

𝑛𝑛𝑞𝑞

144

RPM

𝐾𝐾𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢1.5-

𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

0.725

mm

1.45

mm

0.5

-

𝐷𝐷ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

Hup to tip
ratio

2.2 Modelling
For this case, to make sure that the results of the study is due to the differences in blade
number only, both the models are exactly the same with differences only in the blade
number i.e. 5 and 6 blades. The modelling is done in Solidworks software.

Figure 4 CAD of 6 bladed turbine

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Figure 5 CAD of 5 bladed turbine
2.3 Simulation
Computational fluid dynamics software helps to increase our understanding of theinteraction and movement of fluids. This is done by algorithms and numerical methods.
CFD has 3 steps which is the pre-processing stage, solver and post processing stage. There
are few turbulent models but for open flume propeller case, the k- Ɛ turbulent model will
be used. It is the most commonly used model and is suitable for general flow conditions.
On top of that, the computing power required for this turbulence model is not as highcompared to other models. (Launder B.E. , D. Spalding , 1974) For information such asa turbine characteristic curve for torque, power, flow rate and efficiency over the fullspeed range for a pico-hydro propeller turbine, the recommended turbulence model used
for the simulations is the k- ε (k-epsilon) model. The simulation is done under a steadystate condition. (R.G. Simpson, A.A. Williams, 2011)The main feature used here is the
Turbo topology from which hydraulic efficiency of the turbine can be obtained. In Turbo
topology, 1.6th and 1/5th of the turbine is inserted as the geometry. After iteration, wholeturbine can be displayed through the animation tab. This feature in brief, enables thecalculation to be done in the fraction of the component and times it by 6 and 5
respectively. This saves computing power and thus it is used. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show
the flow visuals for both the 6 and 5 bladed turbine at 450 RPM.
2.3.1 Mesh Independency
Before carrying out with the simulation, a study which is called the Mesh Independency
study should be conducted, the purpose of which is to find the best mesh setting thatwould provide the legitimate result without taking the most computing power. This would
lead to a faster and more efficient CFD process. For this case, the Mesh Independency is
performed by finding different velocities at Y = 0.06 m. Fig 8 shows the result. Based on
the figure below, a medium setting is deemed to be the best for this case since the dataobtained is not far off the fine setting.

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Mesh Independency
1.5

Velocity (m/s)

1.4
1.3
1.2

Medium1.1

Coarse

1

Fine

0.9
0.8

350

450

550

RPM

Figure 6 Mesh Independency result
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 7 Pathlines of 6 bladed turbine at 450 RPM

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Figure 8 Pathlines of 5 bladed turbine at 450 RPM
From the 2 simulation at 450 RPM, it can be seen that the 6 bladed turbine has shown amore controlled flow with less losses visually as the distance between blades are less. The
gaps in between the blades of the 5 bladed turbine has reduced the effective flow rate thatcome in contact with the turbine itself. The flow in the 5 bladed turbine seems to be lesscontrolled which supports the result of it having a less efficiency. A less controlled flowmeans that there will be less energy transfer from the fluid in this case, water to the blade.
The simulation at other turbine speed also showed similar pattern. After the simulation,
hydraulic efficiency of the turbine can be obtained. Which can be otherwise calculatedusing this formula:
𝑃𝑃 +𝑃𝑃(11)

𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻 = 𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑃 𝑚𝑚

Since the purpose of this study is to compare the best turbine configuration for low head
and low flow condition, the efficiency and power generated are the key variables that arepresented. The results show that the efficiency of the 6 bladed turbine is higher at 3
different turbine speed.
Table 3 Result obtained from CFD
RPM
350

𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻 5 Blade
30.62%

𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻 6 Blade

450

43.74%

52.46%

550

60.56%

67.37%

38.26%The total efficiency is inserted in equation (12):𝑃𝑃 = 𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻 𝑥𝑥 𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 𝑄𝑄 𝑥𝑥 𝐻𝐻

234

(12)

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Table 4 Actual power generated based on simulation
RPM

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 6
Blades350

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 5 Blades

450

475 W

569 W

550

657 W

731 W

332 W

415 W

From the results, the trend is as such that the higher the turbine speed, the higher is theefficiency of the turbines. The differences are high at around 10-15% per 100 rpm
increase in turbine speed. From this result it is also worth noting that the optimum turbine
speed of the turbine is around 550 rpm. The 6 bladed turbines have shown higher resultsin terms of power generated. This is because, the additional blade increases the surface
area that comes in contact with the water, which leads to a higher torque. The torque isimportant as it is then multiplied with the angular velocity to obtain the power generated.
Increased number of blades will also contribute to a higher friction which theoreticallyshould reduce the power generated and the efficiency however, it is believed that for thiscase the losses due to friction in 6 bladed turbine is not as high as the losses due to thewider gaps in between the 5 bladed turbine.
4. CONCLUSION
From this study, it can be concluded that the 6 blade turbine configuration is the best for
low flow and low head condition based on the head and flow rate at Salam Lake UI.
However, much more study at different flow rate and head should also be conducted tofind a conclusive answer. The author also believes that the analysis using CFD can be
improved by using a more detailed methods which at the time of making this paper could
not be done due to the unavailability of sophisticated computers. The results should also
be validated with an experiment to make sure that it is accurate and thus can act as theguideline for further studies for the students in University of Indonesia’s Fluid Mechanics
Laboratory.
5. REFERENCES(BPS), S. O. o. I., 2015. National Census. [Online] Available at:www.bps.go.id/[Accessed November 2016].
Adhikari, P., n.d. A Study on Developing Pico Propeller Turbine for Low Head Micro.
Journal of the Institute of Engineering, Vol. 9, p. pp. 36–53.
ESDM, 2016. Indonesia's Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. [Online]
Available at: esdm.go.id
Ho-Yan, B. P., 2012. Design of a Low Head Pico Hydro Turbine for Rural Electrificationin Cameroon.
Hui, P., 2009. Analytical Solution of Hydraulics Calculation on Cross Sections ofDifferent Spiral Cases.
Launder B.E. , D. Spalding , 1974. Computer methods in applied mechanics andengineering.

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Nechleba, M., 1957. Hydraulic Turbines Their Design and Equipment. Czechoslovakia:
ARTIA Prague..
PĂDUREAN, I., 2004. Study of Hydraulic Losses in Francis Turbines.
Prabu, A., 2012. Final Year Project - Propeller Turbine Design with 0.4 Hub to Tip
Diameter Ratio. Jakarta: University of Indonesia.
Punit Singh*, F. N., 2010. Experimental investigation of the influence of blade height andblade number.
R.G. Simpson, A.A. Williams, 2011. Application of computational fluid dynamics to thedesign of pico propeller turbines. Issue Nottingham Trent University.
R., T., 1931. Wasserturbinen und Turbinenpumpen Part 2. Stuttgart: Wittwer.
Rao, N. S. G., 1985. Fluid Flow Machines. New Delhi: Tata Mc Graw-Hill .
S.J. Williamson, B. S. ,. J. B. b., 2012. Low head pico hydro turbine selection using a
multi-criteria analysis. Renewable Energy.
Sayeed, M., 2015. Promotion of appropriate green technologies for rural prosperity.
s.l.:s.n.
Simpson, R., 2011. Design of propeller turbines for pico hydro. s.l.:s.n.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

Blade Height Optimization of Undershot Banki Pico-Hydro
Waterwheel by Analytical and Numerical Methods
Budiarso, A. I. Siswantara, D. Adanta, R. Pradito*, R. Dianofitra
Department Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Universitas Indonesia,
Kampus Baru Depok 16242
ABSTRACTElectricity is one of the primary needs in the daily life of a modern human. It is the maintype of energy to power a modern human daily needs because it is easy to use,environmentally friendly, and can be easily converted to other forms of energy.
However, electricity is not evenly distributed in Indonesia, especially the rural areas dueto the lack of access to the power generation. Indonesia has an electrification ratio of
84.35% in the year 2015. This data shows that there are 49 million people who do nothave access to electricity. Thus, an additional pico-hydro power generation (PLTPH) to
minimize the use of fossil fuels and fulfill the electrification goals set by the ministry ofenergy and mineral resources. Pico-Hydro power generation becomes a solution
because in Indonesia there are plenty of water sources and that can be utilized. This
paper is mainly focused on banki undershot waterwheel, because of the simple
construction, economical, and easy to move. In addition undershot banki waterwheel issuitable for water sources that have a low head like sources that found in Indonesia. The
banki Undershot Pico Hydro Waterwheel is field tested in Salam Lake Located in
University of Indonesia with the head set at 2.7 meter and channels 41 l/s of water. Thiswaterwheel is to be applied in North Bengkulu at Palak Siring waterfall which is one of
the remote areas located in Indonesia. In this study undershot waterwheel straight blade
has an outer diameter of 0.81 m and an inner diameter of 0.54 m with 14 blades and 2
active blades. The blade has a height of 0.135 m and a width 0.13 m. Besides that thechannel was reduced from 0.15 m (pipe) to 0.13 m to fill the height of blade so theblade can rotate. This analysis was done with simulation using CFD with STD k-ε
turbulence modeling. The results of efficiency and power undershot is 32% and 348.8
watts.
Keywords: Banki Waterwheel, Electricity, Height of Blade, k-ε, Pico Hydro, Renewable
Energy, Undershot* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: riandhika.p@gmail.com
1. INTRODUCTION
Water energy is the energy that has been used widely in Indonesia on a large scale has
been used as a power plants. In the decade, electricity needs in Indonesia show so large
numbers in both rural and the city. To anticipate, then the presence of electricity veryneeded. But there are still many remote areas who do not get electrical service from theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN). While public needs about electricity more increasing.
This happens because the limited existing power plants and the difficulty oftransportation lines to the rural areas. In areas with topography mountainous
encountered many streams the river has the potential to be developed as power plants.
This potential mostly in rural areas, while many people in rural areas who have notenjoyed electricity, so it is appropriate to developing power plants with hydropower
where the cost of the operation cheap, easily, and it is free pollution [1].
Indonesia has an electrification ratio of 84.35% in the year 2015. This data shows that
there are 49 million people who do not have access to electricity. Thus, an additionalsource of energy is needed to power remote areas in Indonesia, one of the available
methods is by using renewable energy that is pico-hydro power generation (PLTPH) to
minimize the use of fossil fuels and fulfill the electrification goals set by the ministry ofenergy and mineral resources. Pico-Hydro power generation becomes a solution
because in Indonesia there are plenty of water sources and that can be utilized [2]. One
of it is Bengkulu, a province located in southwest coast of Sumatera, Indonesia.
Bengkulu is quite underdeveloped when compared to other provinces in Indonesia. This
province will be the area that this research will be focused on. The reasons are,Bengkulu has 51.46% electrification ratio, huge water potential (waterfall), and locatedat rural area [3].
Bengkulu has mountainous terrains with many rivers and water streams with low flowrate and low head. This means that we can develop small hydro-power plants. The scaleof this power plant is decided to be less than 5 KW or in other words, it will be of apico-hydro level. Based on the figure below, it can also be concluded that the best
turbine for the condition of Bengkulu is the Undershot Waterwheel. Other than that theUndershot Waterwheel are simple construction, more economical, easy to be moved,
and it would be easier to repair.

Figure 1. Flow rate vs Head [4]238

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The Banki Undershot Pico Hydro Waterwheel is field tested in Salam Lake Located in
University of Indonesia with the head set at 2.7 meter and channels 41 l/s of water. Thiswaterwheel is to be applied in North Bengkulu at Palak Siring waterfall which is one of
the remote areas located in Indonesia.
2. METHODOLOGY
In this study used analytic numerical methods. Analytical methods are calculate for thedimensions of each design waterwheel that will be created. Whereas the numericalmethods is to make sure and look up the pressure and the fraction of the flow of fluid hit
the blades.
2.1 Undershot Waterwheel Design
Available information:
H = 2.7 m
Q = 0.041 m3/s
DPipe = 0.15 m
2.1.1 PowerThe first step is to calculate the power of the water. The formula used is:(Watt)(1)

2.1.2 Water Velocity from Pipe (vpipe)
The formula for the water velocity from pipe is:2.1.3 Head Clear (Hc)ൌ

(m/s)

(2)

Head clear is a high fall of water from the pipe. The formula used is:

2.1.4 Waterwheel Diameter



ൌ

(m)(3)To get the diameter of the waterwheel, first be known to the high fall of water (H).
Waterwheel undershot with a straight blade types have the boundary conditions in
the designing.
Head H < 2 m
Outter Waterwheel Diameter D1 = 3 x Hc = 3 x 0.27 = 0.81 m
The height of the blade p = (1/3 D1)/2 = (1/6 x 0.81) = 0.135 m
Inner Waterwheel Diamaeter D2 = D1 – 2p = 0.81 – 0.27 = 0.54 m

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2.1.5 Spacing of Blades (t)Calculation to find the space between the blade required to rotate the wheel bywheel construction and design are:
(m)
(4)
(5)

(m)

(6)

(m)

2.1.6 Number of Blades (z)To determine the number of blades on the waterwheel with, the formula is [5]:(7)
2.1.7 Blade width (b)With the formula of the water capacity is Q = A x v and the height of blade is
1/6 diameter of the waterwheel, then to determine the width of the blade are [6]:
(m)

(8)

2.1.8 Inter-blade angle (θ)
The last step from the blade is to known the blade angle. The formula is:

(°)

(9)

2.1.9 Channel Undershot Waterwheel
The calculation for channel are from a pipe diameter of 6 inches (0.15 m) andthen the flow is reduced to fit the width of waterwheel (b) for an unknown lengthof the channel.
= P’ x Bil. Pencegah Backward Facing
(10)




P’

Figure 2. Pipe Channel

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2.1.10 Design Summary
Table 1. Design Summary
Description
Head
Flow Rate
D Piper PipeA PipeWater Velocity
Head Clear
Outter Diameter
Height of Blade
Inner Diameter
Outter Circumference
Inner Circumference
Thick Blade
Number of BladeSpace Between the
Outter BladeSpace Between the
Inner Blade
Blade Angle
Width of Waterwheel

Symbol
H
Q
D
r
A
v
Hc
D1
p
D2
K1
K2
t'
z

Value
2.71
0.041
0.15
0.075
0.017671
2.320125
0.27
0.81
0.135
0.54
2.54
1.69
0.004
14

Unit
m
m³/s
m
m
m²
m/s
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
blade

t1

0.18

m

t2
θ
b

0.12
25.7
0.13

m
ͦ
m

2.2 The Work of Undershot Waterwheel
2.2.1 Roving Speed of Waterwheel (U1)
The amount of wheel peripheral speed can be calculated by the equation [7]:
(m/s)

(11)

(rpm)

(12)

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2.2.3 Energy on the Waterwheel (PWaterwheel)
The calculations to determine the energy available in the waterwheel is:(Watt)(13)

To determine the energy available waterwheel, first step is to known Torque. The
formula is [8]:
τ=FxL

(Nm)

(14)

Waterwheel
RadiusFigure 3. Undershot Waterwheel Active Blade

L1

L2

Figure 4. Water flow and Radius of Undershot Waterwheel

Waterwheel Radius = sin 64.3 x 0.4
L1 = {(Waterwheel Radius – r2)/2} + r2
L2 = {(r1 – Waterwheel Radius)/2} + Waterwheel Radius

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Percentage of water discharge
L1Q = (Waterwheel Radius – r2)/p x Q
L2Q = (r1 – Waterwheel Radius)/p x Q
F1 = L1Q x ρ x g
F2 = L2Q x ρ x g
τ 1 = L1 x F1
τ 2 = L2 x F2
τ total = τ1 + τ2
Then after get torque, search the angular velocity (ω) with formula:(15)(rad/s)

2.3 Modeling
For this case, to make sure that the undershot waterwheel design is correct, so themodelling is done made in Autodesk Inventor.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5. (a) Waterwheel Top View (b) Waterwheel Side View

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2.4 Simulation
Computational fluid dynamics is a simulation for numerical method that helps ourunderstanding to make calculation of power, torque, and efficiency of undershot
waterwheel makes easier with an image of the flow fluid and the interaction that can beviewed directly on the computational fluid dynamics software. In Computational fluid
dynamics there are various models of turbulent, but in this study k-epsilon (k- Ɛ)
turbulent model will be used because is suitable for general flow conditions.
Computational fluid dynamics software used was ANSYS Fluent 15. The first step inusing ANSYS Fluent 15 is import the geometry from Autodesk Inventor or Solid works
into ANSYS fluent 15, the next step is to perform the naming in each field of theundershot waterwheel which is inlet, outlet, interface, and ambient. After that performthe meshing with fine mesh sizing. Then in setup activate phase multiphase for waterand air, turn on energy and replacing viscous into k-epsilon. The boundary conditions
on the inlet input water velocity values that 2.32 m/s, set wall.trg with 24.6 rpm value
and mesh interfaces included angle that 25.7 ͦ of the undershot waterwheel blade, sowhen iterating the waterwheel can also rotate with the flow of the fluid. The last step isiterations that performed as many as 30 times each time step. Time step used period is0.004 seconds, 600 time step. The focus of this study in numerical is to get the pressureand fraction of the undershot waterwheel.
After doing the steps and iterations, according to focus on the study in numerical is thepressure and fraction. So the pressure is obtained according to the figure 6, where thepressure is higher on the first two active blades that are hit by the speed of the water.
While the fraction is where the water flow on the blades, so that the waterwheel canrotate as in figure 7. Therefore it can be proven the analytical methods because, as
shown in Figure 6 and 7 that the blade is exposed to water are two active blade, and has
been calculated on analytical methods by finding torque and force of active blades. So
we can get the power and efficiency of the undershot waterwheel.

Figure 6. Static Pressure Undershot Waterwheel

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Figure 7. Fraction Undershot Waterwheel
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
From the analytical and numerical method, we get the result for force, torque, powerand efficiency of undershot waterwheel.
Table 2. Variabels Needed to Obtain the Height of Blade
Description
Head clear
Outer Diameter
Inner Diameter
Height of Blade

Symbol
Hc
D1
D2
p

Value
0.27
0.81
0.54
0.135

Unit
m
m
m
m

Table 3. Result Summary for Torque and Force of Active Blade
L1

L2

F1

F2

τ1

τ2

τtotalω

0.317 m0.385 m281.55 N

120.66 N

89.32 Nm

46.43 Nm

135.75 Nm

2,57

Pwaterwheel = 135.75 x 2.57
= 348.8 Watt
Pwater = 1090 Watt
η Waterwheel = 348.8/1090= 32 %

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From the results, we can see from 24.6 rpm rotation of undershot waterwheel with aheight of blade of 0.135 m and a width 0.13 m obtained an efficiency of 32%. The
efficiency is obtained from water power that has been known and waterwheel powerthat 348.8 watt derived from the torque and force existing in the radius of thewaterwheel. In addition to the CFD can be concluded that the pressure and flow ofwater (fraction) focused on two active blades on a waterwheel where that could be
calculated.
4. CONCLUSION
From this study, it can be concluded that undershot waterwheel is the best for low flow
and low head condition based like in North Bengkulu at Palak Siring waterfall and also
at Salam Lake University of Indonesia. Because undershot waterwheel with a straight
blade, its design very easy and simple to be made in remote areas that will be applied.
This undershot waterwheel with straight blade has an outer diameter of 0.81 m and an
inner diameter of 0.54 m with 14 blades and 2 active blades. The blade has a height of0.135 m and a width 0.13 m, so for pico-hydro and remote areas this waterwheel is very
economical and easy to be moved. Especially this undershot waterwheel has the powerand efficiency of 348.8 watts and 32%.
REFERENCES
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

6.

7.
8.

246

Sipayung, S., ENERGI AIR & ENERGI BENDA ANGKASA (SUMBER DAYAENERGI). 2011.
Energi, S. Pengawasan Keteknikan Untuk Mewujudkan Keselamatan
2015;
Available
from:
Ketenagalistrikan.
http://www.satuenergi.com/2015/10/pengawasan-keteknikan-untukmewujudkan.html.
(BPS), S.O. National Cencus 2015; Available from: www.bps.go.id/.
Williamson, S., B. Stark, and J. Booker, Low head pico hydro turbine selection
using a multi-criteria analysis. Renewable Energy, 2014. 61: p. 43-50.
Ovens, W.G., Design manual for water wheels; with details for applications topumping water for village use and driving small machinery, in Design manual
for water wheels; with details for applications to pumping water for village use
and driving small machinery. 1977, Vita.
Wibawa, U., H. Santoso, and I. Dharmayana, PERANCANGAN KINCIR AIR
PEMBANGKIT LISTRIK TENAGA MIKROHIDRO (PLTMH) DESABENDOSARI KECAMATAN PUJON KABUPATEN MALANG. Jurnal Elektro
Unika Atma Jaya, 2014. 7(1): p. 45-58.
Dietzel, F. and D. Sriyono, Turbin pompa dan kompresor. Jakarta: Erlangga,
1993.
Nuernbergk, D.M. and C. Rorres, Analytical model for water inflow of anArchimedes screw used in hydropower generation. Journal of HydraulicEngineering, 2012. 139(2): p. 213-220.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

Comparison between Airfoil Profiled Blade and Ordinary
Blade in Cross-flow Turbine Using Numerical Simulation
Warjito, A.I. Siswantara, D. Adanta, A.P. Prakoso*, R. Dianofitra
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Universitas Indonesia,
Kampus baru, Depok, 16242
Abstract
Isolated rural area makes on-grid electrification development becomes expensive andinefficient. For rural area with quite torrential river flow, it is recommended to build runof-river pico-hydro power plant for their mini-grid power system to produce enoughelectricity for small village with low investment cost. Cross-flow Banki turbine is wellknown for its simplicity of shape, design, and construction. Thus, the construction cost of
this type of turbine is very low rather than another turbine like propeller and Pelton.
Moreover, it also makes cross-flow Banki turbine easier to maintain, moreover thisturbine has self-cleaning ability. Furthermore, cross-flow Banki turbine is well known for
its independent efficiency from fluctuation of water discharge. Beside of many advantage
on this turbine, cross-flow Banki turbine efficiency is relatively lower than anotherturbine. The drag force usually present when water flowing around immerse body, liketurbine blade because of eddy formation. This force usually reduces the turbine
efficiency. Airfoil profiles are proven to reduce eddy formation in water flow around
immerse body like turbine blade then increase some turbine efficiency. This study aim toinvestigate the effect of NACA airfoil in blade profile to the cross-flow turbine efficiency.
NACA-6712 airfoil profile was chosen because it has bigger lift coefficient than others.
In this study, the turbine with NACA-6712 airfoil profiled blade cross-flow turbine has
been compared with ordinary one by using CFD simulation. This study use 2.7 m headand 0.04 m3/s of water discharge. ANSYS FLUENT 17 with k-epsilon turbulence modelis used in this study. As a result, CFD simulation found that maximum efficiency ofordinary blades turbine is 77.6% with number of blades 45. While, the maximum
efficiency of NACA turbine is 74.9% with 50 blades. From the results, it can be obtainedthat the ordinary turbine is better than NACA turbine.
Keywords: Rural Area, Power Plant, Pico-Hydro, Turbine, Cross-flow, Airfoil.
1. Introduction
Indonesia, especially Bengkulu consist of many hills and mountains, that’s makes
Bengkulu mountains land’s topology. In the other hand, Bengkulu has heavy rainfall
along the year (DLH, 2014). This topology make Indonesia especially Bengkulu has
many geographically isolated area and create many of isolated rural area. Rare ofhousehold and difficult terrain caused by geographically isolation in isolated rural area
makes transmission system development cost for on-grid electrification system become
expensive (Kaunda, Kimambo, & Nielsen, 2014). That’s make electricity difficult to be
develop in isolated rural area in Indonesia and make Bengkulu’s and Indonesia’s
electrification ratio low.
*ajipp13@gmail.com

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Behind that faced adversity, mountains topology and heavy rainfall indicate great hydroenergy potential for Bengkulu Province. For the isolated rural area, which has perennial
river flow, pico-hydropower plant is recommended to electrify their village with theirown mini-grid system. Pico hydropower and micro hydropower is small hydropower
plant system which can utilize river stream with particular head (Kaunda et al., 2014).
River stream utilization for electricity can be done by dam the river stream and channel
it into the turbine at the lower place. The electrical power generated by pico-hydropoweris lower than 5 kW electricity (Paish, 2002).
Cross-flow typed turbine is ideal for small hydropower plant which directly utilize river
stream because the turbine’s efficiency is independent from flow variation (Durgin &Fay, 1984). At this time, Michell-Banki turbines are often to use for small scaledhydropower plant especially because of their economic aspect (Kaniecki, 2002). Crossflow turbine become good choice for efficiency, flexibility, and cost consideration,
because this turbine is the cheap turbine with simple geometry, design, and easy
construction (Sammartano, Morreale, Sinagra, & Tucciarelli, 2016).
The cross-flow typed turbine is firstly introduced by Australia’s scientist and engineer
named Antony Mitchell at 1903. Furthermore, the cross-flow turbine has been developedby a Hungarian scientist, Donàt Bànki, this make the cross-flow turbine called as
Mitchell-Banki turbine too. After that, study firstly conducted by Mockmore andMerryfield in 1949, they analytically explain the maximum efficiency for the MitchellBanki turbine as the equation below (Mockmore & Merryfield, 1949).
(1)
Moreover, in that study, Mockmore and Merryfield also determine the optimum absolute
angle of attack for this turbine is α = 16o, so, by using that equation, the maximum
efficiency that can be attained by this turbine is 92.4%. That study has done with the 16
ft (4.88 m) head and 3 cfs (0.085 m3/s) discharge condition(Mockmore & Merryfield,
1949). Nowadays, many of study agree that the optimum angle of attack for this turbine
is 22o. (Aziz & Desai, 1993; De Andrade et al., 2011; Durgin & Fay, 1984; Kaniecki &Steller; Sammartano, Aricò, Carravetta, Fecarotta, & Tucciarelli, 2013).
Sammartano conducted series of CFD simulation and experiment to determine the most
optimum design of this turbine. One of parameter which is investigated is Vt/U variable.
It is ratio between tangential speed of water and tangential turbine’s tip speed. The
optimum Vt/U value for this turbine design is 1.8 (Sammartano et al., 2013). In 2013,
Budiarso conducted study to compare k-ε and RNG k-ε turbulence model for modellingcross-flow gas turbine, the result is RNG k-ε is better but more complicated (Darmawan,
Indra Siswantara, & Budiarso, 2013). The most recent study about cross-flow turbine isconducted by Sammartano to determine the best turbulence model for modelling thisturbine (Sammartano et al., 2016).
Beside studies above, Durgin has conducted some studies in 1984 with a cross-flow
turbine which blades made from 3 mm tick plexiglass with standard cutting to investigate
the 2nd stage energy transfer influence to the total turbine efficiency. As the result, the 2ndstage energy transfer contribute 17% of total 61% efficiency (Kaniecki, 2002). In 2002,
Kaniecki conduct study with 3.6 mm tick blades cross-flow turbine. The turbine blade
was sharpened and has been mashed with good machining. The efficiency accomplished

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in this study was closely above 80% (Kaniecki, 2002). Sammartano, with someinvestigation explained before, the turbine can attain 85% efficiency. The turbine blade
form is same like crescent moon. From studies above, it can be inferred that the blade
profile of cross-flow turbine has some influences to its efficiency. This Study hypothesisthought that NACA-airfoil profiled cross-flow turbine blade has better efficiency thanordinary arc formed blade turbine.
2. Methodology
a. Analytical design of cross-flow turbine
The condition of this study is based on the survey result that held in North Bengkulu
Regency, Bengkulu which has scaled 1:1 in Pico hydropower laboratories, Salam Lake,
University of Indonesia. The available head of this site is 2.7 m with 0.04 m3/s discharge.
In Sammartano study, obtained not all of available potential head could be converted tobe kinetical energy (velocity) in cross-flow turbine. The produced velocity from head isadhere the equation below (Sinagra, Sammartano, Aricò, Collura, & Tucciarelli, 2014).

V  CT 2 gH

(2)With recommended CT is 0.98, it can be calculated that the incoming water velocity to
the turbine is 7.13 m/s with direction is 22o from turbine’s tip speed. From discussion
before, we know that the optimum Vt/U is 1.8. So, from that equation and mixed withvelocity triangle analysis (Fig. 1), we can obtain the tangential tip speed is U = 3.67 m/s
and the inlet angle of this cross-flow turbine is β1 = 42o.

Fig. 1. Cross-flow turbine velocity triangle.(Sammartano et al., 2013)For blade outlet, many of study agreed that the optimum angle is β2 = 90o. In the other
hand, the 90o blade outlet angle, it would make the water exit the 1st stage angle below
90o, so the energy transfer in 1st stage not maximum. By using office computing software,particles path line has calculated to determine how water particles enter the 2nd stage. It
can be obtained from figure 2, in β2 = 90o condition, the water particles enter the 2nd stage
by hitting the pod of turbine blades, so they push the turbine blades at the same direction
with turbine’s rotation. In α2 = 90o condition, water particles hit the back of turbine blades
then makes negative power output in 2nd stage.
From the calculation discussed above also obtained the optimum way how the water
enters the turbine. The inlet angle is optimum at 22o ≤ θ ≤ 112o. Then, to prevent
turbulence inside the nozzle, it should be ascertained that the water has their own path toProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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flowing through the nozzle. Therefore, nozzle design should obey equation 3 and 4(Sammartano et al., 2013).

Fig. 2. Water particle path inside turbine at 90o β2 and 90o α2 conditions(3)(4)
The q variable is flow per width unit of nozzle which calculated with equation below.
(5)
To make the manufacture process easier, it’s been decided to use PVC pipe as turbine
blade. The PVC pipe is well known that has limited diameter choice, this make the turbine
blade choosing become priority in this turbine design process. Some studies obtain some
optimum ratio between outer and inner diameter. Sammartano, based on Aziz study use
d/D ratio as 0.68, but after some optimization, the study obtained that best ratio d/D is0.65 (Sammartano et al., 2013). Relations between that ratio and the turbine blade design
were explained below.

Fig. 3. Relation between turbine diameter and blade’s design parameters.

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At first, it’s been known from studies before that the best blade outlet angle is β2 = 90o.
From figure 4, it can be seen there is a triangle which edges are Ts, d/2, and D/2. It’s also
seen that two blade radius lines and their tangential line formed a kite shape which wingis orthogonal. This make the angle between both blade radius line or also named as blade
curvature angle then obey this equation.
(6)𝛿𝛿 = 90 − 𝛽𝛽1 + 𝜃𝜃From equation 6, it been obtained that the angle between Ts and D/2 is (90 -β1 -θ)/2, thenthe angle between d/2 and D/2 is θ, and then the angle between d/2 and Ts is 180 - (90 β1 + θ)/2. From triangle’s low, we can generate these relations in the equation below.
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠

=

𝑑𝑑/2

𝐷𝐷/2

90−𝛽𝛽1 −𝜃𝜃 =(7)90−𝛽𝛽1 +𝜃𝜃
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆()
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(180−)
22From equation above 7, relation between blade curvature chord (Ts) and the outer
diameter (D) is Ts = 0.19 D. This chord can be used as the NACA profile chord. Next,
relation between the cord and the curvature radius was explained by the equation 8.
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝜃𝜃)

𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠

=

𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

(8)
90+𝛽𝛽1 −𝜃𝜃
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆()
2From equation 8, the blade curvature radius can be calculated as Rs = 0.2 D. Sammartanoalso make the equation between Rs, D and d as the equations below.
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(90−𝛽𝛽1 +𝜃𝜃)2D d  
Rs  1     cos(1 ) 1
4   D  )| tan / 2  cos(sin(  )1(9)1

But, the equations above are not valid with this case. By considering simplicity of theturbine manufacture and transmission design between the turbine and the generator, thechosen blade size is 36 mm radius using 2.5” PVC pipe.
b. Airfoil selection for blade profile

Fig. 4. Some airfoil testing results by NACA.

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From some discussion above, it’s been known that the turbine blades are have a curvatureform. Then, in this study, the 4-digits series NACA profile was used for the turbine’s
blade profile. The choosing investigation is focused on 44XX, 45XX, 46XX, 47XX,
64XX, 65XX, 66XX or 67XX series which has big curvature camber. The chosen profile
is considered as the bigger lift and drag coefficient because the angle between water flow
and the turbine rotations is not perfectly orthogonal. Figure 4 shows some cl, cd, and cp
graphic in some airfoil testing by NACA (Jacobs; Ward & Pinkerton, 1933).
From some conducted analytical calculation, NACA-6712 has been decided as the best
profile for the turbine blade with angle of attack 24o. The tested lift and drag coefficientat 24o AOA is 1.9 and 0.28. Table 1 show cross-flow turbine design parameter in thisstudy. Figure 5 show NACA-6712 profiled blade position on turbine design.
Table 1. Some cross-flow turbine design parameters.
Design Parameter
Value
Design Parameter
Value
Outer Diameter (D)180 mmBlade Inlet Angle (β1)
42oInner Diameter (d)117 mmBlade Outlet Angle
90o
Inlet Angle (α)
22oBlade Curve Radius
36 mmNozzle Inlet Height (So) 53 mm
Blade Curve Angle
58oNozzle Width (B)106 mmNozzle outlet angle (θ)
22o ≤ θ ≤ 112o
Turbine Width (W)
159 mm
NACA airfoil
NACA-6712
Airfoil chord length
32 mm
Airfoil chord angle
18 oAirfoil AOA
24 oFig. 5. NACA-6712 profiled blade location.
c. CFD Numerical Simulation Method
The CFD numerical simulation was conducted using ANSYS® FLUENT® 17 with 2D
domain. The aims of this simulation are to obtain the detail of best design for cross-flow
turbine using some optimizations and to find the best blades number for both NACA 6712
profiled blades turbine and the ordinary arc formed blades.
The turbulence model for this simulation is k-ε with realizable constants and scalable wall
slip formula. The k-ε model is the simplest model for turbulence modelling so thecomputer can run faster in this complex case. Furthermore, the k-ε model is suitable forlow pressure gradient case like this study (Sinagra et al., 2014). This simulation also use
moving mesh mode with rotational speed of -40.8 rad/s. The multiphase equation used in

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this simulation is volume of fluid equations, with implicit volume interaction equations
and body force equations. This simulation also use an open channel mode equations.
Figure 6 show CFD model of cross-flow turbine, white lines are walls, blue is inlet, red
are pressure inlets, and yellow is interface.
After passing the mesh independency process, the most suitable grid size for thesimulation of non NACA profiled blades cross-flow turbine in this study is smaller than
5x10-3 m, but not smaller than 1x10-5 m. While, for simulation of NACA profiled blades
turbine is using grid size is smaller than 5.48x10-3 m and bigger than 5.48x10-5 m. Figure
6 shows the meshing size used in this study.

Fig. 6. Meshing size for non-NACA and NACA-profiled turbine.
3. Result and Discussiona. Ordinary blades cross-flow turbine
From numerical simulation conducted, pressure distribution of the ordinary blade crossflow turbine can be obtained in figure 7. From figure 7, it can be obtained that the pressure
is concentrated at the pod of turbine blades. The maximum pressure at the blade’s pod isabout 16 kPa. That pressure then push the turbine and make the turbine rotating. The flow
stagnancy can be obtained with the higher pressure at the top of second stage blade.

Fig. 7. Pressure contour results of ordinary blades cross-flow turbine. (a) this study,(b) Sammartano’s study.

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Figure 7 also show the pressure contour of numerical results on Sammartano cross-flow
turbine design study (Sammartano et al., 2013). The similarities from the results above
are the highest pressure at the turbine is on the pods of first stage’s blades and the lowest
is on the back of second stage’s blades. The flow stagnancy also found at both results.
Some differences could be found in the value of pressure like highest pressure at firststage’s turbine blades in this result is 1.3 Atm (1.32x105 Pa), while in the results above
1.5x104 Pa. It is mainly caused by the difference of working head condition that this study
has higher head condition (~10 m).
b. NACA profiled blades cross-flow turbine
The pressure distribution of the NACA-6712 profiled blades cross-flow turbine can beseen at the figure 8. It can be obtained from the figure8, in leading edge outside type of
NACA-6712 profiled blades turbine the pressure concentration is located at the tip ofturbine. That pressure concentration push the turbine blades not at the right direction. It
also obtained that there is obstacle for the fluid flow inside the first stage. When the airfoil
direction reversed, the pressure concentrations were moved to the pod of turbine blade
like obtained in ordinary blade results. Figure 9 also show that after passing the first stage
blade, the static pressure is increased in NACA-6712 profiled blades turbine. The figure
also show there is some blades has pressure at the back of blade was higher than at the
pod of blade, so it makes the negative power to the turbine.

Fig. 8. Pressure contour on NACA-6712 profiled blades cross-flow turbines withdifferent profile direction
c. Optimum blades number investigation
The next simulations are to obtain the best turbine blades number. Ordinary blades, airfoil
blades, and reversed airfoil blades crossflow turbine had been simulated with somenumber of blades from 25 to 40 blades. Figure 9 summarize all the simulations conductedto obtain the number of blades which give best efficiency in each type of blades.
From figure 9, it can be obtained that the best efficiency of ordinary blades cross-flow
turbine was 93.4% using 30 blades. It also obtained that airfoil and reversed airfoil
profiled best efficiency was 90.5% and 93.4% using 25 blades. The results obtained thathigher number of blade not always increase the efficiency of cross-flow turbine. If theblade spacing were too close, it can inhibit the water flow and decrease the cross-flow

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turbine efficiency. Corresponding with results in figure 7 and 8, the efficiency of airfoil
profiled cross-flow turbines were lower than ordinary one and reversed one.

Fig. 9. Turbine efficiency in some numbers of blades
4. Conclusion
This study was resulting that the best blades number for cross-flow turbine is 30
blades which can have efficiency about 93.4% from the numerical results. From analytical
calculations, the most suitable NACA profile for this turbine in this study is NACA 6712.
The NACA 6712 profiled turbine can make 90.5% efficiency by using 25 blades. Then,
when it reversed, it can make 93.4% efficiency by using 25 blades. This study concluded
that the ordinary blades cross-flow turbine is better than the NACA-6712 profiled turbine.
Another study can be conducted with different type of NACA airfoil profile to optimize
the efficiency of the cross-flow turbine.

5. Reference
Aziz, Nadim M, & Desai, Venkappayya R. (1993). A laboratory study to improve theefficiency of cross-flow turbines. Engineering Report.
Darmawan, Steven, Indra Siswantara, Ahmad, & Budiarso, Budiarso. (2013).
COMPARISON OF TURBULENCE MODELS ON REYNOLDS NUMBERS OF
A PROTO X-2 BIOENERGY MICRO GAS TURBINE’S COMPRESSORDISCHARGE. Paper presented at the Proceedings International Conference on
Engineering of Tarumanagara.
De Andrade, Jesús, Curiel, Christian, Kenyery, Frank, Aguillón, Orlando, Vásquez,
Auristela, & Asuaje, Miguel. (2011). Numerical investigation of the internal
flow in a Banki turbine. International Journal of Rotating Machinery, 2011.
DLH. (2014). Laporan Status Lingkungan Hidup Daerah Provinsi Bengkulu. Kota
Bengkulu: Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Provinsi Bengkulu.
Durgin, WW, & Fay, WK. (1984). Some fluid flow characteristics of a cross-flow typehydraulic turbine. Small Hydro Power Fluid Machinery, p77-83.

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Jacobs, Pinkerton. Greenberg. Tests of related forward camber airfoils in the variable
density tunnel. NACA Report, 610.
Kaniecki, Maciej. (2002). Modernization of the outflow system of cross-flow turbines.
Task Quarterly, 6, 601-608.
Kaniecki, Maciej, & Steller, Janusz. Flow Analysis through a Reaction Cross-Flow
Turbine. Paper presented at the Proceedings of Conference on modelling fluid
flow CMFF.
Kaunda, Chiyembekezo S, Kimambo, Cuthbert Z, & Nielsen, Torbjorn K. (2014). A
technical discussion on microhydropower technology and its turbines.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 35, 445-459.
Mockmore, CA, & Merryfield, F. (1949). The Banki water turbine, bulletin series no.
25. Oregon State College.
Paish, Oliver. (2002). Small hydro power: technology and current status. Renewable
and sustainable energy reviews, 6(6), 537-556.
Sammartano, Vincenzo, Aricò, Costanza, Carravetta, Armando, Fecarotta, Oreste, &Tucciarelli, Tullio. (2013). Banki-michell optimal design by computational fluid
dynamics testing and hydrodynamic analysis. Energies, 6(5), 2362-2385.
Sammartano, Vincenzo, Morreale, Gabriele, Sinagra, Marco, & Tucciarelli, Tullio.
(2016). Numerical and experimental investigation of a cross-flow water turbine.
Journal of Hydraulic Research, 54(3), 321-331. doi:
10.1080/00221686.2016.1147500
Sinagra, Marco, Sammartano, Vincenzo, Aricò, Costanza, Collura, Alfonso, &Tucciarelli, Tullio. (2014). Cross-Flow turbine design for variable operating
conditions. Procedia Engineering, 70, 1539-1548.
Ward, EN Jacobs KE, & Pinkerton, RM. (1933). NACA Report No. 460:" The
Characteristics of 78 Related Airfoil Sections From test in the Variable-Density
Wind Tunnel. Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, NACA.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

Comparison between Airfoil NACA-6712 Profiled andOrdinary Blade in Cross-flow Turbine by Numerical
Simulation
Warjito, A.I. Siswantara, D. Adanta, A.P. Prakoso*, R. Dianofitra
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Universitas Indonesia,
Kampus baru, Depok, 16242
Abstract
Isolated rural area makes on-grid electrification development becomes expensive andinefficient. For rural area with quite torrential river flow, it is recommended to build runof-river pico-hydro power plant for their mini-grid power system to produce enoughelectricity for small village with low investment cost. Cross-flow Banki turbine is wellknown for its simplicity of shape, design, and construction. Thus, the construction cost of
this type of turbine is very low rather than another turbine like propeller and Pelton.
Moreover, it also makes cross-flow Banki turbine easier to maintain, moreover thisturbine has self-cleaning ability. Furthermore, cross-flow Banki turbine is well known for
its independent efficiency from fluctuation of water discharge. Beside of many advantage
on this turbine, cross-flow Banki turbine efficiency is relatively lower than anotherturbine. The drag force usually present when water flowing around immerse body, liketurbine blade because of eddy formation. This force usually reduces the turbine
efficiency. Airfoil profiles are proven to reduce eddy formation in water flow around
immerse body like turbine blade then increase some turbine efficiency. This study aim toinvestigate the effect of NACA airfoil in blade profile to the cross-flow turbine efficiency.
NACA-6712 airfoil profile was chosen because it has biggest lift coefficient than others.
In this study, the turbine with NACA-6712 airfoil profiled blade cross-flow turbine has
been compared with ordinary one by using CFD simulation. This study use 2.7 m headand 0.04 m3/s of water discharge. ANSYS FLUENT 17 with SST turbulence model isused in this study. As a result, CFD simulation found that maximum efficiency of ordinary
blades turbine is 55.3% with number of blades 25. While, the maximum efficiency of
NACA-6712 turbine is 54.7% with 25 blades. From the results, it can be obtained that theordinary turbine is better than NACA-6712 turbine.
Keywords: Rural Area, Power Plant, Pico-Hydro, Turbine, Cross-flow, Airfoil.
1. Introduction
Indonesia, especially Bengkulu consist of many hills and mountains, that’s makes
Bengkulu mountains land’s topology. In the other hand, Bengkulu has heavy rainfall
along the year (DLH, 2014). This topology make Indonesia especially Bengkulu has
many geographically isolated area and create many of isolated rural area. Rare ofhousehold and difficult terrain caused by geographically isolation in isolated rural area
makes transmission system development cost for on-grid electrification system become
expensive (Kaunda, Kimambo, & Nielsen, 2014). That’s make electricity difficult to be*ajipp13@gmail.com

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develop in isolated rural area in Indonesia and make Bengkulu’s and Indonesia’s
electrification ratio low.
Behind that faced adversity, mountains topology and heavy rainfall indicate great hydroenergy potential for Bengkulu Province. For the isolated rural area, which has perennial
river flow, pico-hydropower plant is recommended to electrify their village with theirown mini-grid system. Pico hydropower and micro hydropower is small hydropower
plant system which can utilize river stream with particular head (Kaunda et al., 2014).
River stream utilization for electricity can be done by dam the river stream and channel
it into the turbine at the lower place. The electrical power generated by pico-hydropoweris lower than 5 kW electricity (Paish, 2002).
Cross-flow typed turbine is ideal for small hydropower plant which directly utilize river
stream because the turbine’s efficiency is independent from flow variation (Durgin &Fay, 1984). At this time, Michell-Banki turbines are often to use for small scaledhydropower plant especially because of their economic aspect (Kaniecki, 2002). Crossflow turbine become good choice for efficiency, flexibility, and cost consideration,
because this turbine is the cheap turbine with simple geometry, design, and easy
construction (Sammartano, Morreale, Sinagra, & Tucciarelli, 2016).
The cross-flow typed turbine is firstly introduced by Australia’s scientist and engineer
named Antony Mitchell at 1903. Furthermore, the cross-flow turbine has been developedby a Hungarian scientist, Donàt Bànki, this make the cross-flow turbine called as
Mitchell-Banki turbine too. After that, study firstly conducted by Mockmore andMerryfield in 1949, they analytically explain the maximum efficiency for the MitchellBanki turbine as the equation below (Mockmore & Merryfield, 1949).
(1)
Moreover, in that study, Mockmore and Merryfield also determine the optimum absolute
angle of attack for this turbine is α = 16o, so, by using that equation, the maximum
efficiency that can be attained by this turbine is 92.4%. That study has done with the 16
ft (4.88 m) head and 3 cfs (0.085 m3/s) discharge condition (Mockmore & Merryfield,
1949). Nowadays, many of study agree that the optimum angle of attack for this turbine
is 22o. (Aziz & Desai, 1993; De Andrade et al., 2011; Durgin & Fay, 1984; Kaniecki &Steller; Sammartano, Aricò, Carravetta, Fecarotta, & Tucciarelli, 2013).
Sammartano conducted series of CFD simulation and experiment to determine the most
optimum design of this turbine. One of parameter which is investigated is Vt/U variable.
It is ratio between tangential speed of water and tangential turbine’s tip speed. The
optimum Vt/U value for this turbine design is 1.8 (Sammartano et al., 2013). In 2013,
Budiarso conducted study to compare k-ε and RNG k-ε turbulence model for modellingcross-flow gas turbine, the result is RNG k-ε is better but more complicated (Darmawan,
Indra Siswantara, & Budiarso, 2013). The most recent study about cross-flow turbine isconducted by Sammartano to determine the best turbulence model for modelling thisturbine (Sammartano et al., 2016).
Beside studies above, Durgin has conducted some studies in 1984 with a cross-flow
turbine which blades made from 3 mm tick plexiglass with standard cutting to investigate
the 2nd stage energy transfer influence to the total turbine efficiency. As the result, the 2nd

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stage energy transfer contribute 17% of total 61% efficiency (Kaniecki, 2002). In 2002,
Kaniecki conduct study with 3.6 mm tick blades cross-flow turbine. The turbine blade
was sharpened and has been mashed with good machining. The efficiency accomplishedin this study was closely above 80% (Kaniecki, 2002). Sammartano, with someinvestigation explained before, the turbine can attain 85% efficiency. The turbine blade
form is same like crescent moon. From studies above, it can be inferred that the blade
profile of cross-flow turbine has some influences to its efficiency. This Study hypothesisthought that NACA-airfoil profiled cross-flow turbine blade has better efficiency thanordinary arc formed blade turbine.
2. Methodology
a. Analytical design of cross-flow turbine
The condition of this study is based on the survey result that held in North Bengkulu
Regency, Bengkulu which has scaled 1:1 in Pico hydropower laboratories, Salam Lake,
University of Indonesia. The available head of this site is 2.7 m with 0.04 m3/s discharge.
In Sammartano study, obtained not all of available potential head could be converted tobe kinetical energy (velocity) in cross-flow turbine. The produced velocity from head isadhere the equation below (Sinagra, Sammartano, Aricò, Collura, & Tucciarelli, 2014).

V  CT 2 gH

(2)With recommended CT is 0.98, it can be calculated that the incoming water velocity to
the turbine is 7.13 m/s with direction is 22o from turbine’s tip speed. From discussion
before, we know that the optimum Vt/U is 1.8. So, from that equation and mixed withvelocity triangle analysis (Fig. 1), we can obtain the tangential tip speed is U = 3.67 m/s
and the inlet angle of this cross-flow turbine is β1 = 42o.

Fig. 1. Cross-flow turbine velocity triangle.(Sammartano et al., 2013)For blade outlet, many of study agreed that the optimum angle is β2 = 90o. In the other
hand, the 90o blade outlet angle, it would make the water exit the 1st stage angle below
90o, so the energy transfer in 1st stage not maximum. By using office computing software,particles path line has calculated to determine how water particles enter the 2nd stage. It
can be obtained from figure 2, in β2 = 90o condition, the water particles enter the 2nd stage
by hitting the pod of turbine blades, so they push the turbine blades at the same direction
with turbine’s rotation. In α2 = 90o condition, water particles hit the back of turbine blades
then makes negative power output in 2nd stage.

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From the calculation discussed above also obtained the optimum way how the water
enters the turbine. The inlet angle is optimum at 22o ≤ θ ≤ 112o. Then, to prevent
turbulence inside the nozzle, it should be ascertained that the water has their own path toflowing through the nozzle. Therefore, nozzle design should obey equation 3 and 4(Sammartano et al., 2013).

Fig. 2. Water particle path inside turbine at 90o β2 and 90o α2 conditions(3)(4)
The q variable is flow per width unit of nozzle which calculated with equation below.
(5)
To make the manufacture process easier, it’s been decided to use PVC pipe as turbine
blade. The PVC pipe is well known that has limited diameter choice, this make the turbine
blade choosing become priority in this turbine design process. Some studies obtain some
optimum ratio between outer and inner diameter. Sammartano, based on Aziz study use
d/D ratio as 0.68, but after some optimization, the study obtained that best ratio d/D is0.65 (Sammartano et al., 2013). Relations between that ratio and the blade design wereexplained below.

Fig. 3. Relation between turbine diameter and blade’s design parameters.

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At first, it’s been known from studies before that the best blade outlet angle is β2 = 90o.
From figure 4, it can be seen there is a triangle which edges are Ts, d/2, and D/2. It’s also
seen that two blade radius lines and their tangential line formed a kite shape which wingis orthogonal. This make the angle between both blade radius line or also named as blade
curvature angle then obey this equation.
𝛿𝛿 = 90 − 𝛽𝛽1 + 𝜃𝜃
(6)
From equation 6, it been obtained that the angle between Ts and D/2 is (90 -β1 -θ)/2, thenthe angle between d/2 and D/2 is θ, and then the angle between d/2 and Ts is 180 - (90 β1 + θ)/2. From triangle’s low, we can generate these relations in the equation below.
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠

=

𝑑𝑑/2

=

𝐷𝐷/2

(7)
90−𝛽𝛽1 +𝜃𝜃)
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(180−2
From equation above 7, relation between blade curvature chord (Ts) and the outer
diameter (D) is Ts = 0.19 D. This chord can be used as the NACA profile chord. Next,
relation between the cord and the curvature radius was explained by the equation 8.
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝜃𝜃)

90−𝛽𝛽1 −𝜃𝜃)
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(
2𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(90−𝛽𝛽1 +𝜃𝜃)=𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠
90+𝛽𝛽1 −𝜃𝜃
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆()
2(8)

From equation 8, the blade curvature radius can be calculated as Rs = 0.2 D. Sammartanoalso make the equation between Rs, D and d as the equations below.
2D d  
Rs  1     cos( 1 ) 1
4   D  )| tan / 2  cos(sin(  )1(9)1

But, the equations above are not valid with this case. By considering simplicity of theturbine manufacture and transmission design between the turbine and the generator, thechosen blade size is 36 mm radius using 2.5” PVC pipe.
b. Airfoil selection for blade profile

Fig. 4. Some airfoil testing results by NACA.

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From some discussion above, it’s been known that the turbine blades are have a curvatureform. Then, in this study, the 4-digits series NACA profile was used for the turbine’s
blade profile. The choosing investigation is focused on 44XX, 45XX, 46XX, 47XX,
64XX, 65XX, 66XX or 67XX series which has big curvature camber. The chosen profile
is considered as the bigger lift and drag coefficient because the angle between water flow
and the turbine rotations is not perfectly orthogonal. Figure 4 shows some cl, cd, and cp
graphic in some airfoil testing by NACA (Jacobs; Ward & Pinkerton, 1933).
From some conducted analytical calculation, NACA-6712 has been decided as the best
profile for the turbine blade with angle of attack 24o. The tested lift and drag coefficientat 24o AOA is 1.9 and 0.28. Table 1 show cross-flow turbine design parameter in thisstudy. Figure 5 show NACA-6712 profiled blade position on turbine design.
Table 1. Some cross-flow turbine design parameters.
Design Parameter
Value
Design Parameter
Value
Outer Diameter (D)180 mmBlade Inlet Angle (β1)
42oInner Diameter (d)117 mmBlade Outlet Angle
90o
Inlet Angle (α)
22oBlade Curve Radius
36 mmNozzle Inlet Height (So) 53 mm
Blade Curve Angle
58oNozzle Width (B)106 mmNozzle outlet angle (θ)
22o ≤ θ ≤ 112o
Turbine Width (W)
159 mm
NACA airfoil
NACA-6712
Airfoil chord length
32 mm
Airfoil chord angle
18 oAirfoil AOA
24 oFig. 5. NACA-6712 profiled blade location.
c. CFD Numerical Simulation Method
The CFD numerical simulation was conducted using ANSYS® FLUENT® 17 with 2D
domain. The aims of this simulation are to obtain the detail of best design for cross-flow
turbine using some optimizations and to find the best blades number for both NACA 6712
profiled blades turbine and the ordinary arc formed blades.
The turbulence model for this simulation is k-ε with realizable constants and scalable wall
slip formula. The k-ε model is the simplest model for turbulence modelling so thecomputer can run faster in this complex case. Furthermore, the k-ε model is suitable forlow pressure gradient case like this study (Sinagra et al., 2014). This simulation also use
moving mesh mode with rotational speed of -40.8 rad/s. The multiphase equation used in

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this simulation is volume of fluid equations, with implicit volume interaction equations
and body force equations. This simulation also use an open channel mode equations.
Figure 6 show CFD model of cross-flow turbine, white lines are walls, blue is inlet, red
are pressure inlets, and yellow is interface.
After passing the mesh independency process, the most suitable grid size for thesimulation of non NACA profiled blades cross-flow turbine in this study is smaller than
5x10-3 m, but not smaller than 1x10-5 m. While, for simulation of NACA profiled blades
turbine is using grid size is smaller than 5.48x10-3 m and bigger than 5.48x10-5 m. Figure
6 shows the meshing size used in this study.

Fig. 6. Meshing size for non-NACA and NACA-profiled turbine.
3. Result and Discussiona. Ordinary blades cross-flow turbine
From numerical simulation conducted, pressure distribution of the ordinary blade crossflow turbine can be obtained in figure 7. From figure 7, it can be obtained that the pressure
is concentrated at the pod of turbine blades. The maximum pressure at the blade’s pod isabout 16 kPa. That pressure then push the turbine and make the turbine rotating. The flow
stagnancy can be obtained with the higher pressure at the top of second stage blade.

Fig. 7. Pressure contour results of ordinary blades cross-flow turbine. (a) this study,(b) Sammartano’s study.

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Figure 7 also show the pressure contour of numerical results on Sammartano cross-flow
turbine design study (Sammartano et al., 2013). The similarities from the results above
are the highest pressure at the turbine is on the pods of first stage’s blades and the lowest
is on the back of second stage’s blades. The flow stagnancy also found at both results.
Some differences could be found in the value of pressure like highest pressure at firststage’s turbine blades in this result is 1.3 Atm (1.32x105 Pa), while in the results above
1.5x104 Pa. It is mainly caused by the difference of working head condition that this study
has higher head condition (~10 m).
b. NACA profiled blades cross-flow turbine
The pressure distribution of the NACA-6712 profiled blades cross-flow turbine can beseen at the figure 8. It can be obtained from the figure8, in leading edge outside type of
NACA-6712 profiled blades turbine the pressure concentration is located at the tip ofturbine. That pressure concentration push the turbine blades not at the right direction. It
also obtained that there is obstacle for the fluid flow inside the first stage. When the airfoil
direction reversed, the pressure concentrations were moved to the pod of turbine blade
like obtained in ordinary blade results. Figure 9 also show that after passing the first stage
blade, the static pressure is increased in NACA-6712 profiled blades turbine. The figure
also show there is some blades has pressure at the back of blade was higher than at the
pod of blade, so it makes the negative power to the turbine.

Fig. 8. Pressure contour on NACA-6712 profiled blades cross-flow turbines withdifferent profile direction
c. Optimum blades number investigation
The next simulations are to obtain the best turbine blades number. Ordinary blades, airfoil
blades, and reversed airfoil blades crossflow turbine had been simulated with somenumber of blades from 20 to 35 blades. Figure 9 summarize all the simulations conductedto obtain the number of blades which give best efficiency in each type of blades.
From figure 9, it can be obtained that the best efficiency of ordinary blades cross-flow
turbine was 55.3% using 25 blades. It also obtained that airfoil and reversed airfoil
profiled best efficiency was 43.6% and 54.7% using 25 blades. The results obtained thathigher number of blade not always increase the efficiency of cross-flow turbine. If theblade spacing were too close, it can inhibit the water flow and decrease the cross-flow

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turbine efficiency. Corresponding with results in figure 7 and 8, the efficiency of airfoil
profiled cross-flow turbines were lower than ordinary one and reversed one.

Fig. 9. Turbine efficiency in some numbers of blades
4. Conclusion
This study was resulting that the best blades number for cross-flow turbine is 25
blades which can have efficiency about 55.3% from the numerical results. From analytical
calculations, the most suitable NACA profile for this turbine in this study is NACA 6712.
The NACA 6712 profiled turbine can make 43.6% efficiency by using 25 blades. Then,
when it reversed, it can make 54.7% efficiency by using 25 blades. This study concluded
that the ordinary blades cross-flow turbine is better than the NACA-6712 profiled turbine.
Another study can be conducted with different type of NACA airfoil profile to optimize
the efficiency of the cross-flow turbine.

5. Reference
Aziz, Nadim M, & Desai, Venkappayya R. (1993). A laboratory study to improve theefficiency of cross-flow turbines. Engineering Report.
Darmawan, Steven, Indra Siswantara, Ahmad, & Budiarso, Budiarso. (2013).
COMPARISON OF TURBULENCE MODELS ON REYNOLDS NUMBERS OF
A PROTO X-2 BIOENERGY MICRO GAS TURBINE’S COMPRESSORDISCHARGE. Paper presented at the Proceedings International Conference on
Engineering of Tarumanagara.
De Andrade, Jesús, Curiel, Christian, Kenyery, Frank, Aguillón, Orlando, Vásquez,
Auristela, & Asuaje, Miguel. (2011). Numerical investigation of the internal
flow in a Banki turbine. International Journal of Rotating Machinery, 2011.
DLH. (2014). Laporan Status Lingkungan Hidup Daerah Provinsi Bengkulu. Kota
Bengkulu: Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Provinsi Bengkulu.
Durgin, WW, & Fay, WK. (1984). Some fluid flow characteristics of a cross-flow typehydraulic turbine. Small Hydro Power Fluid Machinery, p77-83.

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Jacobs, Pinkerton. Greenberg. Tests of related forward camber airfoils in the variable
density tunnel. NACA Report, 610.
Kaniecki, Maciej. (2002). Modernization of the outflow system of cross-flow turbines.
Task Quarterly, 6, 601-608.
Kaniecki, Maciej, & Steller, Janusz. Flow Analysis through a Reaction Cross-Flow
Turbine. Paper presented at the Proceedings of Conference on modelling fluid
flow CMFF.
Kaunda, Chiyembekezo S, Kimambo, Cuthbert Z, & Nielsen, Torbjorn K. (2014). A
technical discussion on microhydropower technology and its turbines.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 35, 445-459.
Mockmore, CA, & Merryfield, F. (1949). The Banki water turbine, bulletin series no.
25. Oregon State College.
Paish, Oliver. (2002). Small hydro power: technology and current status. Renewable
and sustainable energy reviews, 6(6), 537-556.
Sammartano, Vincenzo, Aricò, Costanza, Carravetta, Armando, Fecarotta, Oreste, &Tucciarelli, Tullio. (2013). Banki-michell optimal design by computational fluid
dynamics testing and hydrodynamic analysis. Energies, 6(5), 2362-2385.
Sammartano, Vincenzo, Morreale, Gabriele, Sinagra, Marco, & Tucciarelli, Tullio.
(2016). Numerical and experimental investigation of a cross-flow water turbine.
Journal of Hydraulic Research, 54(3), 321-331. doi:
10.1080/00221686.2016.1147500
Sinagra, Marco, Sammartano, Vincenzo, Aricò, Costanza, Collura, Alfonso, &Tucciarelli, Tullio. (2014). Cross-Flow turbine design for variable operating
conditions. Procedia Engineering, 70, 1539-1548.
Ward, EN Jacobs KE, & Pinkerton, RM. (1933). NACA Report No. 460:" The
Characteristics of 78 Related Airfoil Sections From test in the Variable-Density
Wind Tunnel. Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, NACA.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF PLUNGING AND PITCHING TANDEM FLAPPINGFOIL POWER GENERATION
Michael Joeviana. Christopher Susantoa, Sheila Tobinga, Harjadi GunawanaaAtma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jl. Jend. Sudirman No.51, RT.5/RW.4, Karet
Semanggi, Setia Budi, Kota Jakarta Selatan, Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta 12930, Indonesia
ABSTRACTIn the past two decades, numerous studies on flapping wing motion have been conducted.
These studies were inspired by the flapping motion of natural flyers: birds and insects. The flapping
wing motion of natural flyers utilizes unsteady aerodynamic mechanisms such as leading-edge
vortices (LEVs), spanwise flow and rapid rotation at end-of-stroke to generate lift and thrust at
low Reynolds number regime. The study of flapping wing motion was mainly driven by thepotential applications in the design and development of micro air vehicles (MAVs).
In the more recent years, the application of flapping wing motion for power generation has
been gaining more attention due to the need in replacing fossil fuel with renewable energy. In a
conventional system of power generator, a rotary turbine drives a generator to produce
power/electricity. The same mechanism is applicable for turbine blades that flap under a combined
pitching and plunging motion, also known as flapping foil generator/turbine. Flapping foil
generators were studied for their potential in extracting tidal/sea wave energy. The objective of
this study is to study the effects of pitching frequency on the propulsion of flapping foil generator.
The numerical analysis shows that the highest lift coefficient is produced by the airfoil witho
35 pitch amplitude. Although the highest pitch amplitude of 60° gives the highest power
coefficient in tandem configuration, but the drag is substantially higher and the lift drops
significantly even lower than the lowest pitch amplitude case of 10°. The lowest pitch amplitude
does not produce much power and lift, therefore future research can be directed towards the higher
pitch amplitude range.
1.

INTRODUCTION
The need for energy is gradually becoming even more greater compared with several decadesago. And nowadays most of the energy sources are provided by fossil fuel which we already know
is not a part of the renewable energy sources and need to be replaced immediately.
In the past two decades there have been numerous studies on flapping wing motion. Thesestudies were inspired by the flapping motion of natural flyers of animals such as birds and insects.
The results of the studies conducted had been applied in a wide variety of fields especially inaerospace engineering and also in design and development of Micro Air Vehicles (MAVs). MAVs
is basically defined as an unmanned aircraft with dimension in between 15-20 centimeters andflies with cruising speed of 10 to 15 m/s operating in low Reynolds Number regime. MAVs areclassified as four different categories which are fixed-wing, rotary-wing, ducted-propeller, andflapping-wing MAVs. According to Shyy et al. (2010), micro air vehicles (MAVs) have thepotential to revolutionize our sensing and information gathering capabilities in areas such asenvironmental monitoring and homeland security. Flapping wings with suitable wing kinematics,
wing shapes, and flexible structures can enhance lift as well as thrust by exploiting large-scalevortical flow structures under various conditions.

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Studies on flapping-wing MAVs have revealed important results such as unsteady
aerodynamics mechanism which enables natural flyers to generate lift and thrust. Some of theunsteady aerodynamics mechanism are leading edge vortices (LEVs), spanwise flow, and wakecapture (rapid rotation at end of stroke).
Considering the current availability of fossil fuel, it has been the right time to start moving
to the cleaner and more efficient energy sources. And to answer our ever-growing need for energy
while restraining adverse effects on the environment, new renewable energy sources must be
exploited (Kinsey, 2012). The corresponding energy sources in this study is an oscillating foil
flapping in a sinusoidal motion to generate electricity from a power generation system. Especially,tandem airfoil in this case. Flapping foil is used as an alternative to rotating turbine blades andapplied under shallow water or seawater.
The main objective of this study is to perform the numerical analysis of two-dimensional(2D) NACA 0012 tandem airfoils which flap under a combined plunging and pitching motion.
Hopefully to achieve the optimized combination of plunging and pitching motion in order to be
applied in seawater environment or tidal power generation system. The continuation purpose ofthis study is essentially to create a fully renewable energy sources by replacing the conventionalrotary turbine with a possibly more energy efficient flapping foil turbine in a power generation
system.
2.

METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL
The numerical simulation was done by using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) program
named ANSYS FLUENT v.17 with student version free license. The license will expire at the 31stof October 2017. Student version of FLUENT limits the total grid elements to 512000.
In this paper, research was done by performing numerical analysis to simulate twodimensional (2D) NACA 0012 tandem airfoils flapping under pitching motion in order to find the
optimization suitable for a power generation system. The system is intended to be applied at theoffshore water using the property of seawater at 20o C as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Property of seawater at 20o C

Fluid

Temp.
(oC)

Seawater

20

Property of Seawater
Density
Dynamic Viscosity
3(kg/m )
(kg/ms)1030

0.001072.1. Validation
In this study, the validation stage takes several trials to achieve the maximum error below
10% or as low as possible. Validation is essentially comparing CFD results against data in an effort
to establish a model’s ability to reproduce physics (NASA, 1988). We used the turbulencemodelling validation from the numerical simulation comparing time average thrust coefficientdata, CTmean, against three variations of reduced frequency k utilizing a plunging NACA0012 airfoil
at non-dimensional plunging amplitude h = 0.4, and at Reynolds number Re = 3 x 106 (Ashraf,
Young, Lai, 2010). Figure 1. shows the variation of CTmean against k graph obtained from Tuncer
and Platzer numerical simulation.

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Figure 1. Variations of CTmean against k for plunging NACA0012. (Ashraf, Young, Lai, 2010)
Figure 1. shows the Tuncer and Platzer numerical simulation result presented in a graph oftime average thrust coefficient values or CTmean against the variation of reduced frequency, k. We
need at least three cases of CTmean vs k data to make sure the data is valid. In this case, we utilized
k values of k = 0.3; k = 0.5; and k = 1 as shown in Table 2. The tested model duplicated theexperimental model used by Ladson which is a single NACA 0012 airfoil with chord length of
60,01 cm (Ladson, 1988). Assuming the system is incompressible mode (pressure based) and theturbulent model chosen is k-ω SST to achieve the residual set in FLUENT at 1 x 10-4.

Figure 2. Left: full domain mesh, right: zoom-in to mesh around the airfoil.
Table 2. Validation CTmean data for plunging NACA0012 at h=0.4 and Re=3x106

k
0.3
0.5
1

Tuncer andPlatzer
CTmean0.016290.047720.1703

FluentCTmean0.016
0.04940.167

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Error (%)
1.78
3.52
1.94

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Table 2. above represents the comparison of values from the numerical simulation result andthe literature as the validation data. The time average thrust coefficient CTmean results of three caseswith three different variations of reduced frequency along with the error percentage are shown in
Table 2. The CTmean differences between the literature (Tuncer and Platzer), which the values
obtained by digitizer program, and the numerical simulation results were quite small. Therefore,
the result of the study researched in this paper can be trusted and can be mentioned as valid. Provenfrom the percentage of error values are below 10%.
2.2. Parametric Study
After the validation stage has been completed, then the tandem airfoils is modeled as themain purpose of this study. The airfoils are in a configuration as shown in Figure 3., The tandem
configuration is basically had the front and the rear airfoil. The airfoils chord length, c, are set tobe 0.1 m in order to be operated underwater. The property of the fluid moving through the airfoils
used the density and dynamic viscosity of seawater shown in Table 1.

Figure 3. 2D mesh details on the airfoils in tandem configuration.
The airfoils are separated by 0.2 m stagger distance starting from a point at 0.25c (a quarterof a chord length) which is at 0.025 m from the front airfoil’s leading edge until the 0.25c of therear airfoil. The initial condition of the airfoils did not have pitching angle or at zero AoA. The
stagger distance of 0.2 m is selected because any stagger distance above a certain value isconsidered does not give any benefit to the tandem configuration. It’s basically simulating two
different airfoils in two different cases. The flow affecting the front hydrofoil will not give any
effect on the rear one. The point at the quarter of the chord length of each airfoil is intended to be
the pivot point in which the location of the pitching moment takes place.
Three parameters chosen in this study are reduced frequency f*, pitch amplitude α, and phasedifference φ. For the details of the parameters tested is in Table. The pitching frequency is obtained
from the equation below
Table 3. Pitch amplitude parameter tested.
f (Hz)
Case
f*
α
φ
o
o
3.6008
1
0.14
10
0
o
o
3.6008
1
0.14
35
0
o
o
3.6008
1
0.14
60
0

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3.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this numerical study, we are analyzing the influence of pitch amplitude under pitchingmotion on the aerodynamics (drag, lift, moment, and power required) of 2D tandem airfoils. With
the current high Re number regime (247.585), the flow is assumed to be transitioning from laminar
to turbulence, therefore k-ω SST turbulence model is selected. Moreover, the convergencecriterion of 10-4 is set for both continuity and momentum equations.
3.1. Pressure Contour
The figures below are basically the pressure contour of each case with the variation of pitch
amplitude. It obviously shows that the red legend of the image has the highest pressure area andthe blue represents the lowest pressure.

Figure 4. Pressure contour of three different pitch amplitude.
From Figure 4, it can be seen that when the hydrofoil is pitching in a down stroke motion,
the highest pressure is located around the upper surface of the hydrofoil, and vice versa. So the up
stroke of the hydrofoils’ pitch motion are resulting higher pressure on the bottom surface than on
the upper surface of the hydrofoils. These mechanisms induce the creation of LEV’s (leading edge
vortices). The blue region represents the vortices attached to the upper surface which is about theshed from the hydrofoil surface. It basically creates lower pressure area at the point near the leadingedge so that the higher pressure on the bottom surface leads to enhance lift generation the hydrofoil
tandem configuration.

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Cd vs t/T (Front Hydrofoil)
4

Cd

3
2

Cd FA 10deg

1

Cd FA 35deg

0

-1 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

t/T

0.8

1

1.2

Cd FA 60deg

Cd vs t/T (Rear Hydrofoil)
2.5
2

Cd

1.5

Cd AA 10deg

1

Cd AA 35deg

0.5
0-0.5 0

Cd AA 60deg
0.2

0.4

0.6

t/T

0.8

1

1.2

Figure 5. Drag coefficient vs dimensionless time.
Figure 5. shows the relation between drag coefficient and dimensionless time operating inthe same reduced frequency (f*=0.14) and in three different pitch amplitude. Obviously along withinclination of pitch amplitude, the drag of the front and rear hydrofoil increases significantly. And
the highest drag is produced by the case with the highest pitch amplitude. The curves also showthat the drag coefficient reaches the peak value in a faster period or faster dimensionless time forboth hydrofoils, and reaches the lowest point at roughly the same time period. The peak values forthe front hydrofoil are at around 0.2T and 0.7T, the lowest values are at the beginning (0T), at the
middle (0.5T) and at the end of the time period (T). The same thing occurred for the rear hydrofoil
which the lowest values of the drag are at the beginning, the middle, and at the end of the time
period. However, the rear hydrofoil reached the peak value at a faster time period, around 0.15T
and 0.6T. The positive values of the drag coefficient indicates the tandem configuration does not
generate thrust because positive drag is in the direction of the moving fluid.

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Cl vs t/T (Front Hydrofoil)
4
3
2

Cl

1
0
-1

Cl FA 10deg
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

Cl FA 35deg
Cl FA 60deg

-2
-3
-4

t/T

Cl vs t/T (Rear Hydrofoil)
4
3
2

Cl

1
0
-1

Cl AA 10deg
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

Cl AA 35deg
Cl AA 60deg

-2
-3
-4

t/T

Figure 6. Lift coefficient vs dimensionless time.
Figure 6. shows the relation between lift coefficient vs dimensionless time of hydrofoils intandem configuration, front and rear. For the front hydrofoil the curves show the higher the pitch
amplitude, the bigger the lift creation. And the peak value of the lift is basically reached at aroundtime period 0.1T and 0.6T. On the other hand, the lift generation of the rear hydrofoil is notnecessarily enhanced with the increase of pitch amplitude but the curves show that the lowest pitch
amplitude produces the lowest lift. And then the comparison between the mid and the highest pitch
amplitude does not show any significant difference in terms of the peak lift coefficient value. One
thing that noticeable is that the higher pitch amplitude reaches peak lift coefficient value at an
earlier time period.

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273

Cp vs t/T (Front Hydrofoil)
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04

Cp

0.03
0.02

Cp FA 10deg

0.01

Cp FA 35deg

0-0.01 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

Cp FA 60deg

-0.02
-0.03
-0.04

t/T

Cp vs t/T (Rear Hydrofoil)
0.08
0.07
0.06

Cp

0.05
0.04

Cp AA 10deg

0.03

Cp AA 35deg

0.02

Cp AA 60deg

0.01
0
-0.01

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

t/T

Figure 7. Power coefficient vs dimensionless time.
Figure 7. is essentially showing the relation between power coefficient and the dimensionlesstime. The power defined in this study is the power required for the tandem configuration of thehydrofoil. The curves show that the highest value of the Cp is possessed by the highest amplitude
and it applies to both of the hydrofoil. The effect of the pitch amplitude in the curves above is
obvious that the higher the pitch amplitude, the more the power required is produced.

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3.2. Time Average Lift, Drag, and Moment
Table 3.2.1. Time average drag, lift, and moment of front and rear hydrofoil of all three different
pitch amplitude.
θ
Cd FA
Cd AA

10o
0.029105834
0.025166567

35o
60o
0.599909885 1.59955584
0.437816916 0.715606828

θ
Cl FA
Cl AA

10o
0.019518838
0.012787285

35o
60o
0.059469632 0.022962247
0.059690923 0.023747292

θ
Cm FA
Cm AA

10o
0.000915697
0.00059448

35o
60o
0.002253957 0.000582583
0.00315806 0.001277427

Table 3.2.1. represent each time average output parameter by calculating the average values
obtained from FLUENT calculation which are drag, lift, and moment of the front and rear hydrofoil
in three different pitch amplitude as the tested parameter. The value of the time average dragobviously shows that drag increases with the higher pitch amplitude so the highest pitch amplitude
60o generates the biggest drag coefficient in terms of the average value. Especially the 60 o case,the front hydrofoil has the most significant increase in generating drag compared with the lower
pitch amplitude cases. Considering the positive values of the drag produced, it means thrust is not
generated because the positive value of Cd is defined as in the same direction as the moving fluid
through the hydrofoil.
While the drag increases as the pitch amplitude gets higher, the lift coefficient is notnecessarily proportional to the inclination of the pitch amplitude. As shown in table 3.1., the second
table shows the increase of lift from the 10o case to the 35o case for the front hydrofoil but
experiencing lift drop from the 35o case to the 60o case. The value of Cl for the 60o case is evenlower than the 10o case. The same goes with the rear one which is also experiencing drop in lift.
The increment value of the rear hydrofoil lift coefficient is noticeably higher than the front one. Itmeans that the tandem configuration is more beneficial to the rear hydrofoil rather than the frontone.
3.3. Time-Averaged Power Coefficient
Table 3.3.1. Time-averaged drag, lift, and moment of front and rear hydrofoil of all threedifferent pitch amplitude.
̅̅̅̅ FA̅̅̅̅ AA
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Case
f*
α (degree)
0.000532833 0.001302235
1
0.14
10
2
0.14
35
0.002947891 0.009959437
0.010257814 0.018989065
3
0.14
60
And then the table above is basically showing the effect of pitching amplitude against thenon-dimensional power coefficient. All three cases are distinguished by their pitching amplitude.
We found that the non-dimensional power coefficient increases with the increasing pitch

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275

̅̅̅̅ value approaching zero for both hydrofoil
amplitude. The 10o case is resulting a very small 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶o̅̅̅̅ value. So the effect of pitching
while the 60 case is resulting a more significant increase of 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
amplitude in relation to the application of power

4. CONCLUSION

The data obtained and analyzed from this study shows that not necessarily higher pitch
amplitude is more beneficial to the propulsion of wings in tandem configuration. Although thehighest pitch amplitude case gives the highest instantaneous value of lift, the time-averaged lift
coefficient is the lowest among the three cases.
For power, the highest time-averaged power is observed on the case with the highest pitch
amplitude of 60°, but it is accompanied by low lift generation. So among three cases, we foundthat the 35° pitch amplitude gives the optimum results for lift and power generation.
In other words the propulsion of tandem airfoil, or in this case hydrofoils, under the influenceof pitch amplitude needs to be further studied in order to find the suitable combination of pitch
amplitude and reduced frequency and to be applied as an alternative power generation system. The
phase difference and the horizontal distance (stagger) between airfoils, as well as plunging motion
will be studied in the next stage of this study.
5. REFERENCES
Ashraf, M.A., Young, J. and Lai, J.C.S., 2011. Reynolds number, thickness and camber effects on
flapping airfoil propulsion. Journal of Fluids and structures, 27(2), pp.145-160.
Kinsey, T., Dumas, G., 2012b. Optimal tandem configuration for oscillating-foils hydrokinetic
turbine. Journal of Fluids Engineering 134 (3), 031103.
Ladson, C.L., 1988. Effects of independent variation of Mach and Reynolds numbers on the lowspeed aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA 0012 airfoil section.
Shyy, W., Aono, H., Chimakurthi, S.K., Trizila, P., Kang, C.K., Cesnik, C.E. and Liu, H., 2010.
Recent progress in flapping wing aerodynamics and aeroelasticity. Progress in Aerospace
Sciences, 46(7), pp.284-327.d
Young, J., Lai, J.C. and Platzer, M.F., 2014. A review of progress and challenges in flapping foil
power generation. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 67, pp.2-28.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

A NUMERICAL ANALYSIS ON THE EFFECTS OF ANGLE-OF-ATTACK AND
STAGGER ON THE PROPULSION OF TANDEM AIRFOIL AT HIGH AND LOW
SPEED FLIGHT
Anthony Christian, Sheila Tobing, Riccy Kurniawan
Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jl. Jend. Sudirman No.51, RT.5/RW.4, Karet
Semanggi, Setia Budi, Kota Jakarta Selatan, Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta 12930, Indonesia


Abstract — Since its commercialization as a mean of masstransportation, the design and development process of anaircraft mainly focus on increasing its speed and/or size. The
shape of aircraft wing, which is the primary device for lift
generation, has remained generally unchanged. A variety ofwing configuration, tandem wing configuration, has beenutilized on a number of aircraft, yet there is limited research
published on the subject. This research aims to analyze theeffects of stagger, which is the stream-wise distance between
the forewing and the rear wing, in tandem wing configurationon the aerodynamic forces generated by the wings.
The analysis is conducted numerically using ANSYS Fluent
version 17.1 on two-dimensional (2D) NACA 0012 tandem
airfoils at three variations of stagger, 1.5 chord, 2 chord, and 3
chord in laminar (Re = 2 x 103) and turbulent flow (Re = 6 x
106). As a first step, a 2D model of NACA 0012 airfoil iscreated using Autodesk Inventor and then uploaded to
ANSYS. Subsequently, the solver is validated against the
published results of wind tunnel tests on NACA 0012 airfoil.
The results of current numerical analysis are in a good
agreement with the experimental data.
The result of this study is that the tandem wing
configurations flying in a turbulent flow regime experience a
maximum increase in total lift (the total lift of fore- and rearwing) of 37% and a maximum decrease in total drag (the totaldrag of fore- and rear wing) of 3% in cases where the angle ofattack of the rear wing is greater than that of the forewing.
However, this increase in lift diminishes by a maximum of
11% and 10% as the stagger increases from 1.5 chord to 2
chord and from 2 chord to 3 chord, respectively. The effect oftandem wing configuration on laminar flow is that for several
combinations of angles-of-attack, a maximum increase in liftof 241% and a maximum drop in drag of 23% were observed.
This is caused by the flow separation on the airfoil that occurs
early in laminar flow. Further study is necessary to gain abetter insight on the effects of angle-of-attack on the
propulsion of tandem wing airfoils in low Re regime.

INTRODUCTION
The utilization of jet engine on an aircraft marked its
commercialization as a mean of public transportation. Jet
engine offers a quieter, smoother, and faster flight. Due tothese extra conveniences, the number of passengers has been
increasing ever since. Despite the increasing usage of aircraft,its design has remained generally unchanged.
The design of aircrafts in use today resembles that from theearly days. More research is needed to develop aircraft design
as to increase its safety, comfort, and efficiency. Aircraft
developments over the last few decades mainly focus on its
size.
Modern day aircrafts are bigger in dimension. The extra
space is needed to accommodate more passengers. Meanwhile,
wing design has remained unchanged even though wings are
the primary generators of aerodynamic forces on an aircraft.
Therefore, more efforts must be put into the research anddevelopment of aircraft wings.
Since the first successful flight of heavier-than-air aircraft,many wing configurations have been developed and utilized.
One of which is tandem wing configuration. Tandem wing
configuration is an aircraft’s wings configuration with twowings on each side of the aircraft.
Despite having been utilized on aircrafts, researches on thisconfiguration are not widely available, unlike those on single
wing configuration. Therefore, more researches have to be
conducted in order to better understand the air flow
characteristics around tandem wings.
Tandem Wing Configuration
Tandem wing configuration on an airplane is a wing
configuration consisting of two lift-generating wings with an
identical aspect ratio. Aspect ratio is the ratio of wing span tomean chord length. Both of the wings might be located on two
different planes, horizontally or vertically.

Keywords — plunging airfoil, propulsion, tandem wing flight,
unsteady aerodynamics.

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There are three terms used to define a tandem wing
configuration:
Stagger (St)
Stagger is the horizontal distance between the fore- andaft-wing, measured from 0.25c position of each wing.
the experimental data. The experimental data used as acomparison is taken from Ladson’s research.
The numerical simulation is conducted at Re= 6x106 using
Spalart-Allmaras viscous model. The simulation parameters
are provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Numerical simulation parameters3.633 kg/m3
Air density (ρ)

Gap (G)Gap is the vertical distance between the fore- and aftwing, measured from 0.25c position of each wing.


Decalage (δ)
Decalage is the relative angle-of-attack between the fore
wing and aft-wing; the angle-of-attack of the fore- and aftwing is measured relative to the direction of the air flow. A
positive decalage indicates that the angle-of-attack of the fore
wing (αw) is greater than the angle-of-attack of the aft wing(αp). A negative decalage indicates that the angle-of-attack of
the aft wing (αp) is greater than that of the fore wing (αw).
Specific heat (Cp)

1,004.9 J/kg K

Dynamic viscosity (µ)

1.846 x 10-5 kg/m s

Air speed

50 m/sTable 2. Numerical validation
Numerical
Experimental Difference
ResultData(%)

Angleofattack
(°)

CL

CD

CL

CD

0

0.00010.0082-0.0060.008150.55070.00950.53040.0085

3.82

10.97

1.07580.01391.06740.0117

0.79

19.22

10

CL

CD
1.09

: percentage cannot be displayed since thedenominator is close to 0
Fig 1. Tandem wing configuration [10]Numerical Simulation
This experiment is conducted numerically using ANSYS
Fluent 17.1 Student Version with a maximum element of
512,000. The mesh used in this experiment is c-mesh (Fig 2.)

Table 3. Drag coefficient validation
Angle ofNumerical Eleni’s Numerical
Attack (°)
CD Result
CD Result

Difference(%)

00.00820.00909.02

50.00950.01048.81

100.01390.0150

7.01

Data from Table 2 shows that the maximum difference inlift coefficient is 4%, whereas the difference in dragcoefficient is 19% compared to experimental data. Even
though the drag coefficient acquired from the numericalsimulation has a huge difference compared to Ladson’s
experiment, it differs less than 10% compared to the data from
Eleni’s research (Table 3). Therefore, the numericalsimulation conducted is valid.
Analysis on The Effect of Angle of attack Variation on
Aerodynamic Forces
To obtain an understanding on the effect of angle of attack
variation to the aerodynamic forces generated by NACA 0012
airfoil, numerical simulations are conducted in turbulent flow
(Re= 6x106) using Spalart-Allmaras viscous model underparameters provided below:
Fig 2. C-mesh
Numerical Validation
Before numerical data can be acquired, numericalsimulation must be validated to ensure that the simulation is
run correctly. This is accomplished by running simulations of
single wing on turbulent flow, the result is then compared to278

Air density (ρ)

3.633 kg/m3

Specific heat (CP)1,004.9 J/kg K

Dynamic viscosity (µ)

1.846 x 10-5 kg/m s

Air speed

50 m/sProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Numerical simulations for tandem wing configuration inthis research are conducted for stagger 1.5-, 2-, and 3-c, inseveral combinations of angle of attack of the fore wing andaft wing starting from 0° to 10°. Examples of the model usedin the numerical simulation for stagger 1.5-, 2-, and 3-c areavailable in Figure 3, Figure 4, and Figure 5 respectively.

Fig 3. Example of numerical model for stagger 1.5-c

Table 5. Numerical result for stagger 2-c in turbulent flow

Angle
of
AttackFA (°)

Angleof
AttackAA (°)

CLFA

CLAA

CDFA

CDAA

0

0

0.00010.00030.00730.00870

50.1726

0.49680.00400.01350

100.34590.9952-0.0061

0.0278500.5068-0.09850.01050.00675

50.67950.4144-0.00190.02135

100.83150.8743-0.0188

0.04311000.9825-0.1969

0.02340.00101051.13350.31840.00400.0245

Table 6. Numerical result for stagger 3-c in turbulent flow

Angle
of
AttackFA (°)

Angleof
AttackAA (°)

CLFA

CLAA

CDFA

CDAA

0

0

-0.0005-0.00100.00790.0082050.10440.52250.00660.01100100.20731.03910.00260.01925

00.5339-0.07250.01020.00735

5

0.63650.45740.00220.0171

Fig 5. Example of numerical model for stagger 3-c

5

100.7302

0.9416-0.0075

0.0317

Numerical results for each stagger are provided in Table 4,
Table 5, and Table 6 respectively.

1001.0275-0.1456

0.02060.004710

51.12120.38850.00720.0214

Fig 4. Example of numerical model for stagger 2-c

Table 4. Numerical result for stagger 1.5-c in turbulent flow

Angle
of
AttackFA (°)

Angleof
AttackAA (°)

CLFA

CLAA

CDFA

CDAA

0

0

-0.0006-0.00130.00570.0099050.25290.4574-0.0006

0.01800100.51000.9278-0.0201

0.0417500.4601-0.11270.00990.00705

50.71390.3695-0.00640.02575

100.93650.8139-0.0326

0.057010

00.8981-0.2235

0.0252-0.00181051.11320.26300.00170.0265

Analyzing the results of the angle of attack combination
FA-AA0°-0°, 0°-5° and 0°-10°, lift generated by the fore wingkeeps on increasing, whereas the drag keeps on decreasing as
the angle of attack of the aft wing increases. From the
combination FA-AA 0°-0°, 5°-0°, and 10°-0°, it can be seenthat the lift and drag of the aft wing keeps on decreasing as theangle of attack of the fore wing increases.
Case Analyses
The percentages displayed in these case analyses arecalculated in reference to the numerical results of single airfoil
displayed in Table 2.
Case I: FA = 0° and 0° ≤ AA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
Lift produced by the front airfoil in tandem wing
configuration with 0° front airfoil angle of attack increases as
the angle of attack of the aft airfoil increases whereas dragdecreases, reaching negative value in FA-AA angle of attack
combination of 0°-5° and 0°-10°. Negative drag means thatthe front airfoil produces thrust. The greatest thrust is
produced by combination of FA-AA angle of attack 0°-10° at
stagger 1.5-c.

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279

Case II: FA = 5 and 0° ≤ AA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
Lift produced by the front airfoil in tandem wing
configuration with 5° front airfoil angle of attack increases as
the angle of attack of the aft airfoil increases whereas dragdecreases, reaching negative value (producing thrust) in
certain combinations of angle of attack (FA-AA 5°-5° and 5°10°). FA-AA combination of 5°-10° at stagger 1.5-c produces
an increase of 70% in lift while producing the greatest thrust,
CTFA = 0.0326 (-CDFA = CTFA ).
Case III: AA = 0° and 0° ≤ FA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
Lift and drag produced by the aft airfoil in tandem wing
configuration with 0° aft airfoil angle of attack decreases as
the angle of attack of the front airfoil increases. The
combination of FA-AA 10°-0° at stagger 1.5-c produces thrustin the aft airfoil due to the decrease in drag of 120%.
Case IV: AA = 5° and 0° ≤ FA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
Lift produced by the aft airfoil in tandem wing
configuration with 5° aft airfoil angle of attack decreases as
the angle of attack of the front airfoil increases whereas dragincreases. The greatest decrease in lift and the greatest
increase in drag on aft airfoil occur in the combination FA-AAof 10°-5° at stagger 1.5-c. In this combination, lift decreases
up to 50% and drag increases up to 180%.
The advantage of tandem wing configuration on
aerodynamic forces in turbulent flow is seen more clearly if
the sum of the aerodynamic forces is compared to the sum of
the aerodynamic forces of two single airfoils at an identicalangle of attack. This comparison is displayed on Table 7,
Table 8, and Table 9
Table 7. Numerical and literature comparison of stagger 1.5-cin turbulent flow

CL
total

CD
total

Numerical
Literature (Sumof 2 Single
Airfoils)
CL
CD
total
total

0

-0.002

0.016

0.000

0.016

0

5

0.710

0.017

0.551

0.018

28.97

-1.17

0

10

1.438

0.022

1.076

0.022

33.64

-2.28

5

0

0.347

0.017

0.551

0.018

-36.92

-4.04

5

5

1.083

0.019

1.101

0.019

-1.63

1.68

5

10

1.751

0.024

1.627

0.023

7.62

4.31

10

0

0.675

0.023

1.076

0.022

-37.30

5.47

10

5

1.376

0.028

1.627

0.023

-15.38

20.39

Angle
of
AttackFA (°)

Angleof
AttackAA (°)

0

Numerical Result: percentage is not displayed (denominator close to 0)

280

Difference inCL (%)

Diffe
rence
in CD
(%)
-4.41

Table 8. Numerical and literature comparison of stagger 2-c inturbulent flow
Angleof
AttackFA (°)

Angle
of
Attac
k AA
(°)

0

Numerical Result

Numerical
Literature (Sumof 2 Single
Airfoils)
CL
CD
total
total

Difference inCL (%)

Differ
ence
in CD
(%)

CL
total

CD total

0

4E-04

0.016

0.000

0.016

0

5

0.669

0.018

0.551

0.018

21.53

-0.84

0

10

1.341

0.022

1.076

0.022

24.65

-1.76

5

0

0.408

0.017

0.551

0.018

-25.88

-2.19

5

5

1.094

0.019

1.101

0.019

-0.67

2.20

5

10

1.706

0.024

1.627

0.023

4.87

3.72

10

0

0.786

0.024

1.076

0.022

-26.98

10.12

10

5

1.452

0.029

1.627

0.023

-10.73

21.53

-2.40

: percentage is not displayed (denominator close to 0)

Table 9. Numerical and literature comparison of stagger 3-c inturbulent flow

Angle
of
AttackFA (°)

Angleof
AttackAA (°)

Numerical
Result

CD
total
0.016

Numerical
Literature(Sum of 2
Single Airfoils)
CL
CD
total
total
0.000
0.016

Differencein CL (%)

Differencein CD (%)

0

0

CL
total
-0.002

0

5

0.627

0.018

0.551

0.018

13.82

-0.60

0

10

1.246

0.022

1.076

0.022

15.84

-1.59

5

0

0.461

0.018

0.551

0.018

-16.23

-0.83

5

5

1.094

0.019

1.101

0.019

-0.68

1.88

5

10

1.672

0.024

1.627

0.023

2.79

3.67

10

0

0.882

0.025

1.076

0.022

-18.03

14.28

10

5

1.510

0.029

1.627

0.023

-7.18

21.96

-1.18

: percentage is not displayed (denominator close to 0)

From the tables above, it can be seen that FA-AA
combination of 0°-5° and 0°-10° give off positive effects ofincrease in lift and decrease in drag. This is due to the shiftingof the stagnation point on the front airfoil in downward
direction influenced by the air flowing to the aft airfoil. This
shift is displayed in Figure 6 and Figure 7. Figure 6 shows thestagnation point of a single airfoil at 0° angle of attack. Figure
7 shows the stagnation point of the front airfoil in tandem
configuration at 0° angle of attack, whereas the angle of attackof the aft airfoil is 10°.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

attack smaller than the angle of attack of the aft airfoil tends togenerate a total lift greater than the sum of the lift of two
single airfoils at an identical angle of attack, whereas the totaldrag tends to be lesser than the sum of the drag of two single
airfoils at an identical angle of attack. But, these advantages ofincreased lift and decreased drag diminish as the stagger
increases. This results from the greater distance between thefront and aft airfoil, reducing the influence of the aft airfoil on
the shift of the stagnation point of the front airfoil. This isdemonstrated in Figure 8, Figure 9, and Figure 10.
Fig 6. Stagnation point of a single airfoil at 0° angle of attack

Fig 8. Stagnation point of the front airfoil at stagger 1.5-c
Fig 7. Stagnation point of front airfoil in tandem configuration
at 0° angle of attack
Figure 6 shows that the stagnation point is right at theleading edge of the airfoil. This causes the air flowing over theupper and lower surface of the airfoil to be at the same speed.
Consequently, no lift is generated due to the absence ofpressure difference between the upper and lower surface of the
airfoil.
In Figure 7, the stagnation point shifts below the leadingedge of the airfoil. This causes the air particle about to flow
through the upper surface of the airfoil to turn following thecurvature of the leading edge before reaching the uppersurface of the airfoil. Consequently, constriction occurs on thestreamline around the leading edge and the front portion of theupper surface of the airfoil. Based on continuity equation, aconstriction in streamline is followed by an increase in thevelocity of the air. In reference to Bernoulli’s principle, thisincrease in velocity causes the pressure on the upper surface of
the airfoil to be lesser than the pressure on the lower surface of
the airfoil. Therefore, lift is generated.
In conclusion, tandem wing configuration gives advantagesof an increase in total lift and a decrease in total drag due tothe shift of the stagnation point on the front airfoil if the angleof attack of the aft airfoil is greater than the angle of attack of
the front airfoil.
Analysis on the Effect of Stagger on Aerodynamic Forces
Numerical results of three staggers show that theadvantages that tandem wing configuration offer decrease as
the stagger increases. Table 7, Table 8, and Table 9 show thattandem wing configuration with the front airfoil angle ofFig 9. Stagnation point of the front airfoil at stagger 2-c

Fig 10. Stagnation point of the front airfoil at stagger 3-c
In Fig. 8, the stagnation point is not located on the leadingedge, but more below the leading edge of the airfoil.
Therefore, the air flows faster through the upper surface than
through the lower surface, resulting in pressure difference
between the lower surface of the airfoil and the upper surfaceof the airfoil. This generates lift. It can be seen in Fig. 8 thatthe front part of the upper surface of the airfoil is covered ingreen color, indicating a negative gauge pressure in that

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

281

region. This shift of stagnation point also causes the dragcomponent of the aerodynamic forces to be smaller, causing
the drag generated to decrease compared to the drag generated
by a single airfoil at an identical angle of attack.
In Fig. 9, the stagnation point shifts closer to the leadingedge. As a result, the velocity of air flowing over the uppersurface of the airfoil decreases. Therefore, the pressure on theupper surface of the airfoil becomes greater. In Fig. 8, thefront part of the upper surface of the airfoil is covered bygreen color, but in Fig. 9, the exact part is covered by dark
yellow color. This dark yellow color indicates a negative
gauge pressure, even though the pressure is greater than thepressure on the same area at stagger 1.5-c. The shift of thestagnation point closer to the leading edge also causes the dragcomponent of the aerodynamic forces to be greater, resulting
in an increased drag compared to the drag generated by the
airfoil at stagger 1.5-c.
In Fig. 10, the stagnation point shifts even closer to theleading edge. The air flowing over the upper part of the airfoil
experience a further decrease in velocity, causing the gaugepressure on the front upper part of the airfoil to increase. Thisis demonstrated by the change of color covering the front
upper surface of the airfoil from dark yellow in Fig. 9 to softyellow. The lift generated decreases compared to the lift
generated at stagger 2-c. This shift of stagnation point closer
to the leading edge causes the drag component of the
aerodynamic forces to increase, resulting in an increased dragcompared to the drag generated at stagger 2-c.
In conclusion, an increase in stagger in tandem wing
configuration diminishes the advantages offered by theconfiguration, i.e. an increase in lift and a decrease in drag,especially on the front airfoil. The cause of this is thestagnation point shifting closer to the leading edge, reducing
the total lift and increasing the total drag as the stagger
increases.
Analysis on the Effect of Reynolds Number on
Aerodynamic Forces
Besides running numerical simulations in turbulent flow, it
is also necessary to run simulations in laminar flow to gain
further information as to whether the characteristics observedin turbulent flow are also demonstrated in laminar flow.
Before numerical simulations of tandem wing in laminar flow
can be conducted, it is necessary to run simulations of single
airfoil in laminar flow so as to have a reference. The datas
collected will be used as comparisons to understand the effectsof tandem wing configuration in laminar flow.
Numerical simulations are conducted at angle of attack 0°
to 10° in Re= 2x103 using laminar viscous model under theparameters mentioned below:
Air density (ρ)
3.633 kg/m3

282

Specific heat (CP)1,004.9 J/kg K

Dynamic viscosity (µ)

1.846 x 10-5 kg/m s

Air velocity

0.0167 m/s

The results are displayed in Table 10.
Table 10. Numerical simulations result of single airfoil inlaminar flow
Angle of Attack (°)
CLCD
00.00040.084650.21520.092

100.30610.1234After the data of the numerical simulations conducted on
single airfoil are gathered, numerical simulations of tandem
wing in laminar flow can be run. The simulations are
conducted at stagger 1.5- and 2-c for several combinations ofangle of attack from 0° to 10°. The results of these numericalsimulations are displayed in Table 4.8 and Table 4.9.
Table 11. Numerical results of tandem wing at stagger 1.5-c inlaminar flow
Angleof
AttackFA (°)

Angleof
AttackAA (°)

CLFA

CLAA

CDFA

CDAA

0

0

-0.0003-0.0003

0.07640.0432050.0131

0.11310.0756

0.05360

100.02490.25170.07340.0843500.14840.00930.08300.04045

50.15290.10810.08290.04045

100.14690.22680.08120.06471000.31610.00320.12450.026210

50.34500.12080.12920.0225

Table 12. Numerical results of tandem wing at stagger 2-c inlaminar flow
Angleof
AttackFA (°)

Angleof
AttackAA (°)

CLFA

CLAA

CDFA

CDAA

0

0

-0.0003-0.00050.08010.04940

50.01230.10840.0796

0.05890

100.02780.25470.07840.0917500.17280.02540.08590.0485550.17500.11360.0856

0.04895100.16790.22520.08390.07321000.31080.01600.12420.057710

50.32010.11020.1242

0.0564

Case Analyses
The percentages displayed in these case analyses arecalculated in reference to the numerical results of single airfoil
in laminar flow displayed in Table 10.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Case I: FA = 0° and 0° ≤ AA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
Lift produced by the front airfoil in tandem wing
configuration with 0° front airfoil angle of attack increases as
the angle of attack of the aft airfoil increases. The greatest
increase in lift occurs in combination FA-AA 0°-10° at stagger
2-c. Besides the increasing lift, the drag produced by the front
airfoil decreases as the angle of attack of the aft airfoil
increases. The greatest decrease in drag of 15% occurs incombination FA-AA 0°-10° at stagger 1.5-c.
Case II: FA = 5° and 0° ≤ AA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
Lift produced by the front airfoil in tandem wing
configuration with 5° front airfoil angle of attack increases
when the angle of attack of the aft airfoil increases from 0° to
5°, but decreases when the angle of attack of the aft airfoil
increases from 5° to 10°. The drag generated by the front
airfoil decreases as the angle of attack of the aft airfoil
increases. The greatest decrease in lift and drag occurs incombination FA-AA 5°-10° at stagger 1.5-c. In thiscombination the lift decreases 30% and the drag decreases
10%.
Case III: AA = 0° and 0° ≤ FA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
Lift produced by the aft airfoil in tandem wing
configuration at 0° aft airfoil angle of attack increases when
the angle of attack of the front airfoil increases from 0° to 5°,
but decreases when then angle of attack of the front airfoil
increases from 5° to 10°. Lift produced by aft airfoil reach amaximum in combination FA-AA 5°-0° at stagger 2-c. The
drag generated by aft airfoil at stagger 1.5-c decreases as theangle of attack of the front airfoil increases. At stagger 2-c, thedrag generated by the aft airfoil decreases when the angle ofattack of the front airfoil increases from 0° to 5°, but increases
when the angle of attack of the front airfoil increases from 5°
to 10°. Greatest drag decrease of 70% is experienced in
combination FA-AA 10°-0° at stagger 1.5-c.
Case IV: AA = 5° and 0° ≤ FA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
Lift generated by the aft airfoil in tandem wing
configuration at 5° aft airfoil angle of attack decreases when
the angle of attack of the front airfoil increases from 0° to 5°,
but increases when the angle of attack of the front airfoil
increases from 5° to 10° at stagger 1.5-c. At stagger 2-c, lift
generated by the aft airfoil increases when the angle of attackof the front airfoil increases from 0° to 5°, but decreases when
the angle of attack of the front airfoil increases from 5° to 10°.
The lift generated by the aft airfoil reaches a minimum in
combination FA-AA 5°-5° at stagger 1.5-c. The decrease inlift in this combination is 50%. The drag generated by the aft
airfoil decreases as the angle of attack of the front airfoil
increases at stagger 1.5-c. At stagger 2-c, the drag generated
by the aft airfoil decreases when the angle of attack of thefront airfoil increases from 0° to 5°, but increases when theangle of attack of the front airfoil increases from 5° to 10°.
Drag reaches a minimum in combination FA-AA 10°-5° atstagger 1.5-c. In this combination, a decrease of 75% in dragis observed.
To fully understand the effects of tandem wing
configuration in laminar flow, the total aerodynamic forces
generated in tandem wing configuration is compared with thesum of aerodynamic forces of two single airfoils at an
identical angle of attack. The comparisons are displayed atTable 13 and Table 14.
Table 13. Comparison of numerical result and literature oftandem wing configuration at stagger 1.5-c in laminar flow

Table 14. Comparison of numerical result and literature oftandem wing configuration at stagger 2-c in laminar flow

Comparison Analyses
The percentages displayed in these comparison analyses arecalculated in reference to the sum of two single airfoils.
Case I: FA = 0° and 0° ≤ AA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
In tandem wing configuration with the front airfoil angle ofattack at 0°, total lift decreases, but total drag also decreases as
the angle of attack of the aft airfoil increases. The combination
with the greatest advantages in this case is the combination
FA-AA 0°-10° at stagger 1.5-c because even though the total
lift generated decreases 9%, the total drag generated decreases

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

283

24%. The decrease in drag is almost 3x the decrease in lift.
Therefore, this combination still gives off a positive effect.
Case II: FA = 5 and 0° ≤ AA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
In tandem wing configuration with the front airfoil angle ofattack at 5°, the total lift and the total drag decrease, but thedecrease is about the same percentage. In the combination FAAA 5°-0° and 5°-10°, the decrease in total drag are greaterthan the decrease in total lift. In combination FA-AA 5°-5° thedecrease in total lift is greater than the decrease in total drag.
In this case, the most advantageous combination is the
combination FA-AA 5°-0° at stagger 2-c because the decrease
in drag is almost 3x the decrease in lift.
Case III: AA = 0° and 0° ≤ FA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
In tandem wing configuration with the aft airfoil angle ofattack at 0°, the most advantageous combination is the
combination FA-AA 10°-0° at stagger 1.5-c. In thiscombination the increase in lift is 4% and the decrease in dragis 27%. This same advantages are also observed at stagger 2-c,
the combination FA-AA 10°-0° causes an increase in lift of
6% and a decrease in drag of 12%. In combination FA-AA 5°0° there is a decrease in lift, but the drag also decreases. The
decrease in drag in this combination is still greater than thedecrease in lift. Therefore this combination is stilladvantageous.
Case IV: AA = 5° and 0° ≤ FA ≤ 10°; 5° interval
In tandem wing configuration with the aft airfoil angle ofattack at 5°, the most advantageous combination FA-AA is the
combination of 10°-5° at stagger 1.5-c. In this combination,
the decrease in drag is 3x the decrease in lift. In this case,there is an indication that tandem wing configuration inlaminar flow has a certain optimum angle of attack andstagger because at the combination FA-AA of 0°-5° and 10°5°, the lift decrease at stagger 1.5-c is greater than the decreaseat stagger 2-c. This shows that an increase in stagger does notguarantee the reduction of tandem wing effects in laminarflow.
It can be inferred from the case analyses that the changes inlift do not have a certain pattern. Tandem wing configurationin laminar flow gives different advantages at eachcombination of angle of attack and at each stagger. This canbe seen in Case II and Case IV. In Case II, the FA-AA
combination of 5°-0° is more advantageous at stagger 2-c thanat stagger 1.5-c. In Case IV, the combination FA-AA 10°-5° is
more advantageous at stagger 1.5-c than at stagger 2-c.
Therefore, it can be concluded that tandem wing configurationin laminar flow has optimum combinations of angle of attackand stagger to give off advantages. This is a result of flow
separation and reattachment phenomenon.
Flow separation is the detachment of flow from the surfaceof the airfoil. This detachment is caused by the decreasing air
velocity near the trailing edge (adverse pressure gradient).
This detached flow can reattach to the surface of the airfoil,
depending on the conditions of the flow. Flow separation andreattachment in laminar flow in this research is displayed inFig. 11.

284

Fig 11. Flow separation and reattachment
REFERENCES[1]

Anderson, J.D., 2011. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics. 5th ed.
Singapore: McGraw-Hill Higher Education[2] Anderson Jr., J. D., 2012. Introduction to Flight. 7th ed. Singapore:
McGraw-Hill.
[3] Bertin, J.J, Cummings, R.M., 2014. Aerodynamics for Engineers.
6th ed. USA: Pearson Education International.
[4] Boeing. 2017. Historical Snapshot. [Online]. Available at:
http://www.boeing.com/history/products/707.page. [Accessed 18th
January 2017].
[5] Deck, S., Duveau, P., d’Espiney, P. and Guillen, P. (2002)
Development and Application of Spalart–Allmaras One Equation
Turbulence Model to Three-Dimensional Supersonic Complex
Configurations, Aerospace Science and Technology, 6, pp. 171–183.
[6] Eleni, D.C., Athanasios, T.I. and Dionissios, M.P. (2012)
Evaluation of the turbulence models for the simulation of the flow
over a National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA)
0012 airfoil, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Research, 4(3),pp. 100–111.
[7] Frank M. White, 2003. Fluid Mechanics. 5th Edition. McGraw Hill
Higher Education.
[8] Hepperle, M. (2003). Laminar Separation Bubbles. [Online].
Available at: http://www.mh-aerotools.de/airfoils/bubbles.htm[Accessed 18th January 2017].
[9] Ladson, C. L., 1988. Effects of Independent Variation of Mach andReynolds Numbers on the Low-Speed Aerodynamic
Characteristics of the NACA 0012 Airfoil Section. United States ofAmerica: NASA.
[10] Minardo, A, 2013. The Tandem Wing: Theory, Experiments, andPractical Realisations. Italy: Politecnico di Milano.
[11] Nancy Hall. 2015. Airplane Cruise. [Online]. Available at:https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/cruise.html.
[Accessed 18th January 2017].
[12] Nancy Hall. 2015. Lift to Drag Ratio. [Online]. Available at:https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ldrat.html.
[Accessed 18th January 2017].
[13] Photobucket. 2016. flyK1W1's Bucket. [Online]. Available at:
http://s2.photobucket.com/user/flyK1W1/media/GP09.jpg.html.
[Accessed 18th January 2017].
[14] Ray Whitford. 2004. Chapter 3: Aerodynamics and Airfoils.
[Online]Availableat:
http://www.globalspec.com/reference/30044/203279/chapter-3aerodynamics-and-airfoils. [Accessed 18th January 2017].
[15] Rutan Long EZ. 2012. Rutan Aircraft Factory. [Online]. Available
at: http://rutan.co.uk/burt. [Accessed 18th January 2017].
[16] Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. 2017. Pan Am
Boeing 707 and 747 Jets. [Online] Available at:https://airandspace.si.edu/multimedia-gallery/7254hjpg. [Accessed
18th January 2017].

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

THE 15TH INTERNATONAL CONFERENCE QUALITY IN RESARCH (QIR) 2017
STUDY OF TURBULENCE MODELLING ON PICO-HYDRO TURBINE
D. Adanta*, Budiarso, Warjito, A.I. Siswantara
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia,
Kampus Baru, Depok 16242
Abstract
This study has a purpose to find the right turbulent model to be applied in pico-hydrosimulation. Method used is literature study, the first step is to characterize the flow in open
channels and pipes which is turbulent using the Reynolds number. The next step is to verify
whether the flow is turbulent which is done by finding out whether the flow is uniform or
non-uniform. Result shows that for open channel flow and pipes having 40 l/s flow rate, theflow is turbulent. Through visual inspection it can be concluded that the flow is non uniform.
From characterization of flow, it can also be concluded the flow is turbulent and thus it needs
to be simulated in the form of a turbine simulation. Using the right turbulent model isnecessary and this is done by comparing CFD results with experiment that has been done by
several researchers. The aspect that is compared is the power. The difference between thesimulation and the experiment is taken as errors. The result showed that out of the 4 turbulent
models namely k-Ɛ, RSM k-Ɛ, SST k-ω and RNG k-Ɛ. RSM k-Ɛ shown the minimal errors
but this model requires a lot of computational power and time because it has the transport
equation that needs to be solved in which one of it is the convection equation. The model thatis deemed to be an all-rounder is the SST k-ω, the difference in simulation and experimentcan be categorized as the same as the error is only between 1 to 4 %. The time and power
saved by using this model is due to the fact that it has only 4 equations that is specificdissipation rate, kinetic eddy viscosity, turbulence kinetic energy and closure coefficients andauxiliary relations.
Key words: CFD; Pico hydro; SST k-ω; Simulation; Turbulence modelling.
1. INTRODUCTION
Pico hydro system produces electrical energy which is less than 5 Kilo Watt (Porter 2006).
Several studies have shown that pico-hydro systems are best adapted for remote areas thathave water potential (Ho-Yan 2012; Adhikari et al. 2014; Chica et al. 2013; Shantika &Ridwan n.d.; Williams & Simpson 2009). Since the function of pico-hydro systems aremainly for rural electrification, it would be beneficial if the cost of building such systems canbe reduced. One key area is in the manufacturing process, reducing the cost can be done bya good and accurate design. To increase the accuracy in design, a good analysis using CFD
should be performed.
In computation, the degree of success depends hugely on the user and thus, the type ofmodeling used by the user (Versteeg & Malalasekera 2007). [8]. In determining the correct

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

285

modeling method that will be used, a knowledge of the flow should be kept in mind. The
flow is assumed by the user (Aeschlimann et al. 2013).
This study can be used as a reference in choosing the modeling type that is suitable for thepropeller type turbine in pico-hydro system. To minimize the error, a turbulent modeling isused with actual conditions (Darmawan 2015). This is due to the fact that there are several
ways to approach it numerically these are: DNS (Direct Numerical Simulation), LES (LargeEddy Simulation) and RANS (Reynolds Stress Navier-Stoke).
Every approach that is done numerically has its own advantages and disadvantages. RANS
model doesn’t need much computational power as it scales down the turbulence (Revell n.d.).
However the DNS model even though having high accuracy but it is rarely used as it uses
Navier-stroke without any modelling so it uses high computational power. LES is also anumerical approach that requires a lot of computing power as is scales down the model where
there is dissipation. (Revell n.d.).
Keeping in mind the computational power, time and tools that are available in CFD software
the RANS model is deemed to be the right one for the pico-hydro turbine.
2. METHODOLOGY RESEARCH
There are three methods used in this research, namely: Asymptotic Invariance, Local
Invariance Analysis and literature study. Asymptotic Invariance will be used as it is themethod that characterizes the flow from the Reynolds number (Tennekes & Lumley 1972).
The local invariance analysis method is also used as it characterizes the flow from the timeand distance perspective. Local invariance is used more often and more reliable because it
characterizes the flow by visualizing the flow directly numerically or in real time (Tennekes& Lumley 1972).
The next step is the literature study, literature study was used to assess the turbulent models
deemed suitable to be applied to the pico hydro turbine. The literature study discusses about
performing CFD and compare it with experiment. Differences are taken as errors and themodel with the least error and the one that does not over predict the results will be used forthe pico-hydro application
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Characterization fluid flow in pipe and open channel
Generally pico-hydro turbine has to piping systems that are the pipe and open channel flow.
To find out the turbulent level on each, we need to find out the characteristic of the flow first.
Pico-hydro turbine has a max output of 5 kW. For that power range and with a head of 2.7
meters the flow rate are estimated to have a value of: 40 liter/s, 80 liter/s, 120 liter/s, 160
liter/s and 200 liter/s. If the flow rate is related to the Reynolds number then the range is
Reynolds 50,000-250,000.
As explained before the Reynolds number determines whether flow is laminar or turbulent.
From the analysis it can be concluded that the turbulent model is an important factor. In the
open channel flow at the laboratory of fluid mechanics it can be seen that the flow is steady

286

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

and non-uniform. The flow is steady because at the wall there is no change with respect titime. Non uniform flow occurred because there is a change in properties from time to timeas the bottom layer of the flow is too slow due to the shape at the end which is like a snail,so there is a decrease in area which the leads to the turbine’s draft tube. Uniform flow can beseen in Figure 1:

Figure 1 Non-uniform flow (Shawl n.d.)
Simulation result using DNS (Direct Numerical Solution) in an open channel flow shows thecontour which is not uniform, the assumption for now is due to the reason that the turbulent
flow is dependent on the roughness of the wall (Jin LEE n.d.). From simulation at the center(δ/y = 0.5) there is a drop in viscosity due to the surface of the wall. This also reduces the
speed at the wall as compared to the speed at the center.
The same explanation is also given by Townsend, that the roughness of the surface will affectthe resulting boundary layer (Townsend 1976). Theory that is presented that the roughness
can cause instability at the boundary layer of flow indicates the formation of disturbances at
the flow, the phenomenon is called the turbulent flow. (Townsend 1976). The explanation is
the representation of the viscosity and friction velocity equation 1 that is:𝜏𝜏 1/2 𝑧𝑧𝑟𝑟

𝑧𝑧0 = 𝑧𝑧𝑟𝑟 𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 ( 0

𝑣𝑣

)

(1)

Where 𝑧𝑧0 length of rough surface, 𝜏𝜏01/2 is friction velocity or slip velocity between the wall
and a standard location in the constant-stress layer.
3.2. Analysis dissipation rate (K) and energy kinetic turbulence (Ɛ) in open channel
and pipe
In the turbulent flow known as mix length (lm), mix length (lm) is a random displacement of
fluid particles through a certain distance (Munson et al. 2005). Form the mix length (lm) canbe determined turbulence shear flow (τturb). Aspect of the appropriate election turbulencemodelling relies too heavily accurate knowledge of τturb (Munson et al. 2005). The equation
τturb can use equation 2:
̅ 2
𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢

𝜏𝜏𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 2 ( )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

(2)

287

To simplify the analysis, the result of the analysis assumed an average velocity of the flowin open channel is 0.15 m/s, so that from the equation 2 τturb value is 0.000055 Newton.
In determining energy kinetic turbulence (Ɛ), variables that must be known is the coefficientdrag (𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 ) and dissipation rate (K) (Saad 2011). The equation Ɛ can be seen equation 3:
𝐾𝐾3/2

𝜀𝜀 = 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙

𝑚𝑚

(3)

To determine the 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 must first find out the value of lost momentum due to turbulence flow
is usually defined by D (Tennekes & Lumley 1972). Assumed the value of D in relation to
the velocity rate (U), turbulent rotational speed (u) and the turbulent boundary layer thickness(δ) are considered the same (Tennekes & Lumley 1972). The analysis result Tennekes,
compared δ/X with u/U is comparable (Tennekes & Lumley 1972), so the analysis theamount of u can be assumed is 0.000234 m/s.
Dissipation rate (K) is determined from the velocity of the three-axis vector (x y z). Vector
velocity on three axes (x y z), the software Ansys or CFX, RANS models used isotropic
assumption that the value of velocity the three axes being the same, so the equation K
becomes:3

𝐾𝐾 = (𝑢𝑢̅′2 )2(4)

From the analysis of the energy loss due to the turbulence flow in channel is 0.000019 m2/s3.
It is proved theoretically in pico hydro turbine turbulence flow occurs. The theoretical result
are considered turbulent kinetic energy (Ɛ) is small, RANS models are considered torepresent real condition.
The next step is to compare analysis and experiment results. This is done to find the best
turbulent model that us viewed to be the best for pico-hydro turbine based on the flow
characteristics of the turbine itself.
3.3. Turbulence modelling in pico-hydro turbines
To get the turbulent model that is right, this study tries to compare previous researches where
the focus is done on CFD analysis and experimental results comparison. The focus is only
on the ANSYS software as it is the commonly used software where the simulation is accurate
as compared to other software tools especially for water turbines (Židonis et al. 2015). Thisissue comes into consideration to correct the error value from simulation, after that the error
value will be compared to the other error value. The table shows the researches, there at least
4 researches done these are:
Year
2009
2012

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Table 1 Turbulent models for pico-hydro turbine
AuthorType Turbine Turbulence Model
Simpson and Williams
Propellerk-ƐRamos, et.al
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2009
Prasad et.al
Propeller
RSM k-Ɛ
2013
Helena M. et.al
Propeller
SST k-ω
2016
Gupta. et.al
Pelton
SST k-ω
2007
PerrigPelton
SST k-ω
2002
Kaniecki
Banki
RNG k-Ɛ
From Table 1 there are (4) turbulent models that are commonly used these are k-Ɛ, RSM(Reynolds Stress Model) k-Ɛ, SST (Sheer Stress Transport) k-ω and RNG (Re-Normalization
Group) k-Ɛ. Every modelling has its own advantages and disadvantages. It is compiled intable 2 which is already explained by Darmawan (Darmawan 2015):
Table 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of turbulent modeling (Darmawan 2015)
Model
Advantages
Disadvantages▪ Simple▪ Not suitable for closed▪ Good for general simulation
flows with rotation
k-Ɛ▪ Most commonly used
▪ Over estimation of the▪ Computational power required is not too big
dissipation level▪ Good accuracy for simple and complex flow ▪ Highcomputational▪ Very good for flow with minute pressure
power required
gradient, opposing pressure boundaries, jet ▪ Not as sophisticated as
RSM k-Ɛ
flows and flow with no shear.
STD k-Ɛ
▪ Better than RNG k-Ɛ for backward-facing ▪ For open flow the result
stepis similar to STD k-Ɛ▪ Suitable for high Reynold number▪ Meant for 2 phase▪ Mesh number is related to the accuracy ofsimulation
the result▪ Over prediction for
SST k-ω
separated flows▪ Can be used for forced fluids with free shear
forces.
▪ Highcomputational▪ Can be used for transitional flow
power required.
▪ General computing power▪ Good for flow with more flexibility,▪ Result not as good as kexpansion in area and back ward facing stepƐ where there is a
RNG k-Ɛflow.
reduction in area
▪ Calculation for small scale turbulence isbetter than k-Ɛ
3.3.1. k-Ɛ model
Simpson and Williams (2006) performed CFD which is then compared with experimental
results using k-Ɛ model [15]. Research is done with flow rate of 180-220 l/s and head 4 meterand speed of 100-1650 rpm. The result from Simpson and Williamson can be seen in Figure
3.
From the data obtained by Simpson and Williams (2006) it can be seen that the efficiency of
the turbine is over-predicted by 10% at the best point (Simpson & Williams 2006), Figure 2
shows that there is not much difference in the simulation and experimental result.

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Figure 2 comparison of power output (Simpson & Williams 2006)
Ramos, et.al (2012) did a CFD analysis which is then validated with experiment using thesame model as Simpson and William that is turbulent k-Ɛ (H M Ramos et al. 2012). The
parameter that is used for the 4 blade turbine simulation with 4 l/s flow rate and specificspeed (Ns), 91 rpm. (m.m3/s), for 5 blades the flow rate is 3,4 l/s and specific speed (Ns), 80
91 rpm. (m.m3/s), the turbine speed is set at 300 rpm. The results are presented at table 3:
Table 3 Comparison of CFD and experimental results (H M Ramos et al. 2012)
D
H
Q
N
η
P
Range of application
Turbinemmm
l/s rpm %W
Q (l/s)H (m)N (rpm)1001 0,13 3,4 300 98
4
2,5-5
0,08-0,3200-300
Propeller
with 5 blades 1002 0,13 4,9 200 35
2
2,5-5
0,04-0,1770-2001001 0,12 4
300 95
403-5
0,05-0,25 200-300
Propeller
with 4 blades 1002 0,07 3,3 200 70
2
2,3-5,2 0,07-0,25
70-300
1
2
CFD analysis for lab condition, experiment results
Table 3 shows the result obtained from Ramos, et.al. This results show that differences in the
results are twice as much. From this research, it can be concluded that the results obtained
are not accurate so k-Ɛ is not deemed to be the best.
3.3.2. RSM k-Ɛ model
Helena M. et.al performed a study in 2013 using RSM k-Ɛ. In the research the mac flow rate
is 5.2 l/s, impeller diameter used is 100 mm and 200 mm and rotation ranges from 100-1650
rpm.

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RSM k-Ɛ modelling is used because the reliability of the model and also due to the fact that
2 equations are used where all the calculations are focused on convection and turbulent
diffusion (Helena M Ramos et al. 2012). The conditions are ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 and µ = 1.01 x
10-6 m2/s. Comparison of experiment and CFD can be seen at Figure 4

Figure 3 Comparison of CFD and experiment (Helena M Ramos et al. 2012)
From the curve Helena M. et.al claims that the error that from the CFD analysis andexperiment is in between 0.00 < e < 0.02.
3.3.3. SST k-ω model
SST k-ω model was done by Prasad et.al in 2009 (Prasad et al. 2009). The study 12 stayvanes, guide vane and 4 blades. The parameter variations are flow rate and speed. The
simulation result will be used to determine non dimensional parameter such as Pressure
coefficient, velocity coefficient, flow deflection, degree of reaction, circulation coefficient,
lift coefficient, runner energy coefficient, and total energy coefficient.
The simulation and experimental results from Prassad, et.al. can be seen in table 4:
Table 4 comparison of computed and experimental result (Prasad et al. 2009)
Topic
Numerically computed efficiency (%)
Experimental efficiency (%)

Guide vane angle
500
400
350
90.19
92.24 89.97
90.86
92.06 91.59

From the research by Prasad, the results obtained from both methods are similar and thedifferences are assumed to be obtained from the discretization of the governing equation andflow domain, secondly it can be caused by instrument or human error during inspection.

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The SST k-ω that was done by Gupta, et.al. in a Pelton turbine. Gupta, et.al. used this model
because the object had curvatures which can present more complex flow for an object likethis as the main goal is also to find the flow near the walls (Gupta et al. 2016). The boundary
condition are jet velocity that reached 30.7 m/s, relative pressure 0 atmospheric and otherpressure is taken as 1 atm. Since the buckets were symmetrical the modeling also used asymmetrical concept.
Gupta, et.al tried two models SST k-ω and k-Ɛ, but from the results he felt that SST k-ω has
shown a better result even though it took 8 hours more to complete the simulation since theequation that needs to be solved in SST k-ω is 4 (Gupta et al. 2016).
To increase the accuracy of the simulation the mesh number also plays an important role. For
that reason Gupta, et.al. did a mesh independency study and from that the number of nodes
obtained are 1,415,878 nodes meanwhile the element numbers are 7,098,630 (Gupta et al.
2016). From the study, the error obtained (differences between experiment and simulation)is 3.5%.
Modelling using SST k-ω were also done by Perrig (2007), Perrig performed testing on
Pelton turbine to study the effect of the buckets. From his study the SST k-ω showed the best
results for flow that is near the wall (Perrig 2007). The result of the study shows that there
are several effects and forces that work in a bucket which are the Coanda and cavitation
effect. The result obtained from multiplying the mesh at the bucket is done so that the result
will be similar to the real condition. The result shows that SST k-ω is recommended for
Pelton turbines (Perrig 2007).
3.3.4. RNG k-Ɛ modelRNG k-Ɛ model was studied by Kaniecky (Kaniecki 2002), due to the similar geometry of
the crossflow turbine that the study was done using 2 dimensional analysis and the boundary
condition used as input is the constant pressure at inlet. (Kaniecki 2002). RNG k-Ɛ model
was used because it will diminish the effect of a small scale turbulence by mathematicalequations. This method will also save time and power while still giving accurate conditionof the simulation. (Kaniecki 2002). The error is at 4%, which is caused by several geometrythat is not used as an input in the simulation (Kaniecki 2002).
3.4. Result
The summary of 3.2 sub chapter is shown at the table below to ease the selection of the
turbulence model that can be used for pico-hydro turbine.
Table 5 Comparison of simulation and experiment of Pico Hydro
Model
Computing
Error
Year
Author
TurbulencePower2009 Simpson and Williams
k-Ɛ
Low
10%
2012
Ramos, et.al
k-Ɛ
Low
50%
2009
Prasad et.al
RSM k-Ɛ
High
0.2%-2%
2013
Helena M. et.al
SST k-ω
Medium1%
2016
Gupta. et.al
SST k-ω
Medium3,5%
2007
Perrig
SST k-ω
Medium1%

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2002

Kaniecki

RNG k-ƐLow

4%

From table above it can be seen that RSM k-Ɛ the turbulence model that provided the mostaccurate result with a less error value but then the number of equations that need to be solved
here is 7 and one of it is the convection evaluation. Remembering that pico-hydro turbine theconvection is not significant and thus it can be ignored. From that we can say that this modelis wastes time and also power for pico-hydro application.
From table 5 the turbulent model that does not take a lot of computing time and power whilestill keeping the result accurate is the SST k-ω, other than the low error value according to
Menter this turbulent model is right if we want to analyze the area near the wall and k-Ɛ isused for area that is further away from the wall or after there is a separation in flow (Menter
1992; Menter 1993).
4. CONCLUSION
The flow characteristics in pico-hydro turbine can be categorized as turbulent. Turbulent flow
can be seen from Reynolds number that the fluid flow has. The characteristic of flow in open
channel and pipes with flow rate of 40 l/s is steady and non-uniform. Steady flow is causedby the geometry of the wall that did not have any change while non-uniform is caused by theproperties of the flow changing from one form of flow to another from time to time.
From literature study it can be concluded that the RSM k-Ɛ turbulence model provided themost accurate result with a less error value that is below 1%. However, after considering thepower required and time to perform the simulation, SST k-ω can be a better solution.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thanks to KEMENRISTEK DIKTI, which has funded researchwith no grant is No. SP. DIPA-042.06.1.401516/2016.
6. REFERENCES
Adhikari, P. et al., 2014. A Study on Developing Pico Propeller Turbine for Low HeadMicro Hydropower Plants in Nepal. Journal of the Institute of Engineering, 9(1),pp.36–53.
Aeschlimann, V. et al., 2013. Inter-blade flow analysis of a propeller turbine runner using
stereoscopic PIV. European Journal of Mechanics-B/Fluids, 42, pp.121–128.
Chica, E., Agudelo, S. & Sierra, N., 2013. Lost wax casting process of the runner of apropeller turbine for small hydroelectric power plants. Renewable energy, 60, pp.739–
745.
Darmawan, S., 2015. Pengembangan model turbulen RNG k- ε untuk aplikasi CFD padarunner cross-flow dalam komponen turbin gas mikro bioenergy proto x-2a. Depok:
Universitas Indonesia.
Gupta, V., Prasad, V. & Khare, R., 2016. Numerical simulation of six jet Pelton turbine
model. Energy, 104, pp.24–32.
Ho-Yan, B., 2012. Design of a low head pico hydro turbine for rural electrification in
Cameroon.
Jin LEE, H.J.S., Visualization of streamwise velocity in turbulent channel flow, Proceedings

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of 8th International Symposium on Turbulence and Shear Flow Phenomena. Available
at: www.youtube.com.
Kaniecki, M., 2002. Modernization of the outflow system of cross-flow turbines. Task
Quarterly, 6(4), pp.601–608.
Menter, F., 1993. Zonal two equation kw turbulence models for aerodynamic flows. In
23rd fluid dynamics, plasmadynamics, and lasers conference. p. 2906.
Menter, F.R., 1992. Improved two-equation k-omega turbulence models for aerodynamic
flows.
Munson, B.R., Young, D.F. & Okiishi, T.H., 2005. Mekanika Fluida Jilid 2. Jakarta:
Erlangga.
Perrig, A., 2007. Hydrodynamics of the free surface flow in Pelton turbine buckets.
Porter, A.W.& S., 2006. Comparison of Hydropower Options for Developing Countries
with Regard to the Environmental, Social and Economic Aspects. In International
Conference on Renewable Energy for Developing Countries. Washington DC, USA.
Prasad, V., Gahlot, V.K. & Krishnamachar, P., 2009. CFD approach for design
optimization and validation for axial flow hydraulic turbine. Indian Journal ofEngineering and Materials Sciences, 16(4), p.229.
Ramos, H.M., Simão, M. & Borga, A., 2012. CFD and experimental study in the
optimization of an energy converter for low heads. Energy Science and Technology,
4(2), pp.69–84.
Ramos, H.M., Simão, M. & Borga, A., 2012. Experiments and CFD analyses for a newreaction microhydro propeller with five blades. Journal of Energy Engineering,
139(2), pp.109–117.
Revell, A., Advanced Aeroynamics Part 2: Turbulence Modelling & Simulation (L2:Viscous flow and turbulence).
Saad, T., 2011. Turbulence modeling for beginners. University of Tennessee space institute.
Shantika, T. & Ridwan, M., Perancangan Prototipe Picohydro Portable 200 Watt.
Shawl, J., Open Channel Flow Concepts, U.S. Available at:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vmTYmt0Y8Q.
Simpson, R.G. & Williams, A.A., 2006. Application of computational fluid dynamics to thedesign of pico propeller turbines. ICREDC-06, School of Engineering and Applied
Sciences, University of the District of Columbia, Washington DC, USA.
Tennekes, H. & Lumley, J.L., 1972. A first course in turbulence, MIT press.
Townsend, A.A., 1976. The structure of turbulent shear flow Second Edi., Cambridge:
Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Versteeg, H.K. & Malalasekera, W., 2007. An introduction to computational fluid
dynamics: the finite volume method, Pearson Education.
Williams, A.A. & Simpson, R., 2009. Pico hydro–Reducing technical risks for rural
electrification. Renewable Energy, 34(8), pp.1986–1991.
Židonis, A., Benzon, D.S. & Aggidis, G.A., 2015. Development of hydro impulse turbinesand new opportunities. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 51, pp.1624–
1635.

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A REVIEW ON CURRENT STATUS AND POTENTIAL BIOMASS GASIFICATIONTECHNOLOGIES IN INDONESIA
Priyambodo Nur Ardi Nugroho 1,2, and Shuichi Torii 1
Department of Advanced Mechanical System Engineering, Kumamoto University,
Kurokami, 2-39-1, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan.
2.
Politeknik Perkapalan Negeri Surabaya, Jl. Teknik Kimia,
Kampus ITS Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia.

1.

ABSTRACTEnergy security has become an important interest for many countries recently. For
developing country like Indonesia, social and economic activities need the constant supply ofenergy. Establishing new and renewable energy has become the priority in regards to theeconomy and environmental issue. Biomass is considered as one of the potential sources ofenergy to prevent energy shortage and achieving energy conservation as well as emission
reduction. Biomass gasification is one of the favorable technologies to convert biomass tofuel for power generation. However, challenges remain in the biomass gasification upstream
and downstream process for practical applications. The purpose of this review is to list
barriers and solutions for biomass gasification technology to encourage policy makers andindustries in Indonesia to use biomass more. A review of the present condition of biomass
gasification technologies in Indonesia was conducted in order to determine future strategic
solutions for promoting biomass as an alternative source of energy.
Keywords: Biomass gasification; Energy security; Renewable energy.
1.INTRODUCTION
Energy had become the vital element to develop and maintain the world's economic.
Initiated by the industrial revolution in the 18th century, economic growth had rapidly
increased, mainly by the use of fossil source fuel like oil, coal and natural gas. Energy supply
in the near future will become a serious issue and draw consideration of the world because
human activities and economic prosperity is associated with the quantity and the quality ofenergy usage. Results showed that global energy demand increase rapidly in parallel withhuman population growth (Asif & Muneer, 2007), (Gonzales, 2007), (Ahmad, et al., 2011).
Only the past few years the world become aware of the consequence of economic growththat needs to be paid. Fossil fuel combustion release gas including carbon dioxide that has
pushed the concentration of one of the most important greenhouse gasses into the highest
level that never been reached before. Despite the fact that considered as controversial, shredsof evidence of global warming and climate change as a result of higher green house gasses in
the atmosphere were shown (Letcher, 2008). Not only environment issues caused by the useof fossil fuel to the world, but also it has another negative effect on the competition of energy
source. The exploration of fossil fuel substitute, the requirement to reduce the environment
impact and the need to safely and economically dispose of waste produce by the society havestimulated the advancement of an alternative source of energy (Omer, 2008).
As one of the developing countries in the world, energy security is a substantial element
for advancing economic growth in Indonesia. Together with the rise of economic particularly
in industrial, electricity and transportation sector, demand for energy in quality and quantity
aspect continues to accelerate inevitably (Hasan, et al., 2012). Indonesia currently uses fossil* Corresponding author.
E-mail address : pr1y4mb0d0@gmail.com

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source of energy like coal, oil, and gas as its major source of energy, primary energy supply
share cold be seen in table 1 (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, 2016).
Indonesia is sufficiently supplied with a low and medium quality of coal (IEA, 2016). In
2009 Indonesia was the second world's top coal exporter to Japan, China, and India. Howeverat the current rates of production, we still only have 80 years until coal stock no longer inexistence. Oil used to be one of the most dominant sectors in Indonesia, particularly in the
1980s, when Indonesia was listed among the oil exporting countries. Yet started in the 2000s,
oil production has been decreasing while consumption has continued to grow. As a result,Indonesia has begun to import a significant amount of oil from other countries. It is expectedthat oil in Indonesia will last only 23 years (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, 2016).
Gas has been developed well in Indonesia due to its promising potential, however withcurrent production, only 52 years before natural gas run out from Indonesia unless there are
additional natural gas fields found (Azwar, 2013).
Table 1 Indonesia Primary Energy Supply SharePrimary energy
Amount (mboe)
Share (%)
supply
2010
2015
2010
2015
Oil
518
545
36
33
Gas
269
279
19
17
Coal
281
364
20
22
Hydro Power
43
35
3
2
Geothermal
15
16
1
1
Biomass
273
309
19
19
Biofuel28
902
6Because of the accelerated depletion of fossil fuel in Indonesia, alternative source ofenergy for sustainable economic growth is urgently required (Salim, 2000). In addition to that,
following economic recession back in 1998, Indonesia economic growth steadily in 4-6%
(ADB, 2016). Energy consumption rate also rise with annual growth rate of 7%, yet it didn't
follow by adequate energy supply because the fossil fuel reserves are restricted, the relianceis remarkably high. Industrial and transportation sectors are anticipated to use the source ofenergy more than any other sectors, including household sector (Abdullah, 2002).
Sustainability issues of the energy are one of the most critical challenges in Indonesia.
Indonesia should support and promote the implementation of new and renewable energy inorder to improve energy security. By ensuring energy security, Indonesia will be lessdependent on other country and create energy self-determination. Indonesia require energy
policy and management both in generation and distribution part of energy chain (Ibrahim, etal., 2010). This review provides a study of the Indonesia current status and the potential for
future development of biomass gasification technologies as an option for achieving energy
autonomy.
2.BIOMASS IN INDONESIA
Biomass is defined as a natural source of energy, as a product of waste and residues froma farm, forest, and municipal area. Biomass is composed of living species like animals andplants, similarly with fossil fuel, but it does not need millions of years to form. Sunlightenergy is used by plants through photosynthesis absorbing carbon dioxide and water to grow.
Animals eat plants and the energy is transferred. Biomass is considered as renewable energy
because biomass could reproduce in a relatively short time compare to fossil fuel. This is oneof the most attractive points of biomass as an alternative source of energy. Biomass is

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comparable cleaner than coal, and among other renewable carbon resource is able to directly
converted into fuel exclusively (Tchapda & Pisupati, 2014). Biomass could be partly
responsible for the world's energy demand if controlled continuously.
Plants absorb the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis process.
When burnt, they release the carbon dioxide that previously absorbed from the atmosphere.
In this way, the burning of biomass does not add any net addition to the atmosphere level ofcarbon dioxide. In other words, as a source of energy, biomass is carbon neutral or no
addition of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (Basu, 2013). Biomass is unique because it is
the only renewable energy that could form in all three states: solid, liquid and gas. Solid fuelsfrom biomass could be formed as charcoal, torrefied biomass, biocoke, and biochar. Whileliquid fuels of biomass are ethanol, biodiesel, methanol, vegetable oil, and pyrolysis oil
product. And gaseous fuels are including biogas (CH4 and CO2), producer gas (CO, H2, CH4,
CO2 and H2), syngas (CO and H2), and also substitute natural gas (CH4).
Previous researches on biomass as an energy conversion in Indonesia were performed.
Based on the fossil record, biomass already used by people in Indonesia and Papua New
Guinea from very long time ago (Haberle, et al., 2001). Productivity research on using thetypical plant as biomass in the plantation has been conducted (Sukardjo & Yamada, 1992).
Bio-methanol potential from forest biomass already done (Suntana, et al., 2009).
Investigation of the impact of biomass cogeneration to the environment (Duval, 2001), andenergy analysis demand and supply for some of the Asian countries (Koopmans, 2005).
People in Indonesia are very familiar with the use of biomass. Approximately half of thetotal Indonesia population (about 105 million) mainly depend on traditional biomass for daily
cooking, with wood as a primary source (REN21, 2015). This fact, however, has the negative
findings that low-income people in rural areas need to collect wood from the forest, or
moreover cut the tree down in order to get a source of energy for cooking. In total, annual
biomass production in Indonesia was almost 150 million tons, proportional to nearly 500
GJ/year. Most of this was used by rural area and small industry to obtain energy for cooking,heating and electricity (Hasan, et al., 2012).
Biomass in Indonesia mainly derive from rice residues, any leftover of rice harvesting likehusk, bran, stalk and straw possess energy about 150 GJ per year (ZREU, 2000). Java,
Sumatra, Sulawesi, Kalimantan, Bali and Nusa Tenggara are the most contributing region for
this. Stalk and straw usually generated at the field and burnt, or used for feeding animals, or
as a raw material for paper industry, while farmer sometimes uncontrollably burnt husk.
Rubber woods from Sumatra and Kalimantan own 120 GJ of energy annually, leftover part ofrubber wood are being used as firewood in small brick and roof tile industry. Sugar residues,
like bagasse, cane tops and cane leaf technically have 78 GJ per year. Sugar factories often
used bagasse, while cane leaf and can tops need further investigation. Palm oil residues, suchas empty fruit bunches, fibers, and palm shells in total have 67 GJ per year and already used
as a common source of fuel. Other biomass sources like logging excess, coconut residues,
sawn timber leftover, plywood and veneer production are potentially about 20 GJ per year.
Due to its characteristics, like low bulk density, and high ash content, rice husk isclassified as one of the most challenging sources of biomass to gasify. However, despite its
technical issues, rice husk gasification for the gas generation to power about 60-200 hp
engines was proven successfully started from the 20th century in several countries (Kaupp,1984). Apart from China, Thailand and India, Indonesia has already developed open core ricehusk gasifier, including simple design variation of gasifiers (Salam, 2006). While gasificationof rice husk already developed for electrical generation below 500 kW (Widodo &Rahmarestia, 2008).
Rice hull has been used as a source of power generation in Riau Province, and able toproduce 18 kW electricity from 25 KAV unit, and sold at US$ 0.03/kWh (Abdullah, 2002).

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However, this still above-targeted purchasing price under the newly enacted Small
Distribution Power Generation Program held by the Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources. Production cost could be decreased with the installation of a higher capacity
gasifier, for example up to 100 kVA with cogeneration system. Still, the production cost of
the proposed unit remains higher than the basic selling price of electricity from the nationalgrid, it is advisable that the improved import duty and taxation scheme of some importantcomponent could be adjusted accordingly by the government.
3.BIOMASS GASIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
Biomass conversion to energy encounter several issues due to its characteristics likebulkiness, low energy density, and inconvenient form of biomass, as a result, rapid transitionof biomass is yet to happen. Compared to gas and liquid fuel, biomass is not easy to handled,stored and transported. As a consequence, scientists attempt to convert biomass into liquid or
gaseous fuels, that are denser and handled or stored less complicatedly. There are two waysof biomass conversion, first is biochemical with digestion either anaerobic or aerobic throughcomposting, or fermentation. In this conversion, biomass molecules are cracked down into
smaller molecules with the assistance of bacteria or enzymes. Biochemical is much slower
but does not need much external energy. Figure 1 explain about different options for biomass
conversion into fuel gasses or chemicals (Basu, 2013).

Figure.1 Biomass conversion into fuel gasses or chemical.
Another biomass conversion process is thermochemical through carbonization,
torrefaction, pyrolysis, gasification, liquefaction, or combustion. In this process, biomass isconverted into gas completely, which will then synthesized to usable chemical or being used
as a gas. Combustion requires high-temperature exothermic oxidation in oxygen richambiance to hot flue gas. Carbonization including the process in which the carbon content oforganic materials is increased through thermochemical decomposition. When biomass isheated to 200-300 0C without or very little contact with oxygen, its is called torrefaction.
Different with combustion, gasification associated with chemical reactions in an inadequatelevel of oxygen environment producing syngas with heating values. While pyrolysis engages
with very fast heating in a nonoxygen environment, and liquefaction decompose large
molecules of solid into smaller molecules of liquids in an appearance of catalyst and a lowtemperature (Demirbas, 2009).
Basically, gasification converts fuel from one form to another form. Currently,
gasification process is ordinary practice in fossil fuels, compared to nonfossil fuels likebiomass for production of syngas. There are several reasons for transforming fuel throughgasification like increasing the heating value of the fuel by dismissing noncombustible
components like nitrogen and H2O, removing the fuel gas of sulfur which is not released into

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the atmosphere when burnt and increasing the hydrogen content mass ratio of the fuel.
Gasification also reducing the oxygen content of the fuel, thus increasing its fuel energy
density. Gasification of biomass resulting CO and H2 gas that support a favorable base forliquid fuel and chemical, another gas product is methane that could be burned straightly forenergy or heat production (Basu, 2013).
There were 50 gasifiers installed in Indonesia until 1990 (Knoef, 1991). Out of them, 37
were field units, 10 were commercial units (Manurung, 1995). Power gasifier size ranging
from 10 to 120 kWe, while the heat gasifiers were 600 to 900 kWth. Nearly all of the heatgasifiers were commercial and operational. Interestingly, only one of the power gasifier wascompletely commercial and operational and the entire number of gasifiers were facing
technical issues without exception, especially due to tar contaminant. Technical problems andcheap price of fossil fuels made the development of biomass gasifiers virtually halted,
especially for some countries like Philippines and Thailand around the 1990s. otherdeveloping countries, particularly China and India continue sustained attempt to develop
gasifier designs through research and development to popularize field applications. As aconsequence in these countries, biomass gasification technologies is utterly well establishedrecently.
Tar contaminant has been the main technical barrier for large-scale biomass gasification
application and accountable for the major setback in the development. In order to reduce orremove tar from the syngas, several attempts have been done thoroughly. The development ofwood gasifier system up to 200 kg/hr capacity show that the recycle of the syngas mixture
produced in the pyrolysis zone, and combined with the incoming gasification air was themain design of gasifier. the syngas produced was essentially the product of charcoal
gasification and possess low tar content (Gaudemard & Becker, 1989) .
Multistage gasification has been implemented at the Technical University of Denmark,(Nikolaisen, et al., 1992). The process separates volatile syngas during pyrolysis from thecharcoal. The volatile matter was partially burnt and the product was used for charcoal
gasification. Tar contaminant was claimed to be very low and could be used for running of anengine after cooling and removing the particulate matter (Henriksen, 1995). The design ofvertical packed bed and partial oxidation pyrolysis reactor. This basic design was introduced
and developed by Georgia Institute of Technology, and already successfully tested in several
countries like Thailand, Philippines, and Indonesia (Tatom, et al., 1980).
By 2000, about 388 downdraft gasification systems using agricultural waste, like corn
stalk, sorghum, cotton, soybean and wood waste, has been developed for domestic cooking in
China. Prior to use, the syngas was cleaned in order to remove tar and other particulates, andthen stored in a gas chamber, afterward it will be distributed to household though gas pipe
networks (Yisheng, et al., 2005). Up to 1000 households could be served from thistechnology. However, many of these systems already stopped due to some technical problems,
mainly tar accumulations, poor management and operational skills, and payment scheme
dispute between users and government (Jingjing & DeLaquil., 2006).
Asian countries like China, India, Philippines and Thailand have developed gasifier stove
as an alternative to overcome the smoking problem with conventional biomass stoves. Asian
Institute of Technology's gasifier stove with the wood chip as fuel generate almost 30% of
overall efficiency, with three capacity of 3.2 kg/hr, 5.5 kg/hr and 15 kg/hr. While in thePhilippines, Central Philippines University have developed single and multiple burners
forced draft rice husk gas stove. Rice husk is gasified and the gas is burned in stove near thegasifier and could perform a luminous blue flame. Even tough the manufacturing cost is onefourth times higher than ordinary LPG stove, the operational cost is cheaper by about threefourth (Belonia, 2005).

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4.BIOMASS SUPPLY CHAIN
Naturally, biomass in any kind available plentifully almost everywhere, from farm toforest and municipal zone, but it is broadly scattered in a very wide area. Consequently, thesupply chain of biomass from collecting in the site, handling, storage, to delivery to thepower plant is expensive and will alter the advantages and further development of biomass.
Another issue in collecting biomass as part of the supply chain system was caused by theunsteady market of biomass generated by the absence of sophisticated biomass energy
conversion technology. Transportation of biomass from the source of origin to the power
plant also leads to another problem, since typically biomass contain very high moisture
content and very low bulk density (excluding wood). These components will boost thetransportation cost, and biomass energy conversion as an entire process (Asadullah, 2014).
Scientists had already build comprehensive method to decrease the supply chain expenseby optimization of a collection, handling, storage and delivery process, together withappropriate power plant point. Furthermore, development of transportation network andmeans of transportation mode as an integral part of the supply chain could guarantee theconstant reserve of biomass from origin to the power plant, and as a result, lower thetransportation cost.
Biomass densifying could be one of the solutions to overcome the problems in the supply
chain. Densification clears the internal space within the biomass and raises the bulk density(Mupondwa, et al., 2012). Figure 2 shows two of the most common densifying techniques,
briquetting and pelletizing.

Figure. 2 Briquette and Pellet.
Briquetting and pelletizing are the most frequent technique in densifying the biomass(Eriksson & Prior, 1990). Briquette technology already developed in Indonesia, and it is said
that the briquette or sometimes called green charcoal is easily flare up and burn with cleanfame. Combined or unmixed agricultural materials available in Indonesia could be used to
produce biomass pellets to convert into syngas (H2) to produce heat energy. The finest
unmixed material derived from palm shell, while combined materials pellets composed ofsugarcane bagasse and palm shell, with gasification time about 85 min/kg biomass pellets(Alamsyah, et al., 2015).
Moisture content in biomass play a critical part in biomass gasification, since more water
will reduce the thermal efficiency of the gasification system. Performance of the thermal
power increase with the decrease of the moisture content. Natural drying are still suitable for

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most users in biomass pretreatment, however for better efficiency, forced drying techniquesshould need to be considered (Basha & Torii, 2014).
5.CONCLUSION
As a one of the largest source of energy in the world, biomass is anticipated to take thepart in greenhouse gas reduction while improving the sustainability of energy supply inIndonesia. However, there are many issues in biomass application, like high investment cost,
low conversion efficiency, supply chain barrier, and the high dependency on seasonal
production. Another major problem is high moisture content that requires pretreatment andsuitable technology. High-tech systems and transfer of knowledge to operators also need to
be examined. In a larger scale, supporting law from the policy maker and familiarization of
biomass usage need to be taken care seriously. In other words, extensive biomass exploitation
still against some obstructions that need to be solved.
6.ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The first author acknowledges support from the Indonesia Endowment Fund for
Education (LPDP).
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Belonia, (2005), Rice Husk Gas Stove Handbook, Appropriate technology Center Departmentof Agricultural Engineering and Environmental Management, College of Agriculture,
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Demirbas, A., (2009), Bio refineries : Current Activities and Future Development, Energy
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Gonzales, P., (2007), How Do Energy and Environmental Policy Goals and Instruments
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Haberle, S.G., Hope, G.S., van der Kaars, S., (2001), Biomass Burning in Indonesia andPapua New Guinea : Natural and Human Induced Fire Events in the Fossil Record,
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Hasan, M.H., Mahlia, T.M.I., Nur, H., (2012), A Review of Energy Scenario and Sustainable
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Jingjing and DeLaquil, (2006), Biomass Energy in China and its Potential, Energy for
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Kaupp, A., (1984), A. 1984. Gasification of Rice Hulls. GTZ, Eschborn, Germany.
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Letcher, T.M., (2008), Future Energy, Improved Sustainable and Clean Options for Our
Planet, 1st ed., Elsevier Ltd., Oxford, UK.
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Workshop on the Use of Coconut Industry Waste for Energy, Bali, Indonesia.
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Statistic of Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia.
Mupondwa E., Tabil, L., Phani, A., Sokhansanj, S., Stumborg, M., (2012), Techno-Economic
Analysis of Wheat Straw Densification in the Canadian Prairie Province of Manitoba,
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Danish Energy Agency, Copenhagen.
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Suntana, A.S., Vogt, K.A., Turnblom, E.C., Upadhye, R., (2009), Bio Ethanol Potential inIndonesia, Forest Biomass as a Source of Bio Energy that Reduces Carbon Emissions,Applied Energy, Volume 86, pp. 215-221.
Tatom, J.W., Wellborn, H.W., Sasmojo, S., Harahap, F., (1980), Pyrolysis of Rice Husks inIndonesia, Pusat Teknologi Pembangunan, Institut Teknologi Bandung.
Tchapda, A.H., and Pisupati, S.V., (2014), A Review of Thermal Co-Conversion of Coal andBiomass Waste, Energies, Volume7, pp. 1098-1148.
Widodo, T.W., and Rahmarestia, E., (2008), Current Status of Bioenergy Development inIndonesia, Regional Forum on Bioenergy Sector Development: Challenges,
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ZREU., (2000), Zentrum fur Rationell Energieanwendung und Umwelt GmbH, Biomass inIndonesia-Business Guide, German Energy Saving Project.

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COMPARATIVE RESISTANCE TEST BETWEEN TWO TOWING TANKS(A CASE STUDY AT ITS AND IHL)
Dian Purnamasaria, I Ketut Aria Pria Utamaa, and I Ketut SuastikaaaDepartement of Naval Architec and Shipbuilding Engineering, Sepuluh Nopember
Institute of Technology (ITS) Surabaya

ABSTRACT
A complete comparative tests of ITTC procedures that exist among the towing tankfacilities at Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology (ITS) and IndonesianHydrodynamic Laboratory-BPPT was carried out. In the resistance tests at alllaboratories, the ship model is connected to the towing carriage so that it is free to trim
and heave and were restrained in surge, sway, roll and yaw. Each facility uses its own
instrumentation, calibration procedure and test methodology. Regarding dataacquisition and signal conditioning techniques, the data sampling rate, filtering of theanalog signal from the force measuring device, and the actual length of record overwhich the ship resistance was averaged were the responsibility of each facility. Eachinstitution has tested the model in 4 different sessions, in order to change the test
conditions and some errors were detected in the uncertainties analysis for someparticular Froude numbers and in those cases the data was withdrawn and not used in
the analysis. From the test results of total resistance provided by each facility, theresistance was calculated as the component of the total, for any regression analysis ofexperimental data to yield reasonably reliable results, the data set should be large
enough and more than one test should have been made for the same experimental
conditions to check the repeatability of the data. The measurements included speed (Vm)and total resistance (RTm). There is good agreement overall between the test results
obtained at the two facilities. The differences that do remain should be attributed todifferences in experimental techniques and types of model used at the participating
laboratories.
Keywords: Resistance tests; Froude numbers; Repeatibility; Speed; Total Resistance
1. INTRODUCTION
The experimental fluid dynamics (EFD) community is expected to design and execute
experiments that consider more real-world flow conditions and address a variety ofphysics of interest with advanced measurement techniques. The resistance of ships is apriority factor at the preliminary design stage, some of the factors associated withcrushing failures are systematically considered in order to correctly estimate resistance,
therefore, the performance of ships must be accurately calculated and evaluated throughthe use of model tests in model basin before construction starts. The best way to selecta proper hull form and evaluate propulsive power (and resistance) is to have a goodreference ship with model test results, full-scale predictions based on tests and sea-trial
data. If the hull is found within a systematic series, that data is used and gives a reliableprediction of the resistance. Systematic study on the resistance of a ship by the starting
point is a reference model with good properties regarding the resistance, and the304

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resistance of this reference model is measured with several velocities in a towing tank.
Several similar models, which have the same main geometrical features and systematic
variation in some parameters, are manufactured and tested.
Regarding the resistance performance of a ship, the Cooperative Experimental Programof the Resistance Committees of the 17-19 International Towing Tank Conferences[ITTC, 1987&1999] compare results from towing tank tests at 22 institutes.
Comparisons are made of global (resistance, sinkage and trim, wave profile, wave cut,wake survey, form factor, and blockage) and local (surface pressure and boundary layer
traverses) data for a standard geometry (Series 60) of different sizes (1.2-9.6 m). The
cooperative uncertainty assessment example for resistance test of the ResistanceCommittee of the 22nd ITTC [ITTC,2002] compare results from towing tank tests at 7
institutes of resistance test bias and precision limits and total uncertainties following
standard uncertainty assessment procedures, but for different model geometries andsizes (Series 60, container ships, and 5415). Gooden, et.al (1997) compares results fromwind tunnel tests for same geometry and conditions at two different institutes, model
scales, and using a number of different measurement techniques and extensive erroranalysis.
In addition, routine test data more likely utilized in house, whereas detailed test data ismore likely utilized internationally, which additionally requires use of standard
procedures and uncertainty analysis and establishment of benchmark intervals of
uncertainties. Detailed testing offers new opportunities for research institutes, as theamount and complexity of testing is increased.
This study is intended to conduct for evaluation of facilities; measurement systems; test
procedures; uncertainty assessments; model size, offsets, and turbulence stimulation;and facility/model geometry and scale effect biases that contribute to the improvementof the techniques for resistance prediction ships. The facilities were a towing tank of
Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology (ITS) and Indonesian Hydrodynamic
Laboratory (LHI-BPPT). The model geometry is surface combatant. Between all two
facilities, many conditions and physics are under investigation. The objective of thismodel test program was to generate a calm water resistance versus speed relationships.
This paper is organized as follows. The next section explains the experimental model,
facility, measurement system, and conditions. The following section details theexperimental results and discussion, wherein covers the resistance test results in calm
water for the bare hull. The last section summarizes the conclusions and future work ofthis study.
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Coordinate System
The right-handed Cartesian coordinate system has been adopted with origin at theintersection of the forward perpendicular and design waterplane. The direction of theprincipal axes of this system is defined in Table 1. The model reference datum islocated longitudinally at Station 0 (transom), transversely on the centreline andvertically on the baseline.

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2.2. Model Geometry
Ship model was conceived as a preliminary design for a surface combatant. The design
test speeds at full-scale were 13 and 18 knots. The model, whose lines and main
characteristics are respectively shown in Figure 1 and Table 1

Figure 1. Body Plan of model test
Table 1. Geometry parameter of model test
Parameter
Units
ITS
LHI
Linier scale ratio λ
48.74
33.43
Length L
m
2.302
3.357
Beam B
m
0.336
0.491
Draft T
m
0.061
0.090
2
Wetted Surface area S
m
0.916
1.947
Displacement Volume
m3
0.039
0.122

Fullscale
112.21216.4003.000
2176.180
4573.360

Two identically shaped models were tested. The first one, namely LHI-187 model havebeen built at the Indonesian Hydrodynamic Laboratory (LHI-BPPT) models workshop.
The second one, namely ITS-4115301001 model, model have been built at Sepuluh
Nopember Institute of Technology. Both of model was constructed of wood. In order tostimulate turbulent flow, turbulence stimulators are present at the bow of the shipmodel to stimulate transition from a laminar into a turbulent boundary layer, bothmodels adopted sand strips used for turbulence stimulation will typically comprisebacking strips/adhesive of 10 mm width covered with sharp edged sand with grain sizearound 0.50 mm, with its leading edge situated about 5% LPP aft of the FP. The station
and waterline markings shown on the hull are labelled according to ITTC

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recommended procedures uses a 10 section numbering system starting from aft withstation 0 at the Aft Perpendicular. The wetted surface area is an important parameter inresistance data reduction, the wetted surface area of a hull model at rest, is usuallyadopted and theoretically computed from the hull form lines. For model installationaccording ITTC Recommended Procedure 7.5-01-01-01, Ship Models. The geometry of
the hull model is checked at a model workshop before ballasting.
The Reynolds number, based on the nominal velocity and length between theperpendiculars, is 5.84x106 for the LHI-187 models, while for the ITS-4115301001
model, that is shorter, the Reynolds number is 3.18x106
2.3. Test Design, Conditions and Procedures
The most typical towing-tank tests selected for the resistance, each institute followed
their usual procedures, the experimental process as recommended by the ITTC
standards. In the resistance test the ship model is towed by the carriage and the total
longitudinal force acting on the model is measured for various speeds. Speed is kept
constant for at least 10 seconds, average values of the measurements for the period of
constant speed is calculated. During the measuring run the ship model is free to heaveand pitch. The dependency of the density and kinematic viscosity on temperature T was
accounted for by measurement of the towing-tank water temperature T using fresh
water values as recommended by ITTC Fresh Water and Seawater Properties Procedure
7.5-02 -01-03. The individual measurement system for T was daily thermometerreadings at mid draft of the model. The range of values of (T, , v) was (27.0-28.5°C,
996.51-995.94 kg/m3, 0.85-0.81x106 m2/s).
The load cell, signal conditioner, and carriage PC AD card are statically calibrated todetermine its voltage-mass relationship. A weight tray with standard weights issuspended plumb to the load cell and the output recorded. Starting and ending fromzero mass, weights of known increments are placed on the tray in ascending thendescending order. The voltage-mass relationship is linear. A first-order polynomial
linear regression curve fit is used to determine the slope/intercept, which are then used
to convert voltage to mass. The repeatability of the calibration between data
procurement cycles is monitored.
The tests of ITS-4115301001 model have been conducted at Sepuluh Nopember
Institute of Technology towing tank with particulars: length (L) of 50m, Breadth (B) of
3m, depth (H) of 2m, maximum draft (T) of 1.8m and maximum speed of carriage is
4.0 m/s and the tests of LHI-187 model have been conducted tested at the IndonesianHydrodynamic Laboratory with particulars: Length of 234.5 m, Breadth of 11 m andWater Depth of 5.5 m. Other differences in the experimental setup between laboratories
are the exact location of the towing point, for example, near the bow, in the vicinity of
the center of gravity, and whether or not the location of the center of gravity or the
gyradii in roll and pitch are duplicated in the model by correct ballast distribution.
Resistance measurement of model were made with dynamometer. The model attachedto the measuring head of the resistance dynamometer by a connection which cantransmit and measure only a horizontal tow force, even though raked the model should
be run at the correct calculated displacement. The resistance dynamometers were

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attached at the LCB of the model as close to the shaft line as possible. The electricalsignal from dynamometer are transmitted through overhead cables on trolley wires tothe signal conditioning equipment and ultimately to the computer. Data were sampled
for resistance and speed in the longitudinal direction Fx. The forces are measured inmass (kg) and converted to N by multiplication by g.

Figure 2. Experimental set up
2.4 Data Processing
The calculation of the total resistance coefficient was achieved by using the procedure
as outlined in the ITTC recommended procedures [ITTC, 2011]. The total resistancecoefficient was calculated using:Total hull resistance is a function of hull form, ship speed, and water properties, thecoefficient of total hull resistance is also a function of hull form, ship speed, and water
properties. The coefficient of total hull resistance is found from the following equation
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 =

𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇

0.5𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2

Where:CT= total resistance coefficientRT= total hull resistance (N)ρ= water density (kg/m3)
V= velocity (m/s)
S= wetted surface area of the underwater hull (m2)The equation for the Froude number is
𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 = 𝑉𝑉 √𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

The frictional resistance coefficient (CF) is calculated using the ITTC-1957 ship
friction correlation line,
0,075
𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹 = (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙−2)2
The residual resistance coefficient (CR) of the model is calculated,
𝐶𝐶𝑅𝑅 = 𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 − 𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹

308

(1)

(2)

(3)
(4)

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The test system consists of several uncertainty sources. The uncertainty analysis must
be applied to the results for classification of uncertainties and to estimate it asquantitative. For the uncertainty analysis, new method has been published a more
simplified fashion in the last 27th ITTC Conference in Copenhagen (ITTC, 2014). In
ITTC 2014 Method, uncertainties was examined under a total of 5 main subject. These
titles are Model Geometry, Test Setup, Calibration and Data Reduction.
The relative standard uncertainty components of resistance related to the hull geometry
can be estimated as:2
𝑢𝑢1′ (𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 ) = 𝑢𝑢′ (𝑆𝑆) = 𝑢𝑢′ (Δ)
3

The uncertainty of carriage speed is obtained as quantitatively by the following
equations,𝑢𝑢2′ (𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 ) = 2𝑢𝑢′ (𝑉𝑉)The relative uncertainty of water viscosity resulted from temperature can be estimated𝐶𝐶0.87𝑢𝑢′ (𝜈𝜈)𝑢𝑢3′ (𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 ) = 𝐹𝐹
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅−2)

The standard uncertainty component from single test can be estimated by the following
equations,𝑆𝑆
𝑢𝑢𝐴𝐴′ (𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 ) = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
̂
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇

Analysis of all significant uncertainty components related to the total resistance are
combined to obtain the overall standard uncertainty by RSS methods:
2

2

2

2

2

(6)
(7)

The uncertainty component of resistance resulted from calibration of dynamometer isestimated by standard error estimation (SEE)
𝑢𝑢4 (𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 ) = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐′ = √(𝑢𝑢1′ ) + (𝑢𝑢2′ ) + (𝑢𝑢3′ ) + (𝑢𝑢4′ ) + (𝑢𝑢𝐴𝐴′ )

(5)

(8)

(9)

(10)

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The resistance performance of a two identically shaped models were assessed
through a series of model tests. The experiments on surface combatant model in order
to investigate the scale effect of ship resistance using geosim models of 3,5m length inIndonesian Hydrodynamic Laboratory, and 2.5m of length in Sepuluh Nopember
Institute of Technology. The experiments were separately performed on the following
items and cooperatively analyzed.

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(a) Resistance test at LHI(b) Resistance test at ITS
Figure 3. Resistance test at the individual facility
Results from towing tank experiments regarding resistance of the surface combatantmodel are presented. The resistance tests are for Froude numbers between Fr = 0.20 0.28 and free model conditions. The Resistance test has been performed following the
ITTC standards, the measurement of the total model resistance having a maximum
load of 20.047 N for the LHI-187 models, while for the ITS-4115301001 model having
a maximum load of 6.090 N. Trends for all two facilities are similar.
Fr
0.20
0.22
0.23
0.25
0.26
0.28

Table 2. Resistance test result

RT(N)
7.074
8.562
10.65113.73816.92520.047LHI

CT
5.464. 10-3
5.704. 10-3
6.182. 10-3
7.005. 10-3
7.652. 10-3
8.078. 10-3CF
3.430. 10-3
3.383. 10-3
3.340. 10-3
3.302. 10-3
3.265. 10-3
3.232. 10-3

CR
2.034. 10-3
2.321. 10-3
2.842. 10-3
3.704. 10-3
4.386. 10-3
4.847. 10-3

RT(N)
2.108
2.599
3.177
4.236
5.139
6.090

CT
5.045.10-3
5.362.10-3
5.711.10-3
6.692.10-3
7.190.10-3
7.601.10-3

ITSCF
3.853.10-3
3.797.10-3
3.746.10-3
3.700.10-3
3.657.10-3
3.617.10-3

CR
1.925.10-3
1.565.10-3
1.964.10-3
2.992.10-3
3.533. 10-3
3.983. 10-3

0.009

C T (10-3)

0.008
0.007

LHI
ITS

0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

Fr

Figure 4. Comparasion CT results for range of Fr.

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0.005

CR (10-3)

0.004

LHI
ITS

0.003
0.002
0.001
0

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

Fr

Figure 5. Comparasion CR results for range of Fr.
Figure 4-5 shows a comparison of CT and CR from two models over a Froude number
range of 0.20 to 0.28. In general, the agreement between the model resistance data fromthe two facilities is fair.
All the uncertainty components in resistance measurement can be evaluated in detail as
in Table 3 as expressed by Equations 5-10.
Table 3. The uncertainty analysis of resistance
UncertaintyType
RT (Fr=0.25)
LHI
ITS
Wetted areaB
0.158 %
0.495 %
Speed
B
0.067 %
0.067 %
Water TemperatureB
0.030 %
0.033 %
Dynamometer
A
0.063 %
0.205 %
Repeat test, Deviation
A
0.230 %
0.371 %
Combined for single test
0.296%
0.656 %The systematic uncertainty components from larger values to smaller values areresistance, wetted surface area, speed, dynamometer and temperature, respectively for
LHI model, otherwise for ITS model the systematic uncertainty components fromlarger values to smaller values are wetted surface area, resistance, dynamometer, speed
and temperature, respectively. The differences that do remain should be attributed todifferences in experimental techniques between all two facilities, many conditions andphysics are under investigation.
The blockage correction of two model is shown in Figures 6-7 for the Schuster andTamura methods of ITTC (2011). The results are quite different. The corrections
decrease with the measured velocity for the Tamura equations. The correction by the
Schuster equation is about 0.07% for LHI model and 0.55% for ITS model, while it isabout 0.41 % for LHI model and 3.14% for ITS model by the Tamura equation.

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Blockage Correction , V/V (%)

3.55
3.05
2.55
2.05

Schuster

1.55

Tamura

1.05
0.55
0.05
0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

Carriage Velocity, V (m/s)

Blockage Correction , V/V (%)

Figure 6. Blockage corrections for ITS model
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15

Schuster

0.1

Tamura

0.05
0
1.00

1.20

1.40

1.60

1.80

Carriage Velocity, V (m/s)

Figure 7. Blockage corrections for LHI model
4. CONCLUSION
Results from towing-tank experiments for model ship combatant were presented forresistance, the test design, measurement systems, and facility were described. The
results were discussed with regard to the data trends. Between two institutions many
conditions and physics are under investigation. The data contributes to the surface-ship
resistance model-scale database for CFD validation.
In a test series of this nature, it is important that an appropriate procedure is adopted inorder to preserve the confidentiality of the data, and to avoid the possibility that theevaluation of the data could be affected by a knowledge of the facility from which it
originated.
In this study, the performed model tests focused on the resistance performance of thehull. research of the seakeeping of such hulls is needed to be pursued in the future
study.

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5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author, in particular, expressed her gratitude to The Ministry of Research andTechnology (Ristekdikti) which funding her PhD program at ITS under contract
number 07/S3/D/PTB/XI/2015
The authors would like to thank members of staff at Indonesian Hydrodynamic
Laboratory and Institute of Technology Sepuluh Nopember for their sincere support
during the experiment and manufacture of the ship model.
6. REFERENCES
ASME, 2005. Test uncertainty, The American society of mechanical engineers
performance test code, No. 19.1-2005. American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York, NY.
ISO, (1995), Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM),
International Organization for Standardization, Genève, Switzerland.
ITTC, (1987), Report of the Resistance and Flow Committee, 18th International
Towing Tank Conference, Kobe, Japan.
ITTC, (1999), Report of the Resistance and Flow Committee, 22nd International
Towing Tank Conference, Seoul, Korea/Beijing, China
ITTC, (2008), Model Manufacture Ship Models, ITTC Procedure 7.5-01-01-01.
ITTC, (2008b), Uncertainty Analysis Instruments Calibration, ITTC Procedure 7.5-0103-01.
ITTC, (2011), Resistance Test, ITTC Procedure 7.5-02-02-01.
ITTC, (2011), Fresh Water and Seawater Properties, ITTC Procedure 7.5-02-01-03
ITTC, (2014a), General Guidelines for Uncertainty Analysis in Resistance Tests, ITTC
Procedure 7.5-02-02-02.
ITTC, (2014c), Resistance Committee Report, Proceedings of 27th International
Towing Tank Conference.
Jamaluddin A, Utama I.K.A.P, Molland A.F, (2010), Experimental Investigation into
Drag Characteristic of Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Staggered Catamaran,
International Conference on Ship & Offshore Technology (ICSOT)- Indonesia,
RINA International Serie Conference, Surabaya.
J.H.M. Gooden, C. Gleyzes and Y Maciel (1997), Experimental study of the flow
around two scaled 3D swept wings, 28th AIAA Fluid Dynamics Conference held at
Snowmass, CO, USA, June 29 - July 2.
Joel T. Park, Toby J. Ratcliffe, Lisa M. Minnick, and Lauren E. Russell, (2010), Test
Results and Uncertainty Estimates for CEHIPAR Model 2716, The 29th American
Towing Tank Conference Annopolis, Maryland.
Larsson L and Raven H.C. (2010). Ship resistance and Flow. In particular, Chapters 5
and 6, Sections 11.5-6. SNAME. (Knovel)
Metcalf, B.J., Faul, L., Bumiller, E., Slutsky, J., (2005), Resistance Tests of a
Systematic Series of U.S. Coast Guard Planing Hulls. Report of Naval Surface
Warfare Center Carderock Division, No. NSWCCD-50-TR-2005/063. Naval
Surface Warfare Center Carderock Division, Bethesda, MD.
Molland, A.F., Turnock, S.R., dan Hudson, D.A. (2011), Ship Resistance andPropulsion: Practical Estimation of Ship Propulsive Power, Cambridge University
Press, New York, USA.

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THE 15TH INTERNATONAL CONFERENCE QUALITY IN RESARCH (QIR) 2017
TEMPLATE
OPTIMIZATION OF OPEN CHANNEL WATER TUNNEL DESIGN
Ismaila, Erlanda Augupta Panea*, Damora Rhakasywi, Eko Prasetyo and Pekik Bayu
Asmoroa
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Pancasila
Srengseng Sawah, Jagakarsa – Jakarta 12640, Indonesia
ABSTRACTaThis research was conducted to develop an open channel water tunnel and analysis of theflow distribution in the test section, where geometry of the water tunnel, discharge of waterflow and turbulence intensity are being basic parameters which influence Reynolds number
to reach the best condition, so that the hydrodynamic found to be optimal. The previous
researches of water tunnel explained that if the Reynolds number is the same fluid, thehydrodynamic on a similar model. The methods of research used numeric analysis andComputational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations. The step of water tunnel design is used
to determine the Area Ratio (AR) between the contraction and the test section. Area Ratio
value is 5, which take it to calculate water tunnel design. Test section geometry has lengthis 0.6 m, width is 0.3 m, and height is 0.3 m. Pump PMP010 type is used to pass of waterwith various capacities. It has capacity about 900 L/min, 1000 L/min, and 1100 L/min,
respectively. The optimum result is geometry water tunnel design has length inlet plenum
is 0.76 m, contraction is 1.1 m included honeycombs is 0.2 m, test section is 0.6 m andoutlet module is 0.51 m, So that, the total length of water tunnel design is 2.97 m. The
design of water tunnel using discharge is 900 L/min; water speed is 0.167 m/s, turbulence
intensity 0.044 and Froud number 0.097.
Keywords: Froud numbers; Hydrodynamic; Reynolds number; Turbulence intensity; Water
tunnel
1. INTRODUCTION
Water tunnel are used for a variety of reasons such as testing a structure under flowing
fluid, which affect the forces on the submerged body (Dol 2015). The benefit of watertunnel is the Reynolds number in water flow will be about fifteen times and dynamic head(Hd) in water flow is about 800 times the corresponding than the air flow, So that the water
can be a much simpler task to measurement of turbulent pressure fluctuations than in the air(Arakeri & Govinda 1988). Water tunnel has three types are High Speed Water Tunnel,
Low Speed Water Tunnel, and Open Channel Flow Water Tunnel (Ahmad Zulfadhli 2008).
The previous researches of water tunnel explained that if the Reynolds number is the same*

314

Corresponding author.
E-mail address : pane_erlanda@yahoo.com

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fluid, the hydrodynamic on a similar model. The previous researches of water tunnel design
can be showed in Table 1.

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Table 1. The previous of design of Water Tunnel
Testing Type
Model Type
DesignExperiment
IISC-HSWT water tunnel
DSTO water tunnel
NTU water tunnel
Close circuit wind/water tunnel design
Hills Research Corporation 1520
J.B Herbich water tunnel
K15 cavitation water tunnel of SSSRIDTMB high speed water tunnel
Oscillating water tunnel (OWT)
K15 cavitation water tunnel of SSSRI



















Researches(Arakeri & Govinda
1988)(Erm 1836)(Lee et al. 2005)(Gordon & Imbabi 2016)(Dol 2015)(Ko 1971)(Yao et al. 2015)(Nedyalkov 2012)(Yuan & Madsen 2014)(Chuan-jing & Ting
2011)

This research was conducted to develop an open channel water tunnel. Open channel watertunnel have the six main components are inlet plenum, baffle, setting chamber, inlet
module, test section, and outlet module. The six main components of open channel watertunnel can be showed in Figure 1.
2

1

4

3
5

6

Figure 1 Open channel tunnel design. 1) Inlet Plenum; 2) Buffle Design; 3) Settling
Chamber; 4) Inlet Module; 5) Test Section; 6) Outlet Module
The smooth surface of water tunnel can reduce friction of water flow and increase flow
effectiveness (Dol 2015). This is being indicated by the flow speed changes with time,
where the small different of flow speed along the length of the channel, it suggests thecharacteristic of this flow is nearly similar with the characteristic of uniform flow (Cengel& Cimbala 2006). Uniform flow has connection with Contraction Ratio (CR) shape, which
it has a well design between 5 and 10; it is worthy to note that increasing the contraction
ratio increases the maximum width of the contraction while a higher contraction ratio will
damp flow perturbations (Kalyankar et al. 2015), can decrease of turbulence intensity(Nedyalkov 2012). The high Contraction Ratio (CR) definitely has a favourable influence

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315

on the flow quality in test section to become uniform flow (Arakeri & Govinda 1988). So
that, the test section is an important part to determine of water flow characteristic throughof inlet module. The settling chamber take the honeycombs model also as an important partto determine of water flow, which reduces the lateral turbulence and straighten the flow
(Kalyankar et al. 2015).
The lateral turbulence and straighten the flow, could defined characteristic of water flow
was the laminar flow. The characteristic of water flow can be recognized by Reynolds
number (Pritchard & Leylegian 2011). The flow will change from laminar to turbulent as
the value of Reynolds number increase, which the flow can be considered to be laminar
below the value 3 x 105, and turbulent above the value 3 x 106 (Chuan-jing & Ting 2011).
The Reynolds number can influence material drag coefficient, which the increase Reynolds
number can make the drag coefficient effect decreases gradually (Yao et al. 2015). This
research was conducted to develop an open channel water tunnel and analysis of the flow
distribution in the test section, where geometry of the water tunnel, discharge of water flow
and turbulence intensity are being basic parameters which influence Reynolds number toreach the best condition, so that the hydrodynamic found to be optimal.
2. METHOD
The design of open channel water tunnel used two approaches that the calculation ofmathematics models and analysis simulation use Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
The calculation of mathematics models has designed the six components open channelwater are the inlet plenum, baffle, settling chamber (honeycombs model), test section, inlet
module, and outlet module. The calculation of mathematics model uses the basic
parameters that discharge capacity and the dimension of test section which have determinedby researcher use the Area Ratio (AR). The results of design have simulated in CFD to see
the results of water speed, Reynolds number, turbulence intensity, and Froud Number.
II.1. Project and Planning Definition
The project definition of open channel flow water tunnel use the Pump PMP010 type,which it have the discharge capacity various such as 900 l/min, 1000 l/min, and 1100 l/min.
Area Ratio (AR) which definition of contraction ratio in inlet module, and dimension of test
section. The assumption value of Area Ratio (AR) is 5 and contraction length is 0.9 m,
where the both of them can determine of discharge capacity. The test section dimension
would be design by the water speed maximum and the lowest of turbulence intensity. The
dimension of test section open channel flow water tunnel has length 0.6 m, width 0.3 m andheight 0.3 m. The Reynolds number; turbulence intensity and Froud number of water flow
must be known. The equations to calculate the three components of open channel watertunnel can be described in Table 2 below that.
Table 2 Calculate of three components open channel water tunnel and basic parameters
No
Parameters
Equations
1
Reynolds number
Re = (ρ . V . Rh) / µ2
Turbulence Intensity
I = 0.16 . Re-1/8
3
Froud Number
Fr = V / (g.Y)1/2

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The design of three components open channel water tunnel
No
Components
Equations1
Test Section
AR = A2 / A1
2
Inlet Module
Yc = YC1 – (YC1 – YC0) [6(Xc/Lc)5 – 15(Xc/Lc)4 – 10(Xc/Lc)3]
3
Settling Chamber
VHC = V2 / CR ; V2 = (A1 . V1) / A2 ; V1 = Q/A
M = The width of inlet module / The number of honeycombs holeThe other section of inlet plenum, baffle, and outlet module can be explained by theassumption value, which the dimension of inlet plenum, baffle, and outlet module is thedevelopment the previous open channel water tunnel design.
II.2. CFD Simulations
The CFD simulations can be done after calculate of open channel water tunnel designuse mathematics model. The basic parameters to CFD simulation are discharge capacity
and the calculate result of open channel water tunnel design. The results of CFD can show
the water speed, Reynolds number, turbulence intensity, and Froud number.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The design calculation have concept the six parts of open channel water tunnel such as
inlet plenum design, baffle design, settling chamber which use the honeycombs model, test
section design with Area Ratio (AR) optimum between 5 and 10, inlet module design andoutlet module. Moreover, the calculate design have been determined the water speed,
Reynolds number and turbulence intensity. The six parts of open channel water tunnel canbe showed in Figure 1.
The graph in Figure 2 has given the information about the curvatures of geometry inlet
module. The smooth curvatures can make the water tunnel distribution are quietly anduniform in Figure 2 (a). The Xc is the distance of contraction between the entrance inlet
module and the middle section of inlet module (Yc) give the effect to water speed, whereas
if the length of contraction very high, can make the decrease of water speed because
friction between water and inlet module surface area. The Yc is the start of curvatures in the
middle section of inlet module, which the small width of Yc influences to increase water
speed. The water speed in inlet module can be showed in Figure 2 (b).

(a)(b)
Figure 2 The curvatures of inlet module geometry a); The water speed b)

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317

III.4. Design and Validation
The calculation of open channel water tunnel will produce the optimum design with thebest result of the basic parameter. The discharge capacity is the ones of basic parameter todetermine the optimum open channel water tunnel design. The dimension and parameter
design can be showed that in Table 3.
The optimum of open channel water tunnel can influence of Reynolds number, which
given the effect to hydrodynamic test. The best of Reynolds number determines the flow
characteristic, which it can produce the laminar or turbulent flow. The improvement ofkinematic viscosity gives the effect to increase water flow. Based on that condition, thehydrodynamic test on the open channel water tunnel can be optimal.
Table 3 Table of dimension and parameter design
No.
SectionNote
1 Area Ratio (R)52 Discharge (Q) Water Speed (Vs)
900 l/min; 0.033 m/s (load speed)
Discharge (Q) Water Speed (Vs)
1000 l/min; 0.037 m/s (load speed)
Discharge (Q) Water Speed (Vs)
1100 l/min; 0.041 m/s (load speed)
3 High of water
300 mm
4 Material
Acrylic with the roughness of 3.92 nm
The CFD simulation, open channel water tunnel design have been seen the water speed,
and turbulence intensity in the test section with the discharge capacity and position in thetest section become basic parameter. The discharge capacity use the three variant that 900
l/min, 1000 l/min, and 1100 l/min. The simulated position in the test section use fivepositions that position A (0 m), B (0.15 m), C (0.30 m), D (0.45 m), and the end of test
section E (0.60 m) based on the entrance of test section. The positions in the test section
can be showed that in Figure 3.
PositionsA B C DE

Figure 3 The position test in the test section
The result of CFD simulation with the parameter that position and discharge capacity canbe determines the water speed and turbulence intensity. The result simulation can beshowed that in the Figure 4.

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(a)

(b)

(a)
(b)
Figure 4 water speed a) and turbulence intensity b) in Test Section
Figure 4 a) showed that the water speed CFD simulation with the three several ofdischarge capacity in the five positions. The trend of the water speed value between thethree variant of discharge capacity have been improved. This is can be indicated by thechange of colour when the calculation of water speed is being tested by CFD simulation.
Improvement of water speed influenced by discharge capacity and the area of surface test
section. The two factors have been relations with the water speed; this is can be showed in
the discharge equations. If the discharge capacity increases, the water speed can beincreased when the surface area constant. Figure 4 b) showed that the turbulence intensity
CFD simulation in the five positions with the three variant of discharge capacity. The trendof turbulence intensity has been similarity with the water speed. The turbulence intensity
has been increased in the three variant of discharge capacity. The turbulence intensity
between 900 l/min, 100 l/min, and 1100 l/min has the different value.
III.5. The result of validate calculation
The result of validate calculation and the calculate of open channel water tunnel design
simulated by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) on the three various discharge capacity
to determine water speed in Figure 5, Reynolds number in Figure 6 and turbulence intensity
in Figure 7. This simulation have the aims to consideration result from the calculate design
and the simulations, moreover this simulation can be managed of the operational cost tobuild the open channel water tunnel.
The graph of water speed showed in Figure 5(a) the different water speed between thethree several of discharge capacity. The discharge capacity 900 l/min has the lowest water
speed than the other. This is have the relation with the surface of area test section. The
constant of surface area with the change of discharge capacity can give the effect to water

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speed. This condition can be concluded that the increasing discharge capacity can make theincrease of water speed. The trend of water speed CFD simulation in Figure 5(b) similarity
with the calculate design, but the different of graph water speed both of them on the pathline. The parameter that makes the different is external parameter such as roughness
material parameter, when it’s become the entrance data simulations.
The water speed influence the Reynolds number in Figure 6 (a). The Reynolds number
can determine the flow characteristic that laminar or turbulent flow. The graph of Reynolds
number open channel water tunnel design showed that the discharge capacity 900 l/min has
the lowest of Reynolds number. The trend of Reynolds number has been similarity with thewater speed. Graph of Reynolds number CFD simulation in Figure 6 (b). The graph of
Reynolds number CFD simulation different than the graph of Reynolds number validates
calculation, because the entrance data of water speed in CFD simulations. The highest of
Reynolds number makes the flow characteristic become as a turbulent flow.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5 Water speed a); Validate Calculation b); CFD simulations

(a)

(b)

Figure 6 Reynolds number a); Validate Calculation b); CFD simulation
Besides of water speed and Reynolds number, the turbulence intensity can influence theopen channel water tunnel design. The graph of turbulence intensity in Figure 7 (a) has

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been different than the graph of water speed and Reynolds number. The graph of turbulent
intensity indicated that the discharge capacity 900 l/min have the highest value than theother discharge capacity. This can conclude that the highest of turbulent intensity needed to
the lowest of Reynolds number and makes the increase of water speed. The turbulence
intensity of CFD simulation in Figure 7(b) and calculate design have been different. Graphof turbulence intensity CFD simulation when the water flow through the position E will befall down to the lowest point. The lowest point caused by Reynolds number influence theturbulence intensity parameter.

(a)

(b)

Figure 7 Turbulent Intensity a); Validate Calculation b); CFD simulation
III.6. Optimal Design
The design of open channel water tunnel has been optimized by the discharge capacity
900 l/min. The characteristic of optimal design open channel water tunnel have the lengthof contraction in 0.9 m, and the dimension of test section with the length 0.6 m, width 0.3m, and the height 0.3 m. The figures of water speed in test section can be coughed from 0
m/s until 0.3048 m/s. The test visualization of open channel water tunnel uses the colour
spray on the surface model. The best of water speed from the test visualization is 0.09144
m/s until 0.1524 m/s. The optimum of open channel water tunnel design can be showed thatin Figure 1. The optimized of open channel water tunnel with the discharge capacity 900
l/min have been selected. The parameters of open channel water tunnel design such as
water speed, Reynolds number, and turbulence intensity between calculation and CFD
simulation can be considerate ones to each other, and can be showed that in Figure 8.
From the graph, it seems the different result between the calculate design and CFD
simulations. The graph of water speed can be showed in Figure 8(a). The graph of water
speed in the calculate design have the extreme increase when the water flow through theposition C and position D, and the constant water speed in position E. The different result
caused by the added external parameter, such as the roughness material test section when
the open channel water tunnel design simulated by CFD simulations. The graph of
Reynolds number between calculates design and CFD simulations have different result in

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321

Figure 8 (b). The different caused by the constant value of material characteristic, whenmaterial characteristic data in CFD simulations different than in calculate of design. The
graph of turbulence intensity between calculate design and CFD simulations have beendifferent in Figure 8 (c), but the value in the entrance of test section, both of them have thesimilarity value. The value of turbulence intensity calculate design have been extreme
decreased path line than the smoothly path line of turbulence intensity CFD simulations.
The graph of Froud number between calculates design and CFD simulation in Figure 8(d).
Froud number of water flow in CFD simulations have the decreasing path, but in theposition of 0.8 m Froud number in CFD simulations increase, the increase of Froud number
because the water flow through test section, the function of test section to make the waterflow quickly and smoothly.

(a)

(b)

(c)
(d)
Figure 8 Consideration the calculate design and CFD simulations design a) water speedb)Reynolds number;c)Turbulent Intensity;d) Froud Number
4. CONCLUSION
The research of open channel flow water tunnel can be concluded that the optimumof open channel flow water tunnel model with the discharge capacity 900 l/min. This modelhas the total length 2.97 m. The length of contraction is 0.9 m included the honeycombs
with the dimension of length 0. 2 m and the diameter of cell 0.05 m. The test section has the322

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dimension with the length 0 6 m, width 0.3 m, and height 0.3 m. The optimum of open
channel water tunnel have the optimum water speed with the value is 0.167 m/s , the lowest
Reynolds number 29368, and turbulence intensity is 0.044 or with the percentage is 4.4 %,which have the means is intermediate turbulence intensity and Froud number 0.097. If thewater flow rate increase, its produce the Reynolds Number high and the Reynolds Number
will be constant when the water flow entrance to test section, this is being caused by theconstant test section geometry. If the flow discharge increases, its produce turbulence
intensity low and the turbulence intensity will be constant when the water flow entrance totest section, this is being also caused by constant test section geometry.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the support simulation team in laboratories (Mr. Kismono, andMr. Eko Prasetyo).
6. REFERENCES
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Arakeri, V.H. & Govinda, H.S., 1988. The High Speed Water Tunnel Facility at The Indian
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Cengel, Y. & Cimbala, J., 2006. Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications, New
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Chuan-jing, L.U. & Ting, S.I., 2011. Water Tunnel Experimental Investigation on The Drag
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Dol, M.Z. and S.S., 2015. Design and Development of Low-Cost Water Tunnel for
Educational Purpose. Material Science and Engineering, 78, pp.1–8.
Erm, L.P., 1836. Development and Use of a Dynamic-Testing Capability for the DSTO
Water Tunnel, Australia.
Gordon, R. & Imbabi, M.S., 2016. CFD Simulation and Experimental Validation of a New
Closed Circuit Wind / Water Tunnel Design. Fluids Engineering, 120, pp.311–318.
Kalyankar, H. et al., 2015. Design and Analysis of Low Speed Water Tunnel for Flow
Visualization of Bluff Body. In 2nd International Conference on Advances in
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Academia.edu, pp. 49–57.
Ko, S.C., 1971. Design and Construction of a water tunnel, Pennsylvania.
Lee, C.S. et al., 2005. Development of 3-Component Force-Moment Balance for Low
Speed Water Tunnel. Modern Physics Letters B, 19, pp.1575–1578.
Nedyalkov, I., 2012. Design of Contraction , Test Section , and Diffuser for a High-Speed
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Yao, Y. et al., 2015. Water tunnel experimental investigation on drag reduction of coating
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PIPES OUTLET DIRECTIONS AND DIAMETER OF DOUBLE U PIPESCONFIGURATION ON CENTRIFUGAL REACTION PUMP
Budi Setyahandanaa, Y.B. Lukiyantoa,1, RinesaaMechanical Engineering, Sanata Dharma University; Paingan, Maguwoharjo, Depok,
Sleman, Yogyakarta 55282; Indonesia
1email : lukiyanto@usd.ac.id

ABSTRACTCentrifugal reaction pump is simple centrifugal pump, easy to built, highly local
components and operate at very low shaft speed. Experiment study of double U
configurations pipes with three outlet directions and pipes diameter of outer arms effects
were carried out for centrifugal reaction pump at very low shaft speed. The outlet
directions of double U configurations were 90 deg., 0 deg. and -90 deg. from horizontallystraight arm pipes. T-junction fitting, a vertical inlet pipe and two horizontally straight arm
pipes as main components of the pump were 18.5 mm diameter. The horizontally straightarm pipes are similar with pump impeller function. The arm pipes are replaceable with
22.5 and 28.0 mm. The pump was rotated with vertical pipes as an axis by adjustable speed
electric motor at the top of T-junction. The shaft speeds were 70 rpm up to 150 rpm. Total
head and diameter of the pump were 665 mm and 1000 mm. The experiment showed that
double U configurations with various outlet directions could be used to replace orifices andsprings as moving components of centrifugal reaction pump. The experiment resulted
performance of the three configurations and backward-inclined-blades-like as the best
configuration and is followed by forward-inclined-blades-like and straight-blades-like
configurations respectively. Increasing pipes diameter of the arm increase the pumpcapacity and does not tend to increase the efficiency.
Keywords: centrifugal reaction pump, low shaft speed, double U pipes configuration, outlet
direction, arm pipes diameters
1. INTRODUCTIONWind power and solar photo voltaic power are dependable and renewable energy resources
for the electric generation and water pumping for remote area. The hybrid of them ensuresthe continuity of energy suitable for the area (Dillon, et al, 2014). Wind energy water
pumping system (WEWPS) is used for salt pans, drainage, irrigation, cattle watering, anddomestic and community water supply with very low head (up to 3m) up to deep head (more than 10 m). Mechanical WEWPS with 1 up to 7 m rotor diameter pumps water 20 m3
up to 2500 m3 per day. Electric WEWPS having higher flexible placement can pump watercontinuously and larger capacity than the mechanical (Smulders, 1996).
WEWPS must be reliable to run unattended for most of the time, need minimum
maintenance and attention. A WEWPS should run for over 20 years with maintenance only
once every year without any major replacements. WEWPS used for irrigation seasonallytend to be indigenous designs that are improvized or built by the farmer to reduce the cost
(Wind Power, 2013). Therefore, WEWPS for irrigation has low cost and this requirement
tends to override other considerations. WEWPS can supply water at competitive cost

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especially if manufactured locally (Smulders, 1996). The key actor is the manufacturer
who is responsible for choosing and designing, production, marketing and also after sales
service.
The main advantages of electric WEWPS are flexibility over other mechanical systems andhave more components (Gopal, et al, 2013). The efficiency of electric WEWPS depends on
performance of the electric components. It is reported that wind mill could convert 35%
wind power to shaft power. For 51% can be lost by all of the electrical components, as a
maximum only 17% of the wind energy can be available for water pumping operations.
Since a large amount of energy dissipation in converting process, new configuration should
be analyzed to avoid such losses (Lara, et al, 2011).
Among of pumps for WEWPS is centrifugal reaction pump. The pump consists of avertical pipe with a T-joint at the top, from which extend two pipes whose length isdependent upon the rate of rotation of the assembly in operation. An orifice at the end ofeach pipe arm points, 90o away from the arm. The pump is well adapted to variable low
shaft speed and construction is simple. One of these pumps connected to a 3 m diameterwind mill and pumped 30 m3 per hour at a head of 4.5 m in a 29 km/h wind speed(Rubinski & Rubinsky, 1955). Modification to the pump is done by replacing orifices toreduce moving components. Double U pipe configuration with outlet direction in-line withpipe impeller was successfully replace all of moving parts (Lukiyanto & Wahisbullah,2014).
This present study aims to experimentally investigate effects of outlet flow directions andpipes diameter of outer arms of centrifugal reaction pump. The centrifugal reaction-pumpwith double-U pipe channels at each of both arms can be adjusted at three outlet directions.
The outlet directions to the inlet are backward-inclined blades-like, straight blades-like andforward-inclined blades-like. The names refer to the three main types of centrifugal pumpblades (Cengel & Cimbala, 2006). Each of them effects to the pump performances. The
pipes of outer arm are modified and replaceable with various diameters of the pipes. The
nominal diameters of pipes are 18.5, 22.5 and 28.0 mm (0.5, 0.75 and 1.0 inches).
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
The pump consisted of a vertical pipe with a T-junction (5) at the top, from which extend
two horizontally pipes (2) as straight impeller blades (Fig.1). At the end of horizontallypipes were attached double U pipe configurations (3). The upper U pipes were designed
movable to adjust outlet direction of fluids. The pipes were arranged from pipes and elbow
fittings with nominal diameter of 18.5 mm (0.5 inch). A foot valve (8) was attached at thebottom of the vertical pipe. The T-junction was attached to the shaft motor (1) as drivers.
The motor shaft was in line with vertical pipe and foot valve. The assembly was attachedto the rigid structure by two bearings (4).
A housing (6) was attached to receive, collect and measure the fluid flow rate that comesfrom the pumps outlets. Fluid from main pond (10) was delivered to feeder (9) excessively
by a submersible pump (11). Excessive fluid at feeder was a mechanism to maintain waterlevel input, thus the head always constant.

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Figure 1. Schematic of centrifugal reaction pump.
The pump outlet directions were adjusted in three positions (Fig.2). The upper U pipes
were adjusted 90 degrees (Fig.2a), -90 degrees (Fig.2b) and 0 degree (Fig.2c) away fromthe straight pipe impeller and were symbolized BB, DD and SS respectively. Based on
inlet and outlet impellers geometry, Fig.2a–2c were called backward-inclined blades-like(backward-like blades, BB), forward-inclined blades like (forward-like blades, DD) andstraight-like blades (SS) respectively.

a)

DD

b)

BB

c)

SS

Figure 2. Outlet directions of impeller and symbols, a) backward-inclined blades-like(backward-like blades, BB), b) forward-inclined blades like (forward-like blades, DD) andc) straight-like blades (SS)T-junction is cross fitting with nominal diameter 0.5 inch. At the ends of T-junction
channels are for attaching the mountings (Fig.1). The horizontally channels are for impeller
pipes mountings and vertical channels are for shaft mounting and input pipe mounting. The
pipes of outer arm in various diameters are modified, replaceable and mountable at thehorizontally T-junction mountings. The nominal diameters of outer arm pipes are 18.5,
22.5 and 28.0 mm (0.5, 0.75 and 1.0 inches). (Fig.3). The T-junction with various
diameters of outer arm pipes is 1000 mm. The ends of double U pipe configuration as
outlets are rotatable thus the outlet directions are adjustable.

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a)

b)

c)

a)
b)
c)
Figure 3. Diameters of arm pipes, a) 18.5 mm, b) 22.5 mm and c) 28.0 mm
The shaft driver was a brush DC (BDC) electric motor 48 volt, 250 watt, maximum speed
540 rpm. The motor speed controller was serial of electric transformer and adjustable
voltage regulator. The pump was converted shaft power as power input into hydraulicpower as power output. The measurement parameters of power input and power output
were based on shaft power (Eq.1) and hydraulic power equations (Eq.2)
Shaft power:
Pin  2  n T
(1)Hydraulic power :Pout  m g h(2)
Pump efficiency : P  Pout Pin(3)
Where n = shaft speed (rpm), T = shaft torque (N m), m = mass flow rate (kg/s), g =standard acceleration of gravity (9.80665 m/s2) and h = total head (665 mm).
Based on the Eq.1 to Eq.3, the measured parameter were shaft speed (rpm), shaft torque (Nm), flow rate (m3/s), and constant suction head (665 mm). The shaft speed was measured
by tachometer. The shaft torque was measured by multiplying the length of torque-arm(345 mm) and the force reading on weight-scale. The Portable Electronic weight-scale(maximum 40 kg/5 g) was installed at the end of torque-arm. Mass flow rate was the resultof multiplying fluid flow rate with standard of fluid density. The fluid was standard water( = 998.0 kg/m3). Water flow rate was measured by using measuring glass and stopwatch.
Total head parameter in this experiment was adjusted to be constant at 665 mm.
The measurement of the shaft torque was calculated based on the shaft torque of motor.
Shaft power input was the difference between shaft motor power and the mechanical losses
caused by the bearing friction. The mechanical losses were calculated by measuring torqueand shaft speed without pumping load by deactivated foot valve.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Various outlet directions
Mechanical power losses (Ploss) were found by measurement of motor shaft torque andspeed without pumping load measurement. On the no-load measurement, foot valve was inoff mode. The foot valve channel was blocked with removable sealer. The shaft speed

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measurement was in the range of 70 up to 150 rpm (Fig.4). Pump shaft power input (Pin)
was calculated by reducing motor shaft power (Pmotor) with the Ploss.
On the experiment measurements, shaft speeds were started at 145 rpm and down to 75
rpm. The system was start pumping (cut-on) about 95 rpm and stopped pumping (cut-off)at about 84 rpm. The maximum speed and flow rate were 143.8 rpm and 0.244
dm3/seconds respectively. The total head was maintained constant at 665 mm. The mainarm diameter was 1000 mm. Based on equation (2), hydraulic power was dependent on
flow rate and total head. The study show that hydraulic power was only depended to single
parameter flow rate linearly due to total head maintained constant. Due to flow ratedependency on shaft speed, the hydraulic power was only dependent on shaft speed. The
results showed that hydraulic power of the three double-U pipe configurations tends tolinear to the shaft speed (Fig.5). Each of the three double-U pipe configurations were also
coincide.

Figure 4. Mechanical power losses and shaft speed

Figure 5. Pumping power outputs and shaft speed

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Figure 6. Shaft power inputs and shaft speed
Double-U pipe configurations were affected to the shaft power input (Pin) as Fig.6. The
Pin was not coincide and linear for all of the configurations as hydraulic power. The SS
and BB configurations were higher and lower Pin than the DD configuration.

Figure 7. Pumps efficiencies and shaft speed
Shaft power inputs and hydraulic power outputs were resulted efficiencies of reaction
centrifugal pumps with the three double U pipe configurations as Fig.7. The efficiencies ofeach configuration were not linier to the shaft speed. The efficiencies and its deviation
tended to lower value for higher shaft speed. The BB configuration was the best
configuration for the highest efficiency for all shaft speed evaluated. The DD configuration
was better than SS configuration for the higher efficiency for all shaft speed evaluated.
For shaft speed 100 rpm down 84 rpm when the system was stopped pumping (cut-off),
deviation data was higher due to foot valve was not fully opened. The uncontrolled
opening foot valve was only depended on differential pressure of fluids in upper and below
of foot valve.

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3.2. Various outlet diameters
Based on result of the previous experiment, outlet direction for performance of centrifugal
reaction pump with various diameters experiment is adjusted on BB configuration. Outlet
directions of the upper U pipes were adjusted 90 deg. away from the straight pipe impeller
and were also called backward-inclined blades-like.
Based on Fig.8, increasing diameter of the arm pipes could increase capacity of centrifugal
reaction pump. Increase diameter of pipes to nominal diameter 0.75 increased capacity ofthe pump for shaft speed 130 rpm and up, compared to nominal diameter 0.5 inch. Increase
diameter of pipes to nominal diameter 1.0 increased capacity of the pump significantly for
all speed range of experiment, compare to nominal diameter 0.5 and 0.75 inch. The pumpcharacteristics were similar with Eq. 2. The fluid mass and mass flow rate in channel werelarger for larger pipe diameter.
0.30

Capavity Q (dm 3 /s)

0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10

Dia 0.50
Dia 0.75

0.05

Dia 1.00

0.00
80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

Shaft Speed n (rpm)Figure 8. Pumps capacity and shaft speed
Experiments of the pumps showed that the efficiencies tends similar for various arm pipes
diameters, especially for shaft speed range 120 up to 145 rpm (Fig.9). For various arm
pipes diameters, the pump efficiency deviation was higher in shaft speed below 120 rpm asfoot valve was not opened fully and the opening of the valve could not be controlled.
Increase nominal diameter of arm pipes, although increase the pump capacity, was notincrease the efficiency. It meant that the increasing of shaft power as power input to thepump was followed by the increasing of hydraulic power as power output of the pump andits power losses. The power losses came from T-junction, vertically inlet pipe, double U
pipes and foot-valve as fixed parts on whole experiment. One of the losses comes fromsecondary flow in channels. Compare to non-rotating channels flow, effect of rotation issignificant to the secondary flow (Colleti, et al, 2014; Roy, et al, 2013).

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80

70
Dia 0.50

Pump Efficiency (%)

60

Dia 0.75
Dia 1.00

50
40
30
20
10
0
100

110

120

130

140

150

Shaft Speed n (rpm)Figure 9. Pumps efficiency and shaft speed
4. CONCLUSION
The experiment study show that double U configuration with 90 deg, 0 deg and 90 deg
outlet directions to the straight impeller blades and with 18.5, 22.5 and 28.0 mm (0.5, 0.75
and 1.0 inches) pipes nominal diameter of outer arms were successfully applied to thecentrifugal reaction pump. The configurations can be used to replace a pair of fixed andsliding orifice as water gate restricts the air to flow into pipe impeller channel.
The result shows that the configuration has higher effects to the hydraulic power output
than the shaft power output. The best efficiency is backward-inclined-blades-like, forwardinclined-blades-like and straight-blades-like respectively. Increasing nominal diameter ofarm pipes significantly affect to increase of the pump capacity but has no significant effectto the pumps efficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research was sponsored by LPPM – Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
and RISTEK DIKTI, Indonesia.
REFERENCES
Cengel, Y.A. and Cimbala, J.M., (2006), Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications,
McGraw-Hill Education (Asia), New York), pp. 754-757.
Colletty, F., Lo Jacono, D., Cresci, I. and Arts, T., (2014), Turbulent flow in rib-roughened
channel under the effect of Coriolis and rotational buoyancy forces, Physics of Fluids,
Volume 26
Dhillon, J., Kumar, A. and Singal,S.K., (2014), Optimization methods applied forWind–PSP operation and scheduling under deregulated market: A review, Renewable andSustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 30, pp. 682–700

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Gopal, C., Mohanraj, M., Chandramohan, P., and Chandrasekar, P., (2013), Renewableenergy source water pumping systems—A literature review, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, Volume 25, pp. 351–370
Lara, D.D., Merino, G.G., Pavez, B.J. and Tapia, J.A., (2011), Efficiency assessment of awind pumping system, Energy Conversion and Management, Volume 52, pp. 795–803
Lukiyanto, Y.B. and Wahisbullah, E., (2014), A Simple Double U Pipe Configuration to
Improve Performance of a Large-Diameter Slow-Speed Centrifugal Impeller;
Proceedings of the 3rd Applied Science for Technology Application, ASTECHNOVA
2014 International Energy Conference Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 13-14 August 2014
Roy, P., Anand, N.K., Banerjee, D., (2013), A review of flow and heat transfer in rotating
microchannels, Procedia Engineering, Volume 56, pp. 7-17
Rubinski, I.A. and Rubinsky, A.I., (1955), A low specific speed pump for small discharge,
Civil Engineering and Public Works Review, Volume 591, pp. 987-990
Smulders, P.T., (1996), Wind water pumping: the forgotten option, Energy for Sustainable
Development, Volume 5, pp. 8-13
Wind Power, http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/ah810e10.htm
downloaded
27/08/2013 13:54

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OPTIMIZATION OF IMPACT ENERGY ABSORBER PARAMETERS FOR
AUTOMOBILE CRUSH BOX USING RESPONSE SURFACE METHOD
Mohammad Malawat1,a*, Danardono Agus Sumarsono1,c.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia 1
Kampus Baru UI Depok 16424 Indonesia1
Phone: +62-21-7270032, Fax: +62-21-7270033
E-mail: cdanardon@eng.ui.ac.id, a*mohammad.malawat@ui.ac.id
ABSTRACTThe Impact Energy Absorber (IEA) of an automobile provide the crush box to crumple
when the collision is happening. The IEA is located on front end or rear end of automobile.
Exactly, the IEA is located behind the bumper. The main functions of The IEA are toabsorb any kind of energy due to collision and to protect the main structure of automobile
from destruction that effects to prevent occupant fatality, distortion on battery or
exploitation on fuel tank. The IEA is made from thin wall square tube where located holes
as crush initiators. Three square tubes having thickness about 0.6 mm (specimen code A),
0.8 mm (specimen B) and 1 mm (specimen Code C) were tested under dynamic load. The
crushing initiator is designed around the shape of the tube wall and has eight holes with afixed diameter of 6.5 mm. For optimization, the result of experiment of the crushinginitiator was determined at 3 different locations on the specimen wall. These locations are
10 mm, 30 mm, and 50 mm measured from the initial collision position of the specimen
tested. There is the experiment result is going to optimized. The main aim of the research is
to optimize the IEA parameter for automobile crush box. Wall thickness and crush
initiators position on thin wall square tube are considered as input parameters. Sets ofparameter for impact energy absorber are designed by employing Response Surface
Method (RSM) in statistical software Mat lab 2016. The regression equation for impact
energy absorber is developed using the experimental drop test result of different variant ofwall thickness and crush initiators position of square tube as an IEA. The optimization
result that the thin-walled square tube cross section 60.42; h = 0.6 mm almost complied toall optimal prediction on IEA design and crush initiators position 10 mm of from the edgeof thin-walled square tube had the optimal prediction on IEA design.
Keywords: Crush initiators position; Wall thickness; Impact energy absorber; Response
surface method.
1. INTRODUCTION
The chassis elements that absorb the kinetic energy at the moment of a vehicle of crash
approximately 40% are front rail columns. The possible impact of the occupants with thewindshield of the car because of persistent rigidity during a short fraction of time and delay
in initial folding this causes large negative accelerations if these columns are too rigid (I.
Eren et al., 2009).
Cho et al. (2006) on I. Eren et al., (2009) studied front frame optimizations with a no

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uniform closed-hat section using dent-type and hole-type crush initiators under an axial
loading condition of frontal crash. They compared the results of the same size of design
analysis of hole-type crush initiators with those of dent-type crush initiators (I. Eren et al.,2009).
By applying the response surface methodology (RSM) in which all factors are varied
simultaneously over a set of experimental runs, these limitations of the classical method ofexperimentation can be avoided that involves statistical design of experiments (DoE)(Khayet et al., 2016). In fact, RSM is a collection of mathematical and statisticaltechniques can be used to evaluate the relative signiﬁcance of several affecting factors anduseful for developing, improving and optimizing processes, even using a minimum numberof experiments in the presence of complex interactions between them (Khayet et al., 2010;
Montgomery, 2001; Montgomery and Myers, 1995 on Khayet et al., 2016).
The objective of the method in adsorption is to achieve the best adsorption performance tosimultaneously optimize the levels of these variables (M. Roosta et al., 2014 on M.
Dastkhoon et al., 2017).
The main objective of this study is to optimize of IEA parameters for automobile crush box
which wall thickness and crush initiators position on thin-walled square tube areconsidered as input parameters against to the reduction of peak force and to the increasing
not only energy absorption, crush force efficiency, but also specific energy absorption.
2. METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL

Start
Define the goal
IEA Parameter Optimization

Define design ofExperiment (DoE)

Input all data fromexperimental drop test

Regression Equation or
Response Surface Model

Graphics of Response
Surface Model

Set DoE as a Matrix

End

Figure 1. Flow chart of study
RSM is the most widely used mathematical modelling and statistical evaluation method for
optimization of input parameters (independent variable) of any system. In addition, themethod can easily be used in explanation and prediction of the existing relationship

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between the input parameters with the responses (dependent variables) (A. Alouﬁ et al.,2011 on Tushar M. Patel et al., 2016).
Figure 1 shows the flow chart of study. Study begin with define the goal of IEA parameter
optimization where wall thickness and crush initiators position on thin wall square tube areconsidered as input parameters (Table 2). After that, define design of experimental (DoE)by setting the level of parameter. Sets of parameter for IEA are designed by employing
response surface method (RSM) in statistical software Mat lab 2016. The linear regression
equation for impact energy absorber is developed using the experimental drop test result ofdifferent variant of wall thickness and crush initiators position of square tube as an IEA.
The linear regression model produce optimization graphics.
Table 2. Parameter and level of IEAParameters
Wall Thickness (X1)
Crush Initiators Position (X2)(-1)
0.6 (0)10 ( 0.5 )

Level
(0)
0.8 (1)30 (1)(+1)
1.0 (2)50 (1.5)

The relationship between input parameters and their respective reactions in problems
solved with RSM is generally expressed with the following second-degree polynomial
equation (Montgomery and Myers, 1995; Khayet et al., 2007, 2010b on Khayet et al.,2016).
(1)
are the coded independent
Where is the predicted response, andare the regression coefficients and is the statisticalvariables (factors),
error.
RSM is a collection mathematical and statistical technique for empirical model building.
By careful design of experiments, the objective is to optimize IEA parameters which is
influenced by several function (independent variables). Response surface method is use to
examine the relationship between a response and a set of quantitative experimental
variables or factors.
The selected process variables were varied up to three levels and drop test was adopted toexperimental. The two parameters considered for this study are wall thickness (mm) andcrush initiators position (mm). The parameters are set at three levels each. The summary of
the parameters is shown in Table 2 (Danardono A. S. et al., 2015; M. Malawat et al.,2016).
The value of IEA for all variants are measured using experimental drop test for finding out
the optimum wall thickness and crush initiators position. Series of analysis is conduct toobtain the data sets for RSM model.

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Experiment was designed according to the test conditions. The analysis was conducted forall data sets, with the process parameter levels set as given in Table 2. Experimental resultof drop test is given in Table 3. There are two parameters on three levels data set with threetimes data taken (32 x 3) were conducted to prepare data set as a function for response
surface model. Twenty-seven dynamics test having three different cross sections werecrushed axially on the drop loading rig. The first parameter is wall thickness of square tube
with three set up levels are cross section c/h = 60.42; h = 0.6 mm, c/h =45.69; h = 0.8 mm,
and c/h = 36.80; h = 1.00 mm. The second parameter is crush initiators position with three
set up levels are 10 mm, 30 mm, and 50 mm.
Table 3. Experimental drop test data
Run
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

336

Parameters
X1
X2
0.6
10
0.6
30
0.6
50
0.6
10
0.6
30
0.6
50
0.6
10
0.6
30
0.6
50
0.8
10
0.8
30
0.8
50
0.8
10
0.8
30
0.8
50
0.8
10
0.8
30
0.8
50
0.8
10
1.0
30
1.0
50
1.0
10
1.0
30
1.0
50
1.0
10
1.0
30
1.0
50

PF (kN)
33.2
20.3
19.2
24
22.9
24.2
26.3
29.6
27.5
25.6
45.7
28
36.6
44.4
42
36.5
41.6
45
61.1
50.5
55
52.1
62
78
72.7
55.2
58

Function
EA (kJ) CFE (%)
0.62
15.06
0.92
39.90
0.86
36.46
1.01
40.42
0.68
28.82
0.97
39.26
1.25
52.09
1.01
43.58
0.87
37.09
0.60
45.31
0.50
21.01
0.71
42.86
0.75
37.98
0.75
31.31
0.84
30.00
0.98
38.63
0.90
46.88
0.86
33.56
0.69
40.59
0.73
55.64
0.70
53.09
0.60
36.28
0.71
44.19
0.84
40.13
0.67
29.71
0.73
42.93
0.69
42.93

SEA (kJ/kg)
4.05
6.03
5.63
6.63
4.45
6.37
8.25
6.61
5.73
3.16
2.62
3.72
3.95
3.94
4.42
5.15
4.73
4.50
3.10
3.29
3.14
2.71
3.18
3.77
3.00
3.27
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All data set as a matrix run by Mat lab 2016 and produce the regression coefficients. The
regression coefficients are going to insert into the linear regression equation. Those arelinear regression equation or response surface model. The model shows the optimal
condition of IEA as a crush box for peak force, energy absorption, crush force efficiency,
and specific energy absorption value. The optimal IEA design of linear regression model
shown on equation (2), (3), (4), and (5).
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

Figure 2 Optimization Graphic of Peak Force

Figure 3. Optimization Graphic of Energy
Absorption

Figure 2 shows the optimization graphic for peak force experimental result data. On IEA
design, the lowest peak force value is the optimal IEA design. So, the optimal prediction
surface of peak force from IEA design shown on the dark blue to dark blue area. The area
shown around 0.6 mm of wall thickness or thin-walled square tube cross section 60.42 and10 mm of crush initiators position. The prediction value of the peak force IEA design
according to the response surface about 20 kN until 25 kN.
Figure 3 shows the optimization graphic for energy absorption experimental result data.
The optimal prediction surface of energy absorption from IEA design shown on the orange
to yellow area. The area shown around 0.8 mm of wall thickness or thin-walled square tube
cross section 45.69 and 10 mm of crush initiators position. The prediction value of theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

337

energy absorption IEA design according to the response surface about 0.70 kJ until 0.75
kJ.

Figure 4 Optimization Graphic of Crush
Force Efficiency

Figure 5 Optimization Graphic of specificenergy absorption

Figure 4 shows the optimization graphic for crush force efficiency experimental result
data. The optimal prediction surface of crush force efficiency from IEA design shown on
the orange to yellow area. The area shown around 1.0 mm of wall thickness or thin-walledsquare tube cross section 36.80 and 10 mm of crush initiators position. The prediction
value of the crush force efficiency IEA design according to the response surface about 70% until 80%.
Figure 5 shows the optimization graphic for specific energy absorption experimental result
data. The optimal prediction surface of specific energy absorption from IEA design shownon the orange to yellow area. The area shown around 0.6 mm of wall thickness or thinwalled square tube cross section 60.42 and 10 mm of crush initiators position. The
prediction value of the specific energy absorption IEA design according to the response
surface about 3.0 kJ/kg until 3.5 kJ.
4.CONCLUSION
The main conclusion of this study are:
1. RSM design was used to prepare prediction model to determine not only peak force,energy absorption, crush force efficiency, but also specific energy absorption
generated for the given set of design IEA parameter.
2. It is found that the thin-walled square tube cross section 60.42; h = 0.6 mm almost
complied to all optimal prediction on IEA design and crush initiators position 10
mm of from the edge of thin-walled square tube had the optimal prediction on IEA
design.

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5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Authors would like to thank the “Departemen Riset dan Pengabdian Masyarakat”
Universitas Indonesia for funding this research by Hibah Riset Pascasarjana 2015.
6. REFERENCES
Danardono Agus Sumarsono, Mohammad Malawat, Jos Istiyanto, (2015), Pengembangan
Impact Energy Absorber dengan Pengaturan Jarak Crush initiators, Proceeding on
Seminar Nasional Tahunan Teknik Mesin XIV 2015.
Hazren A. Hamid, Youla Jenidi, Wim Thielemans, Christopher Somerfield, Rachel L.
Gomes, (2016), Predicting the capability of carboxylated cellulose nanowhiskers for the
remediation of copper from water using response surface methodology (RSM) andartificial neuro network (ANN) models, Industrial Crops and Products 96 108-120.
Ilham Asilturk, Suleyman Neseli, Mehmet Alper Ince, (2016), Optimisation of parameters
affecting surface roughness of Co28Cr6Mo medical material during CNC lathe
machining by using the Taguchi and RSM methods, Measurement 78 120–128.
I. Eren, Y. Gur, Z. Aksoy, (2009), Finite Element Analysis of Collapse of Front Side Rails
with New Types of Crush Initiators, International Journal of Automotive Technology,
Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 451-457.
Mehdi Dastkhoon, Mehrorang Ghaedi, Arash Asfaram, Alireza Goudarzi, Seyyedeh
Maryam Mohammadi, Shaobin Wang, Improved adsorption performance ofnanostructured composite by ultrasonic wave: Optimization through response surface
methodology, isotherm and kinetic studies, Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 37 (2017) 94105.
M. Khayet,, J.A. Sanmartino, M. Essalhi, M.C. García-Payo, N. Hilal, Modeling andOptimization of a Solar Forward Osmosis Pilot Plant by Response Surface
Methodology, Solar Energy, 137 (2016) 290-302.
Mohammad Malawat, Jos Istiyanto, Danardono Agus Sumarsono, (2016) Effects of Wall
Thickness and Crush Initiators Position Under Experimental Drop Test on Square
Tubes, 3rd International Conference on Advanced Engineering Technology ICAET
2016.
Tushar M. Patel, N. B. Bhatt, (2016), Development of a Mathematical Model of VMS for
Automotive Structural Member using FEA-RSM Hybrid Modeling, 3rd International
Conference on Innovations in Automation and Mechatronics Engineering, ICIAME
2016, Procedia Technology 23 98-105.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
Optimization of Container Terminal Operational Performance through Suppressing its
Idle Time∗

𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐢𝐢𝟏𝟏 , 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝟐𝟐 , 𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝟑𝟑¹ Mechanical Engineering Department , Universitas Indonesia,² Mechanical Engineering Department, Universitas Indonesia,³ Industrial Engineering Department, Universitas Indonesia,
ABSTRACTThe paper is aimed on the attempt of reducing the idle time of container loading-unloading
operations at the port terminal, and specifically at Tanjung Priok Port Container Terminal, as
a complementary to the one being newly built just off the existing harbor complex. In the last
5 years, container shipment traffic in Indonesia has been increasing significantly. It is
predicted that in 2020 container loading operational activities at Tanjung Priok Port willreach more than 10 million TEUs. Idle time is ineffective time included in the daily operation
caused by several factors, such as waiting for the containers to be lifted, machines break
down, changing of operators, flow of head trucks etc. By suppressing the amount of idle timein container loading-unloading operation, operational performance of terminal will be higher
thus creating a better, more efficient, and faster traffic of container entering or exiting theterminal.
Keywords: Box Crane Hour, Container, Idle Time, Port, Terminal Performance.

1. INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is a country with more than 17,000 islands, 2/3 of its territory is covered by sea.
Indonesia has abundant of natural wealth in its islands that makes Indonesia has theadvantage of diverse natural products to meet the needs of each region. Marine transports aremostly used to distribute large amount of natural products and goods. To support marinetransport adequate ports are needed, for ships to loading and unloading of their cargoes.
In the last 5 years, container shipment traffic in Indonesia has been increasing significantly. It
is predicted that in 2020 container loading operational activities at Tanjung Priok Port only
will reach more than 10 million TEUs. [1]. Furthermore, in anticipation for the growth
Indonesia Port Corporation is building a new port with large capacity off the existing harbor
complex, and upgrading the existing port system, infrastructure and human resources.
Indonesia Port Corporation has 3 ports i.e.: PT. Port of Tanjung Priok, Port of Koja andJakarta International Container Terminal. Port of Tanjung Priok has the highest throughput inthe last 5 years, it operates 3 terminals: Terminal 1, Terminal 2, and Terminal 3. Terminal 2 isdedicated for handling domestic containers, while the other two are for international cargoes.
For the purpose of this research case study was conducted at Terminal 2 Port of Tanjung
Priok.
The goal of this research is to improve the operational performance of the existing domestic
container terminal in order to act as a complementary to the one being newly built, by
suppressing the amount of idle time in container loading-unloading operation. It is assumed
that when the terminal has a proper strategy to minimize idle time in wharf operations it will
also increase the box crane hour from each equipment, and increase the production
throughput of the terminal.

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The operational performance of the terminal can be seen from: ship’s approach time, theeffective time, idle time, not operation time, berthing time, turn around, postpone time, berthworking time, and for the measurement of terminal operation of we can see from its
production throughput, box crane hour, etc. In order to improve the performance of container
terminal one of the approaches is to minimize idle time of loading and unloading ofcontainers on berth. Based on the recorded performance reports, causes of the idle time
among other things are: waiting for incoming container, slow flowing of head trucks, waitingfor operators during changing of shift, and in-trouble equipment. It is also reported that theyard plan has very much influence on the idle time. Liang Ping Me et al [2] had done an
optimization framework for yard plan at container terminal using strategic simulation, andtheir approach was adopted in this research.
There are two types of port terminals, transshipment terminal and import-export terminal. But
in fact according to Sanen and Romert [3] there is no terminal that is absolutely 100%transshipment, as in the port of Tanjung Pelepas, Singapore, Salasah, Port Said, etc. they havean average transshipment of more than 90% and most other port transshipment have averaged
less than 15%. Both at transshipment and import-export terminals loading and unloading ofcontainers play very important role in determining the production throughput of theterminals. According to Ceghun and Deniz [4] there are 3 important aspects in determining
the efficiency of a container terminal i.e. the container yard, cranes being used, and thevessels that are berthing at the terminal.
2. METHODOLOGY
The research was conducted based on the primary information and secondary information.
The primary information is gathered mostly from on the spot observations at Terminal 2, PT.
Port of Tanjung Priok in Jakarta, through interview with people in charge of the terminal
operations, direct observation of the tasks being conducted, and informal discussions with the
management of the terminal, while the secondary information is obtained from literature
review, and discussions with experts. The gathered information is then analyzed using “fishbone” cause and effect analysis, results of the analysis are used further to propose the strategy
for increasing the efficiency of the container terminal.
2.1. Identification of the causes of idle time
Terwiesch [5] defines idle time as cycle time minus processing time; it is for how long asource cannot do anything because he has to wait for another source. In fact it is anineffective time included in the daily operation of a certain tasks. Based on the study carriedout by Wibowo [6] indicated that idle time included in the operation of container terminal
are: waiting for containers to be lifted to or from the ship, which comprised of about 35%;
waiting for the head truck to carry or to bring the containers from or to the berth, which
comprised of around 29%; waiting for the operator of Quay Container Crane during thechanging of working shift, which comprised of 24%; due to repairing of break down
equipment, which comprised of 12%, as shown in figure 1.
2.2 Container yard capacity and facility
Beside the efficiency of the activities carried out at the wharf, its container throughput is also
determined by the productivity at the container yard, because both the incoming and outgoing
containers have to be stacked at the container yard before being transported to the owners (forthe incoming containers) or to be loaded to the ships (for outgoing containers), therefore
capacity and the availability of the faculties play important role.

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Container yard capacity in terminal 2 PT Tanjung Priok Port is shown in table 1, maximum
capacity in this area is 7349.5 TEU’s, divided in 10 blocks, each block is served by two rail
mounted gantry crane, and one reach stacker.

Idle Time
Waiting forcontainer
Waiting for head
truck
Waiting for
operator
Repairingequipment

12
35
24

29

Figure 1. Causes percentage of the idle time in container terminal.
Table 1. Capacity of container yard at terminal 2
BLOCK

SLOT

ROW

TIER

GROUNDSLOTCAPACITY(Teus)

a

b

c

d

e
= b*c

f
= b*c*d

1
2
3

22
20
15

6
6
6

5
5,5
5,5

132
120
90

660
660
495

4

23

10

5,5

230

1265

5
6
7
8

22

10

5,5

220

1210

18
18
18
13

7
7
7
7

5,5
5,5
5,5
5,5

126
126
126
91

693
693
693
500,5

12

8

5

96

480

1357

7349,5

9
10
Total

181

2.3. Analysis for the cause of idle time
As has been identified that the main causes of the idle time are: waiting for the containers,
waiting for the head truck, changing of operators, and repairing equipment. In order toinvestigate the sources of those causes “Fish Bone” cause and effect analysis was used, whichis shown in figure 2.
It was discovered that the sources of idle time caused by waiting for containers are:
 Port navigation system for the ships to enter the port and berth at the terminal, thisincludes the congestion of the port entrance; the depth of the port basin; the wave andcurrent in the port entrance.
 Container yard facilities, which would determine the speed of containers flowing from thecontainer yard to the wharf.

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 Queuing strategy implemented by the terminal.
 Container stacking both in the ship’s cargo holds as well at the container yard.
Caused by waiting for the head trucks are:
 Container yard facilities, which would determine the speed of putting the containers on thetrucks.
 Number of trucks available in the terminal to transport the container from and to thewharf.
 Cargo handling policy implemented by the terminal whether sub-contracted to shipping
companies or handled by itself.
Caused by changing of operator are:
 Human resources management implemented by the terminal, which includes recruitment
policy, training and development of the operators, and welfare of the human resources.
 Cargo handling policy implemented by the terminal whether sub-contracted to shipping
companies or handled by itself.
 Shifting plan of the operators that sometimes does not run smoothly such as due to bad
weather.
Caused by repairing of equipment are:
 Maintenance system of the equipment implemented by the terminal.
 Number of equipment deployed at the wharf namely the quay container cranes.

Figure 2. Fishbone analysis of idle time
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Based on the analysis of the sources that cause the idle time, the solutions being proposed tominimize the idle time of each cause among other things are:
 Waiting for containers
Improve port navigation access system, including the pilotage system; monitor the depthof port basin regularly; increase the efficiency in the container yard including thereliability and availability of the facilities utilized in it; increase the efficiency of thequeuing strategy implemented both at the wharf as well as at the container yard, which
include containers stacking plan system.
 Waiting for head truck

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Increase the efficiency in the container yard, so that head trucks can flow smoothly;
optimize the number of head truck deployed in the terminal, and maintain their condition
for the tasks; improve cargo handling management in accordance with the development oflatest technology, including information system for instructing the flow of the head trucks.
 Changing of operators
The terminal works 24/7; therefore the equipment operators who serve in loading andloading of containers are divided into three groups, 8 hours for every shift. Since the tasks
are not carried out directly by the port operator, but sub-contracted to the cargo handlingcompanies or to the privilege shipping companies. This scheme sometimes creates delays
during the changing of operators between the shifts. It is proposed that the terminal shouldhave full control for the deployment of the operators and their working schedules.
Welfare, training system and safety of the operator should also put into considerations, inorder that loading and un-loading tasks could be carried out efficiently.
 Repairing equipment
The works are usually terminated if main equipment does not perform properly, and some
repairs are required to make it functioning well again. In order to ensure that the tasks
could be carried out as planned without any interruption, proper maintenance systemshould be applied by the terminal management, which includes proper inventory system of
the spare parts needed for replacing the worn out parts.
4. CONCLUSION
Efficiency of the cargo handling in container terminal could be increased by reducing the idle
time in loading and unloading of containers to and from the ships at the terminal wharf.
Identified main causes of the idle time are: waiting for the containers; waiting for the headtrucks; changing of operators; and repairing the equipment. There are some sources thatcreate the causes of the idle time.
In order to reduce the idle time sources that create the causes of idle time manage properly inaccordance to their individual characteristics and using appropriate approaches, mainly
management approaches such as human resources management, inventory management,
safety and traffic management, and maintenance management.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their appreciations and thanks to the Directorate of
Research and Community Engagement (DRPM) Universitas Indonesia for providing PITTA
funding, so that the results of students’ final projects could be disseminated in various means
such as this one. We also like to express our thanks to the management and staffs at PT
Indonesia Port Corporation for giving us opportunity to collect information for supporting
this research.
6. REFERENCES
Chen, Chuanyu; Hsu, Wen-Jing; Huang, Shell-Ying. ( ) Simulation and Optimization ofContainer
Yard
Operations:A
survey,Port
Journal,
http://www.simplus.sg/papers/SgMaritime.
Government Regulation No. 69/2001, (2001), Port Regulation, Directorate General of Sea
Transport Republic of Indonesia.
Hermanto, Andy Wahyu. (2008), Analysis on The Consumer Satisfaction To The Service Of
The Port Semarang Container Terminal (in Indonesian), University of Diponegoro. Pp 1118.
Indonesia Port Corporation (IPC). (2015), Modernizing Pelabuhan Tanjung Priok, PT.
Pelabuhan Tanjung Priok.

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Indonesia Port Corporation (IPC). (2015), Ship Planning Concept, Port Maritim Logistics,
IPC Corporate University.
Indonesia Port Corporation (IPC). (2015), Yard Planning Concept, Port Maritim Logistics,
IPC Corporate University.
Lasse, D.A.(2012). Cargo Management; Supply Chain Activity in Port Area (in Indonesian),
PT.Grafindo Persada, Jakarta.
Liang, Ping Ku et al. (2010), An Optimization Framework For Yard Plan In a Container
Terminal: Case Automated Rail-Mounted Gamtry Crane . OR Spectrum 32: pp 519–541.
Obata, Kanji et al. (2001), Development of Automatic Container Yard Crane. Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries, Ltd. Technical Review Vol.38 No.2.
Suryadi,Fenti.(2016). Operation of Terminal 2 Port of tanjung Priok, Vocational training
report, Universitas Indonesia.
Triatmodjo, Bambang. (1996), Harbor (in Indonesian), Beta Offset, Yogyakarta.
Terwiesch, Christian. (2013) , An Introduction to Operation management, lecture note week
one, University of Pennsylvania.
Wibowo, Harmani. (2010). Analysis on factors that affecting the ships waiting time at
Tanjung Mas Port Semarang, Postgraduate thesis, University of Diponegoro.
Wiwoho, Soedjono. (1983). Suportin Facilities for Sea Transportation (in Indonesian), PT
Bina Aksara, Jakarta.

*) Corresponding author.
E-mail address: naryo@eng.ui.ac.id

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)CONTAINER SHIP ACCIDENT ANALYSIS DUE TO CONTAINERSTACKED ON DECK AS AN ATTEMPT TO IMPROVE MARITIMELOGISTIC SYSTEM
Gafero Priapalla Rahim1, Sunaryo2*¹Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Indonesia.
² Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Indonesia.
Abstract

This paper analyses factors that might cause accidents to the container ships due to loading
conditions of containers stacked on deck, and propose applicable actions on how to minimize
these factors. Container ships play important role in the domestic and international maritime
logistic system as one of the most efficient ways of transporting general cargo in a bulk
quantity. The number, capacity, and speed of hatch-coverless container ships worldwide haveincreased significantly since the latest decade. There is also trend of stacking more containers
on deck in order to increase the capacity of the ships and reduce the transport costs. Thisphenomenon makes the number of container ship accidents also increasing continuously;
especially accidents that caused ship capsize or sink. Even though every merchant ship has tocomply with the applicable classification and statutory rules and regulations for the safety ofthe ship and its cargo, but based on the accident data have been recorded, the number ofaccidents still significantly high. The accidents usually cause great loses to the cargo beingtransported and damage the overall logistic system. The sources of container ship accidents
can be categorized into: the ship itself, the environment, human factor, and management. In
this study accidents data and related information were gathered through literature study, on
the spot observation, and direct interviews with relevant parties. Causes of accidents werethen identified by analyzing every possible source that might trigger the accident using cause
and effect analysis or known also as Fish Bone Diagram Analysis. Based on the findings
from the analysis, options for overcoming them were simulated to obtain the most applicable
solutions that would minimize the accidents and improve maritime logistic system.
Key word: accident sources, container ship accident, maritime logistic system, on deck
stacking,

1

2

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gaferopr@gmail.com
naryo@eng.ui.ac.id

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1. INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world, comprising more than 17,000 islands, withthe second longest coastline after Canada and vast ocean of nearly 6 million km2 which
includes the archipelagic waters, territorial sea and exclusive economic zone [1]. Indonesia
makes the sea as access links between the islands. For Indonesia as a maritime country, theexport-import of goods through sea is very important to promote the country's economy.
Most of the cargo shipping is using containers, due to the international practices and their
many benefits. Following the trend of containerization, so as the container ships are also
developing in size; capacity; and stowage system.
The hallmark of the container ship is standardized so that the optimal placement of containers
could be arranged. According to data published by the Maritime Journal, the carrying amountof the active container ships that sail around the world in 2016 approximately 6086 vessels.
The container ship has become common too in Indonesia, as especially in conjunction withthe government’s policy in implementing “Sea Highway” program. It shows that thecontainer vessel has an important role in the wworld’s logistic system.
However, in line with the presence of many container ships, there are also many accidents
occurred to container ships. According to the data recorded by the European Maritime Safety
Agency, there were 1101 cases of container ship accidents worldwide in the range of 20112015. These accidents usually occur due to natural factors, incorrect stowage plan,
overloaded containers, bad lashing system, hatch cover condition, the placement of dangerous
goods containers, unsafe plugging of reefer container, human error, etc.
The focus of this research is to investigate the sources of accident caused by containers thatwere stacked on deck, so that attempts to minimize them could be proposed.
2. METHODOLOGY
In this study, statistical data related to container ships accidents were collected from manysources worldwide, as a basis for supporting the significance of the study. Only data related
to accidents occurred due containers stacked on deck were used in the analyses. “Fish bone”
cause and effect diagram analysis was carried out to investigate the core sources of theaccidents, and based on the results of the analyses solutions were proposed to minimize theaccident from its roots.
According data from the European Maritime Safety Agency, from 2011 to 2015 there were6403 cargo ship involved in 5942 case of ship accidents, the number was increasing every
year. For container ships, there are more than 1101 cases in the period of 2011-2015.
Distribution of number of accidents every year and the type of ship involved is presented infigure 1.
From 4956 of specific cases, the most commonly occurring cases or around 25% of total
cases were due to factors that were happened in the engine room. In addition, for the casesthat were due to crash on deck are about 10% of the total cases. They occured on cargo hold
5% and freeboard deck 5%. Although it has small percentage, but the cost of cargo lost andtheir effect to environment are worth considered. Main places where accident are ussualy
occured are shown in figure 2., while the type of accidents are presented in figure 3.
Based on the data published by the European Maritime Safety Agency in the range of 20112015, accidents that are often experienced by the container ship are collision; fire/explosion;
grounding; and wear out equipment. There are more than 200 cases of collisions. Accidents
happened to containers stored on deck are caused by reefer containers and dangerous goods
containers due to wrong placement; leaks; and improper plugging. Example of a fire that
occurred on a container ship “Norasia” on July 16, 2005 was caused by fire in cargocontainers is shown in figure 4.

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Accidents as result of wear out equipment include: bad lashing system and corroded hatch
cover. Lashing system on the container is very important for the safety of containers. Lashingsystem should be checked regularly and replaced when they have already not met thestandards. Especially those are stored on decks, because they have potential to fall due to theforce from the wind and rolling of the ship. Furthermore, in the case of wear out hatch cover,even though this is rare, but may potentially lead to an accident. Similar to lashing system,
the hatch cover must always be checked for its strength and shape, so as to spare fromcracking. The strength of a hatch cover determines the balance and safety of cargo containers
is on deck.

Figure 1. Distribution of cargo ships involved

Figure 2. Main places of accidents in cargo ships

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Figure 3. Types of accidents

Figure 4. Fires on container ship
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In order to identify the main sources of accidents occured to containers stacked on deck,cause and effect or “fish bone” analysis was used. The causes are classified into four
categories, including: ship system, the environment, human factors, and management asshown in figure 5.

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Figure 5. Fishbone diagram analysis
In the ship's systems, the sources of the accident are: bad deck lashing system; improper
plugging of reefer container; and wear out Hatch cover.
In eenvironmental aspect is the sources are: sea condition such as storm, and wave. This
aspect has great influencece in ship accident if it is not anticipated well.
In the human factor aspect the sources of accident are: bad plugging of reefer containers on
the system, lack of checking the cargo, and improper installation of the lashing system.
The management aspect would include: the arrangement of stowage plan; bad arrangement of
dangerous goods, as well as the arrangement of reefer containers.
To overcome the sources of identified accidents it is proposed that for ship’s system, planned
maintenance system should be implemented, so that all the equipment related to the stowingof the container are in a very good condition. For environmental aspect, prevention andanticipation procedures to face the bad weather should be prepared and informed to the ship’screws. For the aspect of human factor, proper training, and availability of clear standard
operating procedures should be ensured. For the management aspect, commitment from allparties to the safety of the ship operation should be enforced well.
4. CONCLUSION
Based on the results of the analyses it couls be concluded that the main causes of accident
accured to containers stacked on the deck of ship are: the ship's systems, the eenvironmental
aspect, human factor aspect, and management aspect. The sources of these causes category
identified through fish bone diagram analysis are used to find the solution for preventing
them to occured.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their appreciations to PITTA project initiated by
Directorate of Research and Community Engagement Universitas Indonesia for funding the
project.

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6. REFERENCES
American Institute of Marine Underwriters and Technical Services. (2012). Committee On Deck
Stowage of Containers. New York: AIMU.
European Maritime Safety Agency. (2016). Annual Overview of Marine Casualties and Accidents
2016., Lisbon: EMSA.
Eyres, D, J. (2001). Ship Construction. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Kim, D. J. and S. Y. Kwak (2016), Risk Analysis of Container Ship Accidents and Risk Mitigation
Measures, Journal of the Korean Society of Marine Environment & Safety, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp.
259-267.
Komite Nasional Keselamatan Transportasi. (2009). Laporan Analisis Trend Kecelakaan Laut 20032008., Jakarta: KNKT.
Liu, F. et al. (2010), Stowage Planning of Large Containership with Tradeoff between Crane
Workload Balance and Ship Stability, International Multi Conference of Engineers andComputer Scientists, Vol. III.

Maritime Journal. (2005, October 01). SMIT Deals with Fire and Groundings. Retrieved
from http://www.maritimejournal.com/news101/
Nakamura, T., Ota, S. and Nakajima, Y., (2001, Evaluation of Expected Maximum Values of Forces
Acting on Containers and Lashing Rods on a Container Ship, Journal of Marine Science andTechnology, No. 6, pp. 3–12.

Ships Business. (2015). Lashing requirements on board container ship. Retrieved fromhttp://shipsbusiness.com/securing.html
Suzdayan. (2012). Container Ships and Cargo Securing Training. Jakarta: PT.Samudera Indonesia.

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ELECTRIC CAR CONVERSION COMPONENTS LAYOUT ARRANGEMENT
AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CENTER OF GRAVITY LOCATION
Mohammad Adhitya1, Muchamad Aditya Rachmanto1, Sudirja1, Danardono Agus
Sumarsono1
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Universitas Indonesia
ABSTRACTThis study discusses design of layout arrangement of electric car conversion. This study
consists of literature, method and the results. This study focused on the arrangement of thelayout of components and change in center of gravity (CG) position that affected thevehicle handling performance. Change in CG position happened as an effect of replacing
the components with certain masses affected vehicle’s mass distribution. The new layout
was designed to accommodate batteries, electric motor, and other complementarycomponents resulting in CG position of the vehicle that is closer to its reference point invertical axis and to its reference point in longitudinal axis compared to the car’s original
CG in standard condition.
Keywords: vehicle’s component layout, electric vehicle conversion, vehicle’s center ofgravity.
1. INTRODUCTION
Electrical energy, in its energy generation effort, depends not only on nonrenewable energy
sources. Renewable alternative energy sources can be exploited as generators, such as
water, air, and geothermal. Electrical energy is an alternative energy source that is expected
to meet the Indonesian people's need for energy. By utilizing electricity as the primaryenergy of vehicles, we can meet the challenges of Indonesia, as well as globally, infulfilling the people's need for energy.
The application of electric motors in vehicles can be used as an alternative way in the future
to replace motor fuel that is still commonly used. In electric vehicles, fuel oil as an energy
source is replaced by a rechargeable battery when the energy is used up. If the electricalenergy is generated by a generator derived from renewable energy, the electric vehicle
produces zero emissions, either directly or indirectly. Further, it claims the position ofelectric vehicles in lieu of conventional vehicles in the future. Additional reason is theregulation in some developed countries that restrict the quality of emissions from vehicles.
In our project, one type of car developed is a type of city car that dominates Indonesian
automotive market segment. Development is done by converting from a conventional motor
fuel into an electric car. The conversion must mind the placement of new components thatwill replace the essential components of the combustion engine. It is expected to maintainthe performance of the car, especially the stability and safety of driving.
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
The following flowchart showed the steps of the study.

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Figure 1 The Flowchart of Research
2.2. Selection of Components
New components used in this prototype car were battery, inverter, AC-DC converter, DCDC converter, electric motor, and BMS (Battery Monitoring System). These newcomponents would replace some of the essential components of combustion engines thatare no longer used in electric cars, namely combustion engines, exhaust systems, andgasoline tanks.
In accordance with the procurement plan that has been used, components other thanbatteries already set on the vehicle blueprint. Whereas previously planned batteries for use
have dimensions that do not match the space available on the car used as the basis for thisstudy.
On the market, there are various types of rechargeable batteries that can be used on electriccars. Common used battery in electric cars is lithium-ion type battery. Lithium-ironphosphate (LFP) battery was used in this study because LFP battery could provide longer
cycles than lead-acid batteries, nickel-metal hybrid, and other lithium-ion batteries. LFP
type battery is also commonly used in the conversion of electric cars so that various types
and specifications on the market are available.
To keep the cabin and space utilities, the battery was moved on the floor of the car chassis.
It takes single-cell battery of small dimensions to be placed according to the plan. The
battery was assembled in a module in which the modules were assembled according to theneeds of the car. Here's a comparison of some similar batteries available on the market:

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Tabel 1 Comparison of Battery Types
Battery
Voltage (V) Capacity(mAh)
AA LFP 26650
3,23300
AA LFP 32600
3,2
3000
Panasonic NCR18650
3,6
2750

Weight (kg)
0.09
0,11
0,05

From the battery specifications obtained, AA LFP 26650 battery was used. It is based on
the need of the car to a large battery capacity so battery with the largest capacity is selected.
2.3. Data Collection
New components used in this prototype car are battery, inverter, AC-DC converter, DC-DC
converter, electric motor, and BMS (Battery Monitoring System). These new components
replaced some essential components of combustion engines that were no longer used inelectric cars, namely combustion engines, exhaust systems, and gasoline tanks.
As the first step to design, the specifications of these components should be found first. The
dimensions and weight of new components can be found in available data sheets such asbrochures and manuals of each component.
Tabel 2 Data of New Component Used
Components
Weight (kg)
Total
Total of Weight (kg)Battery
0,09
1260
113,4
2,43
1
2,43
Battery Monitoring System
13,8
1
13,8
AC-DC Converter
31
3
DC-DC Converter
Motor Listrik52
152
Inverter
5,45
1
5,45
In addition, data on the weight of the old components were not used anymore. The data
were obtained by weighing.
Components

Tabel 3 Data of Replaced Components
Weight (kg)
Total Weight Total (kg)Combustion Engine
Fuel Tank (full)Exhaust

100
42,5
10

1
1
1

100
42,5
10

2.4. Positioning of New Components
In order to convert the original car using a motor fuel to become an electric car,replacement for several components was done. The essential components of unused motor
fuel were removed and replaced by new components that support electric cars. The role ofmotor fuel was replaced with an electric motor, and the fuel tank was replaced with abattery.

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Good layout planning was required in the process of replacing and determining thelocation of the components to be installed on the prototype of this electric car in order toretrofitting to get the optimal performance of the car. The appropriate architectural layoutof the drive train components directly affected the distribution of the lifetime so greatly
affected the CG position of the car. First thing to consider was removing the combustion
engine and its supporting components such as the exhaust system and the gas tank, which
was a major weight contributor to the conventional car (motor fuel). Then, the second
consideration was the placement of new components namely electric motors, control
systems, and batteries and accessories. As a primary consideration, the emphasis ofretrofitting was to consider the replacement of combustion engines and gasoline tanks withelectric motors and batteries because these components have heavy weight and large
dimensions.
Placement of forward-leaning batteries, with 60% of the total mass on the front, the cartended to over steer when cornering. When the front of the car carries greater weight, therear tire had larger slip angle than the front tire. For battery placement in the center, with
50% of the total mass on the front, the car tended to cornering in a neutral position so thatthe car maneuvered to follow the steering angle well. It was because the front and rear tires
received the same load on static conditions. In dynamic condition, the front tires received
larger load than the rear tires, resulting in a slight over steer that did not exceed the size ofthe car with the distribution of a forward-leaning mass. In the condition of placing thebattery tended to the back, with 40% of the total mass on the front, the vehicle tended toundersteer when cornering. It was because the rear tires received the largest load so that theslip angle experienced by the front tire was larger than the rear tire. From this, it could beseen how the effects of longitudinal CG positions affected the vehicle's performance, inthis case an electric car.
Battery placement was major concern due to its heavy weight and large dimensions.
Therefore, the placement of other components such as BMS, Inverter, AC-DC Converter,and DC-DC Converter was second priority so that it followed available place due to its
relatively in small dimensions and light weight. As the consideration, these components
were placed in an easily accessed position to make it easier for maintenance andmonitoring. In addition, some heat-prone components were positioned as much as possible
to accommodate heat exchange so that the components could work optimally.
Generally, the results of this conversion should not change the functionality of thepassenger cabin, not to reduce the space accommodation for passengers that impact to the
comfort and interior aesthetics. After making a placement plan, measurements were madeon the planned places on the previous prototype car to validate the space capability toaccommodate the components to be placed.
2.5. Design
The design stage was done using Autodesk Inventor software.

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2.5.1 Design of Battery Module
The battery used was a single cell battery type LFP 26650-3300 by AA Portable Power
Corp. The battery has a nominal voltage of 3.2 V and a nominal capacity of 3300 mAh.

Figure 2 Battery LFP 26650-3300 single cell
In order to fit the needs of the motor, the battery was arranged into several modules. Each
module contained 30 series of batteries arranged in series so that the voltage obtained for
96 V.

Figure 3 Battery Module
After that, the modules were arranged in parallel to increase the total capacity.
2.5.2. Layout Frame
Placement of the battery components affected the distribution of weight and loading on theframe. To keep the car’s performance by maintaining the CG position, on this frame design
the battery was placed in the center. Other electric drive components that must be
considered was a motor that weighed up to 43.5 kg, to adjust to the drivetrain used on thefront.

Figure 4 Car Frame Layout

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The prototype powertrain layout is known as the Front Transverse engine-Four wheel drive
configuration. Powertrain components in this configuration are the motor and transmission
were placed on the front. The advantage is the availability of more roomy space for theplacement of the battery in the middle because there is no transaxle distributed round to therear axle.
2.6. Weighing and Estimating Position of Standard Car CG
Weighing tool used was portable scale Dini Argeo type WWSDRF Wireless Platform 3590 EKR.

Figure 5 Dini Argeo WWSDRF Wireless Platform-3590 EKR
A set of scales consists of two platform units and one display unit. Each platform wasplaced on each wheel so that weighing a car takes twice the weighing, i.e. on both front
wheels and continued by weighing the two rear wheels. Each platform would weigh theload which was received and displayed on the display unit connected to the wirelessconnection. The accuracy of this tool weighs 10 kg. Parameter used as analysis was CG
obtained from the weighing on the car. CG of car in standard state would be compared withthe design results.
Two conditions of weighing were conducted. They are weighing the car in flat state and tilt
state. The first condition was performed to see the mass distribution of the car on both axles
so that the longitudinal position of the car can be determined. While the second condition
was done to see the change in the mass distribution of the car caused by the change of theangle, so that CG position in car can been seen vertically.
To determine the longitudinal position of the CG, the load received by both car axles
represented the mass distribution in the front-rear direction.

Figure 6 Determining longitudinal CG positions

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Furthermore, weighing the car with a condition of tilt (pitch) was done. When weighing,
the car was tilted up by jacking up the front or rear with the help of the jack so that the car
has a certain angle.

Gambar 7 Determining the vertical CG position
2.7. Estimated Changes of CG Position on Prototype Car
After knowing the CG position of the standard car, CG changes after the conversion
process can be estimated by referring to (2.2) by using the reference point on the front axleof the car for longitudinal position, and on the surface for vertical position. In thecalculations, the new components were assumed to give positive force, while the oldcomponents replaced give negative force. With these calculations, it can be seen how big
the change in CG positions that occur in the prototype.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1.Design
As a first step, the placement of the car powertrain included an electric motor and thearrangement of battery modules designed with the following layouts:

Figure 8 Layout powertrain on the prototype
After determining above configuration, other design of placement of the components wasdone as the following layout:

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Figure 9 Layout of new prototype components
3.1.1 Weighing and Positioning of Standard Car CG
Weighing was done on a standard Nissan March car. It was done with a flat car position.

Figure 10 Weighing the car in a flat position
After weighing on above position, the following results were obtained:
Table 4 Weighing the car in a flat position result
Weighing Front Axle (kg)Rear Axle (kg)
Total (kg)
1

570

350

920

2

580

360

940

3

580

360

940

Average

576,6666667

356,6666667

933,3333333

From the weighing result by using equation (2.4), longitudinal CG car position can be
estimated as:
Furthermore, weighing in a sloping position. The car was weighed with a jack-up conditionof 190 mm so as to form a downward pitch angle of 3,44o.

Figure 11 Weighing the car in a sloping position

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Weighing is done on the front wheel so that the force on the rear axle was calculated by
reducing the total mass obtained in the previous weighing with force on the front axle readon the scales. The results are as follows:
Tabel 5 Result of Weighing in Sloping Position
Degree3,44

Front Axle (kg)570

Rear Axle (kg)393,333333

Total (kg)933,3333333

The resulting weigh represented the gravity of the car. By knowing the angle of the slope,the normal force can be determined according to equation (3.1) as follows:
From the weighing result, with reference to (2.5) the vertical position of the car may be
predicted:
The results of the weighing done are summarized in the following table:
Tabel 6 Summary of Weighing result
Distance of the CG
Distance of CG
Curb Weight (kg)to front axle (mm)to ground surface (mm)933,333333

936,25

946,6404

From the result above, position of CG on the car can be visualized the as follows:

Figure 12 Approximate position of CG on car
3.1.2. Changes position of CG in Prototype
CG position influenced the moment of each component in the car. Here is an analytical
calculation to find out the new CG positions on the prototype, either longitudinally or
vertically.
3.1.2.1. CG Position After Removing Old Components
Combustion engine, gas tank, and exhaust that have been not used were released from thecar. The momentary changes occurring from the discharge of the components below withthe component spacing from the reference point as the moment arm were calculated. The
reference point for the longitudinal CG was the front axle while for the vertical was theground surface. The following weight and distance of each component of the reference
points are as follows:

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Tabel 7 Weight and Position of Released Components
Longitudinal
VerticalComponents
Weight (kg)distance (mm)distance (mm)Combustion Engine
100
60
700
Fuel Tank (full)
42,5
2362
566
Exhaust10
1602
380
By releasing the components, the mass of the car was reduced to 780,83 kg. By performing
calculations according to the equations of moments in equation (2.2), here are thelongitudinal CG positions:

While CG in vertical way is as follow:

From the calculation of the moments above, it can be known that after the motor fuel, gastank, and exhaust were released, there were CG changes in the car. Longitudinal CG
became 1092, 66 mm from the front axle, while the vertical CG was 1006.2 mm from theground surface.
3.1.2.2. CG Position After Installing New Components
Installation of new components on the car was done. The moment changes that occur fromthe installation of the below components with variations on the three available types ofbatteries were calculated. The reference point for the longitudinal CG is the front axle while
for the vertical is the ground surface.
3.1.2.3. Using The LFP-26650 Battery
The battery used had voltage 3.2 V and capacity of 3300 mAh with weight of 0.09 kg percell. The followings are weight and distance of each component of the reference point:
Tabel 8 Weight and Position of New Components
Battery
113,4
1871
223,25
Battery Monitoring System
2,43
90
630
AC-DC Converter
13,8
2362
600
DC-DC Converter
390630
Motor Listrik
52
60
300
Inverter
5,45
190
630

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By installing the components above, the mass of the car increased to 970.91 kg. By
performing calculations according to the equations of moments as in equation (2.2), here
are the longitudinal CG positions:

While CG in vertical way is as follow:

From the calculation of the moments above, it was obtained that the new components
installed is a change of CG on the car. Longitudinal CG became 1129.2 mm from the front
axle, while vertical CG was 845.01 mm from the ground surface.
3.1.2.4. Using The LFP 32600 Battery
As an alternative, LFP 32600 battery with 3.2 V voltage, 3000 mAh capacity, and weight of
0.11 was used, so the total weight of the battery to be used is 138.6 kg. With reference tothe placement of other components as above, the longitudinal CG position is as follows:

While CG in vertical way is as follow:

From the calculation of the moments above, it is known that there is a change of CG on the
car after the new components were installed. The longitudinal CG became 1147.96 mm
from the front axle, while the vertical CG was 850.01 mm from the ground.
3.1.2.5. Using Panasonic NCR 18650 Battery
As second alternative, NCR 18650 battery with 3.6 V voltage, 2750 mAh capacity, andweight of 0.05 each cell, can be used, so the total weight of the battery used is 63 kg. Withreference to the placement of other components as above, the longitudinal CG position is asfollows:

While CG in vertical way is as follow:

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From the calculation of the moments above, it can be known that there is a change of CG
on the car after the new components were installed. Longitudinal CG became 1059.58 mm
from the front axle, while the vertical CG was 833.71 mm from the ground.
3.2. Discussion
From the calculations done, the changes of position of CG both longitudinal and vertical
can be clearly seen. The changes caused the load distribution between the front axle and therear axle with previous ratio 38:62 become 47:53 so that the position of CG backward andtended to be more in than before. In line, the vertical CG position was also changed, which
is previous position 60% of the total height of the car become 63% of the total height of thecar.
4. CONCLUSION
Based on study conducted, it can be concluded that longitudinal CG position changed as far
as 158.41 mm. The change is expected to improve the car's response during cornering
because it reduces the over steer effect. Vertical CG position changed as far as 43.06 mm
closer to the surface. The change is expected to improve the stability of the car. The
comparison of mass distribution between the front and rear on the prototype is 47:53.
Overall, the conversion was done to improve the position of CG so it will get a more
optimal performance without sacrificing space capacity in the cabin. However, the car loadincreased by 37.58 kg after the conversion.
From the results of this study, many things need to be improved to get better results. Moreresearch is needed on the selection and range of batteries in order to increase the total
capacity of the battery used. Conversions added more burden of the car so that further
research need to find out the supporting components of the electric car. Due to the objectiveof this study on the layout of placement of components, further research is needed on thestrength of the frame structure to obtain optimal design.
From this research, several things are suggested to the further research to get better results.
Researches on issue of battery selection and sequencing, selection of electric car support
components, structural strength and manufacturing processes, and adjustment of rider
position are needed. In addition, weighing tool used has the smallest scale of 10 kg, so it isrecommended in the next research to use a more accurate weigher with higher level ofaccuracy.
6. REFERENCES
Jazar, R.N., (2008), Vehicle Dynamics: Theory and Applications, Riverdale: Springer
Science+Business Media.
Macey, S., (2009), H-Point: The Fundamentals of car Designing and Packaging. Design
Studio Press.

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Gillespie, T.D., (1992), Fundamental of Vehicle Dynamics. Warrendale: Society ofAutomotive Engineering.
Mazumder, H., (2011), Performance analysis of EV for different mass distributions toensure safe handling.
Smith, J.H., (2002), An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design. Warrendale: Society ofAutomotive Engineering.
Sperling, D., (1995), Future Drive: Electric Vehicle and Sustainable Transportation,
Washington DC: Island Press.
Allen, R.W. et al., (1991), "Characteristics influencing ground vehicle lateral/directional
dynamic stability".
Adhitya, Mohammad, (2013), A New Control Strategy of Wet Dual Clutch Transmission(DCT) Clutch and Synchronizer for Seamless Gear Preselect, SAE International.
ISO 10392 (2011), Road Vehicles - Determination of center of gravity.: International
Standard Organization.

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THE VEHICLE LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC SIMULATION TO SELECT THE
OPTIMUM GEAR RATIO COMBINATION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLECONVERSION
Mohammad Adhitya1, Mohammad Ikhsan1, Danardono Agus Sumarsono1
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Universitas Indonesia

ABSTRACT
University of Indonesia, made the electric conversion of University of Indonesia’s MultiPurpose Vehicle. The vehicle used combustion engine at first, the conversion of electricmotor as a power source affects the vehicle’s performance such as torque, RPM even the
total weight. Refer to the performance differences, the selection of gear ratio combination
will be major concern in this thesis. Using Simulation Software, the performance of thevehicle is tested in Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure driving cycle.
The conclusion of the simulation stated that the gear ratio combination that is proven to be
the most optimum is the combination of first gear and third gear.
Keywords: Electric Vehicle Conversion, Gear ratio combination; MATLAB simulation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays almost every car manufacturers stated that electric cars will be the future ofautomotive industry, due to the increasing fuel price and global warming effect. Electriccars will produce zero emission thanks to the absence of conventional engine in theirsystem. Using electric motor as a power source brings us a great advantage, such as higher
torque, lower noise pollution, and lower operation cost. Car manufacturer such as
European, Japanese, and American car manufacturers already produce road ready electricvehicles in their lineup. To response the conditions, Indonesia’s Ministry of Research andTechnology through Faculty of Engineering - University of Indonesia assigns a researchteam to study and design an electric vehicle, which leads the conversion of three
conventional vehicles into a full electric vehicle.
Furthermore, the research will cover three specific areas which are Optimum Gear Ratio,
Optimum Horse Power, and Optimum Battery Capacity. The research will be done
specifically on UI’s electric-converted vehicles project, which are Electric City Car,
Electric Multi-Purpose Vehicle and an Electric Bus.
This research will focuses on how to obtain Optimum Gear Ratio Combination of ElectricConverted Multi-Purpose Vehicle using mathematical simulation in order to achieve its
maximum efficiency and performance of its operation in Worldwide Harmonized Light
Vehicles Test Procedure’s class 2 driving cycle.

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2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
2.1. Work Flowchart

Figure 1 Work flowcharts
2.2. Obtaining Data
To run the simulation, there are some data that must be collected in order to simulate thereal condition of the vehicle.
2.2.1. Speed Reference data
Speed reference for this simulation is based on the driving cycle of Worldwide HarmonizedLight Vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP). WLTP is a global standard to determine theperformance of light vehicle, especially in the levels of pollutants and CO2 emissions, fuelor energy consumption, and electric range from light-duty vehicles (passenger cars andlight commercial vansFigure 2 WLTC class 2 speed driving cycle
2.2.2. Vehicle data
Below is the specification of standard UI’s Multi-Purpose Electric Vehicle.

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Table 1 UI’s Multi-Purpose Electric Vehicle
Parameter (unit)
Value
Dimension (mm)4425 x 1620 x 1880
Curb Weight (kg)1470
Engine Weight (kg)
210
Passenger Capacity
7
Tire size
185/70 R14
st
1 Gear
4.925
2nd Gear
2.643
rd
3 Gear
.1.519th
4 Gear
1.000
Final Drive Ratio
4.778
Drag Coefficient
0.4
Table 2 Total Weight of UI’s Multi-Purpose Electric Vehicle
Parameter (unit)
value
Curb weight minus engine (kg)1260
Motor Weight (kg)52
Total battery weight (kg)108
Average weight of 5 passengers (kg)400
Total weight (kg)1820
2.2.3 Electric Motor data
Electric Motor that will be used in this simulation is based on HPEVS AC50 electric motor.
AC50 motor has maximum torque of 163.4 Nm, maximum power of 53.47 Kw, andmaximum rpm of 8000.
Table 3 HPEVS AC50 Motor Data
Parameter (unit)
Value
Type of Motor
AC induction
Mass (kg)
52 kg
Maximum voltage
130 VAC
Rated torque (Nm)163,4Rated Power (kW)53,47
Max. Angular velcity (RPM)
8000
Continuous angular velocity (RPM) 5000

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Below is the torque and power curve of HPEVS AC50 data.

Figure 3 Specification Graph of HPEVS AC50 Electric Motor
Below are the supporting data of HPEVS AC50 electric motor, based on chapter 2.2.1, an
Induction Motor should not exceed 80% of its capabilities,

Figure 4 Supporting data of HPEVS AC50
2.3. Electric Vehicle Performance Simulation Using Simulink
The output of simulation is to know the proper transmission gear selection by knowing thevehicle performance in each gear as well as how much power it will cost along the track.
To determine Optimum gear ratio combination for Multi-Purpose Electric Vehicle, thesimulation result of the vehicle’s performance in each gear ratio will be compared.

Figure 5 Schematic simulation models for Electric UI MPV
The Model input will be consists Speed Profile which will be transformed into Driver’s
Throttle Position Model. The Throttle Model, then it is connected into Electric Motor’s

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Performance graph (torque-RPM) and Electric Motor Efficiency Map model. From there,
they will be connected to transmission model where the torque is multiplied by the gear
ratio. The result from the transmission model is connected into Vehicle Model which
consists of final drive ratio and various loads that will affect the vehicle at certain roadprofile and acceleration. Finally, the torque and RPM output will be connected into Battery
Logic Model where the amount of electricity used by the car is shown.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Vehicle Testing Result
Vehicle testing result is based on the methods in chapter 3.3. In this chapter, the results ofthe test will be plotted in tables and graphs. The output of this test is to determined on
which gear ratio should be used as first gear and which gear ratio should be used to achieve
high speed based on the driving cycle. Gear ratios that passed the tests will be inserted into
the full simulation.
3.1.1 Speed Testing Result
In this section, the results of speed testing from 1st gear to 4th gear will be shown. Each gear
will have achieved their own maximum speed based on speed table 3.2, and because of theloads acted on the vehicle as discussed on chapter 2.4, the vehicle’s acceleration will beknown.

Figure 6 Speed comparison between each gear
From the graph, maximum speed of each gear could be seen. To be able to achieve
Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure driving cycle class 2 maximum
speed of 83 km/h, the vehicle must used at least 3rd gear.
3.1.2 Hill Climbing Test Result
In this section the result of each gear in hill climbing condition will be shown. If a gear isproven unable to climb, the test will be stopped and the next gear ratio will not be tested.

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A. 1st gear

Figure 7 1st gear speed graph of hill climbing test result
B. 2nd Gear

Figure 8 2nd gear speed graph of hill climbing test result
From the graphs above, the only gear that passed the hill climbing test is 1st gear, while 2ndgear is proven to be unable to move in the hill climb test.
3.1.3 Analysis on Both Tests
Based on the result of Speed Test and Hill Climbing test, which gears should be used in thesimulation could be determined. First, based on Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles
Test Procedure class 2, tested vehicle must be able to achieved the speed of 83 km/h whichin this case that speed could be achieved by at least third gear. From the Hill Climb test, we
can conclude that the only gear capable to across angle constant of 50% is the first gear. It
is not recommended using the other gears on the fact that 2nd gear cannot capable to use ina hill terrain road. Even though Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure isdone on a flat surface but, in real application where the road is unpredictable, theapplication of 1st gear is a must, in terms of safety.
In refer to the statements above, the combination of gears that will be used on thesimulation are 1st gear until 3rd gear. In this simulation, 3rd gear is a must to put in the
combination because 2nd gear could not have achieved the desired top speed of 83 km/h.
The choices of gear ratio combination are either the combination three speed of 1,2, and 3
or two speed of 1 and 3.

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3.2. Simulation Result
The simulation has 4 result parameters. They are Actual speed, Angular velocity of Electricmotor, Efficiency of electric motor, and State of Charge. Based on the analysis on chapter
4.1.3, gear ratio combinations that will be tested in the simulation are Gear ratio
combination 1, 2 & 3 and 1 & 3. Gear ratio combination 1 & 2 is excluded from theselection due to maximum speed problem.
3.2.1. Gear Ratio 1, 2, and 3 combination result
This section will show the simulation result of Gear Ratio combination 1, 2 and 3.

Figure 9 1, 2 & 3 Speed vs Time result

Figure 10 1, 2 & 3 Shifting Interval

Figure 11 1, 2 & 3 Torque of Electric Motor

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3.2.2. Gear Ratio 1 and 3 combination result
This section will show the simulation result of Gear Ratio combination 1 and 3.

Figure 12 1 & 3 Speed vs Time result

Figure 13 1 & 3 Shifting Interval

Figure 14 1 & 3 Torque of Electric Motor
3.2.3. Analysis on Simulation Result
The analysis is done based on figure 9 to figure 14. The parameters will be compared
between each combination of gears.

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Table 4 Summary of simulation result
Gear Ratio 1,2,3
Gear Ratio 1&3

Avg. Motor
Efficiency (%)
Max Motor eff. (%)
Min Motor eff. (%)
Highest RPM
SOC left (%)
SOC left w/
reg.brake (%)
Highest Torque
Produced (Nm)
Shifting Action

80,04
95,4
75,16
5394
70,60

80,12
95,2
72,85
5394
70,61

71,72

71.73

95,96

97,78

23 times

14 times

3.2.3.1. Speed vs Time Analysis
All of the speed combinations manage to follow the speed reference of Worldwide
Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure class 2 perfectly, thanks to PID tuning that
controls the throttle and brake on the simulation. Based on table 3.2, it is impossible if thevehicle only uses 1st gear to complete the class 2 driving cycle, because the maximum
speed that 1st gear could provide is only 45 km/h, that is why the vehicle must use at least
1st gear and 3rd gear to achieve all of the speed range.
3.2.3.2. Efficiency Map analysis
In gear ratio combination 1 and 3, the absence of 2nd gear in that combination resulted inlowest minimum efficiency value of 72,85%, while the minimum efficiency value between
combination 1,2 and 3 has value of 3% higher. Even though gear ratio 1 and 3 combination
has the lowest minimum efficiency value, it has better average efficiency than gear ratio 1,2
and 3 combination, with the value of 80,12%. Standard deviation of 1 &3 is 2.19 while for
1,2&3 is 2.10.
3.2.3.3. Motor RPM analysis
As stated in chapter 4.1.3, the consideration of putting 3rd gear in the simulation resulting
in Gear combination 1,2&3 and 1&3. Both speed combinations have motor usage below
8000 RPM. Their maximum RPM in this simulation are 5394. Their results are acceptable,
because of electric motor’s RPM used only 67%, which still below 80%.
3.2.3.4. State of Charge analysis
State of charge states how much battery % left on the vehicle after the operation. From stateof charge value, we could determine how much distance the vehicle could actually manage.
From the table 4.8, all of the SOC values does not have much difference, all of the speed
combinations used barely the same amount of battery. Battery % left on the vehicle after its
operation is 70.6 %. So, to complete Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test
Procedure class 2 driving cycle, the Multi-Purpose Electric Vehicle uses 29.4% of battery.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

373

With formula below, we could compare total distance that could be achieved by each speed
combination.

Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure class 2 driving cycle distance is
23.16385 km. With the formula above, gear ratio combination 1, 2 & 3 and 1 & 3 have thesame result of maximum distance of 63 km.
3.2.3.5. Shifting Action Analysis
From table 4.8, the shifting interval of gear ratio combination 1&3 is 14 times. While gear
combination of 1,2, and 3 has shifting interval of 23 times. So, ergonomically the less thetransmission needs to be shifted, in the case of manual transmission, the vehicle is more
comfortable to drive.
3.2.3.6. Torque Analysis
From table 4.1, highest torque produced by each speed combinations are different. For gear
ratio combination 1,2, and 3 highest torque produced by the electric motor are 95.9 Nm,
while for gear ratio 1 and 3 combination the highest torque produced by the motor is 97
Nm. Both combinations almost have the same value, and their values are acceptable,
because it is still below 80% of electric motor capabilities.
3.3. Speed Combination Comparation
Below is the comparison table, based on analysis from chapter 3.1 to 3.2.3.6. Eachparameter is ranked from 3 (best) to 1 (least).
Table 5 Comparison table between gear ratio combination
Gear Ratio 1,2,3 Gear Ratio 1&3
Avg. Motor1
2
Efficiency (%)
Highest RPM

3

3

SOC left (%)

2

2

2

2

2

3

10

12

Highest Torque
Produced (Nm)
Shifting Action
Total

From the comparison table above, the combination that has the highest score is gear ratio
combination 1 & 3.

374

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4. CONCLUSION
4.1. Conclusion
Based on chapter 4, the conclusion of simulation results could be determined. From thisconclusion, the best speed combination of UI’s Multi-Purpose Electric Vehicle in
Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure class 2 driving cycle will be known.
Below are the conclusions: Based on Speed Testing and Hill Climbing Test result, 1st gear and 3rd gear must be
applied on the combination due to the ability of 1st to handle steep angled road and theability of 3rd gear to handle desired maximum speed.
 From the comparison result in table 4.9, gear ratio 1 and 3 combination is the best in
choice in this case. This combination basically has the same result with combination 1,
2 and 3, with fewer shifting actions and better motor efficiency.
4.2. Suggestions
Below are write’s suggestion for this thesis and upcoming research’s
 The existence of Indonesia’s driving cycle would be very useful for setting a standard
for vehicle testing in Indonesia.
 Various parameters in this bachelor thesis such as AC50 electric motor efficiency map,and Battery’s state of charge must be further tested and validated.
6. REFERENCES
Jazar, R.N., (2008), Vehicle Dynamics: Theory and Applications, Riverdale: Springer
Science+Business Media.
Macey, S., (2009), H-Point: The Fundamentals of car Designing and Packaging. Design
Studio Press.
Gillespie, T.D., (1992), Fundamental of Vehicle Dynamics. Warrendale: Society ofAutomotive Engineering.
Smith, J.H., (2002), An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design. Warrendale: Society ofAutomotive Engineering.
Sperling, D., (1995), Future Drive: Electric Vehicle and Sustainable Transportation,
Washington DC: Island Press.
Adhitya, Mohammad, (2013), A New Control Strategy of Wet Dual Clutch Transmission(DCT) Clutch and Synchronizer for Seamless Gear Preselect, SAE International.
Larminie J., Lowry J. (2003), Electric Vehicle Technology Explained. West Sussex: John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd
Bradley, Allen, (1996), Application Basics of Operation of three phase Induction Motor

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

375

Influence of Number of Mold Cavity Vents on
Wire Sweep in PBGA Encapsulation: FSI-MpCCI
Simulation
Dadan Ramdan, Darianto
Mechanical Engineering Department
Engineering Faculty, Medan Area University
Medan, Indonesia
dadan@uma.ac.id
Abstract— This paper presents three-dimensional (3D) fluid
structure interaction (FSI) technique; using Mesh based Parallel
Code Coupling Interface (MpCCI), for the visualization of wire
sweep during encapsulation of plastic ball grid array (PBGA)
package. The effect of number of mold cavity vents on the melt
flow behavior, wire sweep, and pressure and stress distributions,
are mainly studied. The 3D model of mold and wires are createdusing GAMBIT, and the fluid flow and structure are simulatedusing FLUENT and ABAQUS, integrated with MpCCI. The
Castro-Macosko model is used to incorporate the polymer
rheology and Volume of Fluid (VOF) technique is applied formelt front tracking. User-defined functions (UDFs) areincorporated to allow for curing kinetics. Wire sweep profiles
and pressure distribution around wires region within the moldare presented. The numerical results of melt front patterns andfilled volume are compared with the previous experimental
results and found in good agreement. It is observed that the
number of vents significantly influence the pressure force
developed inside the mold cavity and the eventual wire sweep; as
the number of vents increases, wire sweep decreases.
Keywords— fluid structure interaction; mesh based parallelcode coupling interface; Castro-Macosko model; Epoxy molding
compound; Volume of fluid; Wire sweep.

I.

INTRODUCTION

The continuous reduction of chip size in the modern
electronic industry has a significant impact on circuit design
and assembly process of IC packages. Reduced chip size withincreased I/O counts result in serious wire deflection duringtransfer molding process. If the deformation of wire is toolarge, it can cause a short circuit due to touching of adjacentwires or open circuit due to wire breakage [1]. Wire sweep has
been recognized as one of the major defects in theencapsulation of microelectronic chips by the transfer molding
process [2], [3]. The prediction of wire sweep during
encapsulation involves coupled solution of mold flow andstructural deformation of wires, making it a typical fluidstructure interaction (FSI) problem [4], [5]. Many researchers
have focused on this issue using various computational
Computer-aided engineering (CAE) techniques.
In all the previous works on wire sweep prediction, thefluid and structural solvers were run separately and coupled

376

ChuYee Khor, Mohd. Zulkifli Abdillah
School of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Penang, Malaysia
mezul@eng.usm.mymanually. As a promising breakthrough in the FSI analysis, theMesh based parallel Code Coupling Interface (MpCCI)
technique has recently been introduced for the simultaneous
real time coupling of fluid and structural solvers. The use of afinite volume flow solver and a finite element structural solver,
coupled through MpCCI was reported for variety ofengineering problems [6] – [8]. However, as far as the authors
are aware, the use of MpCCI for wire sweep analysis and thestudy on the effect of number of vents on wire deformation
during the encapsulation of plastic ball grid array (PBGA)
package have not been reported so far. To address thisproblem, the finite-volume flow solver FLUENT and the finiteelement structural solver ABAQUS are interfaced by MpCCI.
Polymer rheology model with curing effect (Castro-Macosko
model) is used in the fluid flow model and VOF technique isapplied for melt front tracking of the EMC. The numericalanalysis uses User-defined functions (UDFs) to account forcuring kinetics. Keeping one gate, three configurations of moldcavity with 2, 4 and 6 vents are simulated. Melt front profiles,
wire sweep, pressure field, and stress distribution on wires, areanalyzed for each case. The proposed model is well validated
by the published experimental results of Yang et al., (2000) [9].
II.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL

A. Fluid Flow Analysis
In the simulation model, the encapsulation process material
and air are assumed incompressible and the governing
equations describing the fluid flow are conservation of mass,conservation of momentum, and conservation of energy [10].
FLUENT normally solves the governing equations using
Cartesian spatial coordinates and velocity components.
The conservation of mass or continuity equation is:𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

+𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

(𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) = 0(1)

Eq. (1) is the general form of the mass conservation equationand is valid for incompressible and compressible flows.
Conservation of momentum in ith direction in an inertial (nonaccelerating) reference frame is described by:

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

(𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) +𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 � = −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖+

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

(2)+ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕g 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

where, P is the static pressure, τij is the viscous stress tensor
and gi and Fi are the gravitational acceleration and external
body force in the i direction, respectively.
The energy equation cast in terms of h (static enthalpy) canbe written as,𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

(𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕ℎ) +𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

(𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℎ) =𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

(3)

) + 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾̇

where T is the temperature, k is the thermal conductivity, η isthe viscosity and γ̇ is the shear rate. The molding compound
was assumed to be a generalized Newtonian fluid (GNF).

Several models have been used to predict the relationshipbetween viscosity and the degree of polymerization. The
Castro–Macosko model has been applied in encapsulation
process [8] and is selected to use in this simulation. It can be
described as follows:𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇(𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕, 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾̇) =𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 0 (𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕)𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 (𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕)𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾̇ 1−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏

1+( 0 ∗(𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 g𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 g −𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼)𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶1 +𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼(4)where n is the power law index, μ0 the zero shear rate
viscosity, τ* is the parameter that describes the transition
region between zero shear rates and the power law region of
the viscosity curve, γ˙ is the shear rate, α is the conversion, αg
is the conversion at the gel point and C1 and C2 are fitting
constants.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

(5)

𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕) = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 � 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕B is an exponential-fitted constant and Tb is a temperature
fitted-constant. In addition, Kamal curing kinetics is coupled
together with Castro–Macosko model. This model predicts therate of chemical conversion of the compound as follows:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕and= (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘2 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 )(1 − 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼)𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

(7)

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

(8)

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 exp⁡(− 1 )𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘2 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 exp⁡(− 2 )
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(6)

where α is the conversion, A1 and A2 are the Arrhenius preexponential factors, E1 and E2 are the activation energies, m1
and m2 are the reaction orders and T is the absolutetemperature. TABLE I summarized the material properties of
the EMC considered in the current study.
The basic idea of the VOF scheme is to locate and evolvethe distribution of, say, the liquid phase by assigning for eachcell in the computational grid a scalar, f, which specifies thefraction of the cell's volume occupied by liquid. Thus, f takes

the value of 1 (f = 1) in cell which contains only resin, thevalue 0 (f = 0) in cells which are void of resin, and a value
between 0 and 1 (0 < f < 1) in “interface” cells or referred as
the resin melt front. The equation of melt front over time isgoverned by the following transport equation:𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

=𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

(9)+ ∇ ∙ (𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕) = 0

TABLE I. EMC MATERIAL PROPERTIES [11].
Parameter
Value
Unit
Castro Macosko
αg
0.17
Model
B
0.000381
Kg/m/sTb
5230
K
0.7773n0.0001
N/m2
τ
1.03
C1
1.50
C2
Curing Kinetics

Density
Specific Heat
ThermalConductivity
Reference
Temperature

m1
m2
A1
A2
E1
E2
α
ρ
Cp

1.21
1.57
33530
30540000
7161
8589
0.05
2000
1079

1/s
1/s
K
K
Kg/m3
J/Kg-K

-

0.97

W/m-K

T

298

K

B. Wire Sweep Analysis
To calculate the drag force exerted on the wires by the resin
flow, the value of velocities and viscosities have to be
determined from the mold filling simulation. The effect of wiredensity on the resin flow is considered according to theiroccupied volume in the three dimensional filling simulation.
Then, the Lamb’s model is utilized to calculate the drag force
as follows [1]:
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2

(10)

where D is the drag force per unit length, ρ is the fluid density,
U is the undistributed upstream velocity, d is the wire
diameter and CD is the drag coefficient, which can be written
as:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =

8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

(11)

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 [2.002 −ln (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)]

where Re is the Reynold number, which can be defined as:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 =𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂

(12)

where η is the fluid viscosity.
Wire sweep deflection δ can be written as [12]:Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

377

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 3𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∗ 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 � �
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻+ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � �
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿3

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

�

(13)

where S is the length of the wire bond, fB is the bending
geometry factor for the bending moment, fT is the twistinggeometry factor for the twisting moment, H is the height ofwire, L is the length of wire span, G is the shear modulus ofwire, E is the elastic modulus of wire, I is the momentum ofinertia of the wire, Ip is the polar momentum of inertia of the
wire.
III.

SIMULATION MODEL

A. Simulation Model and Boundary Conditions in FLUENTThe volume of fluid (VOF) model in FLUENT 6.3.26 isutilized to simulate the process [13] – [15]. In the VOF model,
a single set of momentum equations is shared by the fluids,
and the volume fraction of each of the fluids in eachcomputational cell is tracked throughout the domain [15]. Air
and EMC are defined as the phases in the analysis. Implicit
solution and time dependent formulation are applied for thevolume fraction in every time step. The volume fraction of theencapsulation material is defined as one and zero value for air
phase.
The Castro-Macosko viscosity model with curing effectwas written into C language using Microsoft VISUAL Studio2005 and compiled as UDF in FLUENT. The mold cavity
package models with different number of vents, and its
boundary conditions are shown in Fig. 1. The dimension ofmold cavity is 100 mm × 100 mm × 5 mm, die is 30 mm × 30
mm × 1mm and inlet is 8 mm × 8 mm [16]. The flow direction
is diagonal of x and z direction to the un-deformed wire axis
and the properties are approximately the same as those used inref. [16]. The model is created by using GAMBIT software andaverage 395,000 tetrahedral elements are generated for
simulation (Fig. 2) in terms of accuracy and computationalcost. Besides, time step size is also tested and 0.001 s is foundto be the optimum. The governing equations are discretized by
the first order upwind scheme, and solved by SIMPLE
algorithm.

Fig. 1 (b)Fig. 1 (c)Fig. 1. Mold cavity models with: (a) 2 vents (b) 4 vents and (c)6 vents.

Fig. 2. Meshed model with 2 vents for FLUENT analysis.
The boundary and initial conditions used in the calculation are
as follows [15]:𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(a) On wall : u = v = w = 0; T = Tw, = 0(b) On centre line :Fig. 1 (a)378𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

=𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

=𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(c) On melt front : p = 0(d) At inlet : u = uin(x,y,z); T = Tin=𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

=0

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

The mold temperature was considered as 175oC and the
package inlet velocity was 0.6 m/s. The simulation is
performed on an Intel Core 2 Duo processor E7500, 2.93 GHzwith 2 GB of RAM; it took around 74 hours for each case tocomplete 15,000 iterations in time steps of 0.001s.
B. The computational domain and boundary conditions in
ABAQUS
Commercial FEM based software; ABAQUS is use in thisstudy to calculate the wire deformation. The structures of thewires are imported from GAMBIT in ACIS ‘.sat’ format. The
dimensions of the gold wire used in this study are chosen
according to the model of Yang et al., (2000). The wire (Fig.
3) has a span, L = 20 mm, height H = 3.5 mm and diameter d= 0.14 mm. The wire is divided into 10,191 tetrahedral
elements as shown in Fig. 4. The shape of the wire is alsoclassified as typical Q-auto loop wire [17]. The ball bondboundary conditions of wire are set as fixed in ABAQUS andshown in Fig. 5. The wire mechanical properties are as
follows: elastic modulus, E=50 GPa [18], density, ρ=1800
kg/m3, Poisson’s ratio, ν = 0.42 and reference temperature,
T=175°C.

are changed only moderately when they are prepared forcoupling via MpCCI (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5. Boundary condition of wires in ABAQUS [19].

Fig. 6. FLUENT and ABAQUS coupling simulation process
[20].
IV.
Fig. 3. Wire specifications.

Fig. 4. Meshed wire for ABAQUS analysis.
C. Mesh based Parallel Coupling Code Interface (MpCCI)
MpCCI is a software library which enables the exchangeof data defined on meshes of two or more simulation codes in
the coupling region. Since the meshes need not match point bypoint, MpCCI performs an interpolation and, in case ofparallel codes, keeps track of the distribution of the domains
onto different processes [7]. In this way, the intricate details of
the data exchange are hidden behind the concise interface of
MpCCI. As a consequence, the simulation codes themselves

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

A. Model Validation
The present simulation results of fluid flow (for 2 ventscase) are validated with the experimental results of Yang etal., (2000) [9] who investigated the flow behavior of epoxy
resin (D.E.R.331, Dow Chemical).
Fig. 6 shows thecomparison of predicted and experimental flow profiles of the
PBGA encapsulation process from 4 to 10 s of filling. The
simulation results show separate profiles for wire sweep and
EMC filling, at various stages of filling. The predicted EMC
flow profiles show good agreement with the experimental
results, at all time steps. Wire displacement phenomenon isobserved when the EMC flow around the wire region. The
EMC volume versus filling time for the simulation and theexperiment is also plotted and compared as in Fig. 7; themaximum discrepancy is found about 6.7 %.
Further, the wire deformation is validated with analyticalmethod proposed by Kung et al. (2006) [21]. The comparisonof simulation and analytical results [21] of wire deformation
for wire 4 in x-direction is shown in Fig. 8. The analytical
calculation refers to eq. (13) with fB = 0.165, fT = 0.00165 and
H/L = 0.175. The average deviation at maximum displacement(after 9 s) is found to be 6.5 %. The results demonstrate goodquantitative agreement.
B. Melt Front Profile
First of all the effect of number of vents on the melt front
profile is visualized for various stages of filling, as presented

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379

in Fig. 9. It is observed that the melt flow pattern follows
almost similar trend in all the cases; this indicates that the melt
front advancement is not significantly influenced by the
number of vents.

Fig. 8: Comparison simulation and analytical results [21] ofwire deformation for wire 4 in x-direction (2 vents case).

Fig. 6. Comparison of simulation and experiment [9] for wire
deformation and EMC flow profiles (2 vents case).

Fig. 9. Melt front profiles of three cases at various fillingstages.

Fig. 7. Comparison of EMC filled volume for experiment [9]and simulation (2 vents case).

380

C. Wire sweep
Fig. 10 illustrates the phenomenon of wire deformation,
predicted by ABAQUS. The magnitude of wire deformationfor each wire is also estimated and plotted as shown in Fig. 11.
It is clear that the wires 1 and 4 are significantly deformed
compared to wires 2 and 3, in all the cases. At the same time,
it is worth noting that, as the number of vents increases, thesweep tendency decreases, presumably due the reducedpressure force inside the cavity.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

a)2 vents

D. Void occurrence
It has been shown in the previous sections that increasing
the number of vents could reduce the wire sweep. However, it
would be interesting to study the limiting factors of increasing
the vents for a given mold cavity and number of gate. Thus in
the present study, an attempt is also made to observe how thenumber of vents influence the development of voids during theencapsulation process. Fig. 12 shows the melt front profiles
showing the void locations for various cases, and Fig. 17
shows the graphical comparison of the respective percentagesof voids. It is observed that, as the number of vents increases,
the void formation increases significantly; this apparently
imposes restriction on the number of vents. However, as isclear from Fig. 16, since the voids are situated near the walls,
and the wire zone is not affected, the increased number ofvents does not presumably pose significant threat on thequality of mold filling.

b) 4 ventsc) 6 vents
Fig. 10: Illustration of wire sweep predicted by ABAQUS.

Fig. 12: Mold filling contours for various cases after 15s,
showing voids.

V.

Fig. 11. Comparison of deformation of wires 1-4 for all thecases.

CONGCLUTION

The coupled three dimensional FLUENT-ABAQUSMpCCI facility was successfully employed to study the effectof number of vents on wire sweep during the encapsulation ofa typical PBGA package. The major contributions in this work
are the use of MpCCI, and the investigation of the effect ofnumber of vents on wire sweep. Unlike the conventional
manual coupling of flow and structural simulations, theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

381

MpCCI made the present FSI analysis more effective, userfriendly and accurate. The wire sweep and melt front profiles
were compared with the previous experimental results andfound in good agreement. It was observed that the number ofvents had crucial influence on wire sweep which decreased
with increase of vents. Further, the analysis of Von-Mises
stress showed that the potential fracture of wires due toexcessive stresses could be eliminated by the increase of
number of vents. This study may be improved by considering
the optimization of number of gates and vents, and theirlocations. Precise experiment on realistic packaging
environment is also recommended to substantiate the present
predictions.

Fig. 17: Voids percentage in various cases after 15s.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledged the Intel Tech. Sdn.
Bhd., Penang for the financial support of this research work.
The author would also like to thank DGHE National Education
and Culture Department of Republic of Indonesia for Research
Found of PHB skim in 2016 FY. Lastly, the author would also
like to thank C.Y. Khor for the technical software advices in
the present study.

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]

[4]

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J. Su, S. J Hwang, F. Su, S. K. Chen, “An Efficient Solution for Wire
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Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 2, pp. 1350-1359, 2005
M. S. Rusdi, M. Z. Abdullah, A. S. Mahmud, C. Y. Khor, M. S. Abdul
Aziz, Z. M. Ariff, M. K. Abdullah, 2016, Numerical Investigation on the
Effect of Pressure and Temperature on the Melt Filling During Injection
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C.Y. Khor, M.Z. Abdullah, Chun-Sean Lau, I.A. Azid, 2014, Recent
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review, Microelectronics Reliability 54 (2014) 1511–1526.

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C.Y. Khor, Muhammad Ikman Ishak, M.U. Rosli, Mohd Riduan
Jamalludin, M.S Zakaria, A.F.M. Yamin, M.S. Abdul Aziz, and M.Z.
Abdullah, 2017, Influence of Material Properties on the Fluid StructureInteraction aspects during Molded Underfill Process, MATEC Web ofConferences
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[9] Yang S-Y., Jiang S-C., and Lu W-S. (2000), “Ribbed package geometry
for reducing thermal warpage and wire sweep during PBGA
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Technologies, Vol. 23, No.4, pp. 700-706.
[10] D. Ramdan, M. Z. Abdullah, C. Y. Khor, “Plastic Ball Grid Array
Encapsulation
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Simulationon
Rheology
Effect,”TELKOMNIKA, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 27 – 36, April 2011.
[11] L. Nguyen, C. Quentin, W. Lee, S. Bayyuk, S. A. Bidstrup-Allen, S. T.
Wang, “Computational Modeling and Validation of the Encapsulation of
Plastic Packages by Transfer Molding,” Trans. of the ASME, vol. 122,
pp. 138-146. 2000.
[12] H. K. Kung, J. N. Lee, C. Y. Wang, “The Wire Sweep Analysis Basedon the Evaluation of the Bending and Twisting Moments for
Semiconductor Packaging,” Microelectron. Eng. 83, pp. 1931-1939,
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[13] Khor C.Y., Abdullah M.Z., Abdullah M.K., Mujeebu M.A., Ramdan D.,
Majid M.F.M.A., Ariff Z.M., Abdul Rahman M.R. (2011), “Numericalanalysis on the effects of different inlet gates and gap heights in TQFP
encapsulation process”, Int. J.of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 54, pp.
1861-1870.
[14] Khor C.Y., Abdullah M.K., Abdullah M.Z., Abdul Mujeebu M.,
Ramdan D., Majid M.F.M.A., Ariff Z.M. (2010)-(a), “Effect of verticalstacking dies on flow behavior of epoxy molding compound during
encapsulation of stacked-chip scale packages”, Heat and Mass Transfer,Vol. 46, pp. 1315-1325.
[15] Khor C.Y., Abdul Mujeebu M., Abdullah M.Z., Che Ani F. (2010)-(b),“Finite volume based CFD simulation of pressurized flip-chip underfill
encapsulation process”, J.of Microelectronics Reliability, pp. 98-105.
[16] Han S-J. and Huh Y-J. (2000), “A study of wire sweep during
encapsulation of semiconductor chips”, J. of the Microelectronics andPackaging Society, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 17-22.
[17] J. M. Brand, S. A. Ruggero, A. J. Shah, “Wire sweep Reduction via
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Packages,” J. Electron. Packag., Vol. 130, pp. 011011-1 – 011011-6,
March 2008.
[18] Yang W-H., Hsu D.C., Yang V., Chang R-Y, Su F., Huang S-J. (2004),
Three dimensional CAE of wire-sweep in microchip encapsulation,
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1679-1683.
[19] D. Ramdan, U. Harahap, A. Rubiantara, C. Y. Khor (2016), Fluid
Structure Interaction Numerical Simulation of Wiresweep in Electronics
Packaging, TELKOMNIKA, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 262 – 272, March 2016.
[20] MpCCI 3.1.0-1 Documentation part I overview, Fraunhofer Institute for
Algorithms and Scientific Computing SCIA, Germany, January 2009.
[21] Kung H-K., Lee J-N., Wang C-Y. (2006), “The wire sweep analysis
based on the evaluation of the bending and twisting moments forsemiconductor Packaging”, Microelectronic Engineering, Vol. 83, pp.
1931-1939.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
DRYING KINETICS OF PAPUA PEAT
Pither Palambaa, Mohamad Lutfi Ramadhana, Engkos Achmad Kosasiha, Yulianto Sulistyo
Nugrohoa,*aDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia, Depok
16424, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Indonesia has the largest peatland in the tropical region that are scattered mainly in Sumatera,
Kalimantan, and Papua. Peat is an organic substance which is highly combustible in dry conditions.
Dried peat could easily burnt and spread vertically and laterally along peat layers. In Indonesia,
peat fires often occur in recent decades. Besides influenced by the amount of the organic content,smoldering fires of peat is also effected by the drying rate, pyrolysis, and heterogeneous oxidationin the peat surfaces. Peatland fires is one of the biggest wildfire which has damaged the ecosystemand produce hazardous combustion products into the atmosphere. In contrast to flaming fire thathas been widely studied, the smoldering fires of peat are still lack of understanding. The
contribution of drying kinetics of peat on the peat fires phenomenon, are important mechanisms to
be studied, so these could provide a complete understanding for the process of peat fires. So far,major works on peat fire related publications concern on the pyrolysis and combustion stages. The
objectives of this paper are to study the isothermal and thermogravimetric drying kinetics analysis
of peat. Peat sample used was taken from Papua, Indonesia. The isothermal test was conductedusing Shimadzu MOC63u Moisture Balance Analyzer with 0.001 mg accuracy. At a certain timeinterval the weight of the specimen was measured until it reached a constant weight of less than
0.05% changes of moisture content. Isothermal analysis was conducted by moisture analyzer of
each peat at setting temperatures of 60,70, 80, 90, 100, and 110℃. The results showed that theactivation energy from the isothermal measurement and thermogravimetric test were 32.83
kJ/mole with the constant of reaction rate, k = 0,0137 sec-1.
Keywords: Peat; drying phenomena; effect of temperature; mass loss; moisture content; activationenergy1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Distribution of Indonesian peat
Peatlands are ecosystems that have a very important role in maintaining the balance of carbon,
water and climate. Indonesia is a tropical country with the largest peat lands approximately 20.6
million ha which are mainly distributed in three large islands of Sumatra (35%), Kalimantan(32%), Papua (30%) (Ritung & Wahyunto, 2012). Most of the peat land is still covered by forest
and a habitat for many species of animals and rare plants. Peatlands store carbon (C) in large
quantities and have a high water retention to act as a hydrological buffer for surrounding area.
Equilibrium moisture content of the peat layer becomes difficult to maintain if the forests have
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yulianto@eng.ui.ac.id*

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

383

been converted for plantations, agricultural or other uses because this process is usually
irreversible.
In the long dry season, the depth of the water table fall and the surface layer of peat easily dry andhollow so as to allow air get into the bottom layer. If it has become dry the peat that was originallyhydrophilic (water-loving, have an affinity for water because of the formation of hydrogen bonds)
turned into a hydrophobic (water-repellent, not easily penetrated by water) (Valat et al., 1991,
Doerr et al., 2000, Dekker et al., 2001, Murtilaksono et al., 2016). In these conditions, peat is
highly flammable and if burning, embers can propagate laterally and vertical in-depth, consuming
mass of peat and produce smoke with a number of toxic substances. During the dry season whenwetland dry out, large scale wildland/forest fires may occur on dry land and also on wetland suchas peatland or peat-forest (Nugroho, 2017). Wildland fires, especially when involving peat land
fires can be viewed as a regional and global disaster. Smoldering combustion of peatland fires
produces thick haze that directly impact the life of the local peoples and can spread to other region
and neighboring countries. Peat fires that occurred in various locations is one of the major problem
because periodically occur in a large scale in recent years. In Indonesia, forest and peatland fires
occur almost every year in the last two decades and resulted in economic losses, health andenvironmental impact is enormous. When active, smoldering combustion in the peat and biomass
layer can sustain for long periods of time and difficult to extinguish and even by propagating below
the surface, smoldering fires offer the means for flaming combustion to reestablish during wildfires
in unexpected locations and at unexpected times (e.g. long after burn out of the flaming front)(Rein, 2009). Nevertheless, research on Smoldering peat lands are still poorly studied compared
to flaming fires.
In the solid fuel combustion, there are three stage of the process i.e. evaporation, pyrolysis andcombustion. In certain cases, where the combustion takes place quickly (particularly influenced
by the speed of the air supply), the process takes place with the phases: evaporation, where thewater vapor evaporating through the pores; fuel oxidation, in which combustion occurs leaving
charcoal; and char oxidation, where combustion takes place by consuming some flammable
substances and leaves ash as a product.
Events peat fires started from peatland conditions are becoming dry, with moisture content
maximum that can burn 250% (dry base) (Rein et al., 2008) or 150% (Prat-Guitart et al., 2016). A
number of studies on the phenomenon of smoldering peat fire mostly concerned on the reaction of
its pyrolysis and combustion. As the drying process, in general, the drying kinetics of peat should
be studied to understand both the drying rate, moisture content and its activation energy. Somestudies relating to the drying of peat among others in experimental study of thermophysical andthermokinetic characteristics of peat (Grishin et al., 2006) which finds the values of activationenergy of 47.376 kJ/mole, and, in investigation of thermal analysis and decomposition kinetics ofChinese forest peat (Chen et al., 2011) which finds the value of activation energy of 68.510
kJ/mole.
Each type of material has a specific drying curve, which is dependent on the physical and chemical
characteristics of the substance. This research aims to study the isothermal drying kinetics of peattaken from Papua, Indonesia, to determine the moisture content, drying rate and activation energy
as the initial stage of the whole phase of peat smoldering fire.

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1.2 Moisture content and water retention
Peat is an organic soil with a very high moisture content because it has a high water retention.
However, if the water content is decreased excessively, it will lead to irreversible dry conditions(hydrophobic). Peat in such conditions is hard to absorb water, very light weight and easily washedaway by rainwater, its structure became unravel such as sand, flammable, and hard to be replanted.
In general, water in peat can be broadly classified as mechanically entrapped water, capillary waterand chemically bound water. Investigations by Rebinder, quoted by Volarovich and Churaev(Volarovich & Churaev, 1968) indicate that water in peat can be divided into three categories:
physically and chemically bound water; capillary and film water; and immobilized water.
Physically and chemically bound water is water absorbed at the solid-liquid interface, contents
range from 40-70 percent of the total water in raw peat of which 10-15 percent is very tightly
bound. Capillary and film water is water retained by forces of negative and wedge pressure at the
air-water interface. If there is no air in the soil, capillary and film water becomes free water without
a surplus bond energy. Immobilized water is water held in peat by purely mechanical forces andits bond energy is negligible. It comprises intracellular water, entrained on cell structures and thewater in closed pores. Dispersion, compression, or destruction of the structure may result in
conversion of this water to free water. The bound water in peat consists mainly of capillary andimmobilized water.
Investigations into drying indicate that the first drying stage is characterized by the removal of freewater and of water from large pores. On further drying, the forces of capillary contraction increase
and weakly bound intracellular and immobilized water is squeezed out. After removal of themechanically bound water, the rate of drying is reduced still further. This is followed by theremoval of physico-chemically bound water. The removal of moisture appears to follow a strict
sequence determined by the bond energies. With further dehydration, irreversible changes in highmolecular compounds take place and the peat becomes more fragile. This explains the coffee
grounds and powdery peat structure formed in surface layers of reclaimed peat soils as a result ofdrying in the sun.
The outcomes experimental will provide scientific background on integrating fire risk
considerations in national and local development strategies in Indonesia (Nugroho, 2017)
1.3 Drying kinetics and activation energy
Drying is a complex process involving mass transfer, heat and momentum simultaneously.
Chemically bound water, which is not removed in drying, possesses the highest binding energy(Grishin et al., 2003). Adsorptionally and osmotically bound moisture is assigned tophysicochemically bound water. Evaporation of bound moisture is a complex multistage process
which involves, except for desorption and adsorption of water, motion of water and vapor along
the pores of a dried body and vapor flow in the boundary layer in the vicinity of the body.
Irreversible drying occurs after periods of intensive drying and is typical of many peat soils.
Surface layers of organic materials in many reclaimed and drained peat swamps exhibit thisbehavior. After exposure to the sun, the materials become rather like coffee grounds, and are very
difficult to re-wet. This may cause severe drought stress in shallow rooting crops. There are several
explanations of the cause of the property. Coulter (Coulter, 1957) attributes the hydrophobic natureof dried peat to the presence of a resinous coating which presumably forms upon drying. He
suggests this coating prevents the reabsorption of water. There is some doubt about this. For
example, Driessen and Rochimah (Driessen & Rochimah, 1977) did not find such coatings inProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

385

Indonesian peats and the author has never seen them. Re-wetting resistence explained as due toadsorbed air films and iron coating around the organic particles. Resistence to re-wetting also
appears to be related to bulk density. Thus, irreversible drying is marked in organic soils with low
bulk density but those with high bulk densities are comparatively easy to re-wet.
Some research on drying kinetics of peat such as Filkov (Filkov et al., 2012) using three different
kinds of boreal peat from two regions (Edinburgh, Scotland and Tomsk, Russia) by TGA for micro
scale (thermogravimetry analysis) and isoconvensional method, KAS (Kissinger – Akahira –Sunose), based on the modeling of the mass loss with Arrhenius’s Law, obtained the thermokinetic
constans for the Drying Process of the peats, while Nugroho (Nugroho, 2002), used tropical peatmaterial (Kalimantan, Indonesia) with the methods of differential form of Arhenius equation. He
stated that the activation energy of peat sample is lower than other materials such as palm fiber,
and woods. This indicated that peat material is easier to react with the oxygen.

2. METHODOLOGY
Sample in current research is a part of the sample used in the other previous studies (Palamba etal., 2017) which was extracted from Kampung Bagaiserwar, Kabupaten Sarmi, Papua, Indonesia
in coordinate S: 01° 55'14.11"; E: 138°6'17.35" at 50 – 110 cm deep using PVC pipe, 6 inchdiameter and 60 cm length. Sampling method used was undisturbed to retain sample charactersand prevent contamination from microbes activity and other chemical reactions until test are
conducted.
Tests were carried out using MOC63u Shimadzu Moiture Analyzer, an equipped with a highoutput halogen heater capable of rapid heating with power of 400W and temperature range of 50200°C. Shimadzu MOC63u Moisture Content Analyzer is a test equipment with an accuracy of
0.001 mg at each time interval until the specimen reaches a constant weight with an accuracy of
0.05% Moisture Content. The tool connected to the computer to record the mass and moisture
content evolution during the drying process. In contrast to the conventional moisture measurement
generally associated with environmental conditions, this model operates in a closed state so it is
not affected by humidity and other environmental conditions.
Measurements were performed with an isothermal drying respectively at 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 and
110 ℃ to the samples weighing 2 grams. The analysis was performed by using the Arrhenius
equation, a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. This equation has a vast andimportant application in determining rate of chemical reactions and for calculation of energy ofactivation. Arrhenius provided a physical justification and interpretation for the formula.
Arrhenius' equation gives the dependence of the rate constant of a chemical reaction on
the absolute temperature, a pre-exponential factor, an empirical relationship between temperatureand rate coefficient. It is usually designated by 𝐴𝐴 when determined from experiment. For a firstorder reaction, it has units of s−1. For that reason, it is often called frequency factor.
where

386

𝑘𝑘 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸/(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)(1)

k is the rate constant (s-1)
T is the absolute temperature (K)Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

A is the pre-exponential factor, a constant for each chemical reaction that defines the rate
due to frequency of collisions in the correct orientation
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 is the activation energy for the reaction (kJ/mol)
R is the universal gas constant (8.314 J/K∙mol)

Given the small temperature range kinetic studies occur in, it is reasonable to approximate theactivation energy as being independent of the temperature. Similarly, under a wide range ofpractical conditions, the weak temperature dependence of the pre-exponential factor is negligible
compared to the temperature dependence of the 𝑒𝑒 −𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸/(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) factor. Taking the natural logarithm ofArrhenius' equation yields:
Rearranging yields:𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑘𝑘) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝐴𝐴) −𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑘𝑘) =𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 1𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇−𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 1( ) + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙⁡(𝐴𝐴)
𝑅𝑅
𝑇𝑇

(2)

(3)

This has the same form as an equation for a straight line:
where x⁡is the reciprocal of T.

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐

(4)

So, when a reaction has a constant rate that obeys Arrhenius's equation, a plot of ln 𝑘𝑘
versus 𝑇𝑇 −1 ⁡gives a straight line, whose gradient and intercept can be used to determine 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 and 𝐴𝐴.
Arrhenius argued that for reactants to transform into products, they must first acquire a minimum
amount of energy, called the activation energy (𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 ). Determining the amount of activation energy
is done by graphical methods derived by a formula based on the Arrhenius equation. The formulaused for the first-order reaction is as follows,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑− 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

(5)

w
h
𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚−𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 )− 𝑑𝑑= 𝑘𝑘(𝑚𝑚 − 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 )
(6)
e
𝑡𝑡
rw
he
e
𝑚𝑚−𝑚𝑚
−𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 (𝑚𝑚 −𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 ) = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
(7)
rm
0
𝑓𝑓
ewhere 𝑚𝑚0 is the initial mass of peat sample. Based on mass evolution data at each heatingi𝑚𝑚−𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓
theof
relationshipbetween( process.
) andBy𝑡𝑡 (time)
is a straightline withthe
theequation
slope ofstemperature,𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓
is the massa sample atthe end−𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙of thearrangingand integrating
𝑚𝑚0 −𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓
the line represents the value of 𝑘𝑘 (reaction rate constant), while the Arrhenius equation states,
tR
−𝐸𝐸
( )
𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘0 ∙ 𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
(8)
hE
eF
w
𝐸𝐸
h
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑘𝑘0 −
(9)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
em
_
A
naR curve describes the relationship between ln 𝑘𝑘 and 1/T will yield a straight line with a slop equaltose 𝐸𝐸 ⁄𝑅𝑅 . By describing these relationships to all the appropriate temperature thereafter, theArrheniusplot was used to determine the values of activation energies and frequency factors. A
bsf
o4
to7
fh8
4
as8
i6
s
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387

curve describes the relationship between ln 𝑘𝑘 and 1 / T will yield a straight line with a slope ofequal to E/R. By describing these relationships to all the appropriate temperature thereafter, theArrhenius plot was used to determine the values of activation energies and frequency factors.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Figure 1 shows the mass evolution during evaporation at various temperature. Based on Figure 1,
the characteristics of isothermal evaporation only depends on the heating temperature. On theheating with a low temperature, the curve will be much shallower than the heating with a higher
temperature. Thus, the time to reach dry conditions (characterized by the absence of further loss
up to 0.05% moisture) at low heating temperature will be longer. Similarly, as shown in Figure 2,
the average evaporation rate tends to increase by the increasing of heating temperature.
Measurement of moisture content with Shimadzu is accurate where of a number of measurements
made by the temperature variation, it is known that the moisture content of the peat samples tested
were 85.33 ± 1.26%.

Figure 1. Drying curve of Papua peat
Drying curve illustrated in Figure 1 shows the moisture content (MC) change over time. As can beseen in the curve, the drying rate is not constant but changes over time. There are three different
drying periods which will occur consecutively in time, i.e. preheating period (drying rate isalmost 0), where all the heat provided is used to heat up the sample to the drying temperature;
constant-rate period (drying rate is constant in time), wherein water starts to evaporate from thesurface of the sample with constant rate; and falling-rate period (drying rate declines over time),
is the phase during which migration of moisture (bounded water) from the inner interstices of eachparticle to the outer surface becomes the limiting factor that reduces the drying rate. Determinationand calculation of evaporation rate (k) and activation energy (𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 )⁡based on the data of the falling

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period. By the drying curve (Figure 1) than the falling rate period determined to obtain theevaporation rate as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Average evaporation rate at falling period with standard deviation
𝑚𝑚−𝑚𝑚

Applying equation −𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑚𝑚 −𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 ) = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (7) and plotting the relationship between mass evolution to0

𝑓𝑓t, obtained a polynomial curve for isothermal drying at each drying temperature. As example,
polynomial curve for drying at 100 C is as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Natural logarithm of (m − mf )⁄(m0 − mf ) versus time curves with a first orderpolynomial fit for isothermal evaporation at drying temperature 100℃.

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Based on the equation of the straight line (Figure 3) it can be seen the reaction rate constants (k)at a drying temperature of 60 ℃, 70 ℃, 80 ℃, 90 ℃, 100 ℃ and 110 ℃ are 0.0006113, 0.000685,
0.000891, 0.001124, 0.001401 and 0.001726 s-1 respectively. By taking logarithm of these
constants and plotted against 1 / T then obtained equation of a line as Figure 4.

Figure 4. The trendline of ln k versus 1/T at various temperature
Figure 4 is obtained the equation of the line 𝑦𝑦 = −3003.645𝑥𝑥 + 1.482 which is in correlation
with the Arrhenius equation, it can be calculated that the activation energy of the test sample drying
amounted to 24.97 kJ/mol. This value is relevant to the results of tests performed by Filkov (Filkov
et al., 2012) to the boreal peat with the activation energy of 36.12 - 42.26 kJ/mol, as well as by
Nugroho (Nugroho, 2002) who find value of 44 kJ/mol of Kalimantan peat, Grishin, 47 kJ/mol(Grishin et al., 2003) and Chen et al. (Chen et al., 2011) who find 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 68.5 kJ/mol for the Chinesepeat. Likewise, the activation energy for soils from LTBF experiments situated at Askov(Denmark), Grignon (France), Ultuna (Sweden), and Versailles (France) ranged from 49 to 79
kJ/mol (Lefèvre et al., 2014) and on peat respiration at low temperatures considering O2 uptake(Chapman & Thurlow, 1998), the activation energy varied between 58 and 148 kJ/mol.
Differences in the results obtained compared to the previous studies due to differences in physicaland chemical properties of peat such as moisture content, bulk density and degree ofdecomposition. Determination of drying isothermal activation energy is strongly influenced by theaccuracy of the equipment and the variant of temperature of the drying process because it willaffect the slope of the trendline of the plots (because in this method, the value of activation energy
depends on the slope of the line).
4. CONCLUSION
In general, an increasing the drying temperature will cause the reaction rate increases. Temperature
is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecule; raise the temperature will increase the390

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existing kinetic energy to break molecular bonds when collide. The minimum kinetic energy
possessed by the molecule must be equal to or greater than the activation energy for the reaction
to take place. In other words, to initiate a chemical reaction, intermolecular collisions must have aminimum total kinetic energy equal to or more than the activation energy (𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 ). As well as for peat
drying, the minimum amount of drying activation energy required so that the evaporation process
can take up the peat becomes dry. The activation energy for drying of Papua peat, Indonesia, wasobtained amount to 33.05 kJ/mol. In this study, factors affected the drying process are temperatureand moisture content. The given drying temperature determines reaction rate.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the financial support provided by Universitas Indonesia throughthe PITTA 2017 program managed by Directorate for Research and Public Services (DRPM)
Universitas Indonesia.
6. REFERENCES
Chapman, S. J. and M. Thurlow (1998), Peat respiration at low temperatures, Soil Biology andBiochemistry 30(8–9): 1013-1021 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(98)000091.
Chen, H., W. Zhao and N. Liu (2011), Thermal Analysis and Decomposition Kinetics of Chinese
Forest Peat under Nitrogen and Air Atmospheres, Energy & Fuels 25(2): 797-803 DOI:
10.1021/ef101155n.
Coulter, J. (1957), Development of the peat soils of Malaya, Malayan Agricultural Journal 40:
188-199.
Dekker, L. W., S. H. Doerr, K. Oostindie, A. K. Ziogas and C. J. Ritsema (2001), Water repellency
and critical soil water content in a dune sand, Soil Science Society of America Journal
65(6): 1667-1674.
Doerr, S., R. Shakesby and R. Walsh (2000), Soil water repellency: its causes, characteristics andhydro-geomorphological significance, Earth-Science Reviews 51(1): 33-65.
Driessen, P. and L. Rochimah (1977). The Physical Properties of Lowland Peats from Kalimantan.
Dalam: Peat and Podzolics Soils and Their Potential for Agriculture in Indonesia.
Proceedings ATA 106 Midterm Seminar. Soil Research Institute, Bogor. Halaman.
Filkov, A. I., A. Y. Kuzin, O. V. Sharypov, V. Leroy-Cancellieri, D. Cancellieri, E. Leoni, A.
Simeoni, G. Rein, A. I. Filkov, A. Y. Kuzin, O. V. Sharypov, V. Leroy-Cancellieri, D.
Cancellieri, E. Leoni, A. Simeoni and G. Rein (2012), Comparative Study To Evaluate the
Drying Kinetics of Boreal Peats from Micro to Macro Scales, Energy & Fuels 26(1): 349356 DOI: 10.1021/ef201221y.
Grishin, A., A. Golovanov and Y. V. Sukov (2006), Experimental determination ofthermophysical, thermokinetic, and filtration characteristics of peat, Journal of Engineering
Physics and Thermophysics 79(3): 557-562.
Grishin, A., A. Y. Kuzin and E. Alekseenko (2003), Determination of kinetic characteristics of theprocess of drying of forest combustibles, Journal of Engineering Physics andThermophysics 76(5): 1160-1165.
Lefèvre, R., P. Barré, F. E. Moyano, B. T. Christensen, G. Bardoux, T. Eglin, C. Girardin, S.
Houot, T. Kätterer and F. Oort (2014), Higher temperature sensitivity for stable than for

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labile soil organic carbon–Evidence from incubations of long‐term bare fallow soils,
Global Change Biology 20(2): 633-640.
Murtilaksono, K., S. Sabiham, A. Sutandi and E. S. Sutarta (2016), Hydrophobicity of Tropical
Peat Soil from an Oil Palm Plantation in North Sumatra, Journal of Agronomy 15(3): 114.
Nugroho, Y. S. (2002), Sifat Self-Ignition pada Gambut, Sabut Kelapa Sawit dan Kayu, J Makara
Teknologi 6: 123-131.
Nugroho, Y. S. (2017). Integrating Wildland and Urban Fire Risks in Local Development
Strategies in Indonesia. Fire Science and Technology 2015, Springer: 31-43.
Palamba, P., M. L. Ramadhan, F. A. Imran, E. A. Kosasih and Y. S. Nugroho (2017), Investigationof smoldering combustion propagation of dried peat, AIP Conference Proceedings
1826(1): 020017 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4979233.
Prat-Guitart, N., G. Rein, R. M. Hadden, C. M. Belcher and J. M. Yearsley (2016), Propagation
probability and spread rate of self-sustained smouldering fires under controlled moisture
content and bulk density conditions.
Rein, G. (2009), Smouldering combustion phenomena in science and technology.
Rein, G., J. Garcia, A. Simeoni, V. Tihay and L. Ferrat (2008), Smouldering natural fires:comparison of burning dynamics in boreal peat and Mediterranean humus, WIT
Transactions on Ecology and the Environment 119.
Ritung, S. and N. K. Wahyunto (2012), Karakteristik dan Sebaran Lahan Gambut di Sumatera,
Kalimantan dan Papua, Pengelolaan Lahan Gambut Berkelanjutan. Balai Besar Litbang
SDLP, Bogor.
Valat, B., C. Jouany and L. Riviere (1991), Characterization of the wetting properties of air driedpeats and composts [surface tension, water retention capacity].
Volarovich, M. and N. Churaev (1968). Application of the methods of physics and physicalchemistry to the study of peat. Proceedings of the Transactions of 2nd International Peat
Congress, Leningrad.

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A PRELIMINARY CASE STUDY OF A ELECTRIC COMMUTER BUS IN
UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA
Sonki Prasetya1, Ghany Heryana1, Yudan Whulanza 1, Mohammad Adhitya 1, Danardono
Agus Sumarsono 1
1

Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering Universitas Indonesia,
KampusBaru UI Depok 16424, Jawa Barat, Indonesia

ABSTRACTA reliable mass transport system is one of the essential indicators for the development in acountry. Unfortunately higher numbers of vehicle increase air pollution as well as thegreenhouse gas emission. An electric bus commuter system is an alternative solution to
overcome those problems. However, not only the electric bus but also infrastructures are
required to be constructed to maintain the sustainability of the commuter system. This
paper discusses a case study as a part of stages in order to implement a commuter bus
system in a suburban area. Observations of passenger’s quantity are conducted in every bus
stations. Thus, this study successfully generates a pattern of the commuter passengers in theselected region. Among the monitored bus stations, the highest number of the average onboard and off-board passengers are 18.34 and 16.44 respectively. Furthermore, the result isutilized to obtain the needed power consumption of the electric bus during the trip. The
total energy consumption of the electric bus during one trip is around 550 kWh during one
trip operation with minimum electric motor rated power of 160 kW. And finally, theappropriate power management schedule system can be chosen to support this commuter
system.
Keywords: Case Study, Commuter; Electric Bus; Greenhouse; Power Consumption
1. INTRODUCTION
The electric vehicles (EV) gaining back their popularity in 2000’s. Triggered by the fuelsustainability as well as the climate change resulting research centers around the worldcompeting to overcome those challenge (Chan, 2007). The statistic shows that the EV
utilization increases rapidly. The EV possession has been risen to 200.000 in 2012
(Agency, 2013). Indonesia, a country with population of more than 250 million citizens
requires a good viable transportation system. Particularly the capital city such as Jakarta
which contains 5% of Indonesian population, decent mass transportation systems areinevitable. However, the commuter transport system focuses on two modes; railway andpublic four wheels vehicles such us buses and public mini vans. Those two latter modes
still use oil fuels to operate.
Electric Buses (EB) have been deployed in several countries for instance in Seoul South
Korea. A bus using 240kW electric motor was claimed to be the first commercial EB in

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2010 (ksp, 2012). This bus covers a distance of 80 km with a single charging period along
the way. Beijing China also developed EB with ultra-fast charging battery (Council). As an
addition, inductive charging system for EB in Braunschweig Germany introduced in 2013.
Covering 12km route, the battery will be charged when stop for only around 10 minutes(Eltis, 2013).
Utilizing electric engine vehicles into our daily activities require numerous steps of work.
Countries around the world have been trying to overcome the problems through researches
in this area for various aspects (Bjoernsson and Karlsson, 2016). Moreover, the adoption or
optimization methods that are common to be used in automotive researches (Adhitya et al.,2013) can also be found in the EV areas (Li et al., 2016). Several companies, researchfoundations as well as universities in this country (including Universitas Indonesia) havebeen also involving to develop EVs since 2012 (Meryana, 2012). The electric bus for masstransportation purpose is one of the focuses of the research. However, considerations must
be taken before applying this new technology. Infrastructures such as the maturity of thetechnology as well as the supporting equipment to ensure the operation of the system are
the essential concerns. Hence, this study focuses on the early work of adopting this newtechnology to gradually replace the previous conventional system. For those reasons, asmall scope of region is desired to be the case of study. Therefore, Universitas Indonesia
campus bus system is selected to be the case for observation.
2. METHODOLOGYFirstly, a bus size is predetermined according the needs before we calculate the power
needs. Bus sizes can be categorized into three groups namely small, medium and large
according to the regulation of transportation department (Darat, 2002). The average
passenger capacity of the latter type is selected to be the bus dimension. Therefore, atypical bus of 14000kg with 60 passengers is chosen to be studied.
Secondly, the selected location of UI campus bus route is observed. One trip of journey(from start to the end point of the investigation site) requires a distance of around 5
kilometers. There are 10 monitored bus stops along the way for the bus to transit to pick-up
and or drop-off passengers. Each bus stop has a range of around 0.5km.The trip duration
requires 30 minutes with the average bus speed is 15km/h.
In order to get the quantity of passengers for simulating the power consumption along thejourney, a survey to get the number of passenger is conducted in each bus stop. 50 data
samples are collected during the office hour observation in a bus stop. The average
numbers of passengers in each bus stop are then obtained. The average numbers of onboard bus passengers and also off-board passengers in every bus stops can be calculated byusing mean value ( ) equation (1) (Harinaldi, 2005) .
(1)
For 50 sampled data in 10 bus stops, we require information of mean value from j =1 to 10
by equation (2).

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(2)The result is presented in Table 1. At bus stop 1, there is no off-board passenger since it is
the starting point of Bus. As an addition, bus stop 10 contradicts with the bus stop 1. No
one will get on board since the bus has reached its destination of the trip.
Table 1. Number of passengers in each bus stop
Bus
On
Off
Station Board
Board
Difference Passengers
Stop 1
Stop 2
Stop 3
Stop 4
Stop 5
Stop 6
Stop 7
Stop 8Stop 9Stop 10

29.5
18.34
6.76
15.06
0.12
1.26
0.24
2.06
1.54
-

2.9
5.48
3.52
3.12
16.44
6.8
7.04
5.82
23.6

29.5
15.44
1.28
11.54
-3
-15.18
-6.56
-4.98
-4.28
-23.6

30
45
47
58
55
40
34
29
24
0

Furthermore, the mass of the total passengers can be predicted by taking into account of an
average ideal Asian weight (Sarah Catherine Walpole, 2012). Therefore, a constant value of
60kg is chosen. The prediction of weight of passengers in a journey route is shown in
Figure 1. By the cumulative number of passengers in the bus, the weight integrated to thetotal load of the bus will also rises. First half of the journey, on-board passengers has thetendency to hike meanwhile it declines at the rest half.

Figure 1. The weight of passengers in every bus stop during the trip

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The altitude of the route as well as the vehicle speed are firstly collected using the GPSsoftware via smartphone namely Geo-Tracker. The average speed is 15 km/h. The contourof the path is plotted in Figure 2. The altitude fluctuation experienced by the bus during one
trip gives information that the average is 81.61m and slope’s deviation is between +2o to 2o.

Figure 2. The contour of the road during the trip
Considering the terrain has a plane topography type since the slope is very small, forces
acting on the moving bus can be described in equation (3) without the influence ofgravitational forces (Gillespie, 1992, Michelin, 2003)(3)
meanwhile aerodynamic force is denoted by
The rolling force is represented byThose three forces are defined from equations (4)-(6).

.

(4)
(5)
where , , , , and are the rolling coefficient (0.012), the total weight force, airdensity (1.3kg/m3), the drag coefficient (0.6), frontal area (8 m2) and the vehicle speed
respectively.
Furthermore, the required energy for EB is generated by relating those forces into theenergy formulas. As an addition, a typical air braking system that uses a compressor to
trigger the brake-pad and an air conditioner are objects that require to be considered besidethe main electric motor as the prime mover. Therefore, the hourly energy (Power) required
to operate the electric bus is given by equation (6).
(6)

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where,,,andare the rolling power, the aerodynamic power, theauxiliary power (for braking compressor, steering and inverter etc.), the air conditioner
power and the losses power (in the drive train) respectively. The energy required along thetrip can be simulated as seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The energy usage in every bus stop during the trip
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A 15 minutes running test data of the electric bus is collected. However, the journey takes ashort distance path and it measures the electrical motor parameters only with no passengers
on-board. The data shows that the average electrical power consumption is 7.84kW. It
fluctuates with maximum power of 78.73kW and the electrical motor will consume272kWh if it is utilized for half hours. Thus, with the increasing load and contingency, we
can select the minimum electric motor rated power of 160 kW. Figure 3 shows a minor
fluctuation with similar pattern as the passengers’ load (as seen on Figure 1). Althoughnumber of passengers is different in each bus stop, the energy consumption changes
slightly. This is due to the gravity force has less impact in the flat geographical contour.
During the 5 km trip of the studied case, the bus consumes energy nearly 550 kWh. This ishigher than the obtained data since this value integrates the energy that occurs in the E-Bus
system. The arguments of selecting the energy storage are not covered in this paper.
However, if the chosen rated capacity of the energy storage is lower than that consumed
energy value, it may require a battery replacement or charging station along the trip. Thislatter method has a consequence of extending the transit time along the way and perhaps
the operation cost as well.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Implementing EB’s require considerations particularly for the energy requirement. The
calculation requires information of the bus size, the route, internal power losses andequipment used such as compressors as well as the air conditioner. The result shows thatpassenger’s fluctuation gives insignificant influence related to the power consumed during
the trip under the studied case. This is due to the route has very small graded position. The
rated power can be sized from 160 kW or more. Furthermore, in order to reduce the energy
storage capacity, the energy supply strategy under this track recommends the utilization ofProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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either battery replacement system or charging station system along the trip since the trip
consumes large amount of energy.
5. RECOMMENDATIONThe calculations are particularly used for the flat contour route. Therefore, simulations withdifferent cases such as for hilly terrains can be conducted when designing the E-Bus for adifferent location. Furthermore, the energy storage selection can be added by considering
the optimum condition regarding the cost of the battery capacity with the chosen
infrastructure (either charging stations or swap stations).
REFERENCES
ADHITYA, M., MUSTAFA, R., PLOETNER, A. & KUECUEKAY, F. 2013. A New Control
Strategy of Wet Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT) Clutch and Synchronizer for
Seamless Gear Preselect. SAE International Journal Passenger Cars.
AGENCY, I. E. 2013. Global EV Outlook: Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to
2020.
BJOERNSSON, L.-H. & KARLSSON, S. 2016. The potential for brake energy regeneration
under Swedish conditions. Applied Energy, 168, 75-84.
CHAN, C. C. Year. The State of the Art of Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles. In:
Proceeding of IEEE, 2007. IEEE.
COUNCIL, E. V. Fully Charged Electric Bus in 10 Minutes [Online]. Electric Vehicle Council.
Available:
http://electricvehiclecouncil.com.au/fully-charged-electric-bus-in-10minutes [Accessed 30 December 2016].
DARAT, D. J. P. 2002. Pedoman Teknis Penyelenggaraan Angkutan Penumpang Umum di
Wilayah Perkotaan dalam Trayek Tetap dan Teratur. In: DEPARTMENT, I. T. (ed.).
Jakarta.
ELTIS. 2013. Braunschweig Launches World's First Inductive Fast Charging Electric Bus[Online].
Available:
http://www.eltis.org/discover/news/braunschweig-launchesworlds-first-inductive-fast-charging-electric-bus-germany-0 [Accessed 30 December2016].
GILLESPIE, T. D. 1992. Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Society of Automotive
Engineers.
HARINALDI 2005. Prinsip-prinsip Statistik untuk Teknik dan Sains, Erlangga.
KSP, E. 2012. Making Clean Future Seoul with Eco Friendly Vehicles : Seoul Bus Project[Online]. [Accessed 30 December 2016].
LI, G., ZHANG, J. & HE, H. 2016. Battery SOC constraint comparison for predictive energy
management of plug-in hybrid electric bus. Applied Energy.
MERYANA, E. 2012. Kebijakan Mobil Nasional, Astra " Wait and See" [Online]. Jakarta:
Kompas.
Available:
http://internasional.kompas.com/read/2012/08/09/19451838/Kebijakan.Mobil.Nasional.
Astra.Wait.and.See. [Accessed 09 August 2012].
MICHELIN 2003. The Tyre : Rolling Resistance and Fuel Savings. Clermont-Ferrand
SARAH CATHERINE WALPOLE, E. A. 2012. The Weight of Nations : an Estimation of
Adult Human Biomass. BMC Public Health.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

How Appropriate are Pyridinic Carbon Nitride Nanotubesfor Hydrogen Storage? Molecular Thermodynamics
Analysis
Supriyadi1), Nasruddin2), Engkos A. Kosasih2), I. A. Zulkarnain3), Budhy
Kurniawan4),
1

Department of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Industrial Technology, Universitas Trisakti, Jakarta 11440 e-mail :supriyadins@gmail.com,supriyadi.mesin@trisakti.ac.id2

Department of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia, Depok 16424 e-mail :nasruddin@eng.ui.ac.id, kosri@eng.ui.ac.id

3
4

Faculty of Engineering Presiden University, Cikarang, Indonesia 17550 e-mail : ihsan.a.zulkarnain@gmail.com

Department of Physics Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences University of Indonesia, Depok 16424 e-mail :bkuru07@gmail.com

Abstract
One of many efforts to enhance hydrogen adsorption capacity in a Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube(SWCNT) is through optimation and modification of the structure until material with new characteristic, or abrand new material is obtained. New material type that is attracting attention nowadays are Boron Carbide,
Boron Nitride and Carbon Nitride. In this research, model of structure that will be discussed is Single-Walled
Carbon Nitride Nanotube (SWC3N4NT) that is beginning to be discussed recently for hydrogen storage
application. From semi-empiric study, optimum SWCNT diameter for storing hydrogen is on diameter below
5 Ǻ or on diameter between 12 – 14 Ǻ. From that result, hydrogen storage simulation is done next on (SWCNT)and SWC3N4NT on chirality (18, 0). This chirality is chosen to guarantee three dimensionel symmetricalcharacteristic. The most important thermodynamical analysis to be done is calculating SSA value and in various
material model, SSA value being obtained consecutively is 2600 and 2730 m2/g. Therefore, it can be allegedthat structure modification with nitrogen substitution on carbon-based material will enhance hydrogen
adsorption capacity. That modification also identifying enhancement of hydrogen adsorption energy
significantly from 1.2 to 1.97 kcal/mole. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is resulting in adsorption
capacity in temperature and pressure 120 atm consecutively 1.59 and 2.17 wt% in room temperature. In
temperature 233 K, it increases to 2.26 and 2.96 wt% and also 6.1 and 6.84 wt % in temperature 77 K. To verify
the simulation result, comparison is being done with semi-empiric calculation and isothermal model regression.
MD result is also quite similar with isothermal adsorption model by Langmuir, Sips and Toth with determinantcoefficient value above 0.99 in temperature 298 K, above 0.95 in temperature 233 K and above 0.85 intemperature 77 K.
Keywords: adsorption capacity, Hydrogen, molecular dynamics, SWCNT, SSA.

1

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2

1. INTRODUCTION
Availability of fossil-based energy source is on a continuous decline,
meanwhile energy needs is drastically increasing. Fossil-based energy usage also
has a potential to release carbon monoxide/dioxide gas emission, and as the main
contributor in environment pollution. Carbon gas emission being accumulated in
our atmosphere can cause global warming and climate change [1]. All half of theincrease of CO2 gas concentration in the air predictably comes from the energy
sector [2]. Therefore, if exploration and exploitation of fossil energy source
continues, environment quality will continuously declining.
We need to search for new and renewable energy source that meet two
criterias: clean and the continuity can be guaranteed. Hydrogen meets these two
criterias for that means. The biggest potential of hydrogen for fuel-cell fuel is inground vehicles technology. If we can implement vehicles technology withhydrogen fuel, energy and environmental problems can be solved simultaneously.
Hydrogen storage technique must be developed so that hydrogen usage as
energy carrier can be applied massively. The most interesting choice between all is
to store hydrogen in solid material with pores through adsorption. Adsorbant
material that is often used in hydrogen adsorption system is carbon nano-structured.
CNT research of hydrogen storage application began to be used after Iijima foundthe material in 1991 [3]. CNT has quite a few advantages, like pore characteristic,high surface area, high stability, and light material [4].
Many effort is continuously done to enhance CNT performance, such as:
structure optimation [5] and substitution/doping metal element [6]. Another way toenhance adsorption capacity is with modification in CNT, so CNT with new
characteristics or even with brand new material is obtained. New material type thatsteal attention nowadays are Boron Carbide [7], Boron Nitride [8] and Carbon
Nitride [8, 9]. Many research found that nitrogen can be used as substitution
element to replace carbon chain so that CxNy nanotube is created. In this research,material C3N4NT is chosen.
Research with MD simulation can be an alternative to complete experimentresearch which many of them have low repeatability. With molecule dynamics
simulation, adsorbent and adsorbat adsorbant can be modeled through computer

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program in real. Another advantage of MD simulation is many material
characteristics can be obtained in various wanted conditions that experimentally
hard to do [10]. Therefore, theoretical research about nanostructure carbon
performance as hydrogen gas storing media can be a reference for effectively doing
experimental research [11].
The purpose of this researchare:i) do extensive study about carbon

SWCNT and SWC3N4NT characteristics as hydrogen storage material empiricallyand through molecule dynamics simulation. Ii) estimating hydrogen gas molecule
adsorption energy in SWCNT and SWC3N4NT.

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42. RESEARCH METHODOLOGYThis research consists of two parts, that is: 1) material analysis and characterization and 2)hydrogen storage capacity optimation in SWCNT and SWC3N4NT. In the early step, structure
optimation is studied with combining theoretical approach (mechanical quantum calculation) andsemi-empiric study. According to the result of this step, next is diversification of adsorbent modelthrough setting nitrogen position in SWCNT structure, so new structure is obtained, that is Triazine
nanotube (SWC3N4NT). In this new structure, next is analysis of adsorption energy throughmechanical quantum.
The next research is research about hydrogen gas adsorption process with molecular
thermodynamics approach. This research covers specific surface area (SSA) analysis, monolayer
and molecular dynamics simulation. Molecular dynamics simulation result is next being analyzed
as pare of monolayer adsorption phenomena through molecular thermodynamics approach.
2.

1 Pemodelan Material Struktur Nano
In this research, CNT structure model will be focused on zig-zag type SWCNT with 33 Ǻ

length. The first material being investigated is SWCNT, that will be visually pictured in Figure 1

Figure 1 SWCNT modeling (left) and SWC3N4NT (right) zig-zag type with chirality (18, 0).
Next, development of carbon-based structure is done to obtain a better performing material.
Experimentally, carbon and nitrogen element combination with various atom fraction is alreadysynthesized in forms of sheets and tubes. The main consideration in structure modification is how
to obtain material that is lighter, has more empty space, and has wider partial distribution. Hence,
SWC3N4-NT model is seen as fulfilling those requirements listed above. Visually, that model canbe seen in Figure 2.
Model as can be seen above is similar with micro structure of experiment made by Li(2007), but in this modeling, electron existence is added to every pyridine nitrogen. There are threeadvantages of this structure with SWCNT, i) lighter, it means the SSA value will be higher, ii)
there are many empty space that is created by pyridine nitrogen bond, and iii) wider partial
distribution that is caused by structure uniformity is made.
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5Inter-molecule interaction energy calculation is done with quantum mechanical theory
approach and, in this research, PSI4 that is already trusted and used in few former researches isused [11, 12]. Hydrogen molecule is placed in perpendicular orientation above hexagonal structure
center of CNT (hollow site), because that is the place where strong interaction configuration
between hydrogen molecule and SWCNT happen. Next, a few one-dot enery calculation in various
distance between nanotube wall and hydrogen molecule center is done using ab-initio
Potential energy between hydrogen molecule and between hydrogen molecule withadsorbent interaction calculation result is done while look at each adsorbent as one unity in which
all compiling atom is involved. Hence, there is one other step needed to determine each compilingmaterial interaction. To obtain an accurate potential model in this research, force-matching method
is used. More simply, this method can depicted as curve fitting method with potential model thatis generally used, and in this study, Lennard-Jones potential model is used.
Potential functioning model that is used in this research is Lennard-Jones potential model,that can simply be described with equation below [13],∆𝑬𝑬(𝒓𝒓) = {𝝈𝝈𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝟒𝟒𝜺𝜺𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 [(𝟎𝟎,

𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)

𝝈𝝈𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝟔𝟔− ( 𝒓𝒓 ) ]𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊

𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 ≥ 𝒓𝒓𝒄𝒄,

𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 ≤ 𝒓𝒓𝒄𝒄

(1)

Where, ∆𝐸𝐸(𝑟𝑟) is potential interaction energy in r;𝜖𝜖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 distance, each are the lowest

potential energy value and interaction distance where potential energy value is equal to zero; a andb is meant to identify two types of particle that is interacting and 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = |𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 − 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 | is distance

between particle ist particle and jst particle.

Force-matching method is done through adding all inter-particle interaction model and thenmatch that with the amount of potential energy interaction of ab-initio calculation result. All theinteraction sums in equation (1) resulting in total molecule potential interactin as written elow
𝝈𝝈

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

𝑵𝑵−𝟏𝟏
∆𝑬𝑬𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 (𝒓𝒓) = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 ∑𝑵𝑵𝒋𝒋>𝒊𝒊 ∑𝒊𝒊=𝟏𝟏 [(𝒓𝒓 )
𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊

𝝈𝝈

𝟔𝟔

− (𝒓𝒓 ) ]
𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊

(2)

In this paper, hydrogen molecule is simplified into united-atom model or often called

isotropic model. This model is used by few former researchers, among them is Mahdizadeh et al(2014) [14]. Different from anisotropic model, in isotropic model, hydrogen molecule interaction
orientation effect is ignored. This model is quite accurate even though it create different error in

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6different temperature simulation. This condition is next eliminated through searching forparameter value in every different conditions, and as a result time needed for simulation
preparation takes longer.
3

Result and Discussion

3.

1 Hydrogen molecule potential energy with SWCNT dan SWC3N4NT
Amount of researchers are doing analysis in exterior part more because experimentally,nanostructure material that can be synthesized is the closed-ended type. From ab-initio calculation
result, hydrogen adsorption energy data in SWCNT is obtained, in the amount of 1.12 kcal/mole.
Next, with force-matching method, potential parameter that will be used for estimating various
thermodynamics sizes theoretically is obtained. This potential parameter is also used as one of
input parameter in doing molecule dynamics simulation.

Figure 1 Theoretic Calculation Result of Hydrogen Interaction Potential Energy with SWCNT[11, 17]
Inter-molecule hydrogen gas interaction potential energy calculation with Triazine is donein various hydrogen positions in that structure. Monolayer adsorption potential energy value iscalculated as hydrogen molecule distance function with Triazine walls in exohedral part. Result
from force-matching to obtain potential parameter is done to two models of hydrogen molecule.
The first model is an-isotropic model and the second model is isotropic model. Calculation result
for these two models can be seen in Figure 3.

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Figure 2 Hydrogen physics adsorption energy calculation in SWC3N4-NT using ab-initio
method.
Adsorption energy in SWCNT is around 1,2 kcal/mole, meanwhile adsorption energy in
SWC3N4NT is around 1.97 kcal/mole, which means it almost twice as big. Reviewed from themain adsorbent adsorption performance measure, that is SSA value, SWC3N4NT is also better than
SWCNT. From those two factors, it can be alleged that adsorption through to SWC3N4NT
hydrogen will also be better.

3.

2

Hydrogen adsorption capacity simulation result Hasil simulasi kapasitas

adsorpsi hidrogen
Figure 4 is hydrogen adsorption capacity profile in three chiralities of SWCNT, in threetemperatures, that are temperature 77, 233.15 and 298.15 K. MD simulation in this study using
Lammps program developed by DoE of US [16]. Adsorption capacity in room temperature tend
to be linear, which means adsorption capacity addition is equal to equilibrium pressure increase.
Likewise in adsorption capacity in 233.15 K, that has almost the same characteristics withadsorption capacity in temperature 298.15 K.

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kapasitas adsorpsi hidrogen (wt %)

7

6
5
4
3

2
1
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

tekanan kesetimbangan adsorpsi (atm)
wt% 77K MD

wt% 233K MD

wt% 298K MD

Figure 3 Hydrogen adsorption capacity in SWCNT in temperature 298,15 K, 233,15 K and 77 K
in chirality(18,0).
From Figure 4, it can be seen that adsorption capacity of SWCNT (18, 0). In pressure to
120 atm, adsorption capacity that can be obtained is only 1,7 wt%, which means it is still far fromtarget that is set by DoE. Similar with result that is reported by Shelvin, et. al in which SWCNT is
hard to reach the set target without improvement [18]. Takagi (2006) has done investigation invarious SWNT in temperature 303 K and pressure 30 atm with the result range from 0,13 – 0,24.
Xu (2007) reported almost similar result, in temperature 303 K and in pressure until 100 atm
ranging from 0-3 – 0,5 wt% [19]. With almost similar result too, Ritschel (2002) reported results
ranging from 0,05 – 0,63 wt% in pressure 45 atm [20]. A few other researchers reported muchsmaller resul, only ranging from 0,01 – 0,07 wt%. Researcher that reported a much higher result
among other experimental research is Liu (1999), in temperature 298 K and pressure ranging from100 – 120 atm, wt% value ranging from 2,4 – 4,2 is obtained [21].
As it is in room temperatur, in experiment research result that is reported in temperature
77, a very big disparity also happens. In pressure around 1 atm Anson (2004), it is reported thatthe result is under 1 wt%. Takagi (2006) reported result ranging from 0,8 – 1,7 wt% and withalmost similar result with Kim (2007) the result reported is ranging from 0,6 – 1,76 wt% [22, 23].
Different from other experimental researches, Pradhan (2002) reported much higher result, inpressure 16 atm, result obtained is ranging from 6,4 wt% [24].

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9In this part, adsorption capacity simulation result in SWC3N4NT in various pressure andtemperature will be presented. As it is in adsorption characteristic of SWCNT, hydrogen
adsorption capacity in SWC3N4NT (18, 0). It can also be seen that pressure addition effect will
only be effective in temperature 233 and 298 K. Meanwhile in temperature 77, pressure addition
above 50 atm does not give significant effect.
In room temperature, SWC3N4NT (18, 0) has good adsorption capacity. In low
temperature, pressure effect will only give adsorption capacity increase up to 50 atm, andtemperature effect become more dominant. With bigger diameter, there will be more hydrogenthat is absorbed in endohedral part. Meanwhile, in room temperature, hydrogen that can beabsorbed is much less.

kapasitas adsorpsi hidrogen (wt%)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

20

40

60

80

tekanan kesetimbangan adsorpsi (atm)

Regresi SW-TNT 77 K
Regresi SW-TNT 298 K

100

120

Regresi SW-TNT 233 K
Wt% SW-TNT 77 K

Figure 4 Hydrogen adsorption capacity function from equilibrium pressure on SWC3N4NT(18,0).
4. Conclusion and Discussion
SWC3N4NT has higher adsorption energy (1.97 kcal/mol) compared to SWCNT (1.1 – 1.2
kkal/mol). With theoretical calculation, SSA value obtained consecutively 2600 and 2730 2458
m2/g for SWCNT and SWC3N4NT. MD simulation result in pressure up to 120 atm, adsorption
capacity obtained consecutively 1.59 and 2.17 wt% in room temperature. In temperature 233
increase to 2.26 and 2.96 wt% and also 6.1 and 6.84wt % in temperature 77 K. From various

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thermodynamics measurement, it shows that SWCNT and SWC3N4NT can not reach the set target
by DoE for hydrogen storage application without further modification.
5.

REFERENCES

1.

Martin, A., Adsorpsi Isotermal Karbon Dioksida Dan Metana Pada Karbon Aktif
Berbahan Dasar Batubara Sub Bituminus Indonesia Untuk Pemurnian Dan
Penyimpanan Gas Alam, in Mechanical Engineering. 2010, University of Indonesia:
Depok.
Karekezi, S., Renewables in Africa—meeting the energy needs of the poor. Energy
Policy, 2002. 30(11): p. 1059-1069.
Iijima, S., Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. nature, 1991. 354(6348): p. 56-58.
Knippenberg, M.T., S.J. Stuart, and H. Cheng, Molecular dynamics simulations onhydrogen adsorption in finite single walled carbon nanotube bundles. Journal ofmolecular modeling, 2008. 14(5): p. 343-351.
Zolfaghari, A., et al., Molecular dynamics simulations on the effect of temperature andloading in H 2 exohedral adsorption on (3, 3) and (9, 9) SWCNTs. International Journalof Hydrogen Energy, 2007. 32(18): p. 4889-4893.
Zacharia, R., et al., Enhancement of hydrogen storage capacity of carbon nanotubes via
spill-over from vanadium and palladium nanoparticles. Chemical Physics Letters, 2005.
412(4): p. 369-375.
An, H., et al., Li-doped B 2 C graphene as potential hydrogen storage medium. Applied
Physics Letters, 2011. 98(17): p. 173101-173101-3.
Umegaki, T., et al., Boron- and nitrogen-based chemical hydrogen storage materials.
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2009. 34(5): p. 2303-2311.
Nair, A.A.S., R. Sundara, and N. Anitha, Hydrogen storage performance of palladium
nanoparticles decorated graphitic carbon nitride. International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy, 2015. 40(8): p. 3259-3267.
Liu, Z., et al., Hydrogen storage and release by bending carbon nanotubes.
Computational Materials Science, 2013. 68(0): p. 121-126.
Zulkarnain, I.A., Optimasi Struktur Material Adsorben Karbon Nanostruktur sebagai
Media Penyimpanan Hidrogen: Studi Termodinamika Molekuler, in MechanicalEngineering. 2014, University of Indonesia.
Turney, J., et al., PSI4: an open source ab initio electronic structure program. WIREs
Computational Molecular Science, 2011. 2(4): p. 556-565.
Yong, X., Non-equilibrium molecular simulations of simple fluid transport at fluid-solidinterfaces and fluidic behaviors at nanoscale. 2012.
Mahdizadeh, S. and E. Goharshadi, Hydrogen storage on silicon, carbon, and siliconcarbide nanotubes: A combined quantum mechanics and grand canonical Monte Carlosimulation study. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2014. 39(4): p. 1719-1731.
Nasruddin, S., I.A Zulkarnain, Enhanced Hydrogen Storage Capacity on Metal Doping
Carbon Nanotubes by Molecular Dynamics Simulation, in Osaka gas Foundation ofInternational Cultural Exchange. 2013, University of Indonesia: Depok.
Plimpton, S., Fast parallel algorithms for short-range molecular dynamics. Journal ofcomputational physics, 1995. 117(1): p. 1-19.

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Shevlin, S.A. and Z.X. Guo, Transition-metal-doping-enhanced hydrogen storage inboron nitride systems. Applied Physics Letters, 2006. 89(15).
Xu, W.-C., et al., Investigation of hydrogen storage capacity of various carbon materials.
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2007. 32(13): p. 2504-2512.
Ritschel, M., et al., Hydrogen storage in different carbon nanostructures. Applied
Physics Letters, 2002. 80(16): p. 2985-2987.
Liu, C., et al., Hydrogen storage in single-walled carbon nanotubes at room temperature.
Science, 1999. 286(5442): p. 1127-1129.
Takagi, H., et al. Hydrogen adsorption properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes
treated with nitric acid. in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 2006. ICONN'06.
International Conference on. 2006. IEEE.
Kim, D.Y., et al., Supercritical hydrogen adsorption of ultramicropore-enriched singlewall carbon nanotube sheet. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2007. 111(46): p.
17448-17450.
Pradhan, B.K., et al., Experimental probes of the molecular hydrogen–carbon nanotube
interaction. Physica B: Condensed Matter, 2002. 323(1): p. 115-121.

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Design a New Generation of Synchromesh Mechanism to Optimization
Manual Transmission’s Electric Vehicle
Rolan Siregar *a; Fuad Zainuri **b ; Muhammad Adhitya **c; Danardono .A.
Sumarsono**d*Department of Mechanical Engineering Universitas Darma Persada 13450,Indonesia;**
Department of Mechanical Engineering Universitas Indonesia 16424,Indonesia;arolansiregar@ft.unsada.ac.id ; bfuad.zainuri@ui.ac.id ; cmadhitya@eng.ui.ac.id ;ddanardon@eng.ui.ac.id

ABSTRACT
Fuel consumption continues to rise will cause serious problems in the future due to the limited
amount of fossil fuels on earth. In addition, emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon
monoxide (CO), which is the burning of oil is very influential on global warming today. Therefore,
the development of friendly technologies (green energy industry) has been started. One is thedevelopment of environmentally friendly vehicles (green vehicle) in which the battery is an energy
source that pollution from vehicles is equal to zero. The design of optimal power train mechanism
on electric vehicles is one of the best ways to save battery energy consumption. Transmission is
one of the power trains is very influential on the performance of the vehicle. In this paper will
discuss electric vehicle transmission system.
There are some major things that the reference design of the transmission that will be done is thefirst that the large wheel traction should have the same value as the traction conventional vehicles,
and the second is the transmission model should be much simpler than the transmission of the
motor fuel to meet the criteria for the use of the electric motor of the vehicle. Synchromesh is oneof the constituent elements of the transmission which serves to smooth gearshift so that there isincreased driving comfort. Further development synchromesh transmission is done to get a more
simple construction, easily manufactured, and ease of use. Zero shift transmission is the latest
development in transmission and then developed into an automatic manual transmission (AMT),
where transmission has been used on racing vehicles to eliminate the current slowdown gear shift.
Zero shift transmission is still relying on the clutch to change gear in which electromechanical beused to replace the clutch pedal. Therefore, the transmission is considered to be too complex forthe transmission of electric vehicles, but its mechanism is considered very appropriate to increase
the transmission efficiency. Starting from the transmission is then carried out new innovationstransmission design for electric cars. The combination synchromesh with zero shift mechanism for
manual transmission is a transmission which is ideal to increase the transmission efficiency.
Installation synchromesh on zero shift mechanism is expected to replace the function of the clutch
Manual Transmission (MT), and assisted with the motor torque setting when to change gear. This
study displays a performance analysis of the electric vehicle transmissions.
Keywords: zero shift; synchromesh; automatic manual transmission; electric vehicle
1.

INTRODUCTION

Electric vehicles do not have internal combustion engine so that the consumption of fuel is zero.
Therefore, the production of electric vehicles is one of the best solutions to reduce fuelconsumption of oil. Governments in many countries have a lot to apply rules to create an electricvehicle that is suitable to be used in each area. Indonesia is one country that has conducted researchon electric vehicles. Broadly speaking the benefits of using electric vehicles compared to1

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conventional vehicles is a fossil fuel is not required, zero emissions, and save energy costs (MING& CIN, 2010). Substitutes used vehicle combustion engine is an electric motor as the source of thepower train movement. The electric motor can be switched on for their current source of battery
used. To adjust the traction wheels to the road then made a transmission system that is the size ofthe box set of gear ratios. Source round of transmission is the rotational motion of the output shaftof the electric motor. Transmissions are designed to get more performance suitable for electricvehicles. The transmission system is one of the major components that affect power and fuelconsumption of the vehicle. The transmission performance is also associated with gear efficiency,
noise, and comfort during gearshift (Bedmar, 2013).
Transmission development has much to do to meet the needs of consumers ranging from themanual transmission models up to the automatic transmission. The development of thistransmission is used for internal combustion engine vehicles that require fossil fuels as a source of
mechanical power. By looking at the number of vehicles is increasing in society will require thefuel to increase as well. Availability of fuel tends to decline will lead to motivation for researchers
to create more environmentally friendly vehicles such as vehicles with electric current as a sourceof drive power. This study aims to generate a new transmission design with development
synchromesh mechanism to make it more efficient. The main thing that will be development is atransmission geometry, the concept of work, time shifting, gearshift quality, and will automaticallyincrease the power efficiency of the electric motors in vehicles.
2.

STATE OF THE ART DESIGN TRANSMISI EV

There are three types of vehicle transmissions are manual transmission (MT), automatictransmission (AT), and the continuous variable transmission (CVT). Manual transmission (MT) is
the most efficient in fuel consumption, while AT and CVT are easier to use (Heath, 2007). MT
efficiency level is 96.2 per cent, 86 per cent AT, CVT 84.6 percent, and AMT equivalent with MT(Kumbhar & Panchagade, 2014). Expertise driver was extremely influential in the use of manualtransmission for improved fuel efficiency. In this paper will be more present manual transmission
as well as its development since the transmission is considered to be more suitable for electric cars.
The manual transmission is a component that serves to forward the torque from the engine to thedrive wheels. There are several gear box in a box on the transmission system which is the option
to set the speed of the vehicle. Election speed manually is done by the driver by utilizing theshifting lever (shift lever). There are several types of manual transmission that constant mesh andsynchromesh. MT synchromesh transmission is widely used on the vehicle. The synchronizer is a
key element which serves to align rotation between elements so that it can be done with a smoothchange gear engaged. Some transmission systems, such as the manual transmission (MT), Dual
Clutch Transmission (DCT), and Automatic Manual Transmission (AMT) their synchronizer(Back, 2013). In Figure 1 is shown Synchronizer manual transmission.

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Figure 1. Exploded view synchromesh manual transmission (Bedmar, 2013).
Based on Figure 1 can be explained that the synchronizer ring is a harmonizing element rotational
speed between the clutch gear cone, hub, and when the sliding sleeve gear set in motion to bepaired. Synchronizer works by utilizing the friction in the cones. Therefore, engineering
synchronizer should be considered to reduce the negative impact due to friction. Wear and tearthat may occur will be selected on the components that better be the element that failure than any
other element, in this case, is usually synchronizer been so elements are ductile than thesurrounding elements.
The latest developments regarding the manual transmission is creating a manual transmission
performance as if the auto is often called the automatic manual transmission (AMT). Broadly
speaking AMT interpreted as a manual transmission without a clutch pedal clutch whereinmovement is regulated by electronic sensors, processors, actuators (hydraulic orelectromechanical), and change gear in accordance with the command of the driver. In figure 2 isshown schematically AMT.

Figure 2. Schematic AMT
Furthermore, AMT has developed AMT zero shift transmission type. This transmission is atransmission that can shift gears without the need of the time (zero seconds) ( Cheat & Child,2007). This transmission offers easy to be manufactured, the price is cheaper than AT, fuel savings,
there is no torque interrupt on one shaft when the change gear, change gear and finer (seamless).
In Figure 3 is shown zero shift AMT.
.

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Figure 3. Zeroshift two gear ( Cheat & Child, 2007).
The zero shift mechanism replaces the components synchromesh on manual transmission by using
zero shift ring.
3.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Design Transmission EV
Starting from the concept zero shift transmission which has advantages such as fuel economy,
performance, shift quality, and easy to manufacture then created a draft new transmission forelectric cars. The main concept is to eliminate the clutch to the transmission system then its
function replaced by cone friction and torque setting of the motor. The simplicity of design andworking mechanism that is simple is one of the considerations to obtain an effective transmissionof the electric car. The following schematic working mechanism of transmission is made as shownin Figure 4.

Figure 4. Schematic manual transmission EV
Selection lever is a lever operated by the driver to change gear. When the lever is moved, thesensor will send a signal to the ECU and signals to be transmitted to the motor to regulate thetorque. Torque motor that has declined is the right time to change gear. Display electricaltransmission vehicle can be seen in Figure 5.

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Figure 5. Manual transmission EV
Clutch manual transmission has been eliminated so that the working mechanism is simpler andeasier to use. Such transmission will be lighter when compared with a conventional transmission.
Gear ratios are such that they can be used for roads that need major traction as well as for highspeed. To see more detail the concept of this transmission work, it can be shown describing
elements to change gear as in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Element synchromesh
Based on Figure 6 can be explained that the shaft merges with the main connecting hub so that thegear is a hub for the shaft rotation. The sleeve is an element that can be moved by the operator tochange gear. When the sleeve has been shifted then the synchronizer cone will movesimultaneously pressing the friction cone and the cone friction cone will hit the gears which aim
to adjust the rotational speed, so that the synchronizer can be paired with the gears. For moredetails on how to change gear between two gears consists of several stages. The first stage is the
sleeve is shifted by the driver via the gear shift lever so that the sleeve is pushed synchronizer cone
and rotates together (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Synchronizer cone with sleeve is engaged
The next stage is adjustment round by utilizing the friction on the cone (Figure 8). Cone is thefriction between elements of cone synchronizer friction cone made with different sizes according
to the required large friction. Where things should be considered is how such friction does notcause serious problems such as lifetime due to wear, temperature and the other.

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Figure 8. Element cone
Then the cone friction elements will rub against the gear cone element to add to the reduction ofrotation between elements (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Gear cone friction
Cone on the gear elements is expected not easy to wear because it includes a vital category. Afterthe rotation of the cone reduction gear then all elements will be paired to one level gear rotation(see Figure 10).

Figure 10. Engaged for one gear level
It can be concluded that the synchronization is done by utilizing some friction, it is to replace thefunction of a conventional clutch transmission that shifts gear can be carried out smoothly.
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3.2.
Calculation of synchronization
Source of the work force is the force exerted by the operator in the direction of the horizontal axisof the sleeve element of F. Large forces acting on the cone friction is the normal direction F1 sin
Ө. Due to the friction at each cone, the rotational speed will be reduced from the first friction
elements that experience to other elements. In Figure 11 displayed the forces acting on the system
synchronizer.

Figure 11. Forces acting on the synchronizer system
Based on Figure 11 it can be seen that the force that taste of the sleeve is F and F2 will break
down into sin Ө working on the x-axis gear. Rotational speed is also experiencing the samething that will break down into 3 due to the friction that arises. Furthermore, torque andfrictional forces acting on the gear can be shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Torque and Friction
When calculating the torque acting on the paired element between the sleeve with synchronizer
cone is the distance to the force multiplied by the horizontal axis of the workforce. Then the torqueacting on the cone synchronizer with the gear is the distance to the horizontal axis force multipliedby that force.
3.3. Analysis Drive Performa EV
Performance analysis of vehicle motion is made to display the estimated motion acceleration andvehicle speed. It aims to determine the ability of the motor in accordance with the transmission
design geometry. The following is shown Figure 13 Geometry transmission design.

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Figure 13. Gear ratio transmission EV
The gear ratio is the ratio between the diameter of the output gear to the input gear. Then the firstgear ratio G1 is three, the second gear ratio G2 is 1. 18 and reverse gear ratio GR is 2:33. For moredetails can be displayed in Table 1.
Table 1. Specification design transmission EV
Item

Value

Transmission
Ratio 1st Gear G1

3

Ratio 2nd Gear G2

1.18

Ratio Reverse Gear GR

2.33

Application
Rolling resistance coeff. 

0.017

Weight transmission mt (kg)400

2

Gravitation g (m/s )9.81

Tire Radius Tr (m)0.31

Calculation of acceleration and speed of the vehicle was conducted to determine the performanceof the vehicle motion. Furthermore, it is used as an evaluation of the selection of electric motors
and other components of the main constituent. In Equation 1 is shown calculating vehicle
acceleration with the influence of the transmission gear ratio.

A (T  G1t   mt  g ) / mt
Tr

(1)
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where A is acceleration (m/s2) ;T is Torsion motor (Nm) ; G1 is first gear ratio ; t is efficiency
transmission (90%) ; Tr is radius wheel (m);  is Rolling resistance coefficient (0.017) ; mt isweight transmission (kg) ; g is gravitation (m/s2). Furthermore, the calculation of the vehicle speed
can be calculated using Equation (2).
n T
(2)v m rk  G2where v is the speed of the vehicle (m / s); nm is the rotation of the motor (rpm); k is a conversion
coefficient of the motor vehicle speed (2.65). G2 is the second gear ratio.
4.
CONCLUSION
Based on the results of the literature survey and design have made the design for the transmissionof electric cars has been obtained. Additions for the synchromesh transmission mechanism zero
shift a major topic as the development of new ideas for this research. The synchromesh serves toreduce the round elements will be partnered by utilizing the friction in some cone. The working
mechanism of a manual transmission without using the clutch is the main aim is to utilize
synchromesh and setting the motor torque as a replacement clutch MT. The design will be its own
advantages as it will be very effective for the character of the electric motor. The number of gearchanges made to two (2 speed) is useful for obtaining power efficiency has been considered fromvarious factors. Transmission weight is one of the considerations to improve the performance ofelectric motors. In addition, ease of manufacturing, ease of installation of the electric motor, andease of use by drivers is a thing to note is also to acquire new transmission system that is suitablefor electric cars. Expected from searches conducted on the transmission of electric vehicles will
help solve the problem of the availability of energy that specifically influences of transport.
5.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks for organizers of a research grant from the University of Indonesia. All parties in the
Jakarta State Polytechnic who have provided facilities, motivation, and opportunity to participate
in education.
6.

REFERENCES

Cheat, R., & Child, A. (2007). A seamless automatic manual transmission (AMT) with no torqueinterrupt. SAE International.
Back, O. (2013). Basics of the synchronizer. Germany: Hoerbiger.
Bedmar, A. P. (2013). Synchronization processes and synchronizer mechanisms. Goteborg:
Chalmers University of Technology.
Heath, R. P. (2007). Seamless AMT offers an efficient alternative to CVT. 20075013.
Kumbhar, M. S., & Panchagade, D. R. (2014). A Literature Review on Automated Manual
Transmission (AMT). IJSRD, 1236.
MING, C. C., & CIN, J. S. (2010). Performance Analysis of EV Powertrain system. WorldElectric Vehicle Journal.

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SINGLE PHASE STEAM EJECTOR INVESTIGATION: EFFECT OF DIFFERENTAREA RATIO THROAT TO ENTRAINMENT RATIO
Stefan Mardikus and Gregorius Bryan H.R.
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sanata Dharma
University, Indonesia(E-mail: stefan@usd.ac.id, gregoriusbryan92@gmail.com,)

ABSTRACTThe utilization of waste and low-grade thermal energy has become an interest to
researchers ever since this type of energy is available from sources, such as industrial
processing waste, solar collectors, and emission from automobile. Steam ejector
refrigeration system is an application, which is economically feasible and environmentfriendly as it can operate with waste heat and a harmless refrigerant such as water. This
refrigeration system has many advantages such as high reliability, structural simplicity,
long life span, low cost, relatively flexible in terms of refrigerant use, easy to maintain andcan be used with water which is the most environment friendly refrigerant. Ejector
application in air-conditioning or refrigeration system is either to totally replace thecompressor or is used for cycle optimization. The aim of this experiment is to investigate
the entrainment behaviour and performance of steam ejector. Through enlarging thedesigned mixing chamber by replaceable throats, optimum area ratio throat of mixing
chamber is studied experimentally. A small scale steam ejector refrigeration system wasdesigned and manufactured. This ejector setup consist of an open loop configuration andthe boiler operates in the pressure range of Pb = 100 to 400 kPa. The typical evaporator
temperatures operates from Te = 50 to 80 degree Celsius, while the condenser temperature
fixed at Tc = 27 degree Celsius. The mixing chamber with 8 mm diameter and three length
configurations (50 mm, 100 mm, 150 mm) are tested with 2 mm nozzle diameter. Withvariable area ratio throat of mixing chamber, this experiment shows that the optimum
entrainment ratio is obtained by throat area ratio 18.75 at 100 kPa primary pressure and 80
degree Celsius secondary temperature at 1.00.
Keywords: Area Ratio Throat; Entrainment Ratio; Steam Ejector
1. INTRODUCTION
Waste heat is a type of energy that available from sources such as industrial processwaste, solar collectors, and exhausts with temperature between 80°C - 200°C (Chandra &Ahmed, 2014). Based on U.S. Department of Energy, 20 – 50% energy losses on
manufacture process were waste heat, where this type of energy is potentially can be reused
again. Richard Law (2015) noted that utilization of waste heat on manufactures in U.S may
produce 14 TWh, which is equal to £100 million per year. According to this potential
advantage, waste heat can be utilized as main source of energy in absorption chiller,
electrical heat pump, absorption heat pump, and non-mechanical refrigeration system(Meyer et al., 2008).

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Steam ejector refrigeration system is one of non-mechanical refrigeration system thathas been researched in decades. This refrigeration system is first discovered by Le Blanc
and Parson on 1901 and has many advantages over the other type of systems such as highreliability, structural simplicity, long life span, low cost, relatively flexible in terms ofrefrigerant use, easy to maintain and can be used with water which is the most environment
friendly refrigerant. Ejector application in air-conditioning or refrigeration system is either
to totally replace the compressor or is used for cycle optimization. Ejectors are used inaerospace engineering for thrust augmentation, exhaust noise suppression and mixing of
exhaust gases with fresh air to reduce the thermal effect. In process industries, ejectors arenoted to be used widely for entraining and pumping corrosive liquids and other type ofgasses which is difficult to handle (Chandra & Ahmed, 2014).
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of an ejector refrigeration system. This cycle issimilar to the conventional vapor compression system except that the compressor is
replaced by a liquid circulation pump, boiler and ejector. Briefly, as heat is added to theboiler, the evaporated refrigerant is evolved at high temperature and pressure (2). This highpressure refrigerant, which can be called either ‘‘primary fluid’’ or ‘‘motive fluid’’,expands through the primary nozzle in an ejector and produces a very low pressure region
at the primary nozzle exit plane (3). This low pressure allows a liquid refrigerant in theevaporator to vaporize at low temperature to create the refrigeration effect. Heat used tovaporize this refrigerant is the cooling load of the system. The evaporated ‘‘secondary
fluid’’ will be entrained from the evaporator and mixed with the primary fluid in a mixing
chamber of the ejector. The mixed stream is discharged via the diffuser to a condenser (4),where the vapor is condensed (5). The accumulated liquid refrigerant in the condenser isreturned back to the boiler by the feed pump (1) whilst the remainder is expanded throughthe throttling valve to the evaporator (6), to complete the cycle (Sriveerakul et al., 2006).

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of ejector refrigeration system
Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of a typical steam ejector. According to
Sriveerakul, a steam ejector consists of four principal parts, which are the primary nozzle,
the mixing chamber, the ejector throat and the subsonic diffuser. Moreover, the diagram

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describes the operating characteristic of an ejector. The high pressure primary steam (P)starts to accelerate as it enters a convergent section of the nozzle and reaches the sonic levelat the nozzle throat (i). The speed of primary flow is further increased while expanding
through a divergent section of the nozzle. At the exit plane, the primary fluid expands out
with supersonic speed and results the low pressure region (ii). This expanded wave (jetcore) of the motive steam entrains and draws the secondary fluid into the mixing chamber(S), where the secondary steam is accelerated and completely mixed with the primary steam(iii). A normal shock wave is then induced in the ejector throat (iv), creating a compression
effect, and the flow speed suddenly drops to subsonic value. Further compression isachieved when the mixed stream passes through the subsonic diffuser (B).

Figure 2 Schematic diagram of typical steam ejector and flow characteristic
2. METHODOLOGY
The schematic diagram and photograph of an experimental steam ejector refrigerator
is shown in Figure 3. In this paper, the ejector was designed to operate with a boiler
pressure of 100 – 400 kPa, while the temperature of evaporator operated at 50 – 80 °C withwater as the refrigerant. The boiler was constructed using 8” diameter mild steel pipe withthickness 10 mm and used two 2 kW electric heaters which is attached the bottom plate.
The evaporator also had same construction with boiler, but it equipped with 1 kW electricheater. The rubber gaskets and sealant were used to avoid any leakage. The condenser
operates at constant temperature 27 °C and constructed from 150 mm diameter aluminumwith maximum volume 20 L.

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Figure 3 Experimental Steam Ejector Refrigeration System
The experimental are executed in batches. Before each test run the boiler andevaporator were filled with water up to 10 liter. The next step is switch the boiler andevaporator electric heaters on. While the boiler and evaporator heat up until designed
operating condition, the condenser was filled with water up to 15 liter and remained atconstant temperature 27 °C. After boiler and evaporator reached the designated pressure
and temperature, both valves were opened for about 10 seconds at a time. The mass flowrate of boiler, evaporator, and outlet ejector were measured by orifice flow meter andrecorded at the same time. Next, the boiler and evaporator valve remained open until all
vapor removed from the system at atmospheric pressure in both vessels. Water in boiler,
evaporator, and condenser then removed from vessel using a vacuum pump. The procedure
was repeated again with different operating condition of boiler and evaporator, for 3
different replaceable throats that shown in Table 1.
Geometries of experimental ejector described in Figure 4. The ejector was designed
based on the methods provided in literature (Sriveerakul et al., 2006). There were threethroats constructed three different throat length, for the purpose of examining influence of
mixing chamber throat on ejector performance. These throats had the same diameter 8 mm.
The significant geometries of the experiment throat were listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Mixing Chamber’s Throat Variable Geometries
Throat Diameter, x
Throat Length, yArea Ratio Throat
(mm)
(mm)
(L/D)
8
50
6.25
8
100
12.5
8
150
18.75

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Figure 4 Experimental ejector geometries
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Based on measurements of ejector primary fluid and secondary fluid mass flow rates,
the ejector entrainment ratio which is used to determine optimum throat area ratio can be
defined as  ms / m p(1)
where ω is the entrainment ratio of the ejector, is ms the mass flow rate of the secondary
fluid in kg/s, and mp is the mass flow rate of the primary fluid in kg/s (Chandra & Ahmed,2014).
1.0

Entrainment Ratio

0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0

Area Ratio Throat 6.25
Area Ratio Throat 12.50
Area Ratio Throat 18.75

-1.5
0 100

200

300

400

Primary Pressure (kPa)

Figure 5 Variation of primary pressure with three area ratio throat (Te = 50°C).
Figure 5 shows the testing result for the three different area ratio throats (from 6.25 to18.75) while the evaporator temperature fixed at 50 °C. It was observed when thesecondary temperature fixed at 50 °C, the entrainment ratio decreased when the primarypressure increased. This phenomenon happened because higher primary pressure induced

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higher expansion angle from primary fluid flow from outlet nozzle. High expansion angle
caused entrainment region in suction chamber decreased (Chandra & Ahmed, 2014).
Furthermore, higher primary pressure caused mass flow rate of primary fluid increased.
This behavior agreed well with the experimental result was published by Yan Jia (2011).
Area ratio throat 6.25 didn’t make any significant effect on entrainment ratio, meanwhile
showed negative value of entrainment ratio because momentum transfer didn’t intensively
occur or the primary and secondary flow got inadequately mixed, for such cases thepressure recovery region in pseudo-shock became shorter and thus the ejector efficiency
decreased dramatically (Li, 2010). The optimum entrainment ratio reached at 100 kPa
primary pressure with area ratio throat 12.5, ω = 0.71. This phenomenon happened because
the mixed flow in mixing chamber became fully developed due to adequate length of
mixing chamber.
1.0

Entrainment Ratio

0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0

Area Ratio Throat 6.25
Area Ratio Throat 12.50
Area Ratio Throat 18.75

-1.5
0 100

200

300

400

Primary Pressure (kPa)

Figure 6 Variation of primary pressure with three area ratio throat (Te = 60°C).
Figure 6 showed the testing result for the three different area ratio throats at constantsecondary temperature 60 °C. The overall experiment result showed same phenomenon asprevious evaporator temperature condition. The optimum entrainment ratio happened at
100 kPa with area ratio throat 12.5, ω = 0.77. The entrainment ratio showed positive value
for area ratio throat 18.75 in any operating primary pressure. This phenomenon occurredbecause mixed fluid that flow through constant area throat became fully developed. The
fully developed flow produced smaller shock wave, therefore momentum transfer between
primary and secondary fluids were better (Li, 2010).
Figure 7 and Figure 8 showed the testing result for the three different area ratio
throats at constant secondary temperature 70 °C and 80 °C respectively. The experimentresult showed same phenomenon with previous work, the entrainment ratio decreased as
the primary pressure increased. Optimum entrainment ratio for secondary temperature 60°C reached at 100 kPa pressure with area ratio throat 12.5, with ω = 0.91. Meanwhile, themaximum entrainment ratio of this experiment was 1.00 at operating condition of
secondary temperature 80 °C and 100 kPa primary pressure with area ratio throat 18.75.
Based on four different secondary temperatures, the result showed entrainment increased as
evaporator temperature increased. This phenomenon occurred because higher secondary

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temperature caused back pressure increased (Li, 2010 and Jia, 2011). Moreover, higher
secondary temperature caused density of secondary fluid decreased (Meyer et al., 2008).
1.0

Entrainment Ratio

0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0

Area Ratio Throat 6.25
Area Ratio Throat 12.50
Area Ratio Throat 18.75

-1.5
0 100

200

300

400

Primary Pressure (kPa)

Figure 7 Variation of primary pressure with three area ratio throat (Te = 70°C).

Entrainment Ratio

1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0

Area Ratio Throat 6.25
Area Ratio Throat 12.50
Area Ratio Throat 18.75

-1.5
0 100

200

300

400

Primary Pressure (kPa)

Figure 8 Variation of primary pressure with three area ratio throat (Te = 80°C).
4. CONCLUSION
Experimental investigation was performed on variable area ratio throat of mixing
chamber in steam ejector refrigeration system. The experiment proved that the area ratio
throat of mixing chamber was an important design parameter and can exert a remarkableinfluence on steam ejector performance. The area ratio throat optimum was 18.75. It caused
the maximum entrainment ratio, which can be defined as the optimum length of throat that
depends on the pseudo-shock. The operating conditions also had important influence due toback pressure value and formation of expansion angle in suction chamber. The maximum
entrainment ratio for this experiment was 1.00 with area ratio throat 18.75, at 100 kPa
primary pressure and 80 °C secondary temperature.

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5. REFERENCES
A.J. Meyer, T.M. Harms, and R.T. Dobson (2008), “Steam jet ejector cooling powered bywaste or solar heat,” Renewable Energy, vol. 34, pp. 297-306.
C. Li and Y.Z. Li (2010), “Investigation of entrainment behavior and characteristics of gas–liquid ejectors based on CFD simulation,” Chemical Engineering Science, vol. 66, pp.
405-416
Richard Law, Adam Harvey, and David Reay (2015), “A Knowledge-Based System for
Low-Grade Waste Heat Recovery in The Process Industries,” Applied ThermalEngineering, vol. 94, pp. 590-599.
T. Sriveerakul, S. Aphornatana, and K. Chunnanond (2006), “Performance prediction of
steam ejector using computational fluid dynamics: Part 1. Validation of the CFD
results,” International Journal of Thermal Science, vol. 46, pp. 812-822.
U.S. Department of Energy (2008), “Waste heat recovery: Technology and Opportunities in
The U.S. Industry,” Industrial Technologies Program.
Vineet V. Chandra and M.R. Ahmed (2014), “Experimental and computational studies on asteam jet refrigeration system with constant area and variabel area ejectors,” Energy
Conversion and Management,vol. 79, pp. 377-386.
Yan Jia and Cai Wenjian (2011), “Area ratio effects to the performance of air-cooled
ejector refrigeration cycle with R134a refrigerant,” Energy Convervasion andManagement, vol. 53, pp. 240-246.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research 2017 (QiR 2017)
July, 24-27th 2017, Bali, Indonesia

DEVELOPMENT OF CONVERGING-DIVERGING (CD) NOZZLE GENE GUNTO INCREASE COMPRESSIBLE FLUID THRUST FORCE
Haris Setiawana , Gema Puspa Sarib , Satria Putra Santosoa,
Danardono A. Sumarsonoa, Fera Ibrahimb
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
b Virology and Cancer Pathobiology Research Center (VCPRC) FKUI-RSCM, Department of Microbiology, Facultyof Medicine, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia

Corresponding author: danardon@eng.ui.ac.id
ABSTRACTThis paper presents simulation investigation of the velocity contour with in atransonic converging-diverging (CD) nozzle prototype to produce higher pressure andmomentum output. Carl de Laval invented two-pieces nozzles, converging and diverging.
The discovery of this nozzle greatly facilitates the mass delivery process. A light mass
particle is a mass that easily flows with air that can be compressed through the nozzle. It
also can be applied in various ways, one of them is vaccination in health. Nozzle is an
important part of the gene gun which used to accelerate DNA in particle form with a gas
flow to reach adequate momentum to enter the epidermis of human skin and elicit immune
response.
Keywords : Nozzle; Gene gun; DNA; Vaccination; Immune response
1.

INTRODUCTION

This study focused on developing a converging-diverging (CD) nozzle as an essential
part of gene gun that we developed in our lab. CD nozzle has supersonic flows where
Mach number is higher than one. This type of nozzle consist of three parts which areconvergent type of nozzle on the input, throat on the middle, and divergent type on theend of the nozzle. Our aim is to design a better system in construction than the device
used in clinical application, such as Helios™ Gene Gun, so that gene gun can deliver
DNA vaccine effectively with economical cost. Key components of the gene gun
prototype under development are shown schematically in Figure 1. We also developed apractical Gene gun which can be filled with pressurized gas fluid from gas cylinders,
compressors or handheld air pumps.
Our objective was designing CD nozzle with enough speed and momentum on theoutlet to give a good spread on light mass particle.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) vaccination is a fairly novel technology which utilizes
genetically engineered DNA to generate an immunologic response. The crucial strategy
to achieve this purpose is to use DNA plasmids having antigens encoded on them. This
antigen encoding DNA plasmid can elicit humoral and cellular immune response against
pathogens including disease-producing viruses (Wen et al., 2014). Scientific community
start to interested in DNA vaccines in the early 1990s, when it was reported that plasmidDNA, delivered into the skin or muscle, produced antibody responses to viral and nonviral
antigens (Ulmer et al., 1993; Chow et al., 1998).
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Gene gun offers simple yet effective means of DNA vaccine delivery onorganisms. Tang (1992) utillized gene gun to deliver the gene encoding hGH (human
growth hormone) to produce specific antibodies against hGH (Angel et al., 2008). Fynan(1993) reported the presence of antibodies against influenza antigen genes even if onlyused in small quantities by delivering the gene encoding influenza antigens using genegun. Lodmell (1997) showed that the delivery of DNA with a gene gun Accell ™ wasable to induce protective antibodies produced against the rabies virus (Chong et al., 2007).
Loehr (2000) showed that the DNA vaccine mediated by gene gun as its delivery systemmanaged to protect cattle from infection of bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) (Tang et al.,1992). Leitner (2016) reported the delivery of DNA vaccines using tumor gene gun can
improve protective immunity-dependent T cells in mice C57BL / 6.
The main advantage of gene gun technology is not dependent on the existence ofbinding ligand-receptor specific aspects, biochemical or structural components on thesurface of target cells, therefore this technology can be applied to various biologicalsystems such as bacteria (Fu et al., 1997), fungi (Kim and Sin, 2005), various intracellularorganelles (Li et al, 2008; Uchijima 1998), and mammals (Pulsawat et al, 2010; Besse etal., 2008; Becker et al., 2008).
2.

METHODOLOGY

2.1. CD Nozzle and Gene Gun Design
Nozzle is the most crucial part on our gene gun since nozzle will determine theefficiency of DNA vaccine delivery. Nozzle works to modify airflow at gene gun, toregulate the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, or pressure is exerted. CD nozzle,
also known as de Laval Nozzle, is a device that allows supersonic flow to occur in thediverging portion of the nozzle. A supersonic flow allows a greater exit to inlet pressure
ratio to be achieved.

Figure 1. Schematic drawing of converging-diverging nozzle (a) and pneumatic
diagram of Gene gun prototype for DNA vaccine delivery (b).
Nozzle that we used on this study is consisting two parts, the converging nozzle asPart A and the diverging nozzle as Part B as shown in Figure 1 (a). The converging partcontain inlet nozzle as the gate for the particle when entering the nozzle through the428

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throat. Part A connected the quick exhaust valve (QEV) and the diverging nozzle on Part
B. Throat is most important part of the nozzle because it will rise the velocity significantly
and also the drop of the pressure which make the shockwave occur and the Mach number
increase instantly. Three differents diameter, 4 mm (type 1), 6 mm (type 2), and 8 mm
(type 3) was used on the outlet of the divergent type.
2.2. Thrust force and spread of light mass particles
Thrust force from each nozzle was measured using scale which are recorded to know
the exact measurement. Two shooting distance variation, 10 mm and 20 mm, was usedon this experiment. Light mass particles was represent with flour as mock of DNAmicrocarrier particle. 0,07 gr flour was shoot into black paper to observed its spreadingof particles.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Results
Fluid flow characteristic at 10 bars in the nozzle was simulated using CFD software
ANSYS® as shown in Figure 2. The highest velocity which represent by red colour
happened on nozzle throat for all pressure for all nozzles. Those nozzles will efficientenough to deliver the particles with low pressure since using higher pressure did not give
any significant impact on the velocity.
(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2. Flow velocity contour simulation inside of CD nozzle type 1 (a), type 2 (b),and type 3 (c) using 10 bars inlet gas pressure.

Figure 3. Graph of thrust force versus shooting range on pressure inlet 10 bar.
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The relation between thrust force and shooting range is shown in Figure 3. The smaller
the thrust force, the shooting ranges were getting greater. Table 2 showed the particle
spread on different shooting range on 10 mm and 20 mm and different gas pressure inlet
on 6 bars, 8 bars, and 10 bars.
Table 2. The diameter of spreading of the light mass particle based on shooting range.
10 mm
6 bar
8 bar
10
bar

⌀ spread(mm)⌀ center(mm)⌀ spread(mm)⌀ center(mm)⌀ spread(mm)⌀ center
(mm)

Type
1
4,2

Type
2
8

Type
3
10

N/A

N/A

N/A

4

8

9

3,4

7

N/A

3

7

8

2,8

6,6

6

20 mm
6 bar
8 bar
10
bar

⌀ spread(mm)⌀ center(mm)⌀ spread(mm)⌀ center(mm)⌀ spread(mm)⌀ center
(mm)

Type
1
20

Type
2
14

Type
3
22

4,6

8

N/A

16

12

12

16

12

N/A

7

10

11

4

7

N/A

3.2. Discussion
Our result shows that CD nozzle type 1 with 4 mm on diameter gave the best result todeliver DNA vaccine based on its particle spread, thrust force, and momentum. Based onlight mass particle spreading, CD nozzle type 1 shows the best result on spread the particle
where it had the widest spread are but the smallest center shooting area. The longer theshooting range, the particles will spread into wider area. However optimization ondifferent range must be done because longer distance results in reduced particle speed anda decreased likelihood of target penetration, thereby decreasing the transfection efficiency(O’Brien and Lummis, 2006).
The flow in the throat is sonic which means the Mach number is equal to one in thethroat. Downstream of the throat, the geometry diverges and the flow is isentropically
expanded to a supersonic Mach number that depends on the area ratio of the exit to thethroat. The expansion of a supersonic flow causes the static pressure and temperature to
decrease from the throat to the exit, so the amount of the expansion also determines theexit pressure and temperature. The exit temperature determines the exit speed of sound,which determines the exit velocity.
Converging-diverging nozzle works based on isentropic flow (adiabatic phase) whichmeans that total enthalpy and total pressure are constant, moreover the total temperatureis also constant for a perfect gas. As a typical problem, the inlet thermodynamic state(pressure and temperature) is known as well as the inlet velocity (Mach number).
Compressible fluid flowed suddenly from high pressure shall produce a shock wave
phenomenon because of compressibility effects of the fluid itself.
The existence of shock waves provide vibration canal wall which makes the channel
walls wheezes. Schrader valve also will replace the compressor, so that the gene gun canbe used in remote areas that do not have a compressor. Quick Exhaust Valve (QEV) acts
as regulator valve air release before being discharged into the nozzle and silencer
functions as supporting components in the gene gun system, serves to muffle the soundwhen air is released freely.

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In immunization using DNA vaccine, microparticle must be accelerated by a highspeed flow began by a traveling shock wave, so that they can achieve a sufficient
momentum to infiltrate in to the cells of interest (Liu et al., 2007; Corrie and Kendall,2017). In DNA vaccination, powdered vaccines are directly delivered into the antigen
presenting cells (APCs) within the epidermis/dermis (Liu et al., 2007).
Prompt innovations in many fields—including immunology and vaccines—have push
the researchers to develop physical system for cell targeting in the successful DNA
vaccination against major diseases. Currently, biolistic microparticle injection is the mostestablished physical method of DNA vaccination, otherwise known as gene guns. In thisneedle-free procedure, pharmaceutical or immunomodulatory agents, formulated as
particles, are accelerated in a high-speed gas jet to sufficient momentum to penetrate theskin (or mucosal) layer and to achieve a pharmacological effect. Biolistic DNA
vaccination is achieved by the delivery of gold microspheres coated with plasmid DNA
coding for specific antigens to epidermal dendritic cells (Lauterbach et al., 2006).
4.

CONCLUSION

The transient gas inside the prototype of converging-diverging nozzle have beencharacterized by this experiment. Pressure contour was used to indicate the increase ofMach number on throat and shockwave on diverging section. Velocity contour was used
to indicate that the velocity increased on the output, which is much higher than the input.
In some applications of this form of needle-free pharmaceutical agent delivery to the skin,a tighter control of the particle impact momentum distribution may be required. In thiscase, inlet pressure need to be optimized to reach the best velocity and contact area targetto spread the DNA vaccine effectively.
5.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank to Universitas Indonesia, the Ministry of Health, andthe Ministry of Research and Technology for funding support the development of DNA
vaccines delivery system research.
6.

REFERENCES

Becker, P.D., Noerder, M. and Guzmán, C.AGenetic Immunization: Bacteria as DNA
Vaccine Delivery Vehicle. Human Vaccines, 4. 2008. 189-202.
Besse, F. and Ephrussi, A. Translational Control of Localized mRNAs: Restricting
Protein Synthesis in Space and Time. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 9,2008, 971-980.
Chong, S.Y., Egan, M.A., Kutzler, M.A., Megati, S., Masood, A., Roopchard, V., GarciaHand, D., Montefiori, D.C., Quiroz, J., Rosati, M., Schadeck, E.B., Boyer, J.D.,
Pavlakis, G.N., Weiner, D.B., Sidhu, M., Eldridge, J.H. and Israel, Z.R.
Comparative Ability of Plasmid IL-12 and IL-15 to Enhance Cellular andHumoral Immune Responses Elicited by a SIV gag Plasmid DNA Vaccine andAlter Disease Progression Following SHIV(89.6P) Challenge in Rhesus
Macaques. Vaccine, 25. 2007. 4967-4982.

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Fu, T.M., Ulmer, J.B., Caulfield, M.J., et al. Priming of cytotoxic T lymphocytes by DNA
vaccines: requirement for professional antigen presenting cells and evidence for
antigen transfer from myocytes. Mol Med. 1997. 3(6):362-71
Fynan, E.F., Webster, R.G., Fuller, D.H., Haynes, J.R., Santoro, J.C., Robinson, H.L.
DNA vaccines: protective immunizations by parenteral, mucosal, and gene-gun
inoculations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993. 90:11478–11482.
Kim, M.S. and Sin, J.I. Both Antigen Optimization and Lysosomal Targeting Are
Required for Enhanced Anti-Tumour Protective Immunity in a Human
Papillomavirus E7-Expressing Animal Tumour Model. Immunology, 116. 2005.
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Klein, T.M., Wolf, E.D., Wu, R., Sanford, J.C. High velocity microprojectiles fordelivering nucleic acids into living cells. Nature. 327. 1987. 70-73.
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capacities on dendritic cells in gene gun-mediated DNA vaccination. J
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Leitner WW, Baker MC, Berenber TL, Lu MC, Yannie PJ, Udey MC. Enhancement of
DNA tumor vaccine efficacy by gene gun–mediated codelivery of threshold
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Expression in Mammalian Cells. Chinese Journal of Virology, 24. 2008. 101-105.
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ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DESIGN OF SOLAR-POWERED ELECTRIC WATER
RECREATIONAL AND SPORT VESSEL
Sunaryo a, Pradhana S Imfiantob, Aldy Syahrihaddin Hanifac
a b c, , Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, Department of MechanicalEngineering, Universitas Indonesia, E-Mail:a :naryo@eng.ui.ac.id,b:pradhana.sadhu@ui.ac.id, c:aldy.syahrihaddin@ui.ac.id
ABSTRACT
Indonesia is the world’s largest archipelago with more than 17,000 islands, and the best
marine tourism destination due to its beautiful beaches and underwater scenery, but
Indonesia is also the most vulnerable country to be affected by climate change which is
triggered by greenhouse effect in term of its geographical location along the equator.
Beside industry, transportation sector is the highest contributor to the global greenhouseeffect. In order to reduce the resource of greenhouse effect Indonesian Government has astrategic plan through Presidential Regulation no. 61/2011, and emphasized by the
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, and the Ministry of Transport in their 2015 –2019 strategic plans for using new and renewable energy as alternative to fossil based
fuel. In attempt to contribute to the Government’s efforts and in advancing the national
marine tourism sector, the research is aimed to design a water recreational and sport
vessel that powered by solar generated electric engine. This is a further development of
the solar boat created by the Universitas Indonesia team that participated in International
Solar-boat Challenge competition in the Netherlands. The research is focused on theeffective use of solar energy as the main source of powering the vessel’s engine, andtherefore the vessel is designed to the most efficient shape and dimensions obtained fromvarious design aspects analyses. Information regarding the arrangement of the vessel,
solar electric generation processes, and vessel powering system are obtained fromliterature study, discussion with experts, and on the spot surveys of various recreational
locations. Collected data are then used as input for the calculation and simulation of thevessel being designed. The research is expected could be developed further for otherusages such as fish farming, coastal fishing rig, floating restaurant etc.
Keywords: Design; Electric Propulsion; Solar-Electric Boat; Solar Energy; Watertransportation
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, Indonesia has emerged as one of the most favorite tourist destination.
With this positive growth from tourism aspect, the potential development of a watertransportation vehicle that works on clean energy also emerged. This demand arises as
the awareness of protecting environment of tourism spot become major issues in certain
area of the world, especially Indonesia. The possibility of using solar energy as sole powersource to a vessel is a perfect solution to solve this issue. In order to respond to thatcondition, this paper proposes a base design of a personal solar electric boat that isprojected to replace small watercraft vehicle such as jet-ski or motorized kayak. We
believe that this proposed design will be a proper reference in designing a solar electricboat which its application range would vary from personal watercraft up to big passenger
vessel.

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2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. The boat
For the purpose of the project the boat being proposed is shown in figure 1, and has thefollowing main particulars: Mono Semi-Trimaran hull
 Single pilot
 Maximum speed: 20-25 km/h (~11 knots)
 Maximum Cruising time: 4-5 hours continuous operation and depends on sunlight.
With optimum cruising time: 2-3 hours.
 Length over all: 5.8 m
 Width: 1.8 m
 Draft at full load: 0.124 m
 The boat is equipped with one 4.3 kW pod propulsion system permanent magnet
asynchronous motors;
 cruising speeds equal to 15-20 km/h ( ~10knots); Average electrical power required during the cruise 4 kW
 Maximum cruising range : 60 km

Figure 1 Semi-trimaran mono hull boat

Mono-hull semi-trimaran is selected in order to get best power to weight ratio, and toensure proper stability and space availability for PV panels along with its electricalequipment’s. Therefore, it is necessary to arrange optimum quantities of PV Panel.
2.2. Electrical System
2.2.1. Batteries
It is assumed that the average electrical power needed during the cruise is 3 kW and the
maximum peak power is up to 5 kW with most of the power will be used for propulsion
system. Since this boat is designed to take place of normal Jet Ski or other personal small
watercraft, its daily operational will be around 2-3 hours per day with assumption that theboat propulsion system is always running. Also its maximum weight should be

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as minimum as possible, as most electric vehicle has a problem with its weight due tobattery pack weight, in this project the use of available area for the PV Panel and constructsmall but powerful enough battery pack is maximized.
To minimize the vessel weight, the battery package should be as simple as possible.
Therefore, types of battery that will be used are essential to determine the weight of the
package. In this project battery package was custom-made our using 144 cells of Lithiumion Battery and this battery pack will be monitored with aftermarket BMS (Battery
Management System).
Table 1 Battery Specification

These cells of battery will be put in one battery box that will be lined up into 12 Series
and 11 Parallel sets of batteries. Therefore, this custom made battery will resulted in thisthe specifications shown in table 2 and expressed in figure 2.
Table 2 Specifications of Custom Made Battery Pack LG

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Figure 2 Custom Made Battery Pack
In order to guarantee the battery being well protected, this battery pack will be put insidea battery box that also has cooling system to ensure battery temperature stay undercontrol. In conclusion we have built a storage system made by 144 Cells of batteries into
one battery pack, with these features: Total weight: 10 kg (Battery box Included)

Equipped with Cooling system and monitoring system, also safety features thatprevent it from electrical failure.



Volume: 0.420 × 0.180 × 0.280 ≈ 0.024 m3

 Maximum electrical energy storage ≈ 1.5kWh.
With this compact design of Battery pack, the overall weight of its electrical storage
system does not exceed 15 kg. Which means this boat will be handy and very light on thewater. In addition, this electrical system minimizes needs of other mechanical equipmentthat may require additional weight. To activate it simply connects every electrical devices
with the cable to battery terminals, such condition also occurs on motor propulsion which
only to connect its power distribution system from motor controller to battery terminal,
which creates less noise, better efficiency and reliability.
2.2.2. Photovoltaic Generating System and Solar Charge Controller
The area available in the boat for laying photovoltaic array is about 15 m2. On this area,
it is possible to install 4 Canadian Solar Polycrystalline 260 Wp solar module; this typeof panel has a dimensions of 1.280 mm × 928 mm × 55 mm, each of the panel weighs 20
Kg; Maximum Power Voltage (Vmp) 50.4 V, Maximum Power Current (Imp) 5.15 A,
which leads to a Maximum Output Power (WPmax) 260 W in Standard Test Conditions.
This 4 PV Panel will be connected in separated 2 series arrangement, then into parallel
arrangement that will be connected into one solar charge controller. MPPT control
technology is widely used in the application of solar power generation. As shown in
Figure 2, the output voltage of photovoltaic array can be determined in such way that thecorresponding power is the maximum out-power. If the working point is on the left of the
maximum power point: dPdV > 0; and if the working point is on the right of the maximum
power point: dPdV < 0 .Such arrangement is designed to accommodate the usage of single

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solar charge controller, MPPT Victron 150 A, which its function is to adsorbing all theenergy from every single panel. In conclusion, this PV Panel will produce power up to
1.2 kWh, since this boat electrical system works in 48 Volts system, therefore maximum
capacity produce by the PV is:
Wpmax(Total)/working voltage = 1040Wh/48 V = 21.667 A(1)This amount of energy will be transferred in to battery pack, or when the main propulsion
system works in a condition that not exceed maximum charging current from PV Panelthen all the energy from PV will be directly use for the propulsion without taking energy
from battery. However, there is another way to improve the amount of energy adsorbed,
by installing every single panel with its own MPPT Solar charge controller. This
arrangement will lead into better efficiency, because if power drop occurs to a panel itwill not disturb whole system charging activity, so that power drop only occur at thatdrooping panel.

Figure 3 260 Wp Polycrystalline PV Panel
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In order to determine boat service speed and amount of energy used during sailing, it isnecessary to recognized how energy flows in a solar boat. As seen on figure 4, it shows
few components that works related to energy flows and things required to calculate boat
service speed. Therefore, providing data of ship resistance is essential to determine boat
service speed. In this research, such data will be provided by conducting software
simulation using maxsurf resistance software. Then, this data will be use in energy
consumption and constant speed calculation

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Figure 4 Solar Boat Energy Flow Diagram
3.1. Hull ResistanceTo determine the amount of power required by the ship to be able to sail at a certain
speed, then the simulation of ship resistance using maxsurf resistance software should be
performed by using slender body method as a method of analysis of ship resistance.
Parameter included in the simulation is 60% efficiency of hull resistance, where theresults of this analysis will appear in the form of figure "Power vs. Speed" and the table
results of software analysis, which will then be used for data processing of energy
consumption analysis and determination of ship speed. The result of maxsurf resistancesoftware analysis is shown in Figure 5.

Power Vs Speed Slender Body

18
16
14
12
10
Power (kW)8Power Vs
Speed
100%

6
4

Power Vs
Speed
60%

2
0

0

5

10

15
20
25
Speed (km/h)

30

35

40

Figure 5 Power vs Speed Maxsurf Resistance Using Slender Body Method

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3.2 Electrical Load From Variated Throttle Opening
Using hull resistance data, we could determine amount of power needed by eachpercentage used in throttle variations of the ship propulsion system in order to match withthe ship's operating characteristics. This calculation will follow to the procedure ofdetermining electrical current needed for motor by selected output power divided byelectrical system voltage., then obtained the results of data processing as in Figure 6 andTable 3.

Amps Vs Speed

400
350
300
250

Current(A)200
Amps Vs
Speed

150
100
50
0
-50

0

10

20

30

40

Boat
maximumThortle Vs
Speed

Speed (Km/h)Figure 6 Amps Vs Speed

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Table 3 Throttle Variation

Throttle
Percentage
(%)
100
90
80
75
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
10

Current
(A)

Power
(kW)

Speed
(km/h)

89.58
80.63
71.67
67.19
62.71
53.75
44.79
35.83
26.87
22.39
17.92
8.96

4300
3870
3440
3225
3010
2580
2150
1720
1290
1075
860
430

20.67
19.83
18.93
18.44
17.96
16.88
15.71
14.39
12.96
12.18
11.42
9.58

3.3 Energy Consumption Calculation
After determining the magnitude of the power, the required current of the motor, and the
speed of the vessel of each variation of the throttle. Furthermore, the data is processed inaccordance with energy consumption procedure, using 60 km sailing range as targeted
distance and maximum PV charging current as assumption of daylight condition. With
data from sub-chapter 3.1 and 3.2 we will proceed to determine which speed to be used
to fulfill 60 km sailing range, in constant speed mode, as shown in Table 4 and Table 5.

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Tabel 4. Energy Consumption
Speed(Km/h)
20.67
19.83
18.93
18.44
17.96
16.88
15.71
14.39
12.96
12.18
11.42
9.58

Input
Current

Battery Capacity

PV Panel(A)

Battery (80%)
(Ah)

21.67
21.67
21.67
21.67
21.67
21.67
21.67
21.67
21.67
21.67
21.67
21.67

26.4
26.4
26.4
26.4
26.4
26.4
26.4
26.4
26.4
26.4
26.4
26.4

OutputCurrent (tomotor) (A)Throttle
Percentage(%)

Battery
Discharge
Load(A)

89.58
80.63
71.67
67.19
62.71
53.75
44.79
35.83
26.88
22.395
17.92
8.96

100
90
80
75
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
10

67.92
58.96
49.99
45.52
41.04
32.08
23.13
14.17
5.21
0.73
-3.75
-12.71

Tabel 1. Energy Consumption
Battery Draining Time Until 20%
Hours
Minutes
0.39
23 minutes 32 seconds
0.45
27 minutes 26 seconds
0.53
32 minutes 8 seconds
0.58
35 minutes 19 seconds
0.64
38 minutes 59 seconds
0.82
49 minutes 37 seconds
1 Hour 8 minutes 27
1.14
seconds
1 Hour 51 minutes 12
1.86
seconds
5 Hours 4 minutes 2
5.07
seconds
36.21
36 Hours 12 minutes
Battery Charging
Battery Charging
Battery Charging
Battery Charging

Sailed Distance (S= Vxt)(Km)

Distance toTravel

8.03
8.88
10.00
10.69
11.55
13.89

51.97
51.12
50.00
49.31
48.45
46.11

17.93

42.07

26.82

33.18

65.69

-5.69

> 60 kmMore than 60 km
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4. CONCLUSIONS
The design of a Solar-Electric Boat for personal use as tourist’s recreational vessel along
the coast, in the rivers, in the lakes has been presented in detail. With this system, it ispossible to replace common type of personal water recreational vehicle. In advance, thisdesign can be a preference for fuel engine to electrical propulsion conversion ofpassenger vessel, by realizing a loss in power, and without changing the weight and thedimension of the boat. In aspect of new construction, the construction of the boat shouldbe able to handle the boat load design. By optimizing the use of material in accordancewith the boat load design, will provide a significant weight reduction and making it more
efficient.
This particular boat will able to travel 60 km in constant speed at 30% throttle opening,which provide the boat with 12.96 km/h sailing speed and sailing time up to 5 hours 4
Minutes and 2 seconds. With this performance, this boat will be a perfect candidate to
replace common type of water recreational vehicle.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is funded by PITTA from Universitas Indonesia. Thank you are delivered
to Department of Mechanical Engineering - Universitas Indonesia, Naval Architect
program study, also Solar Boat Team Universitas Indonesia 2016 who had race in the
Netherland that provide us with significant data and experienced to work on this research,and for every party that support the development of this research.
6. REFERENCES[1] G.S. Spagnolo, D. P. (2012). Eco Friendly Electric Propulsion Boat. Journal ofTransportation Technologies, 1-4.
[2] Kurniawan, A. (2016). A Review of Solar-Powered Boat Development. Journal
for Technology and Science, 1-8.
[3] Mahmud, K. (2014). Design and Fabrication of an Automated Solar Boat. 1-4.
[4] Salem, A. (2016). TECHNO-ECONOMIC APPROACH TO SOLAR ENERGYSYSTEMS ONBOARD MARINE VEHICLE. Polish Maritime Research, 64-71.
[5] Spagnolo, G. S. (2012). Solar-Electric Boat. Journal of Transportation
Technologies, 1-6.
[6] Tukaram, S. (2016). Design and Fabrication of a Solar Boat. International

Journal of Innovation in Engineering Research and Technology, 1-4.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
VISUALIZATION OF WATER FLOW PHENOMENON IN HYDRAULIC RAM PUMPWORKING CYCLE BY DIFFERENT COLORS DYES INJECTION
Made Suarda1,5, I Gusti Bagus Wijaya Kusuma2,6, Made Sucipta3, and Ainul Ghurri4
1,3,4,6
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Udayana University, Kampus Bukit Jimbaran
Badung-Bali 80362, Indonesia
5
Doctoral Student of Engineering Science, Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali 80225,
Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Hydram (hydraulic ram) pump structure is simple. It consists of two moving parts. They are waste
or impulse valve and delivery valve. However, interaction of all elements of hydram pump systeminfluence each other. This causes a comprehensive understanding of its operation becomescomplex. Moreover, a detailed description of this hydram pump has not been well understood.
Hence, numerical analysis or simulations of hydram pump model that has been done has not beenable to describe accurately its phenomena. Therefore, a precise design and mathematical
calculations of the hydram pump has not been establish until now, thus making it still depends on
the assumption based on preciding experiences. In order to get the hydram pump designs, it needs
to recognize comprehensively the water flow phenomenon that take place in the hydram pumpworking cycles. Therefore, visualization of the water flow characteristic in the hydram pump isdone by constructing a hydram pump model using a transparent material that is acrylic. In thisstudy, the water flow phenomenon in hydram pump system is visualized experimentally by threedifferent color dyes injection method. Then, video and pictures recorded for investigating the waterflow phenomena in hydram pump working cycle which includes acceleration, compression,delivery and recoil steps. This work was introduced for the first time and used to investigate waterflow phenomenon in the along flow line of the pump. The results show that the water flow
characteristic at every step of the hydram pump working cycle have been investigated. These
results are very useful in well understanding of the working principle of hydram pump, and indeveloping further analysis and simulation works.
Keywords: Dyes injection; Flow phenomenon; Hydraulic ram; Visualization
1. INTRODUCTION
Hydram pump (hydraulic ram) is a mechanical pump that works automatically without the use ofelectrical energy, but use momentum of the driving water flow to pump some of the water into thereservoir (Jenning, 1996). Hydram pump had been discovered by John Whitehurst in 1771 (Sheikh
et al., 2013). The hydraulic ram represents a good alternative to conventional pumping devices
with lower initial financial effort (Inthachot et al., 2015). This pump system is a very simple device,consisting of two pipes (drive pipe and delivery pipe), pump body, two valves (waste valves anddelivery valve), and an air vessel (Diwan et al., 2016). Therefore, ideally, different combinationsof the supply and delivery heads and flows, stroke length and weight of the impulse valve, length
to diameter ratio of the drive pipe, volume of the air chamber and size of the snifter valve areparameters design of hydram pump (Pathak et al., 2016). The design of waste valve is very much
2

Corresponding Author. Tel.:+62-83872045869; fax:+62-361773021; E-mail address: wijaya.kusuma@unud.ac.id

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
importance aspect in hydram performance (Deo et al., 2016). Moreover, the waste valve is a key
component of the hydram, requiring focus and further optimization to improve the overall
efficiency of the mechanism (Nambiar et al., 2015). In addition, Yang et al. (2014) proposed acambered diffuser rather than conical diffuser that connected to the hydram body in order toenhancing it efficiency. In general, a methodology that can be used for the primary design
considerations and applications in various ways were proposed by Balguda (2015).
Although its construction is simple, but the flow phenomena actually happened has not been wellunderstood. The first theoretical explanation of the concept of water hammer is used in hydram
pump work presented by Zhukovsky in 1898 (Filipan et al., 2003). A rational theoretical analysisof the hydram pump characteristics was first presented by O'Brien and Gosline (1933). By using
experimental data of pressure versus time was success to explain the working principle of thehydram pump. The analysis assumed hydram pump cycle in four steps, they are acceleration,
compression, delivery and recoil periods, as described by Chi and Diemer (2002) as well. Lansfordand Dugan (1941) conducted a similar approach with some improvements, and assume the sixphase of hydram pump cycle. They modify Gosline and O'Brien theory by performing anexperiment with. Furthermore, Krol (1951) uses the rigid column theory for the entire of thehydram pump working cycle and uses the static characteristics that measured from valves andpipes in the mathematical models, as well as assumes seven phases in the hydram pump cycle.
Krol has proved that it is possible to predict the characteristics of the hydram pump by giving
properties of the hydram pump installation that are specified separately. Furthermore, an equation
proposed by Alkouhi et al (2015) for determining efficiency of hydram pump by using non-linear
regression. After comparing proposed equation with the artificial neural network, the proposed
equation was validated with numerical model based on Lansford and Dugan’s theory andexperimental results of Lansford and Dugan tests.
Detailed mechanism of hydram pump operations are not well understood yet. Therefore, Taye(1998) conducted a laboratory test of a hydram pump to determine some parameters associated tohydram pump operation. A draft waste valve designed such that the weight and its stroke can bevaried depending on the head of driving water supply. Furthermore, Filipan et al. (2003) create amathematical model of hydram pump system and explain the simplified working cycle of hydram
pump. Because of the flow of water in the hydram pump system is unsteady, then the equation of
unsteady flow in a pipe and method of characteristic (MOC) is used. `(a)(b)
Figure 1 Pressure (a) and velocity (b) variation in waste valve

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

In the latest of this decade, CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) simulation methods tends to be
used, as was done by Maw and Hte (2014). They created hydram pump design then simulated thephenomenon of water flow through a waste valve with commercial CFD software that is Solid
Work software. However, this paper only show the pressure distribution and velocity on the waste
valve, as shown in Figure 1, and did not identify any waste valve design influence on the hydram
pump performance. Furthermore, analysis of the hydram pump performance using CFD was
conducted by Shende and Choudary (2015). Analysis of the hydram pump performance was doneby using one of the commercial CFD software ie. Fluent. The simulation results show that the mass
flow rate of water through the new design of the waste valve is smaller than the old model, andprovide a better performance of hydram pump system. The analytical calculations can be madefurther simple by writing a computer programme which will help to determine the optimum
solution. Modelling and analysis can be carried out using Ansys Fluent software which determines
the various design parameters (Sampath et al., 2015).
There is limited information in the literature about experimental flow characterization studies ofhydraulic ram pump system. Flow visualization methods are very useful for identifying these
deviations from the ideal conditions. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), Particle Tracking
Velocimetry (PTV), Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) and smoke or dye injection are
experimental ﬂow visualization methods that have been used for this purpose (Karadeniz et al.,2013). One of the most important contributions was the use of aniline dye to produce colored waterin the Osborne Reynolds experiment conducted in 1883.
In a very recent study, Goshayeshi and Chaer (2016) experimentally investigated the flow
visualization in a closed-loop OHP which is constructed using a Pyrex glass with kerosene as theworking ﬂuid. The phase change phenomena and bubble generation in the heating section wererecorded using a high-speed video camera (Panasonic VX87) with frame rate of 100 frames per
second. The internal flow pattern in pipe or tube could be studied using flow visualization.
Hitherto, an analysis of the flow in the pump hydram has been done through simulation of hydram
pump models using commercial CFD software. Some approaches and assumptions in determining
the boundary conditions are often taken. This of course affects the accuracy of the simulation
results. Up to this decade, no one work has presented a real condition of flow pattern that actuallyoccur in the hydram pump system. Therefore in this study, the water flow phenomenon in hydram
pump system is visualized experimentally by three different color dyes injection method. In
addition, the components of the hydram pump system are constructed using clear tube material(acrylic). This visualization work was introduced for the first time for investigating the water flow
patterns in the hydram pump system.
2. METHODOLOGY
In this study, an experimental work was carried out on the installation of hydram pump system asshown in Figure 2. All hydram pump components are created using the clear acrylic material. Flowvisualization is carried out in water flow throughout the hydram pump model. The water is injectedwith dyes of three different color liquids through small orifices in the drive pipe of the hydram
model so as to act as streamline tracers. The water flow phenomena in the hydram pump wasrecorded using a high-speed video camera (Sony) with frame rate 120 frames per second. Body

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)and air vessel of the hydram pump have 50 mm of diameter, and its drive pipe diameter is 25 mmwith length of 2270 mm. The tests carried out on the drive head of 980 mm and 1425 mm delivery
head. Mass of waste valve mass and delivery valve are 90 gram and 25 gram, respectively.

k

j
d
a

h

b

c

f
e
g

i

Figure 2 Scheme of the experimental set-up of the hydraulic ram system
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Based on test results of the hydraulic ram on the drive head of 0.98 m and 1.425 m of delivery
head, capacity of waste and pumping water measured is 0.41 liter/second and 0.085 liter/second,
respectively. It means that the total efficiency of hydram pump at this operation is about 25%. This
is too low. It caused by this pump was just operated at too low head, considering on the materialof the pump is constructed using a low strength material that is acrylic. In addition, the low headoperation makes low pressure at the valves, hence the valves cannot be closed tightly.
Stroke74.4

Open (full)

86.4

Delivery Valve
Close (full)

.
0

59.4

. 93.9
71.4

93.9

100

T (%)

Waste Valve
Open (full)

59.2

100

Figure 3 The waste and delivery valves movement in hydram pump cycle

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By extracting video to frames, they show that the hydram pump operates at period of 1.11 seconds
per cycle and at frequency of 54 pulses per minute. Furthermore, the period of time (T) of thewaste and delivery valves movement can be illustrated as in Figure 3. In addition, the hydram
pump operation can be described in four steps. They are acceleration, compression, delivery andrecoil.
Acceleration step takes place when waste valve is open and delivery valve is close. The water fromthe drive tank begins to flow through the drive pipe and out through the waste valve, as shown in
Figure 4. The flow of water is accelerated as a result of head of driving water through a drive pipe
into the pump body and out through the open waste valve, up to a certain speed is reached in thedrive pipeline. At a certain critical speed where momentum of the water flow capable to moving
the waste valve, then this valve closes suddenly as a result of hydrodynamic force which
overcomes the gravity force of the waste valve that tends to stay in open state. Acceleration step
takes place around 0.74 seconds or 0.66 of period of the cycle. In addition, the water flow in drive
pipe is turbulent but steady at average Reynolds number about 25,000. Furthermore, the picture
shows that the water flow direction from the drive pipe to the tee of hydram pump body is turnedat an angle (180-), where  is the slope of the drive pipe. Moreover, suction side takes place at
upper side of upstream hydram pump body.

Figure 4 Acceleration step in the hydram pump cycle
The second step is compression, which occurs when a water hammer occurs due to the waste valve
to close suddenly while the delivery valve is closed as well, as shown in Figure 5. The high pressure
will occur in the pump body. The water can only come out through the delivery valve into the air
vessel, then it compresses the air contained within the vessel until the water flow rate to be zero.
When the waste valve is close, this causes in the cessation of the water flow and be causing apressure wave. The water in the drive pipe will generate a great momentum and move in any
direction. The water pressure wave will be partially enter the drive pipe and partly compressed in
the pump body. Based on the frames of the video, the compression step takes place in very shorttime, around 0:03 seconds or 0.027 of period of the cycle.

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Figure 5 Compression step in the hydram pump cycle
The following step is delivery. This step takes place when the waste valve is closed and the delivery
valve is open. The compressed air in the air vessel will press the water in the tank into the delivery
pipe and then flows into the reservoir, as shown in Figure 6. The high increase in the pressure enter
into the air vessel through the open delivery valve until the water in the drive pipe are in balance
condition and the pressure in the pump body decreases. The delivery valve will be closed and stop
the flow of water to the pump body, therefore, causing water flow towards the delivery pipe.
Moreover, the frames of the video show that the suction side takes place at the upper side of thedownstream hydram pump body. Furthermore, the delivery step takes place around 0:15 seconds
or 0.135 of period of the cycle.

Figure 6 Delivery step in the hydram pump cycle
The final step is recoil. After the pressure of water above the delivery valve is higher than the staticpressure of water in the pump body, the valve will close and the water flow into the air vessel willstop and then move back into the drive pipe. The water flow backs from the pump body into thedrive pipe is clearly appear in the frames of the video. This will result in the pressure in the pumpbody will be low and the waste valve due to load the waste valve opens automatically and water
will flow again through the waste valve. Hydram pump cycle will be repeated again.

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Furthermore, based on the frames that are extracted from the high-speed video, the water flow
phenomena in hydram pump system such as the shape and direction of flow, separation region, aback flow, and period time of every parameter of flow phenomena can be identified. The data will
be very useful as a consideration in developing a CFD simulation.
4. CONCLUSION
The visualization of water flow phenomena in hydraulic ram pump using a transparent material of
the pump construction and equipped with different color dyes injection has been shown the waterflow characteristic at every step in over whole the cycle. Furthermore, the period of time of thewaste and delivery valves stroke can be illustrated These results are very useful in wellunderstanding of the working principle of hydram pump, and in developing further analysis andsimulation works.
5. REFERENCES
Alkouhi, R., Ara, B.L., dan Keramat, A. 2015. Determine the Efficiency of Hydraulic Ram Pumps.
E-Proceedings of the 36th IAHR World Congress. 28 June – 3 July. Netherland.
Balguda, R.D., et al. 2015. Designing of Hydraulic Ram Pump. International Journal ofEngineering and Computer Science. Vol 4 No 5, pp. 11966-11971
Chi M., dan Diemer, P. 2002. Hydraulic Ram Handbook. Bremen Overseas Research andDevelopment Association, Bremen
Deo, A., Pathak, A., Khune, S. and Pawar, M.M. 2016. Design Methodology for Hydraulic Ram
Pump. IJIRST - International Journal for Innovative Research in Science & Technology, Vol
5, No. 4, pp. 4737- 4745.
Diwan, P., Patel, A. and Sahu L. 2016. Design and Fabrication of Hydraulic Ram with Methodsof Improving Efficiency. International Journal of Current Engineering and Scientific Research(IJCESR), Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 5-13.
Filipan, V., Vireg, Z., dan Bergant, A. 2003. Mathematical Modelling of a Hydraulic Ram Pump
System. Journal of Mechanical Engineering. In Strojniski Vestnik. Vol 49 No. 3, pp 137-149.
Goshayeshi, H.R. and Chaer, I. 2013. Experimental Study and Fow Visualization of
Fe2O3/Kerosene in Glass Oscillating Heat Pipes. Applied Thermal Engineering, Elsevier Inc.
Vol. 103, pp. 1213–1218.
Jennings, G.D. 1996. Hydraulic Ram Pumps. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service.
Publication Number: EBAE 161-92. North Carolina.
Inthachot, M., Saehaeng, S., Max, J.F.J., Müllerc, J. and Spreer, W. 2015. Hydraulic Ram Pumps
for Irrigation in Northern Thailand. Elsevier B.V. Agriculture and Agricultural Science
Procedia Vol. 5 (2015), pp.107-114.
Karadeniz, H.K., Kumlutas, D. and Ozer, O. 2013. Experimental Visualization of the Fow
Characteristics of the Outﬂow of a Split Air Conditioner Indoor Unit by Meshed Infrared
Thermography and Stereo Particle Image Velocimetry. Experimental Thermal and Fluid
Science, Elsevier Inc. Vol. 44, pp. 334–344.
Krol, J. 1951. The Automatic Hydraulic Ram. Proceedings of the Institution of MechanicalEngineers. Vol. 165, pp 53-73
Lansford, W. M. and Dugan W. G. 1941. An Analytical and Experimental Study of the HydraulicRam. University of Illinois Bulletin. Vol 38 No. 22.

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Maw, Y.Y. dan Hte, Z.M. 2014. Design of 15 meter Head Hydraulic Ram Pump. International
Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research. Vol 03 No. 10, pp 2177-2181.
Nambiar, P., Shetty, A., Thatte, A., Lonkar, S., and Jokhi, V. 2015. Hydraulic Ram Pump
Maximizing efficiency. International Conference on Technologies for Sustainable
Development (ICTSD), 4-6 Feb. 2015, Mumbai – India. Published by IEEE.
O'Brien, M.P. dan Gosline, J.E. 1933. The Hydraulic Ram. University of California Press.
Pathak, A., Deo, A., Khune, S., Mehroliya, S. and Pawar, M.M. 2016. Design of Hydraulic Ram
Pump. IJIRST - International Journal for Innovative Research in Science & Technology, Vol
2, No. 10, pp. 290-293.
Sampath, S.S., et al. 2015. Estimation of Power and Efficiency of Hydraulic Ram Pump with Recirculation System. International Journal of Computer-aided Mechanical Design and
Implementation. Vol 1 No. 1, pp 7-18.
Sheikh, A., Handa, C.C., dan Ninawe, A.P. 2013. A Generalised Design Approach for HydraulicRam Pump: A Review. International Journal of Engineering & Science Research. Vol 3 No.
10, pp. 551-554.
Shende, P.B., Choudhary, S.K. dan Ninawe, A.P. 2015. Analysis and Enhancement of HydraulicRam Pump Using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). International Journal for Innovative
Research in Science & Technology. Vol 2 No. 3, pp 109-133
Taye, T. 1998. Hydraulic Ram Pump. Journal of the ESME. Vol. 2 No. 1, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Yang, K.L., et al. 2014. Design and Hydraulic Performance of a Novel Hydram. 11th International
Conference on Hydroinformatics. New York, 8 January2014. Paper no 108.

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SIMULATION STUDY ON THE ESTIMATION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF
REFRIGERATED CONTAINER
Muhammad Arif Budiyanto a*, Nasruddin a, Fariz Zhafari ba
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesiab
Undergraduate Student at Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Indonesia*Corresponding author arif@eng.ui.ac.id
ABSTRACT
Refrigerated containers account for half of the total electricity consumption by storage
yards and that this is expected to increase continuously each year. A refrigerated container
is a special cargo container equipped with an integral refrigeration unit. The amount of
power consumption of the refrigerated container will change depending on many externalvariables. Environmental factors mainly solar radiation received on the container walls
caused surface temperatures increase will then affect the power consumption. This paper
provides a simulation study on the estimation of energy consumption of refrigerated
container. The simulation model performed on the building-design energy analysis used
Integrated Environmental Solution (IES) software packages. The geometry of simulation
model considers the actual dimension of refrigerated container consists of insulation wallsin the three-dimensional analysis. Physical properties of the insulation walls andenvironmental factors used weather data are applied to the simulation model as parameter
inputs. Estimation of energy consumption of the model based on the calculation of coolingload from the object considers the thermal effect from the sun energy. The measurement
data from the experimentation was conducted by Shinoda and Budiyanto (2016) used asvalidation of simulation model. The comparison of energy consumption from simulationand measurement shows in shows in good agreement.
Keywords: Refrigerated container; Energy simulation; Energy consumption; Energy
analysis; Environmental factors
1. INTRODUCTION
The growth of container traffic pushes container port to develop port infrastructure towards
performance improvement. Nowadays reduction of energy consumption has been become
trending issue in container port sector to cut greenhouse gas effect. Reduction of energy
consumption has direct impacts on emissions, minimizing the environment effect andreducing operational costs. A greenhouse gas emitted from ships and cargo handling
operations during at port for loading and unloading cargo. Some methods for greenhousegas reduction has been implemented, such as electric power supplied system to rubber tired
gantry crane, hybrid model straddle carriers instead of conventional straddle carriers and atrial system of roof shade for refrigerated container to reduce a load of solar insolation(Shinoda & Budiyanto, 2016).
Related to electricity consumption, refrigerated container facility has contributed thehighest energy consumption in container terminal (Greencranes 2013). A refrigerated

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container is a special cargo container equipped with an integral refrigeration unit.
Electricity is used to run refrigeration system and to remove heat from the internal
environment of the container. The amount of energy consumed by refrigerated will change
depending on many external variables. These include the ambient air temperature andhumidity, location of the refrigerated container, the age of the container, the refrigerant
used and refrigeration technologies used (Wilmsmeier 2012). Electric power consumption
by refrigerated container is key parameter to measure the energy consumption of thisequipment will then become benchmarking value for development of energy saving in thisarea.
Several studies has been performed to measure energy consumption of refrigerated
containers under given conditions for a fixed time (Jolly et al. 2000), Wild (2009) andShinoda & Budiyanto (2016). Jolly et al. (2000) measured the energy consumption ofrefrigerated containers has values between 4.42 kW and 8.63 kW depend on the insidetemperature setting. Wild (2009) was performed measurement experience of 20 feet and 40
feet refrigerated containers estimated the energy consumption was around 3.6 kW per
TEU. Shinoda & Budiyanto (2016) was measured the high cube refrigerated container
under the exposed of solar radiation consumed energy about 7.2 kW/h. Looking from thesevarious values of energy consumption by refrigerated container, the estimation study bysimulation will take benefit for further energy analysis in container terminal operation.
In order to predict energy consumption of refrigeration container, numerical analysis usingbuilding-design energy simulation will provide an overview of the thermal performance ofthe circumstances object therefore calculation of energy consumption in various condition
can be estimate.
This paper aims to estimate the energy consumption of refrigerated container in the fixed
condition by simulation model. The simulation model based on finite difference approachto the solution of the heat diffusion equation. A simulation model of high cube refrigerated
container carried out to evaluate heat load on the refrigerated container. Physical propertiesof the insulation walls and environmental factors used weather data applied to thesimulation model as parameter inputs. Furthermore, the validation of simulation result uses
measurement data from the experimentation was conducted by Shinoda and Budiyanto(2016).
2. SIMULATION MODEL
The estimation of energy consumption was performed by means of a building energy
modeling using Integrated Environmental Solution – Virtual Environment (IES-VE)
software packages. IES-VE simulation is a dynamic thermal simulation program based on
first principles mathematical modelling of the heat transfer processes occurring within andaround a building. The simulation results provides an environment for the detailed
evaluation of building and system designs, allowing them to be optimized with regard to
comfort criteria and energy use. The calculation process of this simulation study shown in
the Figure 1.

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Set Geometrical Model(Dimension of refrigerated container)
Initial heat transfer parameters(Temperature, density, and thermal conductivity)
Governing equations(Dynamic thermal simulation)
Heat diffusion(Equation 1)

Heat Convection(Equation 2)

Solar Radiation(Equation 3)

Discretisation(Integrate into finite difference)
Heat Load Calculation(The CIBSE ‘Simple Model’ for Heat Gain)
Estimated results(Validate use measurement experiment)

Figure 1 Calculation process of the simulation study
2.1. Governing equations
The heat transfer processed such as conduction, convection and radiation for each elementof the building fabric are individually modelled and integrated with models of container
heat load. The set of governing equations of the simulation models describes as follows:a. The heat diffusionT   T    c
tb. Heat ConvectionW hc Ta  Ts 
c. Solar Radiation
I
I df  I b sin 
g

(1)
(2)
(3)

Where in Equation 1, T is the temperature (ºC) in the solid at position and time t, λ is the
conductivity of the solid (W/m2 K), ρ is the density of the solid (kg/m3), c is the specificheat capacity of the solid (J/kgK). In Equation 2, W is the heat flux (W/m2) from the air tothe surface, Ta is the bulk air temperature (ºC), Ts is the mean surface temperature (ºC), andhc is the convective heat transfer coefficient. Thus in Equation 3, Ig is the total solar flux
(W/m2) on the horizontal plane, Idf is the diffuse sky solar flux (W/m2) on the horizontal
plane, Idf is the solar flux (W/m2) measured perpendicular to the beam and α is the solar
altitude. In this study the simulation model is driven by real weather data measurement. For
these purpose, the value of diffuses sky solar flux and beam solar flux was deliberately
taken from experimental measurement on the certain time.

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2.2. Geometrical model and parameter inputs
The geometry of simulation model considers the actual dimension of high cube refrigerated
container consists of insulation walls in the three-dimensional analysis. The dimension ofhigh cube refrigerated container is 12.1 meter length, 2.4 meter width and 2.8 meter height.
The structures is consisted ceiling wall, side walls, floor, and corner metal casting
foundation. Inside space of refrigerated container mainly serves as the cargo hold, with thefloor is equipped with T-grating functioned as air circulation from the refrigeration system
which attached at the end of the spaces. Figure 2 shows the illustration of the simulation
model.

Figure 2 Geometrical model of the simulation study
For the instance of physical parameter inputs uses the design specification obtained frommanufactured catalogs. Refrigerated container are constructed from the container walls arecomposed from three material layers that are aluminium, polyurethane and stainless steel
with the thickness is 0.8 mm, 90 mm and 0.9 mm, respectively. The thermal conductivity ofthese material are 204 W/mK, 0.03 W/mK and 16 W/mK, respectively. Container design
data available from the manufacturer is minimum inside temperature of -0°F (-18°C) andmaximum outside temperature of 100°F (38°C). The overall heat transfer rate is 7,556
BTU/hour (1,904 kcal/hour) with a U-Factor is 75.0 BTU/hour °F (34 kcal/hour °C). The
exterior surface is composed from aluminium panel with flat surface, and all surfaces ispainted with white color. Table 1 shows the physical parameter inputs of the simulation
model in this study.
Table 1 Parameter inputs for the material properties of the simulation model
Material
Thickness
Thermal Conductivity
Aluminium
0.8 mm204 W/mK
Polyurethane
90.0 mm
0.003 W/mK
Stainless steel
0.9 mm16 W/mK

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of simulation model are presented here. Simulation results are provide theestimated value of energy consumption in one day and one year operation for a high cube
refrigerated container. The estimated result of energy consumption in one day operation
was compared with the measurement experiment data by Shinoda & Budiyanto (2016). The
measurement data on 15th August 2015 has been chosen as comparison since the weather
condition on this day has clear sky condition which mean the global solar radiation emitted
in the peak intensity.
Validation of simulation result and measurement data carried out to produce an accurate
and credible model for further estimation of energy consumption. The simulation result was
validated by measurement data at specific hours during the day’s operations. The
validation of the simulation was assessed by determining mean absolute error (EMAE). The
equation for EMAE determination can be expressed as:

1 n

EMAE
 Pm  Pe
n i 1(4)

Where Pe is estimated energy consumption and Pm is measured energy consumption, n is
the number of population. In order to ascertain the simulation result appertain in theconfidence level, 99% confidence interval was predetermined for each validation toascertain the validity of the simulation model. From the validation result using the Equation
4 obtained the mean absolute error of the simulation model is 0.47 kW. This value
described that the difference value between simulation result and measurement data isaround 0.47 kW for each ascertain time, therefore with the 99% confidence interval shows
it difference values cover for almost estimation point range.
3.1. Estimated energy consumption in one day operation
Energy consumption of a reefer container particular define as the electricity consumption
in one day operation. Design of energy consumption of refrigerated container in one day
operation prepare inside cargo hold in the empty condition with set temperature into zero
degree Celsius. The standard for energy consumption of refrigerated container following
the rules of ISO 1496-2:2008 Series 1 freight containers - Specification and testing, Part 2:
Thermal containers (ISO, 2008). According this standard, both simulation model andmeasurement experiment set inside temperature into zero degree Celsius with empty cargohold. The simulation model performed in the transient time during one day operation
provided the estimation of energy consumption each one hour time step.
In this study, the energy analysis for one day operation will use time range between 08:30
AM until 17:30 PM since the solar radiation take an effect to the heat load of the container
during this time. Figure 3 shows the comparison value of energy consumption of a highcube refrigerated container between IES-VE result and measurement data. Simulation
results estimated the maximum energy consumption around 3.1 kW at 08:30 AM andminimum energy consumption is 2.7 kW at 17:30 PM. The value of energy consumption
indicate the amount of energy to remove heat load from the inside cargo effect from theheat penetration due to solar radiation.

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4.0

Energy Consumption (kW)

3.5

IES-VE

Measurement

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

8:30 9:30
15-Aug-15

10:30 11:30 12:30 13:30 14:30 15:30 16:30 17:30
Time (hours)

Figure 3 Energy consumption of a high cube refrigerated container in one day operation
The average energy consumption by simulation during one day operation is 2.8 kW, thisresult consistent with the result conducted by Fitzgerald et al. (2011). The comparison ofenergy consumption per hour shows that the energy consumption by simulation model has
various difference values with measurement data. The highest difference value found at theinitial time at 08:30, this circumstances due to simulation model assumed the refrigerated
container object prepared as container without pre-conditioning, therefore the heat to be
remove in the first calculation higher than other time step. The lowest difference value ofenergy consumption found in the noonday 11:30 AM, this result give direction of suitable
time for the further analysis in the estimation of energy consumption.
3.2. Estimated energy consumption in one year operation
In field of energy analysis in container terminal, the overview of energy consumption in
one year operation will provide a direction for the further development of opportunity onenergy saving in this area. Concerning this circumstances, in this paper provide theestimation energy consumption of a refrigerated container in one year operation. Figure 4
shows estimated value of total energy consumption of a high cube refrigerated container in
one year operation by IES-VE. The maximum of energy consumption of a refrigerated
container in one year operation estimated around 0.57 MWh in August, thus the minimumof energy consumption estimated around 0.32 MWh in March. The profile of energy
consumption in one year operation following the normal distribution of solar radiation. The
trend of energy consumption following the trend of solar radiation which uses in thesimulation model as shown in Figure 5. The trend of solar radiation imported from theweather data very influence to the calculation result as heat load from the environment, thisresult consistent with the result by Budiyanto and Shinoda (2017).

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Figure 4 Estimated value of total energy consumption of a high cube refrigerated container
in one year operation

1200
1000
800
600

400
200
0

1
215
429
643
857
1071
1285
1499
1713
1927
2141
2355
2569
2783
2997
3211
3425
3639
3853
4067
4281
4495
4709
4923
5137
5351
5565
5779
5993
6207
6421
6635
6849
7063
7277
7491
7705
7919
8133
8347
8561

Solar Radiation (W/m2)

1400

January

Time (Hours)

DecemberFigure 4 The intensity of solar radiation which uses in the simulation model

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4. CONCLUSION
The estimation of energy consumption from a high cube refrigerated container was done
performed use IES-VE software packages. The simulation result for one day operation has
been validate using measurement data carried out by Budiyanto (2016). From thecomparison result shows the simulation results has good agreement with the measurement
data with the mean absolute error about 0.47 kW. From the estimation result obtained theaverage amount of energy to remove heat load inside cargo from the effect of heat
penetration due to solar radiation during one day operation is 2.8 kW. Thus, the estimationof energy consumption in one year operation for a cube refrigerated container predicted
about 4.81 MWh. Furthermore, this result give a direction for estimation of energy
consumption in a container terminal for whole capacity of refrigerated container
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors would like to express our gratitude to Directorate Research and Community
Engagement (DRPM) Universitas Indonesia in the providing of publication funding by
PITTA 2017. Author also would like to thanks Department of Marine System Engineering,
Kyushu University and Hakata Port Terminal Corporation for providing required data on
this study. Author also would like to thanks to Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia for providing the IES-VE software packages.
6. REFERENCES
Budiyanto, M.A., Shinoda, T, (2017), The Effect of Solar Radiation on The Energy
Consumption of Refrigerated Container, Jurnal Teknologi, UTM Malaysia.
Fitzgerald, Warren B., Howitt, Oliver J. A., Smith, Inga J., Hume, A., (2011), Energy Useof Integral Refrigerated Containers in Maritime Transportation, Energy Policy, 39(4):1885–96.
Greencranes, (2013), Report on Port Container Terminals Energy Profile: Mapping of Port
Container Terminals Energy Profile, Valencia.
ISO, (2008), International Standard: Series 1 freight containers — Classification,
dimensions and ratings.
Jolly, P.G., Tso, Y.W., Wong, S.M. Ng., (2000), Simulation and Measurement on the FullLoad Performance of a Refrigeration System in a Shipping Container, International
Journal of Refrigeration 23(2): 112–26.
Shinoda, T., Budiyanto, M.A., (2016), Energy Saving Effect of Roof Shade for
Refrigerated Container in Marine Container Terminal, The Journal of Japan Institute ofNavigation, 134: 103-113.
Tadeu, A. et al. (2014), Thermal Delay Provided by Floors Containing Layers That
Incorporate Expanded Cork Granule Waste, Energy and Buildings 68: 611–19.
Wild, Yves., (2009), Refrigerated Containers and CA Technology. Container Handbook,
The German Insurance Association, Berlin, Germany.
Wilmsmeier, Gordon., (2012), Energy Consumption and Efficiency : Emerging Challenges
from Refrigerated Trade in South American Container Terminals, FAL (329): 1–9.

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EFFECTS OF THE AIR MASS FLOW RATE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF
SOLIDS IN THE CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED BOILER USING CFDSIMULATIONS
Asyari Daryusa,b, Ahmad Indra Siswantaraa,*, Budiarsoa, Gun Gun R. Gunadia,c, Hariyotejo
Pujowidodoa,d, Candra Damis WidiawatycaDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Darma Persada, Jakarta, Indonesiac
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Depok, IndonesiadBadan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi (BPPT), Indonesiab

ABSTRACTThe purpose of the study is to investigate the effects of air mass flow rate on the optimum
distribution of solid phase. The CFD simulations used the Eulerian (granular) model tocalculate the motion of particles and the standard k- turbulence model to simulate the fluid
flows. The simulations were carried out using six different air mass flow rates based on theexcess air of the reactions. The air mass flow rate influenced the distribution and thevelocity of solid phase, and also the pressure difference of gas inside the boiler. The results
showed that the excess air between 10% - 20% gave the optimum results.
Keywords: Circulating fluidized bed boiler; excess air; distribution of solid; CFD
simulations.

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1. INTRODUCTION
Circulating Fluidized Bed boiler (CFB boiler) is a boiler that uses solid particles toenhanced the combustion process. Because of its superior heat and mass transfer, this typeof boilers are used for wide range of applications, such as steam turbine system, oxyfuelcombustion, gasification and combustion of biomass, drying of solids, etc. (Adamczyk,
Wecel, Klajny, & Kozolub, 2014; Bakshi, Altanntzis, Glicksman, & Ghoniem, 2017; Ngoh
& Lim, 2016). Design and performance optimization of this type of boiler is stillchallenging because there is still limitation for diagnostic tools and technique in the harshcondition where the boiler installed (Bakshi et al., 2017). Recently, many researches havebeen conducted in multiphase, multiscale modeling using Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD), which can accurately calculate and simulate thermodynamics and fluid properties.
Using CFD to simulate the combustion processes and fluid flow has many advantages, suchas low cost and save time, because it does not require expensive, and complex experiments
to collect data, but rather a set of equipment that used to compute the numericalcalculations (Daryus, Siswantara, Darmawan, Gunadi, & Camalia, 2016; Siswantara,
Daryus, Darmawan, Gunadi, & Camalia, 2016). It also can calculate and provide data fasterbecause there is no time to be spent to build the complex experiments apparatus.
Zhao et.al. has investigated the effect of exit geometry of high-density CFB risers using
CFD. He concluded that the type of exit had the significant effects on the bedhydrodynamics while the cavity height of abrupt exit, the curvature-diameter of smooth exit
and horizontal tube connecting the exit and the primary cyclone did not. The decrease of
the diameter of abrupt exit tube increased the solids holdup significantly (Zhao, Zhou,
Wang, & Li, 2015). Adamczyk et.al. has investigated the measured and numerical resultsof air-fuel combustion process with large scale industrial CFB boiler. The results showedthat the comparison of the pressure and temperature distributions gave comparable trends incontrary to measured data (Adamczyk et al., 2015). Zi et.al. has conducted the CFD
simulation of solid oscillation in two-dimension CFB. Their results showed that the solid
oscillation circulation was influenced by the formation of the slugging in the downner andresulted the pressure drop in the downer and sharp increase of the riser bypass gas velocity.
It also showed that the lateral solids volume distributions were uniform in the riser and in
the downer (Zi et al., 2017).
This aim of this research is to find the optimum of air mass flow rate or excess air in the
CFB boiler by investigating their effects on solid particle using CFD simulations.
2. COMPUTATIONAL MODEL2.1. Combustion Model
The Westbrook-Dryer one-step model is used for combustion. It gives a good estimation ofindicator of the expected temperature levels. The Finite Rate and Eddy Dissipation modelis used to model the process of the turbulent non-premixed combustion. In this model, thereaction rates are assumed to be controlled by the turbulence, avoid the complex Arrhenius
chemical kinetic calculations.

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Coal is used in this CFB boiler. The chemical reaction of combustion is:
Cs + O2

CO2(1)

2.2. Turbulence Model
To simplify the complexity of the Navier Stokes equations for fluid flows, the Reynolds
Average Navier Stokes (RANS) principle is developed and results 6 additional stresses to
the Navier Stokes equations called Reynolds stresses. Some models are then developed for
RANS equations to obtain the simpler calculations.
One of the RANS tubulence models is k-ε., where it is simple (only needs the input ofboundary condition only), stable, widely validated, and suitable for industrial problems
solutions. This model uses the Boussinesq formula to find the Reynolds stresses, i.e.
(Versteeg & Malalasekara, 2007):
 U
U j 
 ij    u i ' u j '   t  i 
(2)
 x


x
i 
 j
where  is the density, u’ and U is the fluctuating and mean velocity vector respectively,
and µt is the turbulent or eddy viscosity. The turbulent viscosity can be calculated by:t   C

k2


(3)

Where Cµ is constant, k is the transport of kinetic energy, and ε is the transport ofdissipation. The transport equation of kinetic energy is formulated as (Versteeg &Malalasekara, 2007):( k )
 div (  kU)  div  t grad k   2 t E ij .E ij  
t
 k


(4)

While the transport equation of dissipation is:




2
()
 div( U)  div  t grad    C1 2t Eij .Eij  C2 
k
k
t



(5)

Where U is the velocity vector, Eij is the mean rate of deformation, if i or j = 1 corresponds
to the x-direction, i or j = 2 the y-direction and i or j = 3 the z-direction, Cµ , σk , σε , C1ε ,and C2ε are constants. Constants used in the numerical calculations are Cµ = 0,09 ; k =1,00 ;  = 1,30 ; C1 = 1,44 dan C2 = 1,92.
2.3. Geometry and Meshing
The geometry of CFB boiler is shown on Figure 1. While Figure 2 shows the 2D structured
mesh model. The mesh consists of 42x162 cell.

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461

2.4. Boundary Conditions
In this geometry model, the primary air (inlet 1) is located on the bottom of the boiler,
while the secondary air (inlet 2 and 3) are located in the left and the right of boiler. The
rate of coal assumed to be 14.4 ton/h, equivalent to 25 MW power output of generator,
driven by the steam produced by the boiler. Based on the stoichiometry calculations, the air
mass flow needed for the combustion is 20.10 kg/s. The velocity of air for the inlets forvarious value of excess air can be seen on Table 1.

Figure 1 CFB Boiler geometry.

Figure 2. 2D mesh model of CFB Boiler.

Table 1 The value of inlet velocities

462

Excess Air(%)

Air Flow(kg/s)

0

Inlet 1
(m/s)

Inlet 2
(m/s)

Inlet 3
(m/s)

v

u

v

u

v

20,10

12,7

-12,4

-12,4

13,1

-13,1

10

22,22

12.7

-14,5

-14,5

15,2

-15,2

15

23,14

12.7

-15,5

-15,5

16,2

-16,2

20

24,05

12.7

-16,5

-16,5

17,2

-17,2

25

25,03

12.7

-17,5

-17,5

18,3

-18,3

30

26,03

12.7

18,6

18,6

19,4

-19,4

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It has been conducted the fluid flow simulations in various excess air value, i.e. 0% (airmass flow 20.1 kg/s), 10% (air mass flow 22.22 kg/s), 15% (air mass flow 23.14 kg/s), 20%(air mass flow 24.05 kg/s), 25% (air mass flow 25.03 kg/s), and 30% (air mass flow 26.03kg/s). The results of simulations presented here are taken on 35 second of operation,
because it is assumed that the flow of fluid at this time has reached the stable condition.
The contour of solid volume fraction for various excess air values is shown on Figure 3. It
can be seen that for the low value of excess air (0% of excess air), the solid particles areexisting around the bottom of boiler, and for the higher value of excess air, the solid
particles move upward, proportional with the value of excess air. This upward movement
was driven by kinetic energy of air. For the value of excess air between 0% - 15%, theheight of solid movement does not exceed the height of fire brick (sloping wall or elbow on
the figure), but above of 20% of excess air, its height exceed it. When the solid particle
height exceeds the firebrick, it will hit the boiler tube and will cause abrasion. Thissituation is not preferable. So, the optimum results of solid particle height is between 0% 20% of excess air.
Figure 4 shows the contour of solid velocity in various values of excess air. For the excess
air below 20%, the situations are safe, because the solid particle exists in the firebrick area.
But for the excess air of 20% and above, the situations began to worry because the solid
particles exist on the wall tube area and their velocity is more than 5 m/s; this conditions
can cause the abrasion on the wall tubes. It is also shown that the flow of particles are
deflected to the left side, resulting in the left wall tube will experience more abrasion than
the right one. The optimum results are achieved by excess air below 20%.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 3. Contour of volume fraction at t=35 s for various excess air. (a) 0%; (b) 10%; (c)15%; (d) 20%; (e) 25%; and (f) 30%.

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463

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 4. Contour of velocity of particle (m/s) at t=35 s for various excess air. (a) 0%; (b)10%; (c) 15%; (d) 20%; (e) 25%; dan (f) 30%.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 5. Contour of temperature of particle (K) at t=35 s for various excess air. (a) 0%; (b)10%; (c) 15%; (d) 20%; (e) 25%; dan (f) 30%.
Figure 5 shows the contour of solid particle temperature for various values of excess air.
For small value of excess air, the distribution of high temperature concentrated on left walland extended to the near of right wall. The right wall has lower temperature than that ofleft wall. When the value of excess air increased, the high temperature area moves from the464

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right to the left and from the bottom to the top. But, as shown on Figure 4 and 5 that themost of the solid particles exist on the bottom area for all the value of excess air, resulting
in the coal will be burnt efficiently (the white color in the bottom area is the high speed
solid particle zone, the contour or color can not be seen because its value exceed the limitof velocity scale).
The simulation results for pressure difference between inlet (bottom) and outlet (top) is
shown on Figure 6. Theses values are the average values of pressure difference for 30
seconds and 35 seconds. The pressure is constant for the value of excess air of 0% - 10%
but then decrease and minimum on the value of excess air of 15%. Above 15%, its values
are increase and maximum on the value of excess air of 20% and then decrease slowly
afterwards. The best values of the pressure differences exist between the value of excess
air of 0% - 17%.
Meanwhile, the wall tube heat absorbing efficiency is shown on Figure 7. It can be seenthat the efficiency is decrease when the value of excess air is increase, accept for the valueof excess air below 10%. But this decrement is negligible because so small, less than 1%.
We come to the conclusion. From the contour of the volume fraction, and the velocity ofsolid particles, the optimum value of excess air is 0% - 20%; while from the contour of thetemperature is 0% - 30%. From the pressure difference in the boiler, the best results ofexcess air is found to be 10% - 17%, but from wall tube heat absorbing efficiency the
results are negligible. The conclusion, the recommended value of excess air for this boiler
is 10% - 20%.

Figure 6. Pressure difference curve in the boiler from simulation results.

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465

Figure 7. Wall tube heat absorbing efficiency.
4. CONCLUSION
The simulations of combustion and fluid flow in 25 MW Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB)
Boiler have been done to find the optimum value of excess air using CFD. The simulations
were done using 2D geometry. The turbulence model used for fluid flow was k-ε, while forthe combustion model was Eulerian. From the contour of the volume fraction and thevelocity of solid particles, the contour of the temperature of air, the pressure difference of
the air in the boiler and from the wall tube heat absorbing efficiency found that the
optimum value of excess air was 10% - 20%.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thanks DRPM Universitas Indonesia for funding this researchthrough “Hibah Publikasi Internasional Terindeks Untuk Tugas Akhir Mahasiswa UI2017” and to PT. CCIT Group Indonesia for CFDSOF® software license.
6. REFERENCES
Adamczyk, Wojciech P., Kozolub, Pawel, Klimanek, Adam, Bialecki, Ryszard A.,
Andrzejczyk, Marek, & Klajny, Marcin. (2015). Numerical Simulations of theIndustrial Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler Under Air- and Oxy-fuel Combustion.
Applied Thermal Engineering, Volume 87, pp. 127-136(2015).
Adamczyk, Wojciech P., Wecel, Gabriel, Klajny, Marcin, & Kozolub, Pawel. (2014).
Modeling of Particle Transport and Combustion Phenomena in a Large-scale
Circulating Bed Boiler Using a Hybrid Euler-Lagrange Approach. Journal ofParticuology, Volume 16, pp. 29-40(2014).
Bakshi, A., Altanntzis, C., Glicksman, L.R., & Ghoniem, A.F. (2017). Gas-flow
Distribution in Bubbling Fluidized Beds: CFD-based Analysis and Impact ofOperating Conditions. Powder Technology, (2017).
Daryus, Asyari, Siswantara, Ahmad Indra, Darmawan, Steven, Gunadi, Gun Gun R, &Camalia, Rovida. (2016). CFD Simulation of Turbulent Flows in Proto X-3
Bioenergy Micro Gas Turbine Combustor Using STD k- and RNG k- Model for

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Green Building Application. International Journal of Technology, Volume 7, pp.
204-211(2).
Ngoh, Jenson, & Lim, Eldin Wee Chuan. (2016). Effects of Particle Size and Bubbling
Behaviour on Heat Transfer in Gas Fluidized Beds. Journal of Applied ThermalEngineering, Volume 105, pp. 225-242(2016).
Siswantara, Ahmad Indra, Daryus, Asyari, Darmawan, Steven, Gunadi, Gun Gun R, &Camalia, Rovida. (2016). CFD Analysis of Slurry Flow in an Anaerobic Digester.
International Journal of Technology, Volume 7, pp. 197-203(2).
Versteeg, H, & Malalasekara, W. (2007). An Introduction to Computational Fluid
Dynamics, the Finite Volume Method, 2nd ed. Essex, London: Pearson EducationalLtd.
Zhao, Bidan, Zhou, Quan, Wang, Junwu, & Li, Jinghai. (2015). CFD Study of Exit Effectof High-density CFB Risers with EMMS-based two-fluid Model. Chemical
Engineering Science, Volume 134, pp. 477-488(2015).
Zi, Can, Sun, Jingyuan, Yang, Yao, Huang, Zhengliang, Liao, Zuwei, Wang, Jingdai, . . .
Han, Guodong. (2017). CFD Simulation and Hydrodynamics Characterization ofSolids Oscillation Behavior in a Circulating Fluidized Bed with Sweeping Bend
Return. Chemical Engineering Journal, Volume 307, pp. 604-620(2017).

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

The Comparison of Performance Of Dimethyl Ether and Diesel
Fuel B-20 Dual Fuel System On Diesel Engine Direct Injection
SystemCahyo Setyo Wibowo, Maymuchar, Dimitri Rulianto, Faqih S
Researcher, Fuels and Aviation Groups, Research and Development Centre For Oil and Gas Technology,”LEMIGAS” Indonesia,
cahyoswibowo@gmail.com, cahyoswibowo@yahoo.com

Abstract

DME application can include multiple sectors, among others: the transport sector, domestic/
household, power generation, but when used as a fuel substitution for diesel engine,
modification will be required to the fuel line system. The purpose of this research was tocompare the performance of DME as a fuel substitution for diesel oil by applying dual fuelsystem with B-20 (diesel fuel 80% mix biodiesel 20%) in a diesel engine direct injection
system with the B-20 performance. Methodology used is testing the characteristics of DME
fuel, diesel fuel (B-0) and B-20. Preparation was done by installing the fuel channel of DMEwith dual fuel system on the 4-cylinder diesel engine direct injection system.The performance
test was done on electricity generator set with load bank and subsequent analysis was doneon all assay results.
This research shows that DME fuel on the type of diesel engine with dual fuel system can beused directly if the modification made to the fuel line system. The dual fuel system of diesel
fuel and DME on approximately 80% - 20% were able to generate power equal with a diesel
engine that use B-20. Utilization of DME as a fuel for diesel engines can reduce emissionsin term of opacity in a range of 10% - 20%, thus improving environmental concern.
Keywords: DME, diesel fuel, B-20, diesel engine, dual fuel system
1. INTRODUCTION
Dimethyl ether (DME) is alternative fuel for substitution of diesel fuel from fossil. DME canbe produced from natural gas, biomass and coal. The purpose of this research is to compare
performance of DME as a fuel substitution for diesel fuel by applying dual fuel system with
B-20 (diesel fuel 80% mix biodiesel 20%) in a diesel engine direct injection system.
The most important properties of DME are the presence of oxygen in the fuel molecule, lower
ignition temperature, and high cetane number. The kinematic viscosity of DME issignificantly lower than that of diesel. However, low lower hating value (LHV), lowviscosity, and low lubricity are some of the major disadvantages of DME (Hyun Gu Roh et.al2017). DME engines can achieve high thermal efficiency and ultra low emissions, and will

468

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play a significant role in meeting the energy demand while minimizing environmental impact(Zhen Huang et.al 2009).
The effective thermal efficiency is decreased, especially for temperature above 40 °C. Before
beginning an experiment, the fuel properties of DME, including the density,( Gao Guangxin,
et. al 2013).
Dimethyl ether (DME) is regarded as one of the promising alternative fuels or oxygen
additives for diesel engines, with its advantages of a high cetane number and oxygen content.
Over the past ten years, researchers have begun to consider the use of DME as a fuel. Because
its cetane number and ignition temperature are close to that of diesel fuel (Prabhakaran, et.al2015).
This research shows that the use of DME fuel on the type of diesel engine with dual fuelsystem can be used directly if modification is made to the fuel line system. A dual fuel ofdiesel fuel with DME at approximately 80% - 20% were able to generate power equal to adiesel engine that use B-20 with measurement on engine performance , fuel consumption,
exhaust emissions (opacity), the stability of the engine operation, and easibility on starting .
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Preparation of testing equipment
At first we perform the testing for characteristics of physical and chemical properties of thetested fuel (dimethyl ether and B-20). Preparation of the diesel generator set were done bymodification of fuel line system to support with dual fuel, continuing with checking engine
all system follow the OEM standard for generator and load bank. Checking also conducted
for the test equipment for fuel consumption and emission test. Preparation of the tested fuels
including test for gas cylinder used for temporary storage and other supporting equipment.
DME sample obtained from a company produce DME for industrial purpose. The diesel fuelused is diesel oil which has a cetane number of 48.

Figure 1. Dimetyl Ether in Cylinder Storage

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469

The generator diesel engine that will be used in the performance test is: a compression
ignition engine designed to use diesel fuel with four cylinders and four stroke and has directfuel injection system. This propulsion electric generator diesel engine capable to generate
power capacity of 10 kVA to 1500 rpm
Table 1. Generator Diesel Engine Specifications V1505-BG

2.2. Performance Testing of Propulsion Generator Diesel Engine
Tests conducted on these activities at the Performance Test generator engine using diesel fuel(B20) and fuel DME. To determine the effect and the response of engine power on the change
in used fuel, then the engine should be tested its performance. This type of testing is done bygiving the electrical load on the generator. Preparation of the test was conducted on thetechnical and non-technical preparation. Type of engine power used in these activities is a
type of engine with compression ignition (compressed ignition engine) diesel. Fuelconversion systems on this machine if using fuel DME is dual fuel, which means that thismachine can operate with two fuels simultaneously by a certain percentage.
Tests carried out on plants that use diesel fuel (B20) and diesel fuel mixture with DME. The
test results are evaluated by comparing the performance of the generated electrical fueledwith diesel fuel as fuel The reference / benchmark, using the converter tool kit that has been
designed / modified. Performance test results data on power plant engines include: Fuel consumption
 Exhaust emissions (opacity) The stability of the engine operation
 Easibility on starting
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Characteristics Testing of Chemical Physics Dimethyl Ether
Testing the characteristics of DME includes 6 parameters such as gas composition, specificgravity, vapor pressure, water content, weathering test, and copper corrosion. The tested fuel470

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meet the specification in Indonesia.
Table 2. Properties of DME

3.2. Test Engine Performance
The testing activities can result from the generator engine performance testing. Consumption
measurements carried out starting from a position where the engine is operating at no load
electricity and continued to provide load 20%, 40%, 60% and 80%.
a. Specific Fuel Consumption
Consumption measurements carried out starting from a position where the engine isoperating at no load electricity and continued to provide load 20%, 40%, 60% and 80%. Fuelconsumption is expressed in weight of the fuel needed for the required per unit load and perunit time. The results of the measurement of fuel consumption can be seen in Table 3. Fromtable 3 shows that the higher the loading given on the larger engine fuel needed. Fuel is usedin the diesel fuel is greater than the Dual Fuel System Dimethyl Ether.
Table 3. Fuel Consumption of Diesel Engine
Load (%)

Fuel consumption (Kg/h)Diesel fuel(B20)

Diesel fuel + DME

20

1.17

0.93

40

1.31

1.16

60

1.43

1.25

80

1.71

1.66

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471

Consumption of fuel required from application loading machines have a tendency to rise if
given the increase in the load on the engine From the table above shows that with the sameload, the consumption of the diesel-fueled generators + DME is less than the diesel-fueled
generators. This is because DME has a high cetane number and a high cetane number will
be very good when used for the diesel engine
b. Exhaust Emission Testing (opacity) Engine Generator
The chemical reaction of fuel combustion will produce exhaust emissions. Measurements ofemissions in diesel engine emission opacity only. Opacity is a measure of the concentrationof exhaust gases of diesel engines. Based opacity measurement unit density percentage. The
greater the percentage figures deepened emission opacity emissions.
Table 4. Exhaust Emission Test (opacity) Diesel Engine
Load %

Opacity (%)
Diesel fuel (B20)

Diesel fuel + DME

20

1.98

1.15

40

2.74

1.93

60

3.14

2.43

80

4.45

3.17

Exhaust emissions (opacity) diesel engine generator sets diesel + DME in several variations
load conditions have lower smoke opacity compared with the engine diesel.
c. Stability Operations Engine
The observation of the stability of the engine operation either due to additions or changes tothe fuel load. From the table it can be said that in general the engine is operating stably withthe diesel fuel. As for the diesel engine with a fuel mixture of diesel and DME experienced
an increase in cooling water temperature, although the converter kit already madearrangements DME gas channel.
Table 5. Stability Operations Diesel Engine
Load %

472

Opacity (%)
Diesel fuel (B20)

Diesel fuel + DME

20StabilStabil- temperature coolant sytem normal

40

StabilStabil- temperature coolant sytem normal

60

StabilStabil- temperature coolant sytem increase80

StabilStabil- temperature coolant sytem increase

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The composition of 50% DME engine can not operate stably in 4000 and 4500 watt load due
to engine operating temperature is high enoughd. Easibility of Starting
From the measurement of time required to start the engine seem that there is no significant
difference between the engine that use diesel fuel or a mixture of diesel and DME, because
the start-up all these machines can only be done with diesel fuel (B20) in advance and after
it's done the addition of DME, so the converter kit that is used there is no constraint on theconverter kit, from the measurement time required to turn on the diesel engine together withthe results obtained in a diesel engine generator that is no significant difference between theengine that use diesel fuel or a mixture of diesel and DME, because the start-up all theseengine can only be done with diesel fuel first and then the addition of DME
4. CONCLUSION
In this research aims to produce a system conversion apparatus that can apply the DME
as an alternative fuel in the generator set power plant in the commercial sector. From thetest results and the observation of a number of conclusions.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Fuel DME can be used in diesel engine which applying in a dual-fuel system withdiesel fuel and with the addition of engine cooling systems;
The system conversion equipment that has been designed/modified can be applied tothe conversion of DME to the engine generator
Consumption of Dual Fuel System Dimethyl Ether and Diesel Fuel engine is less thanin the use of diesel fuel;Opacity diesel engine generator Dual Fuel System Dimethyl Ether and Diesel Fuel isbetter compared with the opacity of diesel fuel (B20)

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are so grateful for the work of our team of Fuel and Aviation Group (Kelompok Bahan
Bakar dan Aviasi), Application Product Research Division of LEMIGAS.
6.REFERENCES
Gao Guangxin, Yuan Zhulin, Zhou Apeng, Liu Shenghua, and Wei Yanju1 (2013) : Effectsof Fuel Temperature on Injection Process and Combustion of Dimethyl Ether Engine, J
Energy Resour Technol. 2013 Dec; 135(4): 0422021–0422025.
Published online 2013 May 31.
Hyun GuRoh, Chang SikLee (2017) :Fuel Properties and Emission Characteristics ofDimethyl Ether in a Diesel Engine, SPRINGER LINK, Date: 11 February 2017
Prabhakaran, Thennarasu, Karthick (2015) : Performance and Characteristics of a CI

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473

Engine Using DME (Dimethyl Ether), International Journal of Innovative Research in
Science, Engineering and Technology, An ISO 3297: 2007 Certified Organization Volume
4, Special Issue 2, February 2015
Zhen Huang,XinqiQiao,Wugao Zhang, Junhua Wu, Junjun Zhang (2013) : Dimethyl ether
as alternative fuel for CI engine and vehicle, J Energy Resour Technol. 2013 Dec; 135(4):0422021–0422025.Published online 2013 May 31. doi: 10.1115/1.4023549
Z Wang, X Qiao*, J Hou, W Liu, Z Huang (2011) : Combustion and emission
characteristics of a diesel engine fuelled with biodiesel/dimethyl ether blends, SAGEJOURNALS First Published July 7, 2011.
Zhi Wang, Haoye Liu,Jianxin Wang,ShijinShuai (2015) : Performance, Combustion andEmission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Fueled with Polyoxymethylene Dimethyl
Ethers (PODE3-4)/ Diesel Blends, ENERGY PROCEDIA VOLUME 75, 2015, 2337-2344

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THE 15TH INTERNATONAL CONFERENCE QUALITY IN RESARCH (QIR) 2017
INVESTIGATION ON THE HULL MATERIAL FOR SOLAR POWEREDELECTRICAL SPORT BOAT
Sunaryo a, Pradhana S Imfiantob, Aldy Syahrihaddin Hanifac
a, b, cNaval Architecture and Marine Engineering Study Program, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, E-Mail:a :naryo@eng.ui.ac.id,b:pradhana.sadhu@ui.ac.id, c:aldy.syahrihaddin@ui.ac.id
ABSTRACT
Analyses of sandwich materials that used in design of a water recreational and sport vesselthat powered by solar generated electric engine are required to fully compatible to the hullstrength of the boat. The work is a further development of the solar boat created by the
Universitas Indonesia team that participated in International Solar-boat Challenge
competition in the Netherlands. The aim of the work is investigate the strength of themodified hull material, and its manufacturing processes based on the calculation formulas
provided in Bureau Veritas’: Rules for Hull in Composite Materials and Plywood, Material
Approval, Design Principles, Construction and Survey (NR 546 DT R00 E). The analyses
are applied to the panel under global loads (laminate buckling, maximum stress in eachlayer, and combined stress) in order to determine the strength of the boat hull. In this study,
the mechanical properties (tensile and flexural) of facing laminate and sandwich material
were made using VARTM (Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding) or known as
Vacuum Infusion. The Panel is made of two different materials (High Strength Carbon
Fiber 240 gr/m2 and Lantor Soric XF 5 mm) infused with Ripoxy R-802 EX-1 (vinyl ester
resin).
Keywords: Hull Strength, Sandwich Material; Solar Powered Boat; VARTM-Vacuum
Infusion.
1. INTRODUCTION
The work is a further development of the solar boat created by the Universitas Indonesia
team that participated in International Solar-boat Challenge competition in the Netherlands.
The using of materials for construction of the boat is important in order to meet optimum
weight and strength. The boat hull is made of sandwich materials that consisted of HighStrength Carbon Fiber 240 gr/m2 and Lantor Soric XF 5 mm. The aim of the study is toinvestigate the weight and strength of the proposed materials based on the way they are
manufactured and the composition of the sandwich layers, to ensure that the materials to be
used are compatible to all requirements of the boat being designed for the next competition,and for other purposes such as for recreational and sport.
2. METHODOLOGY
To investigate the weight and strength of the proposed materials two approaches wereconducted i.e. theoretical approach using available formulas, and experimental approach
using samples. Samples are made in the form of panels. The shape, size, and dimensions of
the panels were made in accordance with the standards provided by American Standards for

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475

Testing of Materials (ASTM), and the results of the experiments were compared to therequirements stated in the rules of Bureau Veritas.
2.1. The Boat
The boat has the structural specifications as presented in table 1, and the distribution ofweight of the overall boat components are shown in table 2. Based on these data the
proposed hull materials were investigated.
.
Table 1 Boat Structural Specification
Length overall
5,8 m
Breadth1,8 m
Draft
0,124 mHeight0,35 m
Cb
0,532
Cp
0,568
Cm
0,939
Frame Spacing (Longitudinal) 0,5 m
Frame Spacing (Transversal) 0,26 m
Table 2 Boat Componenet Weight List
Item
Quantity Kg
Item
Quantity
Hull Weight
1
86
MC
1
Solar Panel 1
1
20
Panel Box
1
Solar Panel 2
1
20
Box Fuse
1
Solar Panel 3
1
20
Battery Box
1
Cabin
1
Solar Panel 4
1
20
Electric Motor
1
Total (Kg)
166
Total (Kg)
150
Total (Kg)
316

Kg
5
10
5
15
75
40

2.2. Hull Strength Analysis
In order to investigate the weight and strength of the proposed material for the boat hull,
two approaches were carried out in the study i.e. theoretical and experimental approaches.
The analyses of the panels are based on the assumption that the panels are under global
loads, in a still water, and in a certain wave condition. There are three criteria selected forthe strength analysis: Laminate buckling; Maximum stress in each layer; and combined
stress in each layer.
Laminate buckling must fulfilled the following conditions:σa ≤ σc/SFB ; τa ≤ τc/ SFB
stress and shear stress applied to the panel
buckling stresses of the panel
buckling rule safety coefficient

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(1)

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Maximum stress in each layer must fulfilled this condition:
σi ≤ σbr/SF ; τi ≤ τbr/SF
stress in individual layers induced by in-plane global loads(2)

rule safety coefficientCombined stress in each layer must fulfilled this condition:(3)

laminates

partial safety coefficient taking into account the ageing effect on the laminatespartial safety coefficient taking into account the fabrication process
partial safety coefficient for combined stresses in the individual layers of thepartial safety coefficient taking into account the type of the loads
(4)
(5)
(6)

2

(N/mm )

ply axis induce by the loading casetheoretical breaking stresses in the local ply axis(N/mm2)

To find the strength of panel under global loads “Rules for Hull in Composite Materials andPlywood, Material Approval, Design Principles, Construction and Survey (NR 546 DT R00
E)” of Bureau Veritas classification were used. Before performing a calculation of the hullstrength, the mechanical properties of the material (sandwich material) must be first
calculated. The standard under ASTM D3039 for tensile modulus of facing laminate and
ASTM C393 for flexural modulus of sandwich material was used for these materials. The
values of the mechanical property are used for comparison with results of the calculations
through macro-mechanical analysis.
2.2.1. Theoretical Breaking Stress Layer 1,2,4, and 5
Analyses of breaking stress for layer 1,2,4 and 5 (figure 1) where four of them uses Fiber
Carbon HDC-524-3K 240 gr/m2 are using theoretical breaking stress calculation from BV
classification rules. In table 3 there are break strain values of HS type carbon.
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)

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(12)
(13)
𝝈𝝈brt1,2 = Tensile Break Stress 1 & 2 Direction (N/mm2)
𝝈𝝈brc1,2 = Compression Break Stress 1 & 2 Direction (N/mm2)
𝝉𝝉br12 = Shear Break Stress 12 Direction (N/mm2)
𝝉𝝉brIL1,2 = Inter Laminar Shear Break Stress 1 & 2 Direction(N/mm2)
Coefres = Vinyl Ester (0,9)
Table 3 Break Strain
CarbonHS
CarbonHS𝝴𝝴brt11%𝝴𝝴brc2
0,85%
1%
1,55%
𝝴𝝴brt2𝜸𝜸br12𝝴𝝴brc1
0,85% 𝜸𝜸br13, 𝜸𝜸brIL2 1,55%(Marine Division Bureau Veritas, 2012)
2.2.2 Theoretical Breaking Stress Layer 3
The theoretical breaking stress for layer 3 is done by using micro-mechanical analyses on
equation (14).
(14)
E1 = Young modulus for laminate
Vf;m = Volume fraction fibre (lantor); matrix
Ef;m = Young modulus from fibre (lantor); matrix
Young modulus value from lantor soric XF can be neglected. So, the mechanical propertiesof the core material infused with resin is only affected by the volume fraction of the resin
type (matrix) that used for VARTM-vacuum infusion process.
2.3. Material
For sandwich material Fiber Carbon HDC-524-3K with 240 gr/m2 as facing laminate (layer
1,2,4, and 5) was used. For core material Lantor Soric XF with thickness of 5mm (layer 3)
was used as shown in figure 1. The matrix being used is Ripoxy R-802 EX-1 (vinyl ester)with catalyst MEKPO (Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide) and promoter P-EX. The specimensthat will be used for the analysis are the same with the material used for the boat hull which
is produced using VARTM (Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding) Vacuum infusion
method.

Figure 1 Sandwich Material

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2.4. Experimental Test of Tensile Modulus & Flexural Modulus
Experimental method was used to investigate the tensile modulus and flexural modulus of
the material. Several samples were prepared for the purpose of testing. To find the value oftensile modulus from facing laminate ASTM D3039 standard was used. The specimens
with total length of 250 mm, width 25 mm, and gauge length 150 mm
To get the flexural modulus value of the sandwich material three point bending test
specimens were prepared in accordance with ASTM C393 standard. The specimens havetotal length of 200 mm, width 75 mm, and support span 150 mm with load span at the
middle of the specimens as seen in figure 2.

Figure 2 ASTM C393 & ASTM D3039
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Analyses of Sandwich Material
3.1.1. Tensile Test
This experiment used five specimens of facing laminate. Figure 3 shows the graph between
stress vs strain obtained during the experiment progress. Tests were conducted attemperature 21,7oC and constant speed 2 mm/min. It can be seen through the graph that a
linear line is formed between stress vs strain in all the five specimens. From the experimentan average tensile modulus 15,21 GPa with standard deviation ± 1 GPa. From the analysis
calculation the tensile modulus value is 54,9905 GPa.
3.1.2. Flexural Test
Three point bending test was carried out to investigate the flexural modulus of the sandwichmaterial. The experiment used five specimens of sandwich material. Figure 4 shows thegraphs of stress vs. strain obtained during the experimental progress. Tests were conductedat the temperature at 23,1oC and a constant speed of 6 mm/min. It can be seen through thegraph that a linear line is formed between stress vs. strain in all the five specimens before
the failure occur. From the specimens obtained an average flexural modulus 21261,8
N/mm2 (21,2618 GPa) with standard deviation ± 2301,17 N/mm2 (± 2,30117 GPa). From
the analysis calculation the flexural modulus value is 26833,5 N/mm2 (26,8335 GPa).

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Figure 3 Stress vs Strain of Tensile Test Graph

Figure 4 Stress vs Strain of Flexural Test Graph3.2. Hull Strength
By comparing the experimental results and the analysis calculation of the panel underglobal loads based on regulation issued by Bureau Veritas’ “Rules for Hull in Composite
Materials and Plywood, Material Approval, Design Principles, Construction and Survey(NR 546 DT R00 E)”, the values of the hull strength of the boat are obtained as follows:

Laminate buckling (table 4)
Condition

Table 4 Laminate Buckling
Hogging

Sagging

Pass/not pass
pass
pass

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

Maximum stress in each layer (table 5 and table 6)
Table 5 Maximum Stress in Each Layer
Side

BottomLayer 1𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 0,183 122,02 pass𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 0,612 122,02 pass
Layer 2𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 0,183 122,02 pass𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 0,612 122,02 pass
Layer 3𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 0,00697
𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 0,0175
Layer 4𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

15

15

pass

pass

𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 0,183 122,02 pass𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 0,612 122,02 pass
Layer 5𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 0,183 122,02 pass𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 0,612 122,02 pass𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

Layer 1

Layer 1

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 5,62465E-06 122,02 pass𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 5,4304E-06
Layer 2122,02 pass𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 4,88136E-06 122,02 pass𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 1,45971E-23
𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 1,41848E-23
Layer 4𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf
15

pass

15

pass

𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa)-4,88136E-06 -103,7172pass𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

Layer 5𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 0,332 122,02pass

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa)-5,62465E-06 -103,7172pass𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) -5,4304E-06 -103,7172pass𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 0,103 122,02pass𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 0,3312 122,02pass
Layer 3𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa)0,003715 15 pass𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 0,00933
Layer 4

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa)-5,05597E-06 -103,7172pass𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 0,1035 122,02pass
Layer 2

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 5,05597E-06 122,02 pass
Layer 3Deck

15 pass𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 0,093 122,02pass𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 0,321 122,02pass
Layer 5𝝈𝝈≤𝝈𝝈brk/Sf

𝝈𝝈 1 (MPa) 0,0922 122,02pass𝝈𝝈 2 (MPa) 0,321 122,02pass

Table 6 Maximum Stress between Layers

Between Layer 1 and 2
Maximum Value from𝝉𝝉brk/SFbottom, side, and deck
(MPa)
(MPa)
0,009
12,58
𝝉𝝉yz
0,064
12,58
𝝉𝝉xz
Between Layer 3 and 4
Maximum Value from𝝉𝝉brk/SFbottom, side, and deck
(MPa)
(MPa)
-1,273𝝉𝝉yz-0,014-1,273𝝉𝝉xz-0,0999𝝉𝝉i ≤𝝉𝝉brk/SF
pass
pass

𝝉𝝉i ≤
𝝉𝝉brk/SF
pass
pass

Between Layer 2 and 3
Maximum Value from𝝉𝝉brk/SFbottom, side, and deck
(MPa)
(MPa)
0,017071,273
𝝉𝝉yz
0,121411,273
𝝉𝝉xz
Between Layer 4 and 5
Maximum Value from𝝉𝝉brk/SFbottom, side, and deck
(MPa)
(MPa)
-0,0222-12,58𝝉𝝉yz-0,1577-12,58𝝉𝝉xz

𝝉𝝉i ≤𝝉𝝉brk/SF
pass
pass

𝝉𝝉i ≤
𝝉𝝉brk/SFpass
pass

Combined stress in each layer (table 7 and table 8)
Position
BottomSide
Deck

Table 7 Combined Stress for Layer 1,2, 4, and 5
Maximum (SFcs1 or SFcs2)
844,5588599160,55
1563,366

2,808
2,808
2,808

pass
pass
pass

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Position
BottomSide
Deck

Table 8 Combined Stress for Layer 3

Maximum (SFcs1 or SFcs2)
2162,445
2,2924E+24
4054,585

2,808
2,808
2,808

pass
pass
pass

4. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the boat design load, and calculation using BV regulations it was proved that the
proposed sandwich material can be used effectively for the boat being designed. From thecalculation, we can see the difference with analysis calculation and experiment value. Thisis can happen because three main reasons: Resin vinyl ester Ripoxy R-802 EX-1 that usedin this study is more suitable with glass rather than carbon, unsuitable room temperature on
curing process, and catalyst of MEPOXE M (Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide type M) has
less compatibility with resin vinyl ester Ripoxy R-802 EX-1. It is recommended to use
CHP (Chumene Hydroperoxide) as the catalyst for the vacuum infusion process.
The final result of the hull strength analysis for laminate buckling, maximum stress in eachlayer, and combined stress are all passed the requirements of the proposed boat design
loads.
5. ACKNOWLEDGE
The authors would like to express their appreciations to PITTA project initiated by
Directorate of Research and Community Engagement Universitas Indonesia for funding the
project. We also express our thanks to PT Justus Kimiaraya for supporting us in providing
the materials and manufacturing process of the sandwich material together with STP(Sentra Teknologi Polimer) BPPT Serpong, and Solar Boat Team Universitas Indonesia
2016 who inspired the research.
6. REFERENCES
Adalberto, S. R., Henrique, C. Z., Varella, R. d., & Fernando, F. D. (2007). Flexural
Strength and Modulus of Elasticity of Different Types of Resin-based Composites.
Braz Oral Res, 16-21.
Alberth, M. T. (2014). Prinsip Merancang Kapal. Depok: Departemen Teknik Mesin,
Fakultas Teknik Universitas Indonesia.
ASTM. (2002). ASTM D3039 Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer
Matrix Composite Materials. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. (2012). ASTM C393 Standard Test Method for Core Shear Properties of Sandwich
Constructions by Beam Flexure. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Bai, J., Xiong, J., & Liu, M. Z. (2016). Analytical Solutions for Predicting Tensile andShear Moduli of TriaxialWeave Fabric Composites. Acta Mechanica Solida Sinica,
29.
Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia. (2016). Volume V Rules For Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic
Ships 2016 Edition. Jakarta: BKI.
Dayyani, I., Ziaei-Rad, S., & Salehi, H. (2011). Numerical and Experimental Investigations
on Mechanical Behavior of Composite Corrugated Core. Applied Composite
Materials.

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Erdemli, S. G., Abdulhalim, K., & Emin, M. Ö. (2014). Properties of FRP Materials forStrengthening. International Journal of Innovative Science.
Fotsing, E., Leclerc, C., Sola, M., Ross, A., & Ruiz, E. (2016). Mechanical properties ofcomposite sandwich structures with core or face sheet discontinuities. Composites
Part B, 229-239.
Kaw, A. K. (2006). Mechanics of Composite Materials. Broken Sound Parkway NW: CRC
Press.
Lantor B.V. (2012). Aplication Manual. Veenendaal: Lantor B.V.
Leksa, R. M. (2015). Analisa Teknis dan Ekonomis Penggunaan Material Komposit
Sandwich dengan Metode Vacuum Infusion Sebagai Material Kapal. Semarang:
Universitas Diponegoro.
Liston, G. P. (2013). Analisa Sifat Mekanik Komposit Serat E-glass Tipe Multiaxial dengan
Matriks Vinyl Ester dengan Metode VARTM untuk Aplikasi pada Lambung Kapal
Cepat. Depok: Universitas Indonesia.
Marine Division Bureau Veritas. (2012). Hull in Composite Materials and Plywood,
Material Approval, Design Principles. Neuilly sur Seine Cedex: Bureau Veritas.
Marine Division Bureau Veritas. (2012). Rules for the Classification and the Certificationof Yachts. Neuilly sur Seine Cedex: Bureau Veritas.
PT. Justus Sakti Raya. (2009). Technical Information of Corrosion Guide and Others.
Jakarta.
Uddin, N., Vaidya, U., & Ramos, L. (2013). Development of Cost-Effective Vartm
Technology for Repair and Hardening Design Method and Specifications for Aldot
Contractor Phase 3. Alabama: Alabama Department of Transportation.
Umer, R., Waggy, E., Haq, M., & Loos, A. (2011). Experimental and Numerical
Characterizations of Flexural Behavior of VARTM-Infused Composite Sandwich
Structures. Reinforced Plastics & Composites, 67-76.

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The Compensation Method for Tool Orientation Change to Avoid
Collision in 5-axis Roughing of Faceted Models
1

Gandjar Kiswanto1 , Himawan Hadi Sutrisno1, Jos Istiyanto1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Adding CC points during the rough machining process on a closed-bounded volume (CBV)may result in an interference between the tool and the workpiece in each initial toolorientation. Since the ultimate goal is to add the volume of the machining during theroughing process, the added CC points as well as the initial tool orientation must be
positioned accordingly so that they are not affected by the collision between the tool andthe workpiece. This paper discusses the method to avoid the collision for each CC point in
CBV areas which is the numeric interpolation method and the method to detect collision
faceted model-based method. The process of detection and avoidance may be conducted
multiple times to obtain CC points with tool orientations which are free frominterference. The result of the calculation is used as the basis for the creation of additional
tool path in the rough machining process, especially for models with closed-bounded areas,in order to increase the effectiveness of the rough machining process.
Keywords: CBV area, gouging elimination, roughing, faceted models. tool orientation
1. INTRODUCTION
In the manufacturing industry, especially the mold and dies manufacture, the machining
cost may be reduced by increasing the efficiency in the machining process. The higher
efficiency can be achieved by using the 5-axis milling machine which allows a single-stepprocess to create products. Generally, the machining process is divided into 3 processes:
roughing, semi finishing, and finishing machining(Ali Lasemi, 2010). Unlike the other twostages, a large proportion of the rough machining process is spent on removing the bulk of
the waste material and this process results in the coarsest feature of the workpiece(M.
Balasubramaniam, 2000).
Faceted model is widely used in the research on the development of machining method
until now(Yuan and Shao, 2012, Lin et al., 2013, Kruth, 2003). However, there are someusing point cloud as the basis for data(Mohanad Makki, 2010, Masood et al., 2015)
In reality, due to the large variation of the complex volume model, there might be someparts that are difficult to reach by the tool during the machining process. These areas arecommonly referred to as the CBV (Closed-Bounded Volume) area(Kiswanto. and Panuju,
2010).CBV area is generally a sign that there are obstacles present in the area and therefore,
a special strategy shown below in Figure 1 as the illustration of the rough machining
process for the complex model is required.

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a.
b.
c.
Figure 1.a) Complex models; b) The simulation of the rough machining; c). The remaining
waste material in the model.
In increasing the effectiveness of the machining process, especially during roughing
process, efforts are made to work on the models which contain CBV area in the machining
process in order to reduce the total machining time for creating dies and molds and to add
the machining volume in this area. The CC points and the initial tool orientation aredetermined based on the position of pre-determined point clouds. When determining the
CC points and the initial tool orientation in this area, interference between the tool and theworkpiece is prone to occur. Since this interference may damage the workpiece and/or thetool, a collision avoidance method needs to be done to allow a more effective determinationof CC points in the rough machining process.
Chapter 3 of this paper further discusses the determination of CC points and initial toolorientation. Chapter 4 explains the interference detection method and explains on how toprevent the occurrence of interference.
2. SEPARATION OF THE CLOSED-BOUNDED AREA (CBV) AND THE OPENBOUNDED AREA (OBV) DURING THE ROUGH MACHINING PROCESS
The rough machining process generally adopts the 3-axis milling method. However, since
this method has a lot of limitations, it takes much longer time to finish the product until thefinishing process. Based on the features in the complex models, workpiece models can be
categorized into 3 following models:
1. Figure 2a shows a model with a CBV model
2. Figure 2b shows a model with a CBV+OBV model
3. Figure 2c shows a model with a OBV model

a.
b.
c.
Figure 2.a) CBV models; b) CBV+OBV models; c)OBV/pocket models

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The detection of the CBV area has been introduced by(Kiswanto. and Panuju, 2010) andupdated by(Sutrisno et al., 2017b). The method for CBV area determination will later beused as the method to increase the effectiveness of the rough machining process forcomplex model. In the previous paper, it is explained that the CBV area is detected with analgorithm that the CBV area positions are always between 2 solid models with one
visibility point parallel to the normal vector. Meanwhile in another form, what can directly
be seen by the visibility point parallel with normal vector is commonly referred to as Open
Bounded Volume or OBV. Figure 2 above shows that the model can be only CBV or only
OBV, or CBV + OBV combined.
The previous paper also discusses that to assist calculation, the CBV dan OBV is groupedby creating point clouds in the machining area(Sutrisno et al., 2017a, Kiswanto et al.,2017). The separation between CBV area and OBV area based on the slicing process placedon each point cloud formed in (x, y, 0). By slicing line method(Park, 2004) and fast
minimum storage ray triangle intersection method(Moller and Trumbore, 1997), the slicing
line is the form of perpendicular line cut against the model which is parallel to the normal z
axis. In the machining area, the determination of point clouds resembles the determinationof the point clouds at the base of the model, but with an addition of a certain z value. The z
value added is the implementation of the depth of the cut from the rough machining
process. Point clouds which are in the CBV area will be detected as the point clouds locatedamong 4 slicing lines against the faceted model while the point clouds which are outside
the 2 slicing lines are the point clouds in the OBV area.
3. INITIAL TOOL ORIENTATION IN CBV AND OBV AREA
After the point clouds are separated into position in the CBV area and OBV area, the point
clouds formed are then used as CC points. The initial tool orientation is used as thereferences for the tool orientation in the local coordinate system. Figure 3 below shows the
direction of the local coordinate which will be formed in CBV area.

Figure 3. Local coordinate system.
The grouping of the point clouds in CBV area and OBV area will help the grouping of thetool orientation. In the OBV area, the tool orientation has the same direction with thenormal vector of workpiece whereas in the CBV area, the determination of the toolorientation is based on the vector position reference formed between the CC points under
the CBV area and the highest CC points outside the CBV area. The determination of thetool orientation in CBV area can be explained in the Figure 4 below.

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Figure 4. The determination of the tool orientation in CBV area
The CC points under the CBV area are in the (x, y, z) position. The closest point outside the
CBV area selected is the closest points with the direction parallel to the feed direction. The
reference points of the tool orientation are formed by the closest CC points outside CBV(x1, y1, z1), with the highest z value so the position of the reference point becomes (x1, y1,zmax). The following equation is then made for the determination of the tool orientation:
AB=

-

(2)

The model workpiece can be illustrated in the Figure 5 below:

Figure 5. The determination of the tool orientation in the CBV and OBV area.
The above Figure shows that the orientation of each CC points on the OBV area is parallelto the normal vector of the workpiece while CC points under CBV area form the toolorientation to the closest highest point outside the CBV area. The machining process is
illustrated in Figure 6 below:

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Figure 6. The illustration of the tool orientation in the machining process
When this action is performed, the positions of the tool in each CC point in CBV area are
not instantaneously free from damaging interference while the formation of the tool path ineach machining method is the accumulation of the tool orientation which is free frominterference.
4. THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE CHANGES IN THE INITIAL TOOLORIENTATION IN CBV AREA
Since in the tool orientation interfernce is still likely to occur, the next step is to detect inwhich CC points interference are likely to occur. The step for detecting, is done by first
forming a tool posture. The tool posture used is the end-mill while the diameter and thelength of the roughing are determined during the triangulation period.
a. Collision detection
There are 3 types of gouging occurred in the workpiece surface that might cause
imperfection in the result of the machining(D.C.H.Yang, 1999):
1. Type a is a gouging caused by the presence of workpiece curvature which exceeds theminimum limit of the tool.
2. Type b or a rear gouging is when interference outside the pre-determined CC points
occurs on the base of the tool.
3. Type c or a collision is when interference occurs in the tool outside the cut area (there
is a feed on the uncontrolled side).
Figure 7 below illustrates the three types of gouginga.

b.
Figure 7. Types of gougingc.

To detect the parts which experience a collision, there are a many methods that can be used.
Bounding volume based method by(Balasubramaniam et al., 2002, MAnnan, 2004),

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accesability based method by(Lee, 1997). One of which is by projecting a triangle from thefaceted model and the tool against the area which will be reached by the tool(Kruth, 2003,
Kiswanto et al., 2007). The area which is covered by the shadow of the tool will be detectedby moving the local coordinate system in the workpiece.
Meanwhile, based on the grouping of CC points in the machining area, a collision mightoccur in the CBV area while in OBV area and on certain layers, a rear gouging as shown in
Figure 7b above is likely to occur. The process of collision detection and avoidance is done
heuristically as shown in the following flowchart:

Determining roughmachining parameters

Collision detection

Interpolation(rotation,translation,
rotation + translation)

New CC point

In this study, the collision detection uses the library from AABB (align axis bounding box).
This method uses a virtual box as the basis of the detection. Each overlapping occurred in
the workpiece model and the tool in the pre-determined axis means that CC points will
experience an interference.
b. Collision avoidance
Aside from causing damage to the workpiece during the machining process, the collision
may also cause a material loss due to the damage in the tool and other machinerycomponents(Tang, 2014)
Similar to the method to detect collision, the method to avoid collision until now is still aninteresting topic to discuss. There have been a few discussions on how to avoid collision in
the workpiece and one of which is the method of tool rotating and tool lifting on thevolume which experiences interference. In the previous paper, (Kiswanto et al., 2007)used
the re-tool orientation in the detected area by determining the minimum change oforientation while the roughing gouging was avoided by having a constant orientation bylifting the tool in a constant orientation. The pattern of tool lifting is also done when the reorientation reaches a maximum angle.
On the other hand, used sampling points and interpolation(Ziwei et al., 2012). The
sampling points were taken from the volume and the calculation of the roughing posture
was done on each point. This was done with the assumption that the area which could bereached by the tool would change. This area was then interpolated using B-surface. The
other method, visibility and accessibility based method by(Balasubramaniam et al., 2002,
Balasubramaniam et al., 2003)
Meanwhile, to find the CC points or the tool orientation which is free from interferences,
the numeric pattern is done with Ө angle determined with a certain increment. This patternis applied to each CC point in CBV area. To ensure that each CC point in the local
coordinate system is free from collision, the following steps are taken:
1. Check the determined CC point and the tool posture whether they are free frominterference
2. If interference occurs, rotate ≤ 600.

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3. On each new tool orientation, re-check to see if interference still occurs
4. If the rotation has reached the maximum degree of change with Ө ≤ 600, translationis performed with ΔL parallel to the feed direction
5. Each ΔL change can be used as the CC point and the same procedure can be
repeated from Step 1.
From the grouping of the CBV and OBV area, the difference in the tool orientation
indicates different interference avoidance pattern on each CC point. Generally, theinterference avoidance can be done by changing the angle of the tool orientation and canalso be done by avoidance movement away from the interference area or commonlyreferred to as translation. The limitation of rotation and translation will be further explainedin the next sub-chapter.
c. Rotation
Rotation by an angle (Ө) about the origin the function isx1 = x cosӨ – y sinӨandy1= x sinӨ + y cosӨ
=

(2)
(3)

The tool orientation on each CC point below the CBV is formed based on position vector
formed by CC points under the CBV area and the closest points outside the CBV with amaximum z value as illustrated in Figure 8 below. The position of the tool orientation forthis area which is different than the position for the tool orientation in OBV area will befurther explained in the translation sub-chapter.

Figure 8. Initial tool orientation in CC points in CBV area
On the example above, after the CC points are obtained with the position (x, y, z) on thelocal coordinate system, the collision avoidance pattern can be performed. The procedure
for the avoidance uses the numeric method with a fixed angle interpolation starting fromthe initial tool orientation position with the CC point as the pivoting point of the rotation
with direction (i, j, k) = Ө0 and for (i1, j1, k1) = (i, j, k) + increment Ө. This process perform
until the n increament with a maximum Ө = 600. In each new position (in, jn, kn ) is reach.
This procedure is illustrated in Figure 9 below. When the maximum change in the tool

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orientation reaches Ө = Өmax, the procedure of the rotation is then stopped and thecollision avoidance is performed by moving the CC points to the interference-free points.

Figure 9. Re-orientation of tools
d. Translation
The translation method to avoid interference is used when:
1. The positions of the tool orientation on one machining method are
uniform(Kiswanto et al., 2007)
2. The pattern for avoidance by using rotation has reached the pre-determinedmaximum angle.
Translation from the initial CC point to the new CC point are illustrated as equations
below:
P1=T.P(4)(Tx, Ty, Tz) = transformation distance (ΔL) so in matrix transformation=(5)

In this paper, the uniformity of the tool orientation direction is gained during the roughmachining process in OBV area. The tool orientation in this area is parallel to the normal
vector of the workpiece so that the tool orientation can be done by adopting the 3-axis
machining. The uniformity of tool orientation in OBV area is illustrated in Figure 10 below.

Figure 10. Direction of tool orientation in OBV area.

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The interference avoidance pattern in Figure 11 uses the linier interpolation with a fixed
ΔL. The CC points which experience interference (rear gouging) become the initial position(x0, y0, z0) to obtain new CC points (x1, y1, z1). In each new CC point as the result ofinterpolation that become the initial position, an interference check is performed. This
process is done until n x ΔL.

Figure 11. Translation in CC points which experience interference
Meanwhile, the second translation pattern is done when the re-orientation of tool in
CBV area has reached the maximum Ө angle. Figure 12 below illustrates how the rotationis conducted when the tool experiences interference with the model. However, if the change
in the orientation angle has reached a maximum and an interference still occurs, theavoidance is performed by moving the tool with ΔL distance (Figure 13). Interference
check is then performed in the result of the translation, which is the new CC points. If there
is a collision, the rotation in the CC points is done again until there is no more collisionoccurred. This procedure is illustrated in Figure 14 below.

Figure 12. Tool rotation until a maximum angle

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Figure 13. Translation after the tool rotation reaches a maximum angle

Figure 14. Translation and rotation until CC points are free from interference.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The interference avoidance method uses the change in the rotation angle numeric and thelength of the translation can be used as the compensation for the change in tool orientation
during the rough machining process in CBV area. Adding CC points using initial toolorientation which is free of interference will significantly affect the effectiveness of therough machining process, especially for models with CBV area. The compensation of thechange in tool orientation has been tested in a few models as seen below in table1 (4 CC
point at first layer), Figure 15 and Figure 17.

Table 1. The compensation of the change in tool orientation CBV area 1st layer model A
CC Point(x, y, z, i, j, k)Rotation Translation iteration Cutter location
At CBV area(rot) Ө 0(trx) ΔL(Σ)(1/0)*(45, 10, 65, 15, 0, 35)
30
30(40, 10, 65, 20, 0, 35)
93
7
1(35, 10, 65, 25, 0, 35)
24
8
11
1
(30, 10, 65, 30, 0, 35)
21
7
8
1

*(1 = new CC point)

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a. Interference detection

b. Collision freeFigure 15. Model A

a. Interference detection

b. Collision freeFigure 16. Model B

6. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a method of re-orientation of the tools on CC point at CBV area. This
accomplished by interpolating fixed angles to the maximum limitation of 600 according
machine capability. If the interference still occurs, translation to getting new CC point asused. Finally, new CC point and new tools orientation used as CC point tool trajectory atrough machining.
7. REFERENCES
ALI LASEMI, D. X., PEIHUA GU 2010. Recent development in CNC machining of
freeform surfaces: A state-of-the-art review. Computer aided design, 42, 14.
BALASUBRAMANIAM, M., HO, S., SARMA, S. & ADACHI, Y. 2002. Generation ofcollision-free 5-axis tool paths using a haptic surface. Computer-Aided Design, 34,
13.
BALASUBRAMANIAM, M., SARMA, S. E. & MARCINIAK, K. 2003. Collision-freefininshing toolpath from visibility data. Computer-Aided Design, 35, 16.
D.C.H.YANG, Z. H. 1999. Interference detection and optimal too selection in 3-axis NC
machining of free form surface. computer aided design, 31.
KISWANTO, G., LAUWERS, B. & KRUTH, J.-P. 2007. Gouging elimination through tool
lifting in tool path generation for five-axis milling based on faceted models. Int. J
Adv Manuf Technol, 32, 21.

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KISWANTO, G., SUTRISNO, H. H. & ISTIYANTO, J. 2017. Non Machinable Volume
Calculation Method For 5-Axis Roughing Based On Faceted Models ThroughClosed Bounded Area Evaluation. Int. Conf. Mechanichal, Aeronautical andAutomotive Engineering 2017, 5.
KISWANTO., G. & PANUJU, A. Y. T. 2010. Development of closed boundedvolume(CBV) grouping method of complek faceted model through CBVBoundaries identification. IEEE, 3, 5.
KRUTH, B. L. G. K. J. P. 2003. Development of a Five axis Milling Tool Path Generation
Algorithm based on faceted model.
LEE, Y.-S. 1997. Admissible tool orientation control of gouging avoidance for 5 axis
complex surfce machining. computer aided design, 29.
LIN, Z., FU, J., SHEN, H. & GAN, W. 2013. Efficient cutting area detection in roughing
process for meshed surfaces. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology, 69, 525-530.
M. BALASUBRAMANIAM, P., LAXMIPRASAP 2000. Generating 5-axis NC roughing
path directly from a tesselated representation. Computer aided design, 32.
MANNAN, S. D. M. A. 2004. Oriented bounding box and octree based global interfernce
detection in 5-axis machining of free form surface.
MASOOD, A., SIDDIQUI, R., PINTO, M., REHMAN, H. & KHAN, D. M. A. 2015. Tool
path generation, for complex surface machining, using point cloud data. conferenceon suitable manufacturing, 26, 6.
MOHANAD MAKKI, C. T., FRNACOIS THIEBAUT, CLAIRE LARTIGUE, CHARYARSOZANI 2010. 5-axis Direct Machining of Rough Clouds of Points. computer
aided design, 10.
MOLLER, T. & TRUMBORE, B. 1997. Fast MinimumStorage RayTriangle Intersection.
PARK, S. C. 2004. Sculptured surface machining using triangular mesh slicing. ComputerAided Design, 36.
SUTRISNO, H. H., KISWANTO, G. & ISTIYANTO, J. 2017a. Development of Initial
Tool Orientation Method At Close Bounded Area for 5-Axis Roughing Based On
Faceted Models. ICMM, 3.
SUTRISNO, H. H., KISWANTO, G. & ISTIYANTO, J. 2017b. The Improvement of the
Closed Bounded Volume (CBV) Evaluation Methods to Compute a Feasible Rough
Machining Area Based on Faceted Models int. Conf. on Manufacturing,
Optimization, Industrial and Material Engineering 2017, 5.
TANG, T. D. 2014. Algorithms for collision detection and avoidance for five-axis NC
machining: A state of the art review. Computer-Aided Design, 39.
YUAN, E.-T. & SHAO, B. 2012. Tool-path Generation of Multi-axis Machining for
Subdivision Surface. AASRI Procedia, 3, 6.
ZIWEI, L., HONGYAO, S., WENFENG, G. & JIANZONG, F. 2012. Approximate tool
posture collision-free area generation for five-axis CNC finishing process using
admissible area interpolation. Int. J Adv Manuf Technol, 62, 13.

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COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)
TECHNOLOGY AT GRATI POWER PLANT
Retno Aita Diantari

Electrical Engineering Department
College of Engineering – PLN (Foundation for Education &Welfare PT. PLN (Persero)
Jakarta, Indonesia
isworop@yahoo.com

Abstract—Gas has great potential to be converted into
electrical energy. Indonesia has natural gas reserves up to 50
years in the future, but the optimization of the gas to beconverted into electricity is low and unable to compete with coal.
Gas is converted into electricity has low electrical efficiency(25%), and the raw materials are more expensive than coal.
Steam from a lot of wasted gas turbine, thus the need for
utilizing exhaust gas results from gas turbine units. Combined
cycle technology (Gas and Steam Power Plant) be a solution to
improve the efficiency of electricity. Among other Thermal
Units, Steam Power Plant (Combined Cycle Power Plant) has ahigh electrical efficiency (45%). Weakness of the current Gas
and Steam Power Plant peak burden still using fuel oil.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Technology may be used toaccommodate the gas with little land use. CNG gas stored in thecircumstances of great pressure up to 250 bar, in contrast to gas
directly converted into electricity in a power plant only 27 barpressure. Stored in CNG gas used as a fuel to replaceloadbearing peak. Lawyer System on CNG conversion as well as
the power plant is generally only used compressed gas withgreater pressure and a bit of land.

system more filled by many ordinary coal plant production ischeaper. Nevertheless, the unabsorbed gas must still be paid,
the gas supply contract is a take or pay. While at peak load
gas supply is insufficient, so that some plants have to be
operated using the fuel.
Presence technology Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is
expected to be a solution to the problem mentioned above.
Gas supply flow rate remain while outside of peak load,
partially compressed into CNG tube pressurized to 250 bar
for 10 hours. CNG use of technology for the generation of arock thing, not in other countries. Much of the world uses
Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) technology.

Keywords : Fuel; Compressed Natural Gas; power plants;
efficiency of electricity

I.

INTRODUCTION

Electricity consumption per capita is an index of living
standard of a country. In Indonesia, with the increasing
industrial activity and population, the need for electrical
power also increased. Due to the increase in fuel prices
today's world, PT. PLN (Persero) as one of the stateelectricity company should think businesses operating costsavings, of which 75% are in fuel costs. One effort that canbe taken by PT. PLN (Persero) is the main power plant fuelswitching from fuel oil (HSD and MFO) into natural gas.
Basically PLN operate Power Gas and Steam (Power
Plant) as peaker plants (peak load) because operating costs
are more expensive than base load generation (base load). Oilenergy crisis that resulted in soaring oil prices caused the gas
to be used as an alternative PLN for plant outside of peakload. During this time, when the load is low (outside of peakload), the supply of gas for the power plant is not absorbed
optimally, as appropriate loading pattern in the Java-Bali

498

Isworo Pujotomo

Electrical Engineering Department
College of Engineering – PLN (Foundation for Education &Welfare PT. PLN (Persero)
Jakarta, Indonesia
retno_aita@yahoo.co.id

II.
GAS POWER PLANT AND STEAM
Power Plant is a combination of the working principle ofthe power plant by gas and steam power plant or so-called
combined cycle. Power plant using a gas turbine unit driving
the generator, so that the working principle of the power plantfollowing the working principle of the gas turbine. The gas
turbine is designed and made for converting heat energy fromburning fuel into mechanical energy. The system uses theprinciple of the Brayton cycle gas power plant. While theworking principle of the power plant is converting thechemical energy in the fuel is converted into thermal energy
in the form of vapor pressure and high temperature, the steam
then changed to mechanical energy to drive generator. The
system uses the principle of the Rankine cycle power plant.
Figure 1 is a Grati power plant in East Java with a capacity of
526.850 MW which use the principle of combined cycle.

Figure 1. Grati Power Plant in East Java (Pasuruan)

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Grati Power Plant in East Java (Pasuruan) consists of:
Gas Turbine: 112.450 MW x 3; Steam turbine: 189.500 MW;
Block output 526.850 MW.
a. Combined cycle;
In improving the efficiency of gas turbines do combined
cycle gas turbine with a steam turbine cycle in order to obtainthe combined cycle which is commonly referred to as "cogeneration". Meanwhile, to improve the thermal efficiency of
the gas turbine is used combined cycle, forming a so-called"Combined Cycle" or Steam Gas Power Plant (Power Plant).
Cycle power plant applying the Brayton cycle, whereas theideal cycle Rankine cycle power plant apply.
b. Brayton cycle;
Brayton cycle (Brayton Cycle) shown in Figure 2 consistsof isentropic compression process that ended with the releaseof heat at constant pressure. In Bryton cycle of each stateprocesses can be analyzed as follows:
1-2 (isentropic Compression).
Work required by the compressor:
2-3: Entry of the fuel at a constant pressure.
3-4: isentropic expansion in the turbine.
4-1: Discharge heat at constant pressure into the air.

a - b: Water is pumped from the pressure p2 be p1. This stepis a compression step isentropis, and this process occurs at thewater pump filler.
b - c: Air pressure is increased the temperature until it reaches
boiling point. Occurred in the Low Preasure heater, High
Preasure heater and Economiser.
c - d: Water transformed into saturated steam. This step iscalled evaporation with isobars isothermis process, occurredin the boiler is in the wall tube (riser) and the steam drum.
d - e: Steam is heated further until the vapor reaches atemperature further work into hot steam (superheated vapor).
The move occurred in the boiler superheater with the isobars.
e - f: Steam does work so that the pressure and thetemperature dropped. This step is a step isentropis expansion,and occur within the turbine.
f - a: Disposal of latent heat of the steam that turns into
condensate water. This step is isothermis isobars, and occurs
in the condenser.

Figure 2. p-v and t-s Brayton Syklus Diagram
From Figure 2 on p-v diagram and t-s, it can be seen thatthe inclusion of heat takes place at a constant pressure:
Qin = m.cp. (T3-T2)(1)- Spending too hot at constant pressure:
Qout = m.cp. (T4-T1)(2)- Thus, useful work can be formulated as follows:
Wu = Qin – Qout

(3)c. Rankine cycle;
Rankine cycle in Figure 3 is used in the steam turbine power
plant system. The sequence steps as follows:

Figure 3 Diagram T - s Rankine Cycle
Source : Indian Institute of Technology Madras
III.
COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fluid gas that has
been processed into a high-pressure natural gas compression
in a tube. In general, the major components containing CNG
methane (CH3) and ethane (C2H8) with fraction of about 90%.
CNG is made by compressing methane (CH4), which is
extracted from natural gas. CNG is stored and distributed
through the packaging in the tank (pressure vessel or pressure
vessel). Ideally, the pressure on the gas pipeline is 11 bar,
while the CNG requires a pressure of 200 bar, or 197 atm,
197 times normal air pressure. With a pressure of 200 bar,

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charging the equivalent of 130 liters of premium gas can bedone within 3-4 minutes. Figure 4 shows an example of CNG
tubes.
Calorific value is the amount of heat generated by the
combustion of materials or fuels. Measured in units of energy
per amount of material, for example kJ / kg. Calorific valueof the fuel is divided into two kinds, namely: a calorific value
above (HHV) and lower calorific value (LHV).

Figure 4. pressure of 200 bar CNG Tubes
Higher Heating Value (HHV) or above is the calorificvalue calorific value derived from the combustion of 1 kg offuel, taking into account the vapor condensation heat (water
resulting from combustion are in liquid form). HHV gas =1089 Btu / ft3 = 52.225 MJ / kg.
Lower Heating Value (LHV) or lower calorific value isobtained calorific value of combustion heat regardless vapor
condensation (water produced from burning was on gas /steam). LHV gas = 983 Btu / ft 3 = 47.141 MJ / kg.
A fuel flash point is the lowest temperature at which thefuel can be heated so that steam output flame briefly when
passed a flame. Flash point -187.80C CNG temperature.
Burning point is the lowest temperature at which sufficient
oxygen conditions, spontaneous combustion can occur.
Burning point unit is degrees (0) or degrees Celsius (0)Fahrenheit. CNG point at a temperature of 5400C. Octane
number is a number that shows the number as a percentage(%) volume of isooctane in a mixture that consists of nheptane issoctane and that does not cause outbreaks in thefuels being tested in a compression chamber of a combustion
chamber.
According to the science of thermodynamics, the higher
the ratio / percentage of compression used, the higher theefficiency of combustion in the combustion chamber. CNG
octane value of the percentage of 130%.
Tube specifications for CNG fuel is as follows:
Capacity= 50-100 (m3)Dimensions= 11657 x 2428 x 3028
Massa Netto= 10760 kg
Nominal Diameter = DN80
Material= 16 MNR

500

The selected specification is commercial fleet refuel CNG
compressor station, with a pressure of 1.4-250 bar and acapacity of 1.3 m3 / h.
CNG has both pluses and minuses. One advantage is it isa lot cleaner than gasoline and diesel fuel. CNG-powered
vehicles emit a lot less carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides—aprimary component of smog—and particulates, which can
trigger a range of health problems. But CNG has much lower
energy density than liquid fuels. A gallon of CNG has only aquarter as much energy as a gallon of gasoline. The low
energy density and the pressure of the highly compressed gas
requires CNG vehicles to have big, bulky fuel tanks, whichmeans that CNG is practical mainly for bus and truck fleetsthat refuel in central locations. And that, in turn, means that
CNG use for transportation is still rare. In 2014, only 0.12
percent of the natural gas consumed in the United States wasused to power vehicles, according to the Energy Information
Administration.
LNG is a way of transporting natural gas long distances
when pipelines aren’t an option—across oceans, for example.
Producing LNG involves compressing and cooling natural
gas to around minus 260 degrees Fahrenheit. That process
converts the gas to a liquid and cuts its volume to 1/600th ofthe original, making it possible to ship the LNG in special
tankers. Once it gets to its destination, the LNG can be
unloaded at a receiving terminal and regasified—turned backinto a gas. It can then be delivered through local pipelines tocustomers.
The infrastructure for LNG—for cooling andcompressing, shipping and regasifying—can be extensive
and expensive. Producing and transporting LNG is also very
energy intensive. These factors make it difficult for LNG tocompete with U.S. domestic natural gas supplies given the
recent dramatic increase in shale gas production. U.S. importsof LNG, which grew steadily in the late 1990s, peaked in
2007, and are now at their lowest level since 1987. They
represent just 0.2 percent of U.S. natural gas consumption.
Still, LNG has continued to play an important role inproviding gas in some regions in specific times of the year—
in New England during the winter, for example. And, as a
new paper from the Conservation Law Foundation shows,more strategic use of existing LNG infrastructure can help
avoid the need for expensive new natural gas pipelines.
More broadly, natural gas has played an important role in
the electric utility sector by lowering electricity costs,
reducing carbon pollution, and helping the country move tomore renewable energy. Natural gas provided more than 27
percent of U.S. electricity in 2014, up from 22 percent in
2007, while coal-fired generation fell from about half to 39
percent over that same period.

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For the transportation sector, natural gas can addressneeds more effectively—with lower carbon emissions—through electrification than through CNG. While a natural
gas-powered Honda Civic emits about 15 percent less global
warming pollution than a conventional Civic, for example,
using natural gas to generate electricity for a plug-in vehicle
can deliver carbon emissions savings of as much as 40
percent.
But overly relying on natural gas in the electric sector—
for electric vehicles or many other uses—could be a problem.
A UCS analysis from earlier this year showed how
dramatically expanding the use of natural gas for electricity
generation would threaten the economy, public health and theclimate. And our just-released analysis of state reliance onnatural gas for power plants found that two-thirds of U.S.
states may be putting electric ratepayers at risk by failing todiversify their electricity mixes.
Investing more in such clean energy resources as solar,
wind and energy efficiency will be critical for managing
overreliance on natural gas, even as utilities move away fromcoal. Many aspects of the Environmental Protection
Agency’s new Clean Power Plan will help make that happen,
creating incentives for states to prioritize clean energy overnatural gas as they look to clean up their fuel mixes.
IV.

OUTPUT POWER CNG CAPACITY ANALYSIS

1. Technical Analysis
Grati power plant that has the capacity of 3.5 MMSCF CNG
with gas turbine efficiency of 45% and CF = 0.8 / year inoperation for 6 hours output power can be determined asfollows:
Production MWh = (SCF x 922 x η) / 3413
= (3.5 x 1,000,000 x 922 x 0.45) / 3413
= 425.476 MWh
Output power= (Production MWh) / (operating time)= (425.476 MWh) / (6 h)= 70.91 MW
Fuel is needed to generate power output of 70.91 MW are as
follows:
BBG= (3413 x Power Output) / η= (3413 x 70.91) / 0.45
= 538 MMBTU= 512,380.9524 ft3= 14,508,579.05 lt
with:
1 ft3 = 1050 btu
1 ft3 = 28.316 lt = 28.316 dm3

2. Economical Analysisa) Fixed costs
According to the above matter at Grati power plantinstalled two units of CNG with a capacity of 2 x 70.91 MW.
If the interest rate i of 12% by age 25 years plants can be seen:
CRF = (i (1 + i)n) / ((1+ i)n-1) = (0.12 (1 + 0.12)25) / ((1 + 0 ,12)25-1) = 0.127
Development costs PLT-CNG = 5.94864 $ / kWh
CF = 80%
CC = (cost of construction of generating capacity x CRF) / W= (5.94864 x 400 x103 x 0.127) / (400 x 103 x 0.8 x 6 x 365)
= 4.4 x 10-4 $ / kWhb) operating and maintenance costs
O & M = (total cost of O & M) / (CF x time x cap) =(20347106.98 ($)) / (0.8 x 6 x 365 x 400 x 103 (kWh)) = 0.03
$ / kWhc) the cost of fuelFc = (Ui 860) / 0.45 = (860 x 7.313 x 10(- 7)) / 0.45 = 1.4 x 103$ / kWhd) Total cost
Tc = CC + O & M + Fc = 4.4 x 10-4 1.4 x 10-3 + 0.03 =0.03184 $ / kWhV.

CONCLUSION

From the analysis of the utilization of CNG fuel at Grati
power plant can be concluded that:
1. The use of CNG is useful to reduce system losses on gaspurchases at gas power plant (power plant) in take or pay
that lead to wasted unused gas.
2. Costs required by CNG stations is equal to 0.03184 $ /kWh with details:a) Construction of 4.4 x 10-4 Cost $ / kWhb) Operation and Maintenance Costs $ 0.03 / kWhc) Cost of Fuel 1.4 x 10-3 $ / kWh
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]

Kundur, P, (1994), Power System Stability and Control, EPRI,
Mc.Graw Hill, Inc, New York.
Saadat, H, (1999), Power System Analysis, Mc. Graw Hill Book
Co, Singapore.
"Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) andCompressed Natural Gas (CNG)".
"Gas South: Compressed Natural Gas". www.gas-south.com.
"ISO 14469-2:2007 - Road vehicles -- Compressed natural gas(CNG) refuelling connector -- Part 2: 20 MPa (200 bar) connector,
size 2". Iso.org.
"ISO 15500-9:2012 - Road vehicles -- Compressed natural gas(CNG) fuel system components -- Part 9: Pressure regulator". Iso.org.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

501

Analysis Study Level Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) at Substation - Customer
Distribution Substation Industry, Businessand Household
12

Albert Gifson

Lecturer, College of Engineering –PLN (Foundation for Education &Welfare PT. PLN (Persero)). PLN
tower. Jl. Outer West Lingkar, DuriKosambi, Cengkareng, Indonesia
11750
1

albertdoang@yahoo.co.id

Lecturer, College of Engineering –PLN (Foundation for Education &Welfare PT. PLN (Persero)). PLN
tower. Jl. Outer West Lingkar, DuriKosambi, Cengkareng, Indonesia
11750
2

juaramagapult_stmsi@yahoo.com

Abstract - Harmonics is a symptom caused by his disability
sinusoidal waveform of voltage or current permanent basis,
with the occurrence of defects in the sinusoidal wave is thenmathematically flawed sinusoidal wave can be decomposed
into many pure sinusoidal wave with a frequency of integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency. Symptoms harmonics
are now often found in the distribution system in connection
with many types of equipment especially those containing
electronic components. Symptoms of harmonics that occur inthe distribution system will cause some adverse impact on theoperation of the distribution system including increased lossof power losses, increasing the temperature of operation of theequipment, and distort the gauge (cause inaccuracies inmeasuring tools).
In the course of this research will be studied,researched and analyzed the levels of harmonics in various
types of distribution substations Jakarta area, especially forcongested areas such as load industrial areas, business centers,
dense residential area. And is expected to make reference tothe design of the filter with the capacitor value calculation
formula used in the method for reducing the influence of theharmonic distortion.
Keywords: harmonics, filters, and capacitors

1.

Introduction
Power quality is a reference to ideals electric
power system is indicated by the deviation value of
frequency, voltage stability and continuity of
distribution to the consumer, where all these parameters
should be strictly in accordance with the standards andcriteria, especially in the industrial world. The decline
in power quality due to, among other :1. The use of electronic equipment is increasingly
widespread as information technology equipment,
Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD), Programmable
Logic Controllers (PLC), energy saving lamps
resulted in a change in the nature of the electrical
load.

502

3

Juara Mangapul

Heri Suyanto

Lecturer, College of Engineering –PLN (Foundation for Education &Welfare PT. PLN (Persero)). PLN
tower. Jl. Outer West Lingkar, DuriKosambi, Cengkareng, Indonesia
11750
3

heri.suyanto@yahoo.co.com

2.

Expenses for non-linear causes disturbance to thevoltage waveform.
Lately a lot of electrical equipment, especiallyequipment that contains switching components inelectronic equipment either used in homes, on the street
lights and billboards as well as in industrial areas suchas the control equipment and automation equipment
industry will cause symptoms harmonics the
distribution system. This is detrimental to both thepower company and the customer. The content is quite
high harmonics would distort equipment, such asmeasuring instruments, protective equipment and cause
power losses and generate heat on some equipment
such as transformers and others.
To reduce the level of harmonics (THD value)of the power system, should be known prior noticeharmonic wave keberapa most dominant, it can be
known from measurements of the frequency spectrum.
Wave with a specific frequency which has the largest
amplitude (dominant) are to be suppressed by installingin parallel a filter that "only" miss the wave with a
specific frequency of the.
2. Objective
The main objective of this study was to analyze thelevel of harmonics at several distribution substations in
Cengkareng Area Services, Distribution PT. PLN
Jakarta and Tangerang. The contributor also to
determine the contribution of its THD value from thesource to the contribution of each order of theharmonics of the value of THD total. The otherobjectives of this study are:
1. With this study, is expected to make a reference tothe design of the device with a passive filter
capacitor value calculation formula to use inProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

methods for reducing the influence of harmonic b. THD against RMS
distortion.
total price
2. Expected hasill this author can be used by various
V
THD F  HRMS x 100%
parties as a source of knowledge about harmonics.
V
RMS

b. THDagainst
RMS total price

THD F I HRMSx 100 %I RMS

3. Review of Literature
The total price of a wave based RMS Harmonic
The literature review is taken reference is :- IEEE Recommended Practice For Monitoring component expressed as:Electric Power Quality, IEEE Standard. 519 –
=
I
In
HRMS
1992
n 2
- IEEE 2000 “A Draft Standard Glossary Of Power
Quality Terminology” (7 Juli 1999).
2
2
2
2
2
42
- Mc. Graw – Hill, Roger C, buku Electrical Power I I5  I6  I 7  .....
HRMS  I 2  I 3  I
System Quality second Edition.
Contributions total RMS wave Harmonic distortion isexpressed as :4.
Overview of Theoretical
Basic Principles Harmonics
2
2
2
2
2
2
42
Harmonics is a disorder that occurs in the I HRMS  I 2  I3  I  I5  I6  I7 ...I N
electricity distribution system caused by the current and RMS fundamental contribution to the waveform
voltage waveform distortion periodically. In the electric distortion is expressed as :power system there are two types of loads, ie load
2
linear and non-linear loads. Linear load is a load which I RMS  I 1 = I 1
provides a linear output waveform within the meaningof the current flowing is directly proportional to theHarmonic filter
impedance and voltage changes. While the non-linear
The objective of the harmonic filter is to reduce theload is a load which provides waveform output is notamplitude of frequency - a specific frequency of a
proportional to the voltage in each half cycle, so thatvoltage or current. With the addition of harmonic filter,the current waveform and the output voltage is not thethen the flow of harmonic currents to the entire network
same as the waves enter it (distorted). Harmonics arecan be minimized. Filter other methods for suppression
caused by a weight that is called non-linear loads.
of harmonics is :Table 1. As a result of the polarity of the harmonic
1. Installation Parallel Passive Filter
components
Passive filter installed on the system with the
The effect on the
The effect on theOrderprimary objective to dampen harmonics and othermotor
distribution system
purposes, namely to improve the power factor, aRotating magnetic
component of the L, C which can be tuned to one
fields cause theor two frequencies.
Positive Heatforward direction(forward)

Negative

Zero

Give rise to amagnetic fieldrotating backwards(reverse) Heat Direction ofrotation of the
motor change

There is no Heat Create / add tocurrent on theneutral wire

Source : IEEE Standard 519-1992 : Recommended Practices
and Requirements for Harmonic Control inElectrical Power Systems.

The formula for voltage
THD:
a. THD of thefundamental RMS prices

THDF 

VHRMS
x 100%VF

Formula for current
THD:
a. THD of thefundamental RMS
prices
THD F Figure 1. Parallel Filter Passive
2.

Installation Parallel Active Filter
Active filter is a harmonic filter consisting ofcomponents - the active components, such as
inverters are controlled specifically and actively
detects harmonic current components in the
network. Active Filter can also compensate for the
power factor or the other function.

I HRMSx 100 %
IF

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

503

Figure 2. Parallel Active Filter
3.

Installation Hybrid Filter
In a conventional hybrid active filter, active filter
connected to a passive shunt filter through atransformer. For a filter configuration like thisrequires an active filter which is small for filter
capacitor voltage lowers great on the fundamental
component. Active filters are connected in series tothe shunt passive filter through a transformer.

Figure 4. Figure Measuring Instrument Power Quality
Analyzer DM III MultiTest
6.2 Implementation Measurement
Accurate data acquisition time is actually the timeof peak load and off-peak hours, but due to limitedaccess to the distribution substation at peak load
measurements were mostly carried out during peakload.
The following image measurement circuit
implemented :Figure 3. Parallel Hybrid Active Filter
5.

Research methods
The method used in this study there are several
stages as follows :Flow Diagram Research Methods :6. Research result
6.1 Technical Data Measurement
Measuring instrument used for data collectionof this research is the Power Quality Analyzer DM III
MultiTest. Here are the specifications of the
instruments used to measure the amount :1. The content level Voltage harmonics THD and
THD Flow
2. Rated Voltage, Current, Power Factor (PF), Flow
Neutral
3. Power diterpakai value on load.

504

Figure 5. Network Performance Measurement
Distribution Substation PT. PLN
6.3 Measurement and Data Acquisition
From the results of measurements in the field,
especially in some of the 32 Distribution Substation
total number of 123 all measurement data distribution
substations Industrial Customers, Businesses andHouseholds obtained as follows :THD Observation Data Flow Distribution Substation
Industrial Customers
From the measured data rate industrial customers
current THD value of 36 field measurement data. THD
current that exceeds the value of 15% there are 5 datafrom 36 data, and harmonics that occur in the harmonic
3 and 5.
Table 2. Maximum Flow THD At Industrial Customers
THD current
Code
No.
THD
THD
THD
Data Substation
IR (%)IS (%) IT (%)
3
TG 475
12.85
22.02
11.5
4

TG 47512.392

23.12

12.4

11
30
32

MK 173
TG 105
DK 223 P

16.31819.191
16.694

16.55
14.39
13.27

18.5
13.9
9.6

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

The distribution substations that current THD values
that exceed the value of 15% as follows :1. TG 475 substations to supply the industrial areadaan mogot.
2. DK 223 P substation to supply special area of metal
cutting and steel industry.
3. TG 105 substations to supply special area PT. Altus
Nusa independent industrial towels and cloths.
4. MK 173 substations to supply special area PT. Light
Prime Plastics (Lionstar) plastic and glass Industry.
Distribution substations highest levels of THD
Maximum current Andes substation located on
distribution feeders MK 173 Feeder 1 from the number
4 feeder, Here are the results overview Scope Spectrum
harmonics and THD measurements of maximum
current :Fasa R ( THD IR 16.32 % )Fasa S ( THD IR 16.55 % )Fasa T ( THD IT 18.53 % )

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0-1 2 0-1 4 0-1 6 0-1 8 0-2 0 0

Voltage THD of all data on industrial customers none
exceeds the standard IEEE 159 - 2002 where themaximum voltage THD is 5%. This is because theharmonic voltage measurements performed source side
THD Observation Data Flow Distribution Substation
Business Customers
From the measured data rate of the value of THD
business customers of 32 field measurement data. THD
current that exceeds the value of 15%, there are 4 datafrom 32 data, and harmonics that occur in the harmonic
3 and 5.
Table 3. THD Maximum Flow In Business Customers
THD current
Code
No.
THD
THD
THD
Data SubstationIT
IR (%) IS (%)
(%)
41
16.29
17.18
17.50
RB 05
42
RB 05
19.52
17.67
20.24
43
RB 05
21.11
22.94
22.41
62
DK 86
20.01
7.04
5.58
Distribution substations that current THD values thatexceed the value of 15% as follows:
1. RB 05 substations to supply the shop area andbuildings - office buildings.
2. DK 86 substations to supply special area of metal
cutting and steel industry.
Distribution Substation THD Maximum Flow rate ishighest in Eong substation feeder RB 05 Feeder 3 KML
9. Here are the results overview harmonic spectrum and
THD measurements The maximum current scope :Fasa R ( THD IR 21.11 % )Fasa S ( THD IS 22.94 % )Figure Scope

Fasa T ( THD IT 22.41 % )Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

505

Distribution Substation highest levels of THD Flow On
Domestic Customers are on a substation feeder Panca DK 163
Feeder 3 QTY 4, Here are the results overview of the scopeand spectrum of harmonic measurement maximum current
THD :Fasa R ( THD IR 16.91 % )Figure Scope
Ba s i c s c o p e/

F il e : 1 9 _ 0 1 _1 7 .DAT

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0-1 2 0-1 4 0-1 6 0-1 8 0-2 0 0

Voltage THD of all data on customers no business thatexceeds the standard IEEE 159 - 2002 where themaximum voltage THD is 5%. This is because theharmonic voltage measurements performed source side.
Observation Data Distribution Substation Domestic
Customers.
From the measured data rate of the value of THD
household customers of 55 field measurement data.
THD current that exceeds the value of 15% are 8 datafrom the data 55 (14%) and the harmonics that occur inthe harmonic 3 and 5.
Table 4. Maximum Flow THD At Home Customers
THD Current
No.
Code
THD
THD
THD
Data
Substation
IR (%)IS (%)IT (%)
69
9.903
9.364
16.655
DK 12581

MK 15911.10815.27315.04984

MK 1598.644

10.08615.56286

MK 15910.02115.3549.846

94

TG 38817.671

7.877

7.817

107

DK 20515.55813.484

12.41

110

DK 58

17.84

7.441

10.97

119

DK 16316.90826.70716.908

Fasa S ( THD IS 26.71 % )Fasa T ( THD IT 16.91% )Figure Scope
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5

Distribution substations that current THD values that exceed
the value of 15% as follows:
1. DK 125 substations to supply residential complexes
Semanan beautiful region. The average housing area average capacity of 2200 VA.
2. MK 159 substations to supply residential areas pakuan
Block AA Daan Mogot.
3. TG 388 substations to supply residential areas
motorways Durikosambi with the area are market - themarket for the general public.
4. DK 205 substations to supply randu cottage area
contained a mixed area settlements and residential
complexes.
5. DK 163 substations to supply industrial area households
prokopti (factory tempe and tofu).

506

0
-5
-1 0
-1 5
-2 0
-2 5
-3 0
-3 5
-4 0
-4 5

Voltage THD of all data on household customers
nothing that exceeds the standard IEEE 159 - 2002
where the maximum voltage THD is 5%. This isbecause the harmonic voltage measurements performed
source side. Here the percentage rate of the value of
THD voltage household customers.
7. Observation and Data Analysis Methods How toOvercome
Observation Data Analysis

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

IEEE Standard 519-1992 is the standard used to control
harmonics in electric power systems. This standard isdescribed in Harmonic wave limit for use with avoltage of 120 V samapai pool with 69000 V. The
range is typically used for housing, offices and otherpublic facilities. Limits for harmonic current distortion
allowed can be seen in the table.
Table 5. Limit Maximum Flow Distortion
Isc/IL< 20
20 < 50
50 < 100
100 < 1000
>1000

Isc/IL< 20
20 < 50
50 < 100
100 < 1000
>1000

h < 11
4.0
7,0
10.0
12.0
15.0

11  h<17
2.0
3.5
4.5
5.5
7.0

23  h<35
0.6
1.0
1.5
2,0
2.5

35<h
0.3
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.4

17  h<23
1.5
2.5
4.0
5.0
6.0

THD(%)
5.0
8.0
12,0
15,0
20.0

Sumber : IEEE Standard 519-1992 : Recommended Practices
and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power
Systems.

Note:* All the equipment that generated electricity is limited
to the value of this harmonic distortion
Isc : The maximum short circuit current at the PCC(Point of Common Coupling)
IL : The maximum load current short circuit at the PCC(Point of Common Coupling)h: Harmonics - n
THD: Total Harmonic Distortion
Table 6. Limitation Maximum Voltage Distortion% Total Harmonic Distortion Voltage

Voltage
THD (%)< 69 kV
5

69 kV s/d 161 kV
2.5> 161 kV
1.5

Source: IEEE Standard 519-1992 : Recommended Practices
and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power
Systems.



Calculation of short circuit current in thetransformer

Information :IL = Full load current (Amper)
S = load capacity (VA)
V = Voltage phase - phase at the low voltage side
(Volt)
Table 7. Calculation of the value of Isc / IL distribution
substation industrial customers
No.
Data

Code
Substation

Load
Capacity(kVA)

Transformer
Capacity
(kVA)

Isc /
IL

3

TG 475

27.98

630

375.3

4

TG 475

31.26

630

335.9

11

MK 173

72.95

400

548.3

TG 105
30
22.41
1000
743.7
DK 223 P
32
76.47
400
523.1
Tabel 8. Perhitungan nilai Isc / IL gardu distribusi
pelanggan bisnis to XFMR Impedance 6 %
No.
Data

Code
Substation

Load
Capacity(kVA)

Transformer
Capacity
(kVA)

Isc /
IL

41

RB 05

45.02

400

129

41

RB 05

56.09

400

103.5

43

RB 05

41.73

400

139.2

62

DK 86

22.96

400

252.9

Table 9. The calculation of the value of Isc / IL
distribution substations household customers XFMR
Impedance 6 %
No.
Data

Code
Substation

Load
Capacity(kVA)

Transformer
Capacity(kVA)

Isc / IL69

DK 125

24.67

1000

675.6

81

MK 159

34.91

400

191

84

MK 159

57.32

400

116.3

86

MK 159

87.41

1000

190.7

94

TG 388

50.09

630

209.6

Information :
107
33.15
400
201.1
DK 205
Isc = Short-circuit current (amperes)
110
46.58
1000
357.8
DK 58
KVAT = Transformer Power (KVA)
119
14.03
400
475.2
DK 163% Z = Percentase Impedance
KV = Voltage phase - phase at the low voltage side
Passive Filter Design Method For Suppressing(Volt)
 Calculation of short circuit current in the Harmonics
To suppress harmonic current that occurs, then thetransformer
selected filter passive harmonic filter types. Passive
filters can be used to minimize harmonic currents that

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

507

arise in the system. Mode passive filter used is a single
tuned filters. It is adapted to the load power factor that
Compensation of reactive power from Filter
is below standard. This single capacitive tuned
frequency below the set, to provide reactive powercompensation. To design a harmonic filter, there areseveral stages, namely:
For a system voltage of 220 V, required XFilt filter
reactance (capacitive) with:
1. Select a frequency that would be set by thefilter.
The frequencies will be set on the filter selected basedon the characteristics of the load harmonics.

Figure 6. Application Design passive filter on the load

Filter Rated Voltage (kV) = New Sytem Voltage
Filter rated voltage (kV) = 0.22 kV new sytem Voltage

Examples of case studies to design a passive filter
applications:
Is known :Measurement data from distribution substation feeders
DK 51 century type of service industries:
Capasitor Size (Selection) (kVAR) = New Capasitor Size
System Voltage (kV)
= 0.22 kV
New Capasitor Size = 400 kVAR
Loads Capacity (kVA)= 76.34 kVA
System PF (Lag)= 0.99System Frequency (Hz)= 50 Hz
Loads THDi (%)= 4.334 %Harmonic orde (th) = 3
Tranformer capacity (kVA)= 400 kVAXFMR Impedance (%)= 6%
3. Calculate the reactance filter large
Utility VTHD (%)= 0.881 %Desired PF (Lag)= 0.995
Tuned Frequency= 2.7
Problems :what value capacitor filter used for suppression ofharmonics to 3 ?
Solving Problems
2. Calculate the size of the capacitor and large
resonance
Generally, measure from the filter based on the amountof compensation required reactive power to improve
power factor on the system so first done in thecalculation of the harmonic filter component is seeking
capacity than the capacitors first, and then determine
the size of the reactor to determine the resonance to be
suppressed.
Capacitors and Value Size Frequency
Reactive power at a power factor 0.99

Reactive power in the power factor in Rev be 0.995

508

4. Evaluation of the results of measurement filter
The results of calculation of data for the pairs of active
filter capacitor must be according to standard IEEE 181992, Standard for Shunt Power Capacitor,
5. Calculation fundamental measurement data
a. Reactance of the fundamental frequency of the
combination of the capacitor and the reactance:b.

Currents filter the fundamental frequency

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

c. Total rms voltagec.

Fundamental frequency voltage between thecapacitor bankd. Total kVAR capacitor

6. Calculation of harmonics

a. Harmonics of the burden of non - linear.

8.

Evaluation of the value of the capacitor in thestandard

9.

Evaluation frequency filter

b. Harmonics in in pairs filter

7. Evaluation of total I rms and the V peaka. The total current rms onFilter
10. Evaluation of the effect of the filter parameters ofa variety of different specifications
b. The maximum voltage on the capacitor
Where :
R = The series resistance of the filter elementn = harmonic resonance value
XL = Reactance filter at the fundamental frequency

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

509

R = 0.068 Ω

Before the tide Filter Loads THD I (%) = 4.3334 % =4.3 %After the tide Filter Loads TDD I (%) into : 2.94 %Ih = magnitude of individual harmonic compents (rmsamps)
h = harmonic orde
IL = maximum demand load current (rms amps) definedabove

The design of the filter to suppress the harmonics atindustrial customers
The calculation of the value of the capacitor filter for
suppression design using the same formula as in thecase study is written in the previous section.

Figure 7. Installation Diagram passive filter on
Industrial Distribution Substation
Here the value of the capacitor are mounted forharmonic suppression to 3 and 5 of the maximum
current THD industrial customers.
Table 10. Harmonics filter THD current maximum totalindustrial customers

510

No.
Data

Code
Substation

11
4
30
3
32

MK 173
TG 475TG 105
TG 475
DK 223 P

BeforeInstallFilter
Loads
THD i
(%)
15.5
16.0
17.1
15.8
13.2

Harmonic Filter to 3
Capasitor
size(selection)
kVar

Install Filter
Loads After
TDD i (%)

100
100
400
400
800

9.7
9.7
9.5
8.4
8.4

No.
Data

Code
Substation

BeforeInstallFilter
Loads
THD i
(%)

11
4
30
3
32

MK 173
TG 475TG 105
TG 475
DK 223 P

15.5
16.0
17.1
15.8
13.2

No.
Data

Code
Substation

BeforeInstallFilter
Loads
THD i
(%)

41
42
43
62

RB 05
RB 05
RB 05
DK 86

17
19.15
22.15
10.88

No.
Data

Code
Substation

41
42
43
62

RB 05
RB 05
RB 05
DK 86

BeforeInstallFilter
Loads
THD i
(%)

Harmonic Filter to 5
Capasitor
size(selection)
kVar

200
200
800
400
1000

Install Filter
Loads After
TDD i (%

9.4
9.4
9.0
9.6
8.5

To Suppress Harmonics Filter Design In Business
Customers
Table 11. harmonics filter THD maximum total flow ofbusiness customers

17
19.15
22.15
10.88

Harmonic Filter to 3
Capasitor
size(selection)
kVar

100
100
100
200

Install Filter
Loads After
TDD i (%)

8.03
6.43
6.53
10.33

Harmonic Filter to 5
Capasitor
size(selection)
kVar

400
400
400
800

Install Filter
Loads After
TDD i (%)

9.95
7.98
8.10
8.43

To Suppress Harmonics Filter Design In Domestic
Customers
Table 12 Total current harmonic filter THD maximum
household customers
No.
Data

Code
Substation

BeforeInstallFilter
Loads
THD i
(%)

69
81
84
86
94
107
110
119

DK 125MK 159MK 159MK 159TG 388
DK 205
DK 58
DK 163

12.0
13.8
11.4
11.7
11.1
13.8
12.1
20.2

Harmonic Filter to 3
Capasitor
size(selection)
kVar

400
100
100
200
100
100
400
100

Install Filter
Loads After
TDD i (%)

8.2
8.5
8.5
9.3
8.1
8.9
7.0
6.2

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

No.
Data

Code
Substation

BeforeInstallFilter
Loads
THD i
(%)

69
81
84
86
94
107
110
119

DK 125MK 159MK 159MK 159TG 388
DK 205
DK 58
DK 163

12.0
13.8
11.4
11.7
11.1
13.8
12.1
20.2

Harmonic Filter to 5
Capasitor
size(selection)
kVar

400
200
200
400
200
200
400
100

Install Filter
Loads After
TDD i (%)

9.3
6.6
6.6
8.0
7.9
6.9
8.0
8.4

Analysis of the results of the calculation of theharmonic filter is affected:
 The level of reactive power compensation value
depends on the value of the total power of the two
factors with the provisions of PF <DPF. So the total
power factor will affect the size of kW and kVA
capacity.
 Rated frequency and size of the capacitors to be
mounted on harmonic filter.
8. Conclusion
The conclusion that can be obtained from the results ofthis study are as follows :1. From the measured data 123 data and 32
distribution substations service areas cengkareng
PT. PLN Jakarta and Tangerang, which exceeds thestandard value of the maximum current THD 15%
ie distribution substations 5 industrial customers, 2business customer distribution substations anddistribution substations 6 subscriber households.
2. From the measurement order harmonics common is
the harmonic order 3rd and 5th. While the value ofcurrent THD highest level and most occur in
distribution substations household customers. With
the current THD value of 26.707% on the S-phasecurrent THD region in DK 163 distribution

substations of the five feeder feeder feeder 3 ofthe number of household customers 4.
3. The method used for the suppression of harmonics
is mounted passive filters, of calculations obtained
capacitor value is chosen between 100 and 400
kVAR kVAR. harmonic filter influenced the levelof reactive power compensation value depends onthe value of the two factors with the provisions ofkW and kVA. And the harmonic filter is influenced
from the value of the frequency and size of thecapacitors to be installed.
4. As for the value THD The voltage that exceeds thestandard IEEE, 159-2002 which is the maximum
voltage THD 5% is nothing beyond the standard thisis due to the harmonic voltage measurements
performed on the source side.
9. Bibliography
Arrillaga, J., Bradley D.A, Bodger P.S, Power System
Harmonics, ( New York : John Willey dan
Sons,1985 ).
Abdul Kadir, Transformator, Jakarta: PT. Elex Media
Komputindo, 1989.
C. Sankaran, Power Quality, USA : CRC Press LLC,
2002.
Cristof Naek Haloman Tobing, Effect of Harmonics On
Distribution Transformer. Depok: Departemen
Elektro Fakultas teknik Universitas Indonesia, 2008.
Daut , H.S. Syafruddin, dkk, The Effects Of Harmonic
Components On Transformer Losses Of Sinusoidal
Source Supplying Non-Linear Loads, Malaysia :Science Publication, 2006.
Hyat dan Kemmerly, et al., Rangkaian Listrik Jilid 2,
Erlangga.
Rashid, M.H., Electrical Power Jilid 1, Jakarta, P.T.
Prehallindo, 1999.
Roger C. Dugan, Mark F. McGranaghan, H. Wayne
Beaty, Electrical Power System Quality, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.
Schneider Electric, Analyzing Neutral Conductor andtransformer overload, Power System Engineeringsolution, Nort American : 2000

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

511

TECHNICAL ANLYSIS FEASIBILITY STUDYON SMART MICROGRID SYSTEM INSEKOLAH TINGGI TEKNIK PLN
1Heri Suyanto

2

Research & Development Center for Electricity
New, Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation
Technology, Research & Development Agency of Ministryof Energy & Mineral Resources Republic of Indonesia
Jl. Ciledug Raya Kav.109, Jakarta Selatan Indonesia 12230
2
rina.irawati@esdm.go.id

Abstract - Nowadays application of new and renewableenergy as
main resource of power plant has greatly
increased. High penetration of renewable energy into the grid
will influence the quality and reliability of the electricity
system, due to the intermittent characteristic of new andrenewable energy resources. Smart grid or microgrid
technology has the ability to deal with this intermittent
characteristic especially if these renewable energy resources
integrated to grid in large scale, so it can improve thereliability and efficiency of the grid. We plan to implement
smart microgrid system at Sekolah Tinggi Teknik PLN as apilot project. Before the pilot project start, the feasibility
study must be conducted. In this feasibility study, therenewable energy resources and load characteristic at the site
will be measured. Then the technical aspect of this feasibility
study will be analyze.This paper explains that analysis of ths
feasibility study.

government, in the past few years has been started thedevelopment of power systems of new and renewable energy(EBT). 2Due to the nature Intermittent characteristic of new
and renewable energy, we need a system to resolve the issue.
Smart microgrid system or smart grid is one technology thatcan effectively and efficiently address the integration of new
and renewable Energy in the electrical system for a large
scale5.

Keywords : Smart Microgrid , New and Renewable Energy

Research and development of renewable energy
especially for Solar Power Generation based on smart-grid
technology has been listed on RIP STT PLN 2013 - 2018. Oneof strategies to fulfill the electric energy needs is to utilize thepotential of new and renewable energy (EBT) at the local site,
In order to reduce transmission and distribution costs.
Potential of Renewable Energy (ET) in local area is used tomeet the needs of electrical energy in the area. This will leadhigh concentation of renewable energy in into the grid. 5High
concentrations of renewable energy sources can cause
problems in stability, reliability and power quality on the main
grid. Smart microgrid is the key of the future grids where highconsentration of renewable energy does not affect or discrupt
with the quality of the grid6.

1.

INTRODUCTION

The conditions of electricity in Indonesia is still
inadequate, which the ratio of electrification is still low at 87%
as of October 2015 (PT. PLN Persero). 1This shows thatpeople access the energy is still limited. And also with thedevelopment of energy infrastructure in Energy for rural /remote and island - the outermost islands in general do not getadequate energy access. 4Dependence on electricity industry ismore limited. 3Utilization of new and renewable energy andimplementation of energy conservation are also not set
optimal.
As the one of the way fulfol local needs for electricity,and in accordance with the policies of Indonesian

512

Rina Irawati

Lecturer, College of Engineering - PLN(Foundation for Education & Welfare PT. PLN (Persero)).
PLN tower. Jl. Outer West Lingkar, Duri Kosambi,
Cengkareng, Indonesia 11750
1
heri.suyanto@yahoo.com

1

Since 2015 STT PLN has been conducting some researchof smart microgrid, with stage: study potentials stats with(2015) and design of the smart microgrid labotaroium scalamodel (2016), As the development of smart microgrid modeland for application in the field, so as a first step of theimplementation to start to establish the pilot project of smart
microgrid system with in at the laboratory scale in STT PLN
start in 2017
2.

TECHNICAL REVIEW

A smart microgrid system can be interpreted as anelectrical system consists of several Distributed Generations(DG) where the source is usually from EBT, such as

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photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, microturbons, with theaddition of a storage system, load control, and an energy
regulation system (Energy Management System - EMS). EMS
allows smart microgrid systems to make its own freeadjustment regordless grid positive in standalone mode(islanding). 7This microgrid smart system can operate in twomodes, On-Grid / Grid-connected and Off-Grid / Standalone /Islanding. Off-Grid / Standalone / Islanding operation mode iswhen circuit breaker isolates the system from the main grid
(PLN), so power generator equipment, storage, load regulator,
power quality controller and other system operation regulator
are applied only to smart microgrid system. 11In Off-Gridmode the load is supplied applied by DG, 9Diesel Generator (itbackup) and Battery. In an on-grid / grid connected mode, themicrogrid smart system is also a controllable load, or the
power generated from the grid is a backup / supplemental
energy source. 8In On-Grid / Grid Connected mode this load issupplied by DG, grid (as backup) and Battery.
3.

Training Center For Renewble Energy Power System.
Presence of solar Laboratory will save the electricity bill fromPT. PLN
Blueprint New and Renewable Energy STT PLN as follows
according to Figure 1 among others as follows:
1. Solar Power Plant (PLTS) capacity 14.5 kWp
2. Bayu / wind power plant (PLTB) capacity of 20 kW
3. Biomass Power Plant 16 kVA consisting of:- Waste Power Plants T gasifer 14 kVA- Waste Power Plants digester of 2 kVA
4. With KWH Export and Import KWH meter system (Exim)from PT. PLN (Persero) and Battery

RESEARCH METHODSThe expected outcome of this research program is thesynergies which mutually beneficial and supportive synergies
between university (STT PLN) and industrial partners to
produce hybrid power plant products designed andmanufactured in a micro-distributed (micro-gid structure), andSupported by high technology, so it can be operated inlocal/
remote island to fulfull needs of housing and also support theoperation of NKRI territorial integrity.
Methodology and research stages to be used follow:
a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

4.

Measure New and Renewable Energy potential, the windand solar energy at Sekolah Tinggi Teknik PLN.
Analysis of iradiation data on selected area (local / remoteisland), refers to data from BMKG and Lapan and otheragencies.
Measure the load characteristics at the smart micro gridsite.
Conducted an analysis of data on potential andcharacteristics of the load.
Conduct the analysis of feasibility for smart micro grid
system as the technical specifications of solar cells, anddetermining the electrical power control system based on"power electronics" based on the study of literature10.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sekolah Tinggi Teknik PLN is located at Lingkar Barat,
Duri Kosambi, Cengkareng, Jakarta Barat, Jakarta 11750.
Applied load in the Campus main building of 100KW, and theload in the Laboratory of STT PLN is 15 KW.
After the discussions among collengues and professors of
Sekolah Tinggi Teknik PLN and by direct observation at thelocation it was determined that the project smart microgrid
system will be built right at Laboratory at Research andFigure 1. Blueprint STT PLN Smart microgrid System.
This Installation that has been installed with a capacity of 14.5
kW with microgrid smart system On Grid and Off Grid

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513

Figure 2. Smart grid system design of Microgrid system foroff grid at STT PLN
Figure 4. Daily electricity curve of PLTS
It shows the maximum peak at 11:00 to 14:00 hours to reach
10 kW so that one can reach 70 kW in the position of
maximum results Daily and Daily Average reaches 40 kW.

Figure 3 Smart System Design of Microgrid system on grid at
STT PLN
Our Solar Power Plants Capacity of 17 kW / peak has alreadyIntegrated KWH Meter Exim Export and Import and has
installed with advanced technology monitoring system. This
design is made as a Research by knowing new and renewableenergy technologies especially Solar Power Generation and asa saver of electricity usage from PT. PLN (Persero) and theelectricity cost down. Figure of generated electricity from
PLTS monitoring system.

514

Figure 5. Monthly Electricity Curve of PLTS
From the curve above, electricity generated from Solar Power
Generation can reach 1.4 MWh.and Biomass Power Plant is in
the design stage For Bayu / Wind Power Generation andBiomass Power Plant is still under constumer.

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This Microgrid Project Smart will be applied as Research andLearning on New and Renewable Energy at the Research andTraining Center Laboratory for Renewble Energy Power
System STT PLN.
5. CONCLUSION
1.

From the analysis conducted on the technical aspects ofthe feasibility study of the application of Smart Microgrid
System Project in Sekolah Tinggi Teknik PLN is feasible
with high potential availability and installation area of
equipment as we expected.
Microgrid Smart System Project in Sekolah Tinggi
Teknik PLN Research and Training Center Laboratory for
Renewble Energy Power system STT PLN as New andRenewable Energy Technology Research and as a saverof electricity usage from PT. PLN.
Blueprint of smartmicrogrid system for New andRenewable Energy STT PLN consists of PLTS capacity
14.5 kWp, PLTB capacity 20 kW, PLTbiomass with 14
kVA Gasifer PLTS garbage and 2 kVA of waste PLTS
Digester) and Battery.

2.

3.

6. REFERENCES[1] J. B. (Secretary of U. S. D. of C. P. D.G. (Director of N. I.
of S. and Technology), NIST Framework andRoadmap for Smart Grid Interoperability Standards ,NISTSpecial Publication 1108R2 NIST Framework
and Roadmap for Smart Grid Interoperability
Standards, NIST Speci. Energy Independence andSecurity Act of 2007, 2012.
[2.] “The Smart Grid: Coming Of Age”, Electric Power
Research Institute Journal, EPRI,Inc. 2009.
[3.] Jay Stuller, “An Electric Revolution”, Galvin Electricity
Initiative[4.] CERTS Microgrid Symposium, Northern Power Systems[5.] Clarke,S., “Electricity Generation Using Small Wind
Turbines At Your Home Or Farm”, Fact Sheet,
September 2003
[6.] Kurt Yeager, “The Microgrid Revolution”, Oktober 2010[7.] IEC Smart Grid Standardization Roadmap, Prepared by
SMB Smart Grid Strategic Group (SG3) June 2010;
Edition 1.0[8.] Smart Houses interacting with Smart Grids to achievenext generation efficiency and sustainability, Dr.
Anke Weidlich, SAP Research 11.02.2009[9.] R. Ramakumar, “Integrated Renewable Energy System –
Micro
Grid
(IRES-MG)For
Sustainable
Development”, ICSUNIDO, Trieste, Italy, April 2012[10.] T.Nakata, K. Kubo and A. Lamont, “Design For
Renewable Energy System With Application To
Rural Area In Japan”, white paper.
[11.] C.W. Gellings, “ The Smart Grid – Enabling Energy
Efficiency and Demand Response”, CRC Press, 2009.

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DETEKSI APNEA TIDUR MELALUI SINYAL ELEKTROKARDIOGRAM
MENGGUNAKAN METODE DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM, PRINCIPALCOMPONENT ANALYSIS, DAN LINEAR DISCRIMINAT ANALYSISDETECTION OF SLEEP APNEA USING ELECTROCARDIGRAM SIGNAL WITHDISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM, PRINCIAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS AND
LINEAR DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS METHODS
1

2

Meidiana Ajeng Lestari , Unang Suryana,ST., MT. ,1

2

meidiana.ajeng@gmail.com, unsur@telkomuniversity.ac.id

Abstrak
Sleep Apnea merupakan gangguan tidur yang langka, pendeteksiannya pun perlu dilakukan secara tepatsalah satunya melalui sinyal elektrokardiogram yang dapat mendeteksi Sleep Apnea lebih mudah dan tepat.
Penilitian ini dilakukan untuk medeteksi penyakit Sleep Apnea menggunakan perbandingan dua buah
metode, yaitu Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) dan Principal Component Analysis (PCA) serta diklasifikasian
menggunakan Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA).
Sistem yang dibuat dengan metode PCA mendapatkan akurasi yang cukup baik, yaitu 79.16%, sensitivitas
73.3% dan spesifitas 88.8% dengan pengambilan 1-60 PC. Waktu komputasi untuk metode PCA didapatkan 9.2 s.
Sedangkan sistem dengan metode DWT mendapatkan hasil akurasi 75%, sensitivitas 68.75% dan spesifitas 87.5%
dengan dilakukan proses windowing menggunakan overlapping 25%, menggunakan jenis wavelet Discrete Meyer,
dan melakukan dekomposisi di level ke-5. Waktu komputasi metode DWT didapatkan 34 s.
Kata kunci : Sleep Apnea, DWT, PCA, LDA
Abstract
Sleep Apnea is a rare sleep disorder, so that the detection needs to be done correctly. Throughelectrocardiogram signal, the detection of sleep apnea can be easier and correct.
This type is to detection of Sleep Apnea using two comparison methods, those are Discrete Wavelet
Transform (DWT) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and classified by Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA).
System with PCA method produces a good accuration, which is 79.16%, sensitivity 73.3% and specifity
88.8% with taking 1-60 PC. Computation time with PCA method takes 9.2 s. System with DWT methods produces
accuration 75%, sensitivity 68.75%, and specifity 87.5% by using some additional pre-processing which is
windowing with overlapping 25%, using Discrete Wavelet mother wavelet, and decomposition in the fifth level.
DWT method has 34 s computation time, and it is take a longer time than PCA methods.
Keywords: Sleep Apnea, DWT, PCA, LDA
1. Pendahuluan
Jantung merupakan organ terpenting dalam tubuh manusia dan juga berperan untuk menunjang keadaan organ
tubuh lainnya. Melalui aktivitas kelistrikan jantung yang dikenal sebagai Elektrokardiogram, dapat dideteksi
berbagai macam penyakit atau gangguan pada organ tubuh manusia, salah satunya gangguan pada tidur, yaitu Sleep
Apnea. Sleep Apnea adalah gangguan tidur yang serius dan kronis yang ditandai dengan henti nafas sementara yangterjadi berulang kali ketika sedang tidur hingga menyebabkan kematian.
Perkembangan ilmu pengolahan sinyal dengan bantuan komputer pada saat ini memungkinkan untuk
mendeteksi gangguan tidur, Sleep Apnea. Elektrokardiografi (EKG) merupakan salah satu tekniknya. Penggunaan
Elektrokardigraf telah lama dikenal sebagai suatu alat dalam bidang kedokteran yang membantu menemukan
gangguan elektrolit dan berguna untuk mendeteksi penyakit bukan jantung (The Clinical Value of the ECG in non
cardiac condition, 2004). Teknik ini dapat membantu dokter syaraf dalam menganalisa gangguan tidur pada pasien
namun tetap tidak dapat menghilangkan dugaan (suspect). Penentuan jenis penyakit melalui sinyal EKG bergantungpada pengetahuan dan pengalaman dokter syaraf serta hasil analisis spesialis jantung.
Tugas akhir ini dilakukan pengidentifikasian gangguan tidur Sleep Apnea melalui sinyal EKG dengan
menggunakan metode Discrete Wavelet Transform untuk menganalisis sinyal berdasarkan frekuensi dan waktu, dan
Principal Component Analysis untuk mencari ciri yang paling membedakan satu sama lain. Dari metode-metodetersebut terdapat beberapa parameter yang akan dibandingkan hasilnya. Parameter tersebut ialah Akurasi (Accurate),
Sensitivitas (Sensitivity), dan Spesifitas (Specifity). Masukan (Input) yang digunakan adalah sinyal EKG yangdiperoleh dari PhysioNet.org dengan format *.mat, berdurasi satu jam, dan memiliki spesifikasi masing-masing(seperti berat badan, tinggi badan, jenis kelamin dan umur pasien).

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2. Tinjauan Pustaka
2.1 Sleep Apnea
Sleep Apnea (Apnoea dieja dalam bahasa Inggris) adalah gangguan tidur yang berpotensi mengancam jiwa
yang ditandai dengan jeda yang abnormal dalam bernapas selama tidur. Terdapat dua jenis utama dari sleep apnea,
yaitu apnea tidur sentral (Central Sleep Apnea), bentuk yang relatif jarang, yang terjadi ketika otak gagal untuk
mengirim sinyal ke otot untuk mengambil napas dan terdapat periode dimana tidak ada usaha otot untuk bernafas.
Dan apnea tidur obstruktif (Obstructive Sleep Apnea), bentuk yang lebih umum, dimana otak mengirimkan sinyal ke
otot-otot dan otot-otot yang melakukan upaya untuk mengambil nafas tetapi mereka tidak dapat melakukannya
secara efektif dikarenakan jalan nafas terhambat sehingga mencegah aliran udara yang masuk.
Episode Apnea dapat berlangsung dalam beberapa detik hingga menit (± 10 detik, baik untuk pbstruktif
ataupun apnea tidur sentral) dan itu semua dapat terjadi dimana saja dari 5 hingga 30 kali atau lebih per jam. Karnahilangnya kemampuan otot yang terkait dengan REM-Sleep, yaitu waktu yang paling umum penderita mengalami
apnea[1].
2.2 Elektrokardiogram
Elektrokardiogram (EKG) adalah salah satu sinyal biopotensial yang digunakan untuk menganalisis kondisi
kesehatan jantung.
2.3 Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)
Transformasi wavelet adalah dekomposisi dari suatu sinyal dengan suatu fungsi a,b yang telah dilatasi danditranslasi. Pada wavelet, sinyal direpresentasikan sebagai jumlah dari kumpulan dilatasi dan translasi fungsi motherwavelet. Kumpulan fungsi tersebut didefinisikan pada persamaan berikut:
a,b>0, b € R……………………………………………………………………………...…(1);a2.4 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)[4]Principal Components Analysis (PCA) merupakan teknik linier untuk memproyeksikan data vektor yangberdimensi tinggi ke vektor yang mempunyai dimensi lebih rendah[9].
Prinsip PCA pada dasarnya merupakan observasi sekelompok data yang memiliki kemungkinan saling
berelasi, kemudian data tersebut dikonversi sedemikian rupa sehingga yang tidak ada lagi data yang tidak saling
berelasi satu sama lain. Selanjutnya data akan diurutkan dari data yang dianggap paling penting sampai data yangkurang penting. Data pada baris pertama hasil konversi adalah principal component pertama dan yang paling
berpengaruh terhadap variasi data asli.
2.5 Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA)[5]
Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) termasuk dalam klasifikasi yang digunakan untuk meningkatkan
informasi diskriminatif kelas dengan transformasi linear. Metode LDA bekerja dengan mencari cara yang efisien
untuk merepresentasikan ruang vektor dengan memanfaatkan informasi tiap kelas. Tujuan dari LDA adalah untuk
mencari proyeksi linear untuk memaksimalkan matriks kovarian antar objek dan meminimumkan matriks kovarian
di dalam objek itu sendiri.
Pengukuran kemiripan dilakukan antara representasi citra latih dan citra uji. Representasi di dalam metode ini,dianggap sebuah tranformasi linier dari vektor citra asal ke dalam sebuah ruang proyeksi (vektor-vektor basis).
Persamaannya sebagai berikut:
Y = WT X…………………….……………………………………………………………………………………..(2)3. Pembahasan
3.1 Proses Pengolahan Citra
Pengambilan sample sinyal EKG yang masing-masing berdurasi satu jam. Sinyal EKG tersebut memiliki ciri
apneatasi. Dari ciri tersebut dapat disegmentasikan kapan terjadinya sleep apnea, waktu terjadi tersebut dapat dilihat
dari sepanjang sample sinyal EKG. Data sample sinyal EKG diperoleh dari database PhysioBank, yaitu diphysionet.org yang telah terjamin hasilnya dan banyak digunakan untuk referensi jurnal internasional. Dari sinyal

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EKG tersebut dapat dibuat program untuk mendeteksi sleep apnea. Perancangan sistem deteksi sleep apnea ini
dilakukan dalam satu tahap umum, yaitu tahap identifikasi yang digambarkan dalam diagram blok sebagai berikut:
Sinyal EKG

Akuisisi
Data

Identifikasi

Gambar 1.Diagram Model Sistem

3.2 Pre-Processing
3.2.1 Cropping
Cropping dilakukan setiap satu menit dengan mengambil 5 sample ciri apnea dan 5 sample ciri normal darisinyal EKG pasien. Hasil cropping tersebut akan dijadikan database ciri latih.
3.2.2 Filtering
FIR (Finite Impulse Response) Filter merupakan filter digital yang tidak memiliki feedback dan bersifat nonrekursif. Fungsi transfer pada FIR melakukan pendekatan ideal agar kualitas filter meningkat. Sehingga
kompleksitas dan jumlah waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk memasukan samples sinyal untuk difilter juga meningkat.
3.2.3 DC Removal
DC Removal bertujuan untuk menghitung rata-rata dari data sampel sinyal EKG dan mengurangkan nilai
setiap sampel sinyal dengan nilai rata-rata tersebut sehingga didapat normalisasi dari data sinyal suara input.
3.2.4 Normalisasi
Proses normalisasi dilakukan untuk mencari nilai maksimum dari data hasil filtering. Keseluruhan nilai datafiltering kemudian dibagi dengan nilai maksimum data yang telah ditemukan. Hal ini bertujuan agar amplitude
sinyal memasuki rentang -1 sampai 1.
3.3 Ekstraksi Ciri dengan PCA
Hasil akhir dari ekstraksi ciri ini merupakan koefisien pembawa matriks ciri yang disebut dengan principle
component [3].
3.4 Ekstraksi Ciri dengan DWTSebelum memasuki ekstraksi ciri DWT, dilakukan kembali beberapa proses untuk meningkatkan kualitas sinyalyang akan diproses. Berikut adalah proses yang dilakukan :1. Framming, dilakukan setelah data di load danvbertujuan untuk menjadikan frame-frame lebih kecil. Proses
ini menggunakan dua parameter yaitu lebar frame dan overlap.
2. Windowing [7]Tahap ini dilakuakan untuk mengurangi efek diskontinuitas dengan mengalikan frame dengan frekuensi
Window Hamming. Persamaan Window Hamming adalah sebagai berikut :……………………………………………………………………..(3)= fungsi windowN= frame size, merupakan kelipatan 2n= 0,1,2,3,…,N-1.
3. Fast Fourier Transform
Koefisien-koefisien sinyal hasil windowing dianalisa dengan menggunakan Fourier Transform. Dalam
analisa sepektrum dari sinyal yang diinputkan, digunakan Fast Fourier Transform. Sampel data diproses
dengan mengambil frame-frame sebanyak lebar frame.
dimanaTeknik DWT ini menggunakan low pass filter (LPF) dan high pas filter (HPF). Sinyal akan diproses secarabaris untuk semua baris dan dilanjutkan secara kolom untuk semua kolom. Hasilnya akan didapatkan koefisien
wavelet level 1. Proses ini diulang sampai dekomposisi ke lima. Setelah proses dekomposisi selesai, maka akan
dihitung energi setiap sub-band pada setiap levelnya sebagai hasil akhir dari ekstraksi ciri
3.5 Klasifikasi
Hasil dari ekstraksi ciri menjadi data dengan sinyal EKG normal dan sinyal EKG yang terdeteksi Apnea. Dalam
proses klasifikasi ini, data latih yang sudah di ekstraksi ciri akan disimpan untuk nanti dilihat kedekatan eigenvalue
terbersarnya dengan eigenvalue terbesarv pada citra uji yang sudah di ekstraksi juga. Proses klasifikasi
menggunakan metode LDA. Tujuan dari LDA adalah untuk mencari proyeksi linear untuk memaksimalkan matriks
kovarian antar objek dan meminimumkan matriks kovarian di dalam objek itu sendiri.
3.6 Evaluasi Hasil Klasifikasi
Adapun parameter yang diambil untuk mengevaluasi hasil klasifikasi adalah sebagai berikut:
1. Accuracy merupakan ketepatan klasifikasi yang diperoleh[9].
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2. Sensitivity merupakan persentase probabilitas tidak adanya penyakit bila hasil tes dinyatakan negative.
……………………………………………………………………………………(5)Sensitivity (%) =3. Specifity merupakan persentase probabilitas adanya suatu penyakit bila hasil tes dinyatakan positif.
……………………………………………………………………………………...(6)Specifity (%) =Keterangan :TP: True Positive (merupakan kondisi dimana apnea dideteksi sebagai apnea)
TN : True Negative (kondisi dimana normal dideteksi sebagai normal)
FP : False Positive (menyatakan kondisi apnea yang dideteksi sebagai normal)
FN : False Negative (menyatakan kondisi normal yang dideteksi sebagai apnea)
3.7 Hasil Pengujian dan Analisis
3.7.1 Hasil Perbandingan Parameter berdasarkan pengambilan Principal Component (PC) Menggunakan
PCA

Pengaruh Jumlah PC terhadap nilaiParameter
Parameter

120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%

PC 120PC 130PC 140PC 150PC 160

Akurasi

54%

58%

70.80% 79.16% 79.16%

Sensitivitas

100%

60%

64.70% 70.58% 73.30%

Spesifitas

52%

57%

85.70%

100%

88.80%

Gambar 2.Grafik Perubahan Nilai Parameter PC

Pada Gambar 2 dapat dilihat nilai akurasi maksimal terdapat pada pengambilan PC 1-50 dan 1-60 yait 79.16%.
Hal tersebut terjadi karena semakin banyak PC yang diambil, semakin banyak pula ciri latih yang digunakan sebagai
ciri untuk mendeteksi apnea. Nilai Sensitivitas tertinggi berada pada pengambilan PC 1-20 yaitu 100% karena padaPC 1-20 dari 12 kondisi tidak sakit, dideteksi sebagai tidak sakit dan Spesifitas tertinggi berada pada PC 1-50 yaitu
100%, karena pada PC 1-50 dari 12 kondisi apnea, yang terdeteksi sebagai apnea ada 12, maka dari itu
menghasilkan spesifitas sebesar 100%.

Waktu Komputasi (detik)

Pengaruh Jumlah PC Terhadap Waktu
Komputasi
10
8
6
4
2
0

PC 120PC 130PC 140PC 150PC 160Waktu
7.6897 7.8602 8.0493 8.6704 9.246
Komputasi

Gambar 3. Grafik Waktu Komputasi Terhadap Perubahan Jumlah PC .

Waktu komputasi tercepat diperoleh pada PC 1-20 dan yang terlama terdapat pada PC 1-60. Hal tersebut
dikarenakan, semakin banyak data yang diproses maka semakin lama pula waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk memproses
data.

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3.7.2 Hasil Perbandingan Akurasi, Sensitivitas, Spesivitas, Waktu Komputasi Berdasarkan Jenis Wavelet
dan Level Dekomposisi.
Pengujian sistem dilakukan dengan melihat pengaruh perbedaan 3 jenis wavelet yaitu Daubichies, Symlet, dan
Discrete Meyer terhadap nilai parameter sistem. Ketiga wavelet dilakukan sebanyak lima kali level dekomposisi danmasing-masing memiliki orde yang berbeda dalam proses pengambilan ciri. Data latih dan Data uji yang digunakan
ada ekstraksi ciri DWT telah melewati proses windowing menggunakan window hamming dan FFT (Fast Fourier
Transform).

Pengaruh Jenis Wavelet Terhadap Akurasi
Akurasi

80%
60%
40%
20%
0%

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

Daubichies

75%

75%

54.16% 54.16%

75%

Symlet70.83%

75%

54.16% 54.16% 54.16%

Discrete Meyer

75%

75%

54.16% 54.16%

75%

Gambar 4. Grafik Tingkat Akurasi Terhadap Perubahan Jenis Wavelet dan Level Dekomposisi.

Hasil dekomposisi pada level 2, didapatkan nilai yang sama, yaitu sebesar 75%. Pada level 3 dan 4, didapatkan
nilai sebesar 54.16%. Dari hasil tersebut dapat dianalisis bahwa ketiga wavelet mengambil atau memproses sinyal
EKG secara acak yang dikarenakan pola (trend) sinyal tersebut sama, sehingga sulit untuk diamati secara visual dan
melalui sistem

Pengaruh Jenis Wavelet terhadap Sensitivitas
Sensitivitas

80%
60%
40%
20%
0%

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

Daubichies

75%

66.66% 52.17% 52.17% 66.66%

Symlet66.66% 66.66% 52.17% 52.17% 52.17%

Discrete Meyer

75%

66.66% 52.17% 52.17% 68.75%

Gambar 5. Grafik Tingkat Sensitivitas Terhadap Perubahan Jenis Wavelet dan Level Dekomposisi

Nilai sensitivitas digunakan untuk mengetahui berapa banyak pasien yang berada pada kondisi normal, yaitu
pasien normal yang dikenali system sebagai normal. Nilai sensitivitas tertinggi didapatkan dari wavelet Daubechies
and Discrete Meyer pada level 1, yaitu 75%. Angka 75% ini menyatakan bahwa dari 12 pasien yang normal,
terdapat 9 pasien yang benar dideteksi sebagai tidak sakit (normal). Sedangkan sensitivitas terendah berada padalevel 3 dan 4 dengan menggunakan 3 wavelet yang berbeda. Selain itu juga pada wavelet symlet di level
dekomposisi ke 5, dengan nilai sensitivitas 54.17%. Nilai tersebut menyatakan bahwa dari 12 kondisi normal hanya
1 yang benar dideteksi sebagai normal.
Pada Gambar 6 dapat dilihat nilai spesifitas terendah terdapat pada wavelet daubechies dan discrete meyer dilevel ke 1, yaitu 75%. Nilai 75% menyatakan bahwa dari 12 pasien sakit terdapat 3 pasien yang dideteksi sebagai
kondisi normal.

520

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Pengaruh Jenis Wavelet terhadap Nilai
Spesivitas
Axis Title

120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%

Level
1

Level
2

Level
3

Level
4

Level
5

Daubichies

75%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Symlet77.77% 100%

100%

100%

100%

Discrete Meyer

75%

100%

100% 87.50%

100%

Gambar 6. Grafik Tingkat Spesivitas Terhadap Perubahan Jenis Wavelet dan Level Dekomposisi.

Waktu Komputasi

Pengaruh Jenis Wavelet dan Level
Dekomposisi terhadap Waktu Komputasi
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

Daubichies

51.7499 43.7389 38.5487 60.5333 49.9005

Symlet26.7008 26.494 29.0234 29.4492 30.2726

Discrete Meyer 28.8729 29.5368 30.9657 32.3601 34.0463
Gambar 7. Grafik Waktu Komputasi Terhadap Jenis Wavelet dan Level Dekomposisi.

Pada mother wavelet symlet dan discrete meyer bahwa semakin tinggi level dekomposisi maka semakin lamapula waktu yang dibutuhkan system untuk bekerja. Namun pada mother wavelet daubechies, kenaikan level
dekomposisi tidak selalu mempengaruhi lamanya waktu komputasi, hal tersebut terjadi karena daubechies memiliki
banyak orde dan panjang filter yang berbeda-beda.
3.7.3 Hasil Pengujiian Menggunakan Klasifikasi LDA
100.00%80.00%
60.00%

79.17%

75%
62.50%

54.17%

40.00%

20.00%
0.00%

Diaglinear
PCA

Diagquadratic
DWT

Gambar 8. Grafik Nilai Akurasi Terhadap Perubahan Jenis Discriminat Analysis.

Pemakaian jenis diaglinear memberikan akurasi yang paling bagus, yaitu 79.16% untuk PCA dan jenis
diagquadratic memberikan akurasi yang paling bagus sebesar 75% untuk DWT. Hal ini berarti jenis diaglinear

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

521

berhasil memaksimalkan jarak antar kelas dan meminimalkan jarak dalam kelas sehingga didapat hasil klasifikasi
yang optimal.
4. Kesimpulan
Berdasarkan hasil pengujian yang dilakukan pada simulasi pendeteksian Sleep Apnea melalui sinyal
elektrokardiogram ini, didapatkan kesimpulan sebagai berikut:
1. Sistem ini sudah mampu mendeteksi dan mengidentifikasi adanya Sleep Apnea melalui sinyal EKG
menggunakan metode DWT dan PCA.
2. Identifikasi Sleep Apnea dilakukan dengan tahapan pre-processing berupa filter FIR, DC Removal, dan
Normalisasi Amplitudo. Ekstraksi ciri dengan PCA dan pengambilan 60 PC, serta untuk masuk ke ekstraksi
ciri DWT terlebih dahulu dilakukan proses windowing menggunakan window hamming dan FFT (Fast Fourier
Transform) dengan menggunakan wavelet discrete meyer dan level dekomposisi 5.
3. Proses ekstraksi ciri dengan pengambilan jumlah PC yang banyak pada PCA tidak selalu memperbaiki atau
menambah akurasi, PC dengan ciri terbaik yang memberikan akurasi maksimal. Waktu komputasi metode
PCA menunjukan bahwa semakin banyak PC yang diproses maka semakin lama pula waktu komputasinya.
4. Metode PCA cocok dipasangkan dengan metode klasifikasi LDA karena menghasilkan klasifikasi yang baik
untuk sinyal EKG dengan akurasi sebesar 79.1667% dan waktu komputasi sebesar 8.6s. Metode DWT juga
cukup cocok dipasangkan dengan LDA karena akurasi yang dihasilkan juga cukup bagus yaitu 75% dan waktu
komputasi 51s.
5. Pada metode DWT jumlah orde dari suatu wavelet dan makin tingginya level dekomposisi tidak berarti bahwa
nilai akurasi akan bertambah juga. Dikarenakan sinyal EKG yang digunakan sebagai masukan memiliki
karakteristik yang pola nya hampir sama dan cukup sulit diamati baik secara visual maupun oleh system.
6. Semakin tinggi level dekomposisi pada DWT maka semakin lama pula nilai waktu komputasi system.
7. Jenis discriminant analysis diaglinear berhasil memaksimalkan jarak antar kelas dan meminimalkan jarak
dalam kelas sehingga didapat hasil klasifikasi yang paling optimal.
Referensi:[1] Website http://howsleepworks.com/sources.html Mastin, Luk. 2013. (Terakhir diakses pada 28 November 2014)[2] Rizal, Achmad. 2014. Instrumentasi Biomedis. Yogyakarta : Graha Ilmu
[3] Sutarno. 2010. Analisis Perbandingan Transformasi Wavelet pada Pengenalan Citra Wajah. Vol.5 No.2 (Juli
2010).
[4] Smith, Lindsay I. 2002. A Tutorial on Principal Component Analysis. University of Otago. Vol. 1. (26 Februari2002).
[5]Adnan, Fajrian Nur, Pratnya Satria Saelindri, dan Binti Mamluatul Karomah.2012.Investigasi Hubungan antara
Jumlah Dimensi Parameter Extraksi Terhadap Keakurasian Pengenalan Tanda Tangan Secara
Offline.Seminar Nasional Teknologi Informasi & Komunikasi Terapan 2012 (Semantik 2012).
[6] V Upganlawar, Isha and Harshal Chowhan. 2014. Pre-processing of ECG Signals Using Filter. Nagpur :International Journal of Computer Trends and Technology (IJCTT)[7] Afifah, Nur. 2014. KLASIFIKASI SUARA BATUK MELALUI SINYAL DATA SUARA MENGGUNAKANEKSTRAKSI CIRI FOURIER TRANSFORM DAN POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY SERTA METODE
JARINGAN SARAF TIRUAN PROPAGASI BALKI. Bandung : Telkom University[8] Ayu Lestari, Fina. 2014. DETEKSI KISTA PERIAPIKAL MELALUI CITRA RADIOGRAF PERIAPIKALMENGGUNAKAN METODE DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM, PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS, DAN
LINEAR DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS. Bandung : Telkom University[9] Putri Handayani, Vivi. 2013. KLASIFIKASI PENYAKIT KANKER PROSTAT MENGGUNAKAN
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS DAN LEAST-SQUARES SUPPORT VECTOR MACHINE (LS-SVM).
Bandung : Telkom University[10]] http://physionet.org/cgibin/atm/ATM?database=apneaecg&tool=plot_waveforms
tanggal 3 Desember 2014)(diaksesterakhirpada[11] Aditya, Rezza. 2012. PROTOTIPE PENGENALAN SUARA SEBAGAI PENGGERAK DINAMO STARTERPADA MOBIL. Depok : Universitas Gunadarma
522

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

A High Accuracy FPGA Vernier Time-to-Digital
Converter Based on PLL Delay Matrix
Poki Chen, Member, IEEE, Yi-Su Chung, Wei Yang Tai
Abstract—A previous FPGA two-dimensional Vernierstochastic time-to-digital converter (TDC) was proposed toachieve 2.5 ps bin size and -2.98~ 3.23 LSB integral nonlinearity(INL). However, the delay lines cannot be compensated for PVT
variations and thus the TDC performance is strongly dependent
on the stochastic distribution of the cell delays. Moreover, theinput range is limited to be less than 20ns. In this paper, a highaccuracy FPGA Vernier TDC is realized with PLL delay matrix
instead to provide a rather PVT-insensitive solution with both
high resolution and wide measurement range. The cell delays
are mainly under the control of major and minor PLLs to makeall clock phases as evenly distributed over the reference period
as possible to achieve an extremely fine resolution. Experimental
results achieve a PVT-insensitive TDC resolution of 15.6 ps. The
long-term DNL and INL are measured as -0.14 ~0.12 LSB and 0.14~ 0.11 LSB over a measurement range as wide as 1μs. A new
milestone in the performance of FPGA TDC is thus established.
Index Terms—2D Vernier, field-programmable gate array(FPGA), Phase-Locked Loop(PLL), PLL Delay Matrix,
stochastic, time-to-digital converter (TDC), PVT-insensitive.

T

I. INTRODUCTION

ime-to-digital converter (TDC) is an essential core that isrequired in many science and engineering applications
nowadays. It is responsible for keeping track of time intervals
between different sets of signals. Devices such as the laser
range finder, time-of flight PET, on-chip jitter measurement
tools, and positron emission tomography (PET) scanner aredeveloped upon the concept of TDC [1] - [7]. As the need for
obtaining accurate results increases, high resolution TDC
becomes a necessity. Having complete control over the fullcharacteristics of TDC is also a crucial challenge. Designers
need to carefully prevent inaccuracies caused by process,voltage, and temperature (PVT) variations [7]. Mainstream
TDC implementations must encompass the following factors:
low manufacturing cost, wide measurement range [12], highresolution [13], and minimal process [14], voltage, andtemperature (PVT) sensitivity [15]. Previously, most TDCs
were realized in application-specific integrated circuits(ASIC). Although being able to achieve a resolution up to
10ps [8], both the implementation and manufacturing areexpensive which clearly make them not suitable for small
scale production. Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)
provides a rewritable platform which is cost-effective, andlesser entry requirements for chip development in comparison
to ASIC.
Field-programmable gate array has been a popular
platform for engineers to develop both prototypes and small
volume products. There is a growing interest in timemeasuring circuits implemented with FPGA. The vastadvantages of FPGA are its flexibility and configurability. It
requires less time-to-market and is relatively cheap comparedto other system-on-chip solutions. FPGA also provide thebenefit that new architectures and systems can be quickly

realized through its reconfigurable framework [9].
Conventional methods of achieving sub-nanosecond
resolution TDC includes ECL logic, however it is both
power-inefficient and area consuming [9], [10]. Such designs
are not suitable for portable systems or integrated chips.
Conversely, various techniques such as time-to-amplitude
conversion, Vernier principle, time stretching, and timeinterpolation have been established to achieve a highresolution and a wide measurement range. The simplest TDC
architecture is a high-frequency counter that increments every
clock cycle [11]. Using time-consuming statistical method andlookup table (LUT), a 3-ps incremental resolution is achieved.
Multistage interpolation [8] is able to maintain a highresolution, as well as obtaining a wide measurement range.
II. OPERATION PRINCIPLE
The simplest timing diagram of TDC is shown in Fig. 1.
The input interval is counted by a stable reference clock withthe output representing the digitization of the test timeinterval Tin. However, it is impossible to synchronize theinput time to the reference clock and there are usually somemeasurement errors to the both ends of the input. To solve theproblem, a two-stage time interpolation technique based on
the classic Nutt method can be utilized as depicted in Fig. 2[16]. The input interval Tin is segmented into T1 T12 and T2.
T12 is synchronous with the reference clock CLK and can bedigitized by a counter readily. On the other hand, T1 and T2
are less than one clock period TCLK and need to be processedby interpolators or fine TDCs with resolutions much smaller
than TCLK. It can be seen from Fig. 2 that Tin is measured asTin  T12  T1  T2 .
(1)

It can be theorized by increasing the frequency of thereference clock to at least 100GHz, the effective TDC
resolution will be improved to less than 10ps. Rather than thenonrealistic idea of high frequency clocks, a practical solution
to increase the TDC resolution in FPGA is still being
investigated.
The most commonly used interpolation methods aretapped delay line [17], pulse stretcher (dual-slope conversion),pulse shrinking [18], and Vernier delay line (differential
delay line) [19], these methods are able to achieve sub-gate
delay resolution. A 9 b, a 1.25-ps bin size TDC based upon
Start
Tin

Stop
Mask

TCLK

TCLK
Count

1

2

3

4

Fig. 1. Timing diagram of the counter-based TDC.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

523

Start
Stop

Tin
TCLK

CLK

T1

T2

T12

CounterFig. 2. Timing diagram of TDC based on Nutt interpolation method.

the amplification of time residue achieved an output standard
deviation of <1 LSB, 0.8 LSB differential nonlinearity and 3
LSB integral nonlinearity (INL), the dynamic range wasreported to be limited [20]. Secondary method consisted of
cyclic time-domain successive approximation [21], achieving
1.2-ps resolution and a 327-μs dynamic range. The RMS
single-shot precision is 3.2ps obtained using an external INLLUT for interpolation. Another implementation using Vernier
ring [22] is created to generate an 8ps LSB width with an
output standard deviation of <1 LSB. Further improvements
were reported by using a gated Vernier ring structure [23] torealize a resolution of 3.2ps with an oversampling ratio of 16.
Furthermore, an 8-b cyclic TDC [24] is proposed to achieve
a 1.25ps LSB width, a ±0.7 LSB DNL, and a −3 to +1 LSB
INL. To enhance dynamic accuracy for applications withperiodic TDC input, time-domain modulation for noise
shaping is adopted [25], [26], overall producing an effective
resolution of approximately 6ps.
With FPGA, traditional methods of realizing TDC is nolonger applicable. The delay caused by the logic elements
varies a lot due to different routing and placement on the chip.
It is essential to realize a stable but flexible structure to fulfill
the function of TDC in FPGA. The tapped delay line seems
to be a good and easy to implement solution. Fig. 3 displays
a typical taped delay line made up of multiple D-type flipflops in conjunction with non-inverting buffers. The START
signal is delayed by time τm (1<m<n) for each non-inverting
buffer. Afterward, a STOP signal is issued to latch the statesof all delay cells to generate an output in thermometer code
which is fed into a priority encoder to get the equivalentbinary output. However, the accuracy relies heavily on aconsistent and stable delay time. Uneven delays (012…)
must be avoided because it disrupts the interpolation accuracy.
FPGA design tool does not provide full control of the celldelay of the logic elements. The logic blocks are hardwired
during its manufacture and the inter-block delay is muchlarger than intra-block one. Even with customized blocklayouts, every signal path still produces different delays. The
uneven delays will affect the interpolation so that the INL and
START

τ0

D

τ1

Q

D-FF

D

τ2

Q

D

D-FF

Τn-1

Q

D-FF

D

DNL will become unacceptable for high accuracy
applications.
One possible way out of the problem is to adopt delay
wrapping [13] to achieve deep sub-gate-delay phasedifference (resolution) for delayed clocks as illustrated in Fig.
4(a). The problem is it is really difficult to control thehomogeneity of the cell delays and is even harder to make thewrapped delays uniformly distributed over the reference
period. Consequently, the TDC linearity will be hampered asshown in Fig. 4(b). To gain more control on cell delay against
PVT variations, the embedded PLL will be utilized in thispaper.
III. PROPOSED STRUCTURE & CIRCUIT IMPLEMENTATION
The proposed TDC structure composes time-to-pulse
generator, counter-based coarse TDC, two interpolators
based on two-dimensional Vernier PLL delay matrices, andan offset canceller as revealed in Fig. 5. The time-to-pulse
generator is employed to accommodate both high resolution
and wide measurement range. It generates T1 and T2 for fine
TDCs and T12 for coarse TDC from the input signal. The ALU
is programmed to sum up all counters according to (1) withproper weightings between coarse and fine resolutions. The
cancellation circuit is responsible for the reduction of
measurement offset caused by PVT variations. The effective
resolution of the TDC is decided by the fine TDCs which iscomposed of two-dimensional PLL delay matrix. In contrast
to conventional delay wrapping [13], all cell delays are wellcontrolled by PLL and have better PVT variation immunity.
Fig. 6 (a) displays the conceptual structure of the delay matrix.
The delays τ� and τ� are set to multiples of the reference
clock period T��� , achieved by the PLL output phase
division as


M

τ

CLK

C0
C1



C2

Q

Δτ
Δτ

Cn+1

(a)

Δτ

Δτ

Δτ

CLK

C0

Δτ1

C1

D-FF

Δτ

Cn

C2



Δτ2
Δτ3
Δτ4

Cn+1

Encoder

Δτ1
Δτ2

(b)

TDC Output

Fig. 3. Schematic of TDC based on tapped delay line.

524

(2)

Reference Period

Cn
STOP

TCLK
TCLK

, N
M
N

Δτ3

Δτ4

Fig. 4. (a) Ideal and (b) practical timing diagram of clock wrapping
based from delay lines.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Fine TDC2
CLK

Fine TDC1

PLLM

0

1

0

1

PLL0

Counter Matrix

N-1

PLL1

>

N-1

Counter enArray0>

Tf1_cnt
×N

CounterenArray1
×N

Tf2_cnt

PLLM-10

1N-1

OffsetCancellation

ALU> enCounter
enArray
M-1
en×N

Coarse TDC

Tin

M
U
X

time_1T
time_2TC0

Time-ToPulse
Generator

K_value

Tf1
Tf2

Counter

Tc

TDC_OUT

Tc_cnten

C0

TDC_Core
CLK

1T

K

2T

TDC_Ctrl
auto_cal_timeout (1Hz)

auto_cal_timer

Fig. 5. Schematic of TDCs based on coarse counter and PLL.

where M, N are coprime to make the effective resolution
becoming [33]:1 f M N(3)

where f is the reference clock frequency of the delay matrix.
A good example is shown in Fig. 6 (b) with M=3, N=4, 1.67
GHz to accomplish 50ps effective TDC resolution.
IV. MEASUREMENT RESULTS
To demonstrate the excellence of the proposed
structure, Altera Striatix IV platform was used for circuit
implementation. In order to achieve the maximum number ofclocks, the major PLLM is designed to generate 4 phaseshifted outputs while each minor PLL generates 10 output
phases. This is the largest PLL matrix allowed by the Altera
Quartus II software. Major PLLM operates at while the minor
PLLs oscillates at 1600MHz. With overall 40 uniformly
CLK/Tin

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

distributed phases generated by the PLL matrix, the effective
resolution is calculated to be 624ps/40=15.6ps.
Agilent 81134A pulse pattern generator and Tektronix
DPO70404 oscilloscope are utilized for clock / input pulse
generation and the pulse width measurement. For the longterm measurement over 10ns~1µs in 10ns step size, the DNL
and INL are measured to be -0.14 ~0.12 LSB and -0.14~ 0.11
LSB as revealed in Fig. 7. Not only the absolute offset ishalved but also a µs-level measurement range is reached. The
proposed TDC achieves not only 15.6 ps such a fineresolution but also µs-order wide measurement range which
are among the best compared to the state-of-the-art TDCs inperformance.
V. CONCLUSION
Only a few analog applications can be realized by purestandard cell-based design with performance comparable tothe full-custom one’s. Even fewer of them can be successfully
implemented with FPGA chips due to the lack of aspect ratio
tuning or bias adjustment. Nevertheless, a PVT insensitive
FPGA TDC is proposed in this paper to accomplish 15.6 ps

M
0.2

M

DNL(LSB)

M

M

(a)

0
-0.1
-0.2
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

TCLK /4=150ps
0ps

T4

150ps

T4

300ps

T4

450ps

200ps

T4

350ps

T4

500ps

T4

50ps

T4

T3
400ps

T4

550ps

T4

100ps

T4

250ps

T4

T3

(b)
Fig. 6. (a) Two-dimensional Vernier time delay line (b) with delay timevalues.

Time(ns)

0.2

T4

T3

INL(LSB)

TCLK=600ps

TCLK /3=200ps

0.1

0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
0

Time(ns)Fig. 7. (a) Differential and (b) integral nonlinearity of long termmeasurement

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

525

resolution, -0.14 LSB ~ 0.11 LSB INL and µs input range
which are extremely hard to achieve even for TDCs with fullcustom design nowadays. The innovation and superiority ofthe proposed TDC is thus proved. It makes the circuit suitable
for many high-end time-domain applications. The future
research will further enhance the resolution to ps order.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors appreciate National Chip Implementation
Center (CIC) very much for the support of design andsimulation tools.
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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Entropy-based Analysis on Dynamic Video
Dimming Algorithm for Energy Efficient OLED
Displays
Peter Chondro∗ , Shanq-Jang Ruan† and Chang-Chia Hua‡

Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Taipei City 106, Republic of China (Taiwan)
Email: ∗ peterchondro.ee@gmail.com, † sjruan@mail.ntust.edu.tw, ‡ luck89712@gmail.com,
Abstract—The active matrix light-emitting diode (AMOLED)
display is a prospective technology that delivers high color gamut
and contrast with low power consumption. Nevertheless, thepower drawn by an OLED pixel increases non-linearly withrespect to the corresponding intensity that results in high power
consumption on bright pixel emission. This study examines
this trade-off and proposes a pixel-based intensity dimmer
that suppresses any color alteration, while reducing the power
consumption on AMOLED displays. The entropy-based analysis
reduces the complexity by detecting significant scene changethat triggers the subtractive parameter update. According to theexperimental result, the proposed method converses more than
48% of power consumption on AMOLED displays with highperceptual quality and faster frame rate compared with otherrepresentative method.
Keywords—pixel transformation; power law; active matrixorganic light-emitting diode (AMOLED); perceptual entropy;
dynamic subtractive.

I. I NTRODUCTION
In the past decade, the demand for the consumer electronic
products including mobile phones, personal computers (PCs),
and tablet PCs have increased dramatically. Although thesedevices have specific telecommunication purposes, most ofthese devices are utilized as multimedia playback, which relies
mainly on the display technology [1]. However, among theother components, the display panel consumes a substantial
portion of power in devices [2]. Compared with the thin filmtransistor-liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD), the active matrix
OLED (AMOLED) displays provide a better contrast ratio,
smaller response time and lower energy demand. Yet, the
AMOLED displays endure power disparity in high luminancelevel [3], [4]. Because the consumed power of AMOLED
displays depends entirely on the displayed content, video
playback on AMOLED displays may consume large energy
portion [2], which opens for further optimization.
To optimize the power efficiency on AMOLED displays,different approaches that include the hardware optimization [5]to software-based developments [6]–[11] have been proposed.
In the software-based developments, Lee et al. [6] proposeda tunable histogram-based modification technique, which is
improved with an adaptive suppression rate in [7]. Althoughthese methods may maintain the image quality, the powersaving rates are inferior. Chang et al. [8] proposed a perceptually adjustable pixel dimming to reduce the pixel values

using a subtractive factor, which is further improved in [9] bysuppressing the overexposed region and blue spectra. Although
the trade-off between power-saving rate and image quality is
minimized, the high complexity decimates applicability [9].
Another approach utilizes the scene classification based
dynamic tone mapping scheme for video playbacks [10].
Despite the optimized power consumption, the video classifier
fails in certain scenes. Furthermore, Park et al. [11] proposedan alpha blending method to reduce the power consumption
while limiting the human perception on the video. This method
achieves low computational complexity for video processing;
however, certain parameters need to be initialized for different
videos, which decimates the practicality of the method.
This paper proposes a low complexity pixel dimmer that
adaptively shifts the image chrominance within subpixel levelwith hue-preserving transformation, dims the image luminanceusing a non-linear pixel transformation, and detects significant
scene transition based on the entropy. This study contributes inproviding a low complexity algorithm that converses the power
consumption of OLED-based displays with inferior dynamic
region distortions and no image flickers.
II. OLED P OWER M ODELING
Color image is constructed by three layers of pixel values
including the red, green, and blue subpixels. Each pixel on
the corresponding coordinate is emitted on an OLED withsimilar pixel configuration, i.e. red-, green-, and blue-emitting
subpixels, of which intensity correlate accordingly with thedrawn current. To characterize the power-demand of an OLED
pixel with N bit depth, a power model is proposed in [12] as:
P = Ws +N−1(pr (i) + pg (i) + pb (i)),

(1)

i=0

where pr , pg , and pb are the function of power-demand on asingle OLED pixel at i-th intensity level. The Ws represents
the normalized auxiliary power-demand, which is bestowed by
the embedded system to drive the displaying module per pixel.
Based on the observations in [8], [9], [12], the pr , pg , and pb
are best-fitted with the polynomials. Using this model, theenergy-dissipating character of each OLED pixel is reviewed
to provide the ground knowledge of study.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

527

Fig. 1. Flow diagram of the proposed pixel transformation technique to conserve power on AMOLED displays.

III. P ROPOSED M ETHOD
In this study, a novel power-saving scheme designed forvideo sequences on AMOLED displays is proposed. Figure 1
illustrates the flow diagram of the proposed method, which
is detailed as a temporal-based technique that suppresses the
RGB values of each pixel with four subtractive parameters,
which have significances in conserving the power efficiency.
A. Intensity Measurement
The proposed power-saving technique is developed based on
the perceptual properties, which are modeled in the statisticalmeasures. Because image luminance yields direct influence
on power consumption for AMOLED displays, a normalized
luminance map (Y ) is observed from the weighted color
channels of the input frame (I) that is formulated as:
Y (j) = 0.299 · R(j) + 0.587 · G(j) + 0.114 · B(j).

(2)

B. Linear Interpolation Model Estimation

According to [3], [4], [9], the power demand for each OLED
pixel is proportional to the intensity of the corresponding pixelthat comprises of three subpixels within the RGB color space.
To reduce the power consumption on AMOLED displays, pixel
transformation is a straightforward technique that subtracts
pixel information by decreasing the intensity (∆V ), modifying
the saturation (∆S), and altering the hue (∆H) towards theprimary spectra of RGB space as:RO (j) = RI (j) − ∆ ;(3)
GO (j) = GI (j) − ∆ ;BO (j) = BI (j) − ∆ ;where R, G, and B are the sub-pixel intensities of the j-thpixel on either input (I) and output (O) frames. The ∆ is thesubtractive coefficient that is expressed as:(( − 1) + (1 − 2 )) · µ= λ · µ,(4)∆ =with µ is the average intensity of Y .

528

The λ in (4) is an eminent parameter that determines thesaving ratio based on the , of which value should not be
uniform for different frames (i.e. dynamic coefficient) due
to the possibility of having distinct luminance distributions
across frames. To ensure this character, this study proposesa linear interpolation model to seek an acceptable λ in (4).
In certain scenes, lighting exposures from either natural or
artificial exposures (A) are common to interfere with otherpixels [13]. These lighting exposures can be modeled as:
I(j) = O(j) · τ + A · (1 − τ ),(5)

where I(j) and O(j) denote the j-th pixel at the input frame
and the intensity-suppresed output frame, respectively.
The atmospheric-based coefficient (A) in (5) represents
the estimated highest intensity of a pixel within the frames.
Despite its complexity straightfowardness, the A coefficientdoes not discriminate or classify the high intensities whether
sourcing from the exposures or the bright objects. To improve
the interpolation model in (5), the A coefficient is estimatedwithin the bright-representing class, which is expressed as:
Lover + (2b − 1),
(6)2
where b denotes the bit depth that is commonly defined at 8
bit or higher. The Lover is formulated as:2
W ·H 
I(j) − µ)
j=0
√
− β,
(7)
Lover = µ +2× W ×H
where W and H represent the width and the height of I.
The β constant in (7) is utilized as an adjusting parameterthat normalizes the value of Lover by deducting the priorstatistic measures that incorporates the summation of theaverage intensity and the bisected deviation of intensity on
I image. In this study, β is defined as β = 2b /10.2. Theµ measures the overall intensity level of I as the prominent
observation data that affects the dimming ratio. The µ for (7)are calculated as the total average intensity of Y map, which
is similar to the µ in (4).
A=

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

C. Non-linear Power Law Transformation
The power consumption on OLED pixels depends entirelyon the displayed content with incremental increase according
to the pixel intensities. Although pixel transformation in (3)suppresses the overall intensity, few details in the lower
histogram range may be lost. The high-frequency spectra (e.g.
blue and violet colors) are also contributing in the inferiorityof the power efficiency, unlike the lower frequency spectra [9].
To alleviate the undesired loss of image details and further
increase the energy efficiency by suppressing high-frequency
spectra on the higher histogram range, the non-linear is
proposed by associating a weighting factor (w) in (3) that is:O(j) = I(j) − (w(j) · λ · µ),Fig. 2. The relationship between τ and the pixel distributions (µ and σ)

The ratio τ in (5) denotes the ratio of lightness of the frameto that of the atmospheric light. The τ is highly dependable
with the perceptual content of each frame, of which value
range from 0 ≤ τ ≤ 1. According to (5), reducing the τ toa certain value shall reduce the overall frame intensities andvice versa. In this study, τ is tuned (µ−2b−1 )·S 
5
− 1−
2ρ2
,
(8)
τ = τ0 − √ eρ 2π
where τ0 is the initial τ that is determined based on theGaussian distribution. The S and ρ are auxiliary coefficientsthat observe the distribution of intensities on each frame.
In addition, the S coefficient in (8) observes the averageintensities of each frame with the following expression: 2µ − 2b−1
S = 1−,(9)2b−1

and similarly, the ρ coefficient observes the standard deviationof intensities on each frame as:

2b · 0.68 − σ
.
(10)
10
Figure 2 illustrates the relationship of µ and σ against the τ .
Based on the pixel tranformation in (3), the output O map
in (5) is replaced with the subtractive coefficient (∆ ) as:ρ=I(j) = (I(j) − λ(j) · µ) · τ + A · (1 − τ ),λ(j) =(A − I(j)) · (1 − τ )
.
τ ·µ

(12)

(A − µ) · (1 − τ )
.
τ ·µ

(13)

According to the pixel transformation in (12), the λ factor
will exceed the range (λ > 1) when I(j) > A. Therefore, thepower consumption of displays shall increase since the input
value at I is larger than the output value at O. To avoid thiscondition, the I(j) in (12) is replaced with the µ, as:
λ=where the w(j) factor is calculated pixel-wisely on two
normalized luminosity-based clusters: Y (j)  255

µ
µ

+
Y (j) ≤ µ;
ηL ·
255
255 ,


(15)
 µ  255

µ
µ

,
else.
+
+
η
ηL ·
H
255
255

The ηL and ηH in (15) denote the non-linear power lawbased transformation coefficients for the lower and higher
histogram ranges, respectively, which are expressed as:µ−σηL = e 255 −0.5 ,andσηH = 2 · e 100 −0.5 ·µ µ Y (j)  255
µ 255
.
−
255
255



(16)
(17)

D. Hue Blending
Shifting hues toward the RGB primaries reduces the overall
intensity and increases the power efficiency. However, color
shifting may result in false hue reproduction; thus decimating
the performance of the proposed method to preserve thechromatic information accurately. To minimize the trade-off
between power conservation and image quality on AMOLED
displays through color modification, hue blending is proposedby involving a scaling coefficient (k) in (14) as:O(j) = k · I(j) − (w(j) · λ · µ) .
(18)

The k coefficient is designed based on the ratio between theluminance and the lightness values of I as follows:
k=

(11)

which can be reformulated with the following expression:

(14)

µL
,
(µ + 1) × N(19)

where µL denotes the overall lightness value of I:
3 µ + 1
L
− 16.
(20)
µ = 116 ×
256
The N in (19) is utilized to control the value of k to be smaller
than one. Therefore, the N factor is set as follows:µL − µL̄
N = C1 − C2 ×,(21)
100 − µL̄
where C1 and C2 are predefined constants that were empirically set at 2.3 and 1.5, respectively. The µL̄ is derived
from (20) when µ = 0 that helps to normalize the k factor.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

529

E. Entropy-based Scene Detection
Based on the proposed pixel transformation in (18), the I
image can be modified to generate the dimmed output O that is
expected to reduce the power demand on AMOLED displays.
To maximize the applicability of the proposed method basedon the functionality of the AMOLED displays particularly forvideo playback, the proposed method can be applied to processeach frame inside the video stream as follows:(22)
Ot (j) = kt · It (j) − (wt (j) · λt · µt ) ,where t denotes the frame number (i.e. timestamp). Although
updating the subtractive parameters (e.g. kt , wt , λt , and µt )on each frame provides the optimum performance for the
proposed method, the computational complexity shall shootup to a steep level depending on the input dimensions.
According to the proposed pixel transformation in (22),the subtractive dimming parameters are adjusted dynamically
based on the perceptual information on each frame. Therefore
the parameter updates are unnecessary for analogous frames.
The entropy-based scene detection is proposed to identify
any frame, of which information change dramatically fromthe prior iteration. The identified frame informs the proposed
method to update the subtractive parameters.
To approximate the perceptual information of I, the entropy
calculation is implemented:
Et = −

l
max
l=0



pdft (l) log pdft (l) ,(23)

where pdft (l) denotes the probability density function of
I image at t-th frame. To detect any steep change in theperceptual information, the entropy at t-th frame is comparedwith the entropy at (t − 1)-th frame, which is expressed as:= µt−1µt
 λt= λt−1 wt (j) = wt−1 (j)  if |Et − Et−1 | < Θ; (24)kt
= kt−1otherwise, all parameters are updated using the corresponding
equations that have been elaborated in prior subsections. In thisstudy, the threshold (Θ) for (24) is empirically set to 0.05.

IV. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS
The visual saliency-induced index (VSI) is implemented toprimarily assess the image quality by comparing the perceptual
similarities between the input I and the output O streams [14]with the following mathematical formulation:
W ·H mV
G
γ1
· StC (j)γ2
j=1 Vt (j) · St (j) · St (j), (25)V SIt =
W ·H mj=1 Vt (j)where StV , StG , and StC represent the saliency similarities
between visual saliency-induced maps, gradient maps, andchrominance of the I and the O streams at t-th frame,
respectively. The StV is expressed as:
2StV 1 (j) · StV 2 (j) + K1
.
2 
2
StV 1 (j) + StV 2 (j) + K1

StV (j) = 

530

(26)

The StV 1 (j) and StV 2 (j) denote the visual saliency-induced
maps of I and O frames at the t-th iteration that are obtained
from graph-based visual saliency [14]. Analogously, the StG (j)is mathematically expressed as:
2G1t (j) · G2t (j) + K2
,
2
2 
1
Gt (j) + G2t (j) + K2

StG (j) = (27)

where G1t (j) and G2t (j) are the gradient modulus maps of
I and O frames at the t-th iteration generated from Scharr
operator. Lastly, the StC (j) is defined as:
2Ut1 (j) · Ut2 (j) + K3
·
2
2 
Ut1 (j) + Ut2 (j) + K3
2Vt1 (j) · Vt2 (j) + K3,
 1 2  2 2
Vt (j) + Vt (j) + K3

StC (j) = (28)

where Ut1 (j) and Vt1 (j) as well as Ut2 (j) and Vt2 (j) are twochromatic components of I and O, which are generated from
opponent color conversion.
Constant K1 , K2 , and K3 are required to increase thestability of similarity metrics that are set based on the previous
work as 1.27, 386, and 130, respectively [14]. Similarly, thesignificance of (27) and (28) are tuned by setting λ1 and λ2
to 0.4 and 0.02. To avoid imbalance human vision systemcaused by steep VS values, Vtm (j) weights the importance ofthe overall VSI metrics as
Vtm (j) = max StV 1 (j), StV 2 (j) .
(29)

As the final stage, the overall VSI score is taken by measuring
the average of V SIt on the given time range.
In addition to the VSI metric, the CIEDE2000 (∆00 ) are
implemented to further assess the perceptual similarity bygenerating a quality map from I and O streams [15] andmeasuring the Euclidean distance of chrominance channel
between I and O [16]. To fairly assess the performance ofthe observed method in terms of minimizing the trade-off
between the image quality and the power-saving rate, theaverage intensities of the I (µIt ) and O (µOt ) streams aremeasured to calculate the intensity-suppression ratio (%W ): I(µ − µO )(30)%W = t t I t × 100%.
t (µt )To assess the performance of the power-saving, a series ofelectrical current measurement was conducted on a 5.5 inch
AMOLED display with 1080×1920 resolutions using a powermonitor. A 20 seconds of resting time was defined before
the power monitor measures and calculates the averages of
5 samples periodically. The measured current and the rated
voltage are multiplied and then subtracted with the W0 , which
is defined as the measured power of the AMOLED display
while displaying the black image. To understand the amountof saved power, the power-saving rate is calculated as:
Poriginal − Presultant
× 100%,(31)%P =Poriginal
where Poriginal and Presultant are the measured display power
while displaying the input and the resultant frame, respectively.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

TABLE I
P ERFORMANCE C OMPARISON OF THE E XISTING AND THE P ROPOSEDP OWER -S AVING S CHEMES FOR AMOLED D ISPLAYS
Video
1

2

3

4

Methodology
Chang et al. [8]Chondro et al. [9]Proposed Method
Chang et al. [8]Chondro et al. [9]Proposed Method
Chang et al. [8]Chondro et al. [9]Proposed Method
Chang et al. [8]Chondro et al. [9]Proposed Method

VSI
0.967
0.944
0.956
0.987
0.948
0.974
0.960
0.927
0.928
0.949
0.957
0.952

∆00
5.076
3.175
5.416
3.002
2.514
3.391
4.918
4.306
5.731
3.578
4.158
5.172

%W
38.60
39.15
40.00
41.90
42.65
47.50
36.90
38.90
41.20
39.50
40.05
41.60

%P
57.28
66.53
72.97
51.85
48.27
55.86
53.27
58.63
65.70
52.50
56.69
64.73

TABLE IIP ERFORMANCE C OMPARISON IN T ERMS OF THE F LICKERING A RTIFACTS
Video
1
2
3
4

Chang et al. [8]
45.40
34.93
13.57
5.50

Chondro et al. [9]
49.30
38.25
22.30
14.90

Proposed Method
29.10
27.84
6.20
7.40

The units are in the scale of 10−3 .

A. Objective Visual Quality Evaluation
Table I provides comprehensive performance benchmarks
between the proposed method and the existing power-saving
techniques [8], [9]. Although the proposed method obtains
the lower perceptual scores compared with [8]; the perceptual
degradations are considered minor since the average decline
in VSI is 0.013. However, contrary to the [8], the proposed
power-saving method achieves inferiorly 0.009 higher average
VSI score compared with [9]. The chromatic reproductionof the proposed method is similar compared with [8], [9]as shown with slight differences in the ∆00 indexes on all
input data. These observations indicate that all implemented
methods (including the proposed method) provide analogous
perceptual quality in the resultant videos.
According to luminance ratio in Table I, the proposed
method outperformed [8], [9] with higher %W scores on most
tested video sequences. In average, the proposed method isable to preserve the perceptual lightness at roughly 42.58%of the original intensities or 3.36% higher than [8] and 2.39%
higher than [9]. This finding suggests that the proposed method
is able to preserve the image lightness; thus minimizing thetrade-off between the dimming ratio and the power-saving rate.
In terms of the power saving rate, Table I also elaborates
the performance comparisons in terms of the power-saving
capabilities. Although [8], [9] provide better perceptual qualityof the resultant frames, these prior techniques achieve moreinferior power saving rate as indicated by lower %P scoreswith averages of 53.73% and 57.53%, respectively. In contrast,
the proposed method provides higher power-saving rate withaverage %P of 64.82%. provides higher power-saving ratewith average %P of 64.82%.
The pixel transformation techniques modify the OLED pixel
values by dimming the intensities to the lower level of energy
consumption. For video sequences, the fluctuating dimming
factors on consecutive frames using the pixel transformation
technique will result in flickering effects that decimate thequality of the video. To assess the flickering effect of theresultant videos from all methods, the standard deviations of
the power-saving rate on each frame are computed.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 3. Comparison of the resultant frames from (a) 2nd to 4th tested videos(top-bottom) generated by (b) [8], (c) [9], and (d) the proposed method.

Table II compares the implemented methods in terms ofobserving the flicker artifacts on distinct video data. Based on
Table II, the proposed method achieves in averages 18.99%
and 47.68% lower deviations of the power saving rates
against [8], [9], respectively. By achieving lower deviations of
power-saving rates, the proposed method has higher percieved
quality of the resultant video playback with fewer occurrenceof flicker artifacts than [8], [9] that decimate the total quality.
Figure 3 illustrates the sampled results from the proposed
and the prior techniques on the 2nd , 3rd , and 4th test sequenceswith the corresponding original sampled frames are shownin Fig. 3(a). According to Fig. 3(b), the pixel transformationin [8] was able to produce high contrast frames with crisp
details for the originally bright pixels. However, most details
that have originally lied on the dark pixels were lost; thus
removing textures through excessing dimming. For instance,
details on the neck region at the 2nd footage as well as details
on the bushes at the 4th footage were not produced properly.
Differ from [8], the weighted pixel transformation in [9] wasable to provide more details than [8]. However, obvious color
distortions occur in the resultant frames. For instance, the color
information at few regions shown in Fig. 3(c) including thebright sky at the 3rd footage and the red car at the 4th footage
are altered, which result in poorly perceived quality.
Compared with the other implemented methods, the proposed power-saving technique is able to preserve image details in both bright and dark pixels with high chromatic
reproducibility. According to the illustration of the sampled
resultant frames from the proposed method in Fig. 3(d), image
details in the neck region at the 2nd footage and the bushes
at the 4th footage were completely preserved; color for thebright sky at the 3rd footage is accurately produced.

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TABLE III
C OMPARISON OF THE C OMPUTATIONAL C OMPLEXITY ( SECONDS )
Video
1
2
3
4

Chang et al. [8]
0.165
0.351
0.339
0.750

Chondro et al. [9]
0.856
1.970
2.007
4.474

Proposed Method
0.210
0.435
0.434
0.919

B. Computational Complexity
In this work, the experiments were performed on a personal
computer with a 3.40GHz Intel i7-3770 CPU and an 8GB of
RAM. The implementations were developed on the Microsoft
Visual Studio 2010. According to Table III, the proposed
method was executed with marginally slower computationaltime than [8] and significantly faster computational timecompared with [9].
V. C ONCLUSION
This paper proposes a novel scheme to specifically reduce
the power consumption of AMOLED displays by adjusting
the pixel values. Using the dimming technique mixed withhue preserving, the transformation method dims the pixel
contents and preserves the colors. A weighted transformation
scheme based on power-law technique is presented to further
suppress high-frequency spectra that are known to demandhigher displaying power while preserving the details in thedark region. To reduce complexity on video sequences, parameter updates are performed when the high entropy difference
is detected. Experimental results showed that the proposed
method provides acceptable resultant images with an averagevisual saliency index of 0.962 and achieves on average 64.3%
and up to 73% rate of power-saving, which is higher than otherprevious methods.

[8] T.-C. Chang, S.S.-D. Xu, and S.-F. Su, ”SSIM-based Quality-on-Demand
Energy-Saving Schemes for OLED Displays,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man
Cybern. A., Syst. Humans, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 623635, May. 2016.
[9] P. Chondro, S.-J. Ruan, ”Perceptually Hue-Oriented Power-Saving
Scheme with Overexposure Corrector for AMOLED Displays,”
IEEE/OSA J. Display Technology., vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 791-800, Mar.
2016.
[10] X. Chen, Yiran Chen, and Chun Jason Xue, ”DaTuM: Dynamic Tone
Mapping Technique for OLED Display Power Saving Based on Video
Classification,” in Proc. of IEEE/ACM DAC, pp. 16, 2015.
[11] M. Park and M. Song, ”Saving Power in Video Playback on OLED
Displays by Acceptable Changes to Perceived Brightness,” IEEE/OSA
J. Display Technology., vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 483490, May. 2016.
[12] B. Geffroy, P. L. Roy, and C. Prat, ”Organic light-emitting diode (OLED)
technology: Materials, devices and display technologies,” Polym. Int.,
vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 572582, Jun. 2006.
[13] K. He, J. Sun, and X. Tang, ”Single Image Haze Removal using Dark
Channel Prior,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Machine Intell., vol. 33, no.
12, pp. 2341-2353, 2011.
[14] L. Zhang, Y. Shen, and H. Li, ”VSI: A Visual Saliency-Induced Index
for Perceptual Image Quality Assessment,” IEEE Trans. Image Process.,
vol. 23, no. 10, pp. 4270-4281, 2014.
[15] L. Zhang and H. Li, ”SR-SIM: A Fast and High Performance IQA Index
Based on Spectral Residual,” in 19th IEEE Int. Conf. Image Process.,
Orlando, 2012, pp. 1473-1476.
[16] M. R. Luo, G. Cui, and B. Rigg, ”The Development of the CIE 2000
Colour-Difference Formula: CIEDE2000,” Color Res. Applicat.,vol.26,
no. 5, pp. 340–350, 2001.

R EFERENCES[1] Google Inc. and IPSOS OTX MediaCT, ”The Mobile Movement:
Understanding Smartphone Users,” 2011. [Online]. Available: https://ssl.
gstatic.com/think/docs/the-mobile-movement research-studies.pdf. [Accessed: 24-Jul-2016].
[2] D. Shin, Y. Kim, N. Chang, and M. Pedram, ”Dynamic Driver Supply
Voltage Scaling for Organic Light Emitting Diode Displays,” IEEE
Trans. Comput.-Aided Des. Integr. Circuits Syst., vol. 32, no. 7, pp.
1017-1030, Jul. 2013.
[3] M. Dong and L. Zhong, ”Chameleon: A Color-Adaptive Web Browser
for Mobile OLED Displays,” IEEE Trans. Mobile Comput., vol. 11, no.
5, pp. 724738, May 2012.
[4] C.-K. Kang, C.-H. Lin, and P.-C. Hsiu, ”A Win-Win Camera: QualityEnhanced Power-Saving Images on Mobile OLED Displays,” in 2015
IEEE/ACM Int. Symp. Low Power Electronics and Design, Rome, 2015,
pp. 267272.
[5] C.-S. Chae, H.-P. Le, K.-C. Lee, G.-H. Cho, and G.-H. Cho, ”A SingleInductor Step-Up DC-DC Switching Converter With Bipolar Outputs
for Active Matrix OLED Mobile Display Panels,” IEEE J. Solid-State
Circuits., vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 509524, Feb. 2009.
[6] C. Lee and C. Lee and Y.-Y. Lee and C.-S. Kim, ”Power-Constrained
Contrast Enhancement for Emissive Displays Based on Histogram
Equalization,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 8093,
Jan. 2012.
[7] L.-M. Jan, F.-C. Cheng, C.-H. Chang, S.-J. Ruan, and C.-A. Shen,”A Power-Saving Histogram Adjustment Algorithm for OLED-Oriented
Contrast Enhancement,” IEEE/OSA J. Display Technology., vol. 12, no.
4, pp. 368375, Apr. 2016.

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Improved Structure of Ground Terminals
for Crosstalk Reduction in SAS-3 Storage Connector
DesignDing-Bing Lin#1, Chung-Ke Yu*2, Chih-Kang Lai*3, Ko-Ying Huang*4#

Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan,*
Department of Electronic Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
1dblin@mail.ntust.edu.tw, 2jonk.yu56@gmail.com,
3
dact8842412@gmail.com, 4mo060928@gmail.com

Abstract—In this paper, we proposed a board to board connector
design for high-speed storage devices. The proposed design
utilizes a terminal structure with ground clipper and groundblade to reduce the near-end crosstalk (NEXT) and far-end
crosstalk (FEXT) such that the connector performance satisfies
SAS-3 connector specification. Three improved designs ofconnector model are studied and compared with the legacy SAS2 connector design. Also, the capacitive and inductive parameterof the transmission lines of proposed designs have been extracted
in order to determine the contribution of crosstalk noise caused
by capacitive and inductive coupling. Furthermore, the Sparameter results have been validated by full-wave simulation
tool HFSS in the frequency domain analysis. For the NEXT and
FEXT all proposed design shows significant improvement with
10~40dB than the legacy design and the strength under -40dB
from DC to 6GHz. In addition, the proposed connector design
can meet the crosstalk requirement of SAS-3 connector
specification.

I. INTRODUCTION
Today's solid-state storage devices (SSDs) for servers arecapable of data rates up to 10Gbps, the new SAS-3 12Gbps
protocol standard has been promoted to accommodate therapid growing data rate of SSDs. In addition, the operating
frequency of the interconnection elements used to connect thestorage devices, including the electrical connectors and cables
must be increased as well. In legacy SAS-2 6Gbps storage
connector, its terminal mating area was lack of a proper
grounding terminal design, when the high frequency signals
propagated through the interconnection of the mating area, ahigh frequency interference has been coupled between
inter/intra-pair differential transmission lines and named nearend crosstalk (NEXT) and far-end crosstalk (FEXT). In orderto improve storage connector’s imperfection electromagnetic
properties at higher operating frequency due to increased
capacitive and inductive coupling, we proposed an improved
structure of ground terminal for crosstalk reduction.
II. DESIGN METHOD
We proposed three 3D connector models with threedifferent types of grounding terminals, and then the L-C

equivalent parameters of the legacy design and these three
proposed designs were extracted by Q3D simulation tool. The
L-C parametric analysis was studied to determine theinteraction between the NEXT/FEXT and capacitive/inductive
coupling. Finally, the NEXT and FEXT performances of all
proposed models were simulated by HFSS for final validation.
III. 3D SIMULATION MODEL OF THE SAS CONNECTOR
A. A Brief Introduction
For the inter compatibility consideration, the mechanicalconfigurations and the exterior of proposed SAS connector
was based on the EIA SFF-8482 industrial standard model [1].
Because of the mechanical restriction its differential
transmission line is not a well reference plane structure design
as well as the stripline on the PCB or the coaxial cable, thus
when the high frequency signal propagates through the matingarea of the interconnected connector, it is liable to cause
coupling effect and degrades the signal integrity and thereliability of the computer system.

Fig. 1 The exterior of the mating SAS plug and receptacle connector.

First, the approximated multi-pairs differential line model
should be illustrated to interpret the L-C equivalentparameters analysis. The T10/BSR INCITS 519 [2] is thetechnical committee of accredited standard committee who
formulated the SAS-3 electrical specification, including theThis work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of
Taiwan under Grant MOST 104-2221-E-011 -178 -MY2.

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533

physical link and the signal integrity (SI) performance ofSAS-3 storage connector. According to the standard, a real
physical link of SAS storage connector has four differential
pairs (i.e two lanes) transmission lines and six groundterminals, so the total of terminals in one plug or receptacleconnector is fourteen. Fig.2 shows the simplified diagram of
SAS interconnections.

The ground clipper is an additional bended metal sheet tocontact other three separated ground terminals of the legacy
connector design, the ground blade is a redesign single pieceof metal conductor instead of that three separated groundterminals in legacy connector design.

(a)Fig. 2 The four pairs (two lanes) differential transmission lines configurationin one SAS storage interconnection.

Next, the approximated effective inductance andcapacitance of every differential pair conductors could bederived and calculated by the single line equivalent model(SLEM) [3]. Though the SLEM can help to estimate the L-C
equivalent parameters, characteristic impedance, andpropagation velocity, in case of multi-conductor transmission
lines as the SAS connector, it is an approximation for quick
evaluation.
B. The Improved Structure of Ground Terminal
According to the SAS specification, the terminal’s pinout
configuration is GSSG, consists of four differential pairs inparallel, including clock signals, sharing a single common
ground return terminal. When ground terminals are assigned
throughout the entire length of the mating connector for best
SI performance, we must make its ground loop areas asminimum as possible to avoid the energy of high frequency
signals from being coupled to other differential pairs. Two
improved structures of ground terminal for crosstalk reduction
by using ground blade and ground clipper as shown in Fig. 3.

534

(b)
Fig. 3 (a) A SAS storage connector (housing removed) with ground blade andground clipper structure terminal design. (b) The close-up of groundblade ground clipper.

C. Modelling for the Simulation
The plug and receptacle connector assembly have been
soldered up on a printed circuit board, the board material is
TU-872 with 3.8 of relative permittivity ( ) and 0.009 ofProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

dielectric loss tangent, and then all metal terminals are brass,material of housing is Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP) E471i
with 3.5 of relative permittivity ( ) and 0.032 of dielectricloss tangent, the total volume of the model about 15x15x8mm3. The SAS-3 spec. has defined the transmitter andreceiver ends to the port settings of all differential pairs for
Q3D and HFSS simulations.
IV. EXPERIMENT RESULTS
For NEXT analysis, the coupling between all adjacentdifferential pairs is worthy of notice. We noticed the groundclipper has good coupling reduction to capacitive but uselessto inductive, and then the ground blade is very effective forboth coupling. By the way, the result shows the lowest NEXT
when using both two structure because the accumulation of
capacitive coupling reduction. In FEXT analysis, we focus on
the non-adjacent pairs. Because the distance between the nonadjacent pairs is farther than the condition of adjacent pairs,
the inductive coupling is the factor who dominates the FEXT
but not capacitive coupling. Based on the reasons we know
the ground blade is more effective than the ground clipper tothe FEXT. Obviously, the lowest FEXT is got by using both
two proposed designs owing to the accumulation of inductive
coupling reduction. Table.1 shows the comparison with thelegacy design.
In frequency domain, the crosstalk performance has beenvalidated through HFSS full-wave simulation, the resultshows that two proposed designs can eliminate the peakresonance through DC to 6GHz of the NEXT/FEXT, but
remain the insertion loss, return loss and the impedance tomeet the SAS-3 compliance.

Fig. 4 The comparison of NEXT by using different grounding terminal
structures. (D1 to D2)

Fig. 5 The comparison of NEXT by using different grounding terminal
structures. (D3 to D4)

TABLE ICOMPARISONS OF NEAR-END AND FAR-END CROSSTALK COEFFICIENT
BETWEEN THE ORIGINAL AND THREE PROPOSED DESIGNSType of
Groundingterminals
Clipper

D1 - D2

D2 - D3

D3 - D4

D1 - D3

D2 - D4-9.7 %+0.3%+1.7 %-10.5%

+3.6%

Blade

-12.6 %

-14.8%-11.4 %

-14.9%-11.7%

Clipper andBlade-19.6 %

-15.2%-11.8 %

-23%

-13.9%

Fig. 6 The comparison of FEXT by using different grounding terminal
structures. (D1 to D3)

Fig. 7 The comparison of FEXT by using different grounding terminal
structures. (D2 to D4)

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535

V. CONCLUSIONSIn SAS-3 storage connector design, the crosstalkinterference between its multi-pair differential transmission
lines is an important consideration to avoid the SI issue. The
additional clipper and blade structure of ground terminal that
we proposed had a significant benefit to coupling reduction.
After the L-C parametric analysis from the extracted
connector models, the ground blade has a lower near-end andfar-end crosstalk coefficient than the legacy design.
Furthermore, because the ground clipper can gains the
reduction of capacitive coupling, thus the near-end crosstalkcoefficient has much more lower value by using both groundblade and ground clipper. In addition, the full-wave simulation
result shows a similar trend as the L-C parametric analysis in536

frequency domain. The peak value through DC to 6GHz of thenear-end and far-end crosstalk has been reduced over 6~20dB
by using ground blade and / or ground clipper. For this reason,
the ground blade and ground clipper are feasible solutions forstorage connector design to meet the SAS-3 compliance.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]

SFF-8482 Rev 2.4 Specification for Serial Attachment 2X
Unshielded Connector (EIA-966), Electronic Industries
Alliance, May 2015.
Information Technology – Serial Attached SCSI – 3 (SAS-3),
Working Draft Revision 06, American National Standard,
T10/BSR INCITS 519, Nov. 2013.
S. H. Hall, H. L. Heck, Advanced Signal Integrity for HighSpeed Digital Designs, Hoboken, NJ, Wiley-IEEE Press, 2009.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Evolution from a Door Bell into an IP Door Phone
Daniel Hofman1,2, Jenq-Shiou Leu1, Pavel Troller2

National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Czech Technical University in Prague

1
2

hofmadan@fel.cvut.cz, jsleu@mail.ntust.edu.tw, patrol@sinus.cz
Abstract - This work introduces a general view on an
evolution of door communication systems. The work
evaluates a current market of IP-based systems whichcurrently consists mainly of more expensive devices
targeted on business customers. The goal is to design adoorphone prototype based on an IP protocol withsuitable functions and easy control for a less demandinguser. The Raspberry Pi computer was chosen fordevelopment together with other suitable hardware toaccomplish desired functions. The Linphone open-source
project was used to implement phone functionality. The
low price or open-source solutions were preferred whenselecting ideal hardware and software to use. The
conclusion evaluates how successful the implementation
was while keeping the device affordable.
Key Words - Internet Protocol, Session Initiation Protocol,
Raspberry Pi, Linphone, DoorphoneI.

INTRODUCTION

The history of intercom systems started a long time ago.
Already several hundred years ago people wanted to be
noticed of a guest arrival to their house. It all started withdoorbells and the invention of electricity.[1] Until aroundmiddle of twentieth century the doorbell system included abutton, transformer and a wiring which allowed us to place
the bell to some remote location, where it was better heard.
But especially after the World War Two, the development of
doorbell systems accelerated.
New functions were added and at some point the systembecame even wireless. The most important was to allow thecommunication with the guest without actually going there totalk in person. It all began with utilization some first analog
communication system. The development went fast forward
and nowadays we call the new systems doorphones orintercoms instead of doorbells.
This paper is organized as follows: Section II describes thegoal for implementing an IP-based doorphone prototype.
Section III lists suitable functions. Section IV is about theadvantages of IP solution. Section V introduces the hardware
and section VI the software used in the project. Section VIIsummarizes the final device and its functions. Finally, a
conclusion is offered in section VIII.

II.

GOAL

My goal for this project is to explore the possibility ofcreating an IP-based doorphone system with appropriate
functionality while keeping the price reasonable. The
doorphone system should provide basic functions expectedfrom a doorbell. Moreover it should add some additional
functions which make the use of an intelligent doorphone
more attractive.
III.

DOORPHONE FUNCTIONS

I listed several functions which could be worthy toimplement in the IP Door Phone prototype.
 Bell/Notification Sound - The doorphone notifies you of aguest arrival after a button is pressed.
 Audio Call – A doorphone should allow bidirectional
communication.
 Video Call – To see who is standing outside.
 Remote Control – To remotely open the door without
going there.
 History – To store a history of past visitors with timestamp.
 Call Redirecting – To redirect a call to your mobile phone,
fixed line or even some VoIP applications like skype when
nobody home.
 Email Notification – To receive a system status
notifications.
 Anti-Vandal Design - The station might be exposed to a
public area. The outlet should be made vandal resistant.
IV.

IP SOLUTION

Several years back it was common to have a special cabling
for TV, CCTV, telephone, computer network and intercoms
and these systems were often closed. However now with thewide-spread of IP technology you can deploy only twisted
pair cabling and push the building communication system to
one platform and it is mainly Ethernet. This solution reduces
the cost for developers and makes the construction faster andeasier.
Another advantage is the possibility of advanced features
like a quality calls even to fixed telephone networks, video
calls and possibility to access the device over the network.
The last advantage is an easy way to add new functionality
into an IP-based system and interconnection with othersystems e.g. home automation systems.

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537

V.

HARDWARE

I would like to introduce now all the hardware used in thisproject.
 Raspberry Pi 2 - This low-cost single board computer
itself has everything you need to run a standalone computermachine. It has many additional interfaces and is powerfulenough to run a SIP client application. A suitable Linux
distribution will be running from a Micro SD card. The
presence of GPIO pins makes it easy to receive some inputs
or send outputs. The device itself has a low power
consumption. Only one necessary connector is missing andit is an Audio In.
 Micro SD Card - The operating system is installed there
and all the application data will be stored there. 2 or 4 GB
SD card is sufficient when using the Raspbian Jessie Lite
system. The card should be class 10 to ensure as high write
speeds as possible.
 Sound Card - I need to use an USB sound card because
RPi2 lacks an audio input. I chose a generic device 7.1
Channel USB External Sound Card Audio Adapter because
it is cheap, small, supported by Linux (C-Media 108 audio
chipset supported by ALSA Project) and does not needmuch power.
 Microphone - I used one cheap office microphone (AY0126). I disassembled it to fit into my device.
 Speaker - I used one 8 ohm 2W VECO speaker (78G 4442-VL). I had to use an amplifier to amplify the audio signal
from RPi2. I chose a 3 W Class-D Stereo Audio Amplifier(PAM8403) which can be powered from RPi2 +5V pin.
 Camera – I use a camera module developed for RPi. Thereis a good integration into Linux and the Python Picamera
library is available for development. The camera low light
conditions when an IR light is turned on.
 GPIO - These bi-derectional I/O pins can control LED
lights, spin motors or read button presses. Some current
draw and voltage limitations have to be kept in mind while
using 3.3 V GPIO ports. Never be connected to a source ofa greater voltage than 3.3 V. Source or sink no more than
16 mA per pin and the maximu current sourced
simultaneously from all pins is 50 mA. [2]. I use GPIO pins
to read button presses, turning on LEDs and control a relay.
 Button –I use only one button. Usually at a family house
you need to ring the whole house or maybe two separate
rings because of two floors. I chose a monetary button
which is actuated only when it is pressed.
 IR LED Light - I created a small board with 10 IR diodes
to illuminate the scene during low light conditions. The 850
nm diodes have forward voltage (𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 ) 1.4 V and maximal
current (𝐼𝐼) 20 mA. I have connected always two diodes inseries with one 100 Ω resistor (𝑅𝑅). The resistor value wascalculated with the equation bellow.
𝑅𝑅 =(𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 )𝐼𝐼; 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 5 𝑉𝑉; 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = 2 ∗ (1.4) 𝑉𝑉; 𝐼𝐼 = 20 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

I added a NPN (2N3904) transistor to control the diodes
and allow them to draw more current from +5 V pin than it
would be able from other GPIO pins. The transistor base is538

connected to a GPIO pin and the circuit is controlled by it.
There is also one 5.1 kΩ resistor between the transistor baseand GPIO pin to limit the current draw from the GPIO pin.
 Relay Board - I am using a 2-channel relay module withall the required electronic needed to be directly operated by
RPi2’s GPIO pins without the danger of damaging it. The
module relays (SRD-05VDC-SL-C) are both able to switch
up to 10A. It would not be possible to operate the relay
itself from RPi2 pin because according to a datasheet theswitching current is around 90 mA which is too much for
RPi2
GPIO
pins.

Figure 1 Final assembly of the IP Door Bell System

The device which actually opens a door is called an electric
strike or a door release. It is attached in a door frame andwhen the relay turns ON the applied electric current willcause it to unlock. Electric strikes usually operate on 12 AC
and the current draw might differ from 200 mA to 2 A. It is
obvious that you cannot operate it directly.
Power - I am powering the RPi2 with a micro-USB power
adapter (HNP10I-Micro, 5V/2A). Usually RPi2 needs around700-1000 mA but for a stable run with some USB peripherals
or powering anything through GPIO pins is input current of
2 A recommended.
VI.

SOFTWARE

I would like to introduce all the software used in this project.
I tried to choose only an open-source software for this project.
 Operating System - I used a Linux distribution called
Raspbian Jessie Lite specially designed for RPi2 and it isProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

an official supported operating system by Raspberry Pi
Foundation. Raspbian Lite version is missing graphicaldesktop environment packages and thus much smaller than
the normal image. The size of extracted executables is 1.3
GB for Lite in comparison with 4 GB of normal full image.
This means that even 2 GB SD cards should be sufficient.
It comes with many preinstalled packages. e.g. Python,Java or GPIO control.
 Linphone - Linphone is an open source VoIP phone library.
The group standing behind this library creates also SIP
client for Android, Windows and iOS. I will use a linphonelibrary optimized for use with RPi. This library offers all
SIP functions in one package. The audio codecs are PCMU
(G711u) or PCMA (G711µ) which brings good audio
quality. There is a difference between them how PCM is
implemented. One uses μ-Law (used in North America)
and the second A-Law (used in Europe). The video codec
is VP8. It was developed by Google and it is free to use incomparison with codec H264. Using VP8 brings also sometroubles because it is not supported by all SIP clients nor
servers. On the other hand H264 is more spread over more
applications but there are troubles with RPi2 which lacks ausable encoder.
 Photos and Videos - I used the RPi NoIR camera module
to take photos of visitors and use it as a video device during
a call. When a button is pressed one photo is taken. This
photo is stored into RPi2 storage and is possible to see thephoto when opening the webserver address ({RPi2 IP
address}:8800). The photos are taken in resolution of
1024x768 pixels to improve the speed and save somestorage. All photos are timestamped in this format:%Y%M%D-%H%M%S. Y – year, M – month, D – day, H– hour, M – minute, S – second. The camera module is also
used during video calls to see in real time who is outside.
Either during taking a photo or a video call the IR LED
light is turned on to illuminate the scene during low light
conditions.
 Relay Control – I control the relay with one GPIO output.
When the pin is LOW the relay is on. When the pin is
HIGH the relay is off. If number 1 is pressed during a callthe relay turns on for 3 seconds.
 Main Cycle - The main cycle waits until a button is pressed
and when the button is pressed a photo is taken and a callto a predefined extension is initiated.
 Web GUI - The web GUI allows quick changes of somesettings and it is not dependent on any kind of platform.
User just need a web browser.{RPi2 IP address}:8888. I
choose a library called Tornado to implement it. Tornado
is a Python web server and application framework. The
library is distributed under open-source license. I chose it
because the library comes with all functions I need and it iseasy to use for my application. I created two pages. The
first one is an IP Door Bell Setting page. A user can change
some basic setting of the system like SIP Username,
Password or Server Address. Before user can enter thissetting page an authentication page pops up. First a correct
password has to be entered otherwise the access is denied.

The second page is a photo gallery. Photos taken by thecamera can be browsed there. The gallery itself is generated
by an open-source tool called Sigal.
 Cron Job – I created a Cron job to periodically check if the
IP Door Bell services are running. The device would be
useless without these services running and therefore when
they are down this script turns them back on.
VII.

EVALUATION

Figure 2 IP Door Bell (red circle) connected to an IP network

The Figure 2 IP Door Bell (red circle) connected to an IP
network shows my IP Door Bell device inside an IP network.
My IP Door Bell is another SIP client connected to IP
network and has to be connected to a SIP server, whichhandles the setup of SIP calls with authentication andauthorization of users for services. The IP Door Bell system
works quite well without any big troubles but it is still in adevelopment stage.
User can open the web GUI and change the most importantsetting like SIP username, password and server address orwhere to call when a button is pressed. Press Save andRestart the device to save the configuration and restart theservice. After successful registration the status changes toRegistered. I have to admit that the application does notcheck the input value anyhow. I just suppose that the user sets
proper values e.g. standard IP address. The settings GUI has
five sections: Status, SIP Server, Extension, Devices, Web
Server. Most of them are working and ready to use except
section Devices. This section is more like a preparation for a
future development. Past visitors can be seen in the photogallery. It takes some time when opening the gallery and it iscaused by generating the library with new photos. With many
new photos it can take even 5 to 10 seconds. The goal for next
development would be to try to lower this delay.
The last thing that a user can do is to call the IP Door Bell.
This way I can talk to anybody standing outside even before
the person presses the ring. In fact it takes around 2 to 3
seconds before the call is established. This delay is caused bytaking the photo for around 0.4 s and then by the network andProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

539

SIP clients delays. When somebody comes and press the
button it takes around 2 to 4 seconds until a calling party(extension inside the building) starts to ring. The delay here
might be a bit longer maybe because there is no automatic
answer and the client in a smartphone or computer have tostart signaling the incoming call.
The sound quality during a call is reasonably good andspeech is always understandable but quality is based on thequality of speaker, audio output and network. The quality ofa video call is quite good but it depends on the quality of a
network, too. The IR light turns on when taking photos orusing the camera for a video call and during low light.
The system is usually stable during a call but I experienced
some troubles over a longer time span. The program gets
sometimes into a SEGV error at unpredictable times. I didsome debugging but I still have not found the problem. I
created a Cron job which test if the service is running andrestart it when necessary. It is not the best solution but it isworking for now. I looked in a log file from one day ofoperation and the scripts gets into an error in average every
70 minutes. The condition when the IP Door Bell ismalfunction took in average 38 seconds until it is active andrunning again. It means that it happens 20.6 times per day thatthe system is down. Together it makes 782 seconds (13minutes) of down time during one day. It means that thesystem is down for 0.9 % of a day. To get better results of
uptime I will have to find out a solution of this problem witha SEGV error.
I connected the IP Door Bell system to a power meter andran into several possible situations. When the system is idle
the power consumption is only 1.7 W. The power
consumption gets higher when more parts of the system starts
to work. In general I can say that my system is quite good interms of consumption. Most of the time the system will residein an idle state and the consumption will be around 1.7 W. It
makes 14.9 kWh per.
Table I System power consumption
IP Door Bell Activity
Idle
Call
Video Call
Video Call and Relay
ON

Consumption
[W]
1.7
2.4
3.2

Cons./1year
[kWh]
14.9
21
28

3.6

31.5

The last concern during my project was the price of thewhole project. The most expensive was the RPi2 computer
and the camera module. Except that the rest of the items werequite cheap. The overall price of the project is below 100
USD. The price is several times lower than market solutions
but does not reflect my work etc. Moreover for a massproduction should be done some analysis of more platforms
to find the best platform in terms of functionality, price andconsumption

erMicrocomput

CameraModulePower
Adapter
Micro
Card
Speaker

SD

IR
LEDs
(10x)
Microphone
Relay
ModuleUSB Sound
Card
AmplifierJack
Connector (2x)Proto Board
Proto Board
Resistor (5x)
ButtonTransistor
Resistor

Raspberry Pi 2 (Model B)

35

Raspberry Pi NoIR Camera Module

25

5V 2A Micro USB Power Adapter(HNP10I-microUSB)
Kingston Digital 8 GB microSDHCClass 10 UHS-1 (SDC10/8GB)
8 ohm 2W VECO (78G 444-2-VL),
price for a common speaker with similar
spec.
IR LED 850 nm 1.4 V 20 mA

9

AY 0126
2 Channel 5V Relay Module
7.1 Channel USB External Sound
Card
PAM8403
3.5 mm Stereo Male
25x25 mm50x50 mm100 Ω
Monetary Push Button
NPN, 2N3904
5.1 kΩ

Total Price

6
5
4
4
2
1.5
1
1
1
1
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.1
96.7

VIII.

CONCLUSION

Figure 2 IP Door Bell (red circle) connected to an IP
networkshows the view and the whole IP system with a SIP
server and many SIP clients. I have created a doorphone
prototype which is one of the SIP clients in the system. The
offers basic doorphone functionality. A guest can ring thehouse and alert the people inside. Voice and video call ispossible and even some remote control of other devices
during a call. The device is only a development prototype andis far from a mass-production. More work would have to bedone before that and try also different platforms which might
be more efficient, cheaper or suitable. The future plan is toremove the SEGV error and implement more functions. The
web GUI should be also improved and allowed more settings
and user customization.

REFERENCES
1. Warren, Jason. The History of the Doorbell. 1800
Doorbell. [Online] LHE, Inc., November 18, 2015. [Cited:
March 4, 2016.]
http://www.1800doorbell.com/resources/who-invented-thedoorbell-history.htm.
2. Mosaic Industries, Inc. GPIO Electrical Specification.
Mosaic Documentation Web. [Online] Mosaic Industries,
Inc. [Cited: 03 17, 2016.] http://www.mosaicindustries.com/embedded-systems/microcontrollerprojects/raspberry-pi/gpio-pin-electrical-specifications.

Table II List of the Hardware with prices
Part

540

Info

Price
[$]

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Naïve Bayes Algorithm Applied on
Breast Cancer Expert System
Rayung Wulan, Mei Lestari, Ni Wayan Parwati

Information Technology
Indraprasta University
Jakarta, Indonesia
Utha2578@gmail.com, mei.lestari6@gmail.com, wayan.parwati@gmail.com
Abstract— Data mining is a process to obtain useful
information from a large data warehouse, it can also beinterpreted as the extraction of new information from a large
chunk of data to make a decision. Naïve bayes classifier is one ofdata mining classification method and a statistical classificationthat can be used to predict the probability of class label. Breast
cancer is a fast growing tumor that comes from breast tissue.
There are two types of tumor malignant (cancerous) and benign(non cancerous). Obvious sign of breast cancer is ulcers that
occurs in breast and growth gradually greater and deeper andwill destroy the entire breast. Hence, it is important to detect abreast cancer at the early phase. This paper aims to calculate andclassify breast cells and to design an expert system to detectbreast cancer desease using naïve bayes algorithm. System are
implemented using java programming language. The proposedsystem can help doctor and patients in making a decision or an
expert advice.
Keywords—breast cancer;
classification; data mining

I.

naïve

bayes;

expertsystem;INTRODUCTION

Data mining is a process to gain information from a big
data set to make a decision. Data mining also known as data
discovery. These days there is huge amount of data being
collected and stored in databases across the world, and thistendency is increasing. Methods are used for extracting thedata aims to make it possible to mine the data. Data mining
also defined as a process of discovering patterns of data. The
process must be automatic or semiautomatic. The pattern must
be meaningful and allow us to make non trivial prediction on
new data [5]. Data mining is the analysis of large
observational data sets to find unsuspected relationship tosummarize the data in novel ways that are both understandable
and useful to the owner of data set[3][4]. Data mining models
and methods continues the coverage of data mining as aprocess. Particular standard process used is the Cross Industry
Standard Process for Data Mining (CRSIP-DM). It demands
that data mining be seen as the entire process, from
communication of business problem, through data collection
and management, data processing, model building, model
evaluation and finally model deployment [2]. Xiaoxin Yin
and Jiawei Han [7] proposed a regression based method topredict the usefulness of inter database links that serve as
bridges for information transfer. High cost of inter databasecommunications, MDBM employs a new strategy for cross-database classification that performs actions with high benefit
to cost ratios. It shows that MDBM (Multi Database Miner)
achieves high accuracy in cross database classification.
Classification methods are predicting a certain output
based on a given input. The algorithm process a training set
containing a set of attributes and the respective output. The
algorithm tries to discover the relationship between theattributes that could make it possible to predict the output.
Naïve bayes is a method to established a classifier bymaking a probabilistic model of data within each class. It isbased on bayes’ theorem with independence assumption
between predictors.
The Bayesian rule formula is| =|


(1)

Where:
P(C|X) is the posterior probability of class given predictor(attribute), P(C) is the prior probability of class, P(X|C) isthe likelihood which is probability of predictor given class,
P(X) is the prior probability of predictor

Breast cancer is a fast growing tumor that comesfrom breast tissue. There are two types of tumor
malignant (cancerous) and benign (non cancerous).
Obvious sign of breast cancer is ulcers that occurs inbreast and growth gradually greater and deeper and will
destroy the entire breast. Hence, it is important to detect
a breast cancer at the early phase. Naïve bayes can beused to predict breast cancer by using nine variables onbreast cancer dataset from UCI data set. There are
Uniformity of cell size, Uniformity of cell shape,
Marginal Adhesion, Single Ephitelial Cell Size, Bare
Nuclei, Bland Chromatin, Normal Nucleoli, Mitoses.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Related Work
Nowdays expert system using classification data mining
methods become an interesting research work. Ambica,
Gandi and Kothalanka [1] optimized the dataset andapplied the naïve bayes classifier to provides an efficientexpert system for diabetes. Yousuf Qawqzeh and Khalid

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

541

Nazim [8] are work on a prototype websites of breast
cancer diagnostic expert system. The system provides all
collaborative information that are provisioned by thecommunity member, online organization and expert in thatfield. Murat Karabatak [6] use Association Rules (AR) and
Neural Network (NN) to diagnose breast cancer, theirresearch shows that AR can be used for reducing thedimension of feature vector.

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1

Classification process on this proposed expert system weused naïve bayes classifier. The following are steps to classify
a new data as malignant (cancerous) or benign (noncancerous).
First step is to construct a frequency table of each attributeagainst the target.

BENIGN

TOTAL

536

204

332

UNIFORMITY OF CELL SIZEUNIFORMITY OF CELLSHAPE
MARGINAL ADHESION

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1

P(X|C)MALIGNANT
0.38

BENIGN

0.62

110
40
76
57
89
30
20
39
13
62

3
3
11
7
33
17
20
35
13
62

107
37
65
50
56
13
0
4
0
0

0.027273
0.075
0.144737
0.122807
0.370787
0.566667
10.897436
1
10.972727
0.925
0.855263
0.877193
0.629213
0.433333
00.102564
0
0

276
36
46
33
28
23
15
23
5
51

4
8
23
27
28
23
15
22
4
51

272
28
23
6
0
0
0
1
1
0

0.014493
0.222222
0.5
0.818182
1
1
10.9565220.8
10.985507
0.7777780.50.181818
0000.043478
0.2
0

259
44
45
34
30
25
26
22
7
44

2
6
22
26
29
23
24
21
7
44

257
38
23
8
1
2
2
1
0
0

0.007722
0.136364
0.488889
0.764706
0.966667
0.92
0.923077
0.954545
1
10.992278
0.863636
0.5111110.235294
0.033333
0.08
0.076923
0.045455
0
0

297
51
44
30
16
18
12
20
3
45

28
21
23
25
12
16
12
20
3
44

269
30
21
5
4
2
0
0
0
1

0.094276
0.411765
0.522727
0.833333
0.75
0.888889
1
1
10.977778

0.905724
0.588235
0.477273
0.166667
0.25
0.111111
0000.022222

39

1

38

0.025641

0.974359

BLAND CHROMATIN

MALIGNANT

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1

NORMAL NUCLEOLICASESCLUMP THICKNESSATTRIBUTES

S
I
N

542

PRIOR PROBABILITY

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1

MITOSESTABLE I.

BARE NUCLEI

III. COMPUTATION METHODS

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

276
60
39
30
34
8
19
2
29

21
38
32
25
33
6
18
2
28

255
22
7
5
1
2
1
0
1

0.076087
0.633333
0.820513
0.833333
0.970588
0.75
0.947368
10.965517

0.923913
0.366667
0.179487
0.166667
0.029412
0.25
0.052632
00.034483

294
24
24
16
24
3
8
19
9
115

11
6
11
12
16
3
7
17
9
112

283
18
13
4
8
0
1
2
0
3

0.037415
0.25
0.458333
0.75
0.666667
1
0.875
0.8947371
0.973913

0.962585
0.75
0.541667
0.25
0.333333
00.125
0.105263
00.026087

104
112
145
34
32
7
60
23
10
9
321

2
6
36
29
28
7
54
23
10
9

102
106
109
5
4
0
6
0
0
0

0.019231
0.053571
0.248276
0.852941
0.875
1
0.9
1
1
1

0.980769
0.946429
0.751724
0.147059
0.125
0
0.1
0
0
0

29
40
15
16
18
14
21
15
47

34
4
30
15
14
15
12
19
15
47

287
25
10
0
2
3
2
2
0
0

0.105919
0.137931
0.75
1
0.875
0.833333
0.857143
0.904762
1
10.894081
0.862069
0.25
0
0.125
0.166667
0.142857
0.095238
0
0

434
27
27
12
6
3
8
7
0
12

111
22
25
12
5
3
7
7
0
12

323
5
2
0
1
0
1
0
0
0

0.25576
0.814815
0.925926
10.833333
1
0.875
1
0
1

0.744240.185185
0.07407400.166667
0
0.125
0
0
0

Second, is to calculate the probability of each class for data
test 1:TABLE II.

DATA TEST-1
ATTRIBUTE

POSTERIOR PROBABILITY DATA TEST-1
P(XI|C)CLUMP THICKNESSUNIFORMITY OF CELL SIZEUNIFORMITY OF CELL SHAPEMARGINAL ADHESSIONSINGLE EPITHELIAL CELL SIZEBARE NUCLEIBLAND CHROMATIN
NORMAL NUCLEOLIMITOSES

VALUE

2
4
4
1
2
5
2
1
2

MALIGNANT

0.075
0.818182
0.764706
0.094276
0.076087
0.666667
0.053571
0.105919
0.814815

BENIGN

0.925
0.181818
0.235294
0.905724
0.923913
0.333333
0.946429
0.894081
0.185185

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

TABLE I shows the probability of malignant (P|malignant)is 0.38 and probability of benign (P|benign) is 0.62. Where on
TABLE II shows probability of each class for data test-1. Total
probability can be computed using equation (1) as follow:
|
=   = 2|     = 4|     = 4|   = 1|     = 2|   = 5|   = 2|   = 1|  = 2|
= 0.075  0.818182  0.764706  0.094276  0.076087
 0.666667  0.053571  0.105919  0.814815= 3.9487  07

|
=   = 2|     = 4|     = 4|   = 1|     = 2|   = 5|   = 2|   = 1|  = 2|
= 0.925  0.181818  0.235294  0.905724  0.923913
 0.333333  0.946429  0.894081  0.185185= 0.001071

start
New data to beclassified

Training
datsetNaïve bayes
classifier
Classified Data

Yes

Save astraining data
No
end

Fig. 1. Flowchart of breast cancer expert system using naïve bayes classifier

The following figure shows the implementation of naïve
bayes on breast cancer expert system.

| = 0,38  3,9487  07 = 1,50286  07| = 0,62  0,001071 = 0,000664

Since 0.000664>1.50286E-07. data set-1 classified as benign

IV. PROPOSED SYSTEM
The proposed system is a knowledge expert system usingnaïve bayes classifier. System are implemented using java
programming language. The proposed flowchart of an expert
system using naïve bayes as follows:

Fig. 2. Breast cancer expert system using naïve bayes classifier

On this expert system new data can be classified thenclassified data can be saved into training data set. “DATATRAINING PROCESS” shows information as follows:
1.

Correctly classified instances, numbers of how often
the classifier predicted correctly2.

Incorrectly classified instances, numbers of hoe often
the classifier predicted incorrectly

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

543

3.

Kappa statistic, statistic that measures inter rater
agreement for qualitative (categorical) items.

4.

Mean absolute error, measure of diggerence between
two continuous variables.

5.

∑ |   | ∑ ||=Root mean squared error, is a frequently usedmeasure of the differences between values (sample
and population values) predicted by a model or an
estimator and the values actually observed.
 =

6.

Relative absolute error, the magnitude of thedifference between the exact value and theapproximation.

7.

Root relative squared error, is relative to what it
would have been if a simple predictor had been used.
∑  

8.

 = ∑   Total number of instances.
Fig. 4. Input data training

V. CONCLUSION

Fig. 3. Data training process

New data training also can be added into the system using“INPUT DATA TRAINING” menu as the following figure:This paper present breast cancer detection expert systemusing naïve bayes classifier to help doctor and patients inmaking a decision or an expert choice. Furthermore, it canalso be contributed in biomedical science. The development ofexpert system using 536 cases, consist of 204 cases ofmalignant (cancerous) and 332 cases of benign (noncancerous). The proposed expert system implemented using
java programming language.
REFERENCES
[1]

[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]

[8]

A. Ambica. Satyanarayana Gandi and Amerandra Kothalanka. “An
Efficient Expert System For Diabetes By Naïve Bayesian Classifier” inInternational Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT).
vol. 4 issue 10-oct 2013. pp. 4634-4639
Daniel Larose. “Data Mining Methods and Models”. wiley 2005
Daniel Larose. Discvering Knowledge in Data: Am Introduction to Data
Mining. Wiley. Hoboken. NJ. 2005
David Hand.Heikki Mannila and Padharic Smyth. “Principles of Data
Mining. MIT Press. 2001
I.H. Witten. E. Frank Morgan Kaufmann. “Data mining: Practical
Mechine Learning Tools and Techniques with Java Implementations”.
Morgan Kauffman. 2000
Murat Karabatak. “An Expert System for Detection of Breast Cancer
Based on Association Rules and Neural Network” Journal Expert
System with Application an International Journal. 2009. pp.3465-3469
Yin X.. Han J. (2005) Efficient Classification from Multiple
Heterogeneous Databases. In: Jorge A.M.. Torgo L.. Brazdil P..
Camacho R.. Gama J. (eds) Knowledge Discovery in Databases: PKDD
2005. PKDD 2005. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. vol 3721.
Springer. Berlin. Heidelberg
Yosouf Qawqzeh and Khalid Nazim. “O. online Diagnstic Expert
System for Detection of Breast Cancer in Saudi Arabia” in International
Journal of Computer Applications. vol. 113- no. 6. 2015. pp.40-47.

544

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Feature Extraction of Epilepsy Signal Using
Sampling TechniqueHindarto Hindarto

Sumarno Sumarno

Informatics Engineering
Universitas Muhammadiyah Sidoarjo
Sidoarjo, Indonesia
hindarto@umsida.ac.id

Informatics Engineering
Universitas Muhammadiyah Sidoarjo
Sidoarjo, Indonesia
sumarno@umsida.ac.id

Abstract— Epilepsy is the brain disorder human, epilepsy Occurs
Due Someone experiencing Excess to Electrical signals released bycells of the brain. Someone disturbed Due epilepsy resulted effectthe convulsions and abnormal movements. Electroencephalogram(EEG) is a electrode sensor to detect electrical activity that exist in
the human brain. EEG signal is a signal that is very complex andbecome a primary source of information for the study of brain
function and neurological disorders. EEG signals the moment
epileptic seizures have a characteristic pattern that enables healthcare
professionals to distinguish from normal conditions. However, invisual analysis can not be done routinely, because the EEG signal
generated from EEG monitoring system is very large and quite time
consuming. Another problem that arises is the lack of clear
differences in EEG signals between epileptic seizures and nonepilepsi. Various methods have been done many researchers toclassify someone who has epilepsy and who do not have epilepsy.
Therefore in this study, researchers tried to classify someone who had
epilepsy disorders and who do not have epilepsy disorders. Epilepsy
signal data taken from public data that consists of data sets A, data
sets B, data sets C, data sets D and data sets E. The data set consistsof data on non epileptic ie data sets A and data sets B while data on
epilepsy are data sets C, data sets D and data sets E. Signal data from
Data sets A, data sets B, Data sets C, data sets D, and data sets E thathave been taken, then performed the process of feature extraction. In
this study, the sampling technique is a method for feature extractingof epilepsy signal. The sampling technique for feature extraction of
the epilepsy signal that use is an average value, standard deviation
value, maximum value and minimum value. After the feature
extraction process, the next process is the classification of epilepsy
signal and non-epilepsy signal. Epilepsy classification process signals
using Backpropagation Neural Network. The results of theclassification process of Backpropagation method of epilepsy signal
with 20-10-15-1 obtained accuracy rate 87.5%.

Darmo Sugondo there is a difference between
electroencephalogramwithElectroencephalografi.
Electroencephalografi is the procedure for recording electricalactivity in the brain that is the tool that can display in the formof a graph called electroencephalogram. So the brain activity
that generates the electrical signal waveform, which can berecorded on the scalp called Electro-Encephalografi (EEG).
EEG signal is a signal that is very complex and become a
primary source of information for the study of brain function
and neurological disorders. EEG signals for disease ofdisorder epileptic seizures have a characteristic pattern thatenables healthcare professionals to distinguish from normal
conditions (nonseizure). However, a visual analysis can not bedone routinely, because the EEG signal generated from EEG
monitoring system is very large and quite time consuming.
Another problem that arises is the lack of clear differences in
EEG signals between epileptic seizures and non epilepsi.

Keywords—Epilepsy;
EEG
Backpropagation; Classification;;

Sampling

technique;I. INTRODUCTION
Epilepsy is a brain disorder with a different etiology,
symptoms with a typical single thing, ie Periodic attacks andreversible, epilepsy is Characterized with
Excess ofElectricity From the cells of the brain, the which can lead toseizures and abnormal movements. Epilepsy is a disease ofdisorder neurological. epilepsy is a neurological disorder thesecond most common in people after stroke. Around 40 or 50
million people worldwide suffer from epilepsy [1].
Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a tool used as a test to detect
abnormalities in the brain signal activity [2]. According to dr.

Transition of EEG signal is a model, which is a very good
way and effective in helping to classify the EEG signals,
identifies and quantifies the EEG signal spectrum. There
waveforms on EEG signals, known as alpha waves (8-13 Hz),beta (14-30 Hz), theta (4-7 Hz), and delta (0.5-3 Hz), so thetransformation of EEG signals into area -area frequency isvery useful, especially in the identification of waves in thebrain. The algorithm for the detection of epilepsy using a
multistage nonlinear signal preprocessing filter combined withartificial neural network (ANN) for the automatic detection of
epileptic seizures in the EEG signal [3]. The algorithm byusing recurrent neural networks (RNNs) and feature extraction
Lyapunov who trained with the Levenberg-Marquardt
algorithm [4]. k-means and multilayer perceptron neuralnetwork (MLPNN) [5]. The algorithm using Least Square
Support Vector Machine (LSSVM) and coefficient
Autoregressive (AR) [6].
With a wide range of problems in finding methods to look
for traits, characteristics and classification of EEG signals frommultiple studies, then in the study present researchers used amethod of Sampling technique to capture the characteristics,
the characteristics of the EEG signal. As well as how to apply
the Backpropagation method to do clasification and EEG signal
identification against epilepsy and non epilepsy.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data of EEG signal Obtained from the University of Bonndataset consists of five classes: A, B, C, D, and E. Each dataset

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

545

contains 100 segments single channel of EEG with a durationof 23.6 seconds. Each segment is selected and cut from acontinuous multichannel EEG recordings after visualinspection of artifacts, such as eye movement or muscle
activity. Set A and B are both signals are taken from EEG
recordings were taken from five healthy volunteers with astandard electrode placement (International 10-20 system). At
the time of trial the volunteers relaxed and awake with eyes
open (for set A) and eyes closed (for set B). Set C-E derived
from EEG records presurgical diagnosis. EEG signals fromfive patients were selected, and all have achieved complete
seizure control, after the reaction of one of the hippocampal
formation, so it diagnosed correctly entered epileptogenic zone.
Signals of set D are recorded when epileptogenic zone, in theinterval without seizures. set C is derived from the
hippocampal formation in the opposite hemisphere of the brain.
While the sets C and D contains activities that only measured
during the interval without a seizure, while the set E only
contains seizure activity. In this study, the data used is the data
set A and set E. In accordance with the existing references, allrecorded with signal amplifier system of EEG with 128
channels of data with a frequency of 173.61 Digitizing samples
per second using the A / D converter 12 bit. Band pass filter 40
is set at 0.53 Hz (12 dB / oct). Each digital EEG signal dataconsists of 4097 discrete data. Plot pieces EEG signal set A andset E used in this study in the form of time series.
A. Method of Feature Extraction using Sampling Techniques
In this study, the data is taken from the data file 100
epilepsy signals for each of the data sets. One file has a 4097
point signal data. This study divides the signal into five sub
signal. So that each sub signal has a 819 point data. Of the sub
signal then sought the minimum value, maximum value,
average value and standard deviation value to be used for the
extraction characteristics for classification process as shown in
Figure 1. The results for the minimum value, maximum value,
average value and standard deviation value in Table 1 is an
example of the process of finding each feature each signal. So
in this study, each signal have 20 feature extraction
characteristics.

Figure 1 were obtained 4 x 5 sub signal = 20 points of data
extraction features. 20 points of data extraction features can beused input to classification backpropagation neural network.
B. Backpropagation neural network
At the end of processing, classification of epileptic signals
are processed using backpropagation neural network as shownin Figure 2. The final processing is done after the initialprocess is the search of feature by sampling techniques. Ekstraccharacteristics used for input to the neural network. This study
uses backpropagation (20-10-15-1) with 20 input derived fromthe signal characteristic of epilepsy and two hidden layers, eachof which contained 10 units and 15 units as well as the targets(epilepsy and non-epileptic). In the process of identification
with the process of neural network, first we need to do isimplementing the training process with finding the best weightvalue with the acquisition value of the smallest error from thedesired output targets. In the process of mapping done signal
classification of epilepsy and non-epileptic epilepsy based on
the weight values that have been obtained in the training
process.
X
1

Z
1

X
2

Z
2

Q
1

X
3

Z
3

Q
2

X
4

Z
4

Q
3

-

-

-

X
19

Z
9

Q
15

X
20

Z1
0

Y

SignalSub Signal

Sub Signal

Sub Signal

Sub Signal

Sub Signal

Fig 2. Backpropagation neural network architecture with 2 hidden layer.
Min

Min

Min

Max

Max

Max

St.Dev

Mean

Min

Max

St.Dev

St.DevMean

Min

St.Dev
Mean

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Max

St.DevMean

Mean

Fig 1. Sampling Techniques method (a) Signal, (b) Sub Sinyal and (c) Feature
Extraction

In Figure 1 each value of max, min, mean and standard
deviation are the value of each sub signal Epilepsy. So in

546

Feature extraction Epilepsy signal Obtained from theresults of sampling techniques, as many as 20 point data.
Epilepsy data signal that has been processed using a method ofsampling technique consists of a set of the data sets A and E.
The results of the sampling technique for the Signal Epilepsy is
divided into 5 sub a data signals can be seen in Figure 3 andFigure 4. Each sub of signal epilepsy sought mean value,
standard deviation, maximum and minimum, so that each sub

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

of signal epilepsy has four components values. Each value
from the mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum of
epilepsy sub signals will be combined into one, the resulting
signal in a epilepsy has 4 x 5 sub of signal = 20 component
value. 20 kompenen value is characteristic of each signal
epilepsy.
NON EPILEPSY SIGNAL

200
150

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

100
50

150

100

100

50

50

300

400
500
Point Data

600

700

800

0

-150

900

0

-50

-100

100

0

200

300

700

600

500
400
Point Data

800

-150

900

50

50

0

-50

-100

0

100

200

400
500
Point Data

300

600

700

800

-150

900

SUB SIGNAL 1 of NON EPILEPSY SIGNAL

100

100

-50
-100

200

SUB SIGNAL 2 NON EPILEPSY SIGNAL

150

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

0

-50

-100

SUB SIGNAL 3 of NON EPILEPSY SIGNAL

150

SUB SIGNAL 4 of NON EPILEPSY SIGNAL

200

50

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

SUB SIGNAL 4 of NON EPILEPSY SIGNAL

100

100

Standart
Deviasion
40,05

Maximum
Value
91

Minimum
Value-190

Sub signal 2-57,76

49,27

106

-195

Sub signal 3

11,11

44,81

153

-102

Sub signal 4

-6,03

44,96

162

-125

Sub signal 5-19,54

42,70

144

-129

For data set A is the non epilepsy and for data set E is data
Epilepsy, so that the classification process in the process of
trainning for the data set A has a target of 0 (zero) and for thedata set E has a target of 1 (one). In classification process for
signals epilepsy, network architecture used is Backpropagation
with 2 hidden layers using (20-10-15-1) and the error value of
0.0001. Results output on Backpropagation training process
can be seen in Figure 5 and Figure 6.

4500

4000

3500

3000

2500
2000
Point Data

1500

1000

500

0

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

-200

0

Mean
Value
3,21

-50

-150

-150

Signal non-Epilepsy(Data Set A)
Sub signal 1

0

-100

150

TABLE II.
VALUE OF MEAN, VALUE OF STANDARD DEVIATION, VALUE
OF MAXIMUM AND VALUE OF MINIMUM SIGNAL EPILEPSY AND NON-EPILEPSY

0

-50

-100

-150

0

100

200

300

400
500
Point Data

600

700

800

-200

900

0

100

300

200

500
400
Point Data

700

600

800

900

Fig 3. Process Technique Sampling for data set A

EPILEPSY SIGNAL

1500
1000

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

500
0
-500
-1000
-1500

500

SUB SIGNAL 4 of EPILEPSY SIGNAL

2000
2500
Point Data

-500

-1500

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

500

-1000

0

100

200

300

400
500
Point Data

600

700

800

900

-500

500

0

0

-500

-1000

4000

SUB SIGNAL 1 of EPILEPSY SIGNAL

1000

500

3500

4500

SUB SIGNAL 3 of EPILEPSY SIGNAL

1000

500

-500

-1000

0

-500

-1000

-1000

-2000

0

100

200

300

400
500
Point Data

600

700

800

900

-2000

-1500

-1500

-1500

-1500

0

SUB SIGNAL 2 EPILEPSY SIGNAL

1000

1000

0

3000

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

1500

500

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

1500

SUB SIGNAL 4 of EPILEPSY SIGNAL

1000

-2000

1000

0

100

200

300

500
400
Point Data

600

700

800

900

-2000

0

100

200

300

500
400
Point Data

600

700

800

900

-2000

0

100

200

300

400
500
Point Data

600

700

800

900

Fig 5. Results of Backpropagation training process 20-10-15-1

Fig 4. Process Technique Sampling for data set E

In Table 1 and table 2 are example of the value of the signal
epilepsy that has been processed with sampling techniques.
Each sub signal sought mean value, standard deviation,
maximum and minimum.
TABLE I.
VALUE OF MEAN, VALUE OF STANDARD DEVIATION, VALUE
OF MAXIMUM AND VALUE OF MINIMUM SIGNAL EPILEPSY AND NON-EPILEPSYBest Training Performance is 8.6672e-05 at epoch 121

0

10

Train
Best
Goal

-1

Mean Squared Error (mse)0

Amplitudo (Mikro Volt)

-2000

10

-2

10

-3

10

Signal Epilepsy(Data Set E)
Sub signal 1

Mean
Value
60,06

Standart
Deviasion
424,42

Maximum
Value
885

Minimum
Value
-1585

Sub signal 230,76529,15

1140

-1816

Sub signal 3

37,52

397,67

1435

-1232

Sub signal 4

5,64

158,06324-297

Fig 6. Results of the performance of the identification performance
Backpropagion 20-10-15-1

Sub signal 5

13,77

316,62990-1119

Performance results on back propagation neural network
20-10-15-1 in Figure 5 and Figure 6 shows that the error
desired targets of 0.0001 has been reached. In the process of
training this network, generating error of 8,67x10-5 so that

-4

10

-5

10

0

20

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

4060

121 Epochs

80

100

120

547

classification on epilepsy signal can reach 100% accuracy forthe training process.
TABLE III.

THE PERFORMANCE OF THE NEURAL NETWORK TO THE
NUMBER OF DIFFERENT HIDDEN LAYER
MSE ( 1 Hidden Layer )MSE ( 2 Hidden Layer )Time

35 Second

23 Second

Iteration

256

121

MSE

0,0007

8,67x10-5

Accuarcy

80 %87,5 %

From table 2 shows that the level of accuracy of the nicest
is by using two hidden layers, namely accuracy of 87.5%.
IV. CONCLUSION
To classify someone who has epilepsy and non epilepsy
using brain signals (EEG signals) as the source to be studied,this study introduces methods of Sampling Techniques bytaking the average value, standard deviation, minimum andmaximum from signal of epilepsy that produces 20 point data.
This research uses Backpropagation neural network for signal
classification process Epilepsy. The data used in this study
were 160 data of epilepsy signal and non-epilepsy in the
training process. As for classification process of testing, data isused is 200 Epilepsy signal data, ie all data signals epilepsy andnon-epileptic, classification accuracy of neural network
backpropagation reached 87.5% by using 2 hidden layer.
References

548

[1]

Eric R. Kandel, Larry R.Squire, 200, Neuroscience Breaking Down
Scientific Barries to the study of brain and mind, Journal Science 10 Nov
2000,
Vol.
290,
Issue
5494,
pp.
1113-1120
DOI:
10.1126/science.290.5494.1113.

[2]

Campellone, JV (2006). Eeg Brain Wave Test, date accessed 1 October
2016
From
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003931.htm.

[3]

V Nigam and Daniel Graupe, 2004. Automated epilepsy detection via
multistage nonlinear EEG filtering and a LAMSTAR Neural Network,
Neurological Research, 26, pp.55-60,2004.

[4]

Nihal Fatma Gu¨ler dkk, 2005. “Recurrent neural networks employing
Lyapunov exponents for EEG signals classification”. Elsevier, Expert
Systems with Applications 29 (2005) 506–514.

[5]

Umut Orhan, dkki, 2011. “EEG signals classification using the K-meansclustering and a multilayer perceptron neural network model”. Elsevier,
Expert Systems with Applications 38 (2011) 13475–13481.

[6]Übeylï, E. D dkk, 2010. “ Analysis of sleep EEG activity during
hypopnoea episodes by least squares support vector machine employing
AR coefficients”, Expert Systems with Applications 37, 4463–4467.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Numerical Analysis of The Bandwidth Enhancementof an Inverted F Antenna for UHF Channel at 639
MHz
Erfan Rohadia, Amaliab*, Indrazno Siradjuddinc
Graduate School of Electronics Engineering Department
The State Polytechnic of Malang, Jl. Soekarno Hatta No. 9, Malang 65141, Indonesia
Email: aerfanr@polinema.ac.id, bamalia@polinema.ac.id, cindrazno@polinema.ac.id
Abstract—Bandwidth characteristic enhancement of theantenna is interesting and challenging problems for antennaengineers. The low profile inverted F antenna (IFA) on a finite
conducting plane with the designed frequency 639 MHz is
proposed and its characteristics are analyzed numerically. The
IFA is typically a narrowband antenna, due to the bandwidthenhancement the antenna parameters are considered. In thiswork, the antenna height (h), short stub (Ls) and size of
conducting plane (px × py) are adjusted. However, the lengths ofthe horizontal element (L and L1) are optimized so that the input
impedance matches at the designed frequency. The IFA consistsof a semi-rigid coaxial cable with the radii of inner and outer are
0.255 mm and 1.095 mm, respectively. The antenna heights (h)are investigated at 23 mm, 30.7 mm and 38.3 mm. The lengths ofshort stubs (Ls) are adjusted at 15.3 mm, 21.5 mm, 26.1 mm and30.7 mm. The size of conducting planes (px × py) has been
investigated at 53.6 mm to 68.9 mm by 230 mm to 268 mm. The
feed point is located between the end of the edge of the outerconductor and the front end of the inner conductors of thehorizontal element. When the size of conducting plane is 115 mm
by 230 mm, the return loss bandwidth (-10 dB) becomes 2.4 %and the gain becomes 6.58 dB. It is found that the return loss
bandwidth becomes narrower when the height of the antenna is
reduced. However, by extending the length of the short stub, thereturn loss bandwidth can be improved. The gains of IFA in all
the calculation conditions are more than 6.5 dB. This means thatthe variation of the short stub lengths, the antenna heights andthe size of conducting plane do not significantly affect the gain
characteristics. In the numerical analysis, the electromagnetic
simulator WIPL-D based on Method of Moment is used. The
results show that the bandwidth enhancement of IFA is
performed by extending the height of the antenna and enlarge thesize of conducting plate. The proposed inverted F antenna ispromising for the UHF channel receiver.
Keywords—bandwidth enhancement; inverted F antenna;
method of moment; short stub; WIPL-D)

I. INTRODUCTION
A simple and compact antenna design with good
performance nowadays still becomes the object of interest forantenna engineers, especially in bandwidth characteristicenhancement. As long as the dimensions of the antenna haveno apparent way to install, therefore the light and small
antenna are needed. One of possible design that met with thoserequirements is a low profile inverted F antenna. The InvertedF Antenna (IFA) is a variation on the transmission line
antenna, or bent monopole antenna (inverted L antenna), with

an offset feed that provides for adjustment of the input
impedance. The resulting antenna geometry resembles theletter F, rotated to face the ground plane [1-4]. The element of
inverted F antennas was originally evolved from the folded L
antenna with the additional short stub [5-7]. The L-antenna (orinverted-L antenna) can be viewed as a bent monopole. The
bending of the monopole results in a reduced size and low
profile [8]. The monopole is the most widely used antennas for
wireless mobile communication systems. An array ofmonopole perhaps the most common antenna element for
portable equipment, such as cellular telephones, cordlesstelephones, automobiles, trains, etc. [9-11]. Both the invertedL and the inverted-F antennas can be analyzed using
equivalent transmission line models. Their radiation patterns
in both principal planes are not much different from monopole[8]. One of the authors has investigated the ultra-low profile,unbalanced fed inverted F antenna for 2.45 GHz WirelessCommunication System and the results show as the basestation antenna with return loss bandwidth less than -10 dB
becomes 3.67% and gain is 4.15 dB [12]. And also the ultralow profile, conventional base fed inverted F antenna isanalyzed numerically and its characteristics are compared withthose of the unbalanced fed, ultra-low profile inverted L
antenna. The results show as the antenna with return loss
bandwidth less than -10 dB becomes 15.92% besides the gainis 3.94 dB [13]. In this work, the proposed inverted F antenna
on a finite conducting plane is designed and analyzed
numerically. The bandwidth enhancement of IFA is analyzed
by extending the height of antenna while adjusting the size of
conducting plane. In the numerical analysis, theelectromagnetic simulator WIPL-D based on Method ofMoment is used. The lengths of the horizontal element due tothe antenna characteristic improvement such as radiation
pattern, input impedance, return loss bandwidth and gain are
optimized [14-16].
II. ANTENNA STRUCTURE
Figure 1 shows the structure of the proposed IFA mounted
on conducting plane. The size of conducting plane is pxp+pxm
by pyp+pym. The radius of the outer conductor is 1.095 mm
and that of the inner conductor is 0.255 mm. The innerconductor of the semi-rigid coaxial cable is extended from theend of the outer conductor, this antenna is excited at the end of
the outer conductor (feed point). The height h of the antenna isfrom 23 mm to 62 mm, and the length Ls of shorted antenna

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284549

element is from 15 mm to 31 mm. The length of horizontal
elements L and L1 are optimized. The size of conducting plane
is considered as 70~115 mm by 170~270 mm. Numericalanalysis of the simulation results of the designed antenna to
optimize all critical parameters such as return loss bandwidthwith -10 dB at the design frequency of 639 MHz. The input
impedance matching 50 Ω at the center frequency is obtainedby adjusting the length of horizontal elements L & L1. The
radiation pattern characteristics, both components Eθ and Eφ are
analyzed in order to determine the directive gain with its
pattern. Moreover, antenna parameters, its size, length, heightare optimized to obtain the best design. The wavelength λ at
639 MHz is 469.48 mm.

total length of the horizontal element, the antenna bandwidth,and size of conducting plane associated with the current
distribution of the conducting plane.
TABLE I.
RETURN LOSS BANDWIDTH AND DIRECTIVE GAIN OF IFA FOR DIFFERENTSIZE OF CONDUCTING PLANE AT 639 MHZ
Ls

L

L1

pym

pyp

[mm]

Re turn Loss
Bandwidth
f-low(MHz )

f-high(MHz )%

Dire ctive
Gain at 639
MHz

h =23mm
15.3

186.7 155.0

53.6

200

635.18641.84

1.0

6.66

21.5

180.8 149.2

59.8

200

635.6

642.4

1.1

6.61

26.1

177.0 144.9

64.4

200

635.5

642.5

1.1

6.58

30.7

173.2 140.9

69.0

200

635.5

642.6

1.1

6.56

h =30.7mm
15.3

177.2 136.4

53.6 186.4

633.6

644.7

1.7

6.62

21.5

171.8 130.1

59.8 186.4

633.3

645.0

1.8

6.55

26.1

168.0 126.4

64.4 186.4

633.1

644.9

1.8

6.55

30.7

164.5 122.8

69.0 186.4

633.1

645.1

1.9

6.49

h =38.3mm

Figure 1. Structure of the proposed IFA

The effective length of IFA is Ls+L+h where, h is the heightof IFA. The resonance condition then is expressed by Eq. 1.
Ls + L + h =

λ

(1)

4

Where λ is desired wavelength. As λ =c

550

168.8 120.8

53.6 176.4

631.4

647.1

2.5

6.54

21.5

163.6 115.0

59.8 170.2

631.5

647.4

2.5

6.54

26.1

160.1 112.0

64.4 165.6

631.3

646.9

2.4

6.55

30.7

156.6 108.9

69.0 161.0

631.5

647.0

2.4

6.58

h =46mm
15.3

161.7 106.5

50.0 168.0

629.2

649.5

3.2

6.48

21.5

156.2 103.5

52.0 162.0

630.0

649.0

3.0

6.52

26.1

152.8

99.8

56.0 160.0

629.6

649.0

3.0

6.52

30.7

149.3

96.5

58

158

630.1

649.3

3.0

6.54
6.38

, where f is desiredffrequency of IFA and c is the speed of light [17]. Thus,
f =

15.3

c
4( Ls + L + h)(2)

h =53.7mm
15.3

153.2

90.4

50.0 168.0

632.2

660.2

4.4

21.5

150.2

88.5

52.0 162.0

626.9

652.8

4.1

6.4

26.1

144.8

82.3

56.0 160.0

632.8

660.5

4.3

6.42

30.7

141.5

79

58

158

632.8

660.4

4.3

6.44

h =61.3

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

15.3

146.4

75.6

50.0 168.0

632.2

668.1

5.6

6.21

The IFA performance was analyzed by adjusting theantenna parameters such us heights (h), short stub (Ls),horizontal element (L and L1) and size of conducting plane (pxx py). The antenna heights (h) are investigated at 23 mm, 30.7mm, 38.3 mm, 46 mm, 53.7 mm and 61.3 mm. The lengths ofthe horizontal element (L and L1) are optimized so that the
input impedance matches at the designed frequency.
Table 1 shows the results of calculated return loss
bandwidth -10 dB and the directive gain of IFA with thedifferent size of conducting plane with pxp = pxm = 57.5 mm
at 639 MHz. The return loss bandwidth becomes narrower
when the height of the antenna is reduced. While the gain
characteristics do not significantly affect with the changes of
the height, the length of short stub and the size of conducting
plane. The calculation result indicates that the height affects

21.5

141.6

72.2

52.0 162.0

632.5

667.3

5.4

6.26

26.1

138.5

69.2

56.0 160.0

638.1

675.5

5.9

6.26

30.7

135

66

58

637.6

674.4

5.8

6.28

158

Table 2 shows the results of calculated return loss
bandwidth -10 dB and gain of IFA with the same size of
conducting plane with pxp = pxm = 57.5 mm at 639 MHz. The
antenna heights (h) are investigated at 23 mm, 38.3 mm and53.7 mm. The Ls adjustments do not significantly affect the
bandwidth enhancement. Extending the height and the lengthof Ls will reduce the gain. The calculation results indicate thatthe bandwidth enhancement of IFA is performed by extending
the height of the antenna and enlarge the size of conducting
plane.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

TABLE II.
RETURN LOSS BANDWIDTH AND DIRECTIVE GAIN OF IFA FOR THE SAME SIZE
OF CONDUCTING PLANE AT 639 MHZ.
L

L1

pym

pyp

[mm]

f-low
(MHz )

f-high(MHz )%

Dire ctive
Gain at 639
MHz

h =23mm

6.8

6.4

6

186.7 155.0

53.6

200

635.18641.84

1.0

6.66

21.5

180.8 149.2

59.8

200

635.6

642.4

1.1

6.61

5.8

26.1

177.0 144.9

64.4

200

635.5

642.5

1.1

6.58

5.6

30.7

173.2 140.9

69.0

200

635.5

642.6

1.1

6.56

53.6

200

630.1

648.9

2.9

6.27

21.5

164.4 111.0

59.8

200

629.7

648.9

3.0

26.1

160.8 107.6

64.4

200

629.8

649.1

3.0

6.22
6.2

30.7

157.4 103.8

69.0

200

629.9

649.4

3.1

6.19

84.4

53.6

200

631.9

665.7

5.3

6.03

148.6

79.0

59.8

200

631.8

666.2

5.4

6

26.1

145.2

75.0

64.4

200

632.2

667.0

5.4

5.99

30.7

142

72

69.0

200

632.1

666.7

5.4

5.99

Figure 2a and Figure 2b show comparison return loss
bandwidth and gain with different height at 639 MHz byinvestigating on the length of short stub (Ls). The Ls
adjustments do not significantly affect the bandwidthenhancement and the gain characteristic. The results show thatthe bandwidth enhancement of IFA is performed by extending
the height of the antenna, while the gain reduced.
Figure 3 show comparison return loss bandwidth withdifferent length of short stub (Ls) at 639 MHz by investigateson the height of the antenna. The graph shows that the antenna
bandwidth has significant achievement by increase the antennaheight.

20

25

30

35

Ls (mm)6
5

Bandwidth (%)

153.4

21.5

15

Figure 2b. Comparison the gain of IFA with different Ls at 639 MHz.

h =53.7mm
15.3

h=53.7mm

10h =38.3mm
169.5 116.8

h=38.3mm

6.2

15.3

15.3

h=23mm

6.6

Gain (dB)Ls

Re turn Loss
Bandwidth74

Ls=30.7mm
Ls=26.1mm
Ls=21.5mm
Ls=15.3mm

3
2
1
0
20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

h (mm)
Figure 3. Comparison the return loss bandwidth of IFA with different h at 639
MHz.

h=53.7mm

6

Bandwidth (%)

5

h=38.3mm

4
3h=23mm

2
1
0
10

15

20

25

30

35

Ls (mm)Figure 2a. Comparison the return loss bandwidth of IFA with different Ls at
639 MHz.

Figure 4a. Input impedance characteristic

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284551

h=23mmh=38.3mmh=53.7mm

Figure 4b. S-Parameter

Figure 4a shows the input impedance characteristic. The
impedance matching at the center frequency is obtained by
optimizing the length of horizontal elements L & L1. While
Figure 4b show the calculation results indicate that the
bandwidth enhancement of IFA is performed by extending theheight of the antenna. The input impedance and S-parameter
results of IFA are investigated between various heights and thesame length of short stub, h = 23 mm and Ls = 21.5 mm, h =38.3 mm and Ls = 21.5 mm, h = 53.7 mm and Ls = 21.5 mm.
Figure 5 shows the computed electric field radiation
pattern of IFA (Eθ and Eφ) with height h = 23 mm and thelength of short stub Ls = 21.5 mm. The directive gain of 6.61
dBi is achieved.
IV. CONCLUSION
The proposed IFA for UHF channel has been presented.
The total length of the vertical and horizontal element of the
proposed antenna is longer than a quarter wavelengths. The
bandwidth enhancement is achieved by increasing the heightof the antenna and extending the conducting plane size. The
short stub adjustment does not affect the gain significantly. In
the case of the height of antenna 38.3 mm, while the length of
the short stub 30.7 mm and the size of conducting plane is 115
mm by 230 mm, the return loss bandwidth (-10 dB) becomes
2.4 % and the gain becomes 6.58 dB, respectively. When theheight of the antenna become two times, the return loss
bandwidth becomes almost three times. The proposed IFA is
promising as antenna receiver for UHF channel application.

a) Eφ at z-x Plane

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The Authors would like to thank The State Polytechnic of
Malang for the support to attend this conference.
REFERENCES[1][2]b) Eθ at z-x Plane

[3]
[4]
[5]

[6]
[7]
[8]

c) Eθ at z-y Plane
Figure 5. Electric field radiation pattern characteristic[9]

Balanis, C.A., “Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design”, John Wiley &Sons, Fourth Edition, pp. 151-184, 2016.
[10] Stutzman, W.L. and Thiele, G.A, “Antenna Theory and Design”, John
Wiley & Sons, Third Edition, pp. 229-235, 2012.
[11] Sinnema, W., “Electronic Transmission Technology: Lines, Waves andAntennas”, Prentice-Hall Inc., pp. 112-118, 1988.
[12] Rohadi E. and Taguchi M., “Ultra-Low Profile, Unbalanced Fed
Inverted F Antenna for 2.45 GHz Wireless Communication System”, in
Proc. of 2013 URSI International Symposium on Electromagnetic
Theory (EMTS), pp. 585-588, 2013.
[13] Rohadi E. and Taguchi M., “Ultra Low Profile Antenna for 2.45 GHz
Wireless Communication”, in Proc. of 2012 IEEE International

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Gobien, A. T., “Investigation of Low Profile Antenna Designs for Use in
Hand-Held Radios”, Department of Electrical Engineering, Virginia
Tech, pp. 98-103, 1997.
H. Kuboyama, Y. Tanaka, K. Sato, K. Fujimoto and K. Kirasawa,“Experimental Results with Mobile Antennas Having Cross-Polarization
Components in Urban and Rural Areas,” IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology, Vol. VT-39, May 1990.
K., Fujimoto, A. Henderson, K. Hirasawa, and J.R. James, Small
Antennas, England: Research Studies Press, 1987.
K. Ogawa and T. Uwano, “A Diversity Antenna for Very Small 800MHz Band Portable Telephones,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas
Propagation, Vol. 42, September 1994.
Fujimoto T. and Taguri J., “Wideband Printed Inverted-F Antenna with
Unidirectional Radiation Pattern”, in Proc. Of 2016 IEEE-APS Topical
Conference on Antennas and Propagation in Wireless Communication(APWC), pp. 181-182, 2016.
Fujimoto T. and Yoshida T., “A printed inverted-F antenna for circularpolarization”, in Proc. Of 2016 IEEE International Symposium on
Antennas and Propagation (APSURSI), pp. 2171-2172, 2016.
Saita Y. et. al., “Low-Frequency Inverted F Antenna on Hemispherical
Ground Plane”, in Proc. Of 2014 International Symposium on Antennas
and Propagation, pp. 183-184, 2014.
Nikolova, N.K., “Practical Dipole/Monopole Geometries. Matching
Techniques for Dipole/Monopole Feeds”, Department of Electrical andComputer Engineering, ITB/A308 McMaster University, pp. 15-16,
2016.

Conference on Communication, Network and Satellite (ComNetSat), pp.
103-107, 2012.
[14] Milligan, T.A., “Modern Antenna Design”, John Wiley & Sons, Second
Edition, pp. 67-72, 2005.
[15] Shao Jun, “Mathematical Statistic, Springer, Second Edition”, pp. 207212, 2007.
[16] WIPL-D d.o.o.: http://www.wipl-d.com/, 2016.
[17] Khan N., “Design of Planar Inverted-F Antenna”, in Proc. Of 2014
International Journal of Advanced Technology in Engineering andScience, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 20-31, 2014.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

State of the Art of Joint Torque Sensor for Human
Robot Interaction
Indrazno Siradjuddin, Rendi Pambudi Wicaksono, Anggit Murdani, Zakiyah Amalia, Denda Dewatama
Malang State Polytechnic
Electrical Engineering Department
Mechanical Engineering Department
Malang,Indonesia
indrazno@polinema.ac.id
Abstract—Obsevations from biological systems make an
impression that robots should have the same level of abilities
that are embedded in biological systems to perform safe andsuccessful interaction with human. The primary challenge insafe physical human robot interaction is to attach human likecompliance behaviour into robots such that robot will notcause harm or injury to the human or robot themself under
any operating conditions. For instance, a robot surgery should
comply with the movement command from the surgeon, amanipulator robot should follow the operators hand movement
during the learning process for pick and place application.
This review discussion is focused on the technical innovationof compliant robot manipulators which have the most range ofindustrial applications. To achieve such human like behaviour,a robot manipulator should have some degrees of flexibilityof its movement in order to respond given external forces or
torques. This behaviour and characteristic can be controlled anddeveloped by using active, passive and semi active compliant
actuator devices, which will be functioned as robot joints. The
key part of the compliant actuator technology is the torquesensor. Many torque sensor technologies have been proposedand developed for industrial application such as industrial
machineries. However a comprehensive review of torquesensor which can be applied for compliant joint development
cannot be found. The review is urgently needed for robotics
advancing the development of compliant robot in the near
future. Therefore, this paper provides a review of torquesensor over a two last decade. The review classifies the torquesensors by their sensing methods. Thus, the torque sensors
sensing methods can be discussed in detail. This review also
determines the possible application in the development of acompliant robot manipulator. In addition, the shortcomings andthe advantages of the torque sensors existing are discussed.
The future research direction and technology trend are identified.
Keywords: Robot manipulator; Compliant joint; Torque sensor; Safe human robot interaction;

I. I NTRODUCTION
Recently, most of robot available have been built to workin controlled environment and restricted working space tominimize robot related accident possibilities. However, robot
applications today require a closer physical human robot
interaction. In general, sensing of torque and force is usefulin many applications, including the following:1) In robotic tactile (distributed touch) and manufacturing
applications such as gripping, surface gaging, and ma-

terial forming, where exerting an adequate load on an
object is a primary purpose of the task.
2) In the control of fine motions (e.g., fine manipulationand micromanipulation) and in assembly tasks, where asmall motion error can cause large damaging forces or
performance degradation.
3) In control systems that are not fast enough when motion feedback alone is employed, where force feedback
and feedforward force control can be used to improveaccuracy and bandwidth.
4) In process testing, monitoring, and diagnostic applications, where torque sensing can detect, predict, andidentify abnormal operation, malfunction, component
failure, or excessive wear (e.g., in monitoring of machine
tools such as milling machines and drills)
5) In the measurement of power transmitted through arotating device, where power is given by the productof torque and angular velocity in the same direction.
6) In controlling complex nonlinear mechanical systems,
where measurement of force and acceleration can beused to estimate unknown nonlinear terms. Non- linear
feedback of the estimated terms will linearize or simplify
the system (nonlinear feedback control or linearizing
feedback technique or LFT).
Related with physical human robot interaction, robot applications such as: surgery robot, an assistant robot that helping
human domestic works, those are robots that mostly required
a safe closer physical human robot interaction. The primarychallenge in safe physical human robot interaction is to attach
human like compliance behaviour into robots such that robot
will not cause harm or injury to the human or robot themself
under any operating conditions. The torque sensor is the mostdesirable to make a compliant joint[1]. Using torque sensor
is to sense external forces presented on robot. Those forces
can be caused by undesired contact between robot and its
environment.
At this time there are various types of torque sensors
are available and certainly each torque sensor has different
purpose. The diversity of types of torque sensors is influenced
by the differences in its sensing method of each torquesensor, such as strain gauge based torque sensor that detect

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

553

Torquereading

Bridgecircuit

FIGURE 4.54
Torque sensing using a torsion member.

where T is the torque transmitted through the member, « is the principal strain (which is
at 458 to shaft axis) at radius r within the member, J is the polar moment of area of crosssection of the member, and G is the shear modulus of the material.
the resistancechangeof deformed
as a rtorquechange,Moreover,the shearstresst at a bodyradiusof theshaft measuring
is giventorqueby directly. Common methods of torque sensing

magnetic based that detect differential magnetic field as a include the following:
torque change, etc.
1) Measuring strain in a sensing member between the drive
In this context, the objective of this paper isTrto review
element and the driven load, using(4:91)
a strain-gage bridget¼ :the sensing method of existing torque sensor in thisJ last two[2][3][4][5][6]decades. The rest of this review paper is organised as follows:
2) Measuring displacement in a sensing member (as in thethe principle method of the torque sensor is discussed infirst method)?either directly, using a displacement sensor
It follows fromthatabouttorqueT can techniques
determined bymeasuring direct strain « on
SectionEquation
II. A detail 4.90
discussion
the various[7][8][9], or indirectly, by measuring a variable suchused in sensor
development
is presented
in Section
III followed
the shaft surfacealong
a principal
stressdirection(i.e., at 458as tothe shaftaxis).
is themagnetic
inductanceor Thiscapacitancethat varies withby the the presentation of identified recent patents is presented
displacement[10][11][12][13][14][15]basis of torque sensing using strain measurements. Using the general bridge Equation 4.80
in Section IV. The conclusion of this review is expressed in3) In electric motors, measuring the field current or armaalong withSection
Equation
4.81 in Equation 4.90, we can obtain torque
T from bridge output dno: in hydraulicVture current, which produces motor torque;or pneumatic actuators, measuring the actuator pressure
II. T HE T ORQUE S ENSOR P RINCIPLE
8GJ dvo[16], [17],(4:92)
Figure 1 shows the basic diagramTof¼a torque sensor
kSs r vref
principle.
A. Strain Gauge
Strain gauge is an instrument used to measuring the tension

constant
k depends
where Ss is the gage factor (or sensitivity) of the strain gages.
of an The
object.bridge
The strain
gauge consistsfrom a flexible insulating board
which becomesa mainstay a along
pattern of metal foil.
on the number of active strain-gages used. Strain gages are
assumedto be mounted
This metal foil can be stretched. When an object is deformed,a principal direction. Three possible configurations are shownin Figure 4.55. In configurthe metal foil also deforms, which causes a change in electricalations (a) and (b) only two strain gages are used, and resistance.
the bridge
constant¼ 2.to Note
Resistancechange isk related
the amount of strain.
2 1

2

1

2

resistance change is typically measured using a Wheatstonebridge as shown in Fig.2.

1

Fig. 1: Basic design of torque sensor
As it is shown in the Fig. 1, there is an input which linked tothe end of the flexible mechanism and then from the other3end 4of flexible mechanism, the output is linked. The vast majority
of conventional systems used to measure torque operate bymeasuring the torsionalby
2 deflection induced
2
1 the applied2
1
torque. It can be deduced that the angle deflection between the3
input and the output is1 proportional to the torque difference
4
between the input and the output shafts. This condition can be
expressed as∆θ = θ2 − θ1  τ2 − τ1

R1

R2
+
dvo
−

R3

R4

(1)

vref
where θ1 is the angle changeT on input, θ2 denotes
the angle T
T
(a)
(b)
(c)
change on output, τ1 represents the given torque on input andbridgecircuit
Fig. 2:Strain-gage
Wheatsone bridge
outputτ2 is the given torque on(a)Configuration
(b)
(c)
From
2 and the output
Bridge constant(k)(1), if the torque 2applied at the input
4
are
the
same
(τ
=
τ
)
the
deflection
between1
2
Yes
Yes the input angle
Yes The torque sensor uses strain gauge as its sensing method,
Axial loads compensatedor output angle does not occur, ∆θ = 0. It means there is no generally utilizing the flexible body of a sensor that deforms
Bending loads
compensated
Yes
Yes
Yes
torque given at the output side. If the torque applied at the when given a torque to be measured using a strain gauge.
FIGURE 4.55output is greater than the input (τ1 < τ2 ) it will make θ1 < From the the value of the strain generated by a strain gauge, be
0. Thedifferenceof torqueangle position
θ2 , hence ∆θ =for
Strain-gage configurations
a circular
shaft
sensor.between further translated as the magnitude of the torque value given.
Yu-Xiang Sun [2] develops a torque sensor based on thethe input and output implies that there is a different torque thatapplied at the input and output, because ∆θ are equivalent to redundancy of each segment. Elastic body of this sensor∆τ . So from the difference of angle position can be used to forms a circular with 8 radial spokes. These sensors use acombination of semiconductor strain gauge and foil strain
indicate the presented torque at the output.
gauge for detecting deformation of elastic body. They statedIII. S ENSING M ETHOD
that the sensor is capable of detecting up to 400Nm torque.
In most applications, sensing is done by detecting an effect In the other development of strain gauge-based torque sensor,of torque or the cause of torque. As well, there are methods for there is Aghili torque sensor [3] that develop the strain gauge

554

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

based-torque sensor which have the hollow hexaform body.
They claim that they have developed a sensor that has a highsensitivity to a direct drive torque, so the sensor is suitable tobe used as a joint on a direct drive actuator.

robot manipulator PUMA 500. They stated that these sensors
show a sensitivity 159 mV / N m with the level of non-linearitythat is still within reasonable limits and acceptable (8 percent),
and provide protection against excessive loads.
One more development of strain gauge based torque sensors,
this is torque sensors developed by Hong-Xia Zhang andtheir colleagues [6]. They developed a torque sensor which
is claimed to have a high sensitivity level. This is can affectedby the placement of strain gauge that detects the deformationof flexible body. They put a strain gauge on the most sensitive
section to deformation caused by the given torque, so theslightest torque given, this section will deform and will beread by the strain gauge and interpreted as change of of torque.
Can be seen in the picture below is the design of their torquesensorFig. 3: This is the Prototype from Aghili [3] strain gauge
based-Torque Sensor
Yoshihiro Kuroki [4] also developed the strain gauge basedtorque sensor using Cr-N alloy. This sensor can be applied as a
joint torque on a servo, that can enable human robot which canperform physical interaction safely. They make some type of
torque sensor sizes, each size has a difference in the capacityof sensing and its resolution. Here some type and specificationof this sensor

Fig. 4: Type and specification from each design of Yoshihiro
Kuroki [4] strain gauge based-Torque Sensor
Not only the last few years, in fact torque sensors have beendeveloped since decades ago. Lawrence E. Pfeffer and theircolleagues [5] have developed a torque sensor for the joint ofFig. 5: Design of Strain gauge based Torque sensor by HongXia Zhang [6]B. Optical Sensor
Another sensing method of torque sensor is using opticalsensors. Basically the principle of optical sensor are turn lightinto an electronic signal. It measuring the intensity of lightand then translated into a form that can be easily read by
the controller. The optical sensor is generally part of a larger
system that combines light sources, measuring instruments andoptical sensors.
In the application of optical sensor as the torque sensor
sensing method is also different from each existing model.
As the torque sensor from [7], they apply the principle ofa reflective photoelasticity to detect the spin resulting fromthe a given torque. They stated that this torque sensor issuitable for measuring the torque from the a small to medium
range. Installation of optoelectronic components, ambient lightinterference, the rotational speed and the effect from theadditional arch photoelastic tubes must be considered due
to measurement accuracy. In [8] also applying photoelastic
concept on their torque sensors. Their developed torque sensor,
used to detect the motor starting torque. Yohan Noh [9] Develop a torque sensorbased on optical sensor, for the medical
world. This sensor is a torque sensor with multiple axis, whichmeans it can detect change of torque from various directions.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

555

The sensor they have developed work by reflecting light onto amirror which its reflection will be caught by the photodiode.
When affected by a torque, the position of this mirror willchange even be able to move away which causes change ofthe intensity of light received by the photodiode. This is befurther translated as torque changes.
Fig. 7: The design from Kyungshik Chongdu Lee[13] magnetic
based-Torque Sensor

D. Capacitive Type
This Capacitive type sensing method uses the basic principleof capacitive displacement sensor that can be used to detectchanges or capacitive displacement of the object. There are
two types of capacitive displacement sensor. One type that isused to measure the thickness of the conductive material andthe type of the other measures the thickness of non conductive
material, such as measuring the water level.

Fig. 6: The design and principle from Yohan Noh [9] optical
based-Torque Sensor

C. Magnetic TypeYong Bum Kim [14] has developed a capacitive type torquesensor that can be applied to the joint robot. The sensor
consists of two cells capacitive sensors that detect changes
in position caused by the deformation. Both cells are locatedon opposite sides of each other, which compensates for crosscoupling of torque when the external load Force / Torqueapplied. Figure 8 are the design and sensing principle of thesesensor.

Another sensing method of torque sensor is using magnetic
sensor. This Sersor detect changes in the magnetic field
generated by the displacement that occurs in the body sensors
that are the result of a given torque. This method has the designof a flexible mechanism that is relatively similar to the typeof other sensing methods.
This sensing method has been used since decades ago, forexample, in 1989 by William J. Fleming and his research
team[10], and then in 1990 by Kunio Miyashita and his
research team[11], also in 1995 by V.Lemarquand and G.
Lemarquand[12]. Not only that, these days there is still atorque sensor is developing with this type of sensing method
is by Kyungshik Chongdu Lee and Cho in 2015[13].
Kunio Miyashita[11] developed a non-contact torque sensor
magnetic. This sensor uses the principle of magnetic rotary
encoder to detect the twisting angle changes caused by the
deformation of rotate due to the torque given.
Kyungshik Chongdu Lee[13] developing a non-contact
torque sensors by applying Magnetic Sensor Band, which theyclaim does not require calibration in its use. These sensors canbe applied to a rotating shaft. They stated that this sensor has
an error of less than 1 percent in detecting torque at a specified
speed.

556

Fig. 8: The design and sensing principle of Yong Bum Kim[14] capacitive type Torque Sensor

Development of another one with a capacitive-type torquesensor is in the torque sensor belongs to Asad M. Madni
and his colleagues [15]. They also developed a capacitive-type
torque sensor is based on differential capacitive technology tomeasure the angle of twist and torque applied by steering effort. They stated that the test results showed that the kinematic
very high linearity can be achieved by this sensor.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Fig. 9: The design of Asad M. Madni [15] capacitive type
Torque Sensor
IV. R ECENT PATENT
From some sensing methods that have been applied to thetorque sensor by several researchers, also has made the patent.
In the following table is a list of the torque sensor patentthat applied the sensing method. This patent data we get fromgoogle patent.
V. C ONCLUSION
Various examples torque sensor that can be applied asa robot joint has been shown in this review. From various
examples of the torque sensor has been classified by thesensing method that is: Strain gauge based, Optical Based,
Based Magnetic and Capacitive based. Additionally, examples
of existing patents is also featured in this review.
From a variety of sensing methods that exist and eachof its instances, it can be seen that the outline design ofa flexible mechanism that is relatively similar. Only way todetect changes in the deformation of its flexible mechanism
different. Moreover to making a more sensitive torque sensor
can be done by making the design of flexible mechanism
as thin as possible so that it can be easily deformed when
given a torque. But you must remember, the thinner a flexible
mechanism, the smaller the maximum torque that can be given.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors would like to thank to Kemenristek Dikti andMalang State Polytechnic for their support, and also to Mr.
Erfan Rohadi for his invaluable advise on scientific writing.
R EFERENCES[1] J. Xia, Z. Xie, H. Fang, T. Lan, J. Huang, and H. Liu, “Collision
detection of flexible joint manipulator by using joint torque sensors,”
in 2009 IEEE/ASME International Conference on Advanced Intelligent
Mechatronics, July 2009, pp. 1816–1821.
[2] Y. X. Sun, H. B. Cao, M. Li, R. H. Lin, H. Q. Pan, F. Shuang, L. F.
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TABLE I: Patent from each sensing method
Sensing Method
Strain Gauge

Patent Title
Strain gauge type force-torque sensor and method for manufacturing
the same[18]Set of multiaxial force and torquesensor and assembling method[19]Force-torque sensor[20]Optical

Optical torque sensor incorporating
sensor failure diagnostics[21]Photoelastic
sensor[22]558neuraltorqueMagnetic type

Magnetoelastic torque sensor[23]Capacitive type

Capacitive torque sensor andmethod of detecting torque[24]Claim
The present invention provides torque strain gauge sensor and method
for manufacturing torque sensor, and save on production costs, and canovercome the difficulties in attaching gauge and sensor deficiencies
and errors are generated when installing gauges.
A sensor assembly force / torque multiaxial and method for assembling
like a sensor assembly is disclosed. Assembling sensor includes aseries of at least two sensors each made of strain gauges, which areeach arranged at an angle and the exact distance relative to one anotherand are each fixed to the body of the transducer, which is a mechanicalcontact with the printed circuit board
A force-torque sensor is provided to measure the force of the sixth
possibility andorque components in the Cartesian coordinate system
by using a strain gauge. The sensor has two integral spoke wheels aredesigned identically where each cylindrical on the outer circle, andconnected with four fingers on the inside of the circle.
Improved torque sensor, or the sensor relative to the movement ofangular, consisting of input, utput, the LED light source, a pair of
the unit photodetector is intended to receive light from the LED lightsource, and a means of signal processing, in which said signal processing means adapted to receive the signal output from the photodetector
unit, the output signal from the photodetector unit depends on theintensity of the light received, and signal processing adapted to process
the output signals from the photodetector unit that produces an output
signal that is translated as an indication of the angular displacement,or torque provided, between input and output.
A single device opto-mechanical torque sensor that is suitable for use
on a spinning machine, combine polymer photoelastic detector, a lightsource, the image sensor photoelastic intelligence and neural networks
and algorithms. Photoelastic polymer is then shaped into a hollow
cylinder and bonded metal collars located at each end of the cylinder.
Collar serves to easily place the detector cylinder on the engine shaft
and affixed to the shaft using a peg, setscrew, or pin spring.
The present invention relates to magnetic sensors are applied to theactive magnetic shaft structure, and more particularly, to non-contact
magnetoelastic torque transducers to measure the torque applied to thea rotating shaft.
In this patent, provided the torque sensor capacitive cross-section
circular dielectric layer is placed on the edge of the surface of theoutermost which is variable in dielectric constant that depends onstrain, and a pair of electrodes interdigital facing into the dielectric
layer and forming a single capacitor, electrode interdigital comprisingof a number of linear electrodes tilting at a predetermined angle withrespect to the central axis of the bar.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

A Garbage Collection Management Method
for Reliable Non-Volatile Memory Systems
Chin-Hsien Wu

Ting-Wei Wang

Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering of
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Taipei, Taiwan.
chwu@mail.ntust.edu.tw

Department of and Computer Electronic Engineering of
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Taipei,Taiwan
M10102127@mail.ntust.edu.tw

Abstract—NAND flash memory is a popular non-volatile memory device and has been used for the data storage of mobile devices, Laptops, and various embedded systems. However, NAND
flash memory requires a garbage collection mechanism due to its
erase-before-write characteristic. Garbage collection consists ofa series of activities (such as read, write, and erase operations)that usually degrade the lifetime and the performance of NANDbased storage systems. In this paper, we survey a garbage
collection management method for reliable non-volatile memory(i.e., NAND flash memory) in embedded systems. Furthermore,
we also propose the concept to cache a small part of appropriate
information about garbage collection in RAM-limited embedded
systems. We hope the concept can reduce the RAM spacerequirements and only cause a little increase in the amount of
the original workloads such that the response time of the original
workloads is not much affected.
Index Terms—NAND Flash Memory, Garbage Collection, Storage Systems, Embedded Systems

I. I NTRODUCTION
NAND flash memory [1] is a popular non-volatile memory
device that has many advantages such as high-density, lightweight, shock-resistance, non-volatile, and low-power features.
Because of the advantages, NAND flash memory is widelyused in various storage devices and portable embedded systems. Nowadays, because of the technology breakthrough, thecost per gigabyte of NAND flash memory has been reduced
every year, and its capacity is growing rapidly [2]. Although
NAND flash memory has many attractive features, it still has
several limitations due to its architectural characteristics. Unlike traditional hard-disk drives, NAND flash memory cannot
support in-place updates. Once a page is written, the page is
no longer available until the residing block is erased first. Data
must be written to free pages, and the old version of pages will
become invalid. For managing the distinct characteristics of
NAND flash memory, a flash translation layer (FTL) (such as[3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9]) has been proposed to maintain amapping table to locate the up-to-date pages and appropriately
trigger the activities of garbage collection to recycle the invalid
pages. In order to reduce the overhead of garbage collectionand extend the lifetime of flash memory, a victim block should
be selected with more invalid pages and less erase countdue to the expensive copy and erase operations. In recent
years, the technology of NAND flash memory continues toprogress dramatically such that the capacity of NAND-basedstorage systems (i.e., embedded systems or mobile devices) is
increasing quickly.
Different from the traditional hard-disk drives, the management of NAND flash memory needs additional resources(i.e., computing power and RAM space) to perform the flash
translation layer and maintain its related information (e.g,information of the mapping table, garbage collection, andthe wear-leveling policy). In particular, the size of RAM
usage should be considerable [10]. Recently, a specific flash
translation layer (i.e., DFTL [3]) is trying to solve the RAM
issue by putting a small (frequently used) part of the mapping
information into the RAM space and the rest is storing in
the flash memory. However, an intuitive approach is to put
the frequently used information of garbage collection into
small RAM space and could cause problems. This is because
the frequently used information of garbage collection could
not denote the suitable victim blocks because some suitablevictim blocks may have not been used for some time. In thispaper, we survey a garbage collection management method
for reliable non-volatile memory (i.e., NAND flash memory).
Furthermore, we also propose the concept to cache a small partof appropriate information about garbage collection in RAMlimited embedded systems. We hope the concept can reduce
the RAM space requirements and still reduce the overhead of
garbage collection and extend the lifetime of flash memory.
Note that NAND flash memory and flash memory are usedexchangeably in the paper.
II. C HARACTERISTICS OF NAND F LASH M EMORYA NAND flash memory chip consists of many blocks, andeach block has a fixed number of pages. A block is the smallest
unit for erase operations, while reads and writes are done ina page unit. A page contains user area and spare area, where
the user area is for the storage of actual data, and the sparearea stores ECC and other housekeeping information (i.e., page
status). Flash memory has three kinds of operations: page read,
page write, and block erase. An erase operation needs moretime and energy than a read or a write operation. Unlike harddisk drives, every pages in flash memory need to be erased
before they are rewritten. We can’t overwrite data into a page
which has been already written. We call the ”erase-before-

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

559

Applications

FAT32, EXT4 and NTFS

File Systems

Kernel Space

Address
Translation

GarbageCollection

Wear-Leveling
PolicyA Flash Translation Layer (FTL)

Hardware

NAND Flash Memory

Fig. 1: A Flash Translation Layer (FTL)

write” characteristic. When new data of an LBA (logical block
address) is written to a free page, the old version of the LBA
becomes an invalid page. The update strategy is called ”outof-place” update. Note that pages that store valid and invalid
data are called valid pages and invalid pages, respectively.
After a certain number of page writes, free space in flash
memory would become insufficient. Then, the activities ofgarbage collection (that consists of a series of read, write, anderase operations) will be performed to generate free space. The
objective of the garbage collection is trying to recycle invalid
pages scattered over blocks so that they could become free
pages for reuse. Because an erase operation needs more timeand energy, the activities of garbage collection usually degrade
the performance of NAND-based storage systems. Therefore,
how to intelligently choose victim blocks for recycling becomes an important topic. Another issue of flash memoryis that the erase count allowed to each block is limited. If
a block’s erase count exceeds the limit, the block could beworn out and suffer from access errors. Thus, the wear-levelingpolicy should consider the erase count of each block and try
to control the erase count of each block as evenly as possible.
A flash translation layer (FTL) is proposed to emulate asa block-device emulation (e.g., hard-disk drives) for NAND
flash memory by hiding the out-of-place update and the erasebefore-write characteristic. With the flash translation layer(FTL), many existing file systems (e.g., FAT32, EXT4 andNTFS) could be built on it without any modifications. As
shown in Fig. 1, an FTL consists of three main functions:address translation, garbage collection, and the wear-levelingpolicy. Address translation is trying to solve the out-of-place
update by maintaining a mapping table to record the mapping
information from an LBA (logical block address) to an PBA(physical block address).
III. O BSERVATION

memory, a victim block should be selected with more invalid
pages and less erase count due to the expensive copy and erase
operations. Different from the traditional hard-disk drives,
the management of NAND flash memory needs additional
resources (i.e., computing power and RAM space) to performthe flash translation layer and maintain its related information(e.g, information of the mapping table, garbage collection, andthe wear-leveling policy). In particular, the size of RAM usage
is considerable [10]. In the near future, assume that we havea 1TB NAND-based storage device in an embedded system,
where each page is 4KB and each block contains 64 pages(i.e., 256KB). Therefore, the 1TB NAND-based storage device
consists of 268,435,456 pages (i.e., 4,194,304 blocks). If a
page-level flash translation layer is used to handle the address
mapping of the 1TB NAND-based storage device, it could
require 2,048 MB (i.e., 268,435,456*8 bytes) RAM space torecord the information of the mapping information, where 8
bytes are used for the address mapping from a logical address
to a physical page address. Furthermore, assume that eachblock requires 16 bytes RAM space to record the informationof garbage collection (e.g., number of invalid pages, erase
count, weighting value, and recency), the page-level flash
translation layer will require 64MB (i.e., 4,194,304*16 bytes)
RAM space to record the information of garbage collection.
Recently, a specific flash translation layer (i.e., DFTL [3]) is
trying to solve the RAM issue by putting a small (frequently
used) part of the mapping information into the RAM space
and the rest is storing in the flash memory. Even DFTL can
reduce the required RAM space by 90% to record the mapping
information, DFTL still requires 204.8MB (i.e., 2,048*10%)
RAM space for the mapping information. Therefore, the ratioof the information of garbage collection to the mapping
information will be 31.25% (i.e., 64MB/204.8MB) and isconsiderable. However, an intuitive approach is to put thefrequently used information of garbage collection into small
RAM space and could cause problems. This is because thefrequently used information of garbage collection could not
denote the suitable victim blocks because some suitable victim
blocks may have not been used for some time. Although
the garbage collection algorithms (e.g., Greedy, CB, or CAT)
have been proposed, they mainly focus on how to reduce
the recycling cost and extend the lifetime of flash memory.
Based on the above observations, we should investigate therelationship between the information of garbage collection andthe performance of flash memory, especially when the capacityof NAND-based storage systems grow rapidly. Therefore, wesurvey a garbage collection management method for reliable
non-volatile memory systems. We also propose the concept
to reduce the RAM space requirements and still reduce theoverhead of garbage collection and extend the lifetime of flash
memory.

For the NAND-based storage systems, the activities ofgarbage collection with a wear-leveling policy are required to
manage the free space of flash memory. In order to reduce theoverhead of garbage collection and extend the lifetime of flash

560

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

IV. A G ARBAGE C OLLECTION M ANAGEMENT M ETHODFOR R ELIABLE N ON -VOLATILE M EMORY S YSTEMS
A. Garbage Collection Algorithms
When there are not enough free blocks, the activities ofgarbage collection are performed to find appropriate victim
blocks based on a specific policy for recycling. For example,
the intuitive choice is to find a block without any valid pages.
However, if there are no such blocks, the victim block may
contain some valid pages. If we want to recycle a block withsome valid pages, the valid pages should be copied out to otherfree space before it is erased. Hence, the activities of garbage
collection can be summarized by the following steps:• Step 1: To select an appropriate victim block based on a
specific policy for recycling.
• Step 2: If the victim block has some valid pages, the valid
pages are copied out to other free space.
• Step 3: After the victim block is erased and becomes afree block, the related information of the FTL should be
updated accordingly.
• Step 4: If the free space is still not enough, go to Step 1.
To make sufficient free space, the activities of garbage
collection could perform many times and need a lot of read,
write and erase operations. Furthermore, if the victim block
has many valid pages, the recycling cost would be very highand degrade the whole flash memory performance. Therefore,
how to intelligently select an appropriate victim block is very
important. In the following, we will introduce some famous
garbage collection algorithms.
1) The Greedy Algorithm: The greedy (Greedy) algorithm[11] selects a victim block with the minimum valid pages.
The selection can minimize the overhead of valid pages
copied during the garbage collection. However, the greedy
algorithm does not consider the wear-leveling effect of flash
memory, because it does not consider the erase count of theselected blocks and could select an over-erased block with theminimum valid pages.
2) The Cost Benefit Algorithm: The cost-benefit (CB) algorithm [12] evaluates the weighting value of each blockand selects a victim block with the largest weighting value.
The weighting value is defined by a formula (age ∗ 1−u
2u ),where age means the time since the most recent modification
per block and u means the utilization of valid pages in theblock. Therefore, CB could reduce the overhead of valid pages
copied by 1−u
2u and consider the wear-leveling effect by age.
Therefore, if a block haven’t been erased for a long time, CB
could select the block due to its age and force it to be erased.
CB could eventually improve the wear-leveling effect of flash
memory and also consider the overhead of valid pages copied.
3) The Cost Age Time Algorithm: The cost-age-time (CAT)algorithm [13] evaluates the weighting value of each block andselects a victim block with the smallest weighting value. The
1uweighting value is defined by a formula ( (1−u)∗ age∗ CT ),
where CT denotes the erase count of a block, and the definitions of u and age are similar to CB. CAT tries to improve
the wear-leveling effect of flash memory by considering not

only age but also the erase count (i.e., CT ). Furthermore, CATalso performs data redistribution to classify hot and cold data.
Hot and cold data are separately written into different blocks
to reduce the recycling cost and improve the wear-leveling
effect.
4) The Turn-Based Selection Algorithm: The turn-based
selection (TB) algorithm [14], [15] consists of two turns: X
and Y turns. In X turn (e.g., the probability of 99 percents),
TB selects a victim block with the minimum valid pages (e.g.,
the greedy algorithm) to reduce the overhead of valid pages
copied. In Y turn (e.g., the probability of 1 percents), TB
selects a victim block by other algorithms (e.g., CB or CAT)
that considers the wear-leveling effect to extend the lifetimeof flash memory.
5) The Hot-Cold Swapping Algorithm: The hot-cold swapping (HC) algorithm [16] selects a victim block with theϵismallest weighting value by a formula (1 − λ)ui + λ( ϵmax
+1 ),where ui denotes the utilization of valid pages of block i, ϵi
denotes the erase count of block i, ϵmax denotes the maximum
erase count of block max, λ is the wear-leveling weighting
ratio that is between zero and one. Thus, HC considers boththe overhead of valid pages copied and the erase count of eachblock. Moreover, HC can swap hot and cold data between
two blocks with the minimum and maximum erase count,respectively. Assume that Hmin and Hmax denote two blocks
with the minimum and maximum erase count, respectively.
If the difference between Hmin and Hmax is larger than athreshold, HC would start the garbage collection and swap
two blocks’ data for the wear-leveling effect.
B. Cache Concept for Garbage Collection in RAM-limited
Embedded Systems
The garbage collection algorithms need to select appropriate
victim blocks to reduce the recycling cost and balance theerase count of each block for improving the lifetime of flash
memory. Most of them use a weighting function to determine
each block’s weighting value and select an appropriate victim
block for recycling. Therefore, a good garbage collection
algorithm certainly need enough RAM space to record therelated information (such as the weighting value and the erase
count for each block), especially when the capacity of flash
memory has grown rapidly. Therefore, the cache concept is
to reduce the RAM space requirements and still can help
the garbage collection algorithms to reduce the overhead andextend the lifetime of flash memory. In fact, we need some data
structures to cooperate with the activities of garbage collection
and maintain the appropriate victim blocks as candidates in the
RAM space during the garbage collection. We also need theselection of victim blocks to select a suitable victim blockfor recycling with the limited RAM space. The selection
must consider both the recycling cost and the wear-leveling
effect to reach good performance and extend the lifetimeof flash memory. However, because we only records partial
information about garbage collection and could be out-ofdate, we need to update the information in data structures in
RAM space by synchronizing with the complete information

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

561

in flash memory. We think the synchronizing process could
cause additional overhead by reading all blocks’ information(e.g., weighting values) from flash memory.
When a flash-memory storage system is initialized, weneed to construct some data structures in RAM space forthe garbage collection mechanism. The intuitive process is
to scan all flash memory and record the appropriate victim
blocks’ information based on the comparison of all blocks’
weighting values. The overhead is to read the entire flash
memory. Because the occupied RAM space of data structures
for the garbage collection mechanism could not be large
and can be controlled, the overhead to store them in flash
memory is not significant before the system shuts down.
When the flash-memory storage system is initialized again,
we can quickly construct them without scanning the entire
flash memory. However, when the system crashes, the latest information of data structures for the garbage collection
mechanism in RAM space could be lost. Note that logging
and recovery are important technologies for database systems
and file processing in the past decades. In fact, we can adopt
the write-ahead logging method to ensure the integrity of data
structures and the checkpointing mechanism to facilitate thesystem recovery. However, it will cause additional overhead
for the crash recovery. We refer interested readers to theprevious work [17]. Based on the previous work [17], a similar
method can be used to efficiently reconstruct the required data
structures for the garbage collection mechanism after a crash.
V. C ONCLUSION
In the paper, we survey a garbage collection management
method for reliable non-volatile memory systems. We also
propose the concept to reduce the RAM space requirements
and still maintain the effectiveness of the garbage collection.
The activities of garbage collection could cause significant
overhead (due to a series of read, write, and erase operations)and require more RAM space to maintain the entire information of garbage collection, especially when the capacityof flash memory has grown rapidly. Therefore, we needsome RAM-limited data structures to reduce the RAM spacerequirements as much as possible and can cooperate withthe weighting functions of the garbage collection algorithms(e.g., Greedy, CB, or CAT) in the future. Furthermore, weshould extend the garbage collection management method byincluding the multi-controller architecture. Because the current
architecture of SSDs is using multiple controllers to maintainand handle a lot of NAND flash memory chips, the powerof the multiple controllers should be utilized to increase theexecution parallelism.

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VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The manuscript is supported in part by a research grant fromthe National Science Council under Grant NSC 105-2628-E011-007-MY3.

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Implementation Of Fuzzy Mamdani In The
Diagnosis Of Diabetes Mellitus In Puskesmas Pasar
Rebo And Puskesmas Makasar
Fanisya Alva Mustika, Aulia Paramita

Za’imatun Niswati

Technical Information
Indraprasta PGRI University
Jakarta, Indonesia
alva.mustika@gmail.com, aulia.pps@gmail.com

Technical Information
Indraprasta PGRI University
Jakarta, Indonesia
zaimatunnis@gmail.com,

Abstract— Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease characterized
by glucose levels blood (blood sugar) exceeds the normal value.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Indonesia
now ranks 4th in the world after India, China and the UnitedStates in the number of diabetics. Number of patients with
Diabetes Mellitus increases from year to year. This is due to latediagnosis of the disease and also because of an unhealthy lifestyle.
Many people initially did not know that they suffer from Diabetes
Mellitus. Therefore we need a device or system that has theability like a doctor in diagnosing the disease. This research aims
to implement Mamdani method for diagnosing the disease
Diabetes Mellitus in Puskesmas Pasar Rebo and Puskesmas
Makasar. Variable support disease diagnosis is used in theformation of fuzzy set. Fuzzy set will be processed by Mamdani
method to produce a decision. The results of trials involving the
medical records of doctor's diagnosis, and the resulting decisionof this application has a value of 97.5% accuracy. While the test
results FGD (Focus Group Discussion) is all the functions
contained in the Expert System has been able to operate properly
and are in accordance with the needs of the Puskesmas. In
general, this application can be used as an aid in the diagnosis ofDiabetes Mellitus.
Keywords—Mamdani; Diabetes Mellitus; Expert System
Fuzzy Inference System (FIS); Focus Group Discussion (FGD).

;

I. INTRODUCTION
Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic disease characterized byblood glucose (blood sugar) that exceeds the normal value.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
Indonesia now ranks 4th largest in the world after India, China
and the United States in the amount diabetics.
Many people initially did not know that they suffer from
Diabetes Mellitus, it is caused by the lack of information about
diabetes, symptoms and the lack of specialist doctors at
Puskesmas Pasar Rebo and Puskesmas Makasar. Therefore, asystem is needed as a tool to assist in determining Diabetes
Mellitus disease. With this system, made someone become
more familiar about Diabetes Mellitus. Expert systems are
created only on certain knowledge domains for a particularskill that approach human capabilities in one field.

Etiologic Classification of Diabetes Mellitus is Type 1
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, other type
Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy Diabetes (Gestational). In
Indonesia, the total number of cases of Type 1 Diabetes
Mellitus is not known for certain, this type is rarely
encountered. It is because Indonesia is located on the equator
or genetic factors that do not support. Another case in Type 2
Diabetes Mellitus, which covers more than 90% of the total
population of diabetics - hereinafter called diabetes,
environmental factors are very important [1]. If we did notconcern about, it would lead to serious health problems.
The increase in the number of diabetics is due to delays indiagnosis and also because of unhealthy lifestyles. Fuzzy logic
concept is very flexible and has tolerance to data that is not
appropriate and based on natural language. Therefore requireda system as a tool in determining whether the patient was
suffering from Diabetes Mellitus or not with the concept ofFuzzy logic.
In this study, a method will be applied to help diagnose
Diabetes Mellitus that is FIS Mamdani. The purpose of thisapplication is to implement FIS Mamdani method in
diagnosing Diabetes Mellitus disease at Puskesmas Pasar
Rebo and Puskesmas Makasar. The Mamdani method is also
known as the Max-Min Method. This method was introducedby Ebrahim Mamdani in 1975. To get the output, it takes 4stages :1. Formation of fuzzy set. In the fuzzification process, thefirst step is to define the Fuzzy Variables and the fuzzy
set. Then specify the degree of membership between the
fuzzy input data and the defined fuzzy set for each input
variable of each fuzzy rule. In the mamdani method, both
input and output variables are divided into one or morefuzzy sets.
2. Application function implication on mamdani method.
The implication function used is min. The results of the
fuzzy implications of each rule are then combined to
produce fuzzy inference output.

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3. Composition of Rules. Unlike monotonous reasoning, if
the system consists of several rules, then the inference isderived from the set and correlation between rules. Thereare 3 methods used in fuzzy system inference, namely:
max, additive and probabilistic OR.
4. Defuzzy. The input of the defuzzification process is a
fuzzy set obtained from the composition of fuzzy rules,
while the output is a number in the fuzzy set domain [2].

formulating conclusions. This component presents directives
on how to use the knowledge of the system by building anagenda that manages and controls the steps taken to solve
problems when consulted.
Working memory, is part of the expert system that storesthe facts obtained during the consultation process. These facts
will then be processed by inference machines based on
knowledge to determine a problem-solving decision.

With this software, it is expected to help Puskesmas inimproving its service to the patient and can be used by doctors
and medical personnel to help diagnose Diabetes Mellitus.
Ease of accessing the software through a computer ornotebook is expected to speed up the diagnosis process
appropriately.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Expert System
In general, the expert system is a system that seeks toadopt human knowledge into the computer, so that thecomputer can solve problems as usually done by experts. A
good expert system is designed to solve a particular problem
by imitating the work of the experts. Expert system structure
consists of two principal that is [3 The development
environment and the consultation environment. The developer
environment is used as the development of expert systems
both in terms of component development and knowledge base.
The consultation environment is used by someone not anexpert to consult.
To build a good expert system required several
components, that is:
1. User Interface (UI)
2. Knowledge Base
3. Inference Engine
4. Working Memory
User Interface: The expert system replaces an expert in agiven situation, then it must provide the support required by
the user who does not understand the technical problem.
Expert system also provide communication between systems
and users which are called the interface. An effective and userfriendly interface is especially important for users who are notexpert in the field applied to expert system.
Knowledge base is a collection of knowledge of aparticular field at an expert level in a certain format. Thisknowledge is derived from the accumulation of expert
knowledge and other sources of knowledge. In this expert
system, the knowledge base is separate from the inferenceengine. This separation is useful for the development of expert
systems freely adjusted to the knowledge development.
Inference engine, the brain of an expert system in the formof software that performs an inference task of expert system
reasoning, commonly referred as a thinking machine.
Principally, this engine that will find a solution of a problem.
The inference engine is actually a computer program thatprovides a methodology for reasoning about information on
the knowledge base and working memory as well as for564

Fig 1. Structure of expert systems [4]Explication facilities, this section provides an explanation
to the user about the system. It is very useful for the user toknow how the system can decide a conclusion.
Knowledge acquisition is the process of transfer andtransformation of knowledge source from an expert (domain
expert) into the program. This process is done with the help ofKnowledge Engineer who acts as a mediator between theexpert system with experts.
B. Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes Mellitus is a disease caused by chronic disorderprimarily on system metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, andproteins in the body. The World Health Organization (WHO)recognizes three forms of diabetes mellitus :1. Type I Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus is a condition of the bodywhere the body is unable to produce its own insulin sothat the required injection of insulin from the outside.
Type I Diabetes Mellitus much influenced by heredity,
although the contribution of hereditary factors on therisk of diabetes represents only 5%.
2. Type II Diabetes Mellitus
Type II Diabetes Mellitus, or often called the Non
Insuline Dependent. Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM) is adisease caused by the body's resistance to the effects ofinsulin produced by the beta cells pancreas. Most cases
are type II Diabetes Mellitus were found in people who
are obese or overweight due to lifestyle she lived.
3. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus is a disorder of various
levels of glucose tolerance that is known first time

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during pregnancy without distinguishing whether thepatient needs to get insulin or not.
There are several complications of Type I Diabetes Mellitus,
Type II Diabetes Mellitus and Gestational Diabetes, that are:
1. Diabetic Neuropathy
Diabetic neuropathy is a common complication ofdiabetes. Diabetic Neuropathy is damage to a set ofnerves caused by high blood sugar levels(hyperglycemia).
2. Diabetic Retinopathy
Diabetic retinopathy is a retinal disorders (retinopathy)
were found in patients with diabetes mellitus.
3. Diabetic Nephropathy
Diabetic nephropathy is a disorder of renal function
due to leakage of blood film membrane.
4. Diabetes Ketoacidosis
Diabetic ketoacidosis is an acute condition of type I
Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Ketoacidosis occurs
because the acidity of the ketone body is increased due
to insulin deficiency.
C. Fuzzy Inference System
Fuzzy inference system is a computational framework that isbased on fuzzy set theory, fuzzy rules in the form of IFTHEN, and fuzzy reasoning. Fuzzy inference system receives
input crisp. Then this input is sent to the knowledge basecontaining n fuzzy rules in the form of IF-THEN. Fire strength
will be searched on every rule. If the number of rules morethan one, then will be aggregated from all rules. Furthermore,on aggregation result will be done defuzzy to get crisp value
as system output.
The application of fuzzy logic can improve theperformance of the control system by suppressing theappearance of wild functions at the output caused byfluctuations in input variables. Fuzzy logic implementation
phase :
1. Fuzzification is the mapping of the firm input to thefuzzy set.
2. Inference phase is the generation of fuzzy rules
3. Defuzzification is the transformation of the output froma fuzzy value to a crisp value.
III. METHOD
A. Data analysis technique
Data will be processed using the approach of Fuzzy Inference
System (FIS) Mamdani with supported by matlab toolbox.

Function

Input

Table 1. Fuzzy Variable Sets
Variable

Range

Plasma Glucose
Concentration a 2
hours[0 – 10]

Diastolic Blood
Pressure (mm Hg)[0 – 10]

Body Mass Index[0 – 10]Diabetes Pedigree
Function[0 – 10]Pregnant[0 – 10]

Laboratory testscore

[0 – 10]OutputThis research was conducted to produce the necessary dataand information and to connect with the things that will be
written. The collection of data and information conductedusing the method of collecting primary and secondary datafrom the Puskesmas Pasar Rebo and Puskesmas Makasar.
Research Instrument
1. This research uses primary and secondary data of
diabetes mellitus which used as instrumentation to
obtain data in process of disease diagnosis.
2. Data is presented in the form of tablature models andvariables each of the 100 diabetes patients and 100 non
diabetes mellitus patients.
3. To analyze data, this research uses Fuzzy Inference
System (FIS) Mamdani with matlab Toolbox andGraphical User Interface (GUI).
Data analysis use quantitative with the rules ofmathematics to the data numbers or numerical. Fuzzy set in
the input and output variables are divided into one or morefuzzy sets. Application function implications are used foreach rule is a function min. Defuzzification use the facilities
on the matlab toolbox with fuzzy mamdani method.
B. Design Knowledge Base
The success of the expert system lies in the knowledge andhow to process the knowledge in order to be drawn aconclusion. Knowledge gained from the interviews andanalysis of the book is converted into a table of types of
illnesses and symptoms to facilitate the process of finding
solutions. This table is used as an information matchingpattern entered by the user and the knowledge base.
C. RuleRule is a knowledge structure that links some known
information to other information to get a conclusion. Rule is a

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565

form of procedural knowledge. Rule-based expert system is acomputer program for processing problems from specificinformation contained in active memory with a set of rules in aknowledge base, using an inference engine to generate new
information.
D. Testing
Researchers conducted tests to analyze the output system.
This test is performed to determine the performance of theexpert system to provide a diagnosis of positive or negative
conclusions of Diabetes Mellitus.
1. Validation Testing
Validation testing is testing to ensure expert systemthat has been made in accordance with the needs.
Testing validation is also to test whether therequirements specification is in accordance with the
expected. The method used in this validation testing is
Focus Group Discussion (FGD).
FGD conducted at Indraprasta University with 8
participants who are lecturer of Indraprasta PGRI
University. To begin the FGD, the researcher presents apresentation and demo of Expert System Diagnosis ofDiabetes Mellitus which has been developed andexplains every function that exist based on the preparedvariables. Furthermore, the FGD participants provide
information, responses and approvals. Then the
researchers made a conclusion based on FGD results.
System testing is done by distributing questionnaires to
respondents. At the time of trial all respondents tried tooperate Diagnose Diabetes Mellitus Diagnostic System
directly. This test is conducted to determine whether all
the functions contained in this Expert System canalready be operated properly and is in accordance with
the needs of Puskesmas.
2. Application Testing.
Testing the application is done by input data fromthe laboratory results of Puskesmas Pasar Rebo and
Makasar. The data tested were 40 samples from Pasar
Rebo Puskesmas and Makasar. Then performed expert
analysis and system analysis of the data.
Accuracy =x 100%

IV. RESULT
A. System Implementation
The diagnostic form contains the patient's laboratory test
results to determine Diabetes Mellitus or not. After the data
input process is complete, then will be process of diagnosis of
diabetes mellitus disease that will produce the output of
positive diabetes mellitus or negative diabetes mellitus.

Fig 2. Diagnosis Form

The user interface is the interface between the admin
system and the user. In this section there will be
communication between the two. The program is in the formof choice where users can easily enter the value of eachvariable in the diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus disease then thesystem will count to produce a decision. User friendly
interface to facilitate users in using fuzzy inference system for
Diabetes Mellitus disease diagnosis.
B. Analysis Of Output
The test is performed to determine the performance of theexpert system to provide the diagnosis of positive DM ornegative DM conclusions.
The results obtained from the calculation recommendationin expert systems, matched with the results of the expert
analysis. The test results of 40 samples were tested, resulting
in 39 samples corresponding to the expert diagnosis.
Accuracy =x 100%= 39/40 x 100% = 97.5%
Thus, it can be concluded that the accuracy of the expert
system based on 40 tested data is 97.5% indicating that thisexpert system can function well according to the expert
diagnosis. The inaccuracy of the expert system is 4% due toseveral possibilities such as errors in assigning a variable trust
value for diagnostics, miscalculation of applying method
calculations or incorrect input variable information in the566

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application. Test results are then evaluated to determine theperformance of expert systems generated, so it is expected to
improve the quality of Puskesmas services.

References

V. CONCLUSION[1]

It can be concluded that the expert system implementation
Puskesmas Pasar Rebo and Puskesmas Makasar generate
97.5% accuracy value where diabetes mellitus diagnosis
expert system can function properly in accordance with expert
diagnosis.
Results of testing the FGD is all functionality in the Expert
System can be operated properly and are in accordance with
the needs of the Puskesmas.

[2]
[3]
[4]

Soegondo. S., 2004. Stylists Implementing Integrated Diabetes Melitus.
Jakarta: Balai Penerbit Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Indonesia.
Marimin dan Nurul Maghfiroh, “Applications Decision Making in
Supply Chain Management ", IPB Press, Bogor, 2010
Kusumadewi, S. dan Purnomo, H., 2010. Application of Fuzzy logic for
Decision Support. Yogyakarta : Graha Ilmu.
Giarrattano,J. and Riley, G., 1994. Expert System Principles andprogramming. Boston: PWS Publishing Company

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567

The Development and Analysis of a Decision
Systems for Student Tuition Fee at Malang State
Polytechnic Using Multi-Objective Optimization by
Ratio Analysis (MOORA) Method
Rudy Ariyanto*a, Erfan Rohadib, Rosa Andrie
Asmarac, Imam Fahrur Rozid,
Department of Information Technology, The State
Polytechnic of Malang, Jl. Soekarno Hatta No. 9, Malang
65141, Indonesia
a,b,c,d,Abstract—This Policy for student tuition fee for higher degree
institutions has been changed since year 2015. This policy is statedin Ministerial Decree of research, technology and higher educationof Indonesia Republic No. 22 year 2015 (Permeristekdikti). The
main objective of this decree is for broadening access to society to
pursue their degree in higher degree institutions, focusing for
those who have economical limitations. Student tuition fee
regulation as stated in the decree is named student single tuitionfee policy (Indonesian: UKT, Uang Kuliah Tunggal). In UKT
scheme, the regulated student tuition fee will cover all cost
components, such as: fee for courses, laboratory, exams andgraduations. In contrast, in previous years before the decree of
Ministry of research, technology and higher education ofIndonesia Republic No. 22 year 2015 was implemented, the tuition
fees were varying significantly between one and the otherinstitution of higher education. In present, by the decree No. 22year 2015, the tuition fees nominal is varying between categorized
student. The student categorization is based on the student or thefamily income. This means that the student who has more capablefinancially will support to those who has less financial support, insome extent, to support the total operational costs of the higher
education institution. Indeed, the Indonesian government
involvement is financially needed to support the operational costs
such that the regulated tuition fee is equitable concerning the local
economic situation. The main issue for the implementation of thedecree No. 22 year 2015 is to have a proper reasoning for the
institution to decide the categorization scheme. The policy madehas to be justified and reasonable. In addition to the current
problem, the prospectus students come from so many different
backgrounds: economically and demographically. This work
proposes a decision support system that can filter and classify
students based on variables that describe economic capability.
The Multi-Objective Optimization by Ratio Analysis (MOORA)
method is used to filter and classify the prospectus student data.
The detail MOORA implementation and Web application
development are presented in this work. The proposed application
has been examined and presented to the institution committeeboard. The results can be used to decision support for tuition fees
policy applied in the State Polytechnic of Malang.
Keywords: UKT, MOORA, Decision Support System

568

Nugroho Suhartoe
Department of Electronics Engineering, The State
Polytechnic of Malang, Jl. Soekarno Hatta No. 9, Malang
65141, Indonesia

I. INTRODUCTION
Single Tuition (UKT) is applied in the financing system thathas to be borne by the State University student which is under
the Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education(Kemenristek Dikti). In this case, the financing of lectures
unlike in the previous times where students tuition arecomprised of several kinds of separate components, eg 'SPP',Lab Fee, Parent Contribution '(IOM)', Thesis Exam Fee,
Graduation Fee, Donation for Education Improvement (SPKP),
and others. Through the application of UKT of Single Tuitionmeans that there is only one type of tuition fees will be charged
to students. The latest regulatory which cover UKT
implementation is Regulation of Ministry of Research,
Technology and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia
Number 22 The year 2015 Concerning the Single Tuition Feeand Single Tuition On State Universities in the Environment of
Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education. UKT
is part of the Single Tuition Fee (BKT) which impose on each
student based on their economic capabilities. BKT is the totalof operational costs of education per student per semester on a
specific course. UKT is determined based on BKT deducted bycost which has to be borne by the Government
One of the important aspects referred to in theimplementation of UKT is that the imposition of tuition fees
adjusted to the economic capability of each student. Therefore,
in the application or implementation of UKT in state
Universities has been generated UKT categories charges, so in
addition to accommodate community members who can notafford economically to higher education, Universities revenue
targets for the implementation of education operational costs
can also be achieved.
In determining the students into groups of UKT that are
based on the economic capacity of the students, several thingsneed to be done is to develop the details of the criteria that are
intended to filter (filter) and categorize (classify) a student into
categories of UKT aforementioned based on economy capability
and most importantly, involving the information technology
excellence in developing a Decision Support System
Application in the Determination of Students UKT.

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II. MATERIAL AND METHOD
In this chapter describes the research methods used and theconcept of creating the system, so that every stage of theresearch can be done properly.
A. Multi-Objective Optimization by Ratio Analysis
This Multi-Objective Optimization by Ratio Analysis(Moora) Methods is a method introduced by W.K.M. Brauers
et.al. [1]. This relatively new method was first used by the
Brauers in a multi-criteria decision. Moora method has a degreeof flexibility and convenience to be understood in separating
the subjective part of a process of evaluation criteria into
decision weights with multiple attributes of decision making
Mandal and Sarkar [2]. This method has a good level of
selectivity because it can determine the purpose of theconflicting criteria. Where the criteria can be worth the benefit(benefit) or unfavorable (cost).
Moora methods are widely applied in areas such as
management, construction, contractor, road design, andeconomics. This method has a good level of selectivity indetermining an alternative. The approach taken by Moora isdefined as a process simultaneously to optimize two or more
conflicting matter on some constraints Attri and Grover [3].
In the application method of Moora in solving the problem
of supplier selection of chemicals, and biotechnology byapplying fuzzy and Moora. The resulting decision-making
model is able to carry out a continuous evaluation in problemsolving of supplier selection and evaluation issues Seema et. al.
[4].
Moora method consists of five main steps ([1], [5–8]) as
follows method consists of five main steps as follows:
Step 1: The first step is to determine the purpose and identify
the attributes of the respective evaluation.
Step 2: The next step displays all the information available tothe attributes in the form of a decision matrix. � is thevalue of each criterion that is represented as a matrix a
shown in Eq. (1).
���
���
�=� .
���

���
���
.
���

.
.
.
.

���
���
. �
���

(from favorable attribute/benefits) and a reduction interms of minimizing (from attributes which
unfavorable/cost). Furthermore, the optimization
becomes:��� = ∑��� ��� − ∑������ ���(3)

Now where � is the value of the criteria to be
maximized, �� − �� is the value from criterion that is
minimized, and �� is the value from the alternative
normalization assessment in relation to all attribute. In
some cases, it is often observed some other more
important criteria. ordered to give a more important
attribute, it is done with the corresponding weights(significant coefficient). When the weight of thiscriteria is taken into consideration, the �� equation canbe described as following:��� = ∑��� �� ��� − ∑������ �� ���(4)

Where �� is the weight from attribute �.
Step 5: The value of Yi can be positive or negative dependingon the maximum number of (criteria benefits) andminimal (criteria unfavorable) in the decision matrix.
B. Business Process
Process depicted in Figure 2.1 is admin of academic uploads
the new students data to the Information Systems determinationof UKT, students can log in using the test number and password
in accordance with the time they enroll to fill the student's
economic capabilities data, within the limits of the allotted time,furthermore, decisions makers team by accessing the systemdetermines the range of scores of each UKT, the determinationof the range of scores is used to display the UKT informationof each group of students. The data is used by a team ofdecision-makers to determine the UKT group of each student.

(1)

Step 3: [1] concluded that the denominator, the best choice ofthe square root of the sum of the squares of eachalternative per attribute. This ratio can be expressed asfollows.
���(2)���∗ =��∑���� ���

where ��� is a response of alternative �on objectivei; j = 1, 2, ..., m; m is the number of alternatives; i = 1,
2, … n; n is the number of objectives; ���∗ is adimensionless number representing the normalized
response of alternative j on objective i.
Step 4: for multi-objective optimization, the results ofnormalized is the addition in term of maximizing result

Figure 2.1. The Process of UKT Determination
C. Flow Chart of Design System
In this study the weighting of criteria, sub-criteria and data
value of economic capacity all the students whose UKT will be

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569

determined is a unit of data to be processed in the determinationof the Decision Support System of Students UKT determination
using the MOORA method. The decision maker team only able
to determine the value range of each UKT group after all thedata of economic capability of students per period and the line
entrance has been filled during the specified time limit.
In Figure 2.2 below is an overview of the system flowcharts,
Decision Support System of Students UKT determination using
MOORA method.

Students have access rights to log in, add and view the
document of economic capabilities data of the student
respectively, logout.
Student
New

Login /New
Dat
Data of UKT

AcademAdmiinnFinance
Admin

Data of UKT
Data of criteria
Data of subcriteria

Decision
Maker
Team

Data of Score
Data ofObserve the Economic Capability
results using theDetermine the Students
Check out thewhich must be
Setting
Access
App

Super
User

User
Group

Figure 3.1 Use case Design of Decision Support System ofstudent's UKT Determination

Figure 2.2 Overview of the Flow Chart System
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Implemetation
Implementation is the process of changing a system that has
been designed in use case form and then implemented in the
program code. In Figure 3.1 Academic administrators haveaccess rights to log in, CRUD (Create Read Update Delete)
Line entrance data, new student data, the program studies data
and log out.
Finance Admin have access rights to log in, CRUD (Create
Read Update Delete) UKT type data, the tuition data and log
out.
The team of Decision Makers has access rights to log in,
CRUD (Create Read Update Delete) Sub Criteria data, Criteria
weighting of data, Range Score of UKT., Viewing results on
Ranking. RU (Read Update) students economic capability data
and logout.
Super Users have access rights to log in, CRUD (Create
Read Update Delete) the period data, Permissions, Application
Menu, User, Group Menu, Menu Permissions and logout.

570

B. Test/ Trial
After the process of implementing the system design, thenext stage is the process of testing and analysis of the results ofimplementation. The testing process conducted in three ways,
namely functional test, manual calculation test, system
calculation test. Tests conducted aims to ensure that the systemconstructed has been running as expected.
C. Functional Test
Functional tests are used to determine whether the system isbuilt in accordance with the needs of the user. The test is doneby using a black-box. A functional test is considered successful
if the function of the existing decision support systems ofstudent's UKT determination is in accordance with the user's
expectation.
D. Manual Calculation Test
Manual calculation using the MOORA method, using 30
sample data of economic capabilities of students, which is
obtained from the academic department of Polytechnic of
Malang. In addition has been entered 2 default data, with 1 dataof maximal value, and 1 data of minimum value. Below is a
flowchart of the Moora Method calculation as displayed in
Figure 3.2.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

methods used to compare the ranking and determination os
Single Tuition based on the economic ability of students and itis necessary to perform ‘the weighting’ of each criterion.
VII. ACKNOWLEGMENT
The author awould like to thank to Kemenristekdikti and
Polinema for their support.
REFERENCES

Figure 3.2 Flowchart of MOORA Calculation Method
IV. CONCLUSION
Based on research conducted by the author on The Decision
Support System of Single Tuition Determination of Polytechnic
Student Malang using the MOORA method, it can be deduced
the following matters; by using the method of MOORA, thelevel of precision in calculating the ranges value between
groups UKT is better than using the previous calculation
method (as the range of each UKT is equal) and the MOORA
method which can be implemented in the determination of thisstudent Single tuition can be demonstrated in Table 6.10 The
Comparison of Ranking Results, by using this method The
Single Tuition revenue could be bigger compared by using theprevious calculation method. However, to improve the accuracyof Single Tuition Determination System Development of
Malang Polytechnic Students, moving forward, is expected toconsider matters following; there should be other additional[1] W.K.M. Brauers, E.K. Zavadskas, F. Peldschus, Z.
Turskis., (2008), Multi-Objective Decision-Making forRoad Design, Transport, Volume 23, Number 3, pp. 183193, Taylor and Francis.
[2] U.K. Mandal, B. Sarkar, (2012), Selection of BestIntelligent Manufacturing System (IMS) Under Fuzzy
Moora Conflicting MCDM Environment, International
Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced
Engineering, Volume 2, Number 9, pp. 301-310, IJETAE.
[3] R. Attri, S. Grover, (2014), Multi-Objective DecisionMaking for Road Design, International Journal of System
Assurance Engineering and Management, Volume 5,
Number 3, pp. 320-328, Springer.
[4] Seema, R. Kaur, D. Kumar, (2014), Designing A
Mathematical Model Using Fuzzy Based Moora Method
for Supplier Selection, International Journal of Advanced
Engineering Technology, Volume V, Number 1, pp. 16-24.
[5] S. Chakraborty, (2011), Applications of the MOORA
method for decision making in manufacturing
environment, International Journal of Advanced
Engineering Technology, Volume 54, Number 9, pp. 11551166, Springer.
[6] V.S. Gadakh, (2011), Application of MOORA method forparametric optimization of milling process, International
Journal of Applied Engineering Research, Volume 1,
Number 4, pp. 743-758, Integrated Publishing Association.
[7] B. Singaravel, T. Selvaraj, S. Vinodh, (2016), MultiObjective Optimization of Turning Parameters Using the
Combined Moora And Entropy Method, Transactions of
the Canadian Society for Mechanical Engineering, Volume
40, Number 1, pp. 183-193.
[8] D. Kalibatas, Z. Turskis, (2008), Multicriteria Evaluationof Inner Climate by Using Moora Method, Information
Technology and Control, Volume 37, Number 1, pp.79-83.

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LiFi As An Emerging Technology To Be Utilized inIndonesia
Lesti Setianingrum

Sasono Rahardjo

Centre of Technology for Electronics
Agency of The Assessment and Application of Technology(BPPT)
Jakarta, Indonesia
lesti.setianingrum@bppt.go.id

Centre of Technology for Electronics
Agency of The Assessment and Application of Technology(BPPT)
Jakarta, Indonesia
sasono.r@bppt.go.id

Abstract— The needs of internet connection for supportinginternet connectivity and social media access become much more
important. Many places, nowadays, are connected with WirelessFidelity (WiFi) services to answer these needs. The WiFi whichuses radio waves has limitation on capacity spectrum andbandwidth. So that, it may cause trouble related to spectrum
crunch and over bandwidth. Meanwhile, recently Light Fidelity(LiFi) technology has been developed in some countries, wheredata is transmitted via LED’s light while it is illuminating. LiFi
becomes an emerging technology to answer bandwidth problem
in the near future where telecommunication are expected growhighly. Since, LiFi provides the possibility of the real wirelessbroadband services. Furthermore, it gives no harmful effect tohuman body, since light spectrum has no electromagnetic
interference. This paper shows literature study of the possibilityof LiFi technology application for Indonesia. This technology will
be one of the best solution to balance telecommunication
technologies available to get maximum access, securetransmission and much wider bandwidth for the coming 5G
technology demands.

in Fig.1 [4]. This is quite a huge number of internet users forIndonesia as a developing country, unfortunately it is not inline with internet connectivity in some areas such as basement,
lift or room and rural areas as well which still cannot beestablished. Average speed of internet connectivity data in2016 says that Indonesia ranked 80th in the world with the
speed are around 6.7Mbps [5], whereas Asian countries such as
South Korea, Japan and Singapore are ranked among the topsin the world in the speed of internet connectivity. In South
East Asia level, Indonesia is left behind by Thailand, Malaysia
and Vietnam. This is very contrast condition between internet
user population and internet connectivity in Indonesia.

Keywords— Light Fidelity (LiFi); telecommunication;
spectrum crunch; wireless broadband; 5G technology
Figure 1. Internet users penetration in Indonesia [4]I. INTRODUCTION
Social media becomes a huge and an effective tool for any
purpose to achieve a goal. Since now on, almost everyone has
account to at least one of social media. Then it is used for any
campaign, business, entertainment and also government uses it
for official page to give information to all citizen. A survey
result concludes that Facebook has been being a king of social
media with 1.590 Million active users all around the world [2].
On the other hand, another survey says that traffic for internet
video has been increasing 48% per year which is supportedwith video services such as Netflix and Youtube, and now
they share 50% of internet traffic [1]. It shows that data trafficand video traffic will continue increasing in line with people
lifestyle who spend their time to internet contents.
Indonesia almost has the same condition which ranks 6th on
most internet users in the world [3]. In fact, survey conducted
in 2016 says that there are 132.7 Million of internet users inIndonesia and 65% of them come from Java island as shown

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Internet infrastructure is one of the main parts of wholesystem which can bring good internet connectivity, and it
should be concerned along with the very fast growth ofinternet users demand. Almost 50% internet users in Indonesia
is using mobile access for their connection [4]. It means that
wherever they are, they need to be connected to the internet.
That is why nowadays Wireless Fidelity (WiFi) is utilized inmany, both paid and free, hot spot areas, whereas the numberof internet users increases then it affects the traffic muchheavier and consecutively reliability will be decreased.
The rapidly dwindling RF spectrum along with increasing
wireless network traffic has substantiated the need for greater
bandwidth and spectral relief. Take a look at these condition,
Indonesia government tries to increase capability of internet
connectivity and spreads its penetration by deploying abroadband infrastructure program called Palapa Ring which
will connect several islands in Indonesia using fiber optic as

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backbone of telecommunication. Some telecommunicationindustries has deployed fiber optic as backhaul and spreading
Fiber to The Home (FTTH). Thus in the near future, all ofthese can support the Visible Light Communication (VLC), it
is an emerging field in Optical Wireless Communication(OWC) which utilizes the superior modulation bandwidth ofLight Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to transmit data
II. LIFI
A. LiFi and WiFi
WiFi and mobile communication operated on radio
frequency which has limitation on capacity, in the near future
will be burdened much heavier traffic density of datatransmission then eventually going to be overwhelmed inproviding it services. If no one concerns about this problem,
spectrum crunch will happen in line with emerging Internet ofThings (IoT) which needs big connection. Dr. Harald Haas,
who has idea of LiFi said that LED-based Li-Fi could reachdata rates of 10 Gb/s[6]. It uses light wave spectrum which not
yet utilized, with narrow spectrum it has no limitation forbandwidth. The main reason to choose light is because ofharmless biological and environmental effect and widely
available as an infrastructure globally. If we compare to
Wireless Fidelity which uses radio wave spectrum, Light
Fidelity (LiFi) has much higher speed and broader spectrum.
Beside it is more secure than WiFi because we can see the
network territory and difficult for hijacking.

Parameter
Speed
Spectrum
Data Density
Security

Table 1. Comparison WiFi and LiFi [7]
LiFi
WiFi
High
High
10,000 times broader than WiFi Narrow spectrum
High
Low
High security due to nonLess secure due topenetration of light through walls
transparency

Reliability
Bandwitdh
Transmit/Receive
Power
Ecological Impact
Device to Device
Connectivity
Obstacle
InterferenceBill of Material
Market Maturity

MediumHigh due to broad spectrum

MediumLow

High

MediumLatencyIn the order of microseconds

Low

Medium

High

High

High

Low

High
Low

MediumHigh
In the order ofmilliseconds

B. Working of LiFi
LED as light source has a very potential opportunity to be
developed since it can be flickered faster than human eye candetect. This means also optical wireless communication
technology may grow faster. The invisible on-off activity
enables data transmission using binary codes. Modulation is so
rapid that humans cannot notice it. A light sensitive device(photo detector) then receives the signal and converts it backinto original data.
Visible Light Communication (VLC) uses light visible
light between 400 THz (780 nm) and 800 THz (375 nm) as the
optical carrier for data transmission and for illumination. It
becomes LiFi’s reference for using rapid pulse of light totransmit information.
A server is responsible for managing traffic and sending
information service. Overhead lamp is fitted with LED (Fig.2)
streams data to the photo detector. Device will receive
information using photo detector which converted back to theoriginal data.
STREAMING CONTENTSERVER

POWER
INTERNET

LAMP DRIVER

LED LAMP

RECEIVER DONGLE

PHOTO DETECTORRECEIVED APP DATAAMPLIFICATION &PROCESSING

Figure 2. Working of LiFi

C. Application of LiFi [8]•Healthcare Field
Using radio waves for wireless technology in hospital canmake harmful in operating rooms and interference withmedical equipment in hospital. Thus LiFi may become asolution because it harmless and larger spectrum.
•Aviation Industry
When we use airplane, we must turn on flight mode to reduce
interference of radio waves, but by utilizing lamp on airplane
we can use LiFi for communication.
•Chemical Industry
Chemical or petrochemical industries is sensitive tofrequencies harmful. LiFi based on visible light
communication can utilize lamp on industry for transmission.
•Office and Institute Use
We are presently using Wi-Fi in office and education institutefor data transmission and internet access, which is limited in
bandwidth. Thus, we can adopt LiFi to existing lightening
system to communicate at the speed of light without worrying
about bandwidth.
III. POTENTIAL LIFI APPLICATION IN INDONESIA
A. HospitalIn many countries, over half of the population uses mobile
phones and the market is growing rapidly. Mobile phones emit
electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range, and theexposure of these electromagnetic (EM) fields emitted bymobile phones has greater possibility of causing adverse
health effects.

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In hospitals, emergency situation occurs very frequently
and this may threaten patient’s life. It is very time-sensitive fora responsible personel to react to the emergency calls. Many
hospitals are using WiFi to assist the activities of datatransmission connections. WiFi which uses radio waves is
actually contrary to the conditions in the hospitals filled withmedical equipments which cause interference with radio
waves. Using LiFi, wave interference and harmful body can be
avoided, furthermore data transmission for the purpose ofpatient information as well as hospital management
information sharing can be conducted with much higher speed
than WiFi.

LiFi Receiverinterference in a room but also reducing power loss of BTS.
So, BTS can be focused to cover outdoor communication for
power efficiency. Beside, it can be an opportunity to makenew business for Power Line Communication Hybrid with
Fiber Optic Communication, electricity company has
possibility to be a telecommunication provider as LiFi using
light electricity in buildings.

LiFi
CircuitFigure 4. LiFi application in building (ilustration) [12]Figure 3. Working model LiFi in hospital [9]B. Indoor Communication
Global 2014 Ericsson ConsumerLab study of 23 countries
established that consumers spend 77 percent of their day
indoors [11]. It means that many people who connect to internet
and enjoying internet activity mostly conducted indoor. For
more, many hot spot are deployed in building area to coverinternet connectivity and supporting fixed broadband which
has not yet cover wider area. With many hot spot, wave
interference is easy to happen, bandwidth limitation will also
happen in line with heavy traffic. And all of theseconnectivities mostly are just supported by Base Transceiver
System which means power loss to cover both indoor andoutdoor communication will increase sharply.

Figure 3. Percentage of Location Experience for Internet Activity[11]By the fact of indoor activity, all buildings and offices
have well equipped with lighting system and it always on evenin daylight. With the incoming of LiFi technology, the light
does not just have a function as lighting but can also befunctioned as a data transmission. With this technology we
can create indoor optical wireless network by using existing
lighting system which already set up on buildings. Bring LiFi
for indoor communication, not only reducing waves

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C. Transportation
Traffic congestion problem is a phenomena which
contributed huge impact to the transportation system in acountry. This causes many problems especially when there are
emergency cases at traffic light intersections which are always
busy with many vehicles. The traffic control system inIndonesia has not been equipped with appropriate method
when emergency case occurs. Most traffic lights in big city ofIndonesia have used LED lamp. This can be used for vehicleto-vehicle and vehicle-to-roadside communications. This canbe applied for road safety and traffic management purposes.
Public transportation in Indonesia somehow has no
stability of internet connectivity. Communication on public
transportation such as train or bus come from handoverprocessed by nearest Base Transceiver Station (BTS) whilemoving. The unstable of handover process causes latency
and/or missing signal in some area or sometimes blank spot.
On the other hand, this process needs high power to back up
transmission data inside the vehicle. So, LiFi can be one ofsolution for transmission inside the vehicle by using lamp andradio waves covered transmission outside the vehicle. Bybalancing several technology it can reduce power consumption
for BTS and make better connection to achieve customer
satisfaction for internet connection service.
IV. CONCLUSION
As many other countries are trying to develop LiFi for any
sector, Indonesia has chance to develop LiFi as thistechnology brings much wider spectrum and bandwidth, moresecure, more cost efficient, more environmental friendly.
Hospital, indoor communication and transportation sectors canbecome the right fields for the development of LiFi system, as
hospital is critical place which needs more secure condition to
avoid harmful and medical equipment interference. Building,where lighting system is utilized, can reduce wave interference

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and spectral relief. Furthermore in the transportation field, the
LiFi implementation may be developed as vehicle to road side
communication or communication inside the public
transportations by utilizing the lighting system inside.
All sectors have their own impact to each field. But themost important thing is, visible light wave spectrum is muchwider than radio wave, it offers much more bandwidth
capacity and it is not yet utilized as a communication media.
This excess can answer a variety of problems that arise about
the spectrum crunch, wave interference, etc. The emerging
technology LiFi which uses VLC utilizing LED lamp as media
transmission becomes an opportunity for human history tocreate many innovation on several sectors. LiFi is one of thebest solution candidates which brings green technology evengreen networking.
REFERENCE
[1]
[2]
[3]

http://www.smartinsights.com/social-media-marketing/social-mediastrategy/new-global-social-media-research/, April 2016
Sandvine report, “Global Internet Phenomena (Latin America & Nort
America)”, September 2015
https://www.kominfo.go.id/content/detail/4286/pengguna-internetindonesia-nomor-enam-dunia/0/sorotan_media, 2014

APJII report, “Infografis Penetrasi & Perilaku Pengguna Internet
indonesia”, Asosiasi Penyelenggara jasa Internet Indonesia, 2016[5] https://www.harianaceh.co.id/2017/03/13/kecepatan-internet-indonesianaik-72-dan-kini-pepet-singapura/ , 2017[6] http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/semiconductors/optoelectronics/laserlifi-could-blast-100-gigabits-per-second[7] Anurag Sarkar, Prof. Shalabh Argawal, Dr. Asoke nath, “Li-Fi
Technology:
DataTransmission
through
VisibleLight”,
International Journal of Advance Research in Computer Science andManagement Studies ISSN 2321-7782 Vol 3, Issue 6, June 2015.
[8] Gurpinder Singh, “Li-Fi – An Overview to Future Wireless Technology
in Field of Data Communication”, Journal of Network Communicationand Emerging Technologies Vol 5, Issue 1, November 2015.
[9] Dr. S. Shuda, Ms.Indumathy D, “Patient Monitoring in The Hospitalmanagement Using LiFi”, IEEE International Conference on
Technological Innovations in ICT For Agriculture and Rural
Development, 2016[10] Hyung Jae Chang, “Framework for Data Communication in the Hospitalusing Li-Fi Technology”,
International Journal of Scientific &Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 8, August 2016.
[11] https://www.ericsson.com/res/docs/2015/consumerlab/ericssonconsumerlab-the-indoor-influence-europe.pdf , 2015[12] http://www.centralvozip.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Vozip-NewsLi-Fi-D-Light-Visible-Light-Communication-VLC-Technology-HaraldHaas-Inventor-C%C3%B3moFunciona.jpg[4]

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THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TRACK LINK TANK MANUFACTURING
FOR A LIGHT TYPE ARMY TANK AS A SUBSTITUTION IMPORTED
Hafida dan Sri Bimo P.ba,bMetal Industies Development Centre (MIDC) - Ministry of Industry Indonesia
Jl. Sangkuriang No. 12 Bandung 40135
E-mail : hafidochan@yahoo.com

ABSTRACTThe Indonesia dependency level of track link tank component import are still very high,expensive, and long time procurement, therefore distrub the operational readiness of armytank when needed (Hafid & Sri B.P., 2016). In order to reduce import dependency of tracklink tank, the implementation of the track link tank manufacturing for a light type armytank as a substitution imported has been done (MIDC, 2015). The purpose of research is to
produce the track link tank prototype which reguired by the user, a good quality and added
value with high price competitive. Materials technique that used is steel bainite (Sri B.P, etal, 2015) with the superiority hardness and high tensile strength but still strong (ductile).
The implementation methods was taken, which cover: (1) design casting, (2) patternmaking, (3) molding sand (4) melting and pouring, (5) heat treatment, (6) testing of
mechanical properties before and after heat treatment, namely: tensile strength, hardness
test, chemical composition, microstructure analysis by SEM/EDS, ductility test, wear
resistance, and (Sri B.P, et al, 2015) (7) application field test a prototype in army tank
(Hafid,et al., 2016; 2014). Level 9 of Technlogy Readiness Levels (TRL) is obtained basedon the result of the techno-meter measurement. Based on the economical analysis obtainedby the benefit cost ratio (BCR) = 1,67% > 1 (good) (MIDC, 2015). By mastering thetechnology of the track link tank manufacturing for a light type, we can develop any otherthe track link tank manufacturing, such as medium tank type of track link tank.
Key words: track link tank, benefit cost ratio (BCR), technology readiness levels (TRL)
1. INTRODUCTION
Foundry Industry is an industry that became the foundation of capital goods which
is widely used in various sectors (Hafid, 2014). Casting components are widely used invarious industrial sectors, such as: industrial machinery and factory equipment, agriculturalindustry, textile industry, transportation industry, mining industry, armament industry,
medical equipment industry, chemical industry, petroleum, steam power plants, militaryequipment (Alutsista) etc that is very needed in Indonesia (Hafid,et al.,2016; 2015).
Foundry industry also accomodate a lot of employment and increase incomes, reduce
dependence on imported components so it would be save foreign exchange, increase nonoil and gas exports, and strengthen the industrial structure and equitable development(Hafid & Eddy Herjanto, 2015).
Casting process technology is one of the metal working techniques capable ofproducing products with high complexity (Tatang, Roslina & Hafid, 2005). The
development of casting technology is needed very much to produce high quality casting1

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products with specified characteristics, namely, high mechanic and physical properties,
minimum content of flaws in casting products, good appearance of casting products,
smooth surfaces of casting products, accurate measurement of casting products, high rate ofproduction, and low cost production (Hafid & Sri B.P, 2013; Hafid, Sri B.P & Sony H.,
2014; Rochim S., (2015). The improvement of mechanical and physical properties of ametal in a solid state can be performed by a heat treatment, i.e., a combination of solid
heating and cooling processes for a certain time period (Hafid & Sri B.P, 2013; Hafid, Sri
B.P & Sony H., 2014; Rochim S., (2015).
As we know that the track link tank is a battle vehicles that serves to tread on anddrive the tank battle vehicles. Due the function, the materials for these components musthave certain mechanical properties, which have a high hardness and tensile strength, but
still toughness (ductility) (Hafid & Sri B.P 2013; Hafid, Sri B. P.& Sony H., 2014).
Currently the track link tank for army tank using manganese steel and tempered
martensite steel. Both the steel and heat treatment process requires a complex process withlong processing times.
Bainite is a material that has a hardness and high tensile strength but still have thetoughness. This because it has a hard carbide phase which will take the form of particles
evenly dispersed in the ferrite phase ductility.
This invention is the obtaining of new materials for the track link tank for light typearmy tank, namely steel bainite, which has the required mechanical properties, the heat
treatment process is easier than the process of heat treatment of the track link tankpreviously materials.
The main purpose of this invention is to produce a materials the track link tank for alight type army tank to replace the material commonly used are manganese steel andtempered martensite steel. Bainite steel used as a new material for the track link for a lighttype army tank these mechanical properties with the required standard without acomplicated process of heat treatment.
Based on the description above, then as an effort to reduce import dependency
Indonesia of main defense system equipment and to improve the self-sufficiency ofIndonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) armament, a research and development has been
conducted to enhance the material properties in producing track link tank adapted to thecasting technology in Indonesia so as to produce track link components of high quality andvalue added at competitive prices.
2.

METHODOLOGY
Based on the nature of the problem, this applied research method begins with ananalysis of products and materials imported track link tank. Development shape(dimensions) were performed in accordance with the expert judgment of users, namely the
TNI-AD. This research was conducted at the workshop foundry and heat treatment MIDC,
the Ministry of Industry of Indonesia. Disposable test prototype track link tank, both staticand dynamic tests conducted at Cavalry Army Education Center Padalarang.
The research methodology applied was by the following steps of activities (Hafid &Sri B.P, 2013; MIDC, 2015; Hafid, Sri B.P & Sony H., 2014):

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1. The materials used: (a) pattern material, (b) sand molding material, (c) melting material.
2. The machines and equipments used: (a) wood cutting machine and pattern creating
equipment, (b) sand molding machine, (c) continue mixer (capacity 1 tons), (d) induction
furnace (capacity 200 kg), (e) Thermocouple, (f) spectrometer, CMM (coordinate
measurement machine) gauge, (h) heat treatment machines and tools, (i) machines andequipments for chemical composition test, hardness test, wear resistance and ductilities
tests, dye penetrant, SEM and EDS tests.
3. Working stages:
a. Working preparation, involving: field survey and discussion with experts ofmaterials, development of an implementation schedule, determination of materials
and workforces required, order of working processes, and determination of workshop
and productive facilities needed.
b. Implementation of works, involving: an analysis of imported track link tank material.
Next, a research and development of material for producing a track link prototype
was conducted by the stages of processes as follows: casting design, pattern making,molding making, melting and pouring processes, finishing, after casting testing,
before and after heat treatment process testing, pin and rubber installation on track
link, and track link using test on army tank.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1. Technology
1. The results of prototype production.
This invention relates to new materials (steel bainite) for the track link tank for a lighttype army tank. The manufacture is using of the casting process, followed by heat
treatment process. Stage of the casting process started from making casting design,pattern making from wood, sand mold making, melting and pouring, fettling, testing andquality control after casting. The casting process temperature is was approximately
1.680oC (Hafid & Sri B.P., 2016; MIDC, 2015). The casting process of manufacturing
track link tank can be seen figure 1.

Figure 1. The casting process of manufacturing track link tank

3

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The heat treatment process is a process to obtain the mechanical properties of the castingproduct desired. The heat treatment process (Figure 2) which is used for the material of
the present invention is a heat treatment process of normalizing with cooling fan. The
track link tank product is heated in the furnace heat treatment at a temperature wasapproximately 920oC, holding time for 30 minutes, taken out of the furnace, and thencooled with a fan (blower) with a distance of 1 meter up to room temperature.

Figure 2. The heat treatment process of manufacturing track link tank
Table 1 below shows the chemical composition of the tread bainite steel the tracklink tank for a light type army result from this invention.
Table 1 The chemical composition of bainite steel for the track link tank for a light typearmy tank (wt%)
Carbon Silicon Mangan Posphorus
Sulfur
Chrom Molibden
Iron
Total
(C)
(Si)
(Mn)
(P)
(S)
(Cr)
(Mo)
(Fe)
0,250,251,150,008
0,010
0,85The100
0,25-0,35
0,35
0,35
1,25
Maximum Maximum 0,95
balance
The combination of Mn, Cr and Mo elements in the variations of quantity, as well
as normalizing heat treatment with cooling fan will be able to produce compacted
vermicular bainite. From the microstructure material picture of the present invention(Figure 3). Visible bainite formed has a compacted vermicular morphology evenly
distributed. The bainite forms of violence and produce a high tensile strength with
toughness that is still awake. Expenses incurred on material to be disseminated in all
directions so that the value of tensile strength and good toughness. Compacted vermicularphase containing a higher amount of Cr causes the aggregate ferrite (austenite) will beharder than the matrix. The increase in hardness is due to the mechanism of strengthening
substitution atoms. Cr atoms replace carbon atoms in the fcc crystal ferrite (austenite) thatan increase in hardness.

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Magnification 400X

Figure 3. The microstructure material invention
Faster cooling rates experienced by the material imported products as a result of thecooling fan, causing chromium contained in solid solution austenite could not segregated,so aggregate ferrite phase (austenite) containing chromium formed more that will form thecompacted vermicular morphology of bainite.
Value of hardness, tensile strength and reduction area of material for each invention
is 31 HRC, 96 (kgf/mm2), and 21%. Values of tensile strength and a vast reduction ofmaterial of this invention has already exceeded the highest value of the minimum standard
of JIS G5111 High Tensile Strength Carbon Steel Casting and Low alloying Steel Castingfor Structural Purposes, which is 88 kgf/mm2 and 20%, which has a composition similar to
the material of invention this.
Disposable test or dynamic function test is done by placing the 2nd prototype tracklink tank on tank combat vehicles are coupled together with another track link tank.
Fighting vehicle tank run with a variety of difficult maneuvers in accordance with thedesired operating conditions of the field. Wear test conducted at Kaveleri Army Education
Center Padalarang. More details are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.

Figure 4. Dynamic function test

Figure 5. Prototype track link

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After the function test of the 2nd prototype track link tank is successfully
implemented and passed well. 2015 has been mass production ± 7,500 pieces of track linktank in foundry industry. In the exercise of this mass production of researchers served assupervisor to keep track link tank products are made according to the SOP that has been
determined.
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) is a measure of the technology readiness level
which interpreted as an indicator that shows how ready or mature a technology can beapplied or adopted by users or potential users (Arwanto, et al, 2011; 2013). In technometer
there is 9 scale of technology readiness levels. 1-3 scale is the level of basic researchtechnology, a 4-6 scale applied research group, and a 7-9 scale development research(Figure 6) (Arwanto, 2013). The measurement results of R & D technometer of the tracklink tank manufacturing for a light type obtained levels technology readiness reached level
9 (Figure 7).

Figure 6. TRL the results R & D

Figure 7. TRL implemantation of the track linktank manufacturing for a light typearmy tank

3.2. Economics
To make a business unit needed capital/investment amount depends on the desired
production capacity. Machinery and equipment used is a furnace facilities, equipment andcore pattern making, mold manufacturing equipment, testing equipment and quality control,
equipment finishing and heat treatment[1]. Operational costs (cost of good sold/CGS)(Hafid, 2016; MIDC, 2015; Horngren, 2008; Baldric S., et al. 2013) of making the track
link, include: (1) the cost of materials, (2) labor costs, (3) the cost of machine hours, (4) theindirect costs (over head), (5) the cost of testing, (6) the cost of heat treatment. The resultsof the calculation of benefit cost ratio (BCR) of the track link tank manufacturing for a lighttype army tank as follows:
1.875.000.000 (benefit)=
x 100%(1)
1.162.500.000 (cost)= 1,61% (BCR > 1 ) (Good)
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Based on the calculations results obtained the value of project (BCR> 1) so it could be said
that the R & D project of the track link tank for the light type is very feasible because it has
economically profitable.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The research and development of the track link tank prototype manufacturing for a lighttype army has been done, made of steel bainite, with the following chemical composition(wt%): C = 0.25 - 0.35; Si = 0.25 - 0.35; Mn = 1.15 to 1.25; P = 0.008 max; S = 0.010 max;
Cr = 0.85 - 0.95; Mo = 0.25- 0.35; Fe = Time; with a total overall amount of the chemicalcomposition is 100.
The process for making the track link tank material as mentioned in point 1, where ismanufacture of the bainite steel material by using a heat treatment process of normalizing
with fan cooling to room temperature.
The process for making the track link tank material as mentioned in items 1 and 2 produce
compacted vermicular microstructure of bainite.
The track link tank material for a light type army, made of steel bainite mechanicalproperties with 31 HRC hardness, tensile strength of 96 kgf/mm2, and the value of
reduction area of 21%.
It need further research and development any other of the track link tank manufacturing,such as medium tank type of the track link tank.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank: (1) the Ministry of Research and Technology of the
Republic of Indonesia that has funded research grants Research Incentive SINas 2012,2013,2015 (2) Director of MIDC (3) technical team and technicians Research Incentive activities
2012,2013,2015, Mr. Abdul Malik, Mr. Edy Suyanto and Mr. Rohendy for them advice andsuggestions and all those who have contributed usefull ideas and useful discussion that may
not be written one by one.
6. REFERENCES
Hafid and Sri Bimo Pratomo., (2016), Analysis of Cost of Good Sold the track link tankmanufacturing as substitution import, Proceedings of the National Seminar on
Industrial Technology, 2016. ISSN: 2355-925X, FTI-USAKTI, Jakarta. pp. 39.
______., (2013), Manufacturing track link tank scorpion from CrMo alloy steel casting
through the casting process, Journal of Metal Indonesia, Vol.35 No.1, June 2013.
ISSN: 0126-3463, Metal indusries Development Center (MIDC ), Bandung. pp 1.
Hafid., (2014), Analysis of production facilities on ferrous foundry industry as an effort forcompetitiveness advantage of companies, Proceedings of the National Seminar on
Industrial Technology, 2014. ISSN: 2355-925X, FTI-USAKTI, Jakarta. pp 019-1.
_____., (2015), Analysis of the workplace culture for continuous improvement on foundry
Industries in Indonesia, Proceedings of the 14 th International Conference on QiR.
ISSN: 1411-1284. Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia, Jakarta, pp
1225.

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Hafid and Eddy Herjanto., (2014), Analysis of growth obstacles in national machineryindustries and factory equipment, Journal of Industrial Research, Vol.9 No.1,
ISSN: 1978-5852, Ministry of Industry Indonesia, Jakarta. pp 50.
MIDC., (2015). The Continuation 3rd year the implementation of the track link tankmanufacturing substitution imported to support the self sufficiency of national
defense and security system, Final Report of Research Incentive SINas 2015, The
Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education, Metal indusries
Development Center (MIDC), Bandung. pp I-4.
Sri Bimo Pratomo, Hafid, Husen Taufiq, et al, (2015), Morphology the structure andmechanical properties and wear of normalizing bainitic steel with various
manganese for track link of combat vehicle, Journal of Metallurgy, Vol. 30 No.2,
August 2015. ISSN: 0126-3188, Metallurgy and Materials Research Center LIPI,
Serpong, Tangerang. pp 55.
Tatang Taryaman, Roslina and Hafid, 2005. Casting defect of fly wheel product as theresults of casting process by sand mouding, Journal of Metal Indonesian, Vol.027 /2005. ISSN: 0126-3463, Metal indusries Development Center (MIDC), Bandung.
pp 44.
Hafid, Sri Bimo Pratomo and Sony H., (2014), The development of process technology of
track link tank scorpion to countermeasure defects at casting product , Journal ofIndustrial Research, Vol.8 No.1, April 2014 ISSN: 1978-5852, Ministry ofIndustry Indonesia, Jakarta. pp 2,3.
Suratman, Rochim., (2015), Competency of Human Resources Deevelopment (HRD)
foundry industries, Workshop the Development of Foundry Industry for Advanced
Materials, Date. October 2nd, 2005 in Bandung, MIDC Ministry of Industry
Indonesia, Bandung. pp V-8-V-14.
Ahmad T.J and Waspodo., (2010), Improvement of mechanical properties of nodular castiron by of alloy and heat treatment austempering, Journal of Metal Indonesian,Vol. 32 No. 2, December 2010, ISSN: 0126-3463, Metal Indusries Development
Centre (MIDC), Bandung. pp 21.
Arwanto, et al, (2011), Handbook: measurement of the Technology Readiness Levels(TRL), BPPT, Serpong, Tangerang, pp 8.
Arwanto, Kuncoro Budy Prayitno., (2013). Techno-Meter measurement of the technology
Readiness Levels (TRL), http://www.gin.web.id/index.php. pp.3.
Horngren, Charles T. (2008), Cost accounting a managerial emphasis, fourth edition,
Prentice Hall International Inc. London, pp. 20.
Baldric Siregar, Bambang Suripto, Dody Hapsoro, et al. (2013), Cost accounting, 2nd
Edition, Publisher by Salemba Four, Jakarta, pp. 28-31.

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ENHANCEMENT OF CUI INSPECTION ON INSULATED DEAD-LEG PIPING IN
LNG PLANT BONTANG
I Wayan Yuda S.a,1aTechnical Department, PT Badak NGLBontang 75324, Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia
1

semaradipta@badaklng.co.id

ABSTRACT
Maintaining plant integrity becomes a significant issue to sustain LNG plant operation. A
proper decision in developing inspection program and strategy is highly required regarding
the issue. In such LNG plant, piping system facilities act as one of important roles intransporting fluid where temperature varies widely from -160ºC up to 450ºC. On piping
system, corrosion under insulation (CUI) is considered as one of the frequent damage
mechanism, which may lead to losses of plant integrity. Combination of CUI survey and risk
based inspection (RBI) have been implemented effectively to manage this risk. CUI survey
was conducted on the line operated under the range of susceptible temperature. However, on
the stream operated outside the susceptible CUI temperature range, CUI may still occur suchas on dead-leg line. A stagnant flow on dead-leg line generates a thermal gradient compared
to its main stream and this condition shifts the temperature into susceptible CUI range,
especially in carbon steel pipe. This issue, together with selection on critical point to beinspected will be discussed in the paper. They will govern the success of inspection andimprovement program.
Keywords: CUI; Dead-leg; Corrosion; Inspection; Piping System
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the most common issues being faced by gas and oil processing plant ismaterial/metal damage or properties change due to reaction/contact with its environment
called corrosion. Various mechanism are defined in regard to corrosion, brought todetrimental effect of economy and environment and a challenge on maintaining plant
integrity. Insulation used to serve heat conservation on piping system provides a hidden
problem when it leads to CUI. CUI tends to remain undetected until the insulation is removed
or when leaks occur. Moreover, when the handled range of fluid temperature is relatively
wide as on LNG plant and where numerous dead-leg lines existed, the probability of CUI
occurrence will be higher.
This study aimed to classify the critical point to give more detailed area to beinspected on the insulated carbon steel line containing multi-component refrigerant (MCR)
fluid in regard with CUI and dead-leg by using Solid Work simulation method.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Referring to API 571 [1], CUI is described as corrosion on piping, pressure vessels
and structural component resulting from water trapped under insulation or fireproofing. It
affects externally insulated piping and equipment and those that are intermittent service oroperated between -12°C and 175°C for carbon and low alloy steels.

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Dead-leg is a component of piping system that normally has a little or no significant
flow. Some examples include blanked (blinded) branches, lines with normally closed block
valve, stagnant control valve bypass piping or pressure relieving device inlet, high vents, anddrains [2]. Dead-leg and attachment that protrude from insulated piping and operate at adifferent temperature than the operating temperature of active line are susceptible to CUI [3].
3. DISCUSSION AND RESULT
3.1. Inspection Finding & Suspected Root Cause
Pipe leaking occurred on an online insulated carbon steel pipe SA 333 Gr. 6 containing multicomponent refrigerant (MCR) fluid, as shown by Figure 1a. Leakage point was located on
upstream block valve of pressure safety valve (PSV), as shown by Figure 1b. The line wasthen isolated for repair and further investigation. After removing the insulation, it was
revealed that the pipe experienced severe corrosion, which leads to metal thinning. Figure 1cvisualizes the condition of the pipe.
(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 1 Photograph of leaking pipe; (a) initial pipe condition with insulation and online
condition; (b) simplified diagram of leakage location; (c) pipe condition after removing
the insulation
The leakage is suspected due to CUI promoted by dead-leg location. Actually, the fluid(MCR) which is transported by the mainstream line has an operating temperature of -34°C.
However, increasing temperature on stagnant flow of dead-leg section pipe on the upstreamof PSV occurred and generated an undetected active corrosion beneath the insulation.
Measurement of actual temperature by using thermo gun on other identical line showed thatthe actual line temperature reaches 15.9°C.
3.2. Basic Data of Simulation
Table 1 shows the properties of MCR (containing C1, C2, C3, iC4, nC4, & N2) in liquid state.
The data was taken from actual operating parameters in LNG Plant Bontang. The fluid isflown in a carbon steel pipe (SA 333) totally insulated by 2-inch in thickness of polyisocyanurate insulation material. By considering the gradient temperature of the environment(33°C) and the fluid temperature (-34°C), continuous heat transferred through insulation andpipe material is calculated to be 9.98 watt/m.
Two different header pipes, 18 and 24-inch in diameter, are combined with 1 and 2-inch indiameter branches in a certain length, as shown by Figure 2. Fluid is continuously flown in
the header line. While the end of branch line was isolated by PSV. Then, the behavior of fluid
velocity, density, and temperature on the branch line are observed to give the indication of
the critical distance where CUI might take place.

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Table 1 Properties of MCR in liquid state
Properties
Unit
Density
151.4 kg/m3
Temperature-34 °C
Pressure
42 kg/cm2
Flow rate
15.34 x 103 m3/h

Ø 1” & 2”

Ø 18” & 24”

Figure 2 Header and branch pipe modeling by using Solid Works
3.3. Solid Work Simulation Result
As shown by Figure 3a, the flow condition inside the branch line, dead end, is different
compared to its header line. The velocity on the branch will decrease as the distance from theheader increases. However, the fluid will always be circulated even in a very low velocity(close to 0 m/s). The fluid will be continuously heated up due to heat in leak from theenvironment, which is transferred through insulation and pipe surface. The fluid density also
decreases as distance to the header line increases. This indicates that the fluid tends to change
from liquid to gaseous state.
Figure 3b shows the correlation between those fluid parameters with the change in pipe metal
temperature. The temperature gradient in the pipe can obviously be seen. Greater the distancefrom the header line, the higher the pipe temperature as a result of heat absorption from theenvironment by the fluid inside the pipe, which has a lesser velocity. In a certain point on thesurface of the pipe, the temperature reaches -12°C. This point is considered as a criticaldistance as the temperature is already within the susceptible temperature of CUI occurrence.
Table 2 shows the comparison of critical distance on various sizes of header and branch lines.
The critical distance is affected by the size of header and branch. The larger the header size,
the higher the critical distance on branch. Moreover, the larger the branch size, the higher thecritical distance. It means that a lesser header and branch size will have higher possibility for
CUI occurrence. This is caused by the higher the pipe size, amount of fluid which absorb theheat will also be greater.

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(a)

(b)

Figure 3 (a) Fluid condition in three parameters (density, temperature, and velocity) inside
the branch line; (b) profile of surface temperature on the branch line
Table 2 The comparison of critical distance for different header
and branch pipe sizes
Header Line OD(inch)

18

Branch Line OD(inch)

Critical Distance*
(cm)

1
5.20
2
8.03
1
6.63
24
2
8.12
*Header line contains MCR liquid with temperature of -34°C

4. CONCLUSION
The fluid behavior on an isolated branch line is totally different from its header line.
Velocity, temperature, and density of the fluid gradually changes as the distance from headerline increases. Header and branch sizes affect the critical distance, which indicates thetendency of CUI occurrence on the branch line.
5. REFERENCES
API Recommended Practice 571 (2011), Damage Mechanism Affecting Fixed Equipment in
the Refining Industry
API 570 (2016), Piping Inspection Code: Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Rerating of Inservice Piping Systems
API Recommended Practice 574 (2009), Inspection Practices for Piping System Components

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THE CHARACTERIZATION OF PORE STRUCTURE AND CAPILLARY
SINTERED BASALT FOR WICK HEAT PIPE DEVELOPEDLuh Putu Ike Midiania,c1, Wayan Nata Septiadib2,I Nyoman Suprapta WinayabaProgram
Doktor Ilmu Teknik, Pascasarjana Universitas Udayana, Denpasar-Balib
TeknikMesin Universitas Udayana, Kampus Bukit Jimbaran, Badung-Balic
Teknik Mesin Politeknik Negeri Bali, Kampus Bukit Jimbaran, Badung-Bali

ABSTRACTHeat pipe is one of heat transfer device is a passive cooling system. The device uses acertain size which contains a certain fluid functioning as a heat conductor from heat to coldside. Heat pipe contribution to engineering field is as electronic cooling, solar heater, airconditioning and HVAC system. Heat pipe basically consists of three components; they arecontainer, working fluid and wick. A lot of research had been undertaken to develop
components of heat pipe. One of components which will be developed in this research iswick structures. It is a component functioning to generate capillary pressure to flow
working fluid from condenser to evaporator. Currently, wick is made of metal which iseasily oxidized and often caused corrosion problems. This condition will affect the heatpipe thermal performance, force capillarity and working fluid boiling process. An
alternative direct method to improve the wick structure of heat pipe is using basalt. Basalt is
one of non metal materials, from volcanic lava, having potential as wick material since itdoes not react with water and inflammable. In addition, it also has hardness and goodthermal feature. The purposes of this experimental study are to examine and analyze basalt
as a wick structure. This study was undertaken by making basalt powder of 100 mesh. The
particle size and shape of basalt powder was measured with SEM. Its chemical composition
was tested with EDS. Furthermore samples were prepared in cylinder form with varying ofcompaction pressure. Samples tested to know the pore structure and capillary pumping
amount of basalt. The test result showed that wick pore structure using basalt has astructure which can be used as wick heat pipe with sufficient capillarity force.
Keywords: heat pipe, wick, pore structure, capillary, basalt.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address:ike.midiani@gmail.com, wayan.nata@gmail.com

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1. INTRODUCTION
Heat pipe heat exchanger technology is a highly flexible, capable of transporting large
amounts of energy during the heat pipe with a small drop in temperature, so that theequipment with very high thermal conductivity. In the implementation as thermal control,
heat pipes have been used in heat pumps, refrigeration, cooling of electronic components
and systems other two-phase thermal control (Vasiliev, 2005). Heat pipes can harness solar
energy, the heat recovery process (waste heat) or heating fuels as an energy source.
Heat pipe basically consists of three components; they are container, working fluid andwick. A lot of research had been undertaken to develop components of heat pipe. One ofcomponents which will be developed in this research is wick structures. It is a component
functioning to generate capillary pressure to flow working fluid from condenser toevaporator (Yang, et al., 2016; Deng, et al., 2017; Nishikawara, et al.,2017) . Currently,
wick is made of metal which is easily oxidized and often caused corrosion problems. Thiscondition will affect the heat pipe thermal performance, force capillarity and working fluid
boiling process (Putra et al, 2014).
The wick material other than metal that has been widely researched with the use of
biomaterials. Use of the biomaterial is inspired by research on the basic behavior
biomimetic at a flow rate of water in the vessels xylem at two plants, Musa X Paradisiaca
and Salix Flamingo (Wang, et al (2014), and has been conducted by the behavior basebiomimetic inspire directly or indirectly on wick heat pipe, and biomimetic can be applied
to heat pipe modern technology. Research the use of biomaterials as a base material for the
wick capillaries have also been carried out by and generate total thermal resistance pipe
heat is lower when using the wick capillary with a basis of Collaria biomaterial (Putra, etal,. 2014). Application of biomaterials tabulate as a wick can reduce thermal resistance by
56.3% compared to the sintered copper wick. However, the use of biomaterials tabulate isfeared will disturbed to the survival of corals.
Other natural ingredients that could potentially be used as a wick is basalt which is a natural
rock. Basalt is one of non metal materials, from volcanic lava, having potential as wickmaterial since it does not react with water and inflammable. In addition, it also has hardness
and good thermal feature (Singha, 2012). Basalt does not react with air or water, when incontact with chemicals, will not form a chemical reaction that is harmful to health or theenvironment.
As the wick materials, basalt must have several requirements such as permeability,
capillarity and good pore structure, because the wick is a component that flow back theworking fluid from the condenser to the evaporator by utilizing capillary force (Vasiliev,
2005). Need to do the initial testing and the formation of a good structure that basalt
suitable as a wick. Wick performance is strongly influenced by the pore structure forgenerating capillary pressure in order to flow the working fluid. The speed of flow
distribution in the pore structure is strongly influenced pore size distribution (Yang, 2016).
Although basalt is a porous media with various dimension, still expected basalt will have ahigh permeability, porosity and capillary force.
Several tests are performed to see the effect of pore structure to basalt capillary andpermeability. The particle size and shape of basalt powder was measured with SEM. Its
chemical composition was tested with EDS. Furthermore samples were prepared in cylinder

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591

form with varying of compaction pressure. Samples tested to know the pore structure andcapillary pumping amount of basalt.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Preparasi Basalt Powder
One of the most important parameters of a porous wick is called capillary pumping
amount. That stated the maximum amount of working fluid can be pumped into a porous
wick. Must be tested basalt to know the ability of capillary pumping amount of basalt. For
this test, basalt samples prepared formed from basalt powder. Preparation of basalt powder
made by crushing basalt to obtain a smaller granules. Basalt has been destroyed
subsequently sieved to obtain a grain size of 200 µm. Basalt powder with a grain size of
200 μm still have the irregular form. Pictures of basalt and basalt powder shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1 Basalt and basalt powder
The shape and grain size testing of basalt that has not been uniform is tested by SEM(Scanning Electron Microscopic). It is seen that the form of granules have an irregularshape with a rough surface, as shown in Fig. 2.
Testing with EDS was conducted to determine the chemical composition of basalt. The
composition are Si, Al, K, Ca, Fe, Mg, Na, C, Ti where the results are shown in Fig. 3.
below.

Figure 2 Shape and grain size of basalt powder

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8000

Si

7000
6000

O

Counts

5000
4000
3000

Al

2000
1000

C
0

0

Na
Mg

K
2

Fe
4

6

8

10

keV

Figure 3 Chemical composition of basalt
2.2. Preparasi Sintered Powder Wick
Sintered basalt samples were made from a 200 μm basalt powder, formed into a cylindricalshape with a diameter of 25 mm and a length of 31 mm. Basalt powder compacted using acompacting machine Prestopress-3 with some variations in pressure of 300, 400 and 500
MPa, compacting temperatures between 140-180oC. Basalt sample need starch as theadhesive, and the composition not exceeding the basalt composition. Basalt samples thathave been compacted further tested by SEM to see the pore size distribution of the sample,
and further tested the capillary pumping amount. Basalt samples are shown in Figure 4.
After got the SEM result, the pore distribution can count by the ImageJ programme. The
figure 5 below show the pore distribution of basalt samples.

Figure 4 Basalt samples

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Figure 5 SEM photograph and pore diameter distribution of sintered basalt

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2.3. Set Up Eksperimen
Capillary pumping testing methods in basalt samples is based on the testing that was done
(Putra, et al,. 2014), which measures the amount of fluid that is able to be transported bybasalt samples for a time specified. The testing can be seen as in Fig. 6.

Figure 6 The method of capillary test
Capillary pumping amount testing performed by Archimedes law which states that theweight of the wick weighed when dry and when saturated with water. Basalt samples thathave been compacted weighed when dry and after saturated with water. To perform this test
prepared a beaker, and electronic scales that connected to the computer. The beaker filledwith water placed on electronic scales to determine the weight of the water early. Further
samples of basalt dipped into the beaker and begins measuring the weight reduction ofwater in the beaker. Measurement of weight reduction of water carried to the sample ofbasalt saturated or can no longer absorb water in the beaker. The amount of water that canbe absorbed by a sample of basalt indicated by the electronic scales with the reduced
weight of water in the beaker.
For the calculation of the porosity (ɛ) basalt sample is based on the following formula(Putra, et al., 2014)(1)
The results of porosity calculation of basalt samples shown in Table 1 below:
Table 1 Porosity of Basalt sintered powder

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595

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Effect of compaction on porosity
The varying pressure compaction during manufacture basalt samples will affect theporosity of the basalt samples. Influence of compacting pressure on the porosity shown in
Table 1 and Fig. 7. Fig. 7 shows that the increase in compacting pressure will reduce theporosity of the samples of basalt. A high compacting pressure will form the grains density
increase, so the fewer gaps between grains will happen.

Figure 7 Porosity by varying of compaction pressure
3.2 Effect of compaction on capillary pumping amount
Capillary pumping amount shown in graphical form between the weight of water to thecapillary pumping time. From fig. 8 seen within 800 seconds, the sample of basalt withcompacting pressure of 300 MPa is able to absorb water as much as 5.5 grams, samples ofbasalt with compacting pressure of 400 MPa is able to absorb water as much as 5.5 gramsand basalt samples with compacting pressure of 500 MPa is able to absorb water as muchas 4.5 grams.
The ability of capillary pumping amount of basalt sampel is depends on porosity. Capillary
pumping amount meningkat dengan meningkatnya porositas. Fig. 8 shows the capillary
pumping amount of basalt sampel.

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Figure 7 Capillary based on mass amount transported
4. CONCLUSION
This study was performed basalt as an alternative wick. The ability of the basalt to use as awick indicated by the test results that basalt can absorb water to a specific period. Thisbasalt capability need to be improved by improving the granular form, or in the process offormation as a wick later.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Udayana University. This work is supported by
Udayana University’s Laboratory and the authors greatly appreciate their support andhelpful suggestions.
6. REFERENCES
Leonard L. Vasiliev, (2005), Heat Pipes in Modern Heat Exchangers, Applied ThermalEngineering, Volume 25, pp. 1-19.
Peipei Yang, Zhi Wen, Ruifeng Dou, XunLiang Liu, (2016), Permeability in multi-sized
structures of random packed porous media using three-dimensional lattice Boltzman
metod, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer xxx xxx-xxx
Daxiang Deng, Yong Tang, Guanghan Huang, Longseng Lu, Dong Yuan, (2013),
Characterization of capillary performance of composite wicks for two-phase heattransfer devices, International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer, Volume 56, pp. 283-293.
M. Nishikawara, H. Nagano, (2017), Optimization of wick shape in a loop heat pipe forhigh heat transfer, International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer, Volume 104, pp. 10831089.

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Nandy Putra, Rosari Saleh, Wayan Nata Septiadi, Ashar Okta, Zein Hamid, (2014),
Thermal performance of biomaterial wick loop heat pipes with water-base Al2O3
nanofluids, International Journal of Thermal Sciences, Volume 76, pp. 128-136.
Kunal Singha, (2012), A Short Review on Basalt Fiber, International Journal of Textile
Science, 1(4): pp. 19-28.
Jinwang Li, Yong Zou, Lin Cheng, (2010), Experimental study on capillary pumping
performance of porous wicks for loop heat pipe, Experimental Thermal and Fluid
Science, Volume 34, pp. 1403-1408.
Jian Zeng, Can Chen, Yong Tang, Xingang Wang, Li Zhang, Shiwei Zhang, Wei Yuan,
Jieling Chen, (2016), Effect of powder size on capillary and two-phase heat transfer
performance for porous interconnected microchannel nets as enhanced wick for twophase heat transfer devices, Accepted Manuscript Applied Thermal Engineering.
Y. Qu, K. Zhou, K.F. Zhang, Y. Tian, (2010), Effect of multiple sintering parameters on thethermal performance of bi-porous nickel wicks in Loop Heat Pipes, International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Volume 99, pp. 638-646.
Jeehoon Choi, Wataru Sano, Weijie Zhang, Yuan Yuan, Yunkeun Lee, Diana-Andra BorcaTasciuc, (2013), Experimental investigation on sintered porous wicks for miniature loop
heat pipe applications, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, Volume 51, pp. 271278.
Hamid Ghayour, Majid Abdellahi, Maryam Bahmanpour, (2015), Optimization of the highenergy ball-milling : Modelling and parametric study, Accepted Manuscript Powder
Technology.
Jian Zeng, Lang Lin, Yong Tang, Yalong Sun, Wei Yuan, (2017), Fabrication and capillary
characterization of micro-grooved wicks with reentrant cavity array, International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Volume 104, pp. 918-929.Mettam, G.R., Adams,
L.B. in: Jones, B.S., Smith, R.Z. (Eds.), (1994), Introduction to the Electronic Age, EPublishing, Inc. New York, pp. 281–304.
Mamat, M., Kusrini, E., Yahaya, A., Hussein, M.Z., Zainal, Z., (2009), Synthesis andcharacterization of Zn-Al-Anthranilate nanocomposites. In: Proceedings of the 25th
Regional Conference on Solid State Science and Technology 2009, Perlis, 2 December,
Malaysia.

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REMAINING LIFE ASSESSMENT OF FIBER REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP)
PIPE IN LNG PLANT AFTER 20 YEARS IN OPERATION
Luthfi Ardiansyah1
Inspection Engineer, Technical Department, PT Badak NGLBontang 75324, Indonesia
luthfi@badaklng.co.id1

ABSTRACTFiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) pipe has been utilized as one of the important part in Oil and
Gas Industry including in LNG Production Facilities. Its ability to withstand corrosive fluids
and good mechanical properties make the FRP pipe become an option in LNG Plant ascooling water distribution facilities. However, delamination and aging degradation has
become big issue in FRP Pipe utilization. Proper method should be applied to assess thereliability and integrity of FRP Pipe facilities especially after reaching lifetime design inoperation. One of promising method for this assessment is the Remaining Life Assessment
method. This method was applied to one of PT Badak NGL's Process Train (Train G) which
has already reached its 20 years’ design life. A sample of FRP pipe was taken from 16 inch
cooling water outlet of Propane Desuperheater Heat Exchanger, considered as the mostcritical location with the highest vibration level and minimum remaining thickness. Several
analysis methods were carried out to ascertain the actual condition, such as visual analysis,
size dimension measurement, and NDT analysis. Pipe characterizations were assessed byusing flexural test, tensile test, and hardness test. Creep test has also been conducted todetermine the remaining lifetime which is based on time-temperatures superposition
principle. Those comprehensive observations are used to determine the estimation whether
the FRP Pipe can be used properly for another 20 years. Moreover, there are some inspection
programs already obtained after the assessment. Those programs were addressed as thestrategic plan to sustain LNG plant operation.
Keywords: Remaining Life Assessment, Fiber Reinforced Plastics, LNG Plant, Process
Train.
1. INTRODUCTION
PT Badak NGL operates eight Process Trains (A~H) to produce LNG with maximum annual
capacity of 22.5 Milions Tons Per Annum (MTPA). Supporting LNG production, FRP
material pipings are utilized to distribute sea water as cooling media for heat exchanger
equipment. Since the FRP pipe material is potentially degrade by service condition,
evaluation of its reliability after reaching design life becoming mandatory strategy.
Remaining life assessment is one of method to determine reliability of equipment to continue
in service after reaching its design life. PT Badak NGL already use this method to assess thereliability of Process Trains A until Process Train F, including the FRP piping facilities. So
far, these Process Trains are provenly reliable to continue its service for another 20 years. In
2017, one of Process Trains, Train G, will reach its 20 year's design life and its reliability
need to be evaluated. This paper will explain the detail study to determine the remaining lifeof FRP pipe facilities in Process Train G of PT Badak NGL after operating around 20 years.
Besides estimating the remaining life, this study were performing several tests andProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284599

evaluations considering several damage phenomena like delamination, aging, wheatering,and loss of mechanical properties to give a general condition assessment of existing FRP
pipes.
2. METHODOLOGY
Actual site assessment such as stress analysis, ultrasonic test and vibration measurement wereconducted to determine the most critical location of FRP pipe that can be selected as a sample.
Stress analysis was used to calculate stress on all FRP piping to ensure the applied stress isstill under the maximum allowable stress of the material and define the critical location.
Ultrasonic and vibration measurement were conducted to determine the deterioration levelof FRP pipe based on de-lamination, actual thickness and level of vibration. The result fromthe above assessment was evaluated to determine the most critical location of FRP pipe inplant and used as samples for laboratory assessment.
Laboratory assessment was conducted on FRP pipe sample with several examinations.
Flexural strength test [1], tensile strength test [4], hoop strength test [2], hardness test [8] andfiberglass content test [3] were conducted and the results were compared with technicalspecification of FRP material from manufacturer. Fatigue test was performed to determine
fatigue properties of FRP pipe by using six specimens, three pieces of specimens by 70%
tensile load and the rest by 50% tensile load. After broken cycles of each variable wasobtained, then residual strength was evaluated. The evaluation performed by applying up to
500 cycles (70% tensile load) for the first specimen and 25,000 cycles (50% tensile load) tothe others. Each specimens then subjected to tensile test and the result is being comparedwith original properties. Creep test was used to determine the remaining life of material byusing time-temperature superposition principle method [7, 9]. It was conducted bytemperature variation at 23oC, 40oC, and 60oC, with level of load at 70% of yield strength.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Site Assessment
For ultrasonic test on site, selection of examination locations was based on piping stressanalysis results with value of stress greater than 25% allowable stress. As shown in Table 1,
it was found that there are three locations with delaminating indication occurred on FRP
pipes installed. All delamination were found in the level 1 which means that size oflamination is less than 25x 25 mm 2[5]. Decreasing thickness up to 15% from nominal wall
thickness was also obtained on outlet cooling water FRP pipe of G4-E-1B during thickness
measurement while two other locations were still above minimum nominal wall thickness.
From vibration test result, the vibration in radial direction has higher value than axial
direction. All vibration levels are obtained in micrometer scale, hence vibration parameterhas low possibility to damage FRP pipe during operation. Even though, the highest amplitude(movement) level of FRP piping in Train G is at the 16-inch cooling water outlet pipe of G4E-1B (Propane Desuperheater Heat Exchanger) with resultant amplitude up to 818.473 µm.
By considering decreasing of thickness and level of amplitude (movement) from vibration
test, the 16-inch cooling water outlet pipe of G4-E-1B was selected as the most criticallocation and decided to be the sample pipe for laboratory assessment. Summary of site
assessment results are shown on Table 1.

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Table 1. Summary of Site Assessment Results
OutsideDiameterof Pipe(Inch)

Ultrasonic Test

NominalActualWall
Thickness
Thickness
(mm)
(mm)
1
G4-E-1B
16
< 100
7.49
6.4
2
G4-E-2F
30
< 100
10.7
11.6
3
G4-E-2D
30
< 100
10.7
11.6
* Equipment numbering system in PT Badak NGL
G4-E-1B: Propane Desuperheater Heat Exchanger
G4-E-2F/D : Propane Condenser Heat Exchanger
No

Location*

Delamination
Size (mm2)Vibration Test
ResultFreq.
(Hz)

Resultant
Amplitude
(µm)

0.750
1.125
5.500

818.473
68.824106.6173.2. Laboratory Assessment
Visual inspection on internal sample of FRP pipe showed that the internal layer of the pipe
has largely disappeared which is indicated by lighter glass fiber pattern as shown in Figure
1. However, the resin as fiberglass binder still existed completely and did not exposed tooutside surface. Internal liner layer was used to provide chemical and abrasion resistancecharacteristics of FRP pipe to service fluids. If this component disappeared during service
due to abrasion of service fluids, intrusion mechanism of fluids to FRP structure will takeplace and lead to delamination process, potentially decrease the reliability of FRP Pipe [9].

Figure 1. Internal Condition of FRP Pipe Sample
Ultrasonic test has resulted in varying actual thickness with maximum thickness at 6.16 mm
and minimum thickness at 5.19 mm. These actual thicknesses have decreasing about 18%
until 30% from nominal thickness but still above the required minimum thickness (0.356mm) as calculated with Eq. 1. Table 2 sumarize the thickness result by considering operatingpressure of cooling water system at 3.5 kg/cm2 and Hoop Strength of FRP piping material at
197.14 MPa. The decreasing of wall thickness during service may happen due to manyfactors. The effects of erosion from internal flow of carrying fluids, in this case is seawater,
is one of factors that should be considered. Fluid velocity, percent solids and system

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configuration are some of the variables that affect erosion rates. Other than that, aging
damage may affect to thickness reduction since the FRP pipe has already been operated forabout 20 years.
Table 2. Thickness Measurement Result by Ultrasonic Test
Minimum
ActualThickness (mm)5.19

Initial. Thickness
(mm)
7.49
𝑡𝑡. 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃/(2𝑠𝑠 + 𝑃𝑃)

Thickness Required (@ P= 3.5kg/cm2) (mm)
0.356
(1)

Physical and mechanical properties of the FRP samples that obtained from laboratory tests
are summarized in Table 3. By flexural test [1], sample has average flexural strength of
93.758 N/mm2. From tensile test [4] and hoop tensile test [2] results, the samples have valueof tensile strength and hoop strength about 52.02 N/mm2 and 197.14 N/mm2 respectively.
These values have decreased by 35% from initial tensile strength (80 N/mm 2) and 11% frominitial hoop strength (220 N/mm2). The appearances of FRP responds to subjected load during
those tests are shown in Figure 2. The decreasing of tensile properties and hoop properties
may indicate aging phenomena [6]. There are several factors can lead to degradation or aging
damage of FRP material such as weathering, moisture, temperature, fluids and stress during
in service environmental conditions. Weathering referred to the chemical and physicalchanges that occurred when radiation is absorbed by a polymer. This condition initiated bysolar radiation, which results in the absorption of UV radiation by chromospheres and in theactivation of excited states in macromolecules. However, other climatic quantities such asheat, moisture and air born pollution have influenced the mechanisms of degradation and thesubsequent results of aging [6]. Other factors that may decrease mechanical properties
especially tensile properties are effect of moisture and water. Potentially damaging amountsof moisture from the surrounding environments with the degree of degradation linked directly
to the amount of moisture absorbed. The absorbed water may adversely affect the material ina number of ways as many as reduction in the glass transition temperature of resin, swelling
and reduction in mechanical and physical properties (i.e. stiffness, strength and hardness) [6].
By using ball indentation method for plastic [8], hardness level of sample on the inside wall
was 240 N/mm2 while on the outside wall was 209 N/mm2. As stated in technicalspecification of FRP from manufacturer, this type of FRP product have a value of hardness
40 - 65 Barcol hardness number. Since there is no conversion chart/method between Barcol
hardness and Ball Indentation hardness as per ISO 2039-1, comprehensive evaluation related
to hardness properties could not be conducted including whether there is decreasing in
hardness value or nor. However, in general, the hardness range of polymer reinforced byfiberglass by ball indentation method is between 180 – 316 N/mm2, which the sample
hardness value is still between that ranges [8, 10].

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Table 3. Materials Characterization Result Summary
No

1

2

Standard

ASTM
D790

ASTM
D638

AverageThickness
(mm)
5.73

5.86

3

ASTM
D2290

6.36

4

ISO
2039-1

6.70

5

ASTM
D3171

-

Parameter
Flexural Test
Max. Load
Max. strength
Modulus Elasticity
Tensile Test
Max. Load
Max. Strength
Strain at ultimate
Modulus Elasticity

Result234.11
93.76
9.685
3,883
52.02
0.93
9.62

Hoop Tensile Test
Max. Load
25,754.8
Max. Strength197.14
Hardness Test
Inside wall
240
Outside wall
209
Fiber Glass Content Test
-

79.02

Product
Specification

Unit

85

N
MPa
GPa

80

N
MPa
GPa

220

N
MPa
N/mm2
%

The hardness of an FRP composite is a direct result of the resin matrix and curing process.
The more rigid the resin, the higher the level of hardness, whereas the more flexible laminate
will have lower hardness level. Beside it, reinforcement component has a duty attaining
mechanical properties of composite, in this case, reinforcement component is fiberglass.
From glass content test [3] result, FRP sample has glass fiber composition about 79% andcategorized as Glass Fiber Dominant FRP Pipe [7]. Delamination degradation is not big issue
to glass fiber dominant type except when piping was subjected to compression stress that led
to buckling [7].

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(a).

(b).

(c).
Figure 2. (a). Flexural Test Curve Result. (b). Tensile Test Curve Result. (c). Hoop Tensile
Test Curve Result.
Table 4 summarizes the result of fatigue test with several specimens and variables. Fatigue
test was conducted by using two basic condition. The first condition, applying 70% tensile
load by load Ratio, R, 0.1 (load maximum at 5.432 kN & minimum load 0.5432 kN) andfrequency 8 Hz to the three pieces of specimens. The second conditions, test was conductedby applying 50% tensile load with load ratio, R, 0.1 (load maximum at 3.880 kN & minimum
load 0.388 kN) and frequency 3 Hz. For the first condition, it resulting that the lifetime of thethree specimens are 1,111 cycles, 949 cycles and 720 cycles respectively. Others conditions,
lifetime of the three pieces of specimens are 68,988 cycles, 48,420 cycles and 88,044 cycles
respectively. Furthermore, average lifetime on each condition are 926 cycles and 68,484
cycles.

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Table 4. Summary of Fatigue Test Results
No

Specimen

Fmaks
(kN)

1
2
3
4
5
6

70.1
70.2
70.3
50.1
50.2
50.3

5.432
5.432
5.432
3.880
3.880
3.880

Fmin
(kN)
0.54320.54320.54320.38800.38800.3880

R

Freq.
(Hz)

Life Time(Cycles)

0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1

8
8
8
3
3
3

1,111
949
720
68,98848,42088,044

Average
Life Time(cycles)
927
68,484

Results
BrokenBrokenBrokenBrokenBrokenBrokenAfter broken cycles limit of each variable was obtained, evaluation was continued to obtain
the residual strength properties. The evaluation performed by applying up to 500 cycles (with
70% tensile load) for the first specimen and 25,000 cycles ( with 50% tensile load) to theothers. Each specimens then subjected to tensile test and being compared to the originaltensile strength. As the result summarized on Table 5, tensile strength decreased by only 9%(48.39 MPa) and 7% (47.09 MPa) from original tensile strength (52.02 MPa). This show thatfatigue stress did not have any significant effect on FRP mechanical properties. As glass fiber
dominant type, performance of FRP pipe during service lifetime was affected by creep stressrather than fatigue stress [7].
Table 5. Summary of Residual Strength Result
Condition
Load MinLife TimeNo

SampleLoad Max
(kN)

(kN)

(Cyclic)

1

70.R

5.432

0.5432

500

2

50.R

3.880

0.388

25,000Tensile strength , MPa
Original
52.02

Residual
48.39
47.09

Estimating the remaining life by creep load required long time of test/examination. However,by using Time-Temperature Superpositioning method, it can be accelerated especially forplastic/polymer material specimen. Polymer, because of their viscoelastic nature, exhibit
behavior during deformation which is both temperature and time (frequency) dependent.
Time Temperature Superpositioning method principle is based upon the premise that theprocesses involved in molecular relaxation or rearrangements occur at greater rates at higher
temperatures. The time over which these processes occur can be reduced by conducting themeasurement at elevated temperatures and transposing the data to lower temperatures. In thisstudy, FRP Specimens constantly loaded by 70% of yield strength at three temperatures(23°C, 40°C & 60°C). Superposition was conducted by 23°C as reference temperature andresulting Curve Strain-Time graph as shown in Figure 3. It concludes that the estimation
remaining life is 157,447 hours or 17.94 years (red dot line). The absence of inflection pointin the curve is indicating that the specimen still not broken yet and has longer remaining

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lifetime than 17.94 years. From the estimation result and the condition during test, the FRP
pipe sample is estimated to have the remaining life for another 20 years.
Creep Test Graph Result
0,90

157442; 0,8384

0,80
0,70

Creep
40°C70%0,60

Strain, %Creep
23°C70%

0,50

Creep
60°C70%

0,40
0,30

Graph
Grafik
40°C
40°C
ShiftedShifted

0,20
0,10
0,00
1

10

100

1000

Time, Hours

10000

1000001000000

Grafik
Graph
60°C
60°C
ShiftedShiftedFigure 3. Summary of creep test by 70% yield strength of constant load at variation
temperature
In the end, by concluding all the evaluation result above, the FRP sample is still reliable toservice under normal condition even though aging indication is discovered. Since the sample
is considered as the most critical location in Process Train G, it can reflect condition of all
FRP piping in Train G. So that, FRP piping facilities in Process Train G, owned by PT Badak
NGL, is considered safe for operating in another 20 years just as other Process Trains.
4.

CONCLUSIONFRP Pipe in PT Badak NGL’s Process Train G, was assessed to determine its remaining
useful life and the following conclusions were obtained:
1. De-lamination of above ground FRP pipes were found on several locations but still
within acceptable level (L-1) and the size of lamination is less than 25x 25 mm2.
2. All vibration levels obtained in micrometer scale, hence vibration parameter has low
possibility to damage FRP pipe during operational.
3. From characterization results, the FRP pipe experienced aging phenomena indicatedfrom the decreasing of mechanical properties (hoop strength & tensile strength) eventhough flexural strength still above minimum technical specification of FRP product.

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4.
5.
6.

Fatigue test showed that the remaining lifetime of FRP sample is about 926 cycles (atload 70% of tensile strength) and 68,484 cycles (at load 50% of tensile strength).
Fatigue stress did not have any significant effect on tensile strength properties of FRP
since the residual strength difference to initial the tensile strength only 7%-9%.
Based on creep test, curve condition during creep test still in linear position and ended
before reaching inflection point was achieved (sample not yet broken), showed that theremaining life of FRP Pipe is still more than 20 years.

5. REFERENCES[1] American Standard Testing & Material (ASTM) D790. (2015). Standard Test Methods
for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and Reinforced Plastics and Electrical Insulating
Materials.
[2] American Standard Testing & Material (ASTM) D2290. (2016). Standard Test Method
for Apparent Hoop Tensile Strength of Plastic or Reinforced Plastic Pipe.
[3] American Standard Testing & Material (ASTM) D3171. (2015). Standard Test Methods
for Constituent Content of Composite Materials.
[4] American Standard Testing & Material (ASTM) D638. (2014). Standard Test Method for
Tensile Properties of Plastics.
[5] American Standard Testing & Material (ASTM) E114. (2015). Standard Practice for
Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Straight-Beam Contact Testing.
[6] Bagherpour, Salar. (2012). Fiber Reinforced Polyester Composites, Chapter 6, pp. 150154.
[7] Det Norske Veritas (DNV). (2010). Offshore Standard DNV-OS-C501: Composite
Components.
[8] International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 2039-1. (2001). Plastics Determination of hardness - Part 1: Ball indentation method.
[9] Miyano, Y., M., Ichimaru, J., Hayakawa, E., (2008), Accelerated Testing for Long Term
Strength of Innovative CFRP Laminates for Marine Use, Composites Part B, 39, pp. 5 12.
[101] Quadrant. Product & Application Guide. (2007). General and Advanced Engineering
Plastic.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
RISK-BASED APPROACH FOR REMAINING USEFUL LIFE (RUL)ASSESSMENT OF LNG/LPG TANKS AT BADAK LNG
Vicky Indrafusa
Corrosion and Material Engineer
Technical Department, PT Badak NGLBontang 75324, Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia
Email: indrafusa@badaklng.co.id

ABSTRACTIn 2016, Badak LNG operates 5 LNG Tanks and 4 LPG Tanks to maintain LNG/LPG inventory in Badak
LNG Plant. Those tanks have reached 30 years service life. Therefore comprehensive remaining useful life(RUL) assessment of LNG/LPG Tanks is required to estimate equipment’s life period within a safe integrity
operating window. Direct assessment of internal LNG/LPG Tank will give useful information regarding theactual condition, but this activity is hardly performed due to operational limitation. Therefore RUL
assessment of LNG/LPG tanks was performed using Risk Based Inspection (RBI) approach by reviewing
design and operating conditions as well as inspection and maintenance history. Besides the risk and RUL,
inspection and maintenance strategies for life extension purposes will be recommended from thisassessment. Based on the assessment result, LNG/LPG tanks at Badak LNG are within medium risk
category at the time of assessment (in 2016) and for further 10 years (in 2026). The risk level of the tank canbe reduced by 48.06% for LNG tank and 70.97% for LPG tank in 2026 by performing recommended
inspection. All subjected LNG/LPG Tanks have remaining useful life over 20 years.
Keywords: Tank; Remaining useful life (RUL); Inspection; Risk-based inspection (RBI)
1. INTRODUCTION
Badak LNG operates eight Process Trains to produce LNG with a maximum capacity of 22.5 million tons
per annum (MTPA) and Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) with a capacity of 1.02 million ton per annum(MTPA). At the time of assessment (in 2016), Badak LNG operates 5 LNG Tank and 4 LPG Tank, while theremaining 1 LNG Tank and 1 LPG Tank are in offline condition.
The LNG and LPG storage tanks in Badak LNG are the single containment type with double steel walls
designed and constructed according to API Standard 620 Appendix Q and R. In order to sustain the
cryogenic operation, the inner tank of the LNG is made of 9% nickel steel and the outer tank is made ofcarbon steel. To minimize heat leak and boil off, insulation perlite is placed around the inner tank bottom,
side wall and top of the suspended deck which is supported from the carbon steel outer tank. The generalview and the general specification of the tank are shown in Figure 1 and Table 1 respectively.

Figure 1. Tank general view.

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Table 1. General tank specification.
Description
Content
Nominal Capacity
Tank Type
Design Pressure
Design Temperature

Tank Design Specification
LPG Outer Tank LNG Inner Tank
Natural gas
Liquefied natural
vapor
gas
95000 m3 to 127500 m3

LNG Outer Tank
Natural gas
vapor-

Suspended
Ceiling Type2.0 psig

Dome Roof Type

Suspended Ceiling Type

Dome Roof Type2.0 psig

Liquid at 29.3 PCF

2.0 psig-45oC-161oC

Ambient(25oC)

9% Ni Steel A553 Grade A

Carbon Steel A283 C

LPG Inner Tank
Liquefiedpetroleum gas
40000 m3

Shell

Carbon Steel A537

Ambient(25oC)
Material
Carbon Steel A537

BottomCarbon Steel A537

Carbon Steel A537

9% Ni Steel A553 Grade A

Carbon Steel A283 C

Roof

Carbon Steel A537

Carbon Steel A537

Carbon Steel A283 C

Carbon Steel A283 C

Corrosion Allowance

None

None

None

None

Shell

8 mm to 25 mm

Plate Thickness
9 mm to 28 mm
7 mm to 25 mm

11 mm to 18 mm

Bottom
Roof

5 mm
-

5 mm
6 mm

5 mm
8 mm

5 mm
-

All tanks in Badak LNG Plant have been operated for more than the design life (20 years) as shown in Table
2. Therefore, these assets are required to be evaluated for the risk and respective remaining useful life (RUL)to ensure that they are operated within a safe integrity operating windows (IOW).
Ideally, direct assessment of internal LNG or LPG Tank will give the actual condition for risk and remaining
life evaluation. Nonetheless, direct assessment cannot be performed due operational constraint. As analternative, a technical approach using Risk Based Inspection (RBI) was conducted to assess the RUL of thetank. The evaluation is performed by reviewing design and operating conditions as well as inspection andmaintenance histories.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Equipment No.
LPG Tank 1
LPG Tank 2
LPG Tank 3
LPG Tank 4
LPG Tank 5 *LNG Tank 1
LNG Tank 2
LNG Tank 3
LNG Tank 4
LNG Tank 5
LNG Tank 6 *Table 2. General data of LNG & LPG Tank Badak LNG.

Construction Year
1988
1988
1988
1988
1988
1976
1976
1976
1976
1982
1998

Service Start
Dec 1988
Dec 1988
Dec 1988
Dec 1988
Dec 1988
July 1977
July 1977
July 1977
July 1977
July 1983
Nov 1999*The tank is excluded from the assessment

Age (years)
28
28
28
28
28
39
39
39
39
32
18

Fluid
LPG (Propane)
LPG (Propane)
LPG (Butane)
LPG (Butane)
LPG (Propane)
LNG (Methane)
LNG (Methane)
LNG (Methane)
LNG (Methane)
LNG (Methane)
LNG (Methane)

Capacity (m3)40,00040,00040,00040,00040,00095,00095,00095,00095,000128,150
127,200

2. METHODOLOGY AND TECHNICAL APPROACH
The remaining life assessment has a goal to determine which tanks components are likely to have a limited
remaining life, and assess the current and future risks. The assessment is conducted by combining risk andreliability concepts. RUL assessment is performed with 2 (two) general steps as shown in Figure 2.
2.1.DATA GATHERING AND SITE SURVEY
Data is gathered to provide an overview that may be necessary to develop the RBI plan. For the probabilityof failure assessment, inspection results, previous failure reports (if any), repair reports and process

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information are examples of mandatory data required. While for the consequence of failure assessment, datasuch as the population density, cost of injury, cost of business interruption and cost of equipment
repair/replacement were gathered.
Site visual inspection was also conducted for all tanks in conformance with API 653, API RP575 and
EEMUA 159. The visual survey was conducted to provide a good current condition of the tanks.

Figure 2. RUL assessment methodology integrated with RBI approach.
2.2.RBI ASSESSMENT
RBI assessment is performed to focus inspection activities on high risk equipment with the aim to reduce its
risk to As Low As Reasonably Practical (ALARP) with the following steps.
Table 3. Possible damage mechanism of LNG/LPG tank component.

Damage Mechanism
Internal thinning

Expression
PoF internal thinning
General thinning
Localized thinning
ErosionPoF external thinning
External thinning
General thinning
Localized thinning
PoF brittle fracture
Brittle fracture
Cryogenic embrittlement
PoF fatigue
Fatigue
ThermalVibration
Corrosion fatigue*PoF: Probability of Failure which depends on DF, GFF, Fi, and MF as shown in Figure 3.

a. Define asset hierarchy
Asset hierarchy was down from the highest equipment level to the lowest component level. In thisanalysis, each tank is broken down into component levels which are inner shell course, inner floor, outershell course, outer floor, and outer roof.
b. Define risk acceptance criteria (safety and economic)
Inspection target is based on potential loss life (PLL) and total cost. The criteria for the PLL is
0.001/year and for the total cost is USD 50,000/year.

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c. RBI assessment
At this step, risk of each component is calculated using the equation in Figure 3 and then plotted in a 5x5
risk matrix as shown in Figure 4. In this study, RBI assessment is performed by Synergi RBI Onshore(AST) software version 5.3.2. Possible damage mechanism commonly encountered in LNG/LPG tank isshown in Table 3. A quantitative analysis is provided for potential corrosion damage due to internal orexternal thinning. While a qualitative analysis is provided for brittle fracture, fatigue, and cracking
susceptibility. Apart from identifying damage mechanism & susceptibility, the consequence of the
failure of each component is categorized into personnel injury and total cost as shown in Table 4.
Table 4. The consequence of failure category based on personnel injury and total cost.

No
1

Personnel injury
No injuries to workers possible2

Low possibility of minor injury from failure

3

Significant possibility for minor injury from failure

45Worker lost time injury or low possibility of publicminor injury
Any fatality or significantly public minor injury
possible

Total cost
Maintenance costs only, standard repair of common part
Maintenance costs only, more costly repair.
Expensive/labour intensive
Profit loss up to 2 days business loss plus maintenancecosts

CategoryA
B
C

3 to 5 days profit loss plus maintenance costs

D

More than 5 days profit loss plus maintenance costs

E

Figure 3. Risk calculation elements.

Figure 4. Representation of 5x5 risk matrix.
2.3.RUL ASSESSMENT
Remaining life assessments in this study use the actual operating conditions and inspection data (ifavailable) along with nominal material properties to make remaining life projections. When possible, thecurrent condition is assessed based on the inspection record. From the current condition of the material,

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obtained by measurements or calculated estimates, the remaining life is predicted. The simplest approach is
to assume that future operations will be the same as those of the past and to make a linear extrapolation. The
RUL of tank component is categorized by criticality category as shown in Table 5.

RUL
ActionTable 5. Categorization of RUL Tank

Criticality 0≤ 0 year

Criticality 1> 0 year to ≤ 5 years

Criticality 2> 5 years to ≤ 10
years

Criticality 3> 10 years to < 20years

Criticality 4≥ 20 years

Immediateinspection

Immediateinspection

Immediate detailed
inspection or next
shutdown, whicheveris shorter

RBI planning

RBI planningdetaileddetailed

Remaining life of the tank component is determined by comparing nominal thickness and minimum required
thickness (tmin). Over years, the wall thickness may be consumed due to corrosion or another damage
mechanism until a critical value (tmin) below which the tank is deemed unsafe for continued operation under
the original design conditions.
The minimum required thickness (tmin) for cylindrical tank is calculated using equation (1).
(1)
where,
T2 = latitudinal unit force, PRc
P = total pressure acting at a given tank under a particular condition of loading
Rc = inside radius of the centreline of shell course under consideration
Sts = maximum allowable stress for simple tension, Table 5-1 in API 620
E = joint efficiency
The RUL is calculated using equation (2) as shown below. If the current thickness is not available, thecorrosion rate is based on literature and experience.

(2)

where,CR = corrosion rate input from personnel expertise or literature/ measured ratetcurrent = current thickness
tprevious = previous year of thickness measurement taken
tmin = minimum required thickness as per design code
2.4.INSPECTION PLANNING
For each component, the driving damage mechanism is identified for inspection. Based on the inspection
planning target, the Damage Factor for the relevant driving damage mechanism is reduced by assigning aneffectiveness of inspection (as shown in Figure 5). Synergi RBI Onshore will attempt to reduce the risk (via
the Damage Factor) by performing first Fairly Effective inspection. Unless the recalculated risk falls below
the target value, the software will continue to perform with Highly Effective inspection.
3. RESULT & DISCUSSION
A number of tank components analysed for the respective remaining useful life and risk profile are shown in
Table 6 below.

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Figure 5. Risk can be reduced with inspection of different effectiveness.
Table 6. List of equipment (equip) or component (comp) of the tank.

LPG Tank 1

1

Inner Shell
Course(Comp)
10

LPG Tank 2

1

10

Tank

Inner Shell(Equip)

Inner
Floor
(Equip)111Outer Shell
Course(Comp)
111

11Outer Shell(Equip)

1

Outer
Roof
(Equip)*111Outer Floor(Equip)LPG Tank 3

1

10

1

1

11

1

1

LPG Tank 4

1

10

1

1

11

1

1
4

Total

4

40

4

4

44

4

LNG Tank 1

1

14

1

1

14

1

1

LNG Tank 2

1

14

1

1

14

1

1

LNG Tank 3

1

14

1

1

14

1

1

LNG Tank 4

1

14

1

1

14

1

1

LNG Tank 5

1

14

1

1

15

1

1

Total

5

70

5

5

71

5

5

* Outer roof risk is not calculated in the risk matrix since it is calculated semi-quantitatively.

A. LPG TANKThe LPG tank risk is calculated for the tank shell and tank floor. Outer roof tank risk is calculated separately
and the result shows all outer roofs are assessed to be in low risk rating using a semi quantitative method.
The risk of each tank component was analyzed for total risk in USD per year, potential loss life in PLL per
year (only for tank shell) and it is ranked comparatively through a risk matrix representative of the risk
profile of those assets.

Figure 6. The risk profile of LPG tank component at the time of assessment, a) total cost, b) PLL.
Figure 6 shows the risk profile for LPG tank component at the time of assessment (2016). All tankcomponents fall into medium risk ranking at the time of assessment. The future risk has been projected for
10 years in order to determine the high risks before any failure occur. This will help to plan for the future
inspection. Figure 7 and Figure 8 are the future risks without and with inspection in 2026 in term of total

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cost and PLL category respectively. If the suggested inspection is carried out, the damage factor will bedecreased so the risk (total cost) can be reduced by 70.97 % as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 7. Future risk profile (Total Cost) of the LPG Tank before and after an inspection in 2026.

Figure 8. Future risk profile (PLL) of the LPG Tank before and after an inspection in 2026.

Figure 9. Future risk of LPG tank with inspection and without inspection in 2026.
All LPG tank components subject to the assessment were found to have a remaining useful life more than 20
years. The lowest remaining life for the LPG tank component is 21.68 years (Outer shell course 6 of LPG
Tank 1 tank) as shown in Table 7.
B. LNG Tank
Figure 10 shows the risk profile for LNG tank component. Based on the result, the entire tank component iscalculated to be in medium risk in term of total cost and PLL category.

Figure 10. The risk profile of LNG tank component at the time of assessment, a) total cost, b) PLL.

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The damage mechanism affecting the storage tank is expected to be minimal. The methane is not a corrosive
service but inspection has not been done to verify that no thinning of the storage tank inner wall/floor hastaken place for all tanks subjected to this assessment. In October 2016, internal inspection of tank inner shelland floor is performed in the identical LNG tank (LNG Tank 6) which happens to be in off-service
condition. Based on this finding, the corrosion rate was found to be very minimal (near 0 mm/year).
Therefore, the expert rate of 0.0001 mm/year was applied to all the tanks inner shell and inner floor in thisstudy.
The future risk has been projected for 10 years in order to determine the high risks before any failure occur.
Figure 11 and 12 are the future risks without inspection and with inspection in term of total cost and PLL
category respectively. Figure 13 shows the risk (total cost) that can be reduced by 48.06 % due to decreasing
damage factor if the suggested inspection is carried out.

Figure 11. Future risk profile (Total Cost) of the LNG Tank before and after an inspection in 2026.

Figure 12. Future risk profile (PLL) of the LNG Tank before and after an inspection in 2026.

Figure 13. Future risk of LNG tank with inspection and without inspection in 2026.
All LNG tank components were found to have a remaining useful life more than 20 years. The lowest
remaining life for the LNG tank component is 21.58 years (Outer shell course 1 of LNG Tank 2). Table
7 below shows the percentage of distribution based on remaining useful life.

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Table 7. RUL distribution of LPG and LNG Tank component.
Criticality

Remaining Useful Life(RUL)

LPG Tank
Component

LNG Tank
Component

Criticality 0

RUL less than 0 year00

Criticality 1

RUL between 0 to 5 years

00

Criticality 2

RUL between 5 to 10 years

00

Criticality 3

RUL between 10 to 20 years

00

Criticality 4

RUL more than 20 years

96

156

Total

96

156

4. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the RUL assessment of LNG and LPG tank, some conclusions can be summarized as follow.
1) All LNG/LPG tanks in Badak LNG are within medium risk category in 2016 and for further 10 years
services (in 2026) if without inspection activities.
2) It is recommended to perform a minimal UT inspection (fairly effective) in 2026 to assess thecondition and to reduce the risk level of the tank.
3) The risk level can be reduced by 48.06% for LNG tank and 70.97% for LPG tank in 2026 if
inspection is performed as per RBI suggestion.
4) All components of LNG or LPG tank have a remaining useful life more than 20 years (Criticality 4).
Therefore the LNG and LPG tanks can be put in service for further 20 years.
5. REFERENCE
API RP 580: Risk-Based Inspection, 3rd edition, 2016, American Petroleum Institute.
API RP 581: Risk-Based Inspection Technology, 2nd Edition, 2008, American Petroleum Institute.
API RP 653: Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction, 5th Edition, 2014, American
Petroleum Institute
API RP 571: Damage Mechanisms Affecting Fixed Equipment in the Refining Industry, 2nd Edition, 2011
API RP 620: Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks, 12th Edition, 2013
EEMUA Publication 159 Above ground flat bottomed storage tanks - a guide to inspection, maintenance andrepair, 4th Edition, 2014
DNV/AOR20030012 Rev 1, Risk Based Inspection Planning Methodology-Aboveground Storage Tank,
2005
NACE Corrosion Data Survey, Metal Section 6th Edition, 1985
Corrosion Consideration for Aboveground Storage Tanks (NACE paper 02487), Vincent A. Carucci et al,
2002
Evaluation of LNG facilities for Aging, Richard A.Hoffmann et al, 2007
Advanced Risk Assessment of LNG Storage Tanks Based on Risk Based Maintenance Planning Evaluation,
Hajimi Anzai, Masayuki Kobayashi et al.

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MOLECULAR AND IONIC MOBILITY OF CHITOSAN BASED SOLIDPOLYMER ELECTROLYTE FOR LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
Sudaryantoa, Evi Yuliantia, Nur Shofiana KhaironibaCenter for Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, BATAN, Kawasan Puspiptek,
Serpong, Tangerang Selatan, Banten, 15314, Indonesiab
Department of Physics, Mataram University, Jl. Majapahit 62, Mataram, NTB, 83125,
Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Ionic condutivity, the most vital electrolytes properties of chitosan based solid
polymer electrolytes (SPE) was increased by several methods. In this study, the relation
between polymer molecular mobilities and conductivity have been studied. The SPE wereprepared simply by mixing lithium salt into chitosan solution, followed by casting method.
The SPE micro-structure and segmental mobilities were studied by using X-ray
diffractometer and mechanical test measurement, respectively. The conductivities werestudied using electrochemical impedance spectrometer. Ionic mobility was studied basedon ion transference number measurement. The results showed that the addition of
nanoparticle, e.g. ZrO2 decreased the chitosan crystalinity so that increased the molecularmotion flexibility, but did not change the conductivity significantly. However, addition oflithium perchlorate (LiClO4) as lithium salt clearly increased the the chitosan conductivty
up to 3 order (from 10-7 to 10-4 S/cm). A higher salt concentration leads to a higher
segmental motion and cationic mobility.
Keywords: Chitosan; Ionic Conductivity; Lithium-Ion Battery; Lithium Salt; SPE.
1. INTRODUCTION
Lithium ion secondary batteries, having a high voltage and a high energy density,
are widely used in various mobile devices such as smart phone and tablet PC. However,
due to using a flammable liquid electrolyte, there is a risk of explosion or fire accidents. To
reduce the risk, a protection circuit may be embedded to the battery system. On the other
hand, in very cold climates, the liquid electrolyte may be frozen so that the battery capacity
will be significantly reduced or the battery become unworkable. To overcome thisinconvenience, the liquid electrolytes are substituted by solid ones, making all-solid-statelithium batteries are proposed as the best solution (Ogawa et.al., 2012).
Solid polymer electrolytes (SPE) show a lower ionic conductivity than the liquid
electrolyte; however, they can increase the safety of battery due to less reactive withlithium, The SPE can play as both electrolyte and separator. Moreover, they exhibit a highcompliance, good mechanical stability up to its melting point, and excellent process ability
for making films (Polo Fonseca et.al., 2007). SPE are formed by the incorporation of
inorganic such as lithium salt into polymer matrices. The polymer more studied is the poly
(ethylene oxide) (PEO) with inorganic salts dissolved in its matrix. However, the highProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

617

degree of crystalline of PEO restricts its use in battery, and it can be used only attemperatures above the melting point of the crystalline phase, which is approximately 60oC
(Manuel Stephan, 2006; Gray 1991). Thus, it is necessary to find others alternative polymer
instead of PEO.
Utilization of biodegradable polymer such as Chitosan as the SPE will not only
make an environmental friendly but also gives an excellent processing ability for making
films, thus it can be freely designed such as multiple cell battery system. Lithium based
biodegradable polymer battery system may be one of the promising candidates of next
generation due to high performance lithium battery system and cost-effective due to theabundant resources, and of course environmental friendly. Therefore, we did several effort
to obtain chitosan based SPE (Yulianti et.al., 2012; Yulianti and Sudaryanto, 2015;
Sudaryanto et.al., 2015; Sudaryanto et.al., 2016).
Chitosan based SPE show a lower ionic conductivity, however it can be increased
by several methods. Previously we have done a preliminary study on the utilization of ion
implantation method to prepare a solid-state electrolyte based on natural polymer (Yuliantiet.al., 2012). Various ion salts (Li+, Cu++, Ag+) was involved into the polymer matrix. The
result show that after implanted with Li+, Cu++ or Ag+ ion, the conductivity of polymer film
increased but still in low level. We have also studied the effect of lithium salt addition into
the chitosan film (Yulianti and Sudaryanto, 2015; Sudaryanto et.al., 2015). However, it was
found that the addition of salt affected not only to the properties but also the structure of thechitosan matrix. Furthermore, we studied the structure and properties of chitosan based
SPE. It was found that the decrease in sampel crytalinity increased the molecular mobility
result in the increasing sampel conductivity and catonic transfer number (Sudaryanto et.al.,2016). Therefore, it is of interest to explore furthermore about the molecular and ionic
mobility of chitosan based SPE.
Principally, the solid electrolyte plays as the medium for the transference of ions,
between the anode and cathode. Therefore, the ion transference number is of important
properties of SPE. An increase in ion transference number, is generally observed with theaddition of nanofillers (Sudaryanto et.al., 2016; Xiong et.al., 2006; Croce et.al. 1999; Xiet.al., 2006). For examples, an increase in cationic transfer number (t+) was obtained in
PEO– lithium perchlorate (LiClO 4 ) electrolytes with the addition of TiO 2 (Croce et.al.
1999) and mesoporous SiO 2 (Xi et.al., 2006). We also found an increase in ionictransference number with increasing Zirconia (ZrO 2 ) nanoparticle addition into ChitosanLiClO 4 electolyte system (Sudaryanto et.al., 2016).
The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of molecular mobility onto the
conductivity of chitosan based SPE. In order to understand the effects of nanoparticle
additions onto molecular mobility and SPE conductivity, in this study, firstly ZrO 2nanoparticle was added in a chitosan solution without lithium salt. After studying theirstructure and properties, LiClO 4 as lithium salt was added in the system and the
conductivity as well as ionic mobility were studied. Some results of this study have beenpresented previously (Khoironi et.al., 2015), in this paper further discusion with additional
data will be presented.
2. METHODOLOGY

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2.1. Materials
Similar with previous study (Sudaryanto et.al., 2016), the chitosan used wasnational product from crab shells and purchased from Bogor Agricultural InstituteLaboratory (low molecular weight, 86% deacetilated degree). Acetic acid as solvents wasanalytical grade purchased from Merck and used without further purification. Deionizedwater was used to make 1 wt.% acetic acid solution. Lithium perchlorate (LiClO4) andZirconia (ZrO2) nanoparticle were purchased form Sigma-Aldrich and used as-received.
2.2. Sample preparation
The chitosan powder was dissolved into 1 wt.% acetic acid to make a polymer
solution. A certain amount of ZrO2 was added into the solution as shown in Table 1. The
ZrO2 were varied from 2 to 8 wt.% of chitosan weight. A certain amount of the solution
was put into a cast mold and kept for several days to evaporate the solvent. The obtained
film was then stored under vacuum condition at room temperature to complete the solvent
evaporation. Similar method was done when a certain amount of LiClO4, as in Table 1, wasadded in a selected chitosan-ZrO2 system. The wt.% indicates the weight (g) of LiClO4
and/or ZrO2 when dissolved in 100 g solution of 4 wt.% chitosan solution.
Table 1. The composition of chitosan based solid polymer electrolyte
Sample No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

[Chitosan]
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

Composition (g)[ZrO 2 ]
0
2
4
6
4
4
4
4

[LiClO 4 ]
0
0
0
0
10
20
30
40

2.3 Sample characterization
XRD was carried out using PANalytical that employs Cu-Kα X-radiation of
wavelength λ=1.5418 Å between a 2θ angle of 5 o until 45o. A mechanical property of films
was tested using TOYOSEIKI VGS 5-Estrograph. The values of tensile strength andelongation at break were taken from the average of three samples which were stretched in
10 mm/min. Electric conductivity measurement was performed with a computer controlled
impedance analyzer (HIOKI LCR Hi-Tester Model 3532, Japan) in the frequency range of
42 Hz to 1 MHz. The films were sandwiched between two electrodes with 0.99 cm indiameter under spring pressure. The DC conductivity (σdc) was defined as the frequency
independent plateau in the low frequency region. The ionic transference number wasmeasured by a polarization technique as describe by Morni and Arof (Morni and Arof,
1999).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 1 shows an XRD pattern of chitosan with various concentration of ZrO 2 .
The chitosan without ZrO 2 addition exhibits slightly widening peaks at 11.5˚, and 18.5˚ ,Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

619

comparable with previous studies (Yulianti and Sudaryanto, 2015; Islam et.al., 2011). It
indicated the sample was a semi crystalline or has a partly amorphous. This is typical ofpolymer (Rosli et.al., 2012). The peaks decreased when the addition of ZrO 2 increased.
This may suggest that with increasing ZrO 2 the crystallinity of chitosan has changed to be
more amorphous. The peaks disappear when the addition of 4 wt% of ZrO 2 , showing an
optimum concentration to have the most amorphous part (Figure 1 (c)). Further addition ofZrO 2 beyond the optimum concentration the chitosan film became more crystalline againthat proved by the appearance of the peaks as shown on Figure 1(d-e). In addition, thepeaks of ZrO 2 typically appear at 28˚ and 31˚ which increased with ZrO 2 concentration.

Figure 1. XRD spectra of chitosan containing ZrO 2 (a) 0 wt.% (b) 2 wt.% (c) 4 wt.%, (d)6 wt.%, and (e) 8 wt.%.
Figure 2 demonstrated the tensile strength of chitosan film with increasing ZrO 2
concentration. The mechanical properties of chitosan slightly changed with the ZrO 2
addition. The tensile strength of chitosan decreased from 48.5 to 40.3MPa with 8 wt.% of
ZrO 2 addition. It will be due to the decreasing in chitosan crystallinity as discussed in
Figure 1. The decrease in the tensile strength may also be due to an increasing in polymer
segmental mobility with decreasing the crystallite (Yulianti and Sudaryanto, 2016; Nadaet.al. 2004). The decrease in crystallites can be considered to increase the free volume,
hence increase the segmental mobility. Tensile measurements are usually performed inconjunction with elongation break measurement. Elongation break percentage determines
the elasticity of the samples. The higher the value of the elongation break, the more elastic
the samples. Elasticity of a material can also be interpreted as the material flexibility.

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Tensle Strength (MPa)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

2

4

6

8

ZrO2 Conc. (wt%)
Figure 2. The tensile test of chitosan as function of added ZrO 2 concentration.

Elongation at break (%)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

2

4

6

8

ZrO2 Conc. (wt%)
Figure 3. The elongation at break of chitosan as function of added ZrO2 concentration.
Figure 3 shows the percentage of elongation at break for chitosan as function ofadded ZrO 2 concentration. The figure exhibits the existence of maximum value ofelongation at ZrO 2 concentration of 4 wt.%. It is in accordance with the crystallity change
as mention above, in which the addition of 4 wt% of ZrO 2 , showing an optimum
concentration to have the most amorphous part (Figure 1 (c)). The addition of ZrO 2 over the
optimum concentration (4 wt%) shows the formation of ZrO 2 particle agglomeration. This
explains that the more concentration of ZrO 2 particles in the chitosan film causes theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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cohesive force between ZrO 2 particles stronger than the adhesive force between ZrO 2
particles with chitosan polymer. This caused the polymer matrix of chitosan crammed by
ZrO 2 and ease to endure particle agglomeration. This progress also made the sample harderbut the elasticity was reduced then the sample became cracked easily. This was indicatedthat agglomeration was disrupted the mechanical properties of chitosan films.
The segmental motion was also depicted by tan δ profile of chitosan as shown in
Figure 4. The tan δ peak shifted the higher frequency, indicated smaller relaxation time or
faster segmental motion, with addition of ZrO2 nanoparticle up to 4 wt.%.
32.0
16.0

0%
2%

Tanδ (-)

8.0

4%

4.0

6%
8%

2.0
1.0
0.5
0.3
1.0E+02

1.0E+03

1.0E+04

1.0E+05

1.0E+06

Frequency (Hz)Figure 4. Tan δ profile of chitosan film with various ZrO2 concentration as frequency
function at room temperature.
The conductivities at room temperature of chitosan film with various ZrO2
concentrations are presented at Figure 5. The figure shows that even if at the same order,
the conductivity slightly increased with the increasing ZrO2 concentration. The maximum
conductivity reached at 4% w/w of ZrO2 concentration, it was about 6.57 x 10-7 S/cm andonly little bit higher than conductivity of chitosan without addition of filler. It has
mentioned above that the addition of 4% ZrO2 made the film more amorphous and caused
the increase in segmental motion of polymer. Since there is no ion source in the sample, theconductivity changes were not so significant or still on the same order.
A significant change, however, was obtained when a lithium salt was added into thesystem as shown in Figure 6. LiClO 4, as the lithium salt, was added to chitosan solution
with 4 wt.% ZrO 2 . It is clear that the addition of lithium salt significantly increased thechitosan conductivity up to order (from 10-7 to 10-4 S/cm), linear with the salt

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concentration. The chitosan in this system can play as solid solution in which the salt wasdissolved and provide ion in the system, result in the increasing chitosan film conductivity.

Condutivity (S/cm)

1.0E-06
8.0E-07
6.0E-074.0E-072.0E-07
0.0E+00
0

2

4

6

8

ZrO2 Conc. (wt%)
Figure 5. The conductivity of chitosan film as function of added ZrO2 concentration.

Condutivity (S/cm)

1.0E-03
1.0E-04
1.0E-05
1.0E-06
1.0E-07
0

10

20

30

40

LiClO4 Conc. (wt%)
Figure 6. The conductivity of chitosan-ZrO2 films with various LiClO4 salt concentrations.

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[LiClO4]10%[LiClO4] 20%

1.2
Normalized current (-)

Normalized current (-)

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

0.0
0

2

4

6

8

0

10

2

Time (min.)8

10[LiClO4] 40%

1.2
Normalized current(-)

Normalized current(-)

6

Time (min.)[LiClO4] 30%

1.2

4

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

0

2

4

6

Time (min.)

8

10

0

2

4

6

8

10

Time (min.)Figure 7. Normalized current as function of monitoring time for the chitosan SPE withvarious salt contents.
As mentioned above, the increase in conductivity can be due to the ability of ion
motion in the SPE system. Therefore, the ion mobility may be studied from polarization
phenomenons which will occure when a polymer film was sandwiched between twoelectrodes in a circuit. The ions in the polymer film will travel to the electrode connectedto the terminal which has an opposite charge to that of their own. Hence, polarization
occurred and current in the circuit decreased which can be monitored every several minutes
until a constant current attributable to cations will be obtained. Figure 7 shows thenormalized polarization current as function of monitoring time for the chitosan SPE withvarious salt concentrations. The current could not pass the film of chitosan without LiClO 4
salt, since there was no ion in the system, hence no polarization happened. The cationictransference number was under 0.2 for sample salt concentration less than 40%, showing
the conduction role meanly played by the ClO 4 anion. However, a dramatically increase of
cationic transference number up to 0.6 obtained when the salt concentration was 40 wt. %.
Other studies have obtained a lithium ion transference number of about 0.31 for chitosan
with LiCF3 SO 3 (Morni and Arof, 1999) and 0.55 for chitosan with LiClO 4 (Sudaryantoet.al. 2016). However, it is of interest when comparing with our previous study. Chitosan
with 40 wt. % LiClO 4 showed low cationic transference number (0.09) when no ZrO 2
added into the system. However, the value was increase dramatically up to 0.50 and 0.55
by adding 2 wt.% and 4 wt.% of ZrO 2 , respectively (Sudaryanto et.al. 2016). In this study ahigher transference number can be reached only when a sufficient concentration (40 wt.%)

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of LiClO 4 salt was added. It means that the cationic transference number is function of ion
concentration and segmental mobility.
4. CONCLUSION
The relation between polymer molecular mobilities and conductivity of chitosan
based Solid Polymer electrolyte (SPE) have beed studied. The SPE were prepared simply
by mixing lithium salt into chitosan solution, followed by a casting method. The SPE
micro-structure and segmental mobilities has been studied by using X-ray diffractometerand mechanical test measurement, respectively. The conductivities were studied using
electrochemical impedance spectrometer. While the ionic mobility was studied based onion transference number measurement. The results showed that the addition of zirconia(ZrO2) nanoparticle decreased the chitosan crystalinity, thus increased the molecularmotion flexibility, however the conductivity did not change significantly. Meanwhile,
addition of llithium perchlorate (LiClO4) as lithium salt clearly increased the chitosan
conductivty up to 3 order (from 10-7 to 10-4 S/cm). The higher salt consentration the lower
matrix crystality, and result in the higher segmental motion and cationic mobility. The
cationic transference number was under 0.2 for sample with salt concentration less than
40%, showing the conduction role meanly played by the ClO4- anion. However, adramatically increase of cationic transference number up to 0.6 obtained when the salt
concentration was 40 wt.%
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was conducted using 2014 and 2015 Budget Implementation List (DIPA)
of Center for Sains and Technology Advanced Materials – BATAN. Nur Shofiana
Khaironi from Department of Physics Mataram University, as one of authors would like tothank to BATAN for giving chance to join in this work.
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Phys. Chem. B, Volume 103, pp. 10632-10638.
Gray, F.M., (1991), Solid polymer electrolytes-fundamentals and technologicalapplications, VCH, New York, USA.
Islam, M. M., Masum, S. M., Molla, M. A. I., Rahman, M. M. Shaikh, A. A. , Roy, S. K.,(2011), Preparation of chitosan from shrimp shell and investigation of its properties,
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Properties of chitsan-ZrO 2 Composites Material, in Proceedings of The International
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Manuel Stephan, A., (2006), Review on gel polymer electrolytes for lithium batteries ,European Polymer Journal, Volume 42, pp. 21-42.
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Polo Fonseca, C., Cavalcante, Jr., F., Amaral, F.A., Zani Souza, C.A., Neves, S.,( 2007)
Thermal and conduction properties of a PCL-biodegradable gel polymer electrolytewith LiClO 4 , LiF3 CSO 3 , and LiBF4 salts. Int. J.Electrochem. Sci., Volume 2, pp. 52–
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Rosli, N.H.A., Chan, C.H. , Subban, R.H.Y., Tan Winie, (2012), Studies on the Structuraland Electrical Properties of Hexanoyl Chitosan/Polystyrene-based Polymer
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Sudaryanto, Yulianti, E., and Jodi, H., (2015), Studies of dielectric properties andconductivity of chitosan-lithium triflate electrolyte, Polymer-Plastics Technology andEngineering, Volume 54, pp. 290–295.
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Xi, J., Qiu, X., Zhu, W., Tang, X. , (2006), Enhanced electrochemical properties ofpoly(ethylene oxide)-based composite polymer electrolyte with orderedmesoporousmaterials for lithium polymer battery, Micropor. Mesopor. Mater.,Volume 88, pp. 1-7.
Xiong, H-M., Wang, Z-D., Xie, D-P., Cheng, L. Xia, Y-Y., (2006), Stable polymer
electrolytes based on polyether-grafted ZnO nanoparticles for all-solid-state lithium
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Yulianti, E., Karo Karo, A., Susita, L., Sudaryanto, (2012), Synthesis of electrolyte
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SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION CHITOSAN/
ALGINATE/GEOTHERMAL SILICA SCAFFOLD
Fiska Yohana Purwaningtyasa,Yuni Kusumastutia,b*, Himawan Tri Bayu Murti Petrusa,b,Budhijantoa
Department of Chemical Engineering Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, IndonesiabCenter for Advanced Material and Mineral Processing CAMMP, Department of Chemical
Engineering Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesiaa

ABSTRACTScaffold has an essential role to facilitate the repair of bone injury or disease. Chitosan andalginate are the two most commonly used natural polymers for scaffold material. Despite its
recognizable role in tissue engineering, chitosan/alginate scaffold was known to possess low
mechanical properties. Hence, an effort was taken to improve the mechanical properties ofchitosan-alginate scaffold by silica addition. Geothermal silica refers to silica with 50%
amorphous silica content that obtained as the solid waste of Geothermal Power Plant.
Geothermal silica was purified using sol-gel methods to obtain silica with 97.23% purity prior
to use. In this study, the lyophilized technique had been used to fabricate chitosan/alginate andchitosan/alginate/geothermal silica scaffold. Swelling ratio, mechanical strength, and pore sizeof scaffolds were investigated in order to observe the effect of geothermal silica addition.
Furthermore, SEM analysis was conducted on the prepared scaffolds to characterize theirmorphology. From the experiment results, addition of geothermal silica was found to increasemechanical strength of scaffold and control its swelling ability. The highest mechanical strength
value was achieved by chitosan/alginate/geothermal silica scaffold with raw materials ratio of
1:1:1. In addition, chitosan/alginate scaffold exhibits higher swelling ratio thanchitosan/alginate/geothermal silica scaffold. This correlation could be explained by the presenceof interconnected pores in scaffold with silica addition shown by SEM results. Theinterconnected pores have the essential role to increase cell infiltration and nutrients absorption
for cell growth. In conclusion, geothermal silica exhibited great potential as scaffold material
for biomaterial application.
Keywords : Scaffold; Chitosan; Alginate; Geothermal Silica
1. INTRODUCTION
Tissue engineering has been established as one of the several methods for disease or
injury treatment using molecular and cells biological technology to induce tissue regeneration.
This field combines engineering with other disciplines such as material, chemistry, cell biology,
and molecular science. Bone graft serves as one of the existing solutions to repair bone defect.
The common types of bone graft are autograft, allograft, and xenograft. While, those commonlyused bone graft have some drawbacks, such as, the limited amount of substitute tissue, body’s
immune rejection, the possibility of infection, and the necessity of secondary surgery area.

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Many efforts have already been initiated to provide an alternative solution, including
scaffold (Karp, et al., 2003). Scaffold is a composite fabricated from biomaterial that has topossess the ability to support cell and tissue growth physically, chemically, and mechanically.
In addition, the scaffold is required to possess high porosity in order to be used as the
supporting matrix for cell infiltration and nutrient transfer for cell growth. Raw materials in
scaffold fabrication are biomaterials, such as polymer and ceramics. On the other hand, chitosan
exhibits a great potential to be used as raw material for scaffold fabrication as it can beconverted into porous sponge or hydrogel as 3D scaffold (Kusumastuti, et al, 2015). Chitin, anabundant polysaccharide in Indonesia, can be synthesized from shells of crustaceans such as
crabs and shrimps. Partial deacetylation of chitin (1,4-linked 2-acetamido-2-deoxy- β-D-glucan)
will generate chitosan product. However, the mechanical properties of the chitosan-based
scaffold have to be improved (Levengood and Zhang, 2014).
Chitosan is a polycation that consists the amino group, hence a polyanion polysacharide(such as alginate) could be added to increase its mechanical strength. Alginate is an anionicpolymer produced by brown algae (Phaeophyceae) extraction. It is a linear polymer composedof mannuronic acid (β-D-mannuronic acid (M)) and guluronic acid (α-L-guluronic acid (G)).
Alginate is also biocompatible, hydrophilic, and biodegradable in the natural environment(Becker, 2001). Chitosan/alginate composite will generate polyionic complexes that increase themechanical properties of scaffold and form stable bonds with chitosan (Ramay, et al., 2005).
The pKa value of amino group in chitosan is 6.5, while the pKa value of alginate carboxylgroup is 3.5. On the other hand, the pH interval from 4 until 6 incurs strong ionic interaction
between positively charged chitosan and negatively charged alginate (Khong, et al., 2013).

Figure 1. Chemical structure of (a) chitosan, and (b) alginate
In order to increase the mechanical strength of chitosan and alginate composite,collected silica from the geothermal waste (sludge) of PT. Geo Dipa Energi Dieng was added.
Geothermal sludge has become an attractive source of silica due to its abundance and highamorphous silica content (>50%). Amorphous silica has bioactive characteristic and abilities toassist bones forming process and also to stimulate cell mineralization (Velvet-Regi and Balas,2008). In order to fully employ their outstanding properties, silica purification is performed bysol-gel methods consisting two steps: geothermal silica dissolution using alkali and acid

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precipitation. This study aimed to determine the effect of geothermal silica addition tomechanical properties of obtained chitosan/alginate scaffold.
2. MATERIALS & METHODS
2.1. Materials
Medical grade chitosan with deacetylation degree more than 90% was obtained from PT. Biotek
Surindo, Cirebon, West Java. Geothermal sludge was obtained from PT. Geo Dipa Energi,
Dieng, Central Java. Sodium alginate, acetic acid (CH3COOH) 98%, hydrochloric acid (HCl)37%, and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) pellet were purchased from Merck. The prepared PBS (pH7.4) was prepared and stored at room temperature.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Purification of geothermal silica
Geothermal sludge was sieved with a 60-mesh sieve, washed with demineralized water anddried afterwards. As much as 20 grams of dried geothermal sludge were dissolved in 800 mLof 1.5 N NaOH solution at 90oC for 1 hour with the stirring velocity of 400 rpm. The solution
was then cooled and filtered through a filter paper. After that, sodium silicate solution was
titrated with 2 N HCl until the gel was formed at pH of 6.5. The formed gel was subsequently
stored for 18 hours. It was filtered and washed until it reached pH of 7 afterwards, then driedin an oven.
2.2.2. Synthesis of scaffold
Chitosan (1% w/v) was dissolved in 30 mL of 1% acetic acid solution. While, sodium alginate(1% w/v) was dissolved in 30 mL of demineralized water. Chitosan solution was added into
alginate solution until the gel was formed. The silica powder (1% w/v) was added to thesolution and stirred for 2 hours at ambient temperature. This mixture was poured into a petri
dish and froze overnight at -20oC. It was lyophilized for 24 hours to obtain dry scaffold.
Table 1. Various Composition Ratio of Scaffold
SampleChitosan : Alginate : Geothermal Silica
A1
1:1:0
A2
1 : 1 : 0.5
A3
1:1:1
A4
1 : 1 : 1.5
A5
1:1:2
2.3. Characterization
2.3.1. Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX)The components in geothermal silica were analyzed by using EDX 8000 (Shimadzu Co., Japan)
through the x-ray emitted from the material as a response to collision among charged particles
with area of analysis 3 cm2.

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2.3.2. Swelling study
The dry weight of scaffold was measured and noted as (Wd). Scaffold samples were immersed
in PBS solution with pH of 7.4 at 37oC for 1 hour. After that, the scaffold was taken out andany excess liquid on the surface of scaffold was blotted onto filter paper and the wet weight
was recorded as (Ww). Swelling ratio could be calculated by using the following formula:(1)
2.3.3. Mechanical testing
The tensile strength of scaffold was investigated with the mechanical testing machine (Pearson
Panke Equipment Ltd., UK) by following the ASTM D638 standard. The Young’s modulus
value (E) could be calculated by using the formula:(2)
2.3.4. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
The molecular interaction between components in scaffold was analyzed with FTIR (Shimadzu
Co., Japan) by using KBr pellet. The recorded spectra were ranging from 4500 to 400 cm-1.
2.3.5. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
The morphology and porosity of gold coated lyophilized scaffold was observed by ScanningElectron Microscopy (SEM) (Model S-4800, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan) at an acceleration of 15 kV.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Silica purification
Geothermal silica purification processes with sol-gel method consisted of two steps, which weresilica dissolution using NaOH solution and acid precipitation to form the gel. During thedissolution step, geothermal silica would react to form sodium silicate. The stirring speed was
faster than the previous study (Kusumastuti, et al. 2017), from 300 rpm to 400 rpm. Fasterstirring speed was meant to increase sodium silicate forming. Subsequently, sodium silicate
reacted with HCl solution to form silica gel (SiO2) in the acid precipitation step. In this step,
HCl solution was added until pH of 6.5 due to the increasing of silica solubility at pH more than
8. The purity of obtained silica could be analyzed by using EDX. The results were shown in
Table 2. The EDX result indicated that the purity of silica was quite high (97.78%), therefore
exhibited a great potential to be utilized as the bioactive material for scaffold.
Table 2. Results of EDX Analysis
Component% Mass% Oxide Mass
Si
97.78
97.26
Al
1.18
2.07
S
0.67
0.31
Fe
0.18
0.24
Ca
0.16
0.11
Cu
0.03
0.02

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3.2. Swelling study
Swelling analysis was performed for 1 hour to observe the ability of scaffold to absorb PBS as abody fluid model. The effect of geothermal silica addition to swelling ratio of scaffold wereshown in Figure 2. The results indicated that silica addition could reduce swelling ratio. This
results was consistent with the effect of geothermal silica addition to chitosan/pectin andchitosan/gelatine scaffold (Kusumastuti, et al, 2017). Swelling ratio reduction could be ascribedby silica addition which contributed to reduce the affinity of chitosan/alginate to interact withwater molecules, consequently the absorbed PBS in scaffold was low.

Figure 2. Swelling behavior of chitosan/alginate/geothermal silica scaffold. *p < 0.05
3.3. Mechanical Testing
Mechanical testing results are represented by Young’s Modulus value. Furthermore, the resultsof tensile strength analysis indicated that the scaffold with chitosan/alginate/geothermal silica
ratio = 1:1:1 had the highest Young’s Modulus value. Theoretically, alginate would form astable ionic bond with chitosan, thus alginate and chitosan mixture had favorable mechanicalproperties. Figure 3 showed that silica addition will improve mechanical properties of thescaffold. It showed similar results where the existing of geothermal silica increased Young’s
Modulus value at ratio of 1:1 of chitosan/gelatin scaffold and 1:2 of chitosan/pectin scaffold(Kusumastuti, et al. 2017). However, the higher silica content would make chitosan/alginate
scaffold increasingly fragile due to the lower polymer matrix which binds with silica and thefragile properties of silica itself. The decreasing of Young’s Modulus value was started atsample A4 with composition ratio of 1:1:1.5.

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Figure 3. Mechanical testing of chitosan/alginate/geothermal silica scaffold
3.4. FTIR
FTIR was performed to study the molecular interaction between scaffold’s components. As
seen in Figure 4, chitosan was shown at the wavelength of 1647 cm-1 for amide I and 1600 cm-1
or amide II. Double peaks in the amide were caused by partial deacetylation of chitin. Amine
group (N-H) in chitosan and carboxyl group (C=O) in alginate were shown at the peak of 3315
cm-1 and 1621 cm-1, respectively, meanwhile carboxylic acid (-OH) was shown at a wavelengthof ±3000 cm-1. The peak of 1097 cm-1 indicated any silica Si-O-Si content. On the other hand,the peak of 3446 cm-1 showed any –OH group on the surface of nSiO2. The interaction between
chitosan and alginate led to friction at the amine group of chitosan. Peak shifts from 1647 cm-1
to 1632 cm-1 and from 1600 cm-1 to 1561 cm-1 were caused by interaction between Si-OH groupin silica and chitosan.

Figure 4. FTIR spectra of each components, scaffold without silica addition, and scaffold withsilica addition

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3.5. SEM
The SEM analysis was performed to observe the surface morphology of chitosan/alginate andchitosan/alginate/silica scaffold. Figure 5 showed the porous scaffold with pore sizes ranging
from 10 to 30 μm, and 15 to 50 μm for chitosan/alginate (A1) and chitosan/alginate/geothermalsilica scaffold (A3). The SEM results showed that silica-added scaffold had interconnected pore,compared to scaffold without silica content. This comparison can be observed from Figure 5(A1) and (A3). From Figure 5 (A5), chitosan/alginate/geothermal silica scaffold withcomposition ratio of 1:1:2 was more fragile due to lower silica binding polymer, for the samevalue of total mass. These SEM images may support the reason of the excess addition of silica
content which resulted lower its mechanical properties.

Figure 5. SEM images of chitosan/alginate/geothermal silica scaffold with ratio 1:1:0 (A1);
1:1:1 (A3); and 1:1:2 (A5)
4. CONCLUSION
The effects of geothermal silica addition to the mechanical properties of chitosan/alginate
scaffold were successfully investigated. Silica addition improved the mechanical strength ofscaffold, wherein the highest Young’s Modulus value was achieved by composition ratio of
1:1:1. While, geothermal silica addition reduced the swelling ratio of the scaffold.

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5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge for the financial support provided by The Global
Collaboration Program of Nara Institute of Science and Technology sponsored by MEXT, Japan.
6. REFERENCES
Becker, T. A., Kipke, D. R., Brandon, T., 2001, Calcium Alginate Gel: a Biocompatible andMechanically Stable Polymer for Endovascular Embolization, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 54,
pp.76.
Karp, J. M., Dalton, P. D., Shoichet, M. S., 2003, Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering, MRS Bull
28, pp.301.
Khong, T. T., Aarstad, O. A., Skjåk-Bræk, G., Draget, K. I., Vårum, K. M., 2013, Gelling
Concept Combining Chitosan and Alginate-Proof of Principle, Biomacromolecules, 27652771.
Kusumastuti, Y., Petrus, H. T. B. M., Yohana, F., Buwono, A. T., and Zaqina, R. B., 2017,
March, Synthesis and Characterization of Biocomposites Based on Chitosan andGeothermal Silica. In: AIP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 1823, No. 1, p. 020127. AIP
Publishing
Kusumastuti, Y., Shibasaki, Y., Hirohara, S., Kobayashi, M., Terada, K., Ando, T., andTanihara, M., 2015, Encapsulation of rat bone marrow stromal cells using a poly-ion
complex gel of chitosan and succinylated poly (Pro-Hyp-Gly). Journal of tissue
engineering and regenerative medicine.
Levengood, S. L., Zhang, M., 2014, Chitosan-Based Scaffold for Bone Tissue Engineering, J
Mater Chem B Mater Biol Med, pp.3161-3184.
Ramay, H.R., Li, Z., Hauch, K.D., Xiaou, D., Zhang, M., 2005, Chitosan-Alginate Hybrid
Scaffold for Bone Tissue Engineering, Biomaterials 26, pp.3919.
Vallet-Regi, M., Balas, F., 2008, Silica Materials for Medical Application, The Open
Biomedical Engineering Journal, pp.1-9634

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

Flux Coating Effect of SMAW 308L Electrode on Its Mechanical
Properties and Corrosion Resistance for Cryogenic Application
Andi Rustandia*, Suganta HandarubaDepartment of Metallurgy and Material Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesiab
PT. Voestalpine Bohler Welding Asia Pacific, Cikarang Sel. 17530, Bekasi, Indonesia

Abstract
Flux coating type of stick electrode of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) could influence the properties of weld metal. This work describeda study of mechanical and corrosion behavior of austenitic stainless steel weld metal grade 308L which deposited by using different typeelectrodes, namely rutile electrode, lower nitrogen content and basic electrode. Both electrodes were designed to produce the same ferrite
content namely 4FN. Several tests such as tensile at room temperature, Charpy impact V-notch and lateral expansion at cryogenic temperature-196oC were conducted to observe the mechanical behavior. Electrochemical testing such as cyclic polarization method was also performed.
The used of basic electrode significantly increased charpy impact by 16%, lateral expansion by 51% and slightly increases tensile strength by
6%. Pitting corrosion resistance value was shown by lower properties for weld metal 308L which had lower nitrogen content while rutile
and basic type electrode had better its resistance.
Keywords: Austenitic stainless steel 308L;Weld electrode;Cryogenic;Flux basicity;SMAWIntroduction
Austenitic stainless steel is well known as excellent engineering material due to its good atmosphericcorrosion resistance, formability, weldability and superior mechanical properties in cryogenic temperature[1]. Good metal toughness up to temperature below -269oC make austenitic stainless steel widely used incryogenic application such as in LNG facilities [2]. In LNG production process, after non-methanecomponent are removed, natural gas which manly consists of methane will be cooled to -161oC in
atmospheric pressure for liquefaction . Volume of the liquefied gas is 1/620 of the natural gas and makes it
more economic for transport. [2,3].This condition requires material that able to withstand in cryogenic
temperature such as austenitic stainless steel grade 304L (18%Cr, 8% Ni) which has charpy impact at 196o > 100 Joule [4]. 304L parent metal can be welded using GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) withfiller grade ER308L. This process can produce excellent cryogenic toughness with Charpy impact > 50 J at
-196oC [4,5]. However GTAW process has slow productivity and expensive operation cost. In general,
SMAW (shielded metal arc welding) is still popular and attractive at this present due to its simplicity,
flexibility and relatively low operational cost [6]. However weld metal cryogenic toughness deposited by
SMAW is not as good as GTAW where lateral expansion is not consistently achieve ≥ 0.38 mm at -196oC
as minimum requirement at many LNG specification that refer to ASME SEC VIII. This is caused by highnon-metallic inclusion and high oxygen content at flux shielded processes [7]. Previous intensive
researches have been conducted to understand metallurgical factor that influence cryogenic toughness at
austenitic stainless steel. Szumachiwski, et all [7] investigated cryogenic toughness at varies austenitic
stainless steel weld metal grade with chemical composition not confined with AWS A5.4 chemistry
range. The maximum cryogenic toughness (-196oC) were achieved by low carbon, low ferrite and the usedof lime-covered electrode. Further research conducted by Szumachowski, et all [8] revelead that low
nitrogen content at weld metal ( <0.05%) promoted good cryogenic toughness.
__________________________________* Corresponding author.
E-mail address:rustandia@gmail.com

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Altough zero ferrite or low ferrite content provided beneficial effect for cryogenic toughness, it is needed
as well to prevent hot cracking during welding of austenitic stainless steel [9]. Bacic/lime covered
electrode has better toughness compare to rutile electrode however weldability of basic electrode is not as
good as rutile electrode where the slag detachability is poor and it can lead to welding defect such as slag
inlcusion [8]. Special desain of SMA 308L weld metal need to be controlled in order to get optimum
properties which cover good cryogenic toughness, good hot cracking resistance and good weldability. The
objective of this study was to determine the effect of nitrogen content and flux basicity in shielded metalarc austenitic stainless steel weld metal grade E308L-16 on mechanical properties.
Experimental Method
Several series of 308L covered electrode were specially produced in order to get weld metal chemistrywith variation in ferrite number, nitrogen content and flux basicity as described in Table 1. Sample F
series consist of four electrodes E308L-17 with typical nitrogen 0.055 ± 0.03% w.t and ferrite content i.e2, 4, 6, and 10 FN were varied by modifying recovery of nickel and chromium via addition of chromium
and nickel powder in the flux. One electrode E308L-17 was produced with lower nitrogen content i.e
0.037%w.t and ferrite 4 FN. The last electrode E308L-15 has ferrite 4 FN and produced using more basic
flux by adding more carbonate and fluorite bearing minerals in the flux. All electrodes were produced
using 308L core wire 4.0 mm sizes and with the same heat except sample N4(3-5) that used low nitrogenin the wire. All specimens were welded by the same welder and welding machine. Welding parameter weremaintained in the same level i.e. heat input between 0.93 -1.33 KJ / mm and interpass temperature 130oC
max. Chemical analysis was measured using optical emission spectroscopy. Ferrite contents were
calculated using WRC-92 diagram and measured by using fisher ferritscope as comparison. Impact
specimen were tested at cryogenic temperature (-196oC). All weld metal tension tests were carried out atroom temperature according to standard AWS B.4.0. Further another test was performed to evaluate
corrosion behavior of the weld metal samples by using cyclic polarization method as per ASTM G61-86.
Table 1. Weld Metal Chemistry of Samples
Identity
Flux Type
%C
% Si
% Mn
%P
%S
% Cr
% Ni
% Mo
% Nb
% Cu
%N
Ferrite Content
WRC92
FerritescopeF2(7-10)
Rutile
0.022
0.820
0.590
0.025
0.022
19.75
9.730
0.001
0.004
0.019
0.052

F3(5-7)
Rutile
0.020
0.780
0.570
0.027
0.022
19.04
9.850
0.001
0.004
0.014
0.055

F4(3-5)
Rutile
0.019
0.770
0.570
0.022
0.021
19.08
10.53
0.055
0.004
0.153
0.058

F5(0-3)
Rutile
0.017
0.980
1.530
0.024
0.018
18.48
10.71
0.001
0.009
0.011
0.053

N4 (3-5)
Low N
0.018
0.980
0.650
0.037
0.014
18.30
10.37
0.002
0.008
0.296
0.037

B4(3-5)
Basic
0.027
0.340
1.290
0.024
0.019
19.22
10.64
0.001
0.004
0.013
0.044

10
10

6
6.1

4
3.4

2
2.2

4
4.0

4
3.9

Individual groove weld assemblies were prepared and welded by each electrode according to AWS.A5.4 asshown in Fig.1(a). Charpy impact V-notch specimens were prepared according to ASTM E23 withspecimen sizes 10 x 10 x 55 mm taken from cross section of welded specimen and notch location wasperpendicular to welding direction as shown in Fig.1 (b).

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(a)
(b)
Figure. 1 Groove weld test assembly (a). Charpy V-notch specimen (b).
Results and Discussion
Hot Cracking Resistance Prediction. Hot cracking resistance of stainless steel weld metal can bepredicted using Suutala diagram by plotting value of impurities elements sulfur and phosphor versus ratioof Creq/Nieq [10]. According to the calculation shown in Table 2, the ratio of Creq/Nieq for all 308L samples
are between 1.5 – 1.7 which indicating less cracking susceptible.
Table 2. Calculation of Suutala and WRC-92 Ratios
WRC-92

SampleCode

Suutala
Ratio

CrEq

NiEq

F2(7-10)F3(5-7)F4(3-5)F5(0-3)N2 (3-5)
B2(3-5)

1.88
1.81
1.68
1.62
1.72
1.61

19.8
19.0
19.1
18.5
18.5
19.2

11.5
11.7
12.4
12.4
11.8
12.5

Creq/Nieq FN
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.5

Solidification

10
6
4
2
4
4

FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA

Ferrite
Scope
10
6.1
3.4
2.2
4
3.9

Fig. 2 shows all weld metal samples 308L presents in the region that had good resistance with hot
cracking. This result is supported by other methodology described in Fig 2(b) which shows cracking
susceptibility according to WRC 92. Based on this method, the weld metal with Creq/Nieq –WRC92 morethan 1.5 has less cracking susceptibility [10,11].
(a)

(b)

Figure. 2 Weld Solidification Cracking Susceptibility based on (a )Plot Sutalla Diagram. (b) WRC 92

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Hot cracking resistance of weld metal is affected by several factors such as :a. Low level of impurities sulphur and phosphor (< 0.051%w.t.).
Sulphur and phosphor are well known as harmful elements that led to hot cracking [10] where theseelements according to J.C. Lippold et all [11] will segregate along fusion zone grain boundaries andpromoted present of low melting eutectic phase. Effect of low level of sulphur and phosphor will prevent
formation of low melting intermetallic phase and reduce potential of hot cracking.
b. Microstructure with ferrite content 2-10 FN.
The presence of ferrite effect was reported by Hull, and Brook [13,14] which could prevent hot cracking inmany austenitic stainless steel weld metal. Ferrite had higher solubility of sulphur and phosphor comparedwith austenitic, so it could reduce formation of low melting intermetallic phase by restricting segregationof sulphur out from interdendritic region during solidification of primary ferrite.
c. Solidification mode FA.
Most austenitic stainless steel weld metals are designed to solidify to give primary ferrite and secondary
austenite to minimize the occurrence of hot cracks. This solidification mode is known as the ferriticaustenitic solidification mode (FA mode). Hot cracking resistance are strong function of solidification
mode with FA mode offer the greatest resistance [11]. Kujanpaa,et all [15] mentioned that primary ferrite
solidification inhibited crack initiation and propagation and promote backfilling. FA mode had alsosolidification grain boundary which involved a mixture of ferrite and austenite that prevented liquid film
wetting. In addition, this boundary had very non-polar crack path where crack would be very difficult to
propagate once initiated [9].
Effect of Nitrogen and Flux Basicity. Fig. 3 shows the effect of nitrogen and flux basicity on tension
properties of 308L weld metal at room temperature. Mechanical properties of weld metal with low
nitrogen ( 0.037%w.t) is lower which compared to weld metal with 0.058% w.t nitrogen at the same ferrite
content 4 FN in the weld metal. The significant decrease of yield strength results in 6% from 419 MPa to394 MPa. Besides that, the elongation of weld metal with lower nitrogen content is 7.5% higher.
McCowan et. all [19] described that addition of nitrogen between 0.05%-0.25%w.t increased linearly yieldstrength from 600 – 1300 MPa which is an interstitial solid solution strengthening, thus lowering nitrogencontent will reduce weld metal strength.

Figure. 3 Effect of Nitrogen Content and Flux Basicity on Mechanical Strength

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Weld metal deposited with basic electrode has marginally higher tensile strength compared with weld
metal deposited by rutile type at the same ferrite content ( 4FN). Better CO2 shielding gas protection
produced by basic type electrode [20] results in higher recovery of manganese i.e. 1.29% w.t vs 0.57%w.t
rutile type. In addition better CO2 protection also leads to low dissolution of nitrogen content during
reaction at interface liquid weld metal – gas phase [20]. Lower nitrogen content is observed at basic typedeposited with nitrogen content 0.044% w.t vs 0.058%w.t rutile type which produced using same heat corewire. This composition causes yield strength of basic type weld i.e. 415 MPa which is 1% lower thanrutile type i.e. 419 MPa. The elongation of basic type is the same as rutile type which is 53%. Fig. 4 showsthe effect of nitrogen and flux basicity on cryogenic toughness of 308L weld metal. Reducing nitrogencontent from 0.053% to 0.037%w.t at the same ferrite content increases the impact strength from 29
Joule to 32 Joule, which is 10 % higher. The same behavior is also observed at lateral expansion where theweld metal with 0.037% w.t nitrogen has 37% higher than 0.053% w.t nitrogen with increment of lateralexpansion from 0.36 mm to 0.49 mm.

Figure. 4 Effect of Nitrogen Content and Flux Basicity on Cryogenic Toughness
This results confirm with previous research that involved E308-15 weld metal with FN 3which conductedby Szumachiwski et all [7,8]. They found that nitrogen reduction from 0.55% to 0.035%w.t increase lateralexpansion by 25% from 0.39 mm to 0.49 mm. which concluded that optimum cryogenic toughness ofaustenitic stainless steel weld metal was achieved by controlling nitrogen content as low as possible orless than 0.05% w.t. Deposited weld metal from electrode type basic, remarkably improved lateralexpansion by 51% from 0.36mm to 0.56 mm. Impact strength of basic type electrode also 17% higher
compared with rutile type electrode at the same ferrite content level. Impact strength was increased from
29 Joule to 34 Joule for basic type electrode. This result was also supported by Szumachowski et all.
which revealed that deposited weld metal from basic type electrode provided better cryogenic toughness
at all ferrite content [7,8,9]. Superior cryogenic toughness at basic type electrode resulted from less oxygen
content due to better weld pool protection by shielding gas from decomposition of carbonate mineral.
Kotecki [21] reported that weld metal oxygen content at basic type was around 500 ppm while rutile type
was between 600 – 900 ppm. The higher oxygen content could increase non-metallic inclusion density.

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639

Corrosion Behavior. The corrosion behavior of three different weld metal samples can be represented byusing the cyclic polarization testing results to evaluate pitting corrosion resistance respectively as shownin figure 5.

Figure 5. Cyclic Polarization Curves for Pitting Corrosion Resistance Evaluation
It shows the cyclic polarization curves for weld samples which are slightly different from each other but
the weld metal sample with lower nitrogen content has the lowest pitting corrosion resistance compared tothe others. In other words, the lower the nitrogen content then the weld metal has lower “pitting resistanceequivalent number” (PREN) which indicates the pitting resistance parameter that affected by its nitrogencontent.
Conclusions
The effect of nitrogen content and flux basicity on mechanical properites of different types of weld
metals SMA 308L are concluded as the following :a). A reduce in nitrogen content from 0.058% w.t to 0.037%w.t at the same ferrite level reduces yieldstrength by 6% and increases elongation by 7.5%. Lower nitrogen significant improves cryogenic
thoughnes which provides 37% higher lateral expansion and 10% higher impact strength.
b). The used of basic electrode slightly increase weld metal strength 308L. It also significanlty improves
cryogenic toughness which has 51% higher lateral expansion and 17% higher impact strength.
c). Based on its corrosion behavior, lowering nitrogen content in weld metal can reduce pitting
corrosion resistance.
Acknowledgements
The authors are greatly thankful to DRPM-Universitas Indonesia and PT. Voestalpine Bohler Welding
Asia Pacific for supporting this research.

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References[1] Micheal McGuire. Stainless Steel for Design Engineer. ASM International.2008[2] Swales,G.L. Role of Nickel Steels in LNG Tankers.Metal Progress.1975[3] Lide. CRC Handbook of Chemistry & Physics.Edition 76. 1995
[4] Liane Smith, Bruce Craig.Properties of Metallic Materials for LNG Service.Presented at 9th MECC,
Bahrain,2001.
[5] Welding Solutions for the LNG Industry. Voestalpine Bohler Welding.2014[6] Linnert.G.E Welding Metallurgy Volume 1.AWS.1994[7] E.R. Szumachowski, H.F.Reid. Cryogenic Toughness of SMA Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld Metals:
Part I-Role of Ferrite. Welding Journal,November 1978.
[8] E.R. Szumachowski, H.F.Reid. Cryogenic Toughness of SMA Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld Metals:
Part II-Role of Nitrogen. Welding Journal,February 1979.
[9] John C. Lippold, Damian Kotecki. Welding Metallurgy and Weldability of Stainless Steel.Willey.2005[10] Kujunpaa, Suutala. Correlation between Solidification Cracking and Microstructure in Austenitic andAustenitic-Ferritic Stainless Steel Welds.Welding Research International.9:55 (1979).
[11] Lippold.J, Savage.W.F.Solidification of Austenitic Stainless Steel. Part III: The Effect of Solidification
Behavior on Hot Cracking Suceptibility. Welding Journal:388s-396s.(1982).
[12] J.Wu.Fu. Formation of a Blocky Ferrite in Fe-Cr-Ni Alloy during Directional Solidification. Journal of
Crystal Growth 311: 3661-3666.(2009)[13] Hull.F.C.Effect of Delta Ferrite on the Hot Cracking of Stainless Steel.Welding Journal 46:339s409s.(1967).
[14] Brook,J.A. A Fundamental Study of the Beneficial Effects of Delta Ferrite in Reducing Weld Cracking.
Welding Journal, 63(3):71s-83s.(1984).
[15] Kujunpaa, S.A David, C.L.White. Formation of Hot Crack in Austenitic Stainless Steel WeldsSolidification Cracking. Welding Journal :203s-212s.(1986).
[16] Lippold.J, Savage.W.F.Solidification of Austenitic Stainless Steel. Part I: Proposed Mechanism.
Welding Journal:362s-372s.(1979).
[17] David.S.A. Ferrite Morphology and Variation in Ferrite Content in Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds.
Welding Journal:63s-70s.(1981)[18] Hauser,D et all. Effect of Ferrite Content is austenitic Stainless Steel Welds. Welding
Journal,61(2).37s-44s.(1982)[19] McCowan.C.N, Siewert.T.A,et all. Manganese and Nitrogen in Stainless Steel SMA Welds for
Cryogenic Service.Welding Journal: 84s-92s.(1987).
[20] Sindo Kou. Welding Metallurgy 2nd Edition. A Willey Interscience Publication.(2002).
[21] Kotecki. Stainless Q&A. Welding Journal, 82(11):80-81.(2003).

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PREDICTING MODELS OF CO2 MATERIALS PIPING/PIPELINE FOR
INITIATION STEP-PERTAMINA’S CO2 EOR PROGRAMS: FIELD DATA,SOFTWARE SIMULATION AND LABORATORY
Harris Prabowo1,2, Johny W Soedarsono2, Badrul Munir2, Andi Rustandi2, Yudha Pratesa221Pertamina UTC (h_prabowo@pertamina.com)
Departemen Teknik Metalurgi & Material Faculty of Engineering Universitas Indonesia (harrisprabowo90@gmail.com)

ABSTRACTAs Indonesia’s national energy company fully owned by the Government of Indonesia,
Pertamina is faced to oil production enhancement on brown fields, relatively low cost oil,government policy to reduce gas prices and reduction of CO2 gasses emission. Field
development issues and production operation tend to set course to a condition of which theoil/gas wells have the tendency to carry relatively high impurities components (CO2, H2S,
chloride ions) that results in early corrosion occurrence, creating damages that can start fromunderground equipment (casing, tubing, and packer) then leads to production facilitation on
ground, which are well head, flowline, header manifold and also into gas processing plant.
Pertamina CO2 EOR program is part of a program planned increasing production based ondata from the Ministry of Energy & Mineral Resources of the Republic of Indonesia that thepotential pilot project is Jatibarang Field in West Java with 0.09 TSCF potential gas reserves,
oil is 49.3 MMSTB and + 23% CO2 content. Given the impact caused by the CO2 component
and the possibility of other components such as H2S and chloride ions (Cl-), therefore, thispaper will lead to the possibility of material damage and the risk of corrosion of the material
selection options in the PERTAMINA program plan.
Predicting model of material method is for initiation phase proposal by the evaluation ofclosest field data/literature review, simulation software, material and fluid analysis test andcorrosion resistance test on the test sample and Materials Duplex 22Cr-15 Cr. The output ofpredictive models is to forecast corrosion allowance for new design and predict will be able toextend the life of the operating performance of production equipment, the requirements of
HSSE (Health Safety Security and Environment) and to optimize the investment costs (Capex)
and operating costs (Opex) on the next selection phase.
Keywords: Predicting Models, CO2 Corrosion, CO2 Materials, CO2 EOR

1. INTRODUCTION
Oil and gas currently still become the source of income in The Indonesian Budget (APBN),
hence the relatively low oil price and Government’s policy plan to reduce gas selling pricealong with global charges on carbon gas emissions reduction. Therefore, oil and gas production
eventually still be one of the most strategic incomes and naturally the production decline rateshould be resisted and developed. On the other side, oil and gas potential that are yet to bediscovered and unable to be produced/lifted commonly found in challenging locations.
As Indonesia’s national Energy Company fully owned by the Government of Indonesia,
PERTAMINA operates not only onshore/offshore upstream production facilities (oil and gas
field and geothermal) but also gas plants, refinery, fuel product, fuel distribution on Indonesia
area, petrochemical product and lubricants.
It has to be admitted that Indonesia’s oil production is experiencing production deflation
down to around 800 thousand barrels per day and based on data from Indonesia’s Ministry of

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Energy and Mineral Resources, it is mentioned that unrecoverable resources substitution
potential have reached 46.42 billion STB, of which are EOR (Enhanced Oil Recovery) methodin the amount of 4.3 billion STB and potential pilot project CO2 Flooding EOR Project is
Jatibarang Field in West Java with 0.09 TSCF potential gas reserves, oil is 29.3 MMSTB and± 23% CO2 content1. One of the oil lifting methods with EOR is injecting CO2 into future
production’s formation candidate and CO2 gas source can be extracted from its vicinity. Few
of Indonesia’s gas fields which are owned by PERTAMINA contain CO2 components that canbe used for oil lifting using CO2 EOR method2.
Currently, oil and gas prices are relatively low around US$ 50 per barrel but inIndonesia, gas prices are still considered to be high to industries and expecting theGovernment’s discourse to lower the natural gas selling prices, so that local industrial activities
can be more encouraged. Based on this, oil and gas companies are facing a special challenge,
which are optimizing on capital price/investment and operational cost, encountering problems
that are initially based on oil and gas with slight impurities during exploration/production, butalso activities that lead to formation rock zone with high impurities.
H2S, CO2 and Chloride ions are less favoured impurity contents. The existence of these
impurities, other than causing more special processes on separation process, conditioning
process, and specified material choosing, will also face high risks on corrosion and material
degradation.
Lifting activities and transporting oil and gas will transport impurities (H2S, CO2 andChloride ions) which impact on corrosive/material degradation on metal-based material
surfaces that eventually will stop the production activity, loss of income and opportunities
costs, and also HSSE (Health, Safety, Security, Environment) impact and equipment’s
reliability problems. Material degradation or commonly mentioned as corrosion, which is 60%
material failure3 in oil and gas fields, is caused by CO2 corrosion. The impression that occur
from corrosion on oil and gas industries is the expenses of annual capital expenditure, estimatedas much as US$ 1.372 billion, consists of US$ 589 million piping cost and surface production
facilities, US$ 463 on annual well tubing pipes and miscellaneous costs connected to corrosion
claimed as US$ 320 million4.
The process of discovery oil and gas is initially started by oil and gas exploration activity,
i.e. seismic survey, prospect evaluation, exploration risks analysis, volumetric magnitudereserve, and extreme environmental conditions occurrence along with the environment
regulation and other commercial requirements that has to be fulfilled, which nevertheless are
considered as economical values and final investment decisions (FID).
Prospect evaluation results, volumetric magnitude reserve, and the result of well tests onpressure, volume, temperature and fluid compositions are effect on variable techno economic
assessment, material selection and corrosion control.
In oil and gas production’s environment, there are few components in oil and gas fluidsthat are corrosive in nature, which are oxygen–O2 (Oxygen Attack), Carbon Dioxide–CO2(Sweet Corrosion), hydrogen sulphide – H2S (Sour Corrosion), fluid temperature, watersalinity, water cut, fluid dynamics, and pH5. The effect of carbon steel alloy base damages dueto the exposal of corrosive fluid components has piqued interests from researchers, mainly
because of the existence of CO2 and other impurities that are commonly present in oil and gas
fluids, which cause not only general corrosion but also localised corrosion. Adjacent to that,
CO2 components and other impurities existence are potential to the decrease of material’s
thickness which leads to weight loss, pitting, and sulphide/chloride stress cracking. It
eventually depends on how much CO2 and other impurities existence and the possibility ofother water phase and hydrocarbon occurrence.

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Oil lifting method using EOR by injecting CO2 is an opportunity and challenge in oil andgas industries that usually applies few steps in its final investment decision (Initiation Step,
Selection Step, Advanced Study Step, and Execution Step).
The main focus in EOR CO2 injection (Figure 1) is downhole injection system andflowline production toward header manifold before undergoes the separation process,condition process, capturing CO2 process and back to reinjection process system. Downhole
injection system itself consists of casing pipe, tubing pipe, and wellhead with appurtenances,whilst the operational condition is injection pressures that are relatively high and CO2 condition
is in supercritical state.

Source: http://www.powermag.com/is-eor-a-dead-end-for-carbon-capture/

Figure 1 Schematic Flow Diagram CO2 Injection.
This paper will explain how the writer is assigned to make suggestions on materials foroil and gas development scenario using EOR CO2 injection method in Initiation Step by using
field data evaluation, software simulation and laboratory test data. The collected data are thefield data from exploration/production drilling, material degradation study in oil and gas fieldthat contains CO2 impurities up to 25 %mol and H2S up to 1 %mol, and also software
simulation and laboratory tests.
Nowadays, oil and gas fields that contain fluid impurities, the use of CRA (CorrosionResistant Alloys) materials, has become the main deliberation in designing production facility
equipment’s and piping system, of which in development of oil and gas field is generally highcost and high risk.

Figure 2 Area of predicting corrosion

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The objective of material prediction model within initiation-step of the scope of thedevelopment of oil and gas wells (Figure-4 and Figure-5) using CO2 EOR injection methods
in the initiation phase is to acquire different options on appropriate material for fluid flow line
having a content of impurities and under conditions of high pressure and supercritical state.
Tabel 1 The design required for the injection of CO2(Data Field)
OperatingCondition
CO2
Injection
Pressure
CO2
Injection
Temperature

Max.Flow

Ave.Flow

Min.Flow

psia

1.150

1.250

1.270

C

32

32

32

o

Figure 3 Various Operations on the CO2 phase diagram9
2. METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL
Considering the complexity of instruments that will be used on production development ofan oil and gas field (Figure 4) and stages of Scope of Business Process on Oil and Gas Company(Figure 5), along with the variety of impurities, accordingly this paper will be limited into
initiation step and its material select options are based on provided data which have actual
condition of relatively high on oil and gas field (CO2 25 %mol, H2S 1-1.2 %mol and thepresence possibilities of Chloride ions), and hence will be selected 2 (two) material types as
early prediction material, which are material with 15% chromes and 22% chromes that are
widely known for CRAs.

Figure 4 Typical Scope of Work Surface Process and Facilities on Oil and Gas

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645

Figure 5 Typical Evaluation Stages Scope of Business Process on Oil and gas Company
Model predictions of the corrosion rate can utilize common operational parameters
available, laboratory data / field existing and theoretical models to get the realistic predictionof corrosion rate6 (B. Khajotia, 2007).
There has been a plenty of CO2 prediction model development in oil and gas production
system using different assumptions/methods/references/studies. Prediction toward a few
prediction model7 (Nyborg, 2010) that are applied on oil and gas industries, is using field data
(DeWaard Model, Norsok M-506 Model, Hydrocor, Corpor, Casandra, KSC Model,
Multicorp, ECE Model, Predict, Tulsa Model, ULL Model, CorPos, OLI Model, andSweetCor) and factors from the effect of protective corrosion films and the effect of oil wetting
on CO2 corrosion. The application of predicting model method is also applied on oil and gas
production operation problems in top of line corrosion (TLC) on seabed pipelines, specificallythe cold spot where detected leaks are estimated in conjunction to water condensation rate andcorrosion rate8 (Y. Gunaltun et/ al, 2010), based on modelling using field data.
2.1 Research Method and Process Flow Diagram
In order to conform the mentioned business process steps (Figure 5), as new material option
predicting evaluation, recent suggestion on suitable material model predicting based on oil andgas field developing investment scenario will be using EOR CO2 injection method is based onliterature study, evaluating field data including production estimation scenario on field that
becomes fitting development candidates and then the first step data will be evaluated using oil
and gas production facility concept simulation, of which are needed to field development using
Questor IHS software to obtain unclassified (conceptual) estimation of capital expenditure(CAPEX) and operating expenditure (OPEX) also Decommissioning Cost.
The data that are needed for the simulations are Recoverable Reserve, Condensate gas ratio,
Reservoir Depth, Reservoir Pressure, Reservoir Length, Reservoir Width, field terrain
contours, and estimated contents of CO2 and H2S (fluid test laboratory data from drilling
results). Pipeline material options in Questor IHS software are Carbon Steel X-60, X-65, X-70,
X-80, Clad 316 Stainless Steel, Clad 825 Alloy, Duplex and CRA. Therefore, material selectionof the predicting model is chosen based on assumed material, software simulation andlaboratory test to choose materials and estimated appropriately and economically, also basedon field development scenario and company’s policy management.
2.2 Experimental/Materials Database (Internal Data)
Laboratory simulation is established to acquire corrosion rate of the materials for flowlines,
both for the selected and predicted flowline, that will run into material degradation upon field
application. Laboratory simulation that is done by using potentiometer and CMS 100. Kinetic
reaction that occurs on sample test dipped in a soluble inside polarization flask will bemeasured by potentiometer and CMS 100 into polarization chart. This polarization chart thenwill be analysed further using CMS 100 software, which then will acquire the parameter valuesof kinetic corrotion that consists of corrosion potential, current density, tafel constants andcorrosion rate.

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Figure 6 Flow Diagram Research Methods
Composition test is done to understand the accuracy of material compositions. By doing so,
the acquired compositions then compared to the existed standard composition. Chemicalcomposition test is done by using Optical Emission Spectrometer. This optical emission
spectrometer is a way to analyze based on principle of physics, which is electromagnetic
radiation characteristics, where chemical composition test is obtained based on observing theradiation energy interaction spectrum with the substance. To understand how high thepercentage of the contents and composition, the speciments are cut according to the required
sizes, then placed in the spectrometer. The next step is to emit the contents and tested material’s
percentage.
Material test is also done by using Philips’ Scanning Electron Microscope 515 (SEM 515)
which includes disperse energy X-ray PV 9900 model (EDAX PV 9900). The specification of
SEM has the resolution of 12.5 Ampere, magnification is between 15 to 240,000 times, anddepth of field is ranged between 0.5 μm on 80 times. SEM-EDAX is used to observe themicrostructures of carbide chrome materials by detecting the amount of intenstities toward theaccounted energies. The mentioned compounds distribution is approached by the wavelength
value. The obtained results are analyzed by mapping method. This method can precisely
perceive the elements of a sample. Mapping is done by firstly set the detector position to matchthe utilized element.
3. LABORATORIUM TEST: ANALYSIS AND RESULT (THE COMPANY’SINTERNAL DATA)
3.1 Composition of Materials Test
Material composition test using spectrometer on 2 CRA materials (15-Cr and 22-Cr) showseach mixed compositions as follows on Table 2.

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Table 2 Composition of Materials Sample Test SS 15Cr
1
2
3
Ave

Fe
75.6
75.6
75.4
75.6

C
0.08440.05640.0611
0.0673

Si
0.198
0.193
0.213
0.201

Mn
0.305
0.294
0.291
0.297

P
< 0.0030< 0.0030< 0.0030< 0.0030

S< 0.0050< 0.0050< 0.0050< 0.0050

Cr
14.9
15.2
15.2
15.1

Mo
2.05
1.98
2.02
2.02

1
2
3
Ave

Ni
5.48
5.36
5.48
5.44

Al
0.05350.04600.04900.0495

Co
0.0946
0.0931
0.09280.0935

Cu
0.941
0.898
0.884
0.908

Nb
0.06650.06370.06540.0652Ti
0.00740.00760.00840.0078V
0.0426
0.04390.04220.0429W< 0.0200< 0.0200< 0.0200< 0.0200

Table 3 Composition of Materials Sample Test SS 22Cr
1
2
3
Ave

Fe
66.6
66.1
66.3
66.3

C
0.04710.05580.04630.0497

Si
0.533
0.531
0.508
0.524

Mn
1.47
1.47
1.46
1.47

P
0.00830.00970.00750.0085S< 0.0050< 0.0050< 0.0050< 0.0050

Cr
22.8
23.2
23.0
23.0

Mo
3.31
3.25
3.47
3.34

1
2
3
Ave

Ni
4.67
4.74
4.66
4.69

Al
0.01670.01730.01350.0159Co
0.08920.08990.09040.0898

Cu
0.236
0.240
0.232
0.236

Nb
0.01120.01140.01160.0114Ti
0.00610.00500.00550.0055

V
0.07080.07460.07040.0719W
0.02470.02000.02490.0212For sample test 15-Cr is acquired using PREN by 21.8 and 36.9 on sample test 22-Cr.
3.2 Porization Test
Porization test using cylic method on 2 CRA materials (15-Cr and 22-Cr) shows theresult comparation of potential value differences in varied condition as follows:
Table 4 CRA Corrosion Potential and Corrosion Rate base on the Calculations of the Carbon
Steel
ROOM (27 oC)

TEMPERATURE
Cl(ppm)5,000

18,00025,000648

Condition
NaturalCO2

Epit - Ecorr (mV)MEDIUM (50 oC)
Epit - Ecorr (mV)HIGH (80 oC)
Epit - Ecorr (mV)

15-Cr

Duplex

mpy
CS

15-Cr

Duplex

mpy
CS

15-Cr

Duplex

mpy
CS

768

1325

0.01

600

1400

0.002

700

1000

0.06

996

1455

40.24

575

1365

86.32

480

656

88.8

H2S

650

1230

24.86

600

1110

31.56

250

520

62.6

CO2 + H2S
Natural
CO2

700

1335

29.43

600

1157

29.5

550

680

51.64

618

1374

0.01

650

1025

0.02

425

575

0.07

598

1350

45.32

525

975

97.12

550

475

100.1

H2S

624

990

27.99

475

1150

35.54

350

400

70.5

CO2 + H2S
Natural
CO2

644

910

32.71

425

1200

33.23

450

550

58.16

604

1432

0.01

275

1000

0.02

325

350

0.07

858

1482

48.05

400

1250

102.98350

500

106.04

H2S

802

1300

29.68

325

1150

37.68

150

400

74.76

CO2 + H2S

375

1225

34.69

375

775

35.23

350

425

61.67

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3.3 Interpretation of test polarization 5,000 ppm Cl- 1 atm CO2 with room temperature
at 27 OC

Figure 7 Polarization Curve at 5,000 ppm Cl-,
1 atm CO2 at Room temperature (27 oC)

In polarization curve (Figure 4.2) the
tendency of pitting occurence isdisplayed on material sample test of
15% Cr and Cuplex, which isillustrated as looping line or
hystericist. On material sample test
15% Cr will experience higher chanceof pitting compared to duplex material
sample test, that is shown by the
relatively small area of duplex. On
material sample test of 15% Cr
component, critical pitting potential
occur on potential value of +0.700 V
SCE and its protection potential
approximately +0.300 V SCE.
On the other hand, the critical
pitting potential of Duplex occur on+1.400 V SCE and its protection
potential is +1.200 V SCE, in which
this condition will not develop the wellactivation and the existing hole willremain passive.

3.4 Recommended Materials for CO2 Injection Wells
As a depiction, the material needed for CO2 well injection in downhole equipment which
are casing and tubing, cement and casing heads, packer (completion work material), tubing andwellhead, along with its completeness are different from conventional well, where the materials
should be corrosion resistance and in some cases, should be able to resist high pressure andtemperature.

Figure 8 Schematic of a CO2
Injection Well11

Figure 9 Picture of Surface Production Facilities

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649

The recommended materials for CO2 Injection Wells9,10,11,12 are shown in Table 5.
Tabel 5 Recommended Materials for CO2 Injection Wells10,11,12,13
Components

Materials

Christmas Tree (Trim)

316SS, Nickel, Monel

Valve Packing and Seals

Teflon, Nylon

Tubing Hanger

316 SS, Incoloy

TubingGRE Lined Carbon Steel, IPC Carbon Steel, CRA

Tubing Joint Seals

Seal Ring (GRE), Coated Threads and Collars (IPC)

On/Off Tool, Profile Nipple

Nickel plated wetted parts, 316 SS

Packers

Internally coated hardened rubber of 80-90 durometer
strength (Buna-N), Nickel plated wetted parts

4. CONCLUSION
1. The result of chrome 15 %Cr material polarization test has the tendency of pitting occurence,
which has happened on Chloride ion 5,000 ppm in room temperature 27°C.
2. The result of chrome 22 %Cr material polarization test in room temperature (27°C) andmedium (50°C), the pitting tendency occur in Chloride ion 25,000 ppm, while the pittingin high temperature (80°C) in Chloride ion 5,000 ppm has occured.
3. The objective of material prediction model within initiation-step of the scope of thedevelopment of oil and gas wells (Figure-4 and Figure-5) using CO2 EOR injection methods
in the initiation phase is to determine base case material for preliminary unclassified costestimate.
4. Other material types can be put into consider while initiating Front End Engineering Design
step, meanwhile for 15Cr and Duplex are recommended as basic references in investment
proposal steps from Initiation Step to Final Investment Decision Step.
ACKNOWLEDMENT
I would like to express my special thanks to Management of Upstream Technology Center(UTC)-PT PERTAMINA (Persero) which has given the opportunity to play an active role in
the research of CO2 EOR at Pertamina, also thanks to LEMTEK FTUI who has assisted invarious research material within UTC PT PERTAMINA (Persero).
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.

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M.R. Simmons, (2008), Report of Offshore Technology Conference (OTC) presentation(Houston, TX: NACE International Oil and Gas Production.
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8. Y. Gunaltun, U. Kaewpradap, M. Singer, S. Nesic, S. Punpruk, M. Thammachart (2010),
Progress in the Prediction of Top of the Line corrosion and Challenges to Predict Corrosion
rates Measured in Gas Pipelines, NACE Corrosion 2010 Conference and Expo.
9. Shiladitya Paul, Richard Sheperd, Paul Woolin, (2012), Selection of materials for highpressure CO2 transport, presented at Third International Forum on the Transportation of
CO2 by Pipeline, Newcastle.
10. American Petroleum Institute, Background Report (2007), “Summary of Carbon Dioxide
Enhanced Oil Recovery (CO2 EOR) Injection Well Technology”, 120 L Street NW,
Washington DC.
11. M.E. Parker, J.P Meyer, S.R. Meadows (2009), Carbon Dioxide Enhanced Oil Recovery
Injection Operations Technologies.
12. N. Gaurina, B. Pasic (2011), Design and Mechanical Integrity of CO2 Injection Wells,
Rudarsko-geološko-naftni zbornik, Vol 23.
13. L. Smith, M.A. Billingham, C.H. Lee, D. Milanovic (2011), Establishing and Maintaining
the Integrity of Wells used for Sequistration of CO2, Elsevier.

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UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH AND NICKEL SLAG PT. ANTAM AS MATERIALSUBTITUTION FOR CONCRETE
Musnajam, Vita Astini , Fachryano
Science and Technology Faculty, University of Sembilanbelas November Kolaka
Abstract
The use of concrete for road and bridge work has long been used, and nearly 80% of thebridge elements made of concrete. In concrete, aggregates it self-occupies 70% to 75% of
the volume of concrete, so the quality of aggregates influence on the properties ofconcrete. High demand for concrete also increases demand for aggregates. As a result of
the increased demand for aggregates, exploration of natural materials would potentiallyharm the environment. In addition, as fuel prices increase, resulting in increasing pricesof construction materials and other basic commodities. Because of that, many industries
switched to using coal as an alternative fuel. PT. Antam as one of the nickel mining
industry also used coal as an alternative fuel. The result of using coal as fuel is the
production of residual waste coal that is fly ash. The nickel production also produces
nickel slag as residual waste that contains very small amount of nickel and noteconomically to recovered. To reduce by-product of nickel mining industry, a researchuse of fly ash and nickel slag as a substitution material for concrete rigid pavement wasinvestigated. The purpose of this research, to characterized the chemical and physical fly
ash and nickel slag properties. The last step of this research is the analysis of the effectsof the use fly ash and nickel slag on the compressive strength of concrete as the mainindicator of the strength of concrete.
Keywords: Mine Waste, Fly ash, Nickel Slag, Concrete Compressive Strength.
1.
INTRODUCTION
The use of concrete for road and bridge work has long been used, and nearly 80% of
the bridge elements made of concrete. Even today many pavement using concretematerials. In concrete, aggregates it self occupies 70% to 75% of the volume of
concrete, so quality of aggregates influence on the properties of concrete(Nugraha and Antoni, 2007).
Today, due to rising fuel prices for the industry, many companies are turning to coalas fuel. Waste products of combustion of coal produces ash called fly ash and bottom
ash. The percentage of ash produced is 80-90% fly ash and 10-20% bottom ash(PJB Paiton). Fly ash as a waste ash from coal-burning process has mineralogy
that arranged in an amorphous phase, crystalline and have adhesion (pozzolan) withthe chemical composition of primary SiO2, Al2O3, MgO, and the secondary
composition are CaO, NaO and Fe2O3 (American Electric Power 2004).
Meanwhile, nickel slag is a nickel processing wastes consisting of dense and porous
slag. The chemical composition of the nickel slag of highest to smallest consisting of
Fe2O3, Fused Silica, MgO, Al2O3, CaO, Cr2O3, and SiO2Ni (optaminerals.com,
2015).

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Research by Adibroto F. and Yelvi (2008) suggests that the fly ash use can improve
the nature of workmanship and reduces the amount of water use for mortar, thus
reducing the amount of heat hydration that occurs. Fly ash can used as a cement
substitution materials with optimum of 50% substitution. While slag substitution asa partial substitution of coarse aggregates concrete cause decreased flexural strengthand density of normal concrete obtained on a 80% slag substitution (Susilowati D. et
al, 2013). According to Ganti A. (2008), the use of low nickel slag as a
substitute coarse aggregates, can improve the compressive strength of 12.32%,
reduces abrasion 24.17%, and reduces shrinkage 11.6% compared to normal
concrete. Basedon composition
oftheconstituent
structure, Bukit Asam Tarahan Lampung fly ash eligible to used as a ceramicmaterial (Karo-karo and Sembiring, 2008). But however, according Eisenring, M.P.
(2013) explained that utilization of fly ash in Indonesia less than 10% in the last five
years .
The aims of this research are to characterize the chemical and physical fly ash andnickel slag properties, analyze the strength of concrete using fly ash as a cement
substitute, and analyze the compressive strength of concrete using nickel slag ascoarse aggregates substitute.
2. METODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
This research designed to manufacture rigid concrete by adding byproduct materials of PT. Antam that are nickel slag as a coarse aggregate
substitute and fly ash as a cement substitute in concrete mixing. The
experiment done as follows:a. Making the specimen test in the form of concrete cylinders
Specimen test made based on the variation composition in Table 1. The specimen
test is cylinder specimen with diameter 15 cm and height 30 cm. Fly ash used as
cement substitution and nickel slag used as coarse aggregates substitution. Cementthat used to make specimen using Portland Composite Cement (PCC) (SNI 15-7002004). Three specimen test made for each variant composition for compressive
strength test. The samples made were immersion in 4 variances those are 1, 3, 7 and
28 days.
b. Physical and chemical test for concrete material
Physical tests for concrete material is a compressive strength test. The goal of acompression test is to determine the behavior or response of a material while itexperiences a compressive load by measuring fundamental variables, such as,strain, stress, and deformation. By testing a material in compression thecompressive strength may be determined. With the understanding of compressive
strength it determined whether or not the material is suited for specific applications
or if it will fail under the specified stresses. Chemical test conducted to figure theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

653

constituent material elements and compounds. The type testing and testing methods
for each variable shown in Table 1 to Table 3 following:
Tabel 1. Compressive Strength Testing for cylinder specimen (15 cm x 30 cm)
and the number of specimen test
Total Objects Test For Immersion

Type Concrete

654

1 Day

3Days

7Days

28 DaysNormal Concrete

3

3

3

3

Concrete with 10% Fly ash as cement substitution

3

3

3

3

Concrete with 20% Fly ash as cement substitution

3

3

3

3

Concrete with 30% Fly ash as cement substitution

3

3

3

3

Concrete with 40% Fly ash as cement substitution

3

3

3

3

Concrete with 50% Fly ash as cement substitution

3

3

3

3

Concrete with 10% nickel slag as coarse aggregate
substitution

3

3

3

3

Concrete with 25% nickel slag as coarse aggregate
substitution

3

3

3

3

Concrete with 50% nickel slag as coarse aggregate
substitution

3

3

3

3

Concrete with 100% nickel slag as coarse aggregate
substitution

3

3

3

3

Table 2. Testing methods

No.

Testing

Methods

1.

Compressive Strength

SNI 1974-2011

Table 3. Chemical Composition Test

No.

Testing

Equipment

1.
2.

Chemical Molecule
Chemical element

X-Ray Diffraction
Scan Electron Microscopy (EDAX)
X-Ray Flourescence

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Aggregates are one of the filler material in the concrete, which reached 70% -75% of
the volume of concrete. So, the properties of aggregates influence on the properties ofconcrete. With a good aggregates, concrete workable (workable), strong, long-lasting(durable) and economical (Nugraha and Antoni, 2007). Prior to using fly ash andnickel slag for the substitution of concrete materials, preliminary research wasundertaken to analyze the chemical composition of elements and compounds
contained in the samples using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and X-Ray Fluorescence(XRF). Nickel slag composition test by XRF carried out for 2 months in July and
September 2016 in PT. Antam. Distribution composition of nickel slag described in
Figure 1 and Figure 2. From the composition test results, showed that PT Antam's
nickel slag contains an average of 0.06% Ni, 9.25% Fe, 52.66% SiO2, 31.79% MgO,
1.25% CaO, 0.94% Cr, and 2.72% Al2O3.
Based on Figure 1 and Figure 2 show that nickel slag processing results PT. Antamhas a composition which is relatively stable from day-to-day. This composition isclose to the chemical composition according to the literature (Sugiri, 2005) slag
chemical composition consisting of 41.47% Silica, 30.44% Ferric Oxide, 2.58%
Alumina, and 22.75% Magnesia (MgO).
Composition of Nickel Slag PT. Antam Pomalaa( June - September 2016)
For the composition of SiO2 and MgOComposition (%)

65.00
55.00

SiO2

45.00
35.00
25.00

MgO
1

51

101

151
201
251
301
351
No of Sample
Figure 1. Composition of Nickel Slag PT. Antam Pomalaa (July-September 2016) For thecomposition of SiO2 and MgOProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

655

Composition of Nickel Slag PT. Antam Pomalaa( June - September 2016)
For the composition of Ni, Cr, CaO and AL2O3

Composition (%)

2.50

3.00

2.00

2.80

1.50

2.60

1.00

2.40

0.50

2.20

0.00

2.00

1

51
Ni

101

151 201 251
No of Sample
Cr
CaO

301

351
Al2O3

Figure 2. Composition of Nickel Slag PT. Antam (July-September 2016) For thecomposition of Ni, CaO, Cr and Al2O3
The test results of XRD on fly ash shown in Figure 3, obtained estimate quantity of
the chemical compound that are consist of quartz or silica (Quartz, syn) SiO2 57%,
Particle Iron (Magnetite, syn) Fe3O4 21%, Magnesium silicate (Magnesium Silicon
Oxide) MgSiO3 17,5%, Titanium dioxide (rutile) TiO2 3,9%, Calcium silicate(calcium silicon oxide) Ca(SiO3) 1%. XRD testing on the river sand (Figure 4)
obtained quantity of chemical compounds as follows: Felspar or Anorthoclase (Na0.85
K0.14) (AlSi3O8) 77%, Potassium feldspar (microcline) KAlSi3O8 12.8%, Magnetite
iron particles Fe3O4 3.9%, quartz or silica (quartz) SiO2 0.64%, iron oxide or ferricoxide (hematite HP, iron (III) oxide) Fe2O3 0.1%, Titanium Dioxide (Rutile, syn)1.34% TiO2, Clinoenstatite, syn (Ca0.15Mg0.85)Si2O6 4.7%. The results of XRD
observations on the nickel slag (Figure 5) obtained chemical composition these are :Forsterite, ferroan (Mg1.8Fe0.2SiO4 )78%, Mg2(Si2O6) 21.4% and Nickel Iron Oxide (Ni0.6Fe2.4O4) 0.5%. The different color in Figure 3, 4 and 5 shows Miller indices (hkl)
used to identify different planes of atoms. Observed diffraction peaks can be related
to planes of atoms to assist in analyzing the atomic structure and microstructure of asample.

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30(2 1 1)
40

50

60

70

Anorthite, sodian, syn, Na0.45 Ca0.55 Al1.55 Si2.45 O8(1 0 1)(1 1 0)

Quartz, syn, Si O2(2 1 1)(1 0 4)

microcline ordered HP, potassium tecto-alumotrisilicate, K ( Al Si3 O8 )hematite HP, iron(III) oxide, Fe2 O3
Rutile, syn, Ti O2Magnetite, Fe3 O4(1 2 -2)(2 2 -1)

20(1 0 4)(1 2 -2)(1(11 00)1)30(3 1 0)20(1 1 0)0.0e+000
10
100
0
100
0
100
0
100
0
100
0
100
0
100
0
10

(2 0 -1)

2.0e+003(2 0 -1)

Intensity (cps)4.0e+003(2 2 -1)(3 1 0)6.0e+003(0 1 1)-2 0)0)(2(1(20 1)(01 1)
(0 04(22)200)(2 20 0)-2)
(1(01 4-2)
0)(0 4 0) (2(0
0 0)
2) (0 4 0)

(2 -2 0)Figure 3. The results of the characterization of XRD Fly ash

magnesium iron catena-silicate, Clinoenstatite, ( Mg0.985 Fe0.015 ) ( Si O3 )

40

50

60

70

2-theta (deg)Figure 4. The results of the characterization of XRD Sand River

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

657

4000

(2 2 1)(4 2 0)

0
100
50

50
0
10

(2 2 2)(3 1 1)(1 2 1)

50

20

30

60

(2 2 2)40

70

Forsterite, ferroan, Mg1.80 Fe0.20 Si O4

Enstatite, syn, Mg2 ( Si2 O6 )Nickel Iron Oxide, Ni0.6 Fe2.4 O4(3 1 1)0100(1(23 01)2) (1 2 1)(3 1 1) (3(1
1 31)
(2
01)
2)

50

30

(3 0 1)(4(22 20)1)

20

(6 1
(30)2 1)0
10100

(3 2 1)(6 1 0)(2 1 0)1000(2 1 0)Intensity (cps)2000(3 0 1)

3000

40

50

60

70

2-theta (deg)Figure 5. The results of the characterization of XRD Nickel Slag

Average Density of Concrete (kg/m3)

From Figure 6 shows that the decline in hard concrete density on average, in line with
the increase percentage of fly ash as a cement substitute. Based on Dorf Richard,(1996), the density of normal concrete is 2400 kg/m3and the density of lightweight
concrete is 1750 kg/m3. A normal concrete, from the experiment, has density 2.320
kg/m3. Using 50 % fly ash as cement substitution decrease the density of concrete to
2.249 kg/m3. From the Figure 7. shows that the concrete density increase with nickel
slag substitution as coarse aggregates. Using 100 % nickel slag as coarse aggregates
substitution increase the density of concrete to 2.498 kg/m3.
2340
2320
2300
2280
2260
2240
2220
2200

B 0% FA

B 10% FA

B 20% FA

B 30% FA

B 40% FA

B 50% FA

Variations Substitution of Fly Ash (%)

Figure 6. The average Density of the concrete for each cylinder specimen (15 cm x
30 cm) on every variation of fly ash

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Average Density of Concrete (kg/m3)

2550
2500

2450
2400
2350
2300
2250
2200

B 0% SN

B 10% SN

B 25% SN

B 50% SN

B 100% SN

Variations Substitution of Nickel Slag (%)

Figure 7. The average Density of the concrete for each cylinder specimen (15 cm x
30 cm) on every variation of nickel slag

Compressive Strength (Mpa)

35.00
30.00
25.00

B 0% FA

20.00

B 10% FA

15.00

B 20% FA
B 30% FA

10.00

B 40% FA

5.00
0.00

B 50% FA
0

4

8

12

16

20

24

28

Age of Concrete (days)

Figure 8. Graph increase concrete compressive strength of fly ash every age
Figure 8 shows that the concrete made by using basic component of cement, riversand, and crushed stone obtained the compressive strength 30 MPa. While the use fly
ash as a cement substitution, from the lowest percentage of 10% until the percentage
of 50%, is only able to achieve the highest compressive strength of 20.86 MPa, far
below the planned compressive strength. Each variant has increased compressive
strength at early ages 1 day to 3 days, but then stagnant or not increasing compressive
strength in subsequent ages 7 days to 28 days.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

659

Compressive Strength (Mpa)

35.00
30.00
25.00
B 0% SN

20.00

B 10% SN

15.00

B 25% SN

10.00

B 50% SN

5.00

B 100% SN

0.00

0

4

8

12

16

20

24

28

Age of Concrete (days)

Figure 9. Graph increase nickel slag concrete compressive strength every age
In figure 9 shows that using nickel slag as a coarse aggregate substitution tends toincrease the compressive strength of concrete at an early age. According to thecompression strength data, there is a tendency of obtaining a better compressive
strength at every added percentage of nickel slag as well as the use of the overall nickel
slag (slag nickel 100% variation) in 1, 3, 7, and 14 days, but at 28 days the compressive
strength are similar to normal concrete that is around 30.71 MPa.
4. CONCLUSION
1. Based on the XRF test results, nickel slag composition of PT. Antam contain an
average 0.06% Ni, 9.25% Fe, 52.66% SiO2 , 31.79% MgO, CaO 1.25%, Cr 0.94%,
and 2.72% Al2O3.
2. Based on the characterization using XRD, indicating that Fly ash samples consistof quartz or silica (Quartz, syn) SiO2 57%, iron particles (Magnetite,syn) Fe3O4 21%, Magnesium silicate (Magnesium Oxide Silicon) MgSiO3 17.5%,
Titanium dioxide (rutile) TiO2 3.9%, Calcium silicate (calcium silicon oxide)
Ca(SiO3) 1%. Fly ash composition has some similarities with Portland cement
composition.
3. The higher percentage of nickel slag in concrete resulted in the higher density of
the concrete. It is closely related to nickel slag specific gravity (3.01) which isgreater than crushed stone specific gravity (2.75). The average density of normal
concrete is 2.320 kg/m3. While the average density is highest in concrete with
100% nickel slag substitution of coarse aggregates that is 2.498 kg/m3.
4. The concrete made by using basic component of cement, river sand, and crushedstone obtained the compressive strength 30 MPa. While the use fly ash as a cement
substitution, from the lowest percentage of 10% until the percentage of 50%, is only
able to achieve the highest compressive strength of 20.86 MPa, far below theplanned compressive strength. Every added 10% of fly ash as a cement substitution,
the compressive strength decreased by an average of 2.02 MPa.
5. The using of nickel slag as a coarse aggregate substitution tends to increase thecompressive strength of concrete at an early age. At 7 days, the normal concreteobtains compressive strength 21.30 MPa, but the concrete with 100% nickel slag

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substitution obtain 25.03 MPa. At 28 days the compressive strength 100% nickel
slag substitution concrete are similar to normal concrete that is around 30.71 MPa.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work supported by Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher
Education of the Republic of Indonesia grant competition and PT Antam Tbk.
Southeast Sulawesi Nickel Mining Business Unit.
6. REFERENCES
Adibroto, Fauna and -, Yelv (2008) Pemanfaatan Limbah Abu Batu Bara
Sebagai Bahan Pengganti Sebagian Semen Dan Agregat Untuk Pembuatan
Paving Block. Rekayasa Sipil, 4 (1). pp. 20-30. ISSN 1858-3695
Antoni dan Nugraha, P, (2007), Teknologi Beton, C.V Andi Offset,
Yogyakarta
ASTM, (1985). American Standart Test Material Vol. E, New York.
ASTM, (1995).Concrete and Agregat, Philadelphia: Annual Book of ASTM
Standard Vol.04.02.1995.
Bouguerra, A., Ledhem, A., de Barquin, F., Dhilly, R.M., Queneudec, M.
(1998), Effect of Microstructure on the Mechanical and thermal Propertiesof Lightweight Concrete Prepared from Clay, Cement and wood
Aggregates, Cement and Concrete Research, 28, p1179-1190.
Departemen Pekerjaan Umum R.I., (2005), Pedoman Pelaksanaan Pekerjaan
Beton untuk Jalan dan Jembatan. Pd. T-07-2005-B.
Departemen Pekerjaan Umum R.I., (2004), Pelaksanaan Perkerasan Jalan
Beton Semen. Pd T-05-2004-B
Eisenrig, M.P., (2013), Abu Batubara Sebuah Konsep Inovatif Bagi Produksi
Bata Abu-abu untuk Memperoleh Kekuatan Tinggi dan Aman Terhadap
Lingkungan (Studi Literatur). Majalah Ilmiah Mektek.
Ferriera, C., Ribeoro, A., and Ottesen, L., (2003), Possible Application for
Minicipal Solid Waste Fly ash, Journal of Hazardous Material B 96, p 201216.
Ganti A., (2008), Potensi Pemanfaatan Low Nickel Slag Dalam Beton SebagaiPengganti Semen dan Agregat Kasar. Library. Universitas Kristen Petra.
Surabaya.
Saptahari Sugiri, (2005),”Penggunaan Terak Nikel sebagai Agregat dan
Campuran Semen untuk Beton Mutu Tinggi’, Jurnal Infrastruktur dan
Lingkungan Binaan, Edisi Volume I No. 1
Karo-karo, P., Sembiring., (2008), Karakteristik Abu Hasil Pembakaran
Batubara Bukit Asam Sebagai Bahan Keramik., Jurnal Ilmu Dasar. Jurusan
Fisika. Universitas Lampung.
Mulyono,T., (2004), Teknologi Beton, Andi Yogjakarta
Susilowati D., Saputra I.N., Nurhidayati N., (2013), Pengaruh Penggunaan
Terak Sebagai Pengganti Agregat Kasar Terhadap Kuat Lentur dan Berat
Jenis Beton Normal dengan Metode Mix Design. Pendidikan Teknik
Bangunan. UNS.

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661

15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
Comparison of Pitting Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Stainless Steel 304L and 316L
Exposed to Aqueous Sodium Chloride Solution
Andi Rustandia* Nuradityatamaa, M. Faisal Rendia, Suganta SetiawanbaMetallurgy and Material Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok- Indonesiab
PT. Voestalpine Bohler Welding Asia Pacific, Cikarang, Bekasi- Indonesia

Abstract
Corrosion behavior of austenitic stainless steels 304L and 316L types in various concentrations ofaqueous sodium chloride solutions were investigated related to its pitting corrosion resistance.
Experimental testing was carried out by using cyclic polarization method at room temperature(27oC) to evaluate its corrosion mechanism. Aqueous sodium chloride solutions were prepared withvarious concentrations, namely 1%, 2%, 3.5%, 4% and 5% NaCl. Testing results were represented
by cyclic potentiodynamic polarization curves for both alloys which showed potentials thatindicated the onset of breakdown potential Eb and protection potential Ep respectively. The results
were influenced by sodium chloride concentrations and the chemical composition of alloys. Rank of
the values of Eb and Ep for 304L and 316L at various sodium chloride concentrations from thehighest to the lowest were 1%, 2%, 5%, 4%, 3.5% NaCl consecutively. It was observed that thelowest corrosion resistance of both alloys was at 3.5% NaCl which was similar to typical seawater
environment with maximum dissolved oxygen solubility. It was shown that 316L had more positive
potentials for both Eb and Ep as well as its difference values compared to 304L at all concentrationsof aqueous sodium chloride solutions.
Keywords:Austenitic Stainless Steel, Corrosion Behavior, Pitting Corrosion Resistance, NaCl
Aqueous Solution, Cyclic Polarization
1. INTRODUCTION
Stainless steels are widely used in various industries and environments due to its better corrosion
resistance which compared to carbon steels. Stainless steels can be classified as: austenitic, ferritic,
martensitic and duplex stainless steels. Suitable material depends on the material selection
technique and the needs of application requirements such as mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance. This study will focus on austenitic stainless steels related to its corrosion behavior. In
austenitic grades of stainless steel, carbon content is usually held to a maximum of 0.08%,
chromium content ranges from 16 to 28%, and nickel content ranges from 3.5 to 32 %. In some
types of austenitic stainless steel, 2 – 4% molybdenum was added to improve the stability of passive
layer by reducing the intensity of the oxidizing effect. Among the types of austenitic stainless steels,
304L and 316L are the most commonly used in various industries. “L” is designated as low carbon
stainless steel. SS 304L is the most widely used stainless steels and described as standard 18Cr 8Ni
steel. The corrosion resistance of SS 304L is classified as fair to good in various environments.
Type 304L is mostly used in food and beverages industry, automotive, chemical containers,
construction, and heat exchangers. SS 316L is the second most used austenitic stainless steels invarious industries. The corrosion resistance of SS 316L is also classified as fair to good in various
environments[1]. SS316L is used mostly in more severe corrosion environment containing chloride
solution especially in marine application and well known corrosion resistant due to its Mo content.
________________________*Corresponding author
E-mail address:rustandia@gmail.com

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Austenitic stainless steels have a wide spectrum of resistance to corrosion by chemical environment
due to the formation of protective passive film on its surface[2]. However, such passive film issusceptible to breakdown in the presence of chloride ions resulting in pitting attack as localized
form of corrosion[3]. Corrosion has been a major problem in various industry, especially oil and gas
industry. Corrosion failure has caused a major damage commonly found in oil and gas production
facilities. The reduction of dissolved oxygen reaction is very common because of the fact that
aqueous solutions in contact with air will contain significant amounts of dissolved oxygen[4]. The
corrosion rate of a metal in aqueous environments tend to be determined by the rate at which
dissolved oxygen can be delivered to the metal surface[5]. For stainless steels, numerous
interrelated metallurgical, geometrical, and environmetal affect both corrosion initiation andpropagation[6]. Although the passivity of the exposed surfaces of stainless steels are maintained bydissolved oxygen, the release of metal ions particularly chromium produces an acidic condition as aresult of a series of hydrolysis reactions which can initate corrosion process[7]. Because of acidic
condition in environment, chloride ions migrate and concentrate from the bulk environment and theinitiation of corrosion will occur if the concentration becomes sufficient to cause breakdown of thepassive film. And after the breakdown of passive film, dissolved oxygen will further propagate
corrosion process so the corrosion process will be faster and more aggressive[8]. Material selection
is one of the well-known methods that can be used to mitigate corrosion[9]. Material selection is amethod that control the corrosion rate by choosing the suitable material based on its application or
working environment. Pitting corrosion is a localized form of corrosion that produces small holes
and propagate deep inside the material[10]. Pitting corrosion is considered to be more severe impact
than uniform corrosion due to its unanticipated occurence and unpredictable propagation rate[11].
Once pits are initiated, it may continue to grow by a self-sustaining or autocatalytic process that
produce conditions that are both stimulating and necessary for the continuing activity of the pit. The
corrosion rate of pitting corrosion is extremely faster than general corrosion[12]. Its aggressivenessis due to the very small size and high penetration ability of chloride ion through passive layer[13].
Marine corrosion is deterioration of structures, machinery and piping systems that use seawater forcooling and other industrial purposes immersed in seawater the corrosion of and also corrosion inmarine atmospheres[14]. Although salt water is generally known as a corrosive environment, it is
not widely understood how much the agresiveness of its corrosive behavior. Because of thosefactors, seawater is not easily simulated in the laboratory for corrosion testing purposes. Storedseawater is notorious for exhibiting behavior as a corrosive medium that is different from thecondition before it was taken[15]. Researcher often put one or two factors to approach the realcondition of seawater such as chloride concentration and dissolved oxygen concentration. The aimsof this study are to compare and determine the corrosion resistance of SS 304L and SS 316L invarious aqueous sodium chloride solutions. Aqueous solutions were prepared in
1%,2%,3.5%,4%,and 5%, expected to be similar to marine environment. Corrosion resistance ofboth alloys are represented by the evaluation of the cyclic potentiodynamic polarization curves.
2. METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Materials Specification
Materials used in this study were commercial grade SS 316L and SS 304L. SS 316L and SS 304L
both were machined and well prepared prior to polarization testing. The chemical compositions ofboth alloys were evaluated using a optical emission spectrometer machine according to ASTM
E415 and E1086. The results are shown in Table I.
Tabel 1. Chemical Composition of SS 304L and SS 316L
Metal

C

Si

Mn

P

S

Cr

Mo

Ni

Cu

Fe

SS 304L 0.039 0.418 1.14 0.0313 <0.005

18.89 0.001 8.16 0.027 70.98

SS 316L 0.039 0.438 1.65

16.5

0.023

<0.005

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2.38

9.89 0.076

68.7

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2.2.NaCl Solutions
Aqueous sodium chloride solutions containing 1%, 2%, 3.5%, 4% and 5% of sodium chloride wereprepared by dissolving 10 gr, 20 gr, 35 gr , 40 gr and 50 gr NaCl in 1 liter of water and stirred withmagnetic stirrer to produce homogeneous solution. Solutions were made at room temperature 270 C.
2.3.Samples Preparation
Both stainless steels were cut into 4cm x 4cm x 0,5cm plates from their original plates form.
Samples then were ground by grinding machine with 40, 60, 100, 180, 400, 500, 600, and 800
grades abrasive papers followed by polishing, cleaning and drying.
2.4.Dissolved Oxygen Solubility Measurement
The purpose of this experiment is to find out the relation between dissolved oxygen solubility andits effect to corrosion resistance to material especially stainless steel in this study.
2.5.Polarization Cell
Electrochemical measurement by using cyclic polarization method was conducted in a cell chamberwith three electrodes which composed of carbon counter electrode, stainless steel as working
electrode and saturated Ag/AgCl electrode as reference electrode. The connection of the threeelectrodes is shown by Fig 1.
2.6.Cyclic Polarization Experiment
Cyclic polarization experiment was carried out by AUTOLAB potentiostat and NOVA AUTOLAB
1.10 software. The measured potentials were referred to Ag/AgCl electrode. The illustrative
connection between potentiostat and polarization cell is shown by Fig 1.

Figure 1.

Scheme of cyclic polarization testing apparatus[16]3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1.Dissolved Oxygen Solubility Measurement
Table 2 and Fig. 2 below are the results of dissolved oxygen solubility measurement by using thedissolved oxygen meter.
Tabel 2. Oxygen concentration values at various aqueous sodium chloride concentration
NaCl (%)
Oxygen (ppm)

664

1.0
2.6

2.0
3.9

3.5
4.5

4.0
4.4

5.0
4.0

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Figure 2. Dissolved oxygen concentration at various aqueous sodium chloride concentration.
Based on the dissolved oxygen solubility measurement results, it is shown that dissolved oxygen
solubilities increase with increasing aqueous sodium chloride concentration until reaching its
maximum point at 3.5% aqueous sodium chloride concentration and decrease with further
increasing aqueous sodium chloride. Therefore, higher solubility of dissolved oxygen in a solution
will increase the corrosion rate of the material. But after it reached the maximum point, corrosion
rate will drop following the depletion of dissolved oxygen in the solution. The rank of dissolved
oxygen concentrations in aqueous sodium chloride from lowest to highest are 1%, 2%, 5%, 4%,
3.5%.
3.2.Cyclic Polarization Experiment
Cyclic polarization experiment is a combination of anodic and cathodic polarization that form acyclic process. Cyclic polarization methods were conducted in order to investigate the tendency ofpitting occurence for a specimen in any environment. The tendency of pitting were evaluated byconsidering its breakdown potential (Eb) and protection potential (Ep). And also, size of the loop
curve indicated the propagation process of pitting occurence. The results of the experiments werecyclic polarization curves for both alloy at various aqueous sodium chloride concentrations.
Interpretation Eb and Ep from this method was done by using qualitative analysis. Eb or breakdown
potential is the potential that indicates the onset of pitting and Ep or protection potential is thepotential that halted pitting propagation. The higher values of breakdown potential and protection
potential, the specimen will exhibit better corrosion resistance.

Figure 2.

Cyclic polarization curves of SS 316L in various sodium chloride concentration.

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Tabel 3. Eb and Ep values for SS 316L
NaCl (%)
Eb (V)
Ep (V)

Figure 3.

1
0.58
0.02

2
0.47
-0.09

3.5
0.31
-0.10

4
0.37
-0.09

5
0.46
0.11

Cyclic polarization curves of SS 304L in various sodium chloride concentration.
Tabel 4. Eb and Ep values for SS 304L

NaCl (%)
Eb (V)
Ep (V)

1
0.54
-0.05

2
0.37
-0.15

3.5
0.20
-0.28

4
0.22
-0.27

5
0.27
-0.21

Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 shows the cyclic polarization curves for both alloys at various aqueous sodium
chloride concentration. The values of Eb and Ep for both alloys are shown by Table 3 for SS 316L
and Table 4 for SS 304L. The variety of curves revealed corrosion behavior of both alloys
depending on sodium chloride concentration. With qualitative analysis based on the figures, it canbe interpretated that the higher the values of breakdown potential and protection potential in cyclic
polarization curve, the higher its corrosion resistance. The corrosion resistance from the highest to
the lowest were 1%, 2%, 5%, 4%, 3.5% NaCl consecutively. It is shown that dissolved oxygen
solubility is also a considerable factor affecting corrosion resistance of an alloy. Both figures showsthat corrosion resistance of both alloys will drop at 3.5% NaCl concentration which is similiar of
typical seawater with maximum dissolved oxygen solubility. It was proven by the value of Eb andEp of both alloys at 3.5% are 0.31V and -0.1V for SS 316L and 0.20V and -0.28V respectively
which was the lowest value from both alloys.
3.3.Comparison of cyclic polarization curves between SS 316L and SS 304L
Fig. 4 – 8 and Table 5 – 9 below are the data comparison between alloy SS 316L and SS 304L atvarious aqueous sodium chloride concentration.

Figure 4. Cyclic polarization curves of SS 316L and SS 304L in 1% sodium chloride.

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Tabel 5. Eb and Ep Values in 1% Sodium Chloride Concentration
Material
Eb (V)
Ep (V)
SS 316L

0.58

0.02

SS 304 L

0.54

-0.05

Figure 5. Cyclic polarization curves of SS 316L and SS 304L in 2% sodium chloride.
Tabel 6. Eb and Ep Values in 2 % Sodium Chloride Concentration
Material
Eb(V)
Ep(V)
SS 316L
0.47-0.09
SS 304L
0.37-0.15

Figure 6. Cyclic polarization curves of SS 316L and SS 304L in 3.5% sodium chloride.
Tabel 7. Eb and Ep Values in 3.5 % Sodium Chloride Concentration
Material
Eb(V)
Ep(V)
SS 316L
0.31-0.10
SS 304L
0.20-0.28

Figure 7. Cyclic polarization curves of SS 316L and SS 304L in 4% sodium chloride.
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Tabel 8. Eb and Ep Values in 4 % Sodium Chloride Concentration
Material
SS 316L
SS 304L

Eb (V)
0.37
0.22

Ep (V)-0.09-0.27

Figure 8. Cyclic polarization curves of 316L and 304L in 5% sodium chloride.
Tabel 9. Eb and Ep Values in 5 % Sodium Chloride Concentration
Material
SS 316L
SS 304L

Eb(V)
0.46
0.27

Ep(V)
0.11
-0.21

Fig. 4-8 and Table 5-9 shows the comparison of corrosion behavior of both alloys at various
aqueous sodium chloride concentration. Based on Fig. 4-8, SS 316L tend to has higher corrosion
resistance at various aqueous sodium chloride concentration. By looking at the cyclic polarization
curve’s width on Fig. 3-7, it is known that pitting corrosion propagates more aggresively in SS
304L because it has larger width than SS 316L. As shown in Table 5-9 SS 316L also has better
corrosion resistance by looking at its breakdown (Eb) and protection (Ep) potential which is higher
than SS 304L at various aqueous sodium chloride concentration. The difference in corrosion
behavior of both alloys was because of the addition of 2% molybdenum in SS 316L which
influenced stainless steel to form better and more stable passive layer and more resistant to pitting
corrosion.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The rank of corrosion behavior according to cyclic polarization curve results for SS 316L and 304L
at various chloride concentrations from the highest to the lowest are 1%, 2%, 5%, 4%, 3,5% NaCl
consecutively. The results show that both alloys have the lowest corrosion resistance at 3.5 % NaCl.
It is due to dissolved oxygen solubility reaches its maximum at 3.5% NaCl which is similiar totypical seawater condition. It is recommended that SS 316L is preferred for material design
compared to SS 304L in highly corrosive chloride containing environment because it has better
corrosion resistance due to the higher molybdenum content in its composition.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank PT. Voestalpine Bohler Welding Asia Pacific for the supplied materials
and also Direktorat Riset dan Pengabdian Masyarakat Universitas Indonesia (DRPM UI) for the
research support.

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6. REFERENCES[1] The International Nickel Company, INCO, Corrosion resistance of the austenitic chromiumnickel stainless steels in chemical environment. (1967) 1-20
nd[2] M. G. Fontana, N. D. Greene, Corrosion Engineering 2
Ed. McGraw –Hill Int. Book Co.
(1978) pp. 194.
[3] M. D. Asaduzzaman, C. M. Mustafa, M. Islam, Effects of concentration of sodium chloride
solution on the pitting corrosion behavior of AISI-304L austenitic stainless steel, Chemical
Industry & Chemical Engineering Quarterly, 17 (4) (2011) 477-483[4] R. L. Martin, R. R. Annand, D. Wilson, and W. E. Abrahamson, Inhibitor Control of Oxygen
Corrosion: Application to a Sour Gas Gathering System, Mater. Prot. Perform., Vol 10 (No.
12), Dec 1971, p 33
[5] S. Wang, D. Liu, N. Du, Q. Zhao, S. Liu, and J. Xiao, Relationship between dissolved oxygenand corrosion characterization of X80 steel in acidic soil simulated solution, Int. J.
Electrochem. Sci., vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 4393–4404, 2014.
[6] ASM, Vol 13., Corrosion, ASM Handbook., p. 244, 1992.
[7] A. Ismail and N. H. Adan, Effect of Oxygen Concentration on Corrosion Rate of Carbon Steelin Seawater,” Am. J. Eng. Res., vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 64–67, 2014.
[8] K. Hashimoto, M. Naka, J. Noguchi, K. Asami, and T. Masumoto, Proceedings of the FourthInternational Conference on Passivity, R.P. Frankenthal and J. Kruger, Ed., The
Electrochemical Society, 1978, p 156-169[9] External Corrosion of Oil and Natural Gas Pipeline, ASM Handbook Vol 13C. Corrosion.
[10] H. L. Bilhartz, High Pressure Sweet Oil Well Corrosion, Corrosion, Vol 7 (No. 8), Aug 1951, p
256-264[11] H. L. Bilhartz, How to Predict and Control Sweet Oil Well Corrosion, Oil Gas Journal., Vol 50(No. 50), April 1952, p 116-118, 151, 153.
[12] K. Darowicki., Evaluaation of Pitting Corrosion by means of Dynamic Electrochemical
Impedance Spectroscopy, Science Direct , Electrochimica Acta, 49 (2004) 2909-2918[13] Standard Guide G48-92, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Philadelphia PA, ASTM-1994.
[14] El Hassan J, P. Bressolette, A. Chateauneuf, El Tawil K., Reliability-based Assessment of theEffect of Climatic Conditions on the Corrosion of RC Structures Subject to Chloride Ingress,
Eng Struct. 2010;32(10):3279–87.
[15] S. Paul., Model to Study the Effect of Composition of Seawater on the Corrosion rate of Mild
Steel and Stainless Steel, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance 2011;20:325–34.
[16] Han-Seung Lee, et.all, Protection of Reinforced Concrete Structures of Waste Water Treatment
Reservoirs with Stainless Steel Coating Using Arc Thermal Spraying Technique in Acidified
Water. Materials 2016, 9(9), 753.

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COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT AND CHILDREN SPATIAL NEEDSIN RUSUN KEMAYORANabc
Nevine Rafa Kusuma *, Rossa Turpuk Gabe **, Triatno Yudo Harjoko **abcDepartement of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia 16424,
Depok

ABSTRACT
Human life-cycle space includes the necessary space, especially for the playing age stage.
Playing is necessary in terms of human development in this stage. This will enhance both
physical and psychological development of a child. We may argue that the lack of this in
human being dwells will make them deprive of both physical and psychologicaldevelopment.
Children spatial needs such as a play space in multi-stories housing (rumah susun - Rusun)
in many cases is usually neglected due to its limited space. In fact, playing is an essential
aspect for children to develop their social competence and emotional maturity. Moreover,the cultural context in Kemayoran Multi-storey housing showed that parents’ supervision
has influence on the chosen site. In this regard, suitable space for playing in the vicinity of
their home is necessary.
The objective of dwelling issue that raised by team of community engagement project ofthe department of architecture Universitas Indonesia is the possibility for children to have adecent and proper playing ground in their vicinity of the rusun. The site chosen for thisproject is Kemayoran multi-storeys housing (Rumah Susun Kemayoran). The program is
focused on setting up an Educational Play Area or Ruang Bermain Edukatif (RBE). This
program has been implemented with the involvement of local community. The project has
succeeded to develop community participation for engaging and setting up an educational
playing area immediate to their residence in rusun, in the ground floor area.
Keywords: Rusun or Multi-storey housing; children spatial needs; community
engagement;

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1. INTRODUCTION
Dwelling is a concept that seems to have a simple meaning, yet it actually consists of awide range of definitions. The concept of dwelling, other than a physical place, includes thewhole residence along with all necessary facilities and services for family’s well-being andalso working, education and health-care programs for people (Shidfar, 2013). Furthermore,
Dwelling should not be merely perceived on basis of the activities that it shelters; it also
provides space for man’s everyday ‘habitual’ activity experiences that associated withpeace, residence, care, and integration in the Fourfold (Heidegger, 1958, p.174). Thus,
considering ‘dwell’ definition as someone’s peacefulness in a place, this forced people totake care of its place.
As regards with this matter, dwelling in multi-stories housing is usually facing difficulties
to fulfill every residents’ needs, such as adults and children, due to its spatial limitation. For
instance, multi-stories housing providers often forget that children’s basic need is including
their need to play. As regards to dwelling comprehension, many children expressed theirappreciation of the peacefulness and privacy of their play areas (Wheway, R and Millward ,A.,1997).
During children physical and psychological growing process, they need playing space aspart of their basic needs (labouring body and mind). Research showed that children’s
education that based on playing activities could affect children’s development (Article 31 of
the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in Children’s need for time and space toplay). Children’s abilities could be stimulated through different ways. Some children’sabilities that even could be improved through playing are linguistic intelligence, logicmathematical intelligence, visual-spatial intelligence, and interpersonal intelligence(Christianti, M., 2007). Moreover, in terms of Indonesia’s circumstance, people lives insurrounding that practice the importance of being rukun (maintaining harmonious
relationship) and tepaslira (helping, sharing, and emphathizing with others) as humanvirtues and children are taught early to approximate these ideals (Jo Ann & Wimbarti,1995). Consequently, those cultural phenomena created the kind of games that are widely
played by the children, such as congklak, bekel, etc.
Furthermore, considering that children could learn about themselves through various plays
and their surroundings, therefore play area environment should offer rich opportunities,
allowing each child to explore and grow safely at their own rate (Wheway, R and Millward,
A.,1997). In relation to this matter, the common problem in multi-stories housing are often
in the form of struggles between procurement of play area and limited space to meet theever-demanding housing needs. The difficulty to decide where to locate play areas is
widespread, and often results in play areas being placed away from the housing unit, in
secluded area, which would otherwise afford a level of informal community supervision. In
addition, the quality of the environment for playing is extremely important as well, in orderto satisfy children’s needs for active, quiet, imaginative, creative and social play.
Based on our discussion with the community in Kemayoran Multi-stories housing, mostchildren choose to play outdoors that taken place near their unit and by moving around theoutdoor environment for which they have access to, although the environment in question

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was not safe enough for playing. Moreover, most of the parents that are interviewed in thisstudy thought there were not enough play facilities in their areas, even on the block wheresuch play areas were provided. This is due to the cultural context in the vicinity, which also
supported this matter. Derived from Jo Ann & Wimbarti (1995) who stated that Indonesianchildren grow up in extended family households with many adults and siblings who givethem much attention. It shows that parents and community’s supervision in children’s daily
life is essential.
Regarding to community’s role, Norberg-Schulz stated that dwelling is according to space
and time, related to how it uses, the meaning of it and its role in community (King, 2004).
In his opinion, dwelling has three meanings. Firstly, dwelling involved an interaction
between people and also related to ideas exchange. Secondly, dwelling means accepting
and sharing. And the last, dwelling means how to be ourselves, where we have our little
world, our privacy. These three meanings are related to each other, where human’s life
consists of interaction with others, exchanging, sharing, and running those things ashabituation. In dwelling process, people tend to reach those three meanings with theirsociety (family and community). Furthermore, active participation from the community will
determine the quality of their dwelling.
Conyers (1994, p.26) explained that there were three main reasons in the urgency ofcommunity participation. Foremost, community as the tool to gain information regarding
their needs, condition and views. Furthermore, achieving trust and support from thecommunity due to their existence involvement is crucial as well. Finally, the community
could control the development based on 'man-centred development'. Therefore, referring to
the substantial impact on participatory design, an utmost community involvement is
expected to gain a strong sense of ownership towards the design.
Based on the explanation above, community’s role in multi-stories housing could not beignored to fulfil children’s basic need, for instance, community’s supervision and facilities
procurement for children by community empowerment. Therefore, in multi-stories housing
condition where spatial limitation was the main issue, community participation becomesmain potency to create peacefulness dwelling for all residents, including children.
2. CASE STUDY
2.1. The Program
Regarding the issue related to the dwelling that is unacceptable to be occupied yet required
playing ground, the program proposed in UI Community Engagement, was Educational
play area. This program was developed in regards to escalate children’s intelligence andpotency when they were trying to learn about their world. The targets were children (6 to12 years old) and their parents, it is due to their psychological condition in their age.
Educative games that we developed was including education values that stimulates
children’s social, emotional and cognitive skill development. It was accommodated
through architectural aspects in play-space, included vertical and horizontal area in thelimited space. Our aim was not only to fulfil children’s needs of playing, but also to674

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develop their potencies and skills through playing.
The location was in the area around Apron 8, Kemayoran Multi-stories housing,specifically in informal multifunction space in ground floor that is always used by theresidents to gather, from children to adulthood. This location was chosen due to its settingthat was easy to access and parents’ consideration regarding their needs of supervision(Figure 1).

Figure 1. the location for Educational play area
Source: Personal illustration
2.2. The Community and The Process
In the development process of this program, community’s role was the main factor inachieving its success. The residents, parents and their kids were involved throughparticipatory design. In its implementation, the residents’ contribution was on giving
suggestion and building design process. The purpose was that after the program, residents’sense of ownership could last, so that they will take care of it in the future. Eventually, it
became a strong foundation due to program sustainability and advancement.
In terms of program sustainability, this program was granted for the community. Within
the community involvement and knowledge which had given on the workshop, we hopethat this community could manage and develop this program further.
This program was proposed in 2 stages, 1) Community participation in discussion andworkshop, 2) Design development and built along with the community based on thediscussion.
Stage 1 - Community participation in discussion and workshop
In this stage, it started by dealing with the community to establish an Educational play areain their settlement and focus on the feedback from the community regarding the playspace. In terms of this, we held a workshop for parents and children about types of games
that are save and educative, conducted by a child psychologist.

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Figure 2. Discussion with the community (parents and children)Stage 2 - Design development and built along with the community based on the discussion.
During this stage, the program was developed in selected location based on discussion andfeedback with the community. The design was built through application of spatial elements(vertical and horizontal partition, materials, etc.) to facilitate playing needs and encouragechildren’s creativity. The development of this idea should be flexible in terms ofaccommodating other activities, such as informal meeting or extracurricular. Finally, ourteam had renovated and redecorated this multifunction space based on on the design plan.
This Educational play area was equipped with simple games that used recycle materials
with the intention of enforcing children to think creatively in creating their own games.
Although it was simple, these games were chosen due to the development children’s
linguistic intelligence, logic-mathematical intelligence, visual-spatial intelligence andinterpersonal intelligence. The chosen games were scrabble wall and geo-board.

Figure 3. Workshop with children in Apron 8 Multi-storeys housing
Source: Personal Documentation

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3. DISCUSSION
Planning and design participation with the community: Various alterations are experienced
in the design, location and management of play areas and play areas:
No.

Before Program

Activities

After Program

1

The gazebo’s position is toohigh to be reach by children

Make steps withproper dimensionthat provide user’s
comfort.

A safe and comfortable
circulation for children.

2

The gazebo’s base isuncomfortable because thematerial which easy dirty.

Replace thegazebo’s basematerial with
HPL (High
Pressure
Laminate)

A comfortable gazebo forchildren activities and easy for
maintenance.

3

 The temporary gazebo’s
partition that only for prevent
mice

Replace thegazebo’s partition.

The gazebo’s partition became aplaying and learning media that
also as an organized storage An unorganized storage.

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No.
4

Before Program

Activities

 Wall area is underutilized Redesign wallarea

 An unorganized storage.

 Make a ministage

 Projector screen
 Mini stage provides anadditional space for playing andlearning and also as anorganized storage

5

Wall for projector screen.

Added scrabble
wall for children

An additional function of wallarea. Children can play scrabble
wall in that area.

6

Parking space as a play spacefor children.

Educative playing
workshop that canapplied in RBE

Children can play in RBE andcreate some game tools usedrecycle materials.

Types of game that is only forchildren’s motoricdevelopment.

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After Program

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No.

Before Program

Activities

After Program7

 Communal space but doesn’t
consider children’s needs forplaying and learning.

Discussion with
community,
accommodate
their aspirations
and develop
educative playing
space in selected
location.

Educative playing space which
also facilitate other needs forcommunity.

The direct impact of this program is that around 60 children (of elementary-level education)in the selected location can use Educational Play area for them to play and foster theircreativity in limited space. In addition, a direct impact that parents can feel is in thedevelopment of their child’s cognitive social skill and easy supervision of the children.
Given this condition, the occupants of Rusun Apron 8 acknowledged the improvement intheir quality of life. In an effort to meet the needs of the children and parents living in it, it
is safe to say that this Rusun falls under the category of “possible dwelling”.
The indirect impact felt by the partners is that the occupants are able to resolve their own
issues (duplicating design) with regard to the need for children play area in the Rusun.
Therefore, the role of the occupants can directly support Kota Layak Anak, a program runby the government, in particular in giving a practical solution for providing play area
needed for children development within their housing complex. Having this Educational
Play area installed can add to the Rusun’s positive image as a Rusun looking after ofchildren’s need for space.
This Educational Play area serves as a drive for the public with regard to providing spaceneeded by every child. In other words, every child is entitled to have a decent life according
to his/her need for development, which is the need to play. The response shown by the
public regarding the importance and usefulness of this program for the community inparticular those living in Rusun, is illustrated in figure 6. It is therefore expected that thisprogram will receive special attention from the government and for it to serve as a model indesigning Rusun in the future.
Based on the response received both during the implementation of the program andafterwards, the dedicated team sees a relatively high potential for this program to continue
developing. Moreover, the program running now is aimed at producing an initial model for

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Educational Play area expected to be further developed in relation to Kota Layak Anakprogram.
Several positive responds to the Educational Play Area from the society:

Figure 6. Positive respond to our project
Source: Personal documentation

4. CONCLUSIONSpace for play in limited area, such as in multi-stories housing, is as crucial as children’s
basic needs. However, due to the limitation of its space, space for play does not need to bein outdoor area. In terms of this, communal space in each tower for instance, could workfor children’s play-space. The use of vertical and horizontal surface that applied the games
on each part.
Through Educational play area for children in multi-stories housing, it changed theparadigm about multi-stories housing that are usually looked utilitarian or impossible topossible dwelling (child friendly) due to the children’s life-cycle. Furthermore, the built
educative children play-space is adding value to children’s games. Based on the interview
with some parents who live there, this educative games are valuable for their daily life.
Although the proposed games (scrabble wall and geo board) originated from different
culture, children adopted easily with the games, because it consists of same cultural values,
such as rukun and tepaselira, and also the same logic in terms of strategic thinking.
Therefore, children could learn varying values of the games, not only playing but also
improving their social, emotional and cognitive skills.
The role of the community in providing play area for children living in rusun is not only
limited to providing the space itself but also giving comfort for children to play safely since
they are already familiar with the surroundings. It is related to cultural context in the
Rusun, that Indonesian people are naturally living in peer. In addition, a play area locatednear their unit is likely to give the parents sense of security for being able to supervise theirchildren while playing. This condition is in line with the study on providing play area inhousing complex and Indonesian culture, in terms of parents-children relationship, to ease

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the worry of parents regarding the location of the play area which is often out of parents’reach of supervision due to limited housing space.
The key to this program is the involvement of the local community from the planning stage
to its development, from determining the location to the procurement of space and toys.
This involvement is likely to suit the program to the children’s need and to ensure its
sustainability.
Based on these findings, we expect this program to be able to produce an alternative
Educational Play area that can accommodate types of games requiring active or passive
participation in all rusun in Indonesia, in particular in Jakarta. The Government, (Deputy ofChild Growth and Development of the Ministry of Woman Empowerment and Child
Protection, the Ministry of Public Housing) and academicians need to see the potential of
the program in order for the public to be able to facilitate the space needed for life cycle inits place of living especially in places where play area is limited such as in this case.

6. REFERENCES
Christianti, M. (2007). Jurnal Club Program Studi Pendidikan Guru Taman Kanak-kanak .
Anak dan Bermain. Yogyakarta: Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta.
Heidegger, M. (1951). Building, Dwelling, Thinking. London: Routledge.
stitute Of Housing And The Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Jo Ann M. Farver, & Wimbarti, S. (1995). Indonesian Children's Play with Their Mothers
and Older Siblings. Child Development, 66(5), 1493-1503. doi:10.2307/1131659
Shidfar, S. (2013). The Difference Between Dwelling and Home in Architecture.
International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 10, Issue 4, No 2: 240.
Wheway , R and Millward , A. (1997). Child’s Play: Facilitating Play On Housing Estates.
A Report For The Chartered In
Article 31 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child dalam Children’s need for timeand space to play, http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/15553_CASEY_C01.PDF
Space for active play dalam Developing child-inspired play space for older children,
http://www.heartfoundation.org.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/Space-for-active-play.pdf

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TRANSLATION OF RUMAH ULU OF SOUTH SUMATRA INTO A MODERN
HOUSEABSTRACT
For people who moved from their village to a city, it is not easy to build a housefollowing vernacular building like their house in the village. Vernacular buildings are built
to support the needs and values of their inhabitants and provide instructive examples ofsustainable solutions to building problems. Yet, these solutions are sometimes assumed to
be inapplicable to modern buildings. If the design of a modern house is adapted from avernacular house, there should be a translation of vernacular ideas. The translation makes
the concept of modern house is not exactly the same as a traditional house, even thoughboth of the houses have similar forms. This study investigates the use of vernacular ideas ofrumah Ulu in South Sumatra into modern houses. The house forms of rumah Ulu, withtropically-suited roofs, elevated interior, and harmonious proportions are considered bysome people to still have relevance. This study focuses on the translation of rumah Ulu
including how the house forms and rooms such as serambi (verandah), living room, andbedrooms are changed by inhabitants. Some aspects of house forms and building designs ofboth the traditional and modern houses are explored through a qualitative method and fieldresearch in order to discuss the suitability of rumah Ulu to its inhabitants’s needs.
Keywords: Rumah Ulu, Translation in Architecture, Vernacular House
1. INTRODUCTION
Vernacular houses are built to meet the specific needs of their inhabitants, including
to cope with values, culture and way of life of the inhabitants. Amos Rapoport (1969) saysthat a house expresses the ideal environment and the social system of people who live inthat area. Socio-cultural factors affect mostly the house form of vernacular houses andterms modifying factors to specify aspects that determine the architectural form of thevernacular houses. The modifying factors, such as climate, material, religion, and site, aresome factors that influence the house form to fit people’s need, their culture, and theenvironment. It is not easy for traditional people who move to a city to build a house,
especially because often their reference of a good house is the vernacular house from theare where they belong. A house is a living quarter of peple or a family that accommodate
the needs of the inhabitants and are built in accordance with the environment and theculture. In addition, when designing a place to dwell, interactions among people, culture
and environment are important. Different groups are affected differently by the same
aspects of environments and sometimes those different aspects of environments becomesalient to those groups since their preferences vary on the basis of their values, ideals andevaluations. People aslo express them selves through built environments differently If ahouse in a city is adapted from a vernacular house, then there is a process of translating ortransferring ideas.
Rumah Ulu or Ulu house is a traditional house located in several villages in South
Sumetera, one of them in Ogan Ilir where the case study is conducted. Ulu house is a Malay

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a house with some typical features such as a plan reducible to modules based on a 9, 12, or
16 post set, and post and lintel construction with wedged mortise joints that allow
dismantling, posts standing on plinths (Hilton, 1992). Ulu house also has a raised main
floor with additional floor at lower level, access via a ladder or flight of steps of odd
number of treads the roof ridged supported over the summits of the posts, and decoration bycarving rather than painting.
This paper will explore the translation of Ulu house into modern houses byinvestigating changes and adaptation in the form of the dwelling and the how the modern
house functions in comparison to Ulu house. The paper will discuss the house form, planand functions of rooms in Ulu house and how the inhabitant translates this house for amodern house.
2. TRANSLATING VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
Amos Rapoport (1969) defines a new thinking about the origin of a house form as asymbol created by a complex interaction between of socio cultural factors. There are two
factors that influence house form for traditional communities: socio-cultural and modifiying
factors. In relation of house, man, culture and environment, a house becomes an expressionof conceptualized model of interaction between culture and behavior that happend for along time. House form is a result of the need of climatic shelter but the interaction among
many factors related to cultre and society. Socio-cultural factors combine some values andbasic needs of the family, sucha as privacy, position of woman, the relation of house andsettlement, the site, and constancy and change. Socio-cultural factors are not independent
but related to other factors. The modifying factors that affect the house physically are
climate, technology, material, construction, site, defense, economics, and religion. Bothsocio-cultural and modifying factors relate to each other. In short, Rapoport shows avernacular house as an expressions of the value of culture.
The concept of translation in architecture is good to complement the future ofarchitecture (Akcan, 2012). The translation, as described in her book Architecture inTranslation, is a state where there is a cultural flow from one place to another. Translationin architecture can be discussed in relation to the conversion of images to buildings, fromdiagrams to projects, from one place to another, passing different distinctions toarchitecture, and from text to visual image.
Translation definitions include change actions from one place, position, condition,
media, or language. Translation in architecture not only can raise the possibility of cultural
exchange, but also cause tension for instance the loss of authenticity of a vernacularbuilding so that sometimes there is a gap when receiving the translation. Translation inarchitecture involves two things, linguistic and visual (Akcan, 2012). Linguistic literature isrelated to concepts and theories in a region while concepts and theories can be found fromthe form, meaning, and function of the building. The translation on the visual thing related
to the principle of making space and representation that can be found from the form, theidea of space, technology, and building Function. The translation used in this study ismainly conceptual and visual displacements from one form or place to another.
People develop a correspondence between how they live and their houses throughchoices that express their cultural values and traditions (Rapoport, 1989). At first, culture is

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programmed in a house’s form through a functional specification of ways of living. Second,
culture is embedded as choice – through a capacity that enables residents to choose how todwell. The first limits resident choices by assuming culture to be static while the second
increases choice by recognizing culture as constantly defined and renewed. One important
expression of culture comes through the ways in which people dwell. In relation how
people uses spaces, there are three aspects of house design that architects can use to enablechoices in using the house namely access, dimension, and control over space (Chow, 1998).
In the case of people who move to a new area, one should adapt to new conditions
by choosing the right values to be reflected in the house. The variety of ways in whichpeople live can be addressed simply by translation or “reprogramming” such as by defining
room composition and matching activities, spaces and life-style (Chow, 1998).
There are two main characteristics that describe the approach to choice embedded inbuilding a house with vernacular house as its presedence. First, it is related to normative
life-styles, with differences in ways of living taken as adaptations to the different situation.
Second, it is program driven that tries to relate life-styles with houses. The second
characteristic engages a process of matching activities and spaces and personalize spaces. It
seems that inhabitants of the house will most likely correspond activities and spaces inside
the house through reprogramming access, dimension and control overs space. Access isuseful to provide a way to move from one room to another so that it can be said that accessconnects between the “container” of activity and the “contain” or the activity itself.
Dimension of spaces can change the capacity of a room or a house which is required tocreate a perfect space for each and accommodate different spatial requirements and privacy.
The capacity of a room can be changed to fit the activitiy of the inhabitans throughconfiguration and adjustment of dimensions.
Translation or reprogramming are important in the process of transferring anarchitectural idea to be adapted in different areas and conditions. When designing a house,
the designer or the inhabitants may use the concept, depending on the way the inhabitantlive. The house may be built exactly like its precedence, including the arrangement of
space, materials, and construction. However, if the new house is built through translation,
the culture of the inhabitants probably will be adapted in varying degree. In the concept ofreprogramming, the house is not exactly the same as the original house because there areseveral things that are adapted to the living ways of the inhabitant and the houseenvironment. The possibility that will happen to the house using the concept ofreprogramming is the house will have a culture that intercepts the house precedent culture
and the house environment culture.
3. RUMAH ULU IN SOUTH SUMATRA
Ulu houses are associated with a Malay house type that is modular, transportable,
and adapted to the Ulu people way of life. The form of rumah Ulu is the result of Ulu’s
culture and how Ulu people respond to their environments. The modular post (a 9, a 16 or a
12 post plans) and lintel construction with a main floor raised sufficiently to permit
activities beneath it. The Ulu is commonly called rumah panggung for having a raised floor
and is usually located close to the river. The raised floor can protect the inhabitants fromwild animals as well as flood. There is a subsidiary floor at a lower level determined by the684

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mortising of its supports while the posts stand on masonry foundation blocks or stilts. They
are rigidly held upright by mortised cross members at their upper parts and at floor level. A
ridged roof covers the whole house on a framework built over the uprights. The houses areto be moveable by dismantling at the mortises.

Fig. 1 Plan of Rumah Ulu
Depicted in Figure 1 is the plan of Ulu house. The main door of Rumah Ulu ispredominantly located at the left side when facing the interior. Ulu house is basicallydivided into three parts; front, center and back. The front part of the house consists of afloor terrace garang and pemindangan depan. Garang is the first room after one climbs thestairs and enter the house. Garang functions as a living room for guests who are still single(bujang) and for guest categorized as unfamiliar. Some people still travel on foot in Ogan
Ilir and a family may allow those traveling people to be their guest and rest for a while oreven spend a night in garang. This room is also a multi-functioned room usually for a
bedroom for bujang when the owner of the house holds a wedding ceremony, acircumcision celebration, or as a place for children when the whole house is used for
ceremonies. The room located next to garang is called pemindangan depan. The family
members usually sit on this room and sometimes they look out the window to see who iscoming or check their surroundings. The owners of the house may also call their neighborto come to their house. In addition, pemindangan depan also functions as a living room for
relatives, a place for girls to weave in the evening, as well as a place where religous andcultural ceremonies take place. When one of the family members dies, the family will place
place for dead body in this area.
The center part of the house is in the form of a big space located next topemindangan depan and called pemindangan tengah that function as a family room. The
family usually gather in the pemindangan tengah after Maghrib prayer. Moreover, thecenter part is also usually well decorated and becomes a place to show the guests how
prosper the owner of the house is. Beside as a gathering place, this room is a place for thefamily to do their daily activities. It is possible for female to weave in this room if theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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pemindangan depan is used as a bedroom for guests. Next to pemindangan tengah is ruang
tempuan; this room is reserved when the family need more space for their activities orwhen both pemindangan are used for cultural and religious ceremonies. Gedongan is afamily bedroom in a form of a big hall. All members of the family except bujangan cansleep in gedongan. When the family need several cubicals, they usually use cloth or kain
tebar to create divisions cubicals. Gedongan also serves as a place of small children to playand do their activities.
The back of the house is reserved for a dining room and a kitchen. There is a door
and a stair to go out of the house to tundan - a room for washing and cleaning. Tundan isusually located outside the house in an open area or near a river. The bottom of the house isalso functional and regularly used for various activities such pounding rice and aplayground for children. This place is also reserved for storing equipments such as forpaddy plantation, stoves and households.

Fig. 2 Typical Ulu House
The whole house uses wood as building materials based on the strength or othercharacter of the woods. The exterior of rumah Ulu typically responds to the possibility offlood and protecting the house from rainwater by using waterproof wood. For structuralparts, the house has strong gehunggang and merbau wood and for the walls seluha andmerawan woods. In addition, some parts of the house also use bamboo such as for the floor.
Wood and bamboo are commonly taken from the surrounding areas. The roof of the houseis covered with enau leaves with rangkai-tumpuk or overlapping techniques. The
construction of the Ulu house does not use nails or iron hinges, but the house uses mortises
and tenons called meruang, jalu, jalin, tumpu, jepit, dan sambung kait techniques.
In the form of decoration, there is a particular symbolic meaning according to what
applies conventionally in the community (Toekio M, 1987). Based on the history of theKesultanan in South Sumatra, the art of carving is one of the art of decoration as a symbolof culture and belief. There are various motifs in traditional houses of South Sumatra suchas geometric (lines, rectangular, square, spiral, tumpal, etc.) and non geometric (plants). A
typical carving motif is a motif that depicts plants, because plants symbolized life andhumans also lived from plants (Susanto, 1993). Geometric ornamental shapes have theirown meanings, for example curved or bending lines mean rest and silence while diagonallines mean war and confusion. Non-geometric motifs that are often the depiction of leaves,
flowers and trees is commonly based on a sense of admiration, or other impressions and

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feelings towards nature. The motifs are usually place on the door, posts and garang fence.
Due to the strong influence of Islam in South Sumatra, animal motifs are rarely found.
4. DISCUSSIONSThe study case of modern Ulu house, which was built in 2010, is located in Desa
Buluelok, Kecamatan Muara Kuang, Ogan Ilir, South Sumatra. Although this house is in
Ogan Ilir, this house has some characterisitcs of the original of rumah Ulu. The stair at thefront of the house is the only stair to reach the upper floor. After climbing the stairs, one
can find garang as the first room. The space organization and the house form in thismodern house is similar to a typical rumah Ulu, which is easily recognized as a stage housemade mostly from wood and having a front terrace.
After choosing the land to build a house, the inhabitant will consider how the houseis related to how the environment, which is in a city. The inhabitants take rumah Ulu as theprecedence since this kind of house is very suitable to their culture and needs. In Ulu
vernacular house, culture is programmed in a house’s form through a functional
specification of ways of living. Culture in Ulu house in Ogan Ilir is embedded as choice,which is through a capacity that allows inhabitants to choose how to dwell. Unlike in thevernacular house, in which culture seems to be static, the second increases choice byrecognizing culture as continously renewed and defined.

Fig. 2 Plan of modern house in Ogan Ilir
In general, garang functions like the one in rumah Ulu, as a terrace and theconnection between inside and outside of the house that has the least privacy comparing toProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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other rooms within the house. In addition, garang not only has a door that becomes accessbetween the garang and the front rooms of the house, but there is a door that connects
garang and the back of the house. The inhabitants often use both of the doors.
Both pemindangan depan and pemindangan tengah are translated into one big
common room. However, in this translation of pemindangan areas, the owner of the house
put a sofa facing the window so that the family are still able to look out the window.
Moreover, some part of this room functions like pemindangan tengah, which becomes afamily room. In this big room, the family spend sometimes together although there is nodifferent level of privacy. This room is a place for family meetings and ceremonies. Thisroom is connected to three bedrooms or gedongan; one of them can be a guest room whennecessary.
At the back of the house, there are some translation of rumah Ulu’s organizationthat consists of a dining room, a kitchen, and a tundan. The house has two bathrooms since
the family members do not feel comfortable if they should take a bath in a river. The lower
part of the house is not for doing daily activities but just to park motorcycles. Even children
do not play below the house anymore but the front yard.
The house mostly uses woods and bricks as its materials. Woods are mainly used
for the front part of the house such as living room and bedrooms, and bricks are usedparticularly for the back of the house such as dining room and kitchen. The use of wood forthe front part create a continuation with the surroundings as well as protecting the façade to
be similar to rumah Ulu. Although there are many parts of the house that are still made ofwoods, the house has no ornaments. The use of bricks for the back part of the house shows
consideration that the owner is actually want to avoid fire and stronger structure fromconcrete column. Moreover, there is fences to protect the house.
In the process of transferring an architectural idea of rumah Ulu, there are sometranslation and reprogramming activities as a way to adapt to new environment. The house
may be built exactly like vernacular house in Ulu, including the arrangement of space, andthe materials. However, the inhabitants has done some adaptation to modern condition suchas using bathroom instead of going to the river for cleaning and washing. Through the ideaof reprogramming, the house is not exactly the same as rumah Ulu because it is adapted to
the living ways of the inhabitant and the environment. There may be a loss of harmony
between the house and its environment such as indicated by the use of fences.
The front area or garang of the two houses can be understood in relation to access.
This terrace offers choices for the owner of the house to allow the guest to have morecloseness to the core of the house or to exclude the guest from the rest of the house parts.
Garang in the house located in Ogan Ilir also gives a choice not only to exclude the guest
from the rest of the house but also to enter the back areas such as kitchen when the common
living room is occupied. Dimensions in vernacular houses are usually laid out according to
the body of the owner or a common cultural practice while in the house in Ogan Ilir it
seems that dimensions are selected from a standard range of spatial and furnitureconfigurations. In Ogan Ilir, the dimensions are generated to fulfill a house’s program or
the owner’s needs so that the owner has a greater capacity of choices. The open plan of theliving and dining areas includes private activities although individual spaces are separated
from the rest of the house to provide privacy. In Ulu vernacular house, there is a strong
public-to-private gradient based on the position of a space either toward front or back areas.

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In Ogan Ilir house, the open plan of the common living room excludes guest – who willprobably stay in the terrace – through the use wall and door.
People develop a correspondence between how they live and their houses throughchoices that express their cultural values and traditions. At first, culture in a vernacularhouse is programmed in a house’s form through a functional specification of ways ofliving. Then, in modern house culture is embedded as a choice – through a capacity thatenables residents to choose how to dwell. The first limits resident choices by assuming
culture to be static while the second increases choice by recognizing culture as constantly
defined and renewed.
5. CONCLUSION
From the discussions of Ulu vernacular house and a modern Ulu house in Ogan Ilir,
the two houses serve as a living place that follow characteristic of rumah Ulu. For themodern house in Ogan Ilir, although the house form still represents Ulu vernacular house,
there is a translation or a reprogramming of the original one. The idea of Ulu house withgarang and pamindangan constitutes, either consciously or unconsciously a constant in thedesign of modern Ulu house and serves to promote the continuity inherent in traditional
Ulu architecture. Other contextual elements of tradition, i.e. the use of material, decoration,
detail and so on, are employed as secondary variables. The built pattern of the house has
not become a fixed remnant of the past, but has been restated by new designs and means. It
can be maintained that, contemporary Ulu house resonates with spatial features that link
modern life either practically or symbolically to traditional aspects of Ulu people andculture through the intermediary of the panggung house idea. The analysis of the casestudies shows that while the formal attributes of Ulu vernacular house may be
deterministic, the form of the house has the potential to inspire a translation between houseand inhabitant who move to a city.
4. REFERENCES
Hilton, R. (1992) Defining the Malay House, Journal of the Malaysian Branch of theRoyal Asiatic Society, Vol. 65, No. 1 (262), pp. 39-70
Rapoport, A. (1969). House form and culture. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall.
Akcan, E. (2012). Architecture in Translation: German, Turkish, and Modern House. Duke
University Press.
Chow, R. (1998). House Form and Choice, Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review,Vol. 9, No. 2 (SPRING), pp. 51- 61
Lozar, C. (1970). Review: House Form and Culture by Amos Rapoport, Journal of
Aesthetic Education, 4(4), 142-143.
Wigley, M. (1989). The Translation of Architecture, the Production of Babel. Assemblage,(8), 7-21.
Rapoport, A. (1989) in “Forward,” in S. Low and E. Chambers, eds., Housing, Culture and
Design: A Comparative Perspective, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press

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I Dwell in [Im]possibility: Utopian Planning & Design in Indonesia as bias toward a cityof one-dimensional society
Abstract. The dominant paradigm and the practice of urban planning and design inIndonesia has been overwhelmed with foreign idea, Western urbanism. Planners anddesigners deny the persistence of dual existence of society, that is of modern/
traditional, capitalist/bazaar. This paper will discourse the ambiguity of the[im]possibility of dwelling in the light of the duality of the society.
The research is based on theoretical discourse related to the idea of dwelling. The
analysis of the study will focus on a single case study of private development of Kota
Wisata that is planned as un-integrated the large development of housing area in thesuburban Jakarta. The rest occupying densely urban kampung represent those of
traditional or non-modern one. In many cases, new modern development may exist
mutually exclusive as separate entities against the kampung settlement that has noconnection with one to the other.
Findings have shown that Kota Wisata is an exemplary model of the city of onedimensional community. It denies the possibility of the low income, let alone the poor,
to dwell and share urban facilities within.
Keywords: dwelling; dual society; mono-dimensional society
Introduction
This paper deals with discourse analysis in the context of the conference theme. It analyzes
sign language and written sources. I dwell in [im]possibility is a sign language in this regard
related to physical planning and design issues. The objective is i) to raise a criticalunderstanding on how urbanism is conceived by certain ideology of planning and design thatstays aloof in providing just living space for everyone; ii) to understand architecture inparticular as a physical object to be hermeneutically understood out of its existence.
The poem of Emily Dickinson (1830-1886) I Dwell in Possibility which was first publishedin 1929 has fascinated many scholars, especially those associated with its syntactic
ambiguity. 1 Therefore, it can be assumed and is reasonable to state, “I Dwell in[im]possibility,” where the phenomena observed may exist in ambiguity within which it
enfolds the reality of presence and absence. I Dwell refers to and can be conceived as theindividual ‘I’ live among (plural) humans (group of individuals, community, or society) and I
live in a material and immaterial world. The word dwell originates from Old English dwellan,
1

A situation where a sentence may be interpreted in more than one way due to ambiguous sentence structure.

1
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to wander, to linger, to tarry.(Partridge, 1983:172) I Dwell means I wander, linger in theworld (being-in-the-world). It portrays the human existence in the world. The act of dwelling
together justifies the co-existence of human beings and their urban environment. Here, in thispaper, I dwell particularly implies ‘we’ that particularly refer to those who engage in theinformal economy. ‘I dwell in [im]possibility’ illustrates an ambiguity of the condition of“[il]legitimacy” whether or not we are recognized and accepted by the community or the
public at large. I distinguish the terms between dwell and settle; the latter means to seat, tostay permanently over space. This paper will uncover how urban planning and design
practices remain stay aloof overlook the constitution of society that consist in dual form –two-in-one.
For the purpose of clarifying the concept of dwelling, I need to discuss the conceptual
difference between world thinkers, such as Heidegger and Norberg-Schultz. Heidegger
asserts that dwelling metaphysically justifies that humans live on earth. It also describes how
humans live and condition themselves in the world. Heidegger (1971:144) claims thatdwelling refers to,“. . . [the] way in which you are and I am, the manner in which we humans areon the earth, is Buan, dwelling. To be human being means to be on the earth asa mortal. It means to dwell.”Further, in this concept of humans as being mortals, Heidegger gives further details
on the idea of dwelling – Four-fold. Humans as being weak mortals believe or have faith in
divinity. To some humans, they believe that there is a connection between heaven and earth(axis mundi). Humans who live in the world accordingly have to be grateful to the sky thatgives light, air and water. Humans also should be grateful to the earth that gives water, rivers,
plants, woods as well as animals in it. In such a set of beliefs, such as in the Balinese culture,humans should live side-by-side with the environment and destroy neither the earth nor
nature. In this regard, Heidegger (1971:147) further emphasizes,“To dwell, to be set at peace, means to remain at peace within the free, thepreserve, the free sphere that safeguards each thing in its nature. The
fundamental character of dwelling is this sparing and preserving. It pervades
dwelling in its whole range. That range reveals itself to us as soon as wereflect that human being consists in dwelling and, indeed, dwelling in thesense of the stay of mortals on the earth.”2
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While many have misunderstood the metaphysics of Heideggerian dwelling, to myunderstanding, he illuminates the very basic, as well as a simple idea of human and nature’s
ecology.
In a rather different conception, as put forward by Norberg-Schultz (1985), dwelling
implies both staying and wandering. He expands the philosophic idea of Heidegger andexplains the idea of dwelling in a much more pragmatic way. He refers to three aspects of thehuman condition related to dwelling (Norberg-Schultz,1985:7). First, dwelling is a “means tomeet others for exchange of products, ideas and feelings, that is, to experience life as amultitude of possibilities.” Second, dwelling is a “means to come to an agreement withothers”, that is, to accept a set of common values, and third, dwelling is being “oneself, in thesense of having a small chosen world of our own.” Within the framework of thinking inarchitecture, Norberg-Schultz argues that modes of dwelling in architecture encompass
private, public and collective spheres. Norberg-Schultz takes dwelling as a guiding concept
for architectural practice. Heidegger and Norberg-Schultz are great scholars and noteworthy
in their respective views. Heidegger and Norberg-Schultz are incomparable in thinking tohave better understanding of urban dwellers than that most of ‘them’ as being poor migrants.
‘They’ are the other side of the duality of the society in general. In the logic of understanding‘them’, we cannot simply see ‘them’ as an objective concept, which is external to ourmindset. ‘They’ are far beyond any empirical understanding that we could capture.
Possibility or impossibility of dwelling associated with the activity of informal economy will
be assumed to refer to a [dual] structure in the constitution of the society.
One Dimensional Man or Society. Herbert Marcuse, in his famous book One-Dimensional
Man, offers a wide-ranging critique of both contemporary capitalism and the then Communist
society of the Soviet Union, documenting the parallel rise of new forms of social
repression in both these societies, as well as the decline of revolutionary potential in theWest. According to Douglas Kellner, (in Marcuse, H., 1964: xii) Marcuse puts forward asocial theory“. . . a theory of ‘advanced industrial society’ that describes how changes in
production, consumption, culture, and thought have produced an advanced state ofconformity in which the production of needs and aspirations by the prevailing societal
apparatus integrates individuals into the established societies.”

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“Advanced industrial society”, he argues, created false needs, which integrated individuals
into the existing system of production and consumption via mass media, advertising,industrial management, and contemporary modes of thought.
This results in a “one-dimensional” universe of thought and behavior, in which aptitude andability for critical thought and oppositional behavior wither away. Against this prevailingclimate, Marcuse promotes the “great refusal” as the only adequate opposition to allencompassing methods of control.

Figure 1
One-dimensional Man(Source: Trappen, S., Marcuse’s One-Dimensional Man, http://sandratrappen.com/2016/03/11/one-dimensional-man/,
31.03.17)

Rose (1990:56) further emphasizes that,“. . . advanced industrial society has perfected new, deceptively insidious, andimmeasurably effective forms of social control. Through the successful expansion ofsystems of mass production and distribution, the implementation of a “totalitarian”
economic/technical coordination, and the manipulation of the deepest and innermost
human needs by “vested interests,” advanced industrial society has successfully
implemented a technological rationality that simultaneously obliterates the possibilityof radical critique, as it creates an extensive regime of manipulated and unauthentic“needs””.
Planning and Design Ideology.
While it is important to see the city as a site of individual and collective emancipation,a tradition that incorporates Marx and Engels as well as Nozick and Milton
Friedmann, it is just as important to remember that the city is an imposition andadherence to a series of master narratives. From Rameses II to Frank Gehry, throughBaron Haussmann and Le Corbusier the city has been inherently authoritarian,sometimes totalitarian and occasionally fascistic.(J.R. Short: 18)
Planning is derived from the Latin adjective planus, flat, level, hence straight forward.
Becomes the English plane, a level surface, and a tool. Early Modern English – French plan,4
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in the 16th century, acquires the sense ‘a design’ (Partridge, 1983: 500). In this regard,
ontologically, the concept of planning and design is essentially the same, namely, about
decision of progress. However, as a process they are different in the sense that planning deals
primarily with strategies that manifest in policies, programs and implementations, or plan-docheck-act. Urban planning is a technical and political process concerned with thedevelopment and use of land, planning permission, protection and use of theenvironment, public welfare, and the design of the urban environment, including air, water,
and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, suchas transportation, communications, and distribution networks. Design, on the other, primarily
deals with creating things. In a narrow definition, designing has an ultimate end of 3-D
object, such as, urban design.
Faludi (1973: 76-79) put forward propositions related to the ideology of planning:i) Town planning’s main task is to reconcile competing claims for the use of limited
land so as to provide a consistent, balanced and orderly arrangement of land uses;ii) Town planning's central function is to provide a good (or better) physicalenvironment; a physical environment of such good quality is essential for thepromotion of a healthy and civilized life;iii) Town planning, as part of a broader social programme, is responsible for providing
the physical basis for better urban community life; the main ideals toward which
town planning is to strive are (a) the provision of low-density residential areas (b)the fostering of local community life and (c) the control of conurban growth.
Ideology iii seems to shift dominant paradigm of planning ideology up to the early seventies.
Urban planning puts more emphasize on socio-political issues. Ideally, urban planning as apublic undertaking and initiatives should embody the aspiration as well as the need of thepeople in the city. Despite criticisms especially from socio-political point of views such as
Jane Jacobs in the sixties and Ruth Glass in the seventies, planning practices remain positive,
technical in nature rather than normative. For as R. Glass puts it (Glass, 1973),“ . . it is undoubtedly the ideology of planning, far more than techniques of design andadministration, which needs to be considered and developed. Planning without social
policy does not make sense, and social policy without social theory and research is
liable to become meaningless and eventually unacceptable.”[Glass, 1973:66-67]
Since then, society has become more complex, and the prospect of social change far
more ambiguous, and yet the old ideas have been maintained and have become fixed
prejudices. Though several movements contributed to town planning, and traces of theold divisions still remain, it is the ideology of the Utopians which has become
predominant. [Glass, 1973:55-56]
In Indonesia, politics of the state since independence has changed dramatically with regard to5
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the socio-political freedom of the society. Reformation era in the late 1990s have laid a basic
principle of democracy in the society. With the increasing role of the technology in media
communication, public sphere2 as once inspired by Jürgen Habermas (1987), people
nowadays are bestowed a liberation and “free-talk” in the social media people. However, thispolitical blessing as yet has not been effected in the urban planning and design practices. The
local government that desperately attracts investments has exercised “less controls” against
big and large area development. Erratic planning and development take place. Without
proper spatial structure that especially provides framework for settlement patterns vis-à-vis
transport system, the city becomes simply a calculus or mosaic of new town developments.
They are congregating and crisscrossing along the spinal highways. (Fig. 2)
Urban planning and design that covers very large areas in Jakarta remains foreign to public
scrutiny. They are resulted from technical exercises of the planning and design practices.
They are market-based physical planning and design as a consequence they discount the pooror the people who live on the tradition of informality. They are deprived from proper andhealthy urban dwellings.
Capitalist Tradition & Hyper-reality. In the history of capitalism, a cultural transformationin the meaning and measurement of time related to control and working methods can beobserved. It economizes time and space at one moment.3 It assumes organized economic
activities in the time-space dimension encompassing production, distribution, and marketing.
Modernity that corresponds to the rise of capitalism is characterized by the development inscience and technology, and especially where it concerns mass production and consumption.
Economic activity deals with the mechanics of the aggregate of production and consumption.
When the society like Indonesian is not prepared to participate in this mechanic, people aresimply not ready and at worst they are merely spectator.

2

The public sphere in Habermas's sense is also conceptually distinct from the official economy; it is not an
arena of market relations but rather one of discursive relations, a theater for debating and deliberating rather
than for buying and selling. Thus this concept of the public sphere permits us to keep in view the distinctions
among state apparatuses, economic markets, and democratic associations, distinctions that are essential todemocratic theory. Fraser, N., ‘Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually
Existing Democracy’, in Craig Calhoun (ed.). Habermas and Public Sphere. Cambridge: Massachusetts,
London: England, 1996, p. 111.
3
Friedland, R. and D. Boden, ' NowHere: An Introduction to Space, Time and Modernity', in Friedland, R. and
D. Boden (eds.), NowHere: Space, Time and Modernity, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University ofCalifornia Press, 1994: 1-60, p. 8.

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50-99 hectares

100-249 hectares

250-499 hectares
500-999 hectares
Over 1000 hectares

Figure 2
Development as it goes
The private development patterns relative to their sizes that range from 50 to over 1000 hectares.
(Source: Harjoko, T.Y. (2009), Urban Kampung: Its Genesis and Transformation into Metropolis withparticular reference to Penggilingan in Jakarta, VDM Verlag Dr. Müller )During the New Order, ‘modernization’ was taking place through the ideology of ‘economic
growth’ and through authoritarian government (Harjoko, 2008). The signification of
pembangunan or ‘development’ conveys meanings intended to economically increase the
GNP. This was done by letting resources be developed by advanced countries, and physicallyby building a ‘modern’ beautiful city to promote pembangunan. Jakarta as a Capital City wasespecially supposed to provide services to achieve pembangunan. The services andinfrastructure was to conform to an international standard characteristic of best cities in theadvanced world. In short, Jakarta should simulate the ‘modern’ city of the world. This
simulation inevitably depresses the ‘real’ map of the kampung's social, economic, andpolitical existence.
Following the establishment of Real Estat Indonesia (REI) in the 1970s, property
development gained its momentum. Ever since, private housing and commercial centers grew
rapidly like mushrooms in and around Jakarta or within the area of Greater Jakarta(JABODETABEK – Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi). They vary in size from
simply small of hundred hectares up to large ones of thousand. Initially housing projects
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began and adopted names quite simply and familiar to the people and local character, such as,
Pondok Indah (Beautiful Home), Kelapa Gading (literally Ivory Coconut), and Bumi Serpong
Damai (Peaceful Serpong Land – the name after the area).
Globalization further paves the way that capitalism has turned into its real ‘being’ – as G.
Deleuze and F. Guattari term it a body without organ4. Empire of capital needs no fixedcountry or state like it used to be in the past. They manifest as ‘market state’ that
incomprehensibly controls nation-states across the globe through global market.5 Capital nolonger corresponds to the order of political economy; it uses political economy as asimulation model – simulacra, hyperreal. 6 7
Kota Wisata. Kota Wisata is one of the real estate development under the company of Duta
Pertiwi, which is part of the Sinar Mas Group Real Estate Division (SMGRED). SMGRED
started its business in 1988 and focuses its main business in housing, such as Kota Legenda
and Kota Wisata in Cibubur, and Delta Mas in Tangerang, retailing, mall, super block project(World Trade Center and International Trade Center) and industrial estate in Jakarta. Kota
Wisata or literally Tourism City. It is located in the southeast Jakarta. The estate covers an
area of about 90 hectares.
Kota Wisata was designed initially by Australian architect. It is located in the Cibubur, Bogor
Regency in the south of Jakarta. The site stretches across the north-south of Cibubur. It is
ingeniously planned mainly for high-income residential areas. The designer designed housing
in various cluster across the site (Figure 3). These are given with their unique Western names
across the site. Each cluster has an entrance-gate that makes it a gated-community.
Competition in property development and globalized information, media has inspired large
corporation to utilize media to expand their market. Residential design and development has
turned into schism, as Deleuze and Guattari state

4

Deleuze, G. and F. Guattari, Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 1983.
5
Wood, E. M., Empire of Capital. London, Newyork: Verso, 2003.
6
According to Baudrillard, “Simulation is no longer that of territory [i.e., abstraction of the map], a referential
being or a substance. It is the generation by models of a real without origin or reality: a hyperreal.” M. Poster(ed.), Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings. Polity Press, 2001, p.169.
7“We live a world where there is more and more information, and less and less meaning.” J. Baudrillard.
Simulacra and Simulation. Translated by F. Glaser, Ann Arbor: The Michigan University Press, 1981, p. 79.

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“. . . everywhere capitalism sets in motion schizo-flows that animate ‘our’ arts and‘our’ sciences, just as they congeal into the production of ‘our own’ sick, theschizophrenics.”8
It no longer connects local culture, values.

Figure 3
Plan of Kota Wisata Residence
Source: Harjoko, T.Y., ‘HYPER- versus INVOLUTED-TRADITION: Urbanism in Indonesia’, ISVS IV: Pace
Or Speed?, 4th International Seminar on Vernacular Settlement, Ahmedabad, India, February 14-17, 2008 :Proceedings.

8

Deleuze, G. and F. Guattari (1983), Anti-odipus: Capitalism and Schzophrenia. Translated by Robert Hurley,Mark Steem, and Helen R. Lane, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, p. 245

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Orlando Gate

The Paris Gate

Madrid Gate

Figure 4
Utopian Dwelling: Kota Wisata Residence and its some of the Cluster Names and Gates

A Case of an Un-appreciated Urban Planning for a Dual-society
Integrated development has become an empty concept when it is related to kampung. There
has no single urban development in Jakarta that has integrated the kampung within it. An
attempt was once made by a private consultant, who proposed a development that integrated
the kampung as part of a coherent urban development strategy. In 1989, PT. Triarco
Development Consultants9 had a model of integrated kampung development, or Guided Land
Development, in Klender, which is next to Penggilingan (see Figure 7.12). The project
proposed to integrate the government program, that is, the Kampung Improvement Project(KIP), with Private Housing Development. The model was called an infill land consolidation
as an alternative to land acquisition, or land compensation, for private development usuallypracticed by developers in Jakarta dealing with kampung settlement. In this model,
infrastructure development was devised to guide new development in conjunction with the9This consultant has been involved in other different realised projects of integrating low-income housing andcommercial development into private development. For example, Citra Niaga Project in Samarinda, Kalimantan,
which won the Aga Khan Awards in 1989. See Ismael, A., ' Guided Land Development: Klender, Jakarta',
Integrated Urban Development through 'Co-Development', Triarco Development Consultants, Jakarta, Paper
presented for International Workshop on Housing ' Urban Coherence and Housing Strategies', Bandung, 1990,
Case 3.

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KIP, so that high, middle, and low-income people can supposedly live in an integrated
planned settlement. The project developed an innovative and alternative land use approach,applied to pedestrian as well as road circulation systems. It was experimenting with housingdevelopment in such a situation through 'Land Pooling and Readjustment'. By this it was
intended that unorganized, inefficient, and idle land with no infrastructure was to beefficiently 'pooled', re-planned and integrated. The construction of the buildings by the lowincome people on the 'serviced area' was conceived as three different avenues. It could bedone either through a third party either by using 'build contract', or 'sharing contract', or
through mutual aid, self-help, or through a formation of a Cooperative as a developer. The
basic idea of this approach was that the kampung people could remain and benefit mutuallyfrom the guided land development. The proposed project was never realized.

Figure 5
A Proposal of Guided Land Development in Buaran, Klender, Jakarta:
A Development Consultant’s Unrealized ProjectThis is a good example of the guided land development in Klender which incorporates kampung and new
housing estate as a dual-society or two-dimensional society of housing. Unfortunately, such a scheme was left
on the selves. The scheme that has been granted for development is a ‘segregate community’ for the highincome settlements.
Source: Ismael, A., ' Guided Land Development: Klender, Jakarta', Integrated Urban Development through 'CoDevelopment', Triarco Development Consultants, Jakarta, Paper presented for International Workshop on Housing ' Urban
Coherence and Housing Strategies', Bandung, 1990, Case 3. In Harjoko, T.Y., Urban Kampung: Its Genesis andTransformation into Metropolis with particular reference to Penggilingan Jakarta. VDM Verlag Dr. Muller, 2009, p.146.

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Figure 6
Segregated Housing Estate in Buaran Klender as it is now(Source: Google Earth, 18th May 2017)Concluding Remarks
Dual society constitutes urban population. This does not seem to be appreciated by urban
planners and designers. This is exacerbated by policy makers who are dreaming their city as
modern and beautiful as those in West. They deny their own society that is not monodimensional.
Urbanizing poor rural migrants are denied by planners and designers to have access to thedescent living in the city. Impossibility to dwell in the city has been justified both bypoliticians, urban planners as well as designers. They are dominated by the image of societythat is alien to society as a whole. physical planning system and practices.
The epistemological problem of the concept of formal/informal arises when they areconceived as separate, unconnected entities. Informality, as a noun, is then conceived strictly
as a state of exception from the formal order of social formation in certain settings, such asurbanization. The formal/informal economy has not been constructed in a state of opposition
or dichotomy. This is why the dual-image of modernism/traditionalism perseveres in the city.
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Urban economy means management of the possibility/impossibility of urban dwellings that
result in a dual-image of human existence. The dwellings will be impossible, if norms are
fixed to the particular group of people and are denied to others. In a capitalist society the
structure is fixed, formal and simply is based on capitalism, while society which is based on
tradition take the informal form of urbanism.
Domination of particular group, namely the modern and formal one, in the planning anddesign practices inevitably envisions and engenders a city plan of one-dimensional society.
Liberalization of property development by private business coupled with un-coordinatedurban planning and control has generated a wild urban generation. The city becomes acalculus of isolated private housing development and especially commercial centers such as
malls everywhere across the city. Utopian Dwellings emerge here and there. Design
metaphors, such as Georgia Residence in Kota Wisata, are just a commercial gimmick tofascinate the haves.

Figure 7
The Challenge of Inequality(Source: International Poverty Center, Poverty in Focus,
June 2007)

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References
Baudrillard. J. (1981), Simulacra and Simulation. Translated by F. Glaser, Ann Arbor: The Michigan University
Press, 1981
Calhoun, C., (1996). Habermas and the Public Sphere. Cambridge: Massachusetts, London: England.
Deleuze, G. and F. Guattari (1983), Anti-odipus: Capitalism and Schzophrenia. Translated by Robert Hurley,Mark Steem, and Helen R. Lane, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Friedland, R. and D. Boden (1994), ' NowHere: An Introduction to Space, Time and Modernity', in Friedland,
R. and D. Boden (eds.), NowHere: Space, Time and Modernity, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: Universityof California Press.
Giddens, A., The Constitution of Society. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984
Glass, R.(1973) , ‘Some Sociological Considerations’, in Andreas Faludi (ed.), Reader in Planning Theory,
Pergamon Press.
Habermas, J. (1987), The Theory of Communicative Action. Boston.
Harjoko, T.Y. (2008), ‘HYPER- versus INVOLUTED-TRADITION: Urbanism in Indonesia’, ISVS IV: Pace
Or Speed?, 4th International Seminar on Vernacular Settlement, Ahmedabad, India, February 14-17, 2008 :Proceedings.
Harjoko, T.Y. (2009), Urban Kampung: Its Genesis and Transformation into Metropolis with particularreference to Penggilingan in Jakarta, VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.
Heidegger, M. (1971), Poetry, Language, Thought. Trans. Albert Hofstadter, New York: Harper & Row.
Ismael, A., ' Guided Land Development: Klender, Jakarta', Integrated Urban Development through 'CoDevelopment', Triarco Development Consultants, Jakarta, Paper presented for International Workshop on
Housing ' Urban Coherence and Housing Strategies', Bandung, 1990, Case 3.
Kellner, D. (1964), ‘Introduction to the Second Edition’, in Marcuse, H., One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the
Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society. Boston: Beacon Press, p. xii.
Marcuse, H. (1964), One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society. Boston:
Beacon Press.
Norberg-Schulz, C.(1985) The Concept of Dwelling: On the way to figurative architecture. NewYork: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc.
Partridge, E. (1983), Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Greenwich
House.
Rose, B. (1990), ‘The Triumph of Social Control? A Look at Herbert Marcuse's “One Dimensional Man”, 25Years Later.’ Berkeley Journal of Sociology, Vol. 35, 1990.
Short, J. R. (2000), ‘Three Urban Discourses,’ in Bridge, G. and Watson, S. (eds.). A Companion to the City,
Blackwell Publishing, Ch.3.
Wood, E. M. (2003), Empire of Capital. London, Newyork: Verso.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
I DWELL IN FLUID SPACE: READING SMOOTH AND STRIATED SPACE ON PASAR
CIPUTAT TANGERANG
Eka Permanasari, PhDa, Bonardo Tobingbba
University of Pembangunan Jaya, Bintaro, 15413, Indonesia, eka.permanasari02@gmail.com
University of Pembangunan Jaya, Bintaro, 15413, Indonesia, bonardo17@gmail.com@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Deleuze (1987) introduced the term striated and smooth space in several metaphoric ways. Both terms
intermingle, “smooth space allows itself to be striated, and striated space re-imparts as a smooth space”(Deleuze, 1987: 486). Striated is seen as a fixed space, closed at one side and assigns breaks. It carries asense of border. On the other hand, smooth space is seen as continuous and open interval. However, bothterms are always intermingling, at one point smooth can be striated and vice versa. A city can be seen as a
striated space and an ocean is a smooth space. However, at the same time the city can also be seen as smooth(urban sprawl, shanty town) and the ocean can be seen as striated as we see it on the map and lines oflatitude and longitude (Deleuze, 1987: 476).
This research looks at the way in which people dwell in a fluid space. Space is a highly fluid in terms of its
uses and occupation depending on its users. Looking at a strip near Pasar Ciputat, Tangerang Selatan, thispaper investigates how the space changes function and identity overtime. The strip on the road of Pasar
Ciputat becomes a good example of analyzing the smooth and striated space practiced in everyday life. This
strip is heavily populated by street vendors who has ‘occupying schedule’ and continuously changes thepatterns of occupation. They prefer to sell the goods on the road instead of in the provided building. By
midnight, the strip is not accessible as the vendors closed off and sell their goods on the road. In themorning, some vendors disappear and their former space has been used by other vendors to sell different
goods. The road is becoming accessible again. By noon, different vendors take over the space and selldifferent stuffs. Space becomes highly fluid where uses and meaning collapse together. Throughobservation, urban morphological mapping and photographic analysis, this paper will uncover the everyday
uses of space and how the spaces become fluid following the different ways of its users.
Keywords: Fluid space; Pasar Ciputat, smooth and striated space.
1. INTRODUCTION
A city constitutes layers of history as it houses human events, buildings and stories. Perception is associatedthrough the uses and symbolism of the space. Rossi sees the city as an archaeological artefact and an
autonomous structure (Rossi, 1986). The city is influenced by the way architecture works as remnant ofhistory and thus influences back the users. Rossi argues that a city should not be seen as functional only as itcollects memory, attachment and history which connect the users and the place. A city is place where people
congregate together, making layers of meanings and history by the way they inhabit the city. The city is alocus where possibilities of events can be accommodated and constituted.
The image of the city depends on the perception of individuals through their interaction and association
within the city. However, this individual image is often being imposed by the public image associated with
it. As city image is constituted through paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks, this research looks at
specifically to path, edge and landmarks as they influence the imageability of the city. Path is easily
recognized as people observe the city while they are moving through it (Lynch, 1959). An edge is seen as
boundaries which assign breaks in continuity (Lynch, 1959). Edge can be barriers with more or lesspenetrable. On the other hand, Landmark is something which people can easily associate the image of a citywith. Through the experience people have gone through, they associate a certain sign, prominent building or
activities as the landmark for the site. Some of the landmarks are innumerable and are associated once the704

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traveler are becoming more familiar with the sign. Some of these elements may occasionaly shift from one
to another. For driver, a road is a path which enable them to move swiftly from one place to another.
However, for a sidewalker, a road is the edge for them not to cross. The differentiation, the classification issomehow blur at some point. What if a path is no longer seen as an edge for the sidewalker but mereley anextension of its walkway? What if a path is becoming an edge for the driver when they cannot get throughthe road? What if the path has become an edge with less penetrable for people to go through? Theseambiguities and shifting roles between a path and an edge which in turns resulting in shifting the landmark
for the city. The “continues assigned break” is relevant to Deleuze and Guattari’s notion of smooth andstriated space.
Smooth and striated spaces are twofold binary concepts where the definition of one is so dynamic andintermingling. Smooth space is seen as continues, travels though times, infinite and unlimited in every
direction (Deleuze, 1987: 476). Striated space assigns breaks, closed at least on one side, limited and fixed.
However, as these two terms are twofold binary concepts, smooth space is constantly reversed into a striatedspace and vice versa (Deleuze, 1987). The story of quilt made out of a stitched patchwork might be usefulin understanding the smooth and striated space. The patchwork (either made out of embroidery or leftover
fabric) are stitched together shaped as a continues form (the quilt). The patch can be seen as striated while
the process of stitching it together and shaping a continues fabric can be seen as smooth. In this case,smooth sprang from a striated space. However, the smooth space as much as it looks continues, it is limited
in size. The smooth has become a striated space again and vice versa. The space becomes very fluid in termsof it uses, meaning and trajectory. However, the aim is not to erase one side of the concepts, but rather to see
which concept that appears first and how it was folded (Dovey, 2010). As in Deleuze’s term, “the two
spaces in fact only exist in mixture” (Deleuze, 1987:474). This fluidity concept occurs where the twofold
coexist together and change the use and meaning of space. The looseness occurs when the different uses andmeaning of space coexist with negotiable government rule. The concept of smooth and striated space is used
as framework to analyze the use and meaning of urban space in Pasar Ciputat, Tangerang Selatan.
Perusahan Daerah Pasar Niaga Kerta Raharja famously known as Pasar Ciputat is one of the markets built
by the Provincial Government of Tangerang Regency in 1992. Located in between South of Tangerang andSouth of Jakarta, Pasar Ciputat became a strategic place for people to gather and do business. The building is
3 storey in height where each floor was to house certain activities. The ground floor caters commodities suchas rice, flour, meat, fish and vegetables. The first and second floor house clothing, shoes, bags andaccessories (Tangsel, July 2010). Like many other market building built and managed by the government,
Pasar Ciputat Building were mismanaged and poorly maintained. From its early development, the first andsecond floor were empty from customers. The sellers start to sell their stuff on the ground floor hoping they
could attract customers to the first and second floor. The more they go down, the more customers neverreach the first and second floor.
In late 1992, the Provincial Government of Tangerang District made a deal with a private company PT
Betania Multi sarana to integrate the market and terminal in order to invite more visitor and generate moreincome (Tangsel, Perjanjian Kerjasama Bersyarat No. 551.22/1755-Um/1992). As the terminal and themarket collide, the traffic and the sellers start occupying the street and cause traffic jams. In 2004, there wasa change in the regulation where the market can open during the day and the night (District, 2004). Here,the number of sellers increase by the numbers of hours the market can operate. If previously they could only
sell stuff during the day, with this new regulation, they can do business 24 hours.
The biggest shift occured in 2008 when the area in Regency of Tangerang was divided. The Ciputat area
including pasar Ciputat became under the Municipality of South Tangerang (Mendagri, 2009). The problem
arised when the regency of Tangerang delaying to hand over the land to the municipality. Furthermore, thedeal with PT Betania multi Sarana aso faced another obstacle. The Regency required certain amount ofmoney to be paid as part of the retribution from parking and lease from sellers inside the market. These
conditions made the ambiguity as to who is in charge managing the pasar Ciputat. Through its heyday, themanagement of Pasar Ciputat is now under the Tangerang Selatan municipality. Hence, the mismanagement
has made the number of unregistered sellers rise. Most of sellers have left the market building and prefer tosell their goods on H. Usman road leading to the market building. This informality has its own structures.

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Although the sellers are not formally registered they have patterns in selling stuffs, schedule as when to sell,and location as where to display their goods. The roads is no longer accessible for cars and pedestrian. In
certain times the road may be totally closed down due to the market activity, while some other times theroad may still be penetrable.
Due to the high level activity on this road, poor sanitation and management, Pasar Ciputat is notorious forbeing dirty, filthy and unhygienic. Since the activity are mostly carried out outside of the building, the imageof the market shifted from being in the building into being on the road. The H Usman road has become a
fluid space where striated and smooth spaces are performed.
2. METHODOLOGY
In order to understand the variety of uses and fluid meaning of space, we use qualitative researchmethodology with data gathering methods as followed:
a. Observation
Observation was used to determine the use of places in everyday life. This method was aimed tounderstand the meaning and use of the case study by observing the way in which people appropriatedthe spaces. Observation was carried out on Haji Usman road using photographic survey techniques.
These techniques were conducted unobtrusively within the bounds of normal procedures forobservation in public spaces (Nachimias, 1976). The sellers are classified based on the items thatthey sell and pattern of occupying the space.
The observation is conducted within two different time frames during the weekend and weekday:
during the day and during the night. This approach is aimed to capture the different uses and spatial
practices within the space.
b. Morphological Mapping and analysis
Morphological mapping and analysis included decoding the various uses on, within, and around theHaji Usman road. This method includes tracing the movement of sellers activities; and highlighting
certain sellers which play a role in understanding the fluidity uses and spatial practices.
c. Traces analysis
Traces analysis gathers evidences which relate to the traces use of the four case study sites. I
particularly looked at the remnants that were left by sellers as clues of understanding how space wasused, appropriated and anticipated.
d. Photograpic analysis
Photographing survey analysis was conducted to record both the behavioural observation and traces
analysis. To record possible variety of uses, photographic survey was carried out on two different
period of times during the weekday and weekend (during the day and during the night). Photographic
survey analysis became primary means of generating detailed database for morphological analysis,
the transformation of the use of the space, verbal presentation, and particularly evidences to support
argument.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Pasar Ciputat Building is located in the corner of Aria Putra road and H Usman road. The position isprominent as it is accessible from Aria Putra, Haji Usman and Dewi Sartika roads (Figure 1). As the policy
in 2010 changed, the intended planning to integrate the market and the terminal was uncertain. Yet the areain front of market on Aria Putra road has been used informally for terminal. Interestingly, although themarket is located in Aria Putra road, the market never really take place in the building. The building isalways empty and abandoned (Figure 2). The provided stalls are left behind and no longer in use. The
market informally takes place along Haji Usman road instead (Figure 3). The constant use of this road for
informal market is interesting where the sellers may change, the stall may disappear adjusting the needs ofsellers. The smooth and striated spaces are performed within this road.

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Figure 1: Location of Pasar Ciputat and Haji Usman road
Source: google map modified by the author

Figure 2: Empty formal stall inside of Pasar
Ciputat Building

Figure 3: Sellers take place on the road andoutside of the intended building

Source: author

Source: author

Although Haji Usman road is notorious for its traffic due to the informal market activities, the road is the
only access which links Ki Hajar Dewantara road to Aria Putra road. The road is consistently being used as‘road Ciputat market’ and displaces the function of the intended market located in the corner of Haji Usman
and Aria Putra road. Regardless its bad traffic due to the road market activities, Haji Usman road is always
full of vehicles trying to go though, passerby, visitors and sellers. In fact, due to its very bad traffic, theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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google street view currently cannot access Haji Usman road fully. The road intended to be on one way
direction has been used in two ways. The road is crammed with stalls taking place on the road, by shoppers
parking their motorbikes in front of the stalls whenever they need to buy anything, and by the large vehicles
trying to get through. Haji Usman road functions as a market, a parking space, a path, and at the same time
as a node where people meet (Figure 4). Regardless the chaotic scene, the crammed road does not preventthe cars and passerby to go through.

Figure 4: stalls and visitors’ vehichles are taking place on the road.
Source: author

In order to access this Haji Usman road, visitor can enter from Aria Putra road or from Ki Hajar Dewantara
road. On this road, lay some public buildings such as Office of Religious Affair (KUA), post office, mosqueand military office (Koramil) (Figure 5). Although it seems that the entire road has become more like amarket, but as a matter of fact, some public buildings are still in operation. To access these buildings, mostvisitors came from Ki Hajar Dewantara road, slowly entering the road in competition with parked vehicles
as well as the food stalls and visitors. To allow access, the gate of these buildings are kept clear while otherarea are mostly covered by sellers and shoppers

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Figure 5: Public building surrounding Haji Usman roadsource: Author

Smooth and striated spaces are displayed on this Haji Usman road. The sellers constantly change and occupy
the space in certain time. There is no hierarchy and clear boundary as which section sells particular items.
Vegetable sellers can be next to the meat, fish or other products. The pattern of occupation varies according
to the shift. For instance, in the morning certain sellers take position on certain spot. In the afternoon, theearlier spot may have been taken over by other sellers. In other occasion, the spot is left empty by the sellers,
but in some cases the stall and the spot remain but the sellers are not in duty. Constant changes in occupying
the space has created layers of space patterns. The pattern in the evening would be different from the day
pattern.
In order to understand the fluid use and meaning of the space, the observation was carried out with within
two different times: morning, afternoon and night. The observation, urban morphological mapping andphotographic analysis starts from the corner of Ki Hajar Dewantara road to Haji Usman road and ends on
Aria Putra road. The analysis will be presented in the following morphological mappings:
The first mapping is conducted during the day to capture the users and stalls and kind of product being sold(Figure 6). Based on this mapping, majority vendors sell fruits, vegetables and fish. Their stalls occupy mostof the road with little access for the vehicles to get through. The pattern of occupying space is also different
during the day. If in the morning people tend to occupy more of the roadside, in the afternoon the occupation
shifts little bit backwards. The permanent stall stay while the temporary tents seems to dissapear.

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Figure 6: Morphological mapping during the day
Source: Author

In the morning the vegetable sellers are more compare to the afternoon. The traffic is worse in the morningand gets better by later of the day. But by afternoon, different sellers starts occupying the road again and thenumbers increases during the night. Therefore, the morpohological mapping during the night is different
from the morning (Figure 7). Based on this mapping, the informal market on Haji Usman road is majorly
filled by the fruits sellers, vegetables and chicken. The pattern of occupying changes drastically. At night,
sellers tend to occupy the road more freely since the numbers of vehicles that pass through this road are low.

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Figure 7: Morphological mapping in the evening
Source: author

Apart from different patterns of occupying space during the day and the night, the fluid use and meaning is
also demonstrated through the morphological mapping and traces analysis on certain spots on this Haji
Usman road. The first spot is an area where sellers of mix vegetable, water spinach, live fish, chicken andbanana can be found in the morning. By afternoon the urban players change. The live fish, water spinachand chicken disappear, leaving the space only for the mix vegetable and banana. Even though the seller oflive fish is not working, yet his stall is still there. The stalls for chicken and water spinach are gone. The
space is little bit empty compare to the morning scene. In fact, the space which previously used as a stall forchicken and water spinach has been transformed as a parking space for motorbikes (Figure 8). By evening,
the urban players change again where sellers of mixed vegetables, water spinach, banana and live fish exist.
From this analysis, fixed sellers are banana and mixed vegetable sellers, whereas fluid sellers are chicken,
water spinach and live fish sellers.

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Figure 8: Striated and smooth space on spot 1
Source: author

The fluid use and meaning of Ciputat market can also be seen from the second case study. Located right inthe middle of the road, the area is filled with stall for selling smoke fish. Although the stall and the stock
remain the same, the person selling the smoke fish changes in the morning, afternoon and evening. Yet,these three different people are not sharing one source of income. They simply informally rent the same stall
selling the same product (Figure 9). The ‘fixed’ is represented through the stall and the selling product,
whereas the ‘fluid’ is represented by the different sellers. The smooth and striated spaces are performed
continuously. The use and meaning of the space is forever challenged

Figure 9: Smooth and Striated space on spot 2
Source: author

The constant use of Haji Usman road as an informal market has created an urban collective memory. The
road which was supposed to be a path has changed its meaning to become a node and at the same time alandmark. Never does occur for resident or visitor that Ciputat market should be in the building located at
the corner of haji Usman and Aria Putra roads. Public image of Ciputat market is on haji Usman road.
The fluidity also not only from the everyday uses of space, but also from the blur and inconsistent system
which somehow finds its own models. These sellers pay certain amount of money periodically to the ‘fee

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collector’. Although the amount is only around US 50 cent per collection, yet the sellers have to pay it
several times to different fee collector at different times. No one knows exactly where the money goes andends up. Yet, since the sellers pay the fee, they have ‘informal right’ to be on the road selling their productwithout fear being evicted. Should there be formal eviction from the local authority, they are already wellinformed way before the eviction day. This informality which infiltrates the formal system is rhizomatic,well structured without formal structure; just like the body without organ (Deleuze, 1987). The analysis ofsmooth and striated space has shown a new perspective of understanding informal dwelling. Through theanalysis of fluid market settlements on Jalan Haji Usman road, the image of the city may shift from once tobe known as a regular road, and now it has become a market. The way people understand and remember the
dwelling is through this trajectory continues interplay uses and meaning.
4. CONCLUSION
The uses, meaning and trajectory of the space has become very fluid. The smooth and striated space coexist
together as one unfolds the other. The stalls are striated patch, yet the whole patch of stalls are smooth space.
The road may seem impermeable, but somehow people and vehicles can constantly go through it. Thereseems to be no clear system, but amid the informal system the market continues to exist and be alive. The
informal economy co-exists with the informal ways of [im]possibility of dwelling. The looseness (smooth)and the fixation (striated) occur when the different uses and meaning of space juxtapose with negotiable
government rules as well as informality. Haji Usman road has become an arena where the binary oppositions
is being displayed, played and contested which in turns changes people’s perception about the market, theroad and the city landmark.
5. REFERENCES

Adkins, B. (2015). Deleuze and Guattari's Thousand Plateaus: A Critical Introduction and Guide.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Alsayyad, N. (. (1992). Forms of Dominance: On the Architecture and Urbanism of the Colonial Enterprise.
. Avebury: Aldershot.
Cowen, M., & Shenton, R. (1996). Doctrines of Development. London: Routledge.
Deleuze, G. &. (1987). A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schrizophrenia. London: University ofMinesota Press.
District, T. (2004). Surat Keputuasan Bupati Tangerang No 511.2/Kep 249-Huk/2004. Tangerang Regency:
Bupati Tangerang.
Dovey, K. (2010). Becoming Places. New York: london.
Jacobs, J. (1992). The death and life of great American Cities. New York: Vintage Books.
Jones, P., Petrescu, D., & Till, J. (2012). Architecture and Participation. London and New York: Routledge.
Kusno, A. (2000). Architecture, Urban Space, and Political Cultures in Indonesia. London and New York:
Routledge.
Lefebvre, H. (1996). Writing on Cities. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher.
Lynch, K. (1959). The Image of the City. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Macleod, M. (1997). Henri Lefebvre's Critique of Everyday Life. In S. Harris, & D. Berke, Architecture of
the Everyday. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.
Mendagri. (2009). Surat Keputusan Menteri Dalam Negeri No 131.36-833. 2009.
Nachimias, D. &. (1976). Research Methods in the Social Science. United Kingdom: Edward Arnold.
Rossi, A. (1986). The Architecture of the City. US: The MIT Press.
Sanders, Elizabeth B-N; SonicRim. (2002). From User-Centered to Partisipatory Design Approach. In J.
Frascara, Design and Social Sciences: Making Connections. London And New York: taylor andFrancis.
Tangsel, P. K. (July 2010). Executive Summary: Kajian dan Evaluasi Pasar Ciputat. Tangerang selatan.
Tangsel, P. K. (n.d.). Perjanjian Kerjasama Bersyarat No. 551.22/1755-Um/1992. 1992.
Vale, L. (1992). Architecture, Power and National Identity. London: Yale University Press.

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THE 15TH INTERNATONAL CONFERENCE QUALITY IN RESARCH (QIR) 2017
BUMI AWI KABULA KABALE:
A PROPOSAL TO ALTER THE FATE OF MANKIND
THROUGH ADAPTIVE BAMBOO STRUCTURE
Anastasia Maurinaa1, Budianastas Prastyatamaa, Carissaa,
Altho Sagaraa, Sisi Nova Rizkiania, Buen Siana , Jung Eun Shinba

Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Katolik Parahyangan,
Ciumbuleuit 94, Bandung 40141, Indonesiab
JUBIT International, Jalan Hegarbudi, No. 2, Bandung 40141, Indonesia
ABSTRACTThe urban expansion effects on the physical-spatial density of “new urban” areas, called
urbanizing rural, which in its constructions mostly used the “urban” conventional materials.
These materials usually have to be delivered from far distance, which can be immensely
costly - economical, time, social cost, and also environmental cost. The building itself, as adwelling physical space, is always limited to a certain size through a certain time-spacecontext and have no tendency for adaptation. In fact, people will ceaselessly expand theirlives through time, which bring about the complaint about the rigidity of their building,which become inadaptable to their evolving needs through time. At a certain time or theend of the intended time, that built object should constructively have altered, received
subtraction, given addition, or demolished to allow the new object extended or new needs.
The alteration will consume numerous building materials, which leads to even more cost.
The exploitation of the massive building material, particularly the supporting structure ofbuildings (which stash approximately 60% of the environmental load of building materials)
will be excessively impacted on the fate or sustainability of a built environment itself. The
statement above allows us to set forth a question of [im] possibility: can man reverse, alter,and modify the path towards the demise of mankind through the very act of consumption
itself? Can dwelling as the act to exist and as the constructed object provides the materialmeans for the alteration? Creating an adaptive structure with a local resources, is an
important point to alter the fate of mankind. This paper reports the experiment with theconstructed object that allows dwelling to provide options for alteration of dwelling itself,
through an adaptive bamboo structure, named ‘Bumi Awi Kabula Kabale’. This structure
has been proven to enable the dwelling’s adaptation: available, extendible, flexible, refitable, movable and recyclable and enable to reduce material’s consumption at the time ofbuilding’s alteration. Ultimately, it could alter the fate of mankind and create human’s
dwelling, that is more harmonious balance between man and nature.
Keywords: dwelling; adaptive structure; adaptability; bamboo
1

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Corresponding author:
Email address: maurin@unpar.ac.id / anastasia.maurina@gmail.com

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1. INTRODUCTION
The urban expansion effects on the altering characteristics of rural areas into “new urban”
areas, called urbanizing rural. The tangible characteristic’s change in this area is anenhancement of physical-spatial density, which in its constructions mostly used the “urban”
conventional materials. These materials usually have to be delivered from far distance,
which can be immensely costly. Besides incurring economical, time and social cost, there
are intangible environmental cost of the procurement process of building materials. The
building itself, as a dwelling physical space, is always limited to a certain size through acertain time-space context. Gibb, et al., (2007) stated that the buildings as bespoke
creations are designed in accordance with the particular use at a certain time, with little
thought for the future or sustainability. Subsequently, that the buildings have no tendency
for adaptation, notably in aspect in on coming function.
In fact, people are ceaselessly changing. In today’s contemporary urban culture, where
human atomization through consumption of things and services, replaced the previous
cultural tradition of the common good, there is more to ‘dwelling’ as an object than just abuilding in which the act of dwelling takes place. Arguably, it dictates that the only
possible way of human existence is through the expansion of the level of one’s
consumption of things as the manifestation of progress. People will ceaselessly expand
their lives through time, which bring about the complaint about the rigidity of theirbuilding, which become inadaptable to their evolving needs through time (Nakib, 2010).
The people’s expansion will ultimately insist the substantial adjustment to the built object,physically and spatially. At a certain time or the end of the intended time, that built object
should constructively have altered, received subtraction, given addition, or demolished toallow the new object extended or new needs.
The alteration will consume many building materials, which leads to even more cost economical, time, social and also environmental cost. As is well-known, “The building
industry, directly or indirectly causing a considerable part of the annual environmental
damage, can take up the responsibility to contribute to sustainable development by finding
more environmentally benign ways of construction and building” (Lugt, et al., 2006). The
exploitation of the massive building material, particularly the supporting structure ofbuildings (which stash approximately 60% of the environmental load of building materials)(Dobbelsteen, et al. (2002), will be excessively impacted on the fate or sustainability of abuilt environment itself.
The statement above allows us to set forth a question of [im] possibility: can man reverse,
alter, and modify the path towards the demise of mankind through the very act ofconsumption itself? Can dwelling as the act to exist and as the constructed object provides
the material means for the alteration? Responding to this questions, Mehaffy and Salingaros(2015) stated that “We need to create durable structures that are fitted into our lives, andthat can be customized, repaired and adapted to our needs. They need to be thought about
throughout their life cycle, as they interact with local conditions and local resource cycles”,
which confirmed Nakib’s statement: adaptability allows reducing resources and energy
consumption and ensures a minimum environment perturbation (2009), thus adaptability
plays a major role to improve the sustainable attributes of the building in order to keep
harmony with the natural environment and lie within the new imperatives of sustainable

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development (2010). Creating an adaptive structure with a local resources, is an important
point to alter the fate of mankind. Through this structure, the built object’s alteration can bedone without consuming numerous materials. Therefore, minimizing the material’s
consumption will decrease the cost, especially environmental cost, thus the evansive ofdemise man’s fate and the creation of human’s dwelling, that is more harmonious balance
between man and nature, are possible to do.
This study explored the possibilities of spatial and geometric adaptability of the building
structure with local materials. Bamboo is selected for the reason that bamboo’s availability
refers to local aspects that is beneficial, especially in West Java (Sunda). In addition,bamboo is a prime example of sustainability, with respect to both the plant itself and its use
as a building material.” (Liwei, 2012). This paper reports the experiment with theconstructed object that allows dwelling to provide options for alteration of dwelling itself,
through an adaptive bamboo structure, named ‘Bumi Awi Kabula Kabale’. ‘Bumi Awi’ isSudanese’s word, which means a house or shelter (‘bumi’) made from bamboo (‘awi’).
Whereas the ‘kabula kabale’ is derived from Sundanese’s Proverbs “Kudu Bisa Kabula
Kabale”, which represent that people ought to adapt or adjust themselves wherever theyare. Thus, ‘Bumi Awi Kabula Kabale’ (hereafter referred to as BAKK) transforms that
cultural value into a technical value through a bamboo structure that can be adapted andadjusted with limited land, various functions, and also various people’s needs and wants.

Figure 1 Bumi Awi Kabula Kabale
2. METHODOLOGY
The research through design was applied in three phases to explore the possibility ofadaptive bamboo structure. Firstly, framing the criteria and the concept of adaptive
structure were obtained through literature studies. Secondly, creating the principle
prototype, as a hypothesis, was carried out through the design’s process of adaptive
bamboo structure using a scaled model and computational modelling. The aims of thisphase are to test the design’s performance of adaptability and also to ensure the strength of
the structure in every possible structural configuration. Thirdly, proofing the principle
prototype, through constructing full scale modelling, which demonstrated its feasibility andpotential for real-world application.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
At the time when encountering the issue about the fate of mankind, sustainability is
becoming more influential in building design and construction. Beadle et al (2008) denotedthat there are few examples where its key principles have been successfully combined with

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adaptability. Once the building has the ability to adapt, it will be more sustainable, wherein
the building’s life can be longer and material consumption will decrease.
According to Kronenburg (2001), adaptability is the built-in ability to adapt and adjust tochange by meeting different uses, allowing various spatial and functional configurations,and updating technologies without requiring significant disruption of the building, theongoing activities and the environment. The building structure, which is the most fixed
element compared with other building elements, limited the building’s adaptability.
3.1. Bamboo as Sustainable Building Structure Material
As stated above, bamboo is selected because of its availability and its sustainability.
Bamboos have a wide natural distribution, occurring from approximately 46° N latitudes toapproximately 47° S latitude and from sea level to as much as 4,300 meters (ca. 14,000feet) in elevation in equatorial highlands (Clark, 2006). Bamboos are abundant inIndonesia, especially in West Java, thus making it accessible from any given place inIndonesia. Such accessibility reduces the time and cost required for transporting thematerials. In addition, bamboo has exemplary “green” credentials. It is adaptable to mostclimatic conditions and soil types, acts as an effective carbon sink and helps counter thegreenhouse effect. It is being used increasingly in land stabilization to check erosion andconserve soil. It can be grown quickly and easily, even on degraded land, and harvested
sustainably in three- to five-year rotation. (Jayanetti, et al., 2003). Lugt, et al. (2006) has
done the environmental assessment by environmental life cycle analysis (LCA) method andconcluded the relatively small environmental load of bamboo with respect to othermaterials more commonly used, i.e., steel, timber, and concrete.
3.2. The Criteria of Adaptive Structure
According to Wagg, adaptive structures have the ability to adapt, evolve or change theirproperties or behavior in response to the environment around them (Wagg, et al., 2007).
Beadle, et al., (2008) has defined six criteria of adaptive building, such as availability,
extendibility, flexibility, refit-ability, movability, and recyclability.

Figure 2 Adaptable Building (Beadle, et al., 2008)
3.3. The Concept of Adaptive Structure: BAKK
However, on this research, the adaptive structure - named BAKK was designed to meet thecriteria of adaptability that has stated above.

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3.3.1 Availability
The means of intended availability has considered about the speed of design andconstruction. Therefore, this research adopted the deployable structure, which can betransformed from a closed compact configuration to a predetermined expanded form
(Gantes, 2001). Deploy-ability of a structure is potentially stored in a compact form,
transported, and easily erected and also dismantled. Creating a sole deployable structuralmodule is highly beneficial, this module will be easily duplicated during the production anderection, thus speeding up the construction process. The preferred structural system is anadjustable portal truss, reimaging the bending moment diagram as its optimum structuralmodule form (Figure 3). This structural form can withstand the bending moment of asimple cantilever beam and column with fixed joint and will transfer the axial loads despite
all the members. In order that this module structure can be deployed, there has to be one
adjustable bar, which is noteworthy.

Figure 3 Sole Module: An Adjustable Portal Truss

1

2

3

4

Foldable Structural Module

closed compact configuration

5

6

predetermined expanded form

Figure 4 Deployable Structural Module

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3.3.2 Extendibility and Flexibility
An adaptable building should provide a space plan able to be arranged in several scenarios
to meet different needs, life styles and uses. Functional and spatial adaptability can beachieved by include multifunctional spaces, allowing for a large variety of functions, aswell as trans-functional spaces leading to the creation of new undetermined andunpredictable activities according to the users’ personal experiences and their consumptionof space (Nakib, 2010). BAKK have spatial and functional adaptability, though adjustable
modular design approach. Simply having a sole structural module, BAKK proof to be
configured with various building’s spans and form so BAKK can re-adjust to the land’ssize, building function and also user’s needs-and-wants. The BAKK structural module has
only one adjustable bar to adjust building span, which varies between 3m and 7,3m. Somesuch variation may also be attached to mezzanine floor (Figure 5). In addition, this module
can be duplicated horizontally, thus creating the various building’s form (Figure 6).

Figure 5 Various Building’s Span

Figure 6 Various Building’s Form
Computational structural modeling by SAP program has been conducted to ensure thestrength of the structure in any possible structural configuration. The proposed species ofbamboo is ‘Gigantochloa Apus’ whose diameter around 80mm and wall thickness around
10mm, while the material properties take advantage of Kaminski et al., (2016) research,that are modulus of elasticity 10.000 MPa with moisture content 19%; dry density 500-800

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kg/m3; flexure 30 N/mm2; shear 2 N/mm2; tension parallel to fibre 40 N/mm2; andcompression parallel to fibre 20 N/mm2. Variants of building’s span have a safety factor 2.5(compression limit) and 6 (tensile limit). It can be concluded that the proved is extremely
safe. In this structure, the element’s bending will determine the limit of the structure.
Table 1 Structural Analysis

Axial force due to an
ultimate combination

Model

Deformation due to a combination of serviceability

Building span = 4 m(A)max = 10.5 mm(-) max = 22.1 kN(+) max = 14.6 kN

Building span = 5 m(B)

max = 11.2 mm(-) max = 24.3 kN(+) max = 19 kN

Building span = 6 m(C)max = 13.8 mm(-) max = 31.9 kN(+) max = 26.6 kN

Table 2 Stress and Deflection
Building Span (m)Compression Force Maximum (kN)
Tension Force Maximum (kN)Compression Stress Max (MPa)Tension Stress Max (MPa)Deflection Max (mm)Model A
4
22.1
14.6
5.03
3.32
10.5

Model B
5
24.3
19
5.53
4.32
11.2

Model C
6
31.9
26.6
7.25
6.05
13.8

Stress Limit

40
20
L/300 = 14

3.3.3 Refit-ability
Refit-ability means that the structural components can be possibly and easily exchange orreplaces. BAKK fulfilled this ability through interlocking multi-layer bamboo system andalso bolts–and–nuts joinery system. The use of interlocking multi-layers’ bamboo system(Figure 7) makes the excessive of the structure, but it has another advantage in thepossibility of exchanging or replacing the bamboo without destroying the entire building.
The bolts–and–nuts joinery are the most commonly connection, used in modern bamboo

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construction even in other construction. Thus the procurement of this material will beeasier, both at the beginning of construction and at the time of replacement. In addition,using such connection will be easily disassembled and re-installed, allowing the bamboo’s
replacement without defecting the connection itself. With this consideration, the connection
between bamboo and foundation uses a steel plate as a connector.

Figure 7 interlocking multi-layers bamboo system

Figure 8 steel plate: the connector between bamboo and foundation
3.3.5 Movability and Recyclability
The fold-ability of BAKK allows for this structural element to be moved and re-used inother location. The dimensions and weight of each module is a very importantconsideration in the design. The length of each module structure in the closed compact
configuration is 4.2 meters, which can be transported using an ankle truck. While theweight of this module is about 30 kilograms, which can be transported by two people.

4,20 mFigure 9 Moveability

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4. CONCLUSION
The main principle of a proposed adaptive bamboo structure, BAKK, has been introduced
through a sole structural module of the adjustable truss frame portal. Using bamboo as
local-and-sustainable material of the adaptive structure’ design of Bumi Awi Kabula
Kabale, are highly potential to attain adaptable building. BAKK has been proven to enable
the dwelling’s adaptation: available, extendible, flexible, refit-able, movable andrecyclable. This structure’s ability enables to reduce material’s consumption at the time ofbuilding’s alteration. Ultimately it could alter the fate of mankind and create human’s
dwelling, that is more harmonious balance between man and nature. This research can be anifty commencement for further research, such as post occupancy evaluation of thisstructure, impact using this structure to the dwelling itself, and also the technical aspect of
this structure.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was awarded grant by JUBIT International and also supported by Researchand Community Service Institute of Universitas Katolik Parahyangan, Bandung, Indonesia.
We thank our colleagues from Sustainable Building Material and Technology ResearchCenter (SuBMiT), who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research.
6. REFERENCES
Clark , L., (2006). Bamboo Biodiversity. [Online]
Available at: www.eeob.iastate.edu/research/bamboo/index.html[Accessed 31 March 2017].
Dobbelsteen, A. v. d., Linden, A. v. d. & Klaase, D., (2002). Sustainability Needs MoreThan Just Smart Technology. Oxford, UK, Elsevier Science, pp. 1501-1508.
Gantes, C., (2001). Deployable Structures: Analysis and Design. Boston: WIT Press.
Gibb, A. G., et al., (2007). An Integrated Project Proposals to the IMCRC (Innovatice
Manufacturing and Construction Research Center): Adaptable Futures, Developing
adaptable building products, processes and people.. Loughborough: Department ofCivil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University.
Jayanetti, L., Follett, P. & Wycombe, H., (2003). Bamboo in Construction: Status andPotential. UNEP Industry and Environment, April - September, pp. 64-65.
Kaminski, S. et al., (2016). Structural use of bamboo Part 3: Design Value. The StructuralEngineer, December, pp. 42-45.
Beadle, Katty., et al., (2008). Adaptable Futures: Sustainable Aspects of Adaptable
Buildings. Cardiff,UK, Association of Researchers in Construction Management, pp.
1125-1134.
Kronenburg, R., (2001). Flexible: Architecture that Responds to Change. Great Britain:
Laurence King.
Liwei, L., (2012). Bamboo as a Low Impact Construction Material: A Research on Bamboo
Architecture in Yunnan, China, s.l.: s.n.
Lugt, P. v. d., Dobbelsteen, A. v. d. & Janssen, J., (2006). An environmental, economic andpractical assessment of bamboo as a building material for supporting structures.
Construction and Building Materials, November , 20(9), pp. 648-656 .

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Mehaffy, M. F. & Salingaros, N. A., (2015). Design for a Living Planet: Settlement,
Science, & the Human Future. Portland: Sustasis Foundation.
Nakib, F., (2009). Theoretical ad Practical Approaches to Adaptability and Sustainable
Architecture. Cairo, Ain Shams University.
Nakib, F., (2010). Toward an Adaptable Architecture Guidelines to integrate Adaptability
in the Building. Salford Quays , United Kingdom, s.n., pp. 276-286.
Wagg, D., Bond, I., Weaver, P. & Friswell, M. eds., (2007). Adaptive Structures:
Engineering Application. West Sussex: Wiley.

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SPATIAL TRANSFORMATION PATTERN DUE TO COMMERCIAL ACTIVITY
IN KAMPONG HOUSEABSTRACT
Kampung houses are houses in kampung area of the city. Kampung House oftenlytransformed into others use as urban dynamics. One of the transfomation is related to thecommercial activities addition by the house owner. It make house with full private spacebecome into mixused house with more public spaces or completely changed into full
public commercial building.
This study investigate the spatial transformation pattern of the kampung houses due to theircommercial activities addition. Site observations, interviews and questionnaires were
performed to study the spatial transformation. This study found that in kampung houses,
the spatial transformation pattern was depend on type of commercial activities and ownerperceptions, and there are several steps of the spatial transformation related the commercial
activity addition.
Keywords: spatial transformation pattern; commercial activity; owner perception, kampung
house; adaptability
1. INTRODUCTION
Urban developments were influenced by it’s society changes and the dynamic causality is anatural process which cant be separated from architecture principles ( Zahnd,1999 ). Koztof( 1991 ) also emphased the urban developments were triggered by design (planned city) andnatuaraly (organic city). The physical embryo of the cities always accumulated from theurban life activities each period of time
Housing as part of urban landuse area always been transformed from time to time alongwith urban dynamics. The transformation in housing oftenly occurs in their functions, suchas : private house into mixuse house (not only private function but also commercial
function) and if the transformation continues it will become entirely commercial building(no longer become a house). In other words, the private house has changed into public
space. According to Scrutton (1980) The Public space due to commercial activity
determined as a space which can be accessed and functioned by all people with noboundary. This public spaces are having some pattern and it influenced by the ownerperception about consumer interaction space (emic).
This study investigate the spatial transformation pattern of the kampung houses due to theircommercial activities addition. This study based on my master thesis “The Relations
Between Inhibitant’s Perception With Public Spaces Pattern of Housing Units Interlaced
It’s Commercial Activity” which aimed to find out the relation between inhibitant
perception’s with public space pattern of housing unit interlaced commercial activities. The
spatial transformation were studied by literature review, site observations, interviews andquestionnaires. This study found that in kampung houses, the spatial transformation pattern
was depend on type of commercial activities and owner perceptions, and there are several
steps of the spatial transformation related the commercial activity addition

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2. METHODOLOGYThis study was performed in :1. Literature review
This method was performed to summarize basic knowledge and theory about spatialtransformation, housing and commercial activities to discuss findings in the later stages
2. site observation
This method applied to gather primary data of spatial transformation directly from
kampong houses at kampung Pendrikan Kidul in Semarang, Central Java). This method
has found that the spatial transformations were concentrated in a street named
Jl.Nakula I.
Related to the findings this study was focused on this area and investigate the 23
houses which all of them are using their house as mixuse building.
3. interview
The depth interview in aim to collect the owner perception about their activities,
perceptions, kampong developments and business prospect
4. purposive sampling quessionaire
The quessionares were constructed based on interview, observation and literature
review to validate and measure the owner perception.
Later on Qualitative descriptive analyst were applied to explain the meanings of site
observation, interview, quesionairre result related to the literatures review.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Commercial activities regarding their commodity were devided into : goods and service
commercial. The good selling merchants are dominating in the study area with 50%
followed by mix-commodity 27% and service with 22% (see the figure 1). The commercial
activities has been triggered by new activity generator on the kampong. It resulted thespatial transformation of the housing, from full private space into shared public space tosupport the commercial activities. Most of the spatial transformation are concentrated on
Nakula I street as the main road to the new generator activity.

Figure 1 the study area

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Residential used for business activities and the room function accommodates humanactivities. The occurrence of a change or transformation use of space within the residence,
so it needs identification into several categories (Lang, 1994):
a. Fixed-feature space , a space that is limited to the elements and is not easily changed.
b. Semifixed-feature space, there is a space furnishings and wall dividers are easily
relocated as needed.
c. Informal space , there is a change to the fixed and semi fixed feature space, involve moreman inside of a function space has been determined.
There are certain type of spatial transformation pattern in the study object. The
transformation of private space into shared public commercial space, terrace, until the local
street in front of their house (see figure 2). The small house (<60m2) only substract theirprivate space inside the house without change their terrace. The medium houses are having
more type in transforming their private house with 4 types. The big houses has 5 type of
spatial transformation due to their commercial activities.

Figure 2 Commercial Space Pattern
Related to the findings, there are several type of spatial transformation pattern which put
the public commercial space at the space between the street to private house and theirterrace to private house (see figure 3). The changes in the pattern of space in a homeshowed reduced the private spaces (accessible only by the owner) and the entire space has
been used as commercial space (Kurniati, 2016). Changes of space for commercial activity
also appears in the pattern of space inside the house, eventhough commercial activity onlychanged the pattern of space outside the house at the beginning. However, with theincreasing needs of the changing function of the building have an impact on the occurrenceof a change in the shape of the building. Some pattern in kapling sedang shown that the
fixed features space can be informal space in needs.

Figure 3 Section of Commercial Space

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Both of commercial and private need parking spaces as vehicle ownership. In the study
object, most of the houses use the street side as parking area (see figure 3) because thestreets are having 9m width. Refer to Shirvani (1985) the parking space in this area are “onstreet parking”. That condition explained that commercial activities are demanding more
space rather than previous residential since the client or buyer’s vehicles addition. The
Commercial activities with goods commodity (See figure 4) showed the high demands ofon street parking may result problems, such : parking space limitations and local traffic jam
are appearing in this area (Tamin, 1999)

Figure 4 Parking spaces for the commercial
Entering the private house area, there are patterns of entrance for commercial space andresidential space in the study findings (see figure 5). The first is using same entrance forcommercial and residential which resulted the owner and guest for residential purpose mustgo through the commercial space. This informal space showed that the owner was not readyto perform commercial activities in their house. The second is using separation between
commercial and residential activities (see figure 5 right side). Some houses havetransformed their house’s entrance or changed their side entrance area (carport) into
commercial space as the adaptation effort of semi fix featured space.

Figure 5 Plan of Commercial Space
The further spatial transformation of commercial activities were expanding into the housethrough the next room to the commercial space as shown in figure 6. This situations
showed that the owner get more benefits in making their house parts as commercial spaceand continue to expand that space. In further development, the secondary space will
become primary space or respectively depend on space owner perception (Harsritanto,

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2008). According to the owner perception the commercial developments will continued
inside their house rather than outside the house (see figure 7). Regarding to theirperception , author noticed that the transformation will continued until their house become
totally commercial building. However some dwellers also decided not to develop theirhouse into commercial building.

Figure 6 Development of Commercial Space

Figure 7 Owner Development Plan
The spatial transformations are more than fixed featured space occupation expressed above.
Some adaptability artifacts are also found in the area which showing that space can be
manipulated according to the demands (Harsritanto, 2008). The figure 5 show the fix
adaptation and the figure 8 shown that carports were manipulated into commercial space
during the day. The owners do on street parking to accommodate their commercial
activities and park inside the house after the commercial activity stopped. Furthermore thefigure 9 shown the terraces were modified into semi fixed features like shop/resto and mostof the commercial related tools will be relocated on the warehouse.

Figure 8 Adaptation in owner parking (left: during night, right : during day)

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Figure 9 Space adaptability using semi fix fixtures
Spatial Transformation Pattern Due to Service Providing Commercial Activity
The owner perform all commercial activities inside the house because they thought thecommercial activities need privacy. That condition was contrassed, since space forcommercial activities on the house has started from the parking space, terrace until the first
accessed room unexpectedly become public since everyone can enter. The pattern resulted
residential activities must be located behind the commercial spaces which may bringunconvinience to the owners and guests. This missconception about privacy of publicprivate space may bring unconvinience situations for both. Some adjustments wereoperated to minimize the situation, such as : entrance separation and transform the terrace
into lobby, deploy semi fix features space, etc.
Spatial Transformation Pattern Due to Goods Providing Commercial Activity
The goods providing owners do their commercial almost in all part of their houses. This
type of commercial activities are more expansive and adaptive in using their house rather
than the service provider. They are using their house area as parking space, display unit,
trade rooms, until storehouse. Refer to the type of commercial activities on figure 8, they
are dominant and made major transformation either to the house and kampong area(especialy in changing fixed features space into informal space and respectively). Thechanges start from their parking area which located on the street side may reduce thecorridor function as public acces to the rooms inside their house (see figure 5) andaccording to the owner development plan on figure 6, most of them will change their houseinto full shop/resto if there opportunity arise.
Some adjustment to separate commercial and residential were found, such : entrance splits,
special passages (I shape), pavilion style, un-permanent setting, etc. Those showed that
adaptability concept applications are much evolving in this type of houses.
Since the progress of commercial space occupation will be varied as displayed on figure 2
regardless the size of the house (kapling), this the limit of spatial transformation for thisgoods provider commercial activity is just the owner perception as mentioned on figure 8.
Spatial Transformation Pattern Due to Goods+service Providing Commercial Activity
The similarities in spatial transform between this type and goods providing one are theexpansive transformation and the separation between commercial-residential. In

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adaptability concepts in serving customer’s privacy which mentioned as misconception
between owner (as private) and customer (as public) above, a special passage/door connect
this two type of spaces. In this case, the customer privacy must not be interfered byresidential activities which can be named as client oriented space.
4.CONCLUSION
Some conclusion were resumed in this spatial transformation pattern due to commercial
activity in kampong houses as follows :1. There some spatial transformation pattern in kampong houses due to the type ofcommercial (goods, service,mix providing ) activities which performed by the owner.
2. The transformations were performed from the spaces on street side to all space inside thehouse
3. The transformations conduct permanently or partialy with some adaptation tools/habit
4. The owner perceptions have strong influence in the further spatial transformation
5. REFERENCES
Atkinson, Rita L., 1983, Pengantar Psikologi Dalam Arsitektur Lansekap, Bumi Arta,
Jakarta
Bell, Paul A. dkk, 2001, Environmental Psychology Fifth Edition, Hartcourt College
Publisher, Orlando Florida
Dewangga, Viko Trah, 2006, Hubungan Atribut Persepsi Pedagang Kaki Lima pada Malamhari Terhadap Setting Trotoar di Lapangan Pancasila Simpang Lima Semarang,
Program Pasca Sarjana, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang
Dewantoro, Dwi Agung, 2007, Morfologi Perubahan Ruang Privat menjadi Ruang Publik
dikaitkan dengan Kegiatan Komersial di Jalan Prof.H. Soedarto, SH. Semarang,
Program Pasca Sarjana, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang
Gita Dianing S, 2005, Hubungan Perubahan Setting Ruang Privat Terhadap Persepsi
Pengguna Unit Bangunan Dikaitkan dengan Kegiatan Komersial (studi kasus Jl.Utama
Lingkungan Permukiman Tlogosari, Semarang) Magister Teknik Arsitektur, Program
Pasca Sarjana, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang
Harsritanto, Bangun IR, 2008, Hubungan Persepsi Penghuni Dengan Pola Ruang Publik
Unit Rumah Tinggal Terkait Kegiatan Komersial, Magister Teknik Arsitektur, Program
Pasca Sarjana, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang
Koztoff, Spiro (1991) The city shaped, Thames Hudson, London
Kurniati, R., & Erlambang, F. R. (2015). SPACE IN CHINATOWN SEMARANG.
Procedia
Environmental
Sciences,
23(Ictcred2014),
307–314.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2015.01.045
Scrutton,Roger (1980) The Meaning of Conservatism, Augustine Press
Shirvani, Hamid (1985) The Urban Design Process, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Newyork
Tamin, OZ; Soedirjo, TL; Kusumawati, H.A, 1999, Pengaruh Kegiatan Perparkiran di
Badan Jalan Terhadap Kinerja Ruas Jalan, Proceeding Forum Studi Transportasi Antar
Perguruan Tinggi,
Lang, John. Urban Design : The American Experience, Van Nostrand Reinhold, N ew
York,1994
Williams, C. C., & Martinez-perez, A. (2014). Why do consumers purchase goods andservices in the informal economy ? . Journal of Business Research, 67(5), 802–806.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.11.048
Zahnd, Markus, 1999, Perancangan Kota secara Terpadu, Kanisius, Yogyakarta

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
CO-RESIDENCY AMONG MIGRANTS IN BALIKPAPAN EAST KALIMANTANINDONESIA
Wendy I. Hakima*a
Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
ABSTRACTThe background of this study is urban housing problem in Indonesia, which is stillviewed solely from its physical aspect and the demand of it is mostly calculated
quantitatively only. This view considers a house as physical entity only, excluding thevariety of aspirations of its occupants. This is becoming a gap in the housing supply inIndonesia, in the terms of diversity in social, economy, and culture. This context has shaped
various aspects of the society, including housing.
This research highlights co-residency phenomenon among migrants in Balikpapan,
East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The idea of co-residency is a part of internal migration issue inIndonesia, in which the migrants will co-reside with their relatives at their city ofdestination. The aim of this study is to identify housing strategy of migrants in urban areaand discover their housing aspiration in terms of affordability in economics and sociocultural aspect in this kind of housing. Grounded Research method is used due to the factthat co-residency is an existence reality – not an empirical object of architecture itself. Coresidency phenomenon contains the ideas of living in other people’s house; hence this study
focuses on the aspect of the presence of house occupants.
The co-residency of migrants can be seen as dwelling issue on a micro level – in ahouse – as well as on a macro level, that is city as a human settlement. For migrants, in one
hand, co-residency with relatives at their city of destination is one of the available choices
for housing besides renting and buying, which relating to what young-adult migrants canafford while still looking for a job and not yet earning any income. On the other hand, coresiding with relatives in a foreign city is an acceptable idea and way of living, which ispracticed as a cultural matter that carries out certain values and traditions. Both sides of theco-residency phenomenon can be discussed as to how a dwelling process is becoming
possible for migrants in their city of destination.
Keywords: Co-residency; Dwelling; Housing; Migration

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1. INTRODUCTION
Housing Needs and Diversities of Occupants
By examining the concept through a case study of Indonesia, different sources
report a deficit of between 3 and 14 million dwelling units estimated. The wide range of
estimates of the housing deficit in Indonesia makes it an ideal case to discuss the common
lack of clarity not only in the methods used to estimate the housing need, but also in themeaning of the concept itself. The focus is on the quantitative component of the deficit as itturns out that the qualitative component is actually less problematic a concept. Once thedecision about minimum housing quality is established, it is only a matter of estimating
how many houses are below this standard. The quantitative housing deficit is more difficult
to calculate because it depends on either a normative decision about how many should livein one household or, more commonly, on assumptions about the relationship between rates
of past and present household formation (Monkkonen, 2013).
In Indonesia, two major institutions i.e. Kementerian Perumahan Rakyat(Kemenpera) and Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS), define housing deficit or commonly calledhousing backlog, differently. As mentioned by the secretary of Kementerian Perumahan
Rakyat, Iskandar Saleh, “In BPS’s standard, backlog is estimated based on houseownership while in Kemenpera’s standard, backlog is estimated based on whether or not ahouse is physically proper enough to live in”
Housing problem in Peru was framed as a letdown when the government and also
the NGO perceived a house as ‘what it is’ which lead to failure in delivering the precise
outcome of housing need. The ‘what it is’ paradigm was lack of specific and detailcontext(s) of who the house ought to be catered. Instead of ‘what it is’, the problem of
housing was alternately perceived as ‘what it does’. This view offered a focus on how thecomplexities and variation of context(s) of the occupants carried some different needs inhousing (Turner, 1976).
Migration, Housing Needs Among Migrants, and Co-residency
Housing in the context of migration is one of cases that could be discussed as afurther challenge that tend to be a concern for Indonesia in its rapidly urbanization. The
issue on migration in this study is focused on city of Balikpapan, East Kalimantan,
Indonesia. East Kalimantan Province is considered as one of the main destination area on
mid-eastern Indonesia.
In early 1990s, the majority of internal migrants migrate from outer islands to theinner island of Indonesia. But, this pattern began to turn oppositely in 1997-1998 whenmonetary crisis happened; migrating out Jawa Island is increasing while migrating to Jawa
Islands is decreasing (Groppo and Mendola, 2014).
Some provinces that have potential natural resources, such as Irian Jaya (Papua) andEast Kalimantan tend to pull the internal migrants in; while the less potential ones, such as
Central Kalimantan and Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT) veer to push the migrants out(Perwira, 2001)
The Island of Java is a highly urbanized region, but many provinces in the outerislands also experienced a significant increase in the proportion of urban population over

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the 2000–2010 period, most notably Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau), East Kalimantan, Bali,
Bangka Belitung, North Sumatera and North Sulawesi. The Provinces of East Kalimantan
and North Sumatera are rich in resources, especially palm-oil plantation, forestry, oil andgas (Firman, 2016)
Recent migrants who just migrated to their new cities of destination face vary
housing options as well as its constrain. Buying a house could be one of them. Renting ahouse or a room is also possible. Other than buying and/or renting, migrants in Indonesia
also have housing option by staying and living with their families or/and relatives.
Migrant’s tendentious behaviors in Indonesia are (1) in the time they arrived in thecities of destination, they tend to stay among their families and relatives and (2) the
previously arrived migrants will be the main helper of the recently arrived one by providing
some information relating to job seeking and also providing place to stay (Mantra, 1985).
This study explores the phenomena of co-residency –the recent migrants that stay intheir families/relatives’ house in Balikpapan as the city of migration’s destination. The coresidency could be simply explained as living together in others’ people or/and household.
Co-residency can be defined as multigenerational living arrangement that includes
other member(s) than the family affiliates. Both of parties live and stay in one householdwith various intentions, such as health issues, economy matters, and/or cultural factors(Keri, 2008).
Based on some family and household historiographies in some cities in England,
there was a rather specific term to a person or/and a group of people who was a stranger oroutsider that in the official record of demographic survey named as inmate(s) (Laslett(1972). In West Africa, there were some households that include their extended families
member(s) to live with them (Verdon, 1983). Study on family and household in Englandshowed evident of non-members who live with non-nuclear family household that was
mentioned as co-resident relatives (Tadmor, 2004).
Research Purposes
This study concerns the modus of co-residency as housing and furthermore as
dwelling option for the migrants in Balikpapan, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The aims ofthis study are (1) to identify the housing strategy among migrants to dwell in the city ofdestination and (2) to reveal the dwelling and housing aspiration of the migrants relating tofinancial affordability as well as its socio-cultural aspects.
2. METHODOLOGY
The co-residency as dwelling phenomena and the dwellers of architectural object
are realities of existence –instead of merely an empirical object of the architecture itself.
Thus, this study focused on revealing the architectural object by observing the existence ofthe people that are categorized as the dwellers of co-residency. The apt method toaccomplish is Grounded Research.
Grounded Theory refers to a theory that is developed and analyzed systematicallyfrom the data as the result of a research. By applying this method, the researcher begins thestudy without any preconceived theory, unless the researcher aims to assembly two orProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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more theories and aims to develop the existing theory. Grounded Theory is utilized todevelop theory –instead of testing –and helps the researcher to find alternative meaning ofa phenomenon (Strauss and Corbin, 1990).
11 households that practice co-residency are interviewed and observed to gather thedata. The data gathering are focused on the meaning of co-residency, experiences during
the practice of co-residency, and also the description of everyday routines in thehousehold. The data gathering involved the household members as well as the tenants who
co-reside in the households. The data is analyzed qualitatively, particularly under the
scrutiny of coding method (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Ryan andBernard, 2003; Saldana, 2009).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Tradition of Communal Living, “Merantau”, and Co-residency
There are correlations among the tradition of communal living, merantau –refer tomigration, and co-residency. The actors of the co-residency, both the householder and thetenant, have tradition of communal living. This term of communal living can beunderstood by the actors’ explanations of both prior experiences of living with extended
family in one household, living locally near them in the past, maintaining personal
relationship despite of migration and resettlement, prior involvement in co-residency,
involvement in “paguyuban” (association of migrants who came from the same
hometown), and also the preference to preserve such way of living that past throughgenerations to generations. Living with extended family and relatives is considered to becustom as well as keeping the good quality of their relationship. Beyond theircomprehension of their status of kin and non-kin, the actors see the each other as “semua
itu saudara” (all are our family).
This tradition of communal living is being related in the context of migration. Whenthe first comers migrated and settled, they intended to encourage their extended family
members and some relatives from their hometown to migrate and then offering supports byinviting their families and relatives to live with them in their house in the city ofdestination. The actors, especially the first comer migrants, see this matter as some kind away to maintain “persaudaraan” (brotherhood and sisterhood) in the time of “sudah pencarpencar” (loosen because of the members already migrated). The actors continually keep
contact with their families and relatives and at least once or twice a year, they visit theirhometown. The small talks between two members of the families or relatives include thetales of ‘merantau’. They discuss the possibility of migration as well as co-residency. Byplanning it and then inviting and accepting their family members and relatives as soon to
be living with them, the actors believed that in this way they would be able to evenfastened the bond within their families and relatives that already migrated and left behindin their hometown.
Living with families and relatives in the city of destination is considered as the evenmore idyllic way of live in the context of migration. Both of the actors argue that there’s noeasy way to establish a new life in rather unfamiliar city without any help from theirfamilies and/or relatives. Thus, the presence of their families/relatives member in the cityof destination becomes one of the considerations before they migrate. They consider the734

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obstacles on housing, job seeking, living cost while they not yet have job and income, andadministrative matter regarding the status in demographic matter that could be supportedby the families/relatives in the city of destination.
This matter of communal living and migration can be discussed as polarization
between communal living as country way of life and individual living as urban way of life.
This issue was previously discussed by some researchers related to rural-urban, countrycity, and etc.
In the time of Industrial Revolution in England, there was a contrast between
country and city. The country way of life included some activities such as hunting, poultry,
farming; and there were tribal and feudal organizations. Meanwhile, the city was framed as
the center of administration, market places, and the center of industry (Williams, 1973).
Urbanism as way of life has a heterogenic population, specialization of function,
impersonal, and there’s standardized behavior (Wirth, 1938). Those arguments tend todifferentiate and contrast the characters of country and city and/or rural and urban.
Meanwhile, the issue of communal living that renders the phenomena of co-residency ishappening in the context of migration. Communal living that was framed as country or
rural way of living, takes place in the city of destination that is urban.
Urbanization refers to the system of urban relation that the origin of tribal (tribe,
hometown, and ethnicity) of the population is seen as secondary aspect after the urban
itself. In the rural area, becoming the tribesman is a part of a particular social and politicalsystem while in the urban area, the tribe is merely an identification of migrant workers.
However, since many tribes occupy the city, therefore the roles of tribal affiliations are
significant (Gluckman, 1961).
In Zambia, there’s “abakumwesu” that supports the network of migrants in the city.
“Abakumwesu” literally means “anyone who has the same hometown as me” and refers to
relatives, extended family members, neighbors, and clans. “Abakumwesu” operates
voluntarily to support the everyday life of tribal relation in urban context in many aspects,
including financial supports, linkage between the city of destination and the hometown,
and also political backing (Harries-Jones, 1969).
Gluckman’s and Harries-Jones’ arguments of the tribal affiliations of the migrants
in the city is essential to apprehend the existence of co-residency due to the presence oftradition of communal living in the context of migration.
Incorporation from Non Member to Member in Co-residency Household
Actors who involve in co-residency –the householder and the tenant –are tied as
families and/or relatives but not all of them have personal attachment yet. For example, thetenants of co-residency know their householders as their uncle and/or aunt (the siblings
or/and the cousins of their parents), but they do not personally know them due manyreasons. The soon to be their householders are their uncle and/or aunt who migrated long
ago when they were still a child and they only meet them once a year. Some tenants andtheir householders are also total strangers because they are in-laws, never meet before,
and/or only know them by telephone. They are linked by third person that has closer ortighter relationship personally with one of the actor. The third person mediates the soon to
be co-residency. The everyday life of the actors in the setting of co-residency is veiled by“kesungkanan”. “Kesungkanan” refer to the awkwardness, uneasiness, and worry of being

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a burden. “Kesungkanan” in co-residency exists on the both sides, the tenants and thehouseholder, in the matter of many aspects in everyday activities as well as personal one.
In this case of co-residency, more than shelter, the tenants also depend on their coreside household in basic needs especially daily consumptions of foods. The householders
provide daily meals for their co-reside tenants just like providing the entire members of thefamily. The householders aware of “kesungkanan” in eating so they constantly inform thetenants to eat freely anything, whenever, and anywhere they want to, without any invitationfrom the householder. As the tenants, they try to consume less, adapt to the eating habits of
their co-reside households, and also expect the invitation from the householder before
eating.
Other than the issues of eating habits, the matter of household chores also becomes
the subject of “kesungkanan”. As the tenants, they argue that doing household chores isjust a routine that people has to deal with anywhere they live. Thus, in the context of coresidency, they feel oblige to contribute. Some of them feel uncomfortable because thehouseholders never ask for any assistance despite of the demanding situation and when
they mean to help, the householders often refuse. Meanwhile, the tenants who already havejob and feel tired after working at the office, constantly feel conflicted if they didn’t help
although the householders understand their situation and suggest them to unwind.
As the householders, they do not expect their tenants to do household chores,
especially the hard and time-consuming one. One reason is because the householders
expect the tenants to only focus and allocate their time on the job seeking and their careers.
Many householders in this case, were former tenants of co-residency in their youth. Theyexperienced a kind of hard time when it came to obligation to do household chores for theirhouseholders while struggling with their personal objectives back then. As they are
becoming the householders in present co-residency, they have intention to diminish thatkind of hardship. However, the householders may appreciate tenants’ good deeds to assist
and the householders give the tenants similar-level tasks as their children. The
householders find it helpful to make the tenants feel at home by given the same tasks asother household member. Also, the assistance from the tenants is practical and helps themgreatly sometimes when the household chores are too much to handle.
As time goes by, personal relationship among the tenants and the rest of the family
members in the co-residency household grows. Both parties are synchronizing each otherin the situation of “kesungkanan”. The householders grant the tenants the similar right andobligations as the children in the household. There are also personal relationships between
the tenants with specific members of the household. Some tenants have closer relationshipwith the children of the household. Some tenants much closer with the wife/mother in thehousehold than the husband/father. In the practices of this living arrangement that involvethe householders and the tenants who are personally stranger to each other despite of theirfamilies and relatives status, there is a kind of incorporation from non-member to become
member.
There are characteristics of what Arnold van Gennep (1909) has called the "liminal
phase" of rites de passage. Van Gennep has shown that all rites of passage or "transition"
are marked by three phases: separation, margin (or limen, signifying "threshold" in Latin),
and aggregation. The first phase (of separation), includes symbolic behavior indicating thedetachment of the individual or group either from an earlier fixed point in the social

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structure, from a set of cultural conditions or from both. During the intervening "liminal"
period, the characteristics of the ritual subject (the "passenger") are ambiguous; he passes
through a cultural realm that has few or none of the attributes of the past or coming state.
The third phase is reaggregation or reincorporation (Turner, 1966).
Turner’s argument that was based on van Gennep’s notion can capture the everyday
practice of co-residency between the tenants and the householder in the process ofincorporation of relatively stranger parties in becoming members of the households.
However, the further findings indicate that there is limitation on the incorporation as
household members. There is expression among them, “bagaimanapun juga mereka tetaporang lain” that literally mean “after all, they are still outsiders”. This expression meansthat despite the fact of gradual personal relationship and acceptance as member of thehousehold in everyday routine, both parties are essentially strangers. Some householders
concern about the sex and gender differences between the tenants and their children. Someof them also concern about the age gap between the tenants and the children. The
householders attempt to set the clear boundary of the tenants’ and the children’s domain
for the sake of both parties’ nature of sex and age.
On the other hand, there is a status of the tenants as “anak titipan”, refers to childrenthat are entrusted under the foster care of the householders by their families/relatives
during the co-residency. As the householders, their main objective is to succeed the aims of
migration of the tenants, i. e. to become an adult with job and financial independency. Thisaim ought to be accomplishing without any distraction of the burden of household chores
and other obstacles. In this case of co-residency, the householders are not only providing
shelter and daily basic needs of their tenants, but also providing advices and counsels –justlike the elders to their younger relatives –concerning professional career and also personal
issues.
Co-residency as Possibility of Dwelling Among Young Adults Migrants
Co-residency can be seen as first step of the tenants as recent migrants’ housing
career in the city of destination. The tenants as recent migrants in this case of co-residency
are young adults who migrate from their hometown to the city of destination. They arehigh school or diploma or bachelor fresh graduate who are willing to find job, earn income,and start their life as adult. They will live and stay with their co-reside households until
they are able to maintain their independent livelihood. Some of them go back to theirhometown without getting any job or/and migrate to another city, while some of them still
co-residing until they get married and move out to establish their own household.
Almost everyone has the same housing progression or ‘career’. Young people withincome move out their parents’ house to rent and experience the single life. After getting
married, husband and wife work and economize on rent thus they can deposit to buy ahouse in which they will take care of their children. While some of them move to bigger
houses before their children grow up or to a flat after children leave home. It is commonly
expected that most households remain in their first home until old age (Kendig, 1984).
In the issue of housing transition among young adults in Australia, there are sometheories and previous findings about housing career that are included some indications of
the relation between housing problem and life cycle of an individual or/and household(Beer and Faulkner, 2013). In the keyword of life cycle, I expand the discussion of housing

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737

career with the leverage of the findings about life cycle of the tenants as young adultmigrants.
Housing problem among young adults is a matter of transition from the dependency
to independency towards the parents (Forrest and Yip, 2013). Young adults have threechoices of housing, i. e. living with the parents, becoming renter, or becoming house owner(Yu and Myers, 2010; Yu and Haan, 2012). The argument about housing choices is limited
regarding the relationship between the young adult with the parents only. Meanwhile, inthis case of co-residency, as migrants, the young adults have extensive relationship with
their extended families and/or relatives so the other option of housing is enabled and thedwelling is possible in the city of destination.
In their housing careers, young adults tend to have higher residential mobility thanthe older adults, relating to the young adults’ activities in job seeking. Furthermore, in thematter of house ownership, their housing careers are identical with the choice to rent.
There is a relation between the mobility of young adults with their status of renter before
they become house owner (Clark and Huang, 2003).
The phenomena of co-residency can expand the discussion of housing options in the
housing career of young adult other than renting and owning. The tenants’ status as young
adults and recent migrants situates them in the state of insecurity. Not only in the matter offinancial dependency, but also the uncertainty of transition in becoming adult. To compare,while to rent and own a house in the city of destination are the options that require specificassurance –in financial affordability –and the objective to settle down, co-residency
accommodates the term of transitory in fitting to adulthood and to dwell as recent migrants
in the city of destination.
4. CONCLUSION
The housing strategy among migrants to dwell in the city of destination and thedwelling aspiration of the migrants relating to financial affordability as well as its sociocultural aspects are revealed through some findings, that are (1) co-reside withfamilies/relatives as housing option among migrants in the city of destination is reinforcedby the spirit of communal living with extended families and relatives while contextualizing
it in the time of migration, (2) there is an incorporation of tenants as non member tobecome member of the co-reside households, but there are some restraints due to therelationship between the householders and the tenants as inevitably strangers and also thenature of the co-residency that aims to succeed the adjective of tenants’ migration, and (3)co-residency provides other housing option rather than renting and owning a house for thetenants who recently migrate in the city of destination without affordability in housing andare currently in their transition to adulthood.
5. REFERENCES
Clark, W. and Huang, Y., (2003), The life course and residential mobility in British housing
markets, Environment and Planning A 2003, Vol. 35.

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Faulkner, D. and Beer, A., (2011), Housing transitions through the life course: aspirations,needs and policy, The Policy Press.
Firman, T., (2016, Demographic Patterns of Indonesia’s Urbanization, 2000–2010:
Continuity and Change at the Macro Level in C.Z. Guilmoto, G.W. Jones (eds.),
Contemporary Demographic Transformations in China, India and Indonesia,
Demographic Transformation and Socio-Economic Development, Springer
International Publishing Switzerland.
Forrest, R. and Yip, NM., (2013), Young People and Housing: Transitions, Trajectories,
and Generational Fractures, Routledge.
Glaser, B. and Strauss, A., (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for
Qualitative Research, Aldine Publishing Company.
Gluckman, M., (1961), Anthropological Problems Arising From The African Industrial
Revolution in Southall, A., (eds) Social Change in Modern Africa, Oxford University
Press.
Groppo, V. and Mendola, M., (2014), The Short-Run Costs of Moving: Internal Migration
and Consumption Growth In Indonesia, Editorial Express.
Harries-Jones, P., Home-boy Ties and Political Organization in a Copperbelt Township in
Mitchell, J. C., Social Network in Urban Situation, Manchester University Press.
Household And Family In Past Time: Comparative Studies In The Size And Structure Of
The Domestic Group Over The Last Three Centuries In England, France, Serbia, JapanAnd Colonial North America, With Further Materials From Western Europe,
Cambridge University Press.
Kendig, H., (1984), Housing Careers, Life Cycle and Residential Mobility, Implications for
the Housing Market, Urban Studies, Vol. 21 No. 3.
Keri, J., (2008), Coresidence, Encyclopedia of Aging and Public Health. Springer US.
Laslett, P., (1972), Introduction: The History of The Family in Laslett, P. and Wall, R. (eds)
Mantra, I. B., (1985), Pengantar Studi Demografi. Pustaka Pelajar, Yogyakarta.
Monkkonen, P., (2013), Housing Deficits as a Frame For Housing Policy: Demographic
Change, Economic Crisis And Household Formation in Indonesia, International Journalof Housing Policy.
Perwira, S. M., (2001), International and Internal Migration in Indonesia, Paper prepared
for Ad Hoc Expert Group Meeting on the Theme “Migration and Development
Opportunities and Challenges for Poverty Reduction in the ESCAP Region” held by
ESCAP Bangkok.
Ryan, G. and Bernard, H., (2003), Techniques to Identify Themes, Field Methods, Vol. 15
No. 1, Sage Publication.
Saldana, J., (2009), The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers, Sage Publication.
Strauss, A. and Corbin, J., (1990), Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques andProcedures for Developing Grounded Theory, Sage Publication.
Tadmor, N., (2004), Family and Friends in Eighteenth-Century England Household,Kinship, and Patronage, Cambridge University Press.
Turner, J., (1976), Housing by People: Toward Autonomy in Building Environments,
Pantheon Books.
Turner, V., (1966), The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure, Cornell University
Press.

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Verdon, M., (1983), The Abutia Ewe of West Africa a Chiefdom That Never Was, Mouton
Publisher.
Williams, R., (1973), The Country and The City, Oxford University Press.
Wirth, L., (1938), Urbanism as Way of Life, The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 44,
The University of Chicago Press.
Yu, Z. and Haan, M., (2012), Cohort Progress Toward Household Formation andHomeownership: Young Immigrant Cohorts in Los Angeles and Toronto Compared,
Ethnic and Racial Studies.
Yu, Z. and Myers, D., (2010), Misleading Comparisons of Homeownership Rates When
The Variable Effect of Household Formation is Ignored: Explaining Rising
Homeownership and The Homeownership Gap Between Blacks and Asians in The US,
Urban Studies.

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PHOTO-BASED ADVANCED OXIDATION PROCESSES FOR REMOVAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOUND IN WATER
Sandyanto Adityosulindro a,b, Laurie Barthe b, Henri Delmas b, Carine Julcour baCivil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus
UI Depok 16424, IndonesiabLaboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse,
FranceABSTRACTAs a consequence of huge consumption, pharmaceutical compounds have been detected invarious water compartments, such as wastewater treatment plant effluents or even drinking
water. This fact indicates that conventional processes used in water treatment plants (e.g.
chemical precipitation and activated sludge) cannot completely eliminate them. In thisstudy, different photo-based advanced oxidation processes (i.e. direct photolysis, UVVis/hydrogen peroxide and photo-Fenton oxidation) were evaluated for the removal of anon-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, ibuprofen. It was chosen as model pollutant due to its
high consumption worlwide. Its degradation was evaluated by HPLC/UV for pollutant
conversion and total organic carbon analyzer for mineralization yield. Low pressure (254nm) and high pressure (200-600 nm) mercury lamps, as well as xenon lamp (360-740 nm)
were used to determine the effect of light irradiation wavelength on photo-oxidation
processes. Irradiation with high pressure mercury lamp completely converted ibuprofen in
20 mg/L solution within 60 min and yielded up to 45% TOC removal after 3 hours, while
pollutant photolysis was only partial at 254 nm and ineffective under visible irradiation.
Addition of H2O2 considerably improved ibuprofen degradation rate at 254 nm (due toperoxide photolysis leading to OH radical, while visible light was shown as an efficient
activation technique for Fenton oxidation due to photo-regeneration of ferrous ions. In thelatter case, final mineralization yield reached 60% in the following conditions: [H2O2]0 =6.4 mM and [Fe2+]0 = 0.134 mM. Evaluation of electrical energy and oxidant consumptions
showed that LP Hg lamps are the most cost-effective for photo-based AOPs. Considering
the similarity in light spectrum between xenon lamp and sunlight, solar photo-Fenton
oxidation also appears as a promising wastewater treatment process for the remediation ofpharmaceuticals, especially in tropical countries such as Indonesia.
Keywords: Water treatment; Light irradiation; Photolysis; Peroxide photo-oxidation;
Photo-Fenton; Ibuprofen
1. INTRODUCTION
Water shortage indeed is the main challenge in this millennium. Unfortunately, theavailability of clean water is actually dwindling due to rapid population growth andincrease of consumption of water per capita. This is exacerbated by development ofagriculture and industry. Pharmaceutical industries are the most developed one with more

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than 4000 compounds and hundreds of tons of pharmaceutical are commercially produced
worldwide each year (Rehman et al., 2015). For instance, in France, more than 3 milliards
drug boxes are sold annually (ANSM, 2013) with pharmaceutical market about $46.2
billion in 2014 (PharmExec, 2017). In Indonesia, pharmaceutical sector will be boosted by
the establishment of a national healthcare program, known as the Jaminan Kesehatan
Nasional with the objective of providing health insurance to 250 million Indonesian
citizens by 2019, which would make it the world’s largest social health insurance(DDDMAG, 2016). Nevertheless, this program may increase drugs consumption andprobably rejection of pharmaceutical active compounds into environment.
Actually, complete elimination of pharmaceuticals by conventional wastewater
treatment plants is still a challenge. Physical process such as adsorption and membrane
filtration are rather selective and not efficient for hydrophilic pharmaceuticals (Vona et al.,2015; Wang and Wang, 2016). This process is also only pollutant-transfer methods that
require a post-destructive process. Chemical oxidation with chlorine and chlorine dioxide
are also selective and only effective for pharmaceuticals containing amines functionalgroup (Rivera-Utrilla et al., 2013). Chlorine can also react with other organic compounds
and form toxic organochlorinated compounds (Mao et al., 2016). Biological treatments areusually cost-effective but it may be not adequate since some pharmaceutical compounds
could be toxic to microorganism (Klavarioti, Mantzavinos and Kassinos, 2009). For
instance, anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs were only partially removed (30 – 75%) bycombined settling-activated sludge process (Deblonde, Cossu-Leguille and Hartemann,
2011; Ziylan and Ince, 2011; Rivera-Utrilla et al., 2013). In addition, removal efficiency
during this process may be only physical separation process because hydrophobic
pharmaceuticals tends to adsorb onto (bio-)suspended solids and accumulated in settlingtank (Bouissou-Schurtz et al., 2014). In all cases, partial degradation of pharmaceuticals
can be dangerous considering the degradation/transformation products could be more toxic
than the parent compounds (Quero-Pastor et al., 2014).
Indeed, various pharmaceutical molecules have been detected in rivers or evendrinking waters around the Europe from some ng/L to hundreds µg/L (Ziylan and Ince,
2011; Ortiz de García et al., 2013; Bouissou-Schurtz et al., 2014), indicating theincapability of conventional water treatment plant to remove these compounds. Moreover,the presence of pharmaceuticals in aquatic environment also indicates that direct photodegradation of pharmaceuticals by sunlight is not effective.
Despite the fact that pharmaceuticals are currently non-regulated and have unclear
effect to human health, low concentration-chronic exposure of pharmaceutical compounds
can cause ecological impacts e.g. toxicity, endocrine disrupting effects and development of
microbial resistance, etc. (Bouissou-Schurtz et al., 2014). These facts lead pharmaceuticalcompounds to become emerging pollutants.
One of the most promising destructive techniques to remove pharmaceuticalcompounds (PhCs) is advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). AOPs are based on thegeneration of hydroxyl radical (•OH), a powerful and non-selective oxidant that are capable
to degrade and mineralize the organic compounds into water (H2O) and carbon dioxide(CO2) as final products. Among AOPs, photo-degradation (reaction (1)–(4) and (13)),
photolysis of hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2) (reaction (5) and (13)), Fenton and photo-

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743

Fenton reactions (reaction (6)–(13)) were reported as efficient processes forpharmaceuticals removal (Méndez-Arriaga, Esplugas and Giménez, 2010; Shu et al., 2013).
RH + hv (λ depending on the molecule) → (RH)*(1)(RH)* → degradation products(2)(RH)* + 3O2 → RH + 1O2(3)(RH)* + O2 → IBP+ + O2-(4)

H2O2 + hv (λ = 185 – 300 nm) → 2 OH(5)

Fe2+ + H2O2 → Fe3+ + OH- + OH(6)

Fe3+ + H2O2 ↔ Fe-OOH2+ + H+

(7)

Fe-OOH2+ → OOH + Fe2+

(8)

Fe3++ H2O + hv (λ < 300 nm, λmax = 240 nm) → Fe2+ + OH + H+ (pH < 4)(9)Fe(OH)2+ + hv (λ=200–400 nm, λmax = 205; 297 nm) → Fe2+ + OH (pH = 2–4)

(10)

Fe-OOH2+ + hv (λ=180 – 550 nm) → Fe2+ + OOH

(11)

[FeIII(RCO2)]2+ + hv (λ = 365 – 600 nm) → Fe2+ + RCOO

(12)

OH / 1O2 / O2- + RH → degradation products

(13)



The aim of this study was to investigate the application of photolysis, photo-H2O2 andphoto-Fenton oxidation processes for removal of pharmaceutical compounds in water.
Ibuprofen (IBP) was chosen as the model pharmaceutical contaminant, considering its highconsumption France and Indonesia (ANSM, 2013; McGettigan and Henry, 2013). Various
types of lamp as the source of light irradiation were compared including LP Hg lamp, MP
Hg lamp and Xenon lamp.
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Reagents
Ibuprofen (C13H18O2; purity 99.99%) was purchased from BASF Corporation andused as received. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) solution 30% w/w, sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
solution 1 M, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution 1 M, monopotassium phosphate (KH2PO4),
sodium phosphate dibasic dehydrate (Na2HPO4.2H2O), potassium iodide (KI), titanium

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tetrachloride (TiCl4) solution 0.09 M in 20% HCl, sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) and iron sulfate
heptahydrate (FeSO4.7H2O) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich.
2.2. Experimental setup
Experiments were carried out in 1.5 L batch reactor consist of photo-reactor (0.5 L)
and auxiliary-reactor (1 L). Circulation of ibuprofen solution between photo and auxiliary
reactor was carried out by peristaltic pump (loop system, flow rate of 150 mL/min), giving
only 33% of solution irradiated. To maintain a constant temperature (25°C), both reactors
were connected to a thermostatic bath. A lamp as a light source was placed into acylindrical quartz tube installed inside the photo-reactor. The main characteristics of thelamps are given in table 1. It should be mentioned that experiments without lightirradiation were conducted only in auxiliary-reactor.
Characteristics
SupplierModelTypeλ (nm)
Electric power (W)Table 1. Characteristics of UV-Vis lamps
Lamp 1
Lamp 2
Lamp 3
(L1)
(L2)
(L3)
Heraeus
HeraeusPeschlUltraviolet
GPH150T5L GPH212T5L/4
TQ150
LP Hg
LP Hg
MP Hg
254
254
200 – 600
610150

Lamp 4(L4)PeschlUltraviolet
TXE150Xenon
360 – 740
150

2.3. Experimental procedure
Synthetic ibuprofen solution at 20 mg/L (~15.12 mg/L TOC) was prepared bydissolving 40 mg of ibuprofen powder in 2 L distillated water and stirred for 14 hours usinga magnetic stirrer (600 rpm) at 25°C to ensure complete powder dissolution. This relatively
high concentration (compared to that observed in aquatic environment) was chosenconsidering that application of AOPs is more economical for high contaminant loadings
and small volumes (Miralles-Cuevas et al., 2013). A first sample was taken once thedesired temperature was reached (referred to as zero time of the reaction) and oxidation wasstarting by the addition of H2O2. In case of experiment using light irradiation, lamp was
turned on 2 min before in order to attain a constant irradiation prior to the oxidation. In caseof Fenton reaction, ibuprofen solution was previously mixed with iron salt (FeSO4.7H2O)
and the pH was adjusted to 2.6 with 1 M H2SO4 and 1 M NaOH. Aliquots samples werewithdrawn throughout the reaction (t = 5, 10, 30, 60, 120, 180 min). In order to stop thereaction, samples were immediately treated by phosphate buffer (mixture of KH2PO4 0.05
M and Na2HPO4.2H2O 0.05 M) before HPLC analysis or quenching solution (mixture ofphosphate buffer, KI 0.1 M and Na2SO3 0.1 M) before TOC analysis and filtered through0.45 µm RC syringe filter prior to analyses.

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2.4. Analytical technique
Ibuprofen concentration during experiments was determined by liquid phase
chromatography with UV detection at λ = 222 nm (PDA detector, Thermo Finnigan).
Separation was performed on a C18 reverse phase column (ProntoSIL C18 AQ 5 μm, 250 x
4 mm) at 40°C. The mobile phase consisted in a mixture of acetonitrile and water (acidified
with phosphoric acid at 0.1% v/v) fed in isocratic mode (60/40) at 1 mL/min.
Total organic carbon (TOC) concentration was obtained from the difference between
total carbon (TC) and inorganic carbon (IC) measured by a TOC analyzer (TOC–L,
Shimadzu Corp.). In this case, samples were diluted by twofold with ultrapure water after
addition of the quenching solution and filtrated.
Residual concentration of hydrogen peroxide was determined by titanium
tetrachloride method. A 5 mL sample was diluted to 25 mL then mixed with 1 mL TiCl4
and 1 mL H2SO4 solution. After the formation of pertitanic acid (yellow color), hydrogen
peroxide concentration was measured spectrophotometrically at 410 nm.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Degradation of ibuprofen under light irradiations
Degradation of ibuprofen was firstly evaluated under different light sources, namely
L1, L2, L3 and L4 (see table 1). As shown in figure 1, photo-degradation of IBP was
observed under ultraviolet (L1, L2, L3) but very stable under visible light irradiation (L4).
These results can be explained by high spectral absorption of IBP in UV-C region (λ = 200– 280 nm). An improvement in IBP degradation (40% vs. 73% after 180 min) was
observed when higher power lamp was used (L1: LP Hg lamp 6 W vs. L2: LP Hg lamp 10
W). In case of lamp L3, complete removal of IBP can be achieved in 1 hour. It can be
attributed to both high lamp power and wide emission spectrum in UV-C region (λ = 200 –280 nm). On the contrary, IBP degradation under visible light (L4) was found to be
negligible, proving that photo-degradation of IBP by sunlight should be very limited in thenatural environment.

IBP/IBPo

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

0

30
L1

60

90
120
Time (min)
L2

L3

150

180
L4

Figure 1. Effect of lamp type on IBP photolysis

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Regarding the mineralization yield, 45% of TOC was removed after 3 h of irradiation
with L3 lamp, compared to only 19% for L1 and L2 lamp. These findings are in agreementwith previous studies reporting TOC conversion less than 50% (Szabó et al., 2011; da Silva
et al., 2014).
3.2. Degradation of ibuprofen under light/H2O2 processes
Addition of H2O2 as radical promoters was also evaluated. According to reaction (5),ultraviolet light can decompose H2O2 into OH. As expected, an enhancement in term of
IBP was observed in light/H2O2 processes (figure 2) compared to sole light irradiation(figure 1). For instance, first order removal rate constant of IBP under L1 was improved
from 0.0028 min-1 to 0.0664 min-1 (24- fold increase). An improvement in degradation rate
constant was also observed with L3 lamp resulting in a 5-fold increase of the rate constant(from 0.0567 to 0.261 min-1). Improvement in L1 and L2 was more remarkable comparedto L3 because photolysis of IBP was already very effective with L3, and thus H2O2
decomposition contributed to a lesser extent to IBP degradation. Regarding mineralization
yield, L3/H2O2 was the most effective for TOC removal as almost complete mineralization(97%) was achieved after 3 h vs. only 30 and 46% by L1/H2O2 and L2/H2O2, respectively.
1.0

IBP/IBPo

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

0

30

60

L1/H2O2
L3/H2O2

90
120
Time (min)

150

180

L2/H2O2
L4/H2O2

Figure 2. Effect of H2O2 addition on IBP photolysis
On the other hand, degradation of IBP under L4/H2O2 was not expected due to thenegligible absorbance of IBP and H2O2 above 280 and 300 nm, respectively. However,according to the manufacturer of the xenon lamp, if 97% of its emission is in the 400-740
nm range, it also exhibits a small portion (3%) at lower wavelength range that might beresponsible for 15% of IBP conversion after 3 h. Indeed, H2O2 consumption was observedin all cases, from only 5% in L4/H2O2 process, up to 99% in L3/H2O2 process.
3.3. Degradation of ibuprofen under photo-Fenton processes
In this part, L1 and L4 were selected for photo-Fenton oxidation experiments. L1 (LPHg lamp 6 W) is interesting considering its low capital cost and low electrical energy
consumption, while L4 (Xenon lamp 150 W) spectrum mimics sunlight. Concentration ofProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

747

Fenton’s reagent was set as follows: 0.134 mM of Fe and 6.4 mM of H2O2. In addition,
Fenton experiment (without light irradiation) was also carried out for comparison purpose.
As seen from figure 3, a clear positive effect of ultraviolet light (L1) and visible light (L4)on Fenton reaction was observed. In photo-Fenton processes, more than 95% of IBP
removal was observed in 30 min, while 180 min reaction was necessary to achieve similar
conversion. Likewise, appreciable TOC conversion was also observed in photo-Fenton
giving 82% and 59% for L1/Fenton and L4/Fenton processes, respectively. Indeed, higher
H2O2 consumption was also observed in photo-Fenton processes (L1/Fenton = 99%;
L4/Fenton = 80%) compared to light/H2O2 processes (L1/H2O2 = 14%; L4/Fenton = 5%)
and Fenton (13%) indicating the contribution of reaction of photo-regeneration ferric ion
and ferric complexes (reaction (9)–(12)).
1.0

IBP/IBPo

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

0

30
Fenton60

90
120Time (min)L1/Fenton

150

180

L4/Fenton

Figure 3. Fenton and photo-Fenton oxidation of IBP

3.4. Evaluation of electric energy and oxidant consumption
Despite the potent oxidation performance, AOPs are also known as moreconsumptive processes compared to biological process due to the utilization of expensive
reagent H2O2 and high electric energy consumption. Therefore, a simple economicalassessment of the different applied processes was carried out by calculating the electricalenergy per order of pollutant removal (EEO) (Bolton et al., 2001). Electric energy per order(EEO) is the electric energy in kilowatt hours (kWh) required to degrade a contaminant C
by one order of magnitude in a unit volume, thus smaller value indicates lower energy
consumption (high energy efficiency) as shown in following equations:
EEO = [P x t x 1000] / [V x 60 x log(Ci/Ct)](14)

where EEO is the electrical energy per order of pollutant removal (kWh/m3/order), /P is thepower input (kW), t is the irradiation time (min), V is the volume (L) of the water in thereactor, Ci is the initial pollutant concentration (20 mg/L) and Ct is concentration ofpollutant at reaction time t.

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In addition, oxidant consumption index (OCI) (Shahbazi et al., 2014) was also
calculated in order to taking into account the amount of H2O2 consumed for pollutant
mineralization. Smaller value of OCI indicates lower oxidant consumption (high oxidant
efficiency) as shown in following equations:
OCI = Δ[H2O2] / Δ[TOC](15)

where Δ[H2O2] and Δ[TOC] are the amount of H2O2 consumed and TOC removed during
180 min reaction, respectively.
The EEO and OCI values under different processes are presented in table 2. LP Hg
lamps (L1 and L2) were found to be the most cost-effective in photo-based AOPs. It wasalso clear that the addition of H2O2 and Fenton reagent can significantly reduce the energy
consumption, while high energy consumption needed in case of L4 can be replaced bysunlight.
Table 2. Electric energy and oxidant consumption
Processes tTOC [TOC]t EEOTOC Δ[H2O2] Δ[TOC](min) (mg/L)(mg/L)(mg/L)
L1
180
12.2
131
N/A
2.9
L2
180
12.2
219
N/A
2.9
L3
180
8.3
1151
N/A
6.8
L4
180
15.1
N/A
N/A
0
L1/H2O2
180
10.6
77
30.5
4.5
L2/H2O2
180
9.1
90
106.6
7.0
L3/H2O2
180
0.5
197
215.4
14.7
L4/H2O2
180
14.4
13467
10.9
0.8
L1/Fenton 180
2.7
16
215.4
12.4
L4/Fenton 180
6.2
775
174.1
9.0

OCI
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
6.7
15.2
14.6
14.4
17.4
19.4

4. CONCLUSION
The objective of this work was to study ibuprofen degradation in water under photobased advanced oxidation processes. Four types of lamps as light source were compared
including two LP Hg lamps, a MP Hg lamp and a Xenon lamp. Ibuprofen was very stable
under visible light irradiation proving its persistency in aquatic environment. On the other
hand, ultraviolet irradiation was effective for IBP removal. Addition of H2O2 and Fenton
reagent significantly enhances not only ibuprofen but also TOC conversion, wherein almost
complete mineralization can be achieved in 3 hours (59 – 97%). Evaluation of electricalenergy and oxidant consumptions showed that LP Hg lamps are the most cost-effective forphoto-based AOPs. Considering the similarity in light spectrum between xenon lamp andsunlight, solar photo-Fenton oxidation also appears as a promising wastewater treatment
process for the remediation of pharmaceuticals, especially in tropical countries such as
Indonesia.

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5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to ANR (French National Research Agency) for research funding
through ANR project “SOFENcoMEM” (ANR-14-CE04-0006) and RISTEKDIKTI(Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of Indonesia) for the scholarshipof S. Adityosulindro (Ref. 2017/E4.4/K/2013).
6. REFERENCES
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http://ansm.sante.fr/var/ansm_site/storage/original/application/796352eff0e9119cca0e
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Bolton, J. R., Bircher, K. G., Tumas, W. and Tolman, C. A. (2001) ‘Figures-of-merit for thetechnical development and application of advanced oxidation technologies for bothelectric- and solar-driven systems (IUPAC Technical Report)’, Pure Appl. Chem.,
73(4), pp. 627–637.
Bouissou-Schurtz, C., Houeto, P., Guerbet, M., Bachelot, M., Casellas, C., Mauclaire, A.C., Panetier, P., Delval, C. and Masset, D. (2014) ‘Ecological risk assessment of thepresence of pharmaceutical residues in a French national water survey’, Regulatory
Toxicology and Pharmacology, 69(3), pp. 296–303. doi: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.04.006.
DDDMAG (2016) Indonesia’s pharmaceutical market to see rapid five year growth.
Available at: https://www.dddmag.com/article/2016/02/indonesias-pharmaceuticalmarket-see-rapid-five-year-growth (Accessed: 7 March 2017).
Deblonde, T., Cossu-Leguille, C. and Hartemann, P. (2011) ‘Emerging pollutants in
wastewater: a review of the literature.’, International journal of hygiene andenvironmental
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10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.08.002.
Klavarioti, M., Mantzavinos, D. and Kassinos, D. (2009) ‘Removal of residual
pharmaceuticals from aqueous systems by advanced oxidation processes.’,
Environment international. Elsevier Ltd, 35(2), pp. 402–17. doi:
10.1016/j.envint.2008.07.009.
Mao, Y., Wang, X., Guo, X., Yang, H. and Xie, Y. F. (2016) ‘Characterization of
haloacetaldehyde and trihalomethane formation potentials during drinking water
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McGettigan, P. and Henry, D. (2013) ‘Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs thatelevate cardiovascular risk: an examination of sales and essential medicines lists in
low-, middle-, and high- income countries’, PLOS Medicine, 10(2).
Méndez-Arriaga, F., Esplugas, S. and Giménez, J. (2010) ‘Degradation of the emerging
contaminant ibuprofen in water by photo-Fenton.’, Water research, 44(2), pp. 589–
95.
Miralles-Cuevas, S., Arqués, A., Maldonado, M. I., Sánchez-Pérez, J. a. and Malato
Rodríguez, S. (2013) ‘Combined nanofiltration and photo-Fenton treatment of watercontaining micropollutants’, Chemical Engineering Journal. Elsevier B.V., 224, pp.
89–95. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2012.09.068.
Ortiz de García, S., Pinto Pinto, G., García Encina, P. and Irusta Mata, R. (2013)‘Consumption and occurrence of pharmaceutical and personal care products in the750

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aquatic environment in Spain.’, The Science of the total environment. Elsevier B.V.,
444, pp. 451–65. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.11.057.
PharmExec (2017) Slow growth to 2020 for France’s pharma market. Available at:
http://www.pharmexec.com/slow-growth-2020-frances-pharma-market (Accessed: 6
March 2017).
Quero-Pastor, M. J., Garrido-Perez, M. C., Acevedo, A. and Quiroga, J. M. (2014)‘Ozonation of ibuprofen: a degradation and toxicity study.’, The Science of the total
environment, 466–467, pp. 957–64. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.07.067.
Rehman, M. S. U., Rashid, N., Ashfaq, M., Saif, A., Ahmad, N. and Han, J.-I. (2015)‘Global risk of pharmaceutical contamination from highly populated developing
countries’, Chemosphere. Elsevier Ltd, 138, pp. 1045–1055. doi:
10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.02.036.
Rivera-Utrilla, J., Sánchez-Polo, M., Ferro-García, M. Á., Prados-Joya, G. and OcampoPérez, R. (2013) ‘Pharmaceuticals as emerging contaminants and their removal fromwater. A review’, Chemosphere. Elsevier Ltd, 93(7), pp. 1268–1287.
Shahbazi, A., Gonzalez-Olmos, R., Kopinke, F.-D., Zarabadi-Poor, P. and Georgi, A.
(2014) ‘Natural and synthetic zeolites in adsorption/oxidation processes to remove
surfactant molecules from water’, Separation and Purification Technology, 127, pp.
1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2014.02.021.
Shu, Z., Bolton, J. R., Belosevic, M. and El Din, M. G. (2013) ‘Photodegradation of
emerging micropollutants using the medium-pressure UV/H2O2 Advanced Oxidation
Process.’, Water research, 47(8), pp. 2881–9. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.02.045.
da Silva, J. C. C., Teodoro, J. A. R., Afonso, R. J. de C. F., Aquino, S. F. and Augusti, R.
(2014) ‘Photolysis and photocatalysis of ibuprofen in aqueous medium:characterization of by-products via liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution
mass spectrometry and assessment of their toxicities against Artemia salina.’, Journalof mass spectrometry : JMS, 49(2), pp. 145–53. doi: 10.1002/jms.3320.
Szabó, R. K., Megyeri, C., Illés, E., Gajda-Schrantz, K., Mazellier, P. and Dombi, A.
(2011) ‘Phototransformation of ibuprofen and ketoprofen in aqueous solutions.’,
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Vona, A., di Martino, F., Garcia-Ivars, J., Picó, Y., Mendoza-Roca, J.-A. and Iborra-Clar,
M.-I. (2015) ‘Comparison of different removal techniques for selectedpharmaceuticals’, Journal of Water Process Engineering, 5, pp. 48–57. doi:
10.1016/j.jwpe.2014.12.011.
Wang, J. and Wang, S. (2016) ‘Removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products(PPCPs) from wastewater: A review’, Journal of Environmental Management, 182,
pp. 620–640. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.07.049.
Ziylan, A. and Ince, N. H. (2011) ‘The occurrence and fate of anti-inflammatory andanalgesic pharmaceuticals in sewage and fresh water: Treatability by conventionaland non-conventional processes’, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 187(1), pp. 24–36.

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15TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON QUALITY IN RESEARCH (QIR 2017)
EVALUATION OF TRAY BIOREACTOR TO UPSCALE XYLANASEPRODUCTION USING SOLID STATE FERMENTATION OF OIL PALM
EMPTY FRUIT BUNCHES (OPEFB) BY ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATUS
Briantono Djakaria, Tjandra Setiadi*, M.T.A.P. Kresnowati
Microbiology and Bioprocess Technology Laboratory,
Chemical Engineering Department, Institut Teknologi Bandung
ABSTRACTThe potential of xylanase production by Aspergillus fumigatus using solid state
fermentation of oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) as a low-cost lignocellulosic
material has been convincing. Not only have xylanases been prevalently used in pulp
and paper industry, but also in food and agricultural industries. In order to upscale theproduction of xylanase, multiple tray bioreactors (8 cm x 5 cm x 4 cm) have beenarranged in an incubator (65 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm), maintained at 32oC and high relative
humidity. OPEFB were then mixed aseptically with Prado’s media along with
A.fumigatus spores in tray bioreactors. Since keeping a high level of water activity is
one of the main challenges in larger scale enzyme production using tray bioreactors, two
factors were explicitly evaluated in this study: solid loading to media ratio as well as
different particle sizes of OPEFB. The significance of these factors was assessed so that
optimum xylanase activity could be achieved while scaling up enzyme production using
tray bioreactor. An optimum xylanase activity of 6.59 U/g OPEFB was obtained at
substrate length of 1 – 2 cm and solid loading ratio of 25%.
Keywords: empty fruit bunches; tray bioreactor; solid loading ratio; solid state
fermentation; xylanase; xylose______________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
Xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8) is the enzyme that hydrolyze the 1,4 – β – D – xylosidic linkages
in xylan, i.e. the backbone of hemicellulose. Commonly found in saprophytes, thisenzyme is responsible for the degradation of hemicellulosic material. As scientificdiscovery and technology advances, humans can produce and utilize this enzyme forindustrial purposes. In food and agricultural sectors such as bread industry, xylanase isfound to improve crumb structure and bread volume. Not only does it improve thequality of the product, it also helps to reduce the stickiness of the bread dough. Thisultimately reduces the case where dough gets stuck to the machinery parts, thus
improving the lifetime of the machineries (Butt, et al., 2007). On the other hand,
xylanase is also utilized in wine and juice industries to clarify wine and juices. The* Corresponding author.
E-mail address:tjandra@che.itb.ac.id

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same enzyme has also been used prevalently in pulp and paper industry, where it helps
to enhance the bleachability of the paper, thus reducing the consumption of chlorine
chemicals in bleaching process (Buchert, et al., 1994).
This enzyme is commonly produced using Submerged Fermentation (SmF), where thesubstrate xylan is dissolved in liquid media along with the suspension of
microorganism. However, this conventional method requires more expensive puresubstrate as well as strict aseptic condition. On the other hand, an alternative method to
produce xylanase is using Solid State Fermentation (SSF). SSF is a mean to growmicroorganism on moist solid particles; where the desired substrate (xylans inhemicellulose) to produce xylanase is abundant (Mitchell, et al., 2006). The
microorganisms of choice, commonly saprophytes such as filamentous fungi, naturally
live on this condition. When decomposing solid substrates as carbon source, the desired
enzyme is released to the surroundings of the fungi as an extracellular product. Many
scholars and industries are starting to look at SSF as a viable alternative to produce
meaningful microbial products due to the cheap raw material as substrates for SSF (Jou
& Lo, 2011). To produce high concentration of xylanase, one should choose
lignocellulosic material with high hemicellulose content such as corn cobs (Pointner, etal., 2014), rice bran (Mohseni, et al., 2012), palm fiber (Sounders & Walker, JR, 1968),
and oil palm empty fruit bunches (Mardawati, 2015). These materials are often
considered waste to many industries and therefore could be obtained with low to no costat all. Moreover, it has been reported that SSF could also yield the same product withsignificantly higher productivity compared to SmF (Motta, et al., 2013).
To produce xylanase with SSF, it is important to decide upon which solid substrate towork with. One of the potential solid substrate is Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches(OPEFB) due to its high hemicellulose content. The composition of OPEFB is 43.39%
cellulose, 23.3% hemicellulose, 21.69% lignin, and 11.62% other components(Mardawati, 2015). The second important reason is due to the availability of OPEFB in
Indonesia. Being the largest producer of palm oil in the world, Indonesia suppliednearly 32.5 million tons of palm oil in 2015 (Indonesia Investments, 2016). However, inthe process of separating the fruit from bunches called threshing, almost 7 million tonneof OPEFB is incinerated annually. Instead of incineration, utilization of OPEFB as solid
substrate for potential large scale enzyme production is promising.
In 2015, Mardawati reported optimizations of xylanases production in Erlenmeyer scale
and investigated the factors thoroughly. The study investigated xylanase production
using different species of fungi, optimum cultivation period, as well as temperature(Mardawati, 2015). Another similar investigation by Lashkmi reported their study on
the optimization of xylanase production by Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus
terreus using different parameters such as pH, particle size, moisture content andfermentation period. They successfully achieved an improvement of xylanase enzyme
productivity to 2.8 folds (Lakshmi & Shetty, 2011). These investigations, however,were done in an Erlenmeyer scale.
In order to increase the production capacity of xylanase production, the study of scaling
up the xylanase production must be done. However, scaling up of SSF comes withdifferent sets of problems, with low water activity being one of the crucial factors(Mitchell, et al., 2006). Even though microorganisms live on the surface of the solid

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753

substrate, water is still crucial to support the metabolism of the microorganism. It acts asa solvent for nutrient and metabolic products even in SSF. Low water activity will
negatively affect the activity of enzyme and biomass production since all of themetabolic activity happens in water (Mitchell, et al., 2006).
In this study, the bioreactor of choice is the tray bioreactor, where different aspects
contributing to maintain water activity were assessed. Xylanase production by
Aspergillus fumigatus were conducted in multiple tray bioreactors (8 cm x 5 cm x 4cm). They were arranged in an incubator (65 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm) at high relative
humidity (80 – 90%). The effects of solid loading ratios (SLRs) and OPEFB sizes were
evaluated in this study via the activity of xylanase and growth of the microorganism.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1
Microorganism
Aspergillus fumigatus was isolated in our laboratory from Oil Palm Empty Fruit
Bunches (OPEFB), which was identified and deposited as A.fumigatus at Microbiology
and Bioprocess Technology Laboratory, Chemical Engineering Department, Institut
Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia. Immobilized A.fumigatus spores on rice were used as
innoculum for the solid state cultivation experiments in the study.
2.2

Solid Substrate and Tray Preparation

OPEFB were washed and dried at 105oC in the oven overnight. The fibres were cut into
different length: 1–2 cm and 3–5 cm. To achieve such sizes, waring blender was used asnecessary. 10 g of the cut OPEFB were placed in the aluminum food trays (8 x 5 x
4cm). A total of 6 holes with a diameter of 3mm (2 on each of the 8cm side and 1 oneach of the 4cm side) were then made using a nail on the top part of the tray. The trays
were then closed with aluminum foil and sterilized using an autoclave at 121oC for 15
minutes.
2.3

Fermentation and Extraction Media Preparation

The fermentation medium was made according to Prado by mixing 1.5g of NH4SO4, 2g
of KH2PO4, 0.3g of urea, 0.03g of CaCl2, 0.2g of MgSO4.H2O and H2O to 1L (Prado, etal., 2010). The extraction medium used in the experiment was 50mM citrate buffer at
pH 5. Both media were sterilized using an autoclave at 121oC for 15 minutes.
2.4

Solid State Fermentation

The solid state fermentation was conducted in a temperature controlled incubator at
32oC. The humidity of the incubator was kept by placing containers filled with sterilewater near a fan. The solid-state fermentation setup is shown in Table 1.

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Table 1 – Solid State Fermentation Setup
Trials

1 – 2 cmmixed

3 – 5 cm

OPEFB

10 g of 1 – 2 cm
OPEFB

5 g of 1 – 2 cm and 5
g of 3 – 5 cm OPEFB

10 g of 3 – 5 cm
OPEFB

20 mL
(50%)

20 mL
(50%)

Fermentation
Media in mL(SLR in %)Spores

20 mL
(50%)

40 mL
(25%)

40 mL
(25%)

40 mL
(25%)

106 viable spores / gram OPEFB

The sterilized OPEFB trays were cultivated aseptically with the mixture of dried A.
fumigatus 106 viable spores/ g OPEFB and fermentation medium as shown in the Table
1. The serene wrap was used to close the tray without closing the 3 mm openings ineach tray. The trays were then incubated for 7 days.
2.5

Sampling

Samples were collected at the end of the fermentation period. Aseptically, 80mL of
extraction medium was mixed in each tray and shaken for 2 hours using laboratory
shakers to ensure complete extraction of the desired enzyme. Thereafter, the fermented
OPEFB were squeezed through cheesecloth to collect residual extract. The extract wasthen collected and centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 15 minutes at 4oC. The supernatant wascollected as a extracellular protein solution, used as crude enzyme.
2.6

Protein Analysis

Protein analysis was done using Bradford assay (Bradford, 1976). The extract before
centrifugation was analyzed as the total protein content, while the supernatant after
centrifugation was quantified as extracellular protein content. The supernatant was usedas the crude enzyme solution. The difference between the two was considered as the cell
protein content (ISU Protein Facility, 2017).
2.7

Xylanase Activity Analysis

The xylanase activity was analyzed by DNS method specified in NREL 42628 (Adney& Baker, 2008) by using xylan from corncob (CAS 9014-63-5). The enzyme wasincubated with 0.1% xylan at 50oC for 15 minutes. The absorbance was measured at
540nm.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1
Influence of Different OPEFB Particle Sizes and Solid Loading Ratios on
Cellular Growth
Due to the nature of the fungus growth on solid substrate, direct cell quantification is
impossible. Therefore, protein determination was utilized to indirectly quantify growth
after the fermentation period ends. Figure 1 summarizes the average cell protein after 7
days of fermentation period. The highest cell content was shown by mixed OPEFB with

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755

25% SLR at 1.13 mg protein/g EFB; while the lowest was shown by mixed OPEFB
with 50% SLR at 0.37 mg protein/g EFB.

Cell Protein(mg protein/ g OPEFB)

2.50
2.00
1.50
SLR 50%1.00

SLR 25%0.50
0.00

1-2 cmmixed
OPEFB Size

3-5 cmFigure 1 - Average Cell Protein with Different Substrate Sizes and SLRs

Average Cell Protein(mg/ g OPEFB)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

1-2 cm mixed 3-5 cm
Substrate Particle Size

25%
50%
Solid Loading Ratios

Figure 2 - Effects of Different Substrate Sizes and SLRs on Cell Protein
Figure 2 summarizes the effects of different OPEFB sizes on cell growth. The optimum
substrate size for cell growth was 1 – 2 cm. On the other hand, 3 – 5 cm OPEFB size
resulted in the poorest cell content among the three. It was predicted that the shorter
OPEFB length affected the moisture content in each tray. Shorter length retained thefermentation media better, providing sufficient water activity to support cell growth.
Larger OPEFB length were expected to not only have higher O2 and heat transfer
capability, but also low moisture holding capacity. Consequently, the mixed OPEFB
size produced higher concentration of cell than large sized OPEFB (3 – 5cm) because
the smaller OPEFB in the mixture helped to maintain the moisture needed for growth,
as well as the 3-5cm OPEFB provided higher O2 and heat transfer capability.
Nevertheless, whether the mixture of OPEFB sizes could help to maintain moisture washeavily dependent to the homogeneity of the mixture in the tray bioreactor.
Homogeneity itself is already a known issue, as it is already hard enough to minimize
substrate gradient in SFF. The large error bar in the tray with mixed OPEFB with 25%

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SLR addresses the issue even further; as the combination of mixed sizes of OPEFB andlower SLR created problems in both uneven substrate distribution as well as significant
moisture gradient.
Figures 1 and 2 clearly shows the correlation between the growth of the fungi and solid
loading ratio (SLR): higher solid loading ratio shows less growth compared to its pair.
Tray with 1-2 cm OPEFB (50%) and 3-5 cm OPEFB (25% and 50% SLR) had theirfermentation media mostly evaporated due to the heat generated by fungal metabolism.
At the end of the fermentation period, the solid substrates were rather dry on these trays.
On the other hand, the rest of the trials had higher amount of fermentation media at theend of the fermentation period. Higher amount of fermentation media indicated that thesolid substrate was kept moist in the trays even after 7 days of fermentation. Thisphenomenon was seen in trays with 1-2 cm OPEFB at 25% SLR and mixed OPEFB at
both SLRs which therefore were reflected in the higher amount of the cells quantified. It
was concluded that the maximum solid loading ratio to support cellular growth is 25%.
3.2 Influence of Particle Sizes and Solid Loading Ratios on Xylanase Activity
Similar trend could be observed in the extracellular protein content. Figure 3 shows thatthe lowest extracellular protein content is found in 3-5 cm OPEFB tray with 50% SLR
at 0.185 mg protein/g OPEFB; while the highest is found in mixed OPEFB tray with
50% SLR at 0.396 mg protein/g OPEFB.

Extracellular Protein(mg protein/ g OPEFB)

0.50
0.40
0.30
SLR 50%0.20

SLR 25%0.10
0.00

1-2 cmmixed
OPEFB Size

3-5 cmFigure 3 - Average Extracellular Protein Content with Different Substrate Sizes and
SLRs

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757

Average Extracellular Protein(mg/ g OPEFB)

0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2

1-2 cm mixed 3-5 cm
Substrate Particle Size

25%
50%
Solid Loading Ratios

Figure 4 - Effects of Different Substrate Sizes and SLRs on Enzyme Protein
According to figure 4, however, the OPEFB length is the more significant factor in theamount of extracellular protein produced. However, microbes in trays with mixed
OPEFB sizes produced nearly identical concentration of extracellular protein compared
to trays with 1 – 2 cm OPEFB. There was no significant difference in extracellular
protein production between 1 – 2 cm and mixed substrate size.
It was expected that lower the SLR would produce higher concentration of extracellular
protein. While trays containing 1 – 2cm OPEFB and 3-5cm OPEFB followed this SLR
trend, tray containing mixed EFB size with 50%SLR contained more protein that its pair(tray containing mixed EFB size with 25% SLR). This phenomenon might be caused byinconsistent substrate mixture as mentioned previously.
Although high content of enzyme protein looks promising, the aim of this study is to
produce high concentration of xylanase. Some of the extracts might have highextracellular protein content but have low xylanase activity. On the other hand, otherextracts may show lower protein content but higher xylanase activity. The specificactivity of the produced xylanase was measured and summarized in figure 5.
8.00
Xylanase Activity(U/ g OPEFB)

7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00

SLR 50%3.00

SLR 25%

2.00
1.00
0.00

1-2 cmmixed
OPEFB Size

3-5 cmFigure 5 - Average Xylanase Activity with Different OPEFB Substrate Sizes and SLRs

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The average highest xylanase activity was shown in tray containing 1-2cm EFB sizewith 25% SLR at 6.59 U/g EFB, while the lowest was found in tray containing mixed
EFB sizes with 50% SLR at 0.94 U/g EFB. Although tray containing mixed size EFB
with 50% SLR produced the highest extracellular protein as shown in figure 4, theextracellular protein produced was not the desired enzyme.
All trays clearly demonstrated that lower SLR produced higher xylanase activity. Solidloading ratio affected xylanase production significantly; similar to how it affected cell
growth and extracellular protein content. This was due to the fact that xylanase is one of
the growth associated enzyme. Furthermore, different substrate sizes also affected
xylanase activity distinctively. The shorter length (1 – 2cm) produced a higher xylanase
activity (tray A and B) compared to the other treatments as shown in figure 6.
Average Xylanase Activity(U/ g OPEFB)

6
5
4
3
2
1

1-2 cm mixed 3-5 cm
Substrate Particle Size

25%
50%
Solid Loading Ratios

Figure 6 - Effects of Different Substrate Sizes and SLRs on Enzymatic Activity
Figure 6 summarizes the effects of different OPEFB sizes and SLRs on xylanase
activity. The shorter substrate length (1 – 2 cm) produced the highest concentration of
xylanase. Even though the extracellular protein content of mixed substrate fermentation
was almost as high as the 1 – 2 cm substrate (Figure 4), the xylanase activity of themixed substrate fermentation was the lowest. One of the possible reason was that mostof the enzymes produced by the mixed substrate fermentation was other enzymes thathydrolyze cellulose in the substrate.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Solid loading ratio was shown to be the factor that affected cell growth as well as
xylanase production in solid state fermentation of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches. This
study concludes that optimum cell growth of A. fumigatus and xylanase production wereachieved at 25% solid loading ratio. Secondly, the size of OPEFB affected the cell
growth as well as xylanase activity. The optimum substrate size is 1 – 2 cm because it
helps to keep the moisture in the tray, as well as maintaining high water activity needed
for the metabolism of A. fumigatus.
Unfortunately, some of the data points in figure 1, 3, and 5 contain large error bars. In
addition to the limitation of homogeneity when working with solid substrates asmentioned before, other source of error such as inconsistency of solid spore cultivation

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as well as extraction methods could affect the consistency of the data. Even though themethods were kept consistent, human errors were most likely responsible for these
phenomena.
At the optimum conditions conducted, the xylanase activity achieved was 6.59 U/g
OPEFB. Future studies should investigate and optimize the tray bioreactor size andconfiguration in order to support the growth of the microorganism better.
5. REFERENCES
Adney, B. & Baker, J., 2008. Measurement of Cellulase Activities, s.l.: National
Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Bradford, M. M., 1976. A Rapid and Sensitive Method for the Quantitation of
Microgram Quantities of Protein Utilizing the Principle of Protein-Dye Binding,Athens: Analytical Bioichemistry.
Buchert, J., Tenkanen, M., Kantelinen, A. & Viikari, L., 1994. Application of Xylanasesin the Pulp and Paper Industry. Bioresource Technology, pp. 65-72.
Butt, M. S., Tahir-Nadeem, M., Ahmad, Z. & Sultan, M. T., 2007. Xylanases and Their
Applications in Baking Industry. Food Technology and Biotechnology, pp. 22-31.
Chen, H., 2014. Biotechnology of Lignocellulose. Dordrecht: Springer.
Indonesia Investments, 2016. Minyak Kelapa Sawit. [Online]
Available at: http://www.indonesia-investments.com/id/bisnis/komoditas/minyaksawit/item166
ISU Protein Facility, 2017. Introduction to Protein Techniques, s.l.: s.n.
Jou, R. Y. & Lo, C. T., 2011. Heat and Mass Transfer Measurements for TrayFermented Fungal Products. International Journal of Thermophysics, pp. 523-536.
Koba, Y. & Ishizaki, A., 1990. Chemical Composition of Palm Fiber and Its Feasibility
as Cellulosic Raw Material for Sugar Production. Agricultural and Biological
Chemistry, pp. 1183 - 1187.
Lakshmi, G. S. & Shetty, P. R., 2011. Sustainable bioprocess evaluation for xylanaseproduction by isolated Aspergillus terreus and Aspergillus fumigatus. Current Trends in
Biotechnology and Pharmacy, October, Volume 5, pp. 1433-1444.
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Available at: http://www.lookchem.com/Chempedia/Health-and-Chemical/15625.html[Accessed 17 April 2016].
Mardawati, E., 2015. Produksi Xilitol dari Tandan Kosong Sawit melalui Proses
Hidrolisis Enzimatik dan Fermentasi. Bandung(West Java): s.n.

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Mitchell, D. A., Krieger, N. & Berovic, M., 2006. Solid-State Fermentation
Bioreactors. Berlin: Springer.
Mohseni, S., Najafpour, G. D., Vaseghi, Z. & Mahjoub, S., 2012. Solid State
Fermentation of Agricultural Residues for Lipase Production in a Tray - Bioreactor.
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Motta, F. L., Andrade, C. C. P. & Santana, M. H., 2013. A Review of Xylanase
Production by the Fermentation of Xylan: Classification, Characterization, andApplications.
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Pointner, M. et al., 2014. Composition of Corncobs as a Substrate for Fermentation of
Biofuels. Agronomy Research, pp. 391-396.
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Western Regional Research Laboratory.

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FORMULATION OPTIMIZATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF COPOLYMERACRYLAMIDE-(2-ACRYLAMIDO-2-METHYLPROPANESULFONIC ACID) FOR
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR)
A. Z. Abidin1, I. A. Suryawijaya1, A. Indiarni1, D. A. Trirahayu1

1Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung,

Jl. Ganesa 10 Bandung, Indonesia 40132

ABSTRACT
Copolymers have been synthesized from acrylamide (AM) and 2-Acrylamido-2-methyl propane sulfonicacid (AMPS) that will be used for Enhanced Oil Recovery application. The polymerization had been
performed for 6 hours at ambient pressure and temperature, using nitrogen as purging gas, with variationof AM:AMPS mass ratio 60:40, 65:35, 70:30, and 75:25. The initiator used in this experiment was a
mixture of ammonium persulfate and sodium thiosulfate with a total weight of 0.35% from themonomers total weight. The product of the polymerisation is a gel material that will be dissolved inwater and characterized. There are three analysis that performed to characterize the polymerization
product: IR spectrum analysis (testing with FTIR), thermal degradation analysis (testing with TGADSC), and viscosity analysis. The results of this study indicate that the best mass ratio formula of
AM:AMPS that produces the best viscosity for EOR is 65:35. The synthesized AM-AMPS copolymer
solution has good resistance to salt and high temperature but has pseudo plastic properties. Viscosity ofthe solution decreased every day during storage and stopped declining after 30 days of storage. This
characteristic shows suitability of the synthesized AM-AMPS copolymer for EOR applications.
Keywords: Acrylamide, AMPS, EOR, Salinity, High temperature
1. INTRODUCTION
The world consumption of petroleum keeps increasing. As predicted by the International Energy Agency(IEA), the consumption will increase by 54% in the first 25 years of the 21st century in line with theamount of oil production is predicted to decline by 3% each year. Petrolium needs will no longer be met
by conventional exploration methods. One promising method to anticipate this is the Enhanced Oil
Recovery (EOR) that allows the oil recovery increased by around 20% [1]. The basic principle of EOR
is the injection of a substance into the reservoir to push the oil out. EOR consists of several ways suchas water flooding, chemical injection, gas injection, and heat injection [1]. In the process of chemicals
injection, the common material used is a polymer. EOR methods that use polymer called polymer
flooding, a method in which a water-soluble and high molecular mass polymer added to the injection
water to increase the viscosity and decrease the mobility ratio of injection water to oil that transferred[2]. This technology causes the water in the reservoir thickened so that the amount of water that is carriedout together with the oil decreases. But, EOR still has not provide optimum results due to problems
related with the viscosity decreasing at high temperature and salinity.
A study of acrylamide (AM) polymerization with some monomers such as sodium 2-Acrylamido-2
methyl propane sulfonate (Na-AMPS), N-vinylpyrrolidone (N-VP), sodium 3-acrylamide 3-methyl
butyrate (Na -AMB), and N-vinyl amide (N-VAM), showed that AM-AMPS copolymer has the highest
viscosity compared to three other polymers. However, the viscosity of the polymer is not stable at hightemperature and salinity so that more research is needed to improve the viscosity stability by
copolymerization of acrylamide (AM) with the AMPS [2]. Abidin and Elsadik [3] studied the AMAMPS copolymerization by variations of AM:AMPS monomer ratio, 90:10, 80:20, and 70:30. The lastcomposition produce copolymer with high viscosity and fairly stable at high temperature and highsalinity. Copolymer solution viscosity has tendency to increase along with copolymer ratio AM: AMPS
90:10, then 80:20, to the highest is 70:30. However, the study did not go further in optimization of AM-

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AMPS copolymer formulations. Moreover, the characterization performed on the study still limited tothe temperature, salinity, IR, and TGA-DSC test. Therefore, further research is needed to optimized AMAMPS copolymer formulation and characterization of copolymers more, like a test of shear rate andaging.
This study aims to synthesize polymers for EOR applications that are water soluble, have good
viscosifying ability, and resistance to salinity and high temperature. In particular, this study aims tosynthesize AM-AMPS polymers using ammonium persulfate and sodium thiosulfate as initiator,
perform the optimization of the formulation and conduct characterization of synthesized copolymers.
2. EXPERIMENTThe experiments consist of two stages: the polymer synthesis and analysis. Before the analysis stage, allsamples are sorted to obtain polymer formulations of AM and AMPS that produces the best viscosity
for EOR. The analysis stage consisted of IR spectrum, thermal degradation, and the viscosity analysis.
The viscosity analysis of polymer solution is done by looking at the effects of time, shear rate,
temperature, salinity, and concentration against the viscosity of polymer solution.
2.1. Polymer Synthesis Stage
Polymer synthesis stege: assembling experiment tool for polymerization, dissolving monomer AM and
AMPS in water, dissolving the initiator in water, the reactor purging with nitrogen, mixing and reaction
stages. The experiment tool as in Figure 1. Polymerization was carried out for 6 hours at room
temperature with a variation of the AM:AMPS mass ratio 60:40, 65:35, 70:30, and 75:25. The initiatorused was a mixture of ammonium persulfate and sodium thiosulfate with a total weight 0.35% of themonomers total weight.
A

B

D

C

A = Nitrogen inlet
B = Initiator dropper
C = Nitrogen outlet
D = Round-bottom Flask
E = Magnetic stirrer

E

2.2. Analysis Stage

Figure 1 Polymerization experiment tool

There are three analysis that performed: IR spectrum analysis (test with FTIR), thermal degradation
analysis (testing with TGA-DSC), and viscosity analysis (see the effects of time, shear rate, temperature,salinity, and concentration on the viscosity polymer solution).
2.2.1. IR Spectrum Analysis
FTIR testing is done on AM-AMPS copolymer to identify the occurrence of the polymerization reaction.
The peaks of the FTIR results are compared with peaks in the constituent monomers (AM and AMPS).
2.2.2. Thermal Degradation Analysis
Analyses were performed by Thermogravimetry Analysis (TGA) integrated with Differential Scanning
Calorimetry (DSC). Polymers tested in the temperature range 25°C to 550°C with temperature increasedby 10 °C / min.
2.2.3. Viscosity Analysis
The viscosity analysis of the polymer solution is done by observing the effect of five factors: time, shear
rate, temperature, salinity, and concentration on the viscosity of the polymer solution.

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2.2.3.1. Time EffectViscosity of the copolymers AM-AMPS solution is measured using a Brookfield viscometer every day
for 50 days. To avoid the impact of specific spindle value on the results, the angular velocity test wasdone by varying the angular velocity of the spindle at range 6 rpm to 60 rpm.
2.2.3.2. Shear Rate EffectViscosity of the AM-AMPS copolymers solution is measured using a Brookfield viscometer withvarying spindle speeds: 2, 6, 20, 30, 50, and 60 rpm). To avoid its impact of the particular concentration
value of the solution on the result, the test was done at a concentration of 1000 ppm solution of thecopolymer and 3000 ppm.
2.2.3.3. Temperature and Salinity EffectViscosity of the AM-AMPS copolymers solution is measured using a Brookfield viscometer at various
temperatures and salinity variations. Variations in temperature used was 25 °C, 45 °C and 75 °C whilethe variation of salt levels are 0%; 0.05%; 0.15%; and 0.25%-weight. Tests were also conducted oncommercial polymer 1130 and 1130 W and later will be compared with AM-AMPS.
2.2.3.4. Concentration EffectViscosity of the AM-AMPS copolymers solution is measured using a Brookfield viscometer withvarying concentrations of copolymer solution: 1000, 2000, 3000, and 5000 ppm. To avoid the impact ofspecific spindle value on the results, angular velocity test was done by varying the angular velocity ofthe spindle at range 6 rpm to 60 rpm.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1. AM:AMPS Composition Ratio Effect
From the four of AM-AMPS copolymers created, we want to know which ones has highest viscosityand be selected to test further. The four polymers were tested at concentrations 13333.33 ppm using
spindle 5 at 6 rpm and 50 rpm. Tests carried out on more than one value of rpm to prove the consistencyof the test results. The test results are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 AM:AMPS composition effect

From result, it can be seen that along with increasing of AMPS concentration, initially viscosity is
increasing. However, after passing through the AMPS composition of 35%, increasing the number of
AMPS resulted in decreased viscosity. This shows that there is a value of composition ratio of AM:
AMPS that produce optimum viscosity. From this research, the optimum ratio is AM:AMPS withcomposition 65:35.
In the AM-AMPS copolymer, AMPS contribute to increase the solubility of the polymer in water andthe viscosity of the polymer solution. Nonionic acrylamide-based polymer has a low solubility in water
so that when copolymerized with anionic AMPS will produce copolymers with higher solubility in water

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[4]. Meanwhile, the viscosity of a polymer solution can be increased by the addition of AMPS causedby four main reasons: the extension of molecular chains, SO3- group contained in AMPS (anionicpolymer), and the association of hydrophobic groups. Extension of the molecular chain will increase themolecular mass of the solution and result in an increase in viscosity. The negative charge (SO3-) chains
AMPS side suffered electric Repulsion one another that causes hydrodynamic volume increase(expansion of molecular chains), which later resulted in increased of viscosity. In addition, SO3- groupalso increase steric hindrance which significantly reduces hydrolysis. Meanwhile, there is also theassociation of hydrophobic groups AMPS either intramolecular hydrophobic associations orintermolecular hydrophobic associations that contribute significantly to the increased of viscosity.
However, there is an optimum number of AMPS used. When used exceeds the optimum, will lead tooverloading that causes the polymer charge Repulsion is too large and hydrophobic associations weaken,
causing the viscosity decreases [4]. In addition, the repulsion charge is too big and steric hindrance
inhibits radical polymer collision molecular chain so the elongation reaction does not occur [5]. This
resulted in molecular mass decreases causing viscosity also decreased.
3.2. IR Spectrum Analysis
The analysis is done by identifying the bonds according to the structure of acrylamide. Wave numbers
626.87 s-1 and 987.55 s-1 indicates the group C = C double bond. While the amide groups (NH2) is shownin wave numbers peak at 657.73s-1 and 1610.56 s-1. C = O group in which carbon atoms are also boundto the amide groups (NH2) is shown in the wave number 3190.26 s-1. The same analysis was performedon the IR spectrum of 2-Acrylamido-2-methylepropanesulfonic acid (AMPS). The analysis showedfunctional groups corresponding to the AMPS structure theoretically. Sulfonate group (-SO3¬) that binds
with H atoms are shown in wave numbers 1043.49 s-1; 1128.36 s-1; and 1159.22 s-1. While the C = C
double bonds are in wave numbers 626.87 s-1. Group R-CH2-S shown in wave numbers 2947.23 s-1 andsecondary amide bond group (-NH-) are shown in the wave number 3427.51 s-1.
The IR spectrum analysis of synthesized AM-AMPS copolymer (Figure 3) results show the groups in
the AM-AMPS copolymer and the monomers constituent are Acrylamide and AMPS. Sulfonate group(-SO3-) at wave number 1039.63 s-1 and secondary amide groups (-NH-) at wave number 3466.08 s-1 areclusters of AMPS monomer. While the amide groups (NH2) at wave number 1633.71 s-1 is a group of
Acrylamide monomer. This indicates that these polymers composed of constituent monomers are
Acrylamide and AMPS. Another analysis is done by comparing the group of unsaturated C = C from IR
spectrum results of Acrylamide and AMPS with the IR spectrum results of the polymer synthesized(AM: AMPS). In the IR spectrum of AM-AMPS copolymer synthesis result, there are no peak from thegroup of unsaturated C = C. This shows that the polymerization between Acrylamide and AMPS has
occurred as indicated by the termination of the C = C double bond.

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Figure 3 IR spectrum analysis of AM-AMPS copolymer

3.3. Thermal Degradation Analysis
TGA analysis results in Figure 4 shows decreasing of relative mass as indicated by changes in thegradient of the curve of relative the mass to the temperature. Mass reduction indicates decomposition of
AM-AMPS copolymer which occurred at a temperature of 220.82 °C. Figure 4 also shows no decreasein the relative mass were detected before the temperature 220.82 °C which indicates good thermal
resistance of AM-AMPS copolymer material until that temperature. DSC analysis results are shown in
Figure 5 can be used to determine the character of the AM-AMPS copolymer i.e. glass transition
temperature (Tg). Tg point in Figure 4 is shown by onset point at the first peak that is 217.7 °C.

Figure 4 TGA analysis result

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Figure 5 DSC analysis result

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3.4. Polymer Solution Viscosity Analysis
The viscosity analysis of the polymer solution is done by looking at the effect of five factors: time, shear
rate, temperature, salinity, and concentration on viscosity of the polymer solution.
3.4.1. Time EffectIt can be seen from Figure 6 that the viscosity of the synthesized AM-AMPS copolymers solution
continued to decrease from day to day. Polymer solution viscosity at all rpm decreased with the constantgradient on the first 30 days. After the first 30 days passed, the gradient of viscosity getting smaller until
finally the viscosity is constant (no longer decreasing). Generally, the factors that can decrease theviscosity of the AM-AMPS copolymers solution as time goes by are as follows [6]:• Thermal - static heat ageing, sub-zero exposure or thermal cycling• Complete immersion in water at ambient and elevated temperatures• Continuous or intermittent saltwater immersion or spray• Combined load (i.e. stress) and environmental exposures• Chemical (including water, fuel, acids, alkalis, solvents and oxygen)• Micro-organisms (e.g. fungi)
Among all of these factors, the factor which significantly lead to a decrease in viscosity of thesynthesized AM-AMPS copolymers solution is a result of complete immersion in water that causes thechemical attack in the form of an advanced hydrolysis by water, acid, or alkali. Ester, amide, imide, andcarbonates are the groups susceptible to chemical attack until break and result in a decrease in viscosity.
Although the amide groups on AM-AMPS copolymer lies in the side chain (instead of the main chain),
the hydrolysis of these groups still cause a decrease in viscosity is significant because the cut recurringat the side chains of the copolymer. Another possibility that causing a decrease in viscosity with time isa microorganism, which is mushroom. High air humidity caused quite humid conditions of storage
cabinets and allow the emergence of fungi. It was observed that the polymer solution in jars began
contaminated by the fungus after it has stored more than a week even in the closed jar.

Figure 6 Time effect toward viscosity of AM-AMPS copolymer solution

3.4.2. Shear Rate EffectBased on Figure 7 and Figure 8 at low shear rate, the viscosity gradient of the polymer decreases
significantly. The order based on the gradient of polymer viscosity are commercial 1130, synthesized
AM-AMPS copolymer, then Commercial 1130 W. However, after reaching 20 rpm, the gradient getting
smaller (ramp) for all of three polymers. It can be concluded that the viscosity of the three polymers
were not differ significantly when tested at above 20 rpm.

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767

Figure 7 shear rate effect toward viscosity of 1000 ppm
AM-AMPS copolymer solution

Figure 8 shear rate effect toward viscosity of 3000 ppm
AM-AMPS copolymer solution

From these results, can be concluded that the synthesized AM-AMPS copolymer is a non-Newtonian
fluid due to viscosity changes at different shear rate. If categorized further, synthesized AM-AMPS
copolymer includes in non-Newtonian fluid whose viscosity is not dependent on time (time-independent
viscosity) and a shear thinning (pseudo plastic) polymer due to viscosity decreased with increasing ofshear rate. A decrease in viscosity as the shear rate increase is an indication that the electrostaticinteraction between the particles is defeated by the viscous force (in this case is the shear force) in thesolution. Shear force causes disruption of the equilibrium structure and lead. To a decrease in flow
resistance (in this case is the viscosity) on the polymer solution.
AM-AMPS copolymers belong to the non-Newtonian fluid so it is follow the Power-Law equation(Equations 1 and 2). Plotting chart of log γ to log μ is shown in Figure 9.

4

log μ

3.5

� = �� (���)log� = log� + (� 1)log�

1000 ppm
3000 ppm

y = -0.6326x + 3.3067

3

2.5
2

-0.5

(1)
(2)

1.5

0

y = -0.5298x + 2.5062

0.5
1
1.5
log γ
Figure 9 Power-Law constant and exponent of AM-AMPS copolymer solution determination

From Figure 9, the AM-AMPS copolymer solution with concentration 1000 ppm has a Power-Law
constants (K) 320.8 and exponent Power-Law (n) 12:47. While the AM-AMPS copolymer solution withconcentration 3000 ppm has a Power-Law constants (K) 2026.3 and Power-Law exponent (n) 12:37. It
can be concluded that the difference in the concentration of the copolymer in the solution causes
significant difference of constants K and n (especially on the constant K).
3.4.3. Temperature EffectTemperature effect on the viscosity of the hydrophobically modified polymer is essential to observe.
synthesis AM-AMPS copolymer showed a decrease in viscosity with increasing shear rate. This iscaused by the declining strength of intermolecular hydrophobic associations along with the increase intemperature. This then leads to increased solubility, increased mobility, as well as the viscosity

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decreases. In addition, a decrease in viscosity of a polymer solution can also be caused by coiling events
that tend to occur when the temperature increases.
The synthesis polymer is compared with commercial polymers 1130 and commercial polymer 1130 W,
the comparison is shown in Figure 10 and Figure 11. It can be seen that the synthesis copolymer AMAMPS solution has a lower viscosity compared with the polymer commercial polymers 1130 solution
but higher than the commercial polymer 1130 W solution. For polymer concentration 3000 ppm, theviscosity gradient decrease of AM-synthesis AMPS polymer solution is not much different from theviscosity gradient decrease of the commercial polymer solution. But for 1000 ppm polymer
concentration gradient decrease in viscosity of the solution copolymers AM-AMPS gradients steeper
than the decrease of viscosity in commercial polymer solution. This indicates that the AM-AMPS
copolymer has a temperature sufficient good stability for concentration 1000 ppm but much better forthe concentration 3000 ppm. At a concentration 3000 ppm, temperature stability of copolymer solution
as good as temperature stability for both Chinese commercial polymer.

Figure 10 Temperature effect on 1000 ppm polymer
solution

Figure 11 Temperature effect on 3000 ppm polymer
solution

3.4.4. Salinity Effect
The test results of AM-AMPS copolymer in Figure 12 and Figure 13 shows that the higher the levels ofsalt will cause a decrease of the viscosity of polymer solution. The commercial polymer solution 1130
and 1130 W also showed a similar thing. This phenomenon shows the influence of Na+ ions to theviscosity of the polymer. NaCl in water is ionized into ions Na+ and Cl- that will be bond withcopolymer.AM-AMPS. Copolymer AM-AMPS is an anionic polymer that has a negative charge. The
charge comes from the ionization of H+ which is the major components AMPS. The negative charge oneach polymer chain will lead to increased hydrodynamic volume so that the viscosity of the polymer
solution will increase. The presence of Na+ ions in the polymer solution causes the negative charge on
the AM-AMPS copolymer into neutral because the ionic bonds between the negative charges of thepolymer with Na + ions. The less negative charge residing on the polymer chain will cause a reductionin the hydrodynamic volume of the AM-AMPS copolymer and cause a decrease in viscosity of a polymer
solution [7].
There is a difference between the viscosity of a polymer solution concentration of 1000 ppm with 3000
ppm concentration. The polymer solution with a concentration of 1000 ppm was not able to maintain its
viscosity and imply a significant decrease when NaCl is added to the solution. While on a solution witha concentration of 3000 ppm have stability or resistance to salinity better. Figure 13 shows that theviscosity decreases with small gradient. This indicates a polymer solution with a concentration of 3000
ppm has better resistance to salinity in specific NaCl concentration. This phenomenon may indicate thatthe higher the concentration of the dissolved polymer would provide resistance to salinity better withslighter decrease in viscosity.

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769

Figure 12 Salinity effect on 1000 ppm polymer solution

Figure 13 Salinity effect on 3000 ppm polymer solution

Figure 12 and Figure 13 shows a very significant reduction in viscosity when initially added to a solutionof NaCl. However, elevated levels of salt afterwards showed no significant reduction and is relatively
constant. This shows the effect of polyelectrolyte polymer due to the presence of Na+ ions that bind tonegatively charged as described previously in the early addition of NaCl. At salinity with a certain
concentration, there is no binding between Na+ ions to the negative charges on the polymer chain as awhole chain of the polymer has been neutral so that the polymer chains no longer be anionic or
polyelectrolyte. Therefore, at a certain salinity, salinity will not have much effect on the viscosity of thepolymer solution [8].
A test is conducted for the commercial polymer solution 1130 and 1130 W to compare the performanceof AM-AMPS copolymer solution with commercial polymer solution. Figure 12 and Figure 13 shows
the slight differences between AM-AMPS copolymer with the commercial polymer solution. AMAMPS copolymer at a higher salinity show highest viscosity compared with commercial polymer
solution, although at first polymer having a viscosity similar to commercial polymer solution. This
indicates that the AM-AMPS copolymer has a stability and resistance to salinity slightly better whencompared with commercial polymer solution 1130 and 1130 W.
3.4.5. Polymer Solution Concentration Effect
The viscosity of the polymer injected into the reservoir varied and adapted to the viscosity of petroleum
that are driven out of the reservoir. The higher the viscosity of the oil, the viscosity of the polymer
solution needed will be higher to be able to push the oil out of the reservoir. High-viscosity polymer
solution can be generated by increasing the concentration of the polymer that dissolved into water tomake water flooding. The effect of concentration on viscosity of the polymer solution is shown in Figure
14.
From figure 14 viscosity of the polymer solution increases linearly with the increasing of the polymer
concentration. This shows the concentration effect against the viscosity of polymer solution. This
influence shows that the more polymer is dissolved will lead to more and more groups in the hydrophilicpolymer chains that bind with water molecules. When many molecules are bound to the polymer chains,the viscosity of the polymer solution will increase. Another influence is the association of hydrophobicgroups due to the effect of thickening phenomenon that occurs because the increased amount of polymer
in solution. Association hydrophobic groups will form a three-dimensional network which can increase
the viscosity of the polymer solution.

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Figure 14 AM-AMPS copolymer concentration effect

4. CONCLUSION
This study showed that AM-AMPS copolymer could be synthesized at room temperature as indicatedby the FTIR test results and produced the best viscosity for EOR at mass ratio of AM: AMPS equal to
65:35. The copolymer has high solubility in water, good viscofying ability, good resistance to salt andhigh temperature. AM-AMPS copolymer is a pseudo plastic material which showed a decrease inviscosity with increasing shear rate. The viscosity of the AM-AMPS copolymers solution decreased
every day in storage and stopped after 30 days of storage.The copolymer solution with concentration of3000 ppm has better resistance to salt and high temperature than the concentration of 1000 ppm.
Additionally the TGA-DSC test results show that synthesized AM-AMPS copolymer has good thermal
stability.
5. ACKNOWLEGMENT
The donation of acrylamide by Zekindo Chemicals (PT Zeus Kimiatama Indonesia) is gratefully
acknowledged.
6. REFERENCES[1] Abidin, A.Z.; Puspasari, T.; Nugroho, W.A., (2012) Polymers for Enhanced Oil Recovery
Technology”, Procedia Chemistry 4, p 11-16.
[2] Wu, Y.; Mahmoudkhani, A.; Watson, P.; Fenderson, T.; Nair, M.; Kemira, (2012) “Development
and Performance of New Polymers with Better Performance under Conditions of High Temperatureand High Salinity”, SPE EOR Conference at Oil and Gas West Asia, Muscat-Oman.
[3] Abidin, A.Z. and M.A.A. Elsadik, (2016) “Synthesis of Water Soluble Copolymers of Acrylamide(2-Acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic Acid) for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)”, International
Seminar on Chemical Engineering in conjunction with Seminar Soehadi Reksowardojo, Bandung,Indonesia.
[4] Zhong, C.; Wang, W.; Yang, M., (2012) “Synthesis and solution properties of an associative
polymer with excellent salt-thickening”, Journal of Applied Polymer Science 125, p 4049-4059.
[5] Xu, J.; Wu, Y.; Wang, C.; Wang, Y., (2009) “Dispersion polymerization of acrylamide with 2acrylamide-2-methyl-1-propane sulfonate in aqueous solution of sodium sulfate”, Journal of
Polymer Research 16, p 569-575.
[6] Maxwell, A.S.; Broughton, W.R.; Dean, G.; Sims, G.D., (2005) “Review of accelerated ageing
methods and lifetime prediction techniques for polymeric materials”, National Physical Laboratory,
Teddington,[7] Samantha, A.; Bera, A.; Ojha, K.; Ajay, M., (2010) “Effects of Alkali, Salts, and Surfactant on
Rheological Behavior of Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide Solutions”, Chemical Engineering
Journal 55, p 4315-4322.
[8] Ye, Z.; Gou, G.; Gou, S.; Jiang, W.; Liu, T., (2012) “Synthesis and Characterization of a WaterSoluble Sulfonates Copolymer of Acrylamide and N-Allylbenzamide as Enhanced Oil Recovery
Chemical”, Journal of Applied Polymer Science 128, p 2003-2011.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
THE EFFECT OF ANIONIC AND NONIONIC CO-SURFACTANT FOR
IMPROVING SOLUBILITY OF POLYOXY-BASED SURFACTANT FOR
CHEMICAL FLOODING

Yani F. Allia*, Dadan Damayandria, and Yan IrawanbaResearch and Development Centre for Oil and Gas Technology “LEMIGAS”
Jl. Ciledug Raya Kav.109, Cipulir, Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box 1089/JKT, Jakarta Selatan 12230
Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta 12120, Telephone: 62-21-7394422, Fax: 62-21-7246150
bResearch Centre of Chemistry, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
Kawasan PUSPIPTEK Serpong, Tangerang – Banten, 15314
Telephone: 021 – 7560929, Fax: 021 – 7560549
Email: faozani@lemigas.esdm.go.id

ABSTRACT
Surfactant is one of the crucial components for chemical flooding to recover oil productionin the tertiary stage owing to the inefficiency of the conventional primary and secondary
recovery that yields only 20-40% of the OOIP (original oil in place) as incremental oil. The
mechanism includes decreasing interfacial tension (IFT), increasing capillary number, as
well as enhancing microscopic displacement efficiency. The present study showed theeffect of commercial nonionic and anionic co-surfactant Tergitol, Teepol, Merpol and SDS
on the solubility of POS through compatibility analysis, filtration ratio analysis, and IFT
measurement. Whereas the presence of Teepol and Merpol did not change the originalcompatibility of polyoxy based-surfactant (POS) in all concentrations, the addition of cosurfactant Tergitol and SDS were able to alter the solubility of POS into a clear transparent
solution. However, the most important characteristic of surfactant for reducing the IFT ofoil-water was affected by the addition of co-surfactant which does not have sufficient IFT
to release the trapped oil in the reservoir. Thus, exposing the mixture of surfactant and cosurfactant for a few days at the reservoir temperature has changed the visual appearance ofsolution from a clear transparent solution into a milky suspension, indicating theoccurrence of thermal hydrolysis. These results suggest that the addition of anionic andnonionic co-surfactant improved the solubility of POS, but increased the IFT. It can beconcluded that the compatibility of POS in the brine can then be achieved by mixing itwith suitable co-surfactant. However, screening the other co-surfactant is required toobtain the one that enhances the compatibility as well as maintaining the ultralow IFT of
POS.
Keywords: polyoxy-based surfactant; enhanced oil recovery; chemical flooding; solubility;
co-surfactant.
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of surfactant for chemical flooding has been recognized to be effective to increase
the displacement efficiency of oil in a mature oilfield by decreasing interfacial tension(IFT), increasing the capillary number, as well as enhancing the microscopic displacement
efficiency (Ahmadi et al., 2014; Bera et al., 2014). As one of the best methods in enhanced

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oil recovery (EOR) technologies, chemical flooding is then expected to recover theremaining oil that cannot be produced by primary and secondary recovery which yield only
20-40% of the OOIP (original oil in place). Along with surfactant, the other substances withdifferent roles, such as polymer as well as alkaline, were used as injected materials into thereservoir (Olajire, 2014; Fletcher et al., 2015). While polymer was used for increasing themobility control (Pingping et al., 2009; Crespo et al., 2014), alkaline was injected as asacrificing agent to minimize the adsorption effect of surfactant into the core (Seng et al.,2011; Hirasaki et al., 2011).
Surfactant for chemical flooding application has unique and tailor-made properties
associated with different reservoir fluid characteristics (Babu et al., 2016). The chemical isrequired to be salinity resistant and hardness resistant due to the high saline and highcationic divalent of formation water (Guo et al., 2015; Yuan et al., 2015; Song et al., 2016).
Thus, in order to reduce the IFT between oil and water, the surfactant has to be optimized
to adjust to the targeted crude oil properties. Usually, two or three kinds of surfactant
consisting of main surfactant and co-surfactant were formulated for generating thesufficient surfactant for chemical flooding (Li et al., 2017). However, both chemicals havethe characteristic as surfactant by the presence of hydrophilic and hydrophobic at the end of
the molecule. Four types of surfactant were classified based on the ionic charge of themolecule, cationic, anionic, nonionic and zwitterionic surfactant. Commercially surfactant
that is available in the market includes teepol, merpol, and tergitol which are identified as
nonionic surfactant, and sodium dodecyl benzene sulfate (SDS) which is identified as ananionic surfactant.
Teepol, merpol, tergitol, and SDS are market brand surfactant that usually is used forhousehold applications, such as detergent, personal care, cleanings and food processing(Adeniyi et al., 2015). The study of utilizing brand market surfactant for surfactant flooding
has been reported on recently. Taiwo et al. (2016) investigated the use of Teepol forrecovering light oil, the addition of Tergitol and SDS for lowering the adsorption (Bera etal., 2013) and wettability alteration (Bera et al., 2015).
Previously, we investigated the effect of polyoxy groups of sulfonated natural oil-based
surfactant for chemical flooding application. It showed that the presence of polyoxy groups
are able to reduce the IFT of oil and water in a targeted oilfield to the level of 10-3 dyne/cm
as required for chemical injection. However, sulfonated surfactant consisting of polyoxygroups formed a whitish solution with precipitation indication. This phenomenon is notexpected due to the possibilities of chemicals to plug in the reservoir pore throat. In thepresent study, the effect of the addition of Teepol, Merpol, Tergitol and SDS was analyzed
as co-surfactant to improve the aqueous stability of POS for chemical flooding.
2. METHODOLOGYPOS as the main surfactant was synthesized and developed in the Research Centre ofChemistry, Tangerang, Indonesia. Nonionic surfactant Teepol, Merpol, and Tergitol aswell as anionic surfactant SDS were used as co-surfactant. Crude oil was collected from“X” Oil Field (South of Sumatera) with a viscosity of 3.16 cP at reservoir temperature(60oC), and oil gravity of 34.39oAPI. Brine was synthetically formulated based on

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formation water composition from “X” Oil Field to ensure the similar component of water
during the experiments. The synthetic water formulation is shown in Table 1. POS atvarious concentrations was mixed with synthetic water in the presence of various cosurfactants at different concentrations. The effect of the addition of co-surfactant wasinvestigated on the presence and absence of co-surfactant through the EOR analysis.
2.1. Compatibility Observation
The effect of co-surfactant on the compatibility of surfactant was analyzed by visualobservation of surfactant solubilization in the absence and presence of co-surfactant at
different concentrations. Compatibility of surfactant was performed at room temperature aswell as at the reservoir temperature to study the effect of elevated temperature on the
aqueous stability of surfactant formulation, the mixture of surfactant and co-surfactant.
Table – 1. Synthetic water formulation of “X” Oil Field
Chemicals

Mass (g/4 L)

CaCl2

2.654

MgCl2.6H2O

8.133

NaHCO314.445

Na2SO4.10H2O

0.094

Na2CO3.10H2O

1.775

NaCl

56.8002.2. IFT Measurement
In order to investigate the effect of co-surfactant on the IFT of the main surfactant, various
concentrations of single POS and co-surfactant in the synthetic brine were measured andcompared with the mixture of surfactant and co-surfactant. The IFT measurement was
conducted by Spinning Drop Tensiometer TX500 C/D. The capillary tube filled withsurfactant solution was injected with 2 µl of crude oil “X”, and put into the IFT unit. The
tube was spun at 6000 rpm and 60 oC to adjust to the reservoir temperature of “X” Oil
Field. Thermal stability of surfactant was also observed by putting the surfactant solution
in the air bath for one month. The IFT was then measured and compared with the initialcondition to identify its thermal stability characteristics.
2.3. Filtration Ratio Analysis
The addition of nonionic or anionic surfactant was believed to alter the solubility of POS.
To quantify the precipitation indication, filtration ratio analysis was carried out on theabsence and presence of various co-surfactant. The mixture of surfactant and co-surfactant
was diluted in the synthetic brine and allowed to flow into the 0.45 µm filter paper underpressurized air 30 psi. The filtration ratio was then calculated by FR = (T500-T400)/(T200T100), where Tx is the time to collect x ml of surfactant mixture.

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. The effect of co-surfactant on the solubility of POS
Compatibility of surfactant as an injected chemical is the most crucial parameter forchemical flooding. A homogeneous solution is required for the effectiveness of chemical
performances in the targeted fluid reservoir. Previously, we found that POS from palm oil
was able to reduce the IFT to the ultralow level. However, it formed a milky/whitish
solution with the precipitation indication as the concentration was increased. The additionof co-surfactant is then expected to improve the solubility of POS for chemical flooding.
The compatibility of surfactant on the presence of various co-surfactant at different
concentrations of surfactant and co-surfactant is presented in Table-2.
Table – 2. Compatibility of POS on the addition of various non-ionic and anionic cosurfactant at different concentrations of surfactant and co-surfactant
Conc. (%)
(-)
0.3
0.5
1.0
2.0
3.0

0.3% POS
SDS
++
++
++
+
+
+

Tergitol
++
++
+
+
+
++

Merpol
++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++

1.0% POS
Teepol
++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++

SDS
++
++
++
++
+
+

Tergitol
++
++
++
++
+
+

+ : clear; ++ : light milky; +++ : milky
As can be seen in Table-2, the addition of co-surfactant affects the solubility of POS.
While the mixture of surfactant with non-ionic surfactant (either Merpol or Teepol) formed
more whitish solution, the presence of nonionic co-surfactant Tergitol and anionic cosurfactant SDS improved the solubility of the targeted surfactant at the different
concentrations. Clear mixture solution occurred with the addition of SDS in the range of
1.0 – 3.0%, whereas the addition of Tergitol produced a clear solution in the range of 0.5 –
2.0% and forming suspension again as the concentrations of the co-surfactant wereincreased. To analyze the solubility as a ratio POS function, the solubility of POS at 1.0%
with the addition SDS and Tergitol was also observed, and indicated that higher
concentrations of POS required more co-surfactant to dissolve POS to become a clear
solution.
Identification of solubilization ability of the surfactant mixture with the synthetic
formation water was performed by filtration analysis and the filtration ratio was calculated.
The results showed that 0.5% POS in the presence of 1% Tergitol which produced a clear
solution were having lower FR at 1.00 than single surfactant 0.5% POS which generated FR
at 1.80 (Fig. 1), indicating the ability of Tergitol to dissolve the suspension of POS.

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Figure – 1. Filtration analysis of single surfactant 0.5% POS compared with the mixture of
0.5% POS and 1.0% Tergitol.
3.2. The effect of co-surfactant on the IFT of POS
Aside from the effect of co-surfactant on the compatibility of surfactant, the influence ofthe second surfactant on the IFT of the main surfactant was also investigated to ensure thecritical performance of surfactant as a displacing agent was not affected. IFT measurement
was performed on the single POS and each co-surfactant as well as the mixture ofsurfactant and the co-surfactant solution. It was found that POS successfully reduced the
IFT of oil and water to the level of 10-3 dyne/cm at 0.3 and 0.5% surfactant, as required(Fig. 2a), whereas the addition of single co-surfactant SDS, Tergitol, Merpol, and Teepol
can only decrease IFT from original oil-water 39 dyne/cm, to the range of 10-1 - 10-2
dyne/cm (Fig. 2b). The IFT of surfactant solution in the presence of co-surfactant was alsomeasured and presented in Figure 2c. As shown in the figure, the addition of various cosurfactant increased the IFT of POS, suggesting the higher influences of co-surfactant IFT’s
rather than POS itself.
a)

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b)

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c)Figure – 2. Results of IFT measurement of a) single POS; b) single anionic and nonionicco-surfactant; c) mixture of 0.3% POS and various concentrations of each co-surfactant.
3.3. Aqueous stability of the mixture of POS and co-surfactant at elevatedtemperature
To simulate the aqueous stability of POS at the reservoir temperature, the solubility ofsurfactant was observed after being exposed to heating for several days. The mixture ofsurfactant in the presence of SDS and Tergitol which generated a clear solution were put inthe oven for days. It was found that the mixture of 0.5% POS and 1% of SDS as well as
0.5% POS and 0.5% Tergitol formed a whitish/milky solution after being stored in theoven after 3 days (Table 2), which suggested that co-surfactant SDS and Tergitol weresensitive to being heated, and were not likely to be used as chemicals for chemical
injection.
Table – 3. Compatibility of POS on the addition of various non-ionic and anionic cosurfactants at different concentrations of surfactant and co-surfactant
Time (days)
0
1
3
7
14
30

0.3% POS

1.0% POS

SDS

Tergitol

SDS

Tergitol

+
+
++
++
++
++

+
+
++
++
++
++

+
++
++
++
++
++

+
++
++
++
++
++

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4. CONCLUSION
The presence of non-ionic surfactant Merpol and Teepol in the POS solution has beenshown as not having a great impact on the solubility of POS, but they did lead to anincreasing IFT of the POS solution. Whereas the addition of SDS and Tergitol wereidentified as improving the appearance of the POS solution from milky suspension totransparent and clear. These results were confirmed by the filtration analysis that produced
lower FR than a single POS. On the other hand, the addition of SDS and Tergitol affected
the IFT of POS as the main characteristic of surfactant to be higher and generated a hazysolution at the reservoir temperature. It can be concluded that the use of co-surfactant has
the potential to improve the solubility of the main surfactant. However, a study to screen
the other co-surfactant which improves the solubility of POS at room temperature as well as
at reservoir temperature without an increase in the IFT is required.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is the result of collaboration between the Research Centre for Oil and Gas
Technology “LEMIGAS” and the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Research Center for
Chemistry. Special thanks to Ika Juliana and Indri Badria from the Research Centre ofChemistry for their contributions to this work. The financial support from DIPA ResearchCenter for Oil and Gas Technology “LEMIGAS” is fully acknowledged.
6. REFERENCES
Adeniyi A.T., Onyekonwu M., Olafuvi O.A., Sonibare L.O., (2015), Development of costeffective surfactants from local materials for enhanced oil recovery, In: SPE Nigeria
Annual Conference and Exhibition, Nigeria, SPE-178403-MS.
Ahmadi M.A., Arabsehi Y., Shadizadeh S.R., and Behbahani, (2014), Preliminary
evaluation of mulberry leaf-derived surfactant on interfacial tension in oil-aqueous
system: EOR application, Fuel, Volume 117, Part A, pp. 749-755.
Babu K., Pal N., Saxena V.K., and Mandal A., (2016), Synthesis and characterization of anew polymeric surfactant for chemical enhanced oil recovery, Korean J of Chem
Eng, Volume 33(2), pp. 711-719.
Bera A., Kumar T., and Mandal A., (2014) Screening of microemulsion properties forapplication in enhanced oil recovery, Fuel, Volume 121, pp. 198-207.
Bera A., Kumar T., Oiha K., and Mandal A., (2013), Adsorption of surfactants on sandsurface in enhanced oil recovery: Isoterm, kinetics and thermodynamic studies,
Applied Surface Science, Volume 284, pp. 87-89.
Bera A., Mandal A., and Kumar T., (2015), The effect of rock-crude oil-fluid interactions
on wettability alteration of oil-wet sandstone in the presence of surfactants, Petroleum
Science and Technology, Volume 33(5), pp. 542-549.
Crespo F., Reddy B.R., Eoff C.L., and Pascarella N., (2014), Development of polymer gel
system for improved sweep efficiency and injection profile modification of
IOR/EOR treatments, In International Petroleum Technology and Conference(IPTC).

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Fletcher P.D.I., Savory L.D., and Woods F., (2015), Model study of enhanced oil recovery
byflooding with aqueous surfactant solution and comparison with theory, Langmuir,
Volume 31, pp. 3076–3085.
Guo S., Wang J., Shi J., Pan B., and Cheng Y., (2015), Synthesis and properties of a novel
alkyl-hydroxyl-sulfobetaine zwitterionic surfactant for enhanced oil recovery, J of
Pet Exploration and Prod Tech, Volume 5(3), pp. 321-326.
Hirasaki G.J., Miller C.A., and Puerto M., (2011), Recent advances in surfactant EOR. Soc
Pet Eng J, Volume 6, pp. 889-907.
Li Y., Puerto M., Bao X., Zhang W., Jin J., Su Z., Shen S., Hirasaki G., and Miller C.,(2017), Synergism and Performance for systems containing binary mixtures ofanionic/cationic for enhanced oil recovery, J of Surf and Detergents, Volume 20(1), pp.
21-34.
Olaire A.A, (2014), Review of ASP EOR (Alkaline surfactant polymer enhanced oil
recovery) technology in the petroleum industry: prospects and challenges, Energy,
Volume 77, pp. 963–982.
Pingping S., Jialu W., Taixian Z., and Xu J. (2009), Study of enhanced oil recovery
mechanism of alkali/surfactant/polymer flooding in porous media from experiment.
Soc Pet Eng J, Volume 14(2), pp. 237–244.
Sheng J.J., (2011), Modern chemical enhanced oil recovery: Theory and Practice, Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
Song B., Hu X., Shui X., Cui Z., and Wang Z., (2016), A new type of renewable surfactantsfor enhanced oil recovery: Dialkylpolyoxyethylene ether methyl carboxyl betaines,
Colloids And Surfaces A: Physicochem Eng Aspects, Volume 489, pp. 433-440.
Taiwo O.A., Uzezi O., Mamudu A., Onuoha S., Adijat O., and Olafuvi O., (2016),
Fractional wettability effects on surfactant flooding for recovering light oil using
Teepol, In: SPE Nigeria Annual Conference and Exhibition, Nigeria, SPE-184298-MS.
Yuan C.D., Pu W.F., Wang X.C., Sun L., Zhang Y.C., and Cheng S., (2015), Effects ofinterfacial tension, emulsification, and surfactant concentration on oil recovery insurfactant flooding process for high temperature and high salinity reservoirs, Energy
Fuels, Volume 29(10), pp. 6165-6176.

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Synthesis an Characterization of Cellulose Acetate from Natural Fiber As
Subtitute Microbeads Polyethylene that more environmental friendly
Abstract
Cellulose acetate made by acetylation between cellulose and acetic acid anhydrous. Cellulose
extracted from empty palm oil bunches (EPB) and leaves dry jackfruit leaves (DJL) throughdelignification process with NaOH 8, 10,12, and 14 % then continued with bleaching using
H2O2 10%. Reaction asetilasi use special variable the ratio between a reactant cellulose andacetic acid anhydrous of 1/5, 1/10, 1/15, and 1/ 20 (v/v ) and obtained the highest yields
16,2% to EPB and 42,72% DJL. The success of making cellulose acetate analyzed acetylgroup with Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) and morphology with scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). As an alternatif to substitute microbeads environmentally friendly, thencellulose acetate and microbeads measured of weight relegated with the burial.Degradation
cellulose acetate reached 69 % to EPB and 63,2 % to DJL to 20th day.
Keywords : Acetilation, jackfruit, microbeads, cellulose, cellulose acetate, EPB

IntroductionSome
researchonthenegative
consequences of microbeads highly
developed recent years. This is whatcaused some country is banned the use of
microbeads in products containing scruband find alternative his successor.
Formulator cosmetics and personal care
had certain criteria to replace microbeads
polyethylene with nature scrub and canrelegated naturally (Morice et al., 2015).
Several criteria these include visualparticles must have the same effect, theabrasion and should like skin taste,particles must have the same capacity ofsuspension, stability color must be equal topolyethylene, must meet the needs of theworld number of scrub.
Based on several criteria to substitutemicrobeads above, cellulose acetate
appropriate. Cellulose acetate also has
other excellence that is made of material tobe renewed and could relegated naturally.
Cellulose acetate is one of the oldest

780

macromolecules a man made widely usedin textiles and polymer (Barkalow et al.,1989). Cellulose acetate is derived from
cellulose with the quality of being
extraordinary of transparency good, hard,heat resistant, water which low, anddegradable naturally (Bahmid et al., 2013).
Cellulose on empty bunches of oil palm is
38,76 % (Bahmid et al., 2013). According
to Akmad (2012), capacity of empty
bunches oil palm in Indonesia about 20-23% of total palm oil production in indonesia(Wardani&Widiawati, 2012). Based on
BPS data in 2014 total production ofIndonesian palm oil is 18.661 million tons.
Dry jacfruits leaves has hig cellulose like
empty bunches of oil palm about 21,45 %(Sasongko et al., 2010).
Cellulose acetate can be made by theacetilation between cellulose and acetic
acid. Cellulose acetate highly influenced
by acetyl content and degrees ofsubtitution as it would affect on theoutcome of the production and solubility

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cellulose acetate in a solvent (Bahmid etal., 2013). According to Susanti (2003)
acetyl content in cellulose acetate
influenced by several factors among others
the ratio between cellulose and acetic acidanhydrous, acetylation time, and theinteraction of treatment factor (Bahmid etal., 2013). The optimal time to getcellulose acetate with the acetyl 40,108 %is 30 minutes (Bahmid et al., 2013).
Success of cellulose modification into
cellulose acetate can be characterizedusing Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR)(Muliawati, 2012) and Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) (Sasongko et al.,2010). If the analysis is groups C=O
viewed by wavelength 1759 cm-1 is thisshows acetylation of acetic acid anhydrous(Sasongko et al., 2010). With scale ofSEM 2000x can be seen fibers
morphology of cellulose acetate on the
micron size. Fibers morphology ofcellulose acetate shaped fiber cylindricaland a hollow (Sasongko et al., 2010).
Cellulose acetate is common material
recommended as biodegradable polymers.
Research showing that biodegradation ofcellulose acetate occurs in various the typeofenvironment
includingground,compost, and facilities wastewater
treatment (Morice et al., 2015). Cellulose
acetate sheets can relegated within 2-3
weeks with heavy reduction of 67 %(Morice et al., 2015). According toZenjian & Hamano (2003) cellulose
acetate made of the cotton degradable wellby the reduction of heavy sample 60 -70 %three weeks (Morice et al., 2015).
Cellulose
acetatefasterrelegatedcompared with polyethylene that takes
time to 1000 years to relegated naturally inthe environment (Sangale et al., 2012).

Methodology
The synthesis process of cellulose acetatestarted by extraction cellulose of empty
bunches of oil palm and dry jacfruits
leaves by heating in NaOH solution 12 %on the temperature 90-100oC bycomparison raw materials and NaOH
solution of 1 : 30 (b/v) for 3 hours to
deprive lignin. Then it be washed andheated back in H2O2 solution 10 % tobleaching on the temperature 80 - 90 oC for
1.5 hours by comparison materials andsolution H2O2 of 1 : 20 (b/v). Thencellulose obtained washed clean and driedin the oven on the temperature 105 oC for 6hours to remove the water. Cellulose
obtained weighed to know heavy cellulose
produced. The moisture content ofcellulose obtained by extending warm up
the temperature 105 oC to gain weight
constant. Making cellulose acetate begins
with the activation cellulose with 1 gram
cellulose heated and stirred in 15 ml acetic
acid glacial for 1 hour. The processcontinued with the addition of acetic acidand acetate anhydrous with comparison 2 :3 (v/v) and H2SO4 catalyst pekat as manyas 0.1 ml warming and continued for 30
minutes with a temperature that guarded
less than 50 oC.
Variable at this research is the comparison
between cellulose and acetic anhydrous by
1/5, 1/10, 1/15, 1/20 (b/v). The process ofacetylation was stopped by adding a
mixture of aquades and acetic acid glacialby comparison 1 : 2 (v/v) and heating
continued for 30 minutes in temperature
no more than 50 oC. After hydrolysis,
separation of cellulose acetate done withcentrifugal at speeds 1500 rpm for 15
minutes. Cellulose acetate washed until
clean that nothing smell acetic andProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

781

evaporate on the temperature 50 oC toremove the water. Characterization
cellulose acetate done by FTIR and SEM.
Cellulose acetate as many as 50 mg
wrapped in plastic breathable and buried insoil from sewer household wastes byadding a mixture of water, detergents 10%, and ammonia of 2 % at about 1 min/ml
continuously with variable of time 5, 10,
15 and 20 days. Cellulose acetate therelegation dried in an oven and weighed todetermine how mg that lost.
Result and Discuss
Cellulose Extraction
Cellulose fibers in this research is
extracted using variations NaOH solution
which serves to delignifikasi, the omissionof hemiselulosa fiber and othercomponents. Variation NaOH used is
NaOH 8, 10, 12, and 14 % (b/v).
Concentration NaOH chosen not exceed
17 % because the use of concentration
below on concentration was not undermine
or cause to degradation on cellulose(Hutomo, 2012). Empty bunches of oilpalm and dry jacfruits leaves each heatedin solution NaOH for 3 hours. Of heating
this was obtained cellulose fibers with asolution that is colored brown to blackish
formerly light-brown. Change color wascaused by browning namely the process ofoxidation reaction phenolic compounds byair. A reaction which occurs at process
delignifikasi is as follows (Riama et al.,2012 ).
Fiber + NaOH  cellulose + Alkohol +acid + residu
In this research, cellulose extracted fromempty bunches of oil palm reach amaximum of 36,383 % (figure 1) with

782

NaOH 12 % (b/v) and dry jacfruits leaves
7.523 % with NaOH 10 % (b/v). The
extraction cellulose of empty bunches ofoil palm approaching the maximum
cellulose in literature namely 38,76 %(Bahmid et al., 2013). On dry jacfruits
leaves, yield of cellulose is still below thecellulose dry jacfruits leaves fromliterature 21,45 % (Sasongko et al., 2010).
The state of structure dry jacfruits leaves
cellulose that tends to amorphous causing
the molecules bound weaker than crystal
structures in empty bunches of oil palm sothat more the cellulose dissolved in NaOH.
So, NaOH concentration advocated forcellulose extraction is 10 %.

Figure 1. Corelation NaOH concentration
with yield of cellulose
Synthesis of Cellulose Acetate
Production of cellulose acetate done withthe acetylation. Acetylation begins withthe activation 1 gr ofcellulose added 15 ml
acetic acid glacial and stirred by strirer
aimed at inflating cellulose fibers to makebroad the surface increased and reducehydrogen bonds intermoleculer (Bahmid etal., 2013) so that the tying acetyl group be
maximum. Stirring made over 60 minutes.
The process of followed by acetylation the
additional a mixture of glacial acetic andacetic acid anhydrous by comparison 2: 3
and 0,1 ml H2SO4 as a catalyst. It is basedon previous studies that addition acetic

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acid about 5-20 % heavy cellulose will
help in speed up for acetylation (Bahmid etal., 2013). When acetylation, acetic acidanhydrous will protonized with thesulphuric acid forms carbonium ion.
Carbonium ion will react with cellulose
forms cellulose acetate (Nurhayati et al.,2014).
The acetylation process lasted for 30
minutes. The amount of acetic acidanhydrous added according to researchvariable the 5, 10, 15, and 20 ml (based onb/v). The acetylation process it does not
require heating but fairly by stirring asheat reaction produced enough to process.
The yield of cellulose acetate to research
can be seen in figure 2. Yields acomparison between weights cellulose
acetate obtained by weights cellulose usedin the acetylation process (Bahmid et al.,2013).
The increasing number of a reactant will
upping the odds of the collision between areactant that accelerates speed reaction
thus produced yield larger. But if thenumber is too greater and will speed
reaction faster and having no the productwill cause some products degraded andreduce yield total. In this study yield ofempty bunches of oil palm cellulose
acetate small enough to the ratio
cellulose/acetate anhydrous 1 / 5 of 7.36 %and went to the ratio of 1/ 0 16.2%. On
ratios 1/15 yield empty bunches of oilpalm cellulose acetate declining to 15.02%
and fall on ratios 1/20 be 9,59%. So steady
empty bunches of oil palm yield to get to
the ratio 1/10. On dry jacfruits leaves yield
get to the ratio of 1/5 42,72% anddecreased on larger ratios. In previous
studies (Bahmid et al., 2013) yield of

cellulose steady obtained on ratios
cellulose/acetate anhydrous on 1/10.
Cellulose solid forming a structure
microcristal
withregional
orderamorphous on that low (Suryanto, 2016).
Dry jacfruits leaves cellulose more
amorphous tend to be more reactive thanempty bunches of oil palm more
crystalline. So that, more dry jacfruits
cellulose molecules that react with areactant (acetic acid anhydrous) produce
cellulose acetate compared empty bunchesof oil palm.

Figure2.

Corelation
ratio
ofcellulose/acetic anhydrous
with yield of cellulose
acetate (a). empty bunchesof oil palm, (b). dry
jacfruits leaves

Characterization of Cellulose Acetate
FTIR (Fourier Transform Infra Red)
Cellulose
Cellulose composed by three the functions
C-O, O-H, and C-H. The analysis of FTIR
against cellulose empty bunches of oilpalm and dry jacfruits leaves is presented
in figure 4.7. Of pictures 3 shows that
cellulose empty bunches of oil palm
indicated by absorption at the numbers
3334,06 cm-1 to group O-H, 2895,93 cm-1
to C-H, 1029,63 cm-1 to group C-O andProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

783

dry jacfruits leaves on 3334,86 cm-1 togroup O-H, 2911,27 cm-1 to C-H, 1027,34
cm-1 to group C-O. In this study celluloseof empty bunches of oil palm and dry
jacfruits leaves having absorption at
panjag waves similar. Research conductedby Bahmid et al. in 2014 against cellulose
extracted from empty bunches of oil palm
there are infiltration to the O-H at the 3348
cm-1, C-H on 2901 cm-1 and C-O on 1065
cm-1.

2013). Something similar happened toresearch conducted by Nurhayati et al. in2014 producing cellulose acetate ofsewage treatment where happened to theabsorption sharp at the carbonyl group
C=O showed the acetylation. Cellulose
acetate from the study showed the same
approach with cellulose commercial
infiltration demonstrated by an absence of
sharp at the O-H and C=O and sharp
happened infiltration also in acetyl group
C-O at wavelengths 1227,73 cm-1. Change
the function in a spectrum cellulose andcellulose acetate dry jackfruit leaves.These
differences is the forming of a the group
C=O ( the carbonyl group ) at wavelengths
1728,82 cm-1. FTIR spectrum can beproven that the process acetylation
cellulose dry jackfruit leaves havemanaged to be done.

Figure 3. FTIR spectrum on empty
bunches of oil palm (a) cellulose(b) cellulose acetate
Cellulose acetate
Based on the graphic in figure 3 and 4, thesuccess of acetylation seen from before
and after the acetylation process(Kannamba, 2015). Cellulose acetate
composed of four the functions C-O, O-H,
C-H, and C=O.
From picture 3 seen change the function ina spectrum cellulose and cellulose acetate
empty bunches of oil palm. These
differences is the forming of a the group
C=O (the carbonyl group) at wavelengths
1732,93 cm-1 on cellulose acetate and noton cellulose. At length 1732,93 cm-1 wasseen the depth peak are high as well as atwavelengths 3394,97 cm-1. This shows thatthe majority of the O-H on cellulose
subtituted by acetyl group (Bahmid et al.,784

Figure 4. FTIR spectrum on dry jackfruit
leaves (a) cellulose (b) cellulose
acetateSEM Analysis
In figure (a), the surface cellulose acetate
empty bunches of oil palm
lookedcrowded with pores who disappeared.
Cellulose acetate of dry jackfruit leaves
looks more solid with color quite equally
and a little shiny. From the description
morphology cellulose acetate empty
bunches of oil palm and dry jackfruit
leaves it appears that cellulose acetate dry

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

jackfruit leaves
harder than empty
bunches of oil palm. The result of thisresearch have a difference with research
conducted Bahmid et al.(2013) that
cellulose acetate empty bunches of oil
palmyielding fibers perforated.
According to Rachmawaty et al.(2013)
morphology membrane obtained from
cellulose acetate plant hyacinth showedpores in diameter 1-10 μm. cellulose
acetate morphology of empty bunches ofoil palm and dry jackfruit leaves wasdifferent as different types of crops
selulosanya sources. According to Vallejos
et al.(2012) no change form ormorphology cellulose acetate because inreaction of acetylation would only acetylgroup to the molecule polymer cellulose
and not change morphology. So, cellulose
acetate empty bunches of oil palm and dry
jackfruit leaves
having specificmorphology.
Cellulose acetate empty bunches of oilpalm on ratios this 1/10 showed fiber
denser and the surface wavy with poreswider. It is like research conducted by
Natalia et al.(2015) where by comparison
cellulose/acetate anhydrous = 1/16
produce cellulose acetate with pores
greater than 1/32. While cellulose acetate
dry jackfruit leaves show results that thesame will and yet seemingly fiber shapedring so clearly lined up lined. The
horizontal looking of the is cellulose
acetate with acetyl group while fiber ring
shaped is a compound chromophorearomatic seems clearly when almost all
cellulose react with acetic acid anhydrous.
A compound chromophore aromatic dye
cellulose was still carried away after the
bleaching. A compound chromophorearomatic was allegedly is a compound
phenol form lignin leaves and still brought

in cellulose of dry jackfruit leaves. To
know exactly the compound werenecessary an analysis of the composition
cellulose the extraction before acetylation
and analysis composition cellulose acetatewith SEM-EDX or XRD.

(a)

(e)

(f)

(b)

Figure 5.

(c)

(g)

(d)

(h)

Cellulose acetat SEM result ofempty bunches of oil palm
(a,b,c,d) dan dry jackfruit leaves(e,f,g,h):selulosa/asetat(a)/(e).
anhidrat

rasio
=

1/5;

(b)/(f). 1/10; (c)/(g). 1/15; (d)/(h).
1/20

The degradation cellulose acetate
As an alternative on substitute formicrobeads polyethylene, cellulose acetate
must have the trait of being readily
described by environment naturally by
microorganisms. So, testing done to burial

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

785

in the soil that taken of a drain fromhousehold a number of one liter of in a
glass container. 50 mg cellulose acetatewrapped in breathable plastics and wasburied in the land.

leaves nangka dry equal to 1/5. Cellulose
acetate is an ingredient bioplastic capableof relegated to 69 % that bunches of oilpalm and 63,2 % that dry jackfruit leaves
based on the day 20th.

The land was drained a mixture ofwater, detergen, and slightly ammoniac
continuously. Sample buried for 5, 10, 15,
and 20 days to acknowledge the number ofcellulose acetate that is decomposed by
microorganisms in a media the ground.
Samples have been buried in accordance
variable day in washing clean and dioven
at a temperature less than 50oC, thenweighed heavy the rest of cellulose acetatethat is not yet decomposes. From theseresults can be calculated how cellulose
acetate that is decomposed by theenvironment. The number of cellulose
acetate that is degraded can be seen on afigure 6. Cellulose acetate suffereddegradation until 69 % and 63.2 % to 20thday.

References
Bahmid, N.A. 2014. Pengembangan
Nanofiber Selulosa Asetat dari
Selulosa Tandan Kosong Kelapa
Sawit untuk Pembuatan Bioplastik.
Bogor : IPB. Pp. 15-18.
Gaol, M.R.., Sitorus, R., Yanthi. 2013.
Pembuatan Selulosa Asetat dari αselulosa Tandan Kosong Kelapa
Sawit. Departemen Teknik Kimia.
Medan : Universitas Sumatera
Utara. pp. 33-38.
Nazir, M.S. 2013. Eco-friendly Extraction
and Characterization of Celullose
from Oil Palm Empty Fruit
Bunches. BioResources8(2). pp.
2161-2172.
Ngadi, N. dan Lani, N.S. 2014. Extraction
and Characterization of Cellulose
from Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB)
Fiber. Jurnal Teknologi. pp.35-39.

Figure 6. Corelation day with cellulose
acetate mass lost
Conclusions
Cellulose acetate resulting from bunches
empty palm oil and dry jackfruit leaves
having percent acetyl around 39,8 % andin accordance with SNI 39-40 %. Making
yield largest cellulose acetate empty
bunches of oil palm is on the ratio
cellulose/acetate anhydride 1/10, and786

Morice C.H., Radigue B. & Winckler C.
(2015).
Cellulose
AcetateTechnology to Replace Banned PE
beads. p. 1-4.
Sasongko
W.T.,
Yusiati.
2010.
Optimalisasi Peningkatan Tanin
Daun Nangka dengan Protein
Bovine Serum Albumin Protein.
Yogyyakarta : UGM. p. 156.
Istiqlalah,A.
2006.
Biodegradasi
Membran Selulosa Asetat Berpori
dari
LimbahKulit
Nanas

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Menggunakan Bacillus
Bogor : IPB. pp. 1-12.

subtilis.

Buletin Peternakan Vol.34 (3).
p.156.

Puls, J. 2011. Degradation of cellulose
acetat –based material : A review. J
polum Environ. pp. 152-154.

Wardani, A.P., dan Widiawati, D. (2014).
Pemanfaatan
TandanKosong
Kelapa Sawit sebagai Material
Tekstil dengan Pewarna Alam
untuk Produk Kriya. Jurnal Tingkat
Sarjana bidang Senirupa dan
Desain. p.1.

Putera, R.D. 2012. Ekstraksi serat selulosa
dari tanaman eceng gondok(Eichornia
Crassipes)
denganvariasi pelarut. Depok : FTI-DTK.
pp.29-35.
Bahmid, N.A., Maddu, A., Syamsu, K.
2013. Production of cellulo acetatefrom oil palm empty bunch fruitbunches cellulose. pp. 12-18.
Pinnata, R. dan Damayanti, A. 2012.
Pemanfaatan
Selulosa
AsetatEceng Gondok sebagai Bahan
Baku Pembuatan Membrane untuk
Desalinasi.
JurusanTeknikLingkungan. Surabaya : ITS. pp. 78.
Sakai,

K. 1996. Biodegradation of
Cellulose Asetat by Neisseria sicca.
Bioscience, biotechnology, andbiochemistry. Taylor & Francis.
pp. 6-9.

Barkalow, D.G., Rowel, R.M., dan Young,
R.A. (1989). A new Approach for
the Production of Cellulose Acetate: Acetylation of Mechanical Pulp
with Subsequent isolation of
Cellulose Acetate by Differential
Solubility. Journal of Applied
Polymer Science, Vol. 37, p.1009.
Sasongko,
W.T.,
Yusiati,
L.M.,
Bachruddin, Z., dan Mugiono.
(2010). Optimalisai Peningkatan
Tanin Daun Nangka dengan
Protein Bovin Serum Albumin.

Tresnawati,
A.
(2006).
KajianInframerah
Spektroskopi
Transformasi
Fourierdan
Mikroskop
SusuranElektron
Membran Selulosa Asetat dari
Limbah Nanas. p. 20.
Mohan S.K., dan Srivastava T. (2010).
Microbial
deteriorationdandegradation of polymeric materials.
J Biochem tech. p.3.
Mulawati E,C. (2012). Pembuatan dan
Karakterisasi
MembranNanofiltrasi untuk Pengolahan Air.
p. 5.
Widyaningsih, S. dan Radiman, C.L.
(2007). Pembuatan Selulosa Asetat
dari
Pulp
Kenaf
(Hibiscus
cannabinus). p.10.
Gaol M.R., Sitorus, R., Surya, Y.S., dan
Manurung, R. (2013). Pembuatan
selulosa asetat dari α-selulosa
tandan kosong kelapa sawit. p. 2.
Syamsu, K. dan Kuryani, T. (2014).
Pembuatan biofilm selulosa asetat
dari selulosa microbial nata decassava. p. 6.

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THE 15TH INTERNATONAL CONFERENCE QUALITY IN RESARCH (QIR) 2017
DEVELOPMENT METHOD OF MAKING DYE SENSITIZED SOLAR CELL(DSSC) USING CARBON AS COUNTER ELECTRODE

Wisnu Anandaa, Anies Mutiaria, Pramujo WidiatmokobaCenter for Material and Technical Product, Ministry of Industry of Indonesia, Jl
Sangkuriang 14 Bandung West Java, Indonesiab
Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute Technology Bandung, Jl. Ganesha 10
Bandung West Java, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Dye Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) is known as one of the promising third generation typesof solar cell which is being developed nowadays. The main challenge on the developmentof DSSC is to increase solar-electricity conversion efficiency. To reduce cost of cell, Ptbased counter electrode needs to be substituted with carbon. It is identified that structure ofelectrode affects to DSSC performance. Hence, electrode deposition method is important.
Our study therefore identifies effect of electrode preparation method on the performance of
DSSC. The method will be important for scaling-up the cell size. Working and counterelectrode were prepared from TiO2 and activated carbon, respectively. Both TiO2 andactivated carbon were coated on transparent conductive glass using two methods, i.e. bar
coating and doctor blade coating. Eosin yellowish and iodide-triiodide redox couple wereused as dye and electrolyte, respectively. Crystalline structure of TiO2, surface area ofcarbon particles, and electrochemical properties were examined using X-ray diffractometer,surface area analyzer, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. We found that doctor
blade coating method provide higher performance of DSSC compared with bar coating.
The efficiency of prepared DSSC reached 2.76%.
Keywords: Solar Cell; Dye Sensitized Solar Cell; Carbon; Counter Electrode; Bar Coating;
Doctor Blading

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1. INTRODUCTION
Increasing global demand for energy security is facing depletion of fossil-based energy
reserve (i.e. oil, coal and natural gas). This condition drives the increasing demand on
renewable, low-cost and omnipresent energy sources. One of the most anticipated ways tosecure the future world energy supply is utilization of solar energy. Photovoltaic device is
attractive approach for the solar utilization as it can directly convert solar energy into
electricity. Globally, the photovoltaic production growth reaches 47% per year (Platzer,2015). The growth is expected to increase to meet the challenge of solar cells installationworldwide of 200 gigawatts in 2020 and two terawatts in 2050 (Abermann, 2013).
There are two types of commercially available photovoltaic cell. The first is silicon waferbased photovoltaic cells i.e. single-crystal and polycrystalline silicon wafers. The cells
already have high efficiency, 20% -21.5% (Abermann 2013). High energy for processing
the cells and waste issue however become constraint for producing silicon wafer-based
photovoltaic. The second type of commercial photovoltaic is made using thin film
technology. This technology has been demonstrating the use of less than 1% of siliconcompared with the requirement of raw material for silicon wafer type (Nathan S. Lewis
2005). The key feature of second generation photovoltaic is the utilization of certain
materials with high optical absorption coefficient as solar absorber. Materials such as
amorphous silicon (a-Si) (laboratory record efficiency of 12 %), Cadmium Telluride(CdTe) (efficiency of 17%) and group chalcopyrite such as Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS)(efficiency 22.3%) (Kamada et al. 2016) have been explored. Compared with the siliconwafer based-photovoltaic, thin film photovoltaic has obvious drawback of lower efficiency.
To reduce the production cost meanwhile maintains high solar-electricity conversion
efficiency, third generation solar cells are being developed. One of them is Dye-SensitizedSolar Cells (DSSC). The DSSC was first developed in 1970s using oxide semiconductors,
dye-based sensitizer, and electrolyte (Bose et al. 2015). A publicly noticed breakthroughs
has occured in 1991, when Michael Grätzel and Brian O’Regan showed improved
conversion efficiency of 7.12% (Ye et al. 2015). DSSC are expected to be used for futureclean energy. Its performance is primarily depend on the material and quality of thesemiconductor electrode, the sensitizer dye used, and fabrication. In DSSC, the dye
sensitizer plays a keyrole in absorbing sunlight and transforms solar energy into electricalenergy. Numerous metal complexes and organic dyes have been synthesized and utilized assensitizers. Up to now, the highest efficiencies for DSSC have been obtained using Rucontaining sensitizer compounds absorbed onto Nano crystalline TiO2, reached efficiencyof 11–12 % (Kalaivani et al. 2016).
DSSC is different to conventional PV cells, with the semiconductor accomodated both
functions as absorber layer and charge transfer. DSSCs required different component forthe photoreceptor and charge carrier. This separation of functions leads to lower purity
demands on raw materials and consequently makes DSSCs a low-cost alternative. Becauseof the low cost, relatively easy preparation, good performance, and environmental benignity
compared with traditional photovoltaic devices, DSSCs have aroused intense interest andProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284789

been regarded as one of the most prospective solar cells among the third-generation PV
technologies (Wu et al. 2015).

Figure 1 Typical configuration of a DSSC (Kosyachenko 2011)
The current DSSC design involves a set of different layers of components stacked in serial,
including glass substrate, transparent conducting layer, TiO2 nanoparticles, dyes,
electrolyte, and counter electrode covered with sealing gasket (Kosyachenko 2011). The
typical configuration is shown in Fig. 1. In the front of the DSSC, there is a layer of glass
substrate which covers a thin layer of Transparent Conductive Oxide (TCO). Its allows
sunlight penetrates into the cell while conducts electron to outer circuit. The commercial
TCOs are prepared from Fluor-doped Tin Oxide (FTO), Indium-doped Tin Oxide (ITO),
and Aluminum-doped Zinc Oxide (AZO) (Hofstetter & Morkoc 2010). The ITO has thebest performance among all TCOs substrates (Bright 2007). However, Indium in ITO isregarded as rare metal, toxic and expensive metal. Therefore some research groups prefers
FTO rather than ITO (Kosyachenko, 2011).
For semiconductor material, nanocrystalline-TiO2 has been commonly chosen to provide
high light capture efficiency. It has been fabricated by hydrothermal autoclaving andscreen-printing deposition (Daniyan et al. 2013). Screen-printing of TiO2 is a widespreadindustrially-applied method because of the fast-printing technique and of the coating
facility with fine controlling of the position and thickness (Ito et al. 2007).
Dye molecules are the key component of a DSSC. It can increase cell efficiency with theirabilities to absorb visible light photons. Early DSSC designs involved transition metal
coordinated compounds (e.g., ruthenium polypyridyl complexes) as sensitizers. The
compounds have strong visible absorption, long excitation lifetime and efficient metal-toligand charge transfer (O’Regan & Grätzel, 1991; Grätzel, 2005; Ito et al., 2008). However,high cost of Ru dyes (>$1,000/g) is one significant factor hindering the large-scale
implementation of DSSC (Dileep & Reddy 2015). Eosin Yellow can be an alternative since
it’s cheaper and showed a good performance as a photoanoda (Arote et al. 2014).
Redox couple of I-/I3- in organic solvents is commonly used as electrolyte. The electrolyte
has good ion diffusion and infiltrate well with TiO2 film which is important to keep highest

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efficiency. Limited long-term stability due to volatilization of liquid however may hinder
wider application (Konno et al., 2007).
In other side of DSSC, glass-covered thin layer platinum (Pt) is commonly used as acatalyst to regenerate I- and as the cathode material (Thomas et al. 2014). Recently, the Pt isconsidered as the best material to gain efficient devices, despite of its high price.
Conducting polymers can also be applied as counter electrode. Polyaniline film on stainlesssteel by electrochemical polymerization bas been reported as a counter electrode of DSSC(Qin et al., 2010). Meanwhile, carbon has been proposed as ideal substitute for the cathodematerial. Carbon black, carbon nanotubes and other types of carbon have been explored(Imoto et al. 2003). In 2006, Grätzel’s group employs carbon black as the material ofcounter electrode, and reaches an efficiency of 9.1%, which is 83% of efficiency using Pt(Yu et al., 2009). To our knowledge, the information on the effect of carbon electrodepreparation on the performance of DSSC is less available.
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
Working and counter electrodes, dye solution, and electrolyte solution have been prepared.
Identification of TiO2 and characterization of DSSC have been conducted using X-ray
diffraction, surface area analyzer, and electrochemical measurement.
2.1 Preparation of working electrode and counter electrode
Working and counter electrodes were prepared from particles of TiO2 and commercial
activated carbon, respectively. Before being deposited, the FTO glass resistance is tested byusing multimeter to determine the conductive side. Counter electrode was prepared from0.25 g carbon powder and 15 mL dimethylformamide. The carbon-coated counter electrodewas heated in electric furnace at 160 °C for 40 minutes. Working electrode was preparedfrom paste of 1 g of TiO2 powder and 30 ml of acetic acid deposited onto conductive glass
surface. Sintering of the working electrode was conducted at temperature of 450 °C for 30
minutes. Preparation of electrodes made using two methods i.e. bar coating and doctorblade coating. Both working and counter electrodes were prepared on conductive glass withdimension of 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm and 10 cm x 7 cm. Schematic diagram of particle coated
TCO is presented in Figure 2.
2.2 Preparation of dye sensitized
Eosin Yellowish solution was prepared by dissolving the dye into ethanol. The solution
composition is 0.138 g Eosin Yellowish in 20 mL ethanol.
2.3 Preparation of electrolyte solution
Electrolyte solution is consisting of redox couple of iodine and Iodide (I- / I3-). First, 6 g
potassium iodide and 3 g of iodine was mixed and stirred for 1 hour. KI solution was added

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791

to a solution of iodine-acetonitrile with iodine concentration of 0.05 M. The prepared
solution then was stored in sealed bottles to prevent evaporation.

Figure 2 Scale-up scheme particle layer on a conductive glass size (a) small (b) big.
Comparison of the size of the image represents the actual size comparison.
2.4 Immersion of working electrode with dye solution
The TiO2 deposited working electrode was immersed in the dye solution to allow dye
attachment. The dye was allowed to permeate and dry on the TiO2 layer for 24 hours, andthe dye-coated working electrode was ready for the next stage.
2.5 Assembling of DSSC
The working and counter electrodes were stacked to form a solar cell. The DSSC
was assembled to be sandwich-like structure by placing the Dye-TiO2-coated working
electrode and carbon-coated counter electrode. Both electrodes were then clamped using apaper clip. Electrolyte solution was pipette dropped between the electrodes.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
We prepare the electrodes using bar coating and doctor blade techniques. The activatedcarbon can be coated successfully on the surface of counter electrode with both techniques.
A layer of carbon that formed relatively stable and does not exfoliate after exposed toheating process at 160 oC for 40 minutes. The carbon layer also relatively stable, even after
exposed to electrolyte.

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Figure 3 Working Electrode Layer of Carbon to the Method (a) Bar Coating (b) Doctor
Blading Coating
TiO2 coating for working electrode are more difficult than carbon coating. The main
problem to be solved is cracking that occured after the heating process at 500 °C. Based on
qualitative observations, the conductive glass deformed after heating, caused breakage ofTiO2 layer (see Figure 4). Statistically, the successful deposition with the 500 °C heatingprocess is one to four. To overcome this problem, the heating temperature was thenlowered to 450 °C. Decreasing heating temperature managed to eliminate the effects ofdeformation of the conductive glass, as well as the cracking.

Figure 4 Duplication TiO2 depositions after Heating Process at 500 °C for 30 minutes with
the Doctor Blade Coating Method
Cracking the TiO2 layer is supposed also affected by the evaporation of acetic acid solvent.
The solvent evaporates leaving behind pores under a layer of TiO2. Rapid heating and the
distributed particle size aggravate the condition. Further effects of these conditions can be

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284793

seen in the immersion process TiO2 layer in the dye solution. These layers are not strongly
attached to the conductive glass and exfoliate after immersion for 12 hours (see Figure 5).
To overcome these obstacles, the coating method is modified to provide slight pressure on
the pasta particles which stick better on conductive glass. A simple modification has
increased the chances of successful coating to 100% (in four experimentals). The examples
of working electrode prepared with the modified TiO2 coating technique are presented in
Figure 6.

Figure 5 Results TiO2 Immersion in the Dye Method (a) Doctor Blading Coating (b) Bar
Coating

Figure 6 Results duplication TiO2 immersion in the dye with a modified method of Bar
Coating (a) Experiment 1 and (b) Experiment 2

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The next experiment was testing the performance of the DSSC. Current-Voltage curve (I-V
curve), including Open circuit voltage (Voc) and short circuit current (Isc), was measured
using digital multimeter over a given load under 100W halogen lamp. The load was varied
to the circuit by using a variable resistor.

Figure 7 Pair of electrodes with the method (a) Bar Coating, (b) Doctor Blade Coating, (c)the typical range of DSSC and (d) an example of the open circuit voltage measurements
We test the big size DSSC cells prepared using bar coating and doctor blade coating(Figure 7). The first experiment with cell method produces Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) in
the range of 10-20 mV. This result is much smaller when compared to Voc of small size cellwhich reaches 400 mV. Modification was carried out on the second experiment by
adjusting the distance between the electrodes and improved circuit contacts. Thisadjustment successfully increased the Voc to 47.7 mV. However, the cell voltage dropped to
8 mV when tested for I-V curve. Repair cell coupling method is currently the focus of anexperiment to improve Voc. Meanwhile, the DSSC prepared using doctor blading coating
method does not give any voltage. It is supposed that the dye does not adsorb well on asmooth surface of doctor blade coating results. After adjustment of immersion time to 48
hours, the prepared DSSC produced Voc of 34 and 63 mV for bar coating and doctor blade
technique, respectively. Small Isc (30 – 125 um) indicated that the system is still facing highresistance problem.
Comparing with small size DSSC, the big size DSSC performance is significantly low. The
efficiency of small size DSSC with commercial activated carbon-based reached 2.76%,
with Isc of 0.423 mA and Voc of 400 mV. Figure 8 shows the I-V curve generated using
commercial carbon with mesh size of 170.

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795

Figure 8 shows the I-V curve generated from small size DSSC using commercial carbon
with mesh size of 170.
3.1 Result of BET
Qualitatively, curve adsorption-desorption isotherms of nitrogen to commercial activatedcarbon samples shown in Figure 9 shows that the sample follows the curve of type I
isotherm (Langmuir type). In the early stages of an increase in the volume of nitrogen
adsorption quite sharply due to increased gas pressure. This indicates that the pore size ofparticles mainly consist of micro pores. With this size, interaction between electrolyte andelectrodes surface is hindered. Hence, the performance of DSSC becomes low. We need toincrease the pore size into mesopore by chemical or physical treatment to improve diffusion
and interaction on the surface of electrode.

Figure 9. Isotherm curve adsorption-desorption sample of commercial active
carbon796

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3.2 Result of EIS
Typical graph EIS of DSSC has three peaks. The first peak indicates the electron transfer
process in counter electrode/electrolyte interface, the second peak showed diffusion
isotherm on the TiO2 layer and the reverse reaction isotherm with the result of oxidation at
the interface of TiO2/electrolyte, and a third peak I3- describe diffusion in electrolyte
solution. A systematic approach was also performed to characterize the test results of theEIS. Based on the results in Figure 10, we indicate the three semi-circles. While the peak
one and three are much smaller than the second one, it can be said that the charge diffusion
occurred at the interface of carbon / electrolyte and FTO / electrolyte and electrolyte
diffusion I3- significantly affect the performance of DSSC. This EIS result seems inagreement with the BET result.

Figure 10. Results of EIS of DSSC with commercial activated carbon counter electrode
Figure 11 shows the results of XRD analysis of TiO2 powder, which is used for coating theworking electrode. The structure of TiO2 powder is dominated by anatase. The use of TiO2
nanoparticles in the anatase phase of DSSC potentially increases efficiency of solarelectricity conversion due to its high absorption capability (Kosyachenko 2011). The TiO2
anatase phase has higher photocatalytic activity than the rutile and brookite phases (Kavan
et al. 2014). TiO2 with nanopore structure will increase the performance of the DSSC
system because higher surface area. Therefore, it will increase the amount of absorbed dye
as well as solar light.

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797

Figure 11 The results of XRD analysis of TiO2

4. CONCLUSION
We successfully prepared DSSC with carbon based-electrode. The result of scale up DSSC
is still lower than small size DSSC. Based on the experiment result, the charge diffusiontransfer from electrolyte to electrode surface is the main challenge during the DSSC scaleup process. We also found that deposition method significantly affects performance of
DSSC. Therefore we will explore the deposition technique further to achieve higher
conversion efficiency.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by 2016 State Budget of Center for Material and Technical
Product, Indonesia Ministry of Industry. We thank our colleagues from Electrochemical
Laboratory, Institute Technology of Bandung (assisted by Mhd Ridho Utomo and Hilham
Zamriko Koto) who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research. We
thank Jumail Soba, Elmi Cahyaningsih and Sanny Febriany for assistance with particulartechnique and methodology.

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6. REFERENCES
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Dileep, A. & Reddy, M.D., 2015. Dye Sysentized Solar Cell ( Dyssc ). , 5(11), pp.43–48.
Hofstetter, D. & Morkoc, H., 2010. ZnO Devices and Applications : A Review of Current
Status and Future Prospects. , (7), pp.1255–1268.
Imoto, K. et al., 2003. High-performance carbon counter electrode for dye-sensitized solar
cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 79(4), pp.459–469.
Ito, S. et al., 2007. Fabrication of Screen-Printing Pastes From TiO 2 Powders for DyeSensitised Solar Cells.
Kalaivani, J. et al., 2016. TiO2 based dyesensitized solar cell using natural dyes.
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http://nanojournal.ifmo.ru/en/articles-2/volume7/7-4/paper12/.
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Efficiency Beyond 22%. In Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC) IEEE 43rd.
Kavan, L. et al., 2014. Electrochemical Characterization of TiO 2 Blocking Layers for DyeSensitized Solar Cells. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, p.140114142307002.
Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp4103614.
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Nathan S. Lewis, 2005. Basic Research Needs for Solar Energy Utilization “Report of the
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Platzer, M.D., 2015. US Solar Photovoltaic Manufacturing: Industry Trends, Global
Competition, Federal Support.
Thomas, S. et al., 2014. A review on counter electrode materials in dye-sensitized solar
cells. Journal of Materials Chemistry A: Materials for Energy and Sustainability,2(13), pp.4474–4490.
Wu, J. et al., 2015. Electrolytes in dye-sensitized solar cells. Chemical Reviews, 115(5),pp.2136–2173.
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Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2014.09.001.

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EMULSION STABILITY OF FUNGICIDE FROM EUGENOL AND CITRONELLAOIL IN 350 EC FORMULATION
Yenny Melianaa, Savitria, Melati Septiyantia, Feni Amriania, Syahrul Aimana, Veny LuvitabaResearch Center for Chemistry, Indonesian Institute of Sciencesb

Research Center for Metrology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences

ABSTRACTThe emulsion stability of fungicide formula from eugenol and citronella oil had been studied.
Eugenol and citronella are well known as active ingredients from clove and lemongrass oil,respectively. Their ability for fungus removal had been well recognized. Eugenol andcitronella dissolved imperfectly in pegasol and ethanol, thus emulsifier surfactants are
required to form an emulsion system of fungicide formula. Polyethylene glycol mono oleate(PMO) as non-ionic surfactants and methyl ester sulfonate (MES) as an-ionic surfactants are
employed in present study. The emulsion system has the optimum stability in addition of
surfactants ratio, PMO and MES, at 9:1 respectively. Moreover, the dispersion phase of thesecompounds (in 350 EC) is stable in emulsion system for 180 minutes. Further study, as theapplication, the performance and residues in plants, waters, and soil of pesticide’s current
formulation will be evaluated to acquire more valuable data which support the pesticide
potential application.
Keywords: emulsion stability; fungicide formula; eugenol; citronella; emulsifer surfactants.
1. INTRODUCTION
Fungicide is a pesticide group which inhibits fungal growth by damaging the fungal cell or
preventing its life cycle. The use of synthetic or chemical fungicides is a common use inthese past years. It is already used for fungal control in world wide to protect crops and otheragriculture products (Martínez 2012). Chemical fungicide causes environmental and humanhealth issues due to residue trace on the crops for human consumption. Moreover, theresistency of fungal towards the synthetic fungicides is even more increasing (Zabka et al.
2014). Thereby, botanical extract based fungicides show negligible toxicity and less impact
for human, other organisms and environmental. The new alternative is highly encouraged byusing natural and ecofriendly products, like essential oil. Essential oils are volatile secondary
metabolites produced in plants which can protect plants from pathogens, insects and solar
radiation (Juárez et al. 2015).
Essential oil contain citronella from thyme, peppermint and lemongrass has antifungal
activity against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Monilinia
fructicola, Rhizopus stolonifer and Penicillium in avocado and peach plant (Sellamuthu et al.
2013). Citronella based essential oil also has strong antifungal effects against Aspergillus
niger ATCC 16404 by destroying cell wall of A. Niger hyphae and working on mainorganelles to eliminate the hypae cell (Li et al. 2012). Another natural compound that has
antifungal activity is eugenol which is main component of clove oil, cinnamon, basil andnutmeg. Eugenol has been reported to restrain the growth of Eschercia coli, Listeria
monocytogenes, Lactobacillus sakei, wood decay fungi and Botrytis cinerea (Wang et al.
2010).
The limitation of active agent from essential oil is its properties that hardly dissolved inwater. It is very important to develop stable formulation to increase the antimicrobial or
antifungal efficacy. Formulating water insolubled active agent is an essential factor in theprocess of developing effective fungicide (Hu et al. 2016). Emulsion concentrate is

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considered as economic fungicide formulation, since it can be spontaneously dilutted in waterand practically applied (Allawzi et al. 2016). Emulsion is a system which contains oil, waterand surfactant. Surfactant role is to decrease the interfacial tension between oil and water tocreate smaller droplets and it is able to stabilize the emulsion system (Gupta et al. 2016).
Stability is one of significant component in emulsion system because it is tend to breakdown
overtime due to physicochemical mechanism (Restu et al. 2015). Many researches investigate
the efficacy of eugenol and citronella oil (Koul et al. 2008; Barbas et al. 2017; Licciardello et
al. 2013), however it is apparent that there is a knowledge gap regarding the role of surfactant
agent adition to particular essential oils like eugenol and citronella oil which affected toemulsion stability of pesticide formula and simplifies its further application.
This study aimed to investigate the stability of emulsion concentrate system of eugenol andcitronella oil based fungicide in 350 EC formulation with polyethylene glycol mono oleate(PMO) as non-ionic surfactants and methyl ester sulfonate (MES) as an-ionic surfactants.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Material
The material used in this study are eugenol USP and citronella oil as the active agent waspurchased from local essential oil industry. Polyethylene glycol mono oleate (PMO) andmethyl ester sulfonate (MES) as surfactant was given by polymer chemistry research group,
research center for chemistry LIPI, and ethanol (Merck, Indonesia, 96% wt/v), water andpegasol were used as the solvent. The composition of respective material is shown on Table 1
and Table 2 below.
Table 1 Composition Variation of Fungicide with Ethanol (%w/w)
I
II
III
IV
Eugenol
25
25
25
25
Citronella oil
10
10
10
10
Pegasol
15
15
15
15
Ethanol
40
40
40
40
MES
5
4
3
2
PMO
5
6
7
8

V
25
10
15
40
1
9

Table 2 Composition Variation of Fungicide without Ethanol (%w/w)
I
II
III
IV
Eugenol
25
25
25
25
Citronella oil
10
10
10
10
Pegasol
55
55
55
55
MES
5
4
3
2
PMO
5
6
7
8

V
25
10
55
1
9

2.2 Procedure
2.2.1. Formulation of Fungicide 350 EC
Formulation of fungicide consist of two solution. For first solution, eugenol and citronella oil
were mixed with pegasol and MES in beaker glass and homogenized with speed 8000 rpm
for 15 minutes. For second solution, ethanol 96% and PMO were mixed by magnetic stirer
for 15 minutes. Both solution were mixed and homogenized for 30 minutes. For the second
formulation, the procedure was repeated but without ethanol 96% addition.

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2.2.2 Stability Test of Fungicide 350 EC
Ten test tube were prepared for the stability test for all formulation. Each test tube was addedby 10 ml water and 1 ml fungicide. The test tube was mixed manually by shaking the test
tube until spontaneous emulsion formed. The creaming formation is recorded every 10
minutes for 3 hours. The best formulation from Formulation I and Formulation II was
measured by micro particle size analyzer (Coulter LS 100 Q) to investigate the droplet size
stability every 10 minutes for 180 minutes, zeta potential and conductivity measured by nanoparticle size analyzer (Horiba Nano Partica SZ-100).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The stability result of fungicide formulation with several ratio of MES and PMO with ethanol
is shown in figure 1 and the fungicide formulation without ethanol is shown in figure 2. The
stability was investigated by recording the occurence of creaming phenomena every 10
minutes for 180 minutes.
98% Creaming Escalation

7
6

5:5

5

4:6

4

3:7

3

2:8

2

1:9

1
0

0

50

100

150

200

MinutesFigure 1. Creaming Escalation of Fungicide 350 EC with Ethanol
14% Creaming Escalation

12
10
5:5

8

4:6

6

3:7

4

2:8

2

1:9

0

0

50

100

150

200

MinutesFigure 2. Creaming Escalation of Fungicide 350 EC without Ethanol

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In Formulation I (shown in Figure 1), it is seen that creaming phenomena occured in all
formulation at minutes 10. Creaming percentage increase until 150 minutes and remain stable
in 8% until 180 minutes. As for the ratio 1:9 the escalation of creaming slower than theremaining ratio where this formulation withstand the creaming escalation until 160 minutes.
The similar result trend occured in Formulation II (shown in Figure 2). Creaming percentage
increase until 120 minutes and remain stable in 11.36% until 180 minutes in which these are
the significant difference showing in figure 1 and 2 with the formulation with and without
ethanol. Formulation with surfactant ratio 1:9 has slower creaming formation where it canmaintain lower creaming percentage until 130 minutes.
Formulation with high nonionic surfactant concentration is able to withstand the cream much
longer. This phenomena occured because nonionic surfactant has higher concentration thananionic surfactant. Surfactant has important role in droplets’ deformation and break-up. It isenable the presence of interfacial tension gradient, which is a key for formation of stable
droplet. The existence of nonionic surfactant could lower the interfacial tension which could
reduce the size and create a more stable emulsion system (Tadros et al. 2004). PMO as nonionic surfactant is amphiphilic and the structure of the hydrophilic head group is necesary to
improve the stability and also enhance binding the water molecule in the emulsion (Ibrahim
et al. 2015).
70
60
Intensity (a.u)

50
40
30
20
10

-200

-150

-100

-50

0

0

50

100

150

200

Zeta Potential (mV)With Ethanol

Without Ethanol

Figure 3. Zeta Potential Chart of Fungicide with MES : PMO (1:9)
Table 3 Zeta Potential and Conductivity of Fungicide with MES : PMO (1:9)
Zeta Potential Conductivity
Formulation(mV)(mS/cm)Fungicide with Ethanol-109.3
0.116
Fungicide without Ethanol-105.40.101
MES as anionic surfactant posses conductivity properties and the addition of non-ionicsurfactant doesn’t affect the conductivity in emulsion system (Danov et al. 2015). The
formation of micelle is necessary to reduce surface tension and increase emulsion stability(Azizinezhad & Aghchehrood 2014). The tendecy of creaming in emulsion indicate micelle isProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

803

not formed significantly due to low conductivity, as seen on table 3 where the conductivity offungicide formulation with ethanol is 0.116 mS/cm and without ethanol 0.101 mS/cm. Thiscan be concluded that non-ionic surfactant played dominant role in this system, yet MES as
anionic surfactant doesn’t compatible as co-surfactant in this system. Zeta potential
commonly used to estimate the stability of emulsion. Theoritically, a high negative zeta
potential indicate a stable system due to electrostatic repulsion (Achouri et al. 2012). The zeta
potential result for fungicide formulation with ethanol is -109.3 mV and without ethanol is 105.4 mV. However, the emulsion formed in this study is unstable where the creaming
phenomena occured as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. Having a high value of zeta potential
is no guarantee that the system will be stable in all condition. It is because zeta potential
measurement is made on idle system. During the formulation the system is often subjected toshear such as stirring and other treatment that caused destabilization (Fairhurst 2013). In thiscase, the formulation due to time lapse where creaming occured which is one ofdestabilization phenomena.

Drople t size (µm)

25
20
15
10
5
0

0

50

100

150

200

MinutesWith Ethanol

Without Ethanol

Figure 4. Average Droplet Size of Fungicide with MES : PMO (1:9)
The droplet size stability also investigated in this study. Figure 4 shown that the droplet sizeof fungicide formulation with ethanol is table compared than formulation without ethanol.
The range droplet size range for Formula I is 5.756-7.313 µm, while the Formula II has wider
range droplet size which is 3.672-24.69 µm. This shown that Formulation I is more stable andhomogeneous droplet size than Formulation II. Due to bigger droplet size, Formula II tend to
cream faster than Formula I. The creaming velocity in emulsion increased as increasing
droplet size (Chanamai & Mcclements 2000).
It is also seen in Figure 1 and Figure 2 that the formulation with ethanol has lower creaming
precentage which is 8% compared with the formulation without ethanol that is 11.36%. It
showed that ethanol could enhance the solubility and the stability of this system comparedwith pegasol due to its water solubility properties. Pegasol is a petroleum based oil which is
insoluble in water (Milne 2005). Ethanol is used as solvent because it is a polar solvent andmiscible in water. The addition of ethanol into PMO in this research was aimed to alterinterfacial impromptu flection and elasticity film of hydrophilic surfactant (PMO) that will
improve emulsion stability system when they were mixed with the oil based solution (Garti N

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et al. 2001). Thus, the solubility and stability in a formulation with ethanol were moresignificant than the formulation without ethanol. Moreover, it is also consideredenvironmentally safe because ethanol less hazardous compared with aromatic solvent whichis common used in pesticides formulation (Allawzi et al. 2016). Emulsion in application on
antifungi is composed of oil and water, stabilized by surfactant and alcohol (Rajalakshmi etal. 2011).
The emulsion process mechanism is shown in Figure 5. There was no chemical reaction
involved in emulsification process. Anionic surfactant MES will formed invisible layer for adroplet surrounded by aqueous phase and PMO as nonionic polymeric surfactant will beformed a protect shell as the steric stabilization effect (Raffa et al. 2015).

Figure 5. Emulsion Process Mechanism
4. CONCLUSION
The optimum stability of fungicide formulation with citronella oil and eugenol as active agent
is the following condition, surfactant ratio MES and PMO is 1:9 using ethanol as solvent withcreaming escalation 8% and droplet size range 5.756-7.313 µm for 180 minutes.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Research Center for Chemistry and Research Center for Metrology, Indonesian Institute of
Sciences supported by Kegiatan Unggulan LIPI 2016.
6. REFERENCES
Achouri, A., Zamani, Y. & Boye, J.I., 2012. Stability and Physical Properties of Emulsions
Prepared with and without Soy Proteins. Journal of Food Research, 1(1), pp.254–267.
Allawzi, M.A., Allaboun, H. & Qazaq, A.S., 2016. Formulation , Emulsion , and Thermal
Stability of Emulsifiable Malathion Concentrate using Ethanol as a Solvent.
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responses in tambaqui Colossoma macropomum: A new anaesthetic for use in fish.
Aquaculture, 1, pp.1–29.
Chanamai, R. & Mcclements, D.J., 2000. Creaming Stability of Flocculated Monodisperse
Oil-in-Water Emulsions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 225, pp.214–218.
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Danov, K.D. et al., 2015. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science Sulfonated methyl esters
of fatty acids in aqueous solutions : Interfacial and micellar properties. Journal of
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Ibrahim, N., Raman, I.A. & Yusop, M.R., 2015. Effects Of Functional Group Of Non-Ionic
Surfactants On The Stability Of Emulsion. The Malaysian Journal of Analytical
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Koul, O., Walia, S. & Dhaliwal, G.S., 2008. Essential Oils as Green Pesticides : Potential andConstraints. Biopesticides International, 4(1), pp.63–84.
Li, W., Shi, Q. & Ouyang, Y., 2012. Antifungal effects of citronella oil against Aspergillus
niger. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, pp.1–10.
Licciardello, F. et al., 2013. Effectiveness of a novel insect-repellent food packaging
incorporating essential oils against the red fl our beetle ( Tribolium castaneum ).
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 19, pp.173–180. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2013.05.002.
Martínez, J.A., 2012. Natural Fungicides Obtained from Plants D. Dhanasekaran, ed.,
Croatia: In Tech. Available at: http://www.intechopen.com/books/fungicides-for-plantand-animal-diseases/natural-fungicides-obtained-fromplants.
Milne, G.W.A., 2005. Gardner’s Commercially Important Chemicals : Synonyms, Trade
Names, and Properties 11th ed. G. W. A. Milne, ed., Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley &Sons, Inc.
Raffa, P. et al., 2015. Polymeric Surfactants : Synthesis , Properties , and Links to
Applications. Chemical Reviews, 115(16).
Rajalakshmi, R., Mahesh, K. & Ashok Kumar, C.., 2011. A Critical Review On Nano
Emulsions. International Journal of Innovative Drug Discovery, 1(1), pp.1–8.
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Systems with Chitosan as a Stabilizer. Procedia Chemistry, 16, pp.171–176.
Sellamuthu, P.S., Sivakumar, D. & Soundy, P., 2013. Antifungal Activity And ChemicalComposition Of Thyme , Peppermint And Citronella Oils In Vapor Phase Against
Avocado And Peach Postharvest Pathogens. Journal of Food Safety, 33, pp.86–93.
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Zabka, M., Pavela, R. & Prokinova, E., 2014. Chemosphere Antifungal activity and chemicalcomposition of twenty essential oils against significant indoor and outdoor toxigenic andaeroallergenic
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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION OF PRIMARY COOLING SYSTEM
G.A SIWABESSY REACTOR
Ratih Luhuring Tyas, Geni Rina Sunaryo, Heri Hermansyah*
National Nuclear Energy Agency, University of Indonesia*Corresponding author:
heri.hermansyah@ui.ac.id
ABSTRACTThe research reactor has lower hazard potential than the power reactor. However, mostresearch reactor was built a few decades ago, when the design requirement was notcompletely fulfilled the safety requirement as well as the Reaktor Serba Guna G. A
Siwabessy (RSG – GAS) that has been operating for 28 years and located close to the
housing resident. Learning from Fukushima accident, it is necessary to assess the safety
analysis of RSG – GAS. The safety analysis including the identification of potential hazard,
characterization of the postulated initiating event, determination of failure probability, andmeasuring the frequency. This paper will be focused on hazard identification of the primarycooling system. The worst effect, as a result of the failure of primary system, because of thefuel of the reactor melts. Based on identification and hazard analysis of the primary coolingsystem using HAZID (Hazard Identification) and HAZOP (Hazard and Operability Analysis)
method, there are five initiating events : loss of coolant accident (LOCA) because the leakageof the primary coolant boundary beyond the isolation valves, LOCA because the rupture of apump casing due to impeller failure, LOCA because heat exchanger leakage, loss of flow
accident (LOFA) because the loss of primary pump, and LOFA because the inadvertent
closure of the primary isolation valves.
Keywords: Accident; Hazard; Primary cooling system; Safety
1. INTRODUCTION
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear reactor accident on March 11, 2011 is a lesson to perform safety
analysis, as an effort to prevent accidents release radioactive material, in the world of nuclear
installations, including research reactors. The potential hazard of research reactor is lower
than power reactors. But most of research reactor was built several decades ago, where thedesign requirements not fulfilled the safety requirements. In addition several research reactors
located close to the housing resident, and the site characteristics may have changed since thereactor was built.
As an input from the Fukushima accident, it is necessary to review the safety analysis of
RSG-GAS (IAEA, 2014). Safety analysis covering the stages of hazard identification,
characterization of postulated events, determines and measures the consequences of failure
frequency (BAPETEN, 2011). The safety analysis carried out throughout the lifetime of theinstallation, from the design, commissioning, operation to decommissioning (Jeong K.S.,
2008).

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Hazard identification is an early stage in the safety analysis. Potential hazards can be
identified include the hazard of physics, chemistry, biology, ergonomics, physiology(BATAN, 2008). Hazard can also classified be toxic, explosive and flammable (V. Rao
Kolluru). Identification of existing hazards includes internal hazard (material, product,equipment/machinery, processes, working methods) and external hazard (environmental,
human) (NRC, 1981). Reactor design affects the internal hazard, while the site / locationinfluences the external hazard. Based on the potential hazard, hazard analysis using HAZOP(Hazard and Operability Analysis) (Hashemi-Tilehnoee, 2010). The resulting nodes, selectedbased on a list of Postulated Initiating Event (PIE) in nuclear safety standards (IAEA, 2005).
Overview RSG-GAS and Primary Cooling System(PRSG 2011) RSG-GAS is one of three research reactors owned by Indonesia. RSG-GAS is areactor pool with specifications can be seen in Table 1.
Table 1. Spesifications of RSG-GAS
Reactor Power
30 MW
Neutron Flux

1012 n/cm2.s

TypePool, Muti Purpose

Typeof
Element

Fuel

U3Si2 Al, MTR
LEU (19,75 %)Configuration of Fuel
Element

Plat 1,30x70,75x625 mm

Material Cladding

AlMg

Reactor Coolant

H2O

Flow Rate

800 kg/s

The main reactor cooling systems consisting of the primary cooling system, the secondary
cooling system, the pool cooling system, the warm water layer system and the purification
system. These systems are integrated to keep the reactor operating conditions are within
limits.
The primary cooling system serve to assure safe temperatures in the core and the reflector
during normal operation up to the design thermal power. During power operation of thereactor, the heat released in the core and surrounding reflector is removed by the primarycooling system flowing downwards through the core and the reflector. The primary water iscooled in the heat exchangers, through which heat is transferred to the secondary coolingsystem and then dissipated to the atmosphere through mechanical draft cooling towers.
The primary cooling system is designed to withstand the SSE in such a way that the safe flow
cost down and the integrity of the system are assured. Components of the primary coolingsystem consists of primary pumps, heat exchangers, valves and piping that connect thecomponents with a pool and the reactor core to form a closed circuit.

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2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Hazard Identification
Hazard identification of the primary cooling system RSG-GAS is done by description thesource of the hazard that exists; determining the potential hazard and trigger factor. This
identification process lasts until all sources hazard included in the identification.
2.2 Hazard Analysis
The method used in hazard analysis is HAZOP (Hazard and Operability Study). Each node
parameters is specified the deviation. Then analyze the deviation to get the possible
consequences and protection system available. Not a whole Node is used in this study,
because node selection based on PIE in nuclear safety standards.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Hazard Identification
Identification of the primary cooling system RSG-GAS conducted using Hazard
Identification (HAZID). Hazards that exist in the primary cooling system consist of pumps,
heat exchangers, piping, and valves. The primary cooling system has three pumps. Hazards
that exist on the primary pump are a pump failure and rupture of the pump casing. The
primary cooling system has two heat exchangers that work in parallel. The Hazards from theheat exchanger is leaking water pipe, where the water primer can contaminating radioactive
the secondary water.
The worst possible cause of the leak pipe is a pipe with a smaller size. Each inlet and outlet
channels of the primary coolant are equipped with two isolation valves. Inadvertent closure ofprimary isolation valves may reduce the amount of coolant flow. Based on the identification
result there are 5 events that can be seen in Table 2.
No
1.
2

Table 2. Hazard Identification Results
Description
Potential
Cause
HazardLeakage of the primary coolant Loss of coolant
Corrosion,
fatique,boundary beyond the isolation valves
fracture, aging

3.

Rupture of a pump casing due to Loss of coolant
impeller failure
Heat Exchanger Leakage
Loss of coolant

4.

Loss of Primary pump5.

Inadvertent closure of the primary Loss of flow
isolation valves

Loss of flow

Corrosion,
fatique,fracture, aging
Corrosion,
fatique,fracture, aging
MaintenanceandInspection are not good
MaintenanceandInspection are not good

3.2 Hazard Analysis
The primary cooling system consists of 1 Node and 3 Parameter. Determination parametersof the node based on parameters connected with the Reactor Protection System (RPS). The
flow rate past the primary cooling system is 860 kg/s, if the flow rate times ≤ 90% ± 5%, RPS
will trip the reactor, and causes the reactor power off, which in controls by the flow rate JE01 CF 811/821/ 831. Control of pool water levels JAA-01 CL 811/821/831 activate the RPS
on the condition if water level drops bellow 12.25 m ± 0.05 m. The Inadvertent closure of810

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primary isolation valves will cause a reduction in the flow of coolant. Position control JE-01
CG 811/821/831 and JE-01 CG 812/822/832 will activate RPS at the limit of 3° rounds.
When the heat exchanger leakage, radioactive water would leak into the secondary systembecause the pressure in the primary circuit is higher than that in the secondary. Radioactivity
is continuously monitored in the secondary system by measurement instrumentation γ
activity of PA-01 / PA-02 CR 001. If the alarm limit value of 5 x 10-5 Ci/m3 is exceeded,
the operator shuts down the reactor and isolates the heat exchanger with secondary isolation
valves PA-01 AA-14 / AA-16, PA-02 AA-14 / AA-16. Because of the isolation valves closes,
the heat cannot be released into the environment. When the condition of the primary outlet
temperatures greater than 44 °C that controled by temperature control JE-01 CT 811/821/831,
the reactor then trip automatically. Hazard analysis results obtained 5 events that can be seenin Table 3.
Deviation

Tabel 3. Hazard Analysis Results
Cause
Consequence

Protection
SystemNode : 1. Primary Cooling Systems
1.1 No/ less flow of core Rupture of pump Loss of coolant JE-01
inlet
casing
CF 811/821/831
Leakge of pipe
Loss of coolant JAA-01
CL 811/821/831
Loss of primary pump Loss of flow
JE-01
CF 811/821/831
1.2 Less flow of core outlet closure of the primary Loss of flow
JE-01
isolation valves
CG 811/821/831
JE-01
CG 812/822/832
1.3 High temperature outlet Heat Exchanger
Loss of coolant JE-01
of PrimaryHeat Leakage
CT 811/821/831
Exchanger
4. CONCLUSION
There are five postulated initiating events can be identified of primary cooling system RSG–GAS which can be seen in Table 4.
Table 4 Postulated Initiating Events of Primary Cooling System RSG-GAS
No.

Event Group

Postulated Initiating Event

1.

Loss of Coolant
Accident(LOCA)

1. LOCA because the leakage of the primary coolant boundary
beyond the isolation valves;
2. LOCA because the rupture of a pump casing due to impeller
failure;3. LOCA because heat exchanger leakage;

2.

Loss of
Accident(LOFA)

1. LOFA because the loss of primary pump, and
2. LOFA because the inadvertent closure of the primaryisolation valves.

Flow

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5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank to BATAN, University of Indonesia and USAID SHERA.
6. REFERENCESBAPETEN. (2011). Ketentuan Keselematan Desain Reaktor Non Daya. Indonesia
Hashemi-Tilehnoee, M., Pazirandeh, A., Tashakor, S. (2010). HAZOP-study on heavy
water research reactor primary cooling system. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 37(3),428-433. doi: 10.1016/j.anucene.2009.12.006
IAEA. (2005). Safety of Research Reactor NS-R-4. Vienna.
IAEA. (2014). Safety Reassessment for Research Reactors in the Light of the Accident
at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant No. 80.
Jeong K.S., Lee D.S., Lee K.W., Lim H.K.,. (2008). A Qualitative Identification And
Analysis Of Hazards, Risks And Operating Procedures For A Decommissioning
Safety Assessment Of A Nuclear Research Reactor. Annals of Nuclear Energy 35,
1954–1962.
PRSG. (2011). Laporan Analisis Keselamatan (LAK) RSG-GAS Rev 10.1: PRSG.
Rao V. Kolluru, Steven M. Bartell, Robin M. Pitblado, R. Scott Stricoff. Risk
Assessment and Management Handbook For Environmental, Health and Safety
Professionals.: McGraw-Hill,Inc.
NRC, US. (1981). Fault Tree Handbook.

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Extraction of Nickel from Laterite Using Phytic Acid and Salicylaldoxime
Agustino Zulys*, Fajar Prihatno, Afip Jaya Saputra
Department of Chemistry University of Indonesia
Kampus Baru FMIPA UI Depok 16424 Depok
Abstract
Laterite mineral from west Sulawesi contain chlorite, pyroxene, talc, quartz, olivine and amphibole andit has low grade nickel contain up to 0.93%. In this research, we develop a method for extraction of nickel laterite
using phytic acid and salicylaldoxime. The analytical methods to measure nickel contain and ratios of metal toligand are used by mean of FTIR, UV-vis spectrophotometer. The heap leaching process was done using 25 g oflaterite in variation of sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid concentration. Results heap leaching has yellowish green
color indicate the contamination of iron ion. The existence of Fe3+ interfere the extraction of Ni2+ bysalicylaldoxime. The use of phytic acid will lead to iron precipitation, minimizing the iron content. It turned outthat optimum concentration of sulfuric acid is 0.5 M yielded 56.01% of nickel extraction, whereas the optimum
concentration of hydrochloric acid is 5 M yielded 14,63% of nickel extraction. Then liqud-liquid extraction of Ni2+
was carried out using salicylaldoxime in toluene, and yielded 18.88 % of Ni2+. It concluded that the use phytic acidincrease the yield of nickel content and the use of sulfuric acid is more efficient than hydrochloric acid.
Keywords : Extraction, Laterite, Heap Leaching,Phytic Acid, Salicylaldoxime

INTRODUCTION
Nickel consumption and reduction rate of nickel sulfide ore which is fast, making a nickel
oxide lateritic ore to be a major source of nickel in the world potentially. The complexity ofminerals and low content of nickel in laterite make extraction is difficult and expensive. Heap
Leaching be an alternative method for the extraction of nickel from laterite at a low cost.
Heap Leaching is the process of extraction of metal ions by sprinkling minerals withchemical reagents so that metal ions are released from the minerals and dissolve. Heap Leaching
Method is done by flushing laterite using acid solution with a certain concentration so that theion nickel (II) dissolved in acid that has been contact and flows to bottom of laterite due togravity (Oxley , Smith , & Cacere, 2015). The result of Heap Leaching or PLS (Pregnant Leach
Solution) in the form of a solution containing metal ions will be separated and purified. Thismethod can be used for low quality laterite nickel to reduce production costs. In this study, we
appeal between sulfuric acid and chloride acid then determined the optimum concentration ofacid using a measurement method standard calibration curve. Measurement methods have been
due in 2016 by Çetintas and Bingol that compared the method of measuring ion Ni2+ on matrix
leaching sulfuric acid. This study shows there is no real difference between the standard
addition method with a calibration curve in the measurement method of Ni2+ ions.
Potential uses for extracting nickel salisilaldoksim emerged in 2001 by Smith, et al., thatsuccessfully determined the structure of Ni2+ion complexes with salisilaldoksim. This study
proves the existence of pseudo-macrocycle hydrogen bond in the complex by the addition oftetramethyl ethylenediamine.
METHODS
Laterite was characterized using XRD to know the inner minerals. Then laterite wasdeconstructed using aqua regia and nickel content is measured using FAAS. Heap Leaching isdone with a sample of 25 grams laterite for each variation. Variation of sulfuric acid used 0.01

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M; 0.1 M; 0.5 M; 1 M; And 2.5 M. Variation of chloride acid used 1 M; 2M; 3M; 4M; And 5
M. Job method between phytic acid and iron to know the effectiveness of phytic acid inprecipitation. The method of action is carried out between the salicilaldoxime and nickel nitratein neutral pH. The acid type and the best concentration are added phytic acid to form maximum
precipitate amount. The solution is neutralized using NaOH. Then solution was added bysalicylaldoxim in the toluene solvent.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Laterite Characterization
Seemed like Figure 1, laterite appears to be brown with small bit of silica fragment. Laterite
has a moisture content of 0.52%. Physically the laterite mineral does not differ with the soil
generally. To determine the nickel content in laterite is done by wet destruction. The
decomposition was carried out using a concentrated HCl mixture and concentrated HNO3 witha ratio of 3:1. laterite decomposition performed leaving a white silica. Solution result from wet
destruction was yellow. This is due to the presence of excessive chloride ions. Ni2+
concentration was measured using FAAS. So the total nickel content in the laterite is 0.93%.

Figure 1. Laterite
XRD spectroscopy results show that laterite is composed by chlorite, pyroxene and talc
as the main mineral. Other minor minerals present in laterite samples are quartz, olivine andamphibole. Ni2+ ions inside the laterite are present in an olivine mineral containing iron oxideand silica. From the XRD spectra calculation shows that the nickel content in the sample is
1.2%.

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Figure 2. XRD Characterization of Laterite
Heap Leaching
Ni2+ solubility in heap leaching method was done by Le-Chatelier principle. Laterite is alithophylic mineral. Ni2+ are form in solid nickel (II) oxide in laterite. Theoritically, additionof acid solution into the laterite will increase the solubility of Ni2+ by shift the equilibrium.
Furthermore, Ni2+ form a complex ion. The result solution after Heap Leaching process has ofyellowish green color and directly proportional to the concentration of sulfuric acid used. Green
color possibilities provided by [Ni(OH2)6]2+. Whereas, the yellow color is given by ion[Fex(OH2)yClz]3-y or [Fe(OH2)6]3+.
Solvolisys Reaction
Acid-Base Reaction
Complex Forming Reaction: NiO(s) + H2O(l) ⇄ Ni2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq): H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) ⇄ 2H2O(l): Ni2+(aq) + 6H2O(l) ⇄ [Ni(OH2)6]2+(aq)Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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Figure 3. Cumulative Nickel Extraction using Sulphuric acid
Measurements of Ni2+ in every PLS fraction with sulfuric acid concentration variation
was done using FAAS with a wavelength of 341.5 nm. Ni2+ which is at PLS accumulated.
Sulfuric acid with a concentration of 0.5 M can extract Ni2+ more than others at the end of Heap
Leaching process. Sulphuric acid with concentration of 0.5 M, 1 M and 2.5 M contain 56.01%,
50.03% and 47.26% of Ni2+. That number has only a low margin of less than 10%. But the
number of Ni2+ that can be extracted with sulfuric acid with concentration of 0.1 M and 0.01 M
is very bit than others. This is caused by the low concentration of acid that is not a lot of Ni2+
ion dissolved in the laterite is ultramafic minerals.

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Figure 4. Cumulative Nickel Extraction using Hydrochloric acid
Extraction using hydrochloric acid was done by different variations. The higherhydrochloric acid concentration was used, the more Ni2+ can be extracted. The use of 3 M, 4 M
and 5 M hydrochloric acid extracted a higher amount of Ni2+ than using 0.5 M sulfuric acid.
But the use of high concentrtion of hydrochloric acid makes the laterite was yellow. This
indicates the presence of very high chlorides that damage laterite and result soil pollution. So
0.5 M sulphuric acid will be used for next proccess.
Pregnant Leach Solution
PLS contains various dissolved metal ions. Ni2+ and Fe3+ are ions which are thought togive the dominant color in the solution. The resulting color of the solution is due to Fe3+ that
forming complex ion with certain ligands. Ligands that may be bound to Fe3+ are H2O and Cl-.
The presence of Cl- comes from dissolved laterite minerals in PLS.
To know what is complex ion in PLS, we compare UV-VIS graph of PLS,
[Fe(OH2)x(OH)yClz]3-y-z and [Fe(H2O)6]3+. Fe3+ complex with Cl- was prepared by dissolving
FeCl3.6H2O using a neutral condition of aquades. Fe3+ Complex with H2O was prepared bydissolving FeCl3.6H2O using H2SO4 concentration of 0.5 M. Both solutions were measured by
UV-Vis spectrophotometry from 600 nm to 200 nm. Then compared with diluted PLS solution.

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Figure 5. Fe3+ Complex Characteriztion using UV-VIS Spectrophotometer
Figure 4.7 shows different graph between Fe3+ complex dissolved in neutral conditions
with H2SO4 0.5 M. Fe3+ complex formed in neutral conditions is [Fe(OH2)x(OH)yClz]3-y-z. This
complex ion is generally formed by hydrolysis of FeCl3.6H2O salt under neutral conditions.
FeCl3.6H2O(aq) → [Fe(OH2)x(OH)yClz]3-y-z.(aq) + (6-x-y) H2O(l) + y H+(aq) + (3-z)Cl-(aq)x+y+z=6The image also shows graph of Fe3+ complex in PLS. It mean Fe3+ complex has anabsorption peak at the same wavelength as FeCl3.6H2O dissolved to H2SO4 0.5 M. The Fe3+complex is [Fe(H2O)6]3+. This complex was formed by increased solvation of chloride anion by
H+ and shift the equilibrium of the following reaction to [Fe(H2O)6]3+.
[Fe(OH2)x(OH)yClz]3-y-z.(aq) + z H2O(l) + y H+(aq) ⇄ [Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) + z Cl-(aq)x+y+z=6

The Fe3+ complex graphs in neutral conditions and acid condition show the absorption
peaks at different wavelengths. It was not caused by solvatochromic condition. Both graphs
were formed by different complex ions that can be proved by Tanabe-Sugano Diagram.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ has an absorption peak at 218 nm and 300 nm whereas [Fe(OH2)x(OH)yClz]3-y-z.
has absorbance at 201 nm and 289 nm. By changing the wavelength of the UV-Vis spectra into
electron volt, we can know the energy ratio for each of peak wavelengths. [Fe(H2O)6]3+ has anabsorption peak at 4.133 eV and 5.687 eV so it has an energy ratio of 1:1.376. While[Fe(OH2)x(OH)yClz]3-y-z has an absorption peak at 4,290 eV and 6,168 eV so it has an energy
ratio of 1:1.437. Using the Tanabe Sugano chart, we can see that the value of the comparison
between the two peaks that will show different Δo values. [Fe(OH2)x(OH)yClz]3-y-z has a lower
Δo value because Cl- ligand is σ-donor and π-donor ligands that can decrease splitting energy
Δo.

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Figure 6. d5 Tanabe Sugano Diagram[Fe(H2O)6]3+ concentration in PLS were determined using UV-Vis spectrophotometer.
Scanning of the standard solution of [Fe(H2O)6]3+ 1.2 10-4 M to 6.0 10-4 M was prepared bydissolving FeCl3.6H2O into 0.5 M H2SO4 solution. Then the sample was diluted to 40 times
using H2SO4 0.5 M to obtain the graph below.

Figure 7. Standard Spectra Array of [Fe(H2O)6]3+
Figure 4.9 shows that there are 2 peaks of different wavelengths. At a wavelength of
218 nm sample absorbance was between standard [Fe(H2O)6]3+ solutions that has concentrationof 4.8 10-4 M and 6.0 10-4 M but wavelength of 300 nm the sample absorbance was between
standard [Fe(H2O)6]3+ solutions that has concentration 3.6 10-4 M and 4.8 10-4 M. Thisdifference is due to the presence of [Ni(OH2)6]2+ in the sample solution. The graph shows theresults of scanning the UV-Vis Spectrophotometer [Ni(OH2)6]2+ with concentration of 0.01 M
up to 0.05 M.

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Figure 8. Standard Spectra Array of [Ni(OH2)6]2+
The standard spectra array of [Ni(OH2)6]2+ indicates that there is a high absorbance atwavelengths of 200 nm to 250 nm. The absorbance of [Ni(OH2)6]2+ at these wavelengths will
influence measurement of Fe3+ concentration at 218 nm. At wavelengths of 300 nm and 394
nm, the standard spectral series [Ni(OH2)6]2+ shows a lower absorption peak with εo of 13.39
cm-1M-1 and 4.74 cm-1M-1. But εo values of [Fe(H2O)6]3+ at 300 nm was 2775.5 cm-1M-1. The
low εo values at 300 nm of [Ni(OH2)6]2+ was too lower than [Fe(H2O)6]3+ cause themeasurement noise at and 300 nm by [Ni(OH2)6]2+ negligible. So the measurement of[Fe(H2O)6]3+ concentration was done by using absorbance at 300 nm and got [Fe(H2O)6]3+
concentration on PLS equal to 0,182 M.
Phytic Acid Precipitation
Fe3+ is an ion that interferes Ni2+ extraction process using salicylaldoxim. This isbecause Fe3+ can bind to phenolic groups of salicylaldoxim strongly and form red complex ionsthat soluble in water. The presence of Fe3+ must be eliminated. Phytic acid can react with Fe3+
to produce white precipitate. But the stoichiometric reaction should be known using the Job
method to minimalizing the amount of phytic acid used to separate Fe3+ from PLS. The
precipitate that was produced by Fe3+ and phytic acid reaction is subtle and light. This causes
the measurement of job methods with gravimetry difficult to do. In addition to gravimetry, themeasurement of job methods can be performed by measuring the dissolved Fe3+ concentration
after the precipitate is separated. Below shows the result graph of job method by measuring
Fe3+ concentration using UV-Vis Spectrophotometer at 300 nm.

Figure 9. job method of Fe3+ with Phytic Acid

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Figure shows the point of intersection lines on x-axis at 0.7702. It means mole fraction
ratio between Fe3+ and Phytic acid is 0.77 : 0.23. This comparison in accordance with theamount of acid that can be produced phytic acid after precipitate reaction. So it can be concluded
that the phytic acid can used in acidic condition effectively without hydrolysis of the phosphateester group.
C6H6(OPO3H2)6 (aq)+4Fe(H2O)63+ (aq) → Fe(C6H6(OPO3)6 (s)+12H2O (l)+12H3O+ (aq)
In PLS, 5% excess phytic acid was added to anticipate the presence of other metal ions which
may interfere with Fe3+ precipitation. After the separation of the precipitate was done, themeasurement of Fe3+ concentration using UV-Vis Spectrophotometer. This precipitation
process has eliminated the amount of Fe3+in the solution about 98.88%.
Nickel-Salicylaldoxime Extraction
Ni2+ extraction using salicylaldoxim is a liquid-liquid extraction with a 2 phase ofsolvent in form of water and toluene. Salicylaldoxim is a perfectly soluble organic compoundin toluene and partially dissolved in water. Salicylaldoxime is soluble in toluene because it hasa phenolic group as the main carbon chain. While its solubility in water is due to the acidity ofthe phenolic group causing salicylaldoxime ionized and has negatively charged. The solubilityof salicylaldoxime in water is an equilibrium reaction that is strongly influenced by the pH of
the water solvent.
C6H4(CHNOH)(OH) (aq) ⇄ C6H4(CHNOH)(OH) (aq)Organic Phase

Water Phase

C6H4(CHNOH)(OH) (aq) + H2O (l) ⇄ C6H4(CHNOH)(O)- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
Water Phase

Ni2+ ion has a positive charge and is soluble in water. To make Ni2+ switch to the organic
phase, the positive charge is neutralized by the anion of salisildoksim that is soluble in water.
To counteract a Ni2+ need 2 anion of salisilaldoksim. Before extraction, the water phase is green
because of their complex ion [Ni(OH2)6]2+ and organic phase will look clear. After extraction,
the aqueous phase containing Ni2+ would seem clear and loss of Ni2+ whereas organic phasewill appear green because it has formed a complex between Ni2+ ion and salisilaldoksim. Colors
in the organic phase and the aqueous phase can be an indicator in this extraction process.
Ni2+ (aq) + 2 C6H4(CHNOH)(O)- (aq) ⇄ [Ni((O)C6H4(CHNOH))2] (aq)
Water Phase[Ni((O)C6H4(CHNOH))2] (aq) ⇄ [Ni((O)C6H4(CHNOH))2] (aq)
Water Phase

Organic Phase

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Figure 10. Job Method of Nickel Extraction Organic PhaseJob method in Figure gives 2 cut points. This is because the formation of some types
complex compound formed. The first cut point has low percentage of extraction because thecomplex is soluble in water with a ratio between Ni2+ and salicylaldoxim about 1:1. The
complex have positive charge that [Ni(OH2)4(OC6H4CHNOH)]+. While the second cut point
has a high percent extraction value because the complex is formed soluble in the organic phasewith a ratio of Ni2+ ions with salicylaldoxim of 1:2. Complexes that was formed and have nocharge is [Ni((O)C6H4(CHNOH))2]. Then for the greater amount of salicylaldoxime, Ni2+
amount decreased into the organic phase. This is because the formed complex is likely to havenegative charge and dissolve in water [Ni(OC6H4CHNOH)3]-. Job method is done in neutral
condition. The best mole ratio between Ni2+ with salicylaldoxim was 1: 2. The amount of Ni2+
that can be extracted is very low. This indicates salicylaldoxim and Ni2+ complex ions wasformed partially and switch to the organic phase.
After extraction, the organic phase and PLS are separated. Organic phase containing
2+
Ni was added by 1 M nitric acid. This causes Ni2+ in the organic phase move to water phase.
Then Ni2+ concentration was measured using FAAS. From the measurement, obtained that theextractable Ni2+ is 18.875%. To ensure the complex structure of Ni2+ ions located in the organic
phase, an FT-IR measurement was performed.

Figure 11. FTIR Salicylaldoxime (green) dan nickel(II) ion - Salicylaldoxime complex (blue)

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FTIR measurements in Figure 2 shows the different absorption at 2900 cm-1 and 3050
cm . That absorbance occur because there are Ni-O and Ni-N bonds in complex[Ni((O)C6H4(CHNOH))2]. Then O-H absorption of oxime and phenol still have similar
absorbance. This indicates that the bond is formed then the complex compound[Ni((O)C6H4(CHNOH))2]. Ni2+ will generally form a quadrilateral complex macrocycle with apseudo-hydrogen bond (Smith, Tasker, & White, 2001).
-1

DAFTAR PUSTAKAÇetintas, S., & Bingol, D. (2016). Response surface methodology approach to leaching of nickel
laterite and evaluation of different analytical techniques used for the analysis of leachedsolutions. RSC.
Dalvi, A., Bacon, G., & Rober. (2004). The Past and the Future of Nickel Laterites. PDAC 2004
International Convention, 2.
E. Housecroft , C., & G. Sharpe, A. (2008). Inorganic Chemistry. London: Pearson Education.
Forgan, R., Davidson, J., Fabbiano, F., Galbraith, S., & Henderson , D. (2010). Cation andAnion Selectivity of Zwitterionic Salicylaldoxime Metal Salt Extractants. Dalton
Transactions.
Glascock, M. D. (2016, 6 5). Overview of Neutron Activation Analysis. Retrieved from
Archaeometry Laboratory: http://archaeometry.missouri.edu/naa_overview.html
Harvey, D. (2000). Modern Analytical Chemistry. New York: Mc Graw Hill.
Jacobsen, T., & Ellingsen, D. S. (1983). Phytic Acid and Metal Availability: A Study of Ca and
Cu Binding. Cereal Chem 60(5).
Latt, M. M., Rice, D., & Sin, D. (1997). Copper, Streamlined Atomic Absorption Proceduresfor Exploration and Mining. The Analyst.
Leonardou, S. A., & Zafiratos, I. G. (2004). Beneficiation of a Greek serpentinic nickeliferous
ore Part II. Sulphuric acid heap and agitation leaching. Elsevier.
McDonald, R., & Whittington, B. (2007). Atmospheric acid leaching of nickel laterites review.
Elsevier.
McKenzie, D., Denys, L., & Buchana, A. (1987). The Solubilization of Nickel, Cobalt and Iron
from Laterites by Means of Organic Chelating Acids at Low pH. International Journal of
Mineral Processing.
Oxley , A., Smith , M. E., & Cacere, O. (2015). Why heap leach nickel laterites? Elsevier.
Petersen, J. (2015). Heap leaching as a key technology for recovery of values from low-gradeores - A brief overview. Elsevier.

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Roebuck, J., Turkington , J., Rogers, D., Pelser , M., & Griffin, V. (2016). Preorganized
Tridentate Analogues of Mixed Hydroxyoxime/Carboxylate Nickel Extractants. Dalton
Transaction.
Rosenqvist, T. (1983). Hydrometalurgy. In T. Rosenqvist, Principles of Extractive Metallurgy(pp. 398 - 419). Singapura: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Smith, A. G., Tasker, P. A., & White, D. J. (2001). The structures of phenolic oximes and theircomplexes. Elsevier.
Sufriadin, Idrus, A., Pramumijoyo, S., I Wayan, W., & Imai, A. (2011). Study On Mineralogy
And Chemistry Of The Saprolitic Nickel Ores From Soroako, Sulawesi, Indonesia:
Implication For The Lateritic Ore Processing. J. SE Asian Appl. Geol., 23-33.
Wilson, M., Bailey, P., Tasker, P., Turkington, J., Grant, R., & Love, J. (2013). Solvent
Extraction: The Coordination Chemistry Behind Extractive Metallurgy. Chem Soc Rev.

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DIURETIC EFFECT OF JAMU ANTIATHEROSCLEROSIS BY IN VIVOTESTING ON MALE RATS
Dewi Tristantinia*, Clarissa AncellabaChemical Engineering Department, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus Baru UI Depok, Depok 16424, Indonesia
Chemical Engineering Department, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus Baru UI Depok, Depok 16424, Indonesiab

ABSTRACT
Hypertension has become the worldwide’s focus because mortality rate due
hypertension is increasing every year. One of the antihypertensive drug is diuretic whichcause a decrease in blood pressure. Active substances provide a diuretic effect is aflavonoid. Flavonoid in combination of bullet wood leaves, curcuma and starfruit leaves
empirically proven, research and published in decrease blood sugar levels, decreasecholesterol and improve blood circulation. The combination of bullet wood leaves, curcuma
and starfruit leaves become jamu antiatherosclerosis. Jamu antiatherosclerosis extractedusing reflux so particle size affects the flavonoid produced. Particle size jamu
antiatherosclerosis is smaller than 60 mesh so jamu antiatherosclerosis which has thehighest apigenin and catechin is particle size smaller than 60 mesh. The method used is
testing in vivo to male rats (Rattus norvegicus). The study used 6 group of rats are normal
control (without treatment), negative control (induced NaCl and standard feed), positive
control (captopril 0.72 mg), dose I (13.2 mg herb), dose II (26.4 mg herb) and dose III (52.8mg herb). Data retrieval urine volume and blood pressure of the rats were taken within 21
days. The data showed that diuretic activity jamu antiatherosclerosis dose I was 0.724, dose
II was 0.792 and dose III was 0.843. The results showed that caused an increase in urine
volume in which higher diuresis effect is achieved by increasing the amount of extract. This
research conclude that jamu antiatherosclerosis can use as an inexpensive diuretic herbs inlowering blood pressure and the results can be used to improve public welfare.
Keywords: Diuretic; Antihypertensive; Tanjung leaves (Mimusops elengi L.); Starfruit
leaves (Averrhoa carambola L.); Curcuma (Curcuma xanthorrhiza L.); Particle size.
1. INTRODUCTION
Complications due to hypertension cause 9.4 million people die each year in theworld (Lim et al, 2012). Hypertension cause 45% deaths due to heart disease and 55%
deaths due to stroke (WHO, 2008). Hypertension become worldwide focus because
mortality due to hypertension increase from 1999 to 2009 which is 17,1% (Go et al, 2014).
Several causes of hypertension are unhealthy lifestyle, high stress level and genetic factor(WHO, 2013). Treatment of hypertension divided into 2 are the therapeutic use ofpharmaceutical drugs and herbal medicine.
One of the antihypertensive drug is diuretic which cause a decrease in bloodpressure. Diuretics are substances that can increase urinary expenditure (diuresis) throughdirect action on the kidneys. Diuresis causes a decrease in plasma volume in the veins,
increased release of renin, decreased cardiac output and decreased blood pressure (Conway,

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et al, 1960). Synthetic diuretic drugs have side effects that are contraindicated in
hypersensitivity to sulfonylureas, hypokalemia, hypercalcemia, liver disorders, renal
impairment and pregnancy (NFKDOQI, 2004; Lacy et al, 2006; BPOM RI, 2008; WHO,2009). Active substances provide a diuretic effect is a flavonoid (Anna, 2011). Flavonoid’s
mechanism as diuretic is inhibit reabsorption Na+, K+ dan Cl-, so it increase electrolytes inthe tubules then diuresis occurs (Khabibah, 2011).
The development of diuretics from herbal ingredients have benefit such as decrease
blood pressure and minimize side effects of synthetic diuretics drug. Indonesia is rich inherbal plants that contain flavonoids that are Tanjung, starfruit and curcuma. Tanjung isused as an antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, antianxiety, antihypercipidemic, anticonvulsant,analgesic, antipretic, antioxidant, cytotoxic, antidiabetic, diuretic and antihypertensive(Gami et al, 2012 and Manjeshwas et al, 2011). Curcuma is used as an antitumor (Vimala etal, 1999) and antiinflamation (Ozaki, 1990). Starfruit is used as antidiabetes, bloodpressure-lowering, and believed to be an appetite enhancer and antidiarrhea (Soncini,2010).
Empirically, the combination of these three herbs has been proven and studied tohave properties as herbs that can break blood clots, blood circulation, lower cholesterollevels and lower blood sugar so it can be called herbal antiatherosclerosis. Herbs can be
consumed in powder form dissolved in a solvent. The size of herbs particles circulating
differently that is greater than 20 mesh is a rough herb, 40-60 mesh is a fine herb andsmaller than 60 mesh is a herb packed in capsules. One of the factors affecting solid-liquid
extraction is particle size (Richardson, 2001). The particle size of the herb influences the
optimization of the active substance content when the extraction is performed.
Testing of ingredients for treatment or general medicine is done in vivo to the test
animals to determine the pharmacological effects before human consumption. Rats include
mammals, and therefore their impact on a treatment may not be much different from that ofother mammals (Smith and Mangkoewidjojo, 1988). Test results in animal tests will
provide an overview of the results of drug use in humans. This research is feasible because
it will improve and develop herbal as low cost treatment as antihypertension.
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
Methods applied in this study was started by simplicia preparation and extraction
procedure, animals treatment then diuretic test.
2.1. Simplicia preparation and extraction procedure
The fresh leaves of Mimusops elengi Linn, Averrhoa carambola L. and Curcuma
xanthorrhiza Roxb were collected. The leaves and rhizomes were air-dried for 7 days using
indirect sunlight. The leaves and rhizomes were mashed become powder. The particle sizeof leaves and rhizomes is >60 mesh. The leaves and rhizomes powder have to weighed andmixed. It name is jamu antiatherosclerosis. Jamu antiatheroslerosis 24 g were extractedusing a soxhlet apparatus with aqueous at 85oC for 45 minutes. Jamu solution was filteredand dried in vacuum rotary evaporation at 65oC.

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2.2. Animals
Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats, each in the weight range of 180-200 g, were used
for this research. The rats obtained from Pharmacological laboratory, faculty of Pharmacy
University of Indonesia. The rats were randomly grouped to six treatment groups of 4 rats
each and kept in cages and housed under standard conditions of temperature, humidity anddark light cycle.
2.3. Experimental protocol
Diuretic test was used rats. Diuretic effect procedures were consists of various steps.
acclimatization animals and treatment. First, the rats were randomly grouped to six
treatment groups of 4 rats each as shown in Table 1. On the day-1 until day-20 the process
named acclimatized which was the rats were given hypertension induction to raise theirblood pressure. On the day-21 until day-42, the rats got treatment accorded to their group.
All the rats fed with pellets and water.

Group

N

NormalNegative
Positive
Dose I44
4
4

Dose II

4

Dose III

4

Table 1. Each group treatment for diuretic test
Treatment (days)
1
7
14
21
35
42
Water
Water
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl and Jamu
NaClantiatherosclerosis (13.2 mg/ 200
g weight)
NaCl and Jamu
NaClantiatherosclerosis (26.4 mg/ 200
g weight)
NaCl and Jamu
NaClantiatherosclerosis (52.8 mg/ 200
g weight)

The each of rats was placed in metabolism cages. Urine was collected in a graduatedcylinder and its volume was measured each hour intervals for 4 hours. The urine volume
will be calculated to show diuretic action and diuretic effect of each group. The equation ofdiuretic action and diuretic activity shown in equation 1 and 2.
(1)(2)

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The aqueous extract of the jamu antiatherosclerosis produced diuresis. A results ofthis research was an total volume urine for 4 hours. Measurement the diuretic effectivenessof treatment will be shown in diuretic action and diuretic activity. Table 2 shows total
urine volume diuretic action and diuretic activity. Figure 1 shows changes in urine volumeof each group

Group
NormalNegative
Positive
Dose I
Dose II
Dosis III

Table 2. Effect of oral administration on urine volume for 4 hours
Total urine volume (mL)
Diuretic
Diuretic
actionactivity
Day-21
Day-35
Day-42
1,675±0,287
6,275±1,730
8,25±2,422
7,125±0,250
7,775±1,438
8,1±1,626

1,925±1,556
7,8±1,756
10,035±1,042
7,95±0,858
8,625±0,170
9,300±0,581

1,425±1,161
7,925±1,330
11,275±2,513
8,1±1,626
8,9675±0,731
9,6450±0,762

1
1,461
1,058
1,158
1,233

1
0,724
0,792
0,843

Figure 1. Effect of oral administration on urine volume for 4 hours
Normal group represent rats without hypertension induction, drug and jamu extract
so their urine volume shows normal urine volume. Urine volume normal group can use as
reference healthy urine volume. Rats negative group were given hypertension induction
and their urine volume as reference hypertensives urine volume without treatment.
Average urine volume’s negative group is greater than normal group, because a body havehomeostatis function. This function is maintain fluid balance in the body by a way

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decrease antidiuretic hormon secreation, reduce the permeability of the distal tubule andthe duct collingentes to water thereby decreasing the reabsorption of water which will
ultimately increase urinary excretion (Guyton, 2006). On the 28th day, 35th day and 42th
day positive group, dose I, dose II and dose III group were given captopril and jamu
extract. The urine volume each group were recorded and the results showed an increaseurine volume compared with normal and negative group. It means captopril and jamu
antiatherosclerosis extract have diuretic effect. Diuretic effect indicated by value of
diuretic action and diuretic activity. Diuretic action is a comparison treatment group withthe control group which is negative group and diuretic activity is a comparison of diuretic
action with the group that has been given standard drugs, in this study is positive groupwith the administration of drug captopril. Diuretic activity value shows the diuretic
strength and it is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Relation between diuretic activity and diuretic strength
Diuretic activity value
Diuretic strength
1,5Strong1-1,5Moderate
0,72-1
Week< 0,72Null
Urine volume positive group is the highest and has the highest diuretic activity
compared with other groups. It means that captopril has the highest diuretic effect thanjamu antiatherosclerosis extract. Successfull material test parameter if a result of jamu
antiatherosclerosis extract approaching positive group’s result (Pradana, 2016). Jamu
antiatherosclerosis extract were varied and given to group dose I, dose II and dose III.
Table 2 showed that the urine production and diuretic activity of dose I is less than dose II
and urine volume’s dose II is less than dose III. Dose I is the least and dose III is the mostjamu extract dosage. Based on the classification diuretic strength, the three groups ofdosage variation jamu antiatherosclerosis are weak diuretic with the range of diuretic
activity are 0,72-0,84. It means dosage affect the diuretic activity and the greater dosage
produced more urine than lower dosage. The effect of dosage of herbal extract on ratsurine indicates that the larger the dose given the flavonoid content of catechin and apigenin
increased so stimulate regional blood flow or vasodilatation, or by producing inhibition of
tubular reabsorption of water and anions, with the result in both cases being diuresis(Marti’n et al, 2008). The urine volume excreted by rats are directly proportional to thetime of giving jamu extracts. Provision of drugs or herbal extract on a regular basis will
increase urinary excretion to the normal level of urine of mice. The normal limit of urinary
white rat excretion (Rattus novergicus) is 5.5 mL / 100 g body weight / day (Carpenter,2012). Aqueous extract of Ajuga remota Benth (Lamiaceae) leaves has proven produced abetter diuretic effect than methanol as solvent (Hailu et al, 2014), so water choosen as
solvent of jamu. The aqueous extract of jamu antiatheroschlerosis produced weak diuretic
effect. It is therefore possible to suggest that the ingridients of jamu antiateroschlerosis
material responsible for increasing urine output could probably be polar and hence better
extracted in water.

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4. CONCLUSION
These observations provide evidence for the ethnomedical use of jamu
antiatherosclerosis as diuretic for treatment of hypertension. The results showed that jamu
antiatherosclerosis is weak diuretic. A dosage and a period time for taken medicine affectthe diuretic activity. The larger doses of jamu antiatherosclerosis particularly of theaqueous extract produced the highest urine excretion was comparable to the other dosage
variation of jamu antiatherosclerosis. The longer time to take the drug or jamu
antiatherosclerosis, the greater the urine excretion but not significant and it have a limit.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors would like to thank all parties that have supported this study, especially
University Of Indonesia via Grant of International Publication Indexed for Thesis of UI’s
Students or known as PITTA 2017.
6. REFERENCES
Carpenter, J.W., (2012), Exotic animal formulary, 4th ed, Philadelphia, Saunders.
Conway J., Lauwers P., (1960), Hemodynamic and hypotensive effects of long-term
therapy with chlorothiazide, Circulation, Volume 21, pp. 21–27.
Gami B., Pathak S., Porabia M., (2012), Ethnobotanical phytochemical andpharmacological review of Mimusops elengi Linn, Asian Pacific J Tropical Biomed,
Volume 2, Number 9, pp. 743-748.
Go, A.S., (2014), Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics 2014, Update: A Report From theAmerican Heart Association, Circulation, Volume 129, pp. 28-292.
Guyton, A.C. and Hall, J.E., (2006), Textbook of Medical Physiology. 11th ed.
Philadelphia, PA, USA: Elsevier Saunders.
Hailu W. and Engidawork W., (2014), Evaluation of the diuretic activity of the aqueous and
80% methanol extracts of Ajuga remota Benth (Lamiaceae) leaves in mice. BMC
Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Volume 14, pp 135.
Khabibah, N., (2011, Uji Efek Diuretik Ekstrak Buncis (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.) Pada Tikus
Putih Jantan Galur Wistar, STIKES Ngudi Waluyo. Ungaran. pp. 2.
Lacy, C.F., Armstrong, L.L., Goldman, M. P., Lance, L.L., (2006), Drug Information
Handbook, 14th ed. Lexi Comp, North American.
Lim S.S., Vos T., Flaxman A.D., Danaei G., (2012), A comparative risk assessment ofburden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in
21 regions, 1990-2010 : a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease
Study 2010, Lancet. 380 (9859), pp. 2224-60.
Manjeshwar S.B., Ramakrishna J.P., Harshit P.B., Princy L.P., Rekha B., Chemistry andmedicinal properties of Bakul (Mimusops elengi Linn). (2011), Rev Food Res Int.
Volume 44, pp. 1823-1829.
NKF-K/DOQI. (2004), Clinical Practice Guidelines for Cronic Kidney Disease:
Evaluation, Clasification, and stratification, American Journal Kidney Disease,
Volume 45, Number 1, pp. 1-268.

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Ozaki, Yukihiro., (1990), Antiinflammatory effect of Curcuma xanthorrhiza ROXB and its
active principles, Chemical Pharmaceutical Billetin, Volume 38, Number 4, pp.
1045-1048.
Pradana, Bhayangkara., (2016), Pengujian Aktivitas Antikolesterol Dari Ekstrak Daun
Tanjung (Mimusops elengi L.) Dalam Pelarut Air Dengan Metode In Vivo Pada
Mencit (Mus musculus L.) Galur DDY, Universitas Indonesia. Depok.
Richardson, J.F., (2001), Chemical Engineering Particle Technology and 38 Separation
Processes, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Smith, J.B., Mangkoewidjojo, S., (1988), Pemeliharaan, Pembiakan dan Penggunaan
Hewan Percobaan di Daerah Tropis. Tikus Laboratorium (Rattus norvegicus),
Universitas Indonesia, pp. 37-57.
Vimala, S., Norhanum, A.W., Yadav M., (1999), Antitumor promoter activity in Malaysian
ginger rhizobia used in traditional medicine, Br J Cancer, Volume 80, pp. 110-116.
WHO., Global Health Observatory Data Repository [online database]. Geneva, World
from:
HealthOrganization,(2008),
Available
http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main [Accessed 7th September 2013].
WHO., Media Centre. Nocommunicable diseases. (2013) Updated March 2013. Availablefrom:
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs355/en/[Accessed
7th
September 2013].
WHO., (2009), WHO Model Formulary 2008, World Health Organization Press, Geneva.
pp. 262-293, 326-334.

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OPTIMIZATION OF LNG REGASIFICATION PLANT USINGMODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROL
Abdul Wahid1 and Ferdi Fajrian Adicandra2
1,2

Sustainable Energy Research Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Facultyof Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia
Corresponding Author: 1wahid@che.ui.ac.id; 2ferdi.fajrian@ui.ac.id

ABSTRACT
Optimization of liquified natural gas (LNG) regasification plant is important to minimize
costs, especially operational costs. Therefore, it is important to select the LNG
regasification plant design and obtain optimum operating conditions while maintaining
the optimum operating conditions through the implementation of model predictive control(MPC). The optimal criterion is the minimum amount of energy used and or the integralof square error (ISE). As a result, the optimum design is to use scheme 2 with an energy
savings of 40%. While the optimum operating conditions occur if the vaporizer output
temperature is 6oC. In order to maintain the optimum conditions, MPC is required withparameter setting P (prediction horizon), M (control horizon) and T (sampling time) as
follows: tank storage pressure controller: 90, 2, 1; product pressure: 95, 2, 1; temperature
vaporizer: 65, 2, 2; and temperature heater: 35, 6, 5, with ISE value at set point tracking
respectively 0.99, 1792.78, 34.89 and 7.54, or improvement of control performance
respectively 4.6%, 63.5%, 3.1% and 58.2% compared to PI controller performance. Theenergy savings that MPC controllers can make when there is a disturbance in sea
temperature rise of 1oC is 0.02 MW and MPC controller also reduces error to productquality by 34.25% compared to the PI controller.
Keywords: Control, optimization, predictive, regasification, re-identification
1. INTRODUCTION
Fuel subsidy for 14 years (2001-2014) ranks the top with an average share of
61.6% compared to subsidies for other sectors (Ministry of Finance, 2014). The use ofnatural gas in addition to saving fuel subsidies can also improve the quality of theenvironment because natural gas is more environmentally friendly than fuel. However,
the important issue of using natural gas is related to its transport. It is therefore sought by
the best way to transport it more safely and efficiently. Several ways have been done totransport gas, one of which is by building gas pipes or liquefying natural gas into LNG,
to reduce its volume and make the gas in liquid phase so that transportation is easier. Gas
pipe is very limited utilization. Because the installation of gas pipelines has a highdifficulty, as well as very expensive costs, especially for long distances and through theoceans. For LNG itself, in West Java has been built units FSRU (Floating Storage andRegasification Unit). This unit is useful for returning LNG back into gas phase to be
utilized as industrial fuel.
The LNG regasification plant used must be optimally designed, both the designof the equipment and the control design in order to minimize the energy used. Therefore,
in this research we will select the optimal LNG regasification plant design, look for
optimum operating conditions, and set the control parameters used in order to maintain
optimum operating conditions in case of process disturbances. The controller used is

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MPC because MPC is one of the advanced process control that implements the
optimization method in its control and has been proven to have better control performancecompared to conventional controller (Wahid and Adha, 2016).
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 FOPDT Model
Figure 1 shows the research flow diagram. The research begins by creating a
steady state model developed by Wahid and Tanuwijaya (2015) and Devold (2013). Thenfor the selection of models based on energy use and optimization of operating conditions.
After that, change the simulation to dynamic mode and install the control system on eachequipment according to the control objectives. After that, the test model is performed oneach controller. This model test is performed to obtain the PRC curve as shown in Figure
2 to obtain an empirical model.
Empirical model used is first order plus dead-time model (FOPDT) with equation:
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) =𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃(1)𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏+1

with 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = ∆�𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 (∆= magnitude of change of output variable and 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = amount of input
variable change affecting output variable), 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 = 1,5 (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡63% − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡28% ) with 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡63% dan 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡28%
respectively are output response times when it reaches 63% and 28% of the final value ofthe output variable, and 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡63% − 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 (Marlin, 2000).

2.2 Controller Tuning
Based on the parameters of this FOPDT empirical model, the PI controller isadjusted using the Ziegler-Nichols method (Smith and Corripio, 1997). The transfer
function PI controller is used equation:
1

�

(2)

dan 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 3.33 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃(3)

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 +𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏where Kc is the controlling gain and Ti is the integral time. For Ziegler-Nichols method
used equation:
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =0.9 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 −1
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

� �𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏For the MPC controller, the empirical model parameters obtained from PRC canbe directly used on UniSim software R390.1 as a process model. Then re-identified thesystem, by retesting the model with the close loop method using the default MPC
adjustment constants and then the results are compared with the MPC performance byusing the previous PRC. The re-identification process is completed if the MPC
performance using the previous PRC is better than the performance of MPC with the PRC
used. The performance parameter used is ISE (Altman, 2005). The system identificationis performed to obtain the optimum empirical model. After that done, setting parameters
MPC Prediction Horizon (P), Control Horizon (M), and Sampling Time (T) by using thefine-tuning method. MPC fine-tuning adjustment is done by trial error and then view
system behavior to change adjustment parameters (P, M, T) to obtain stable settings.

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833

Identifying Plant and Control Systems

Wheter Performance
MPC Better than PI ?

Figure 1. Research Flow Diagram

Figure 2. Process Reaction Curve

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Optimization of LNG Regasification Scheme
To determine the most optimum regasification process scheme between the two
schemes in Figure 3, a simulation is performed that can calculate the energy requirements
for each process scheme. From the simulation results in Table 1 and Figure 4, it can beseen that the energy in scheme 1 is very large for the compressor process equipment, andsmall enough for the LNG pump energy needs compared to scheme 2. In scheme 2, theamount of energy required is in the heater unit that functions to increase the gas
temperature to achieve the gas pipe specification. In scheme 2, there is no compressor toincrease pressure but is replaced by a high pressure LNG pump which requiresconsiderable magnitude compared to scheme 1. If viewed as a whole, scheme 2 requires
less energy than scheme 1. Energy savings can be done by replacing the process in order
to increase in pressure from the compressor unit to the high pressure LNG pump unit
reaches 40%.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Regasification Process: (a) scheme 1, (b) scheme 2

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Table 1 Use of Energy at Regasification Plant (MW)Process Equipment

Scheme 1

Scheme 2

LNG Pump

1.04

2.37

Water Pump

0.79

0.81

Compressor

21.15

-

Cooler

8.87-

Heater

-

15.97

Total

31.85

19.15

Energy Needs (MW)

35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
LNG Pump

Scheme 1
Water Pump

Scheme 2
Compressor

CoolerHeaterFigure 4. Proportion of Energy Requirement of LNG Regasification Plant
3.2 Optimization of LNG Regasification Operating Conditions
At the LNG regasification plant the unit that has an important role is the vaporizer
unit. In this unit, there is a phase change from liquid LNG to gas which is the main
objective of the regasification process. Therefore, an optimum operating condition isrequired for this unit to make the plant run efficiently. To obtain optimum condition
simulations are performed using Unisim R390.1, to see the effect of vaporizer output
temperature with required seawater pump power and duty of heater needed to achieve gas
pipe specification.
In Figure 5, the relationship between the vaporizer output temperature and therequired duty heater is inversely proportional, the larger the vaporizer output temperature
the duty heater required will be less. Different relationship is shown by graph between
vaporizer output temperature with sea water pump power, the higher temperature ofvaporizer output will increase the required sea water pump power. This is because it will
require more sea water that acts as a hot fluid in the vaporizer if the desired vaporizer
output temperature is greater. From the Figure 5 of the simulation results, it was foundProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

835

17.5

1034

17

1032

16.5

1030

16

1028

15.5

1026

15

1024

14.5

1022

14

4

5
6
7
Vaporizer Output Temperature (°C)
Duty Heater

8

Water Pump Power (hp)

Duty Heater (MW)that the optimum conditions for the vaporizer output temperature were at the point ofintersection between the two graphs at 6 °C.

1020

Power Pump

Figure 5. Relation of Vaporizer Output Temperature with Duty Heater and Water Pump
Power
3.3 Empirical Model and Adjustment of Control
The empirical model is obtained from PRC (process reaction curve) resulting fromsystem identification for each controller. From the PRC, FOPDT empirical models weredeveloped as shown in Table 2, which is computed by equation (1).
Table 2. Process Model of Regasification LNG Plant
Controller

FOPDT

Pressure Control V-100
Pressure Control Stream 4
Temperature Control E-100
Temperature Control E-101

0.069 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 −0.0108𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏
0.103𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1
0.121 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 −0.003𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏
0.017𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1

0.045 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 −0.0182𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏
0.642𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1
0.381 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 −0.0088𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏
0.0438𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 1

3.4 Performance of Control
The way to find out the performance of each controller, set point tracking anddisturbance rejection are performed and evaluated with the value of ISE. Here are theresults of both methods:

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Temperature (oC)

Temperature (oC)

6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5

50

150
Time (s)Set Point
MPC-Fine tuning

250

31.5
31
30.5
30
29.5

40

140
Time (s)SP
MPC-Fine Tuning
Dougherty & Cooper
PI

PI
Dougherty & Coop

(b)

17

Pressure (psia)

Pressure (psia)

(a)
16.5
16
15.5

0

240

20

465
460
455
450
445
440

40
60
Time (s)Dougherty & Cooper

SP
PI

0

50
Time (s)

100

SP
MPC
Proportional Integral
Dougherty & Cooper

MPC-Fine tuning

4

0

50

100
Time (s)Set Point
MPC Fine Tuning

150

200

Temperature (oC)

Temperature(oC)(c)(d)
Figure 6. Comparison of Three Controller (Set Point Tracking): (a) Vaporizer (b)Heater(c) Storage Tank (d) Stream 4
31
30.5
30
29.5
29

0

100

Time (s)PI
Dougherty & Cooper(a)Pressure (psia)

Pressure (psia)

16
15.5

0
SP

20

40

Time (s)Dougherty & Cooper

300

(b)

16.5

15

200

SP
MPC-Fine TuningPI
Dougherty & Cooper

60

MPC-Fine Tuning
Proportional Integral

444.1
444.05444443.95

0

50

100

150

SP
Time (s)MPC
PI
Dougherty & Cooper

200

250

(c)
(d)
Figure 7. Comparison of Three Controller (Disturbance Rejection): (a) Vaporizer (b)Heater (c) Storage Tank (d) Stream 4

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837

3.4.1 Set Point Tracking. In this method, a set point change is made to see how thecontroller response to achieve process stability. The controller that has the lowest ISE
value is the best controller. The result for the set point tracking can be represented by
Figure 6. From Figure 6, the tuning with MPC-Fine tuning method produces the best
performing control with the total ISE scores in sequence for the vaporizer, heater,
storage tank, and stream 4 controllers are 34.88, 7.54, 0.98 and 1792.78.
3.4.2 Disturbance Rejection. In this method, disturbance is given to the system to see
the controller response in overcoming the disturbance on the system. The results of thetest for disturbance rejection can be seen in Figure 8. From Figure 7, the tuning with
MPC-Fine tuning method produces the best performing control with the total ISE
scores in sequence for the vaporizer, heater, storage tank, and stream 4 controllers are
7.4, 7.54, 0.35 and 0.016.

1

31

0.8

29

0.6

27

0.4

25
-50

0.2

P
P

50

150
250
Time (s)Sea Water TemperaturePower Pump PI
Power Pump MPC

350

Figure 8. Relationship needs of pump
power to disturbance on Sea watertemperature

450

16.2

34

16
15.8

31

15.6

28
25

15.4
0

200
Time (s)Sea Water Temperature
Duty Heater PI
Duty Heater MPC

400

Duty Heater (MW)

33

(MW)

1.2

Sea Water Temp (oC)35

Sea Water Temp (oC)

3.5 Energy Efficiency
To determine the effect of errors on both controllers on energy to be used can be seenin Figure 8 and Figure 9. Based on the calculation of energy deviation, the use of control
with the MPC-fine tuning method has fewer errors than the proportional-integral
method controller. The use of MPC-fine tuning controller can reduce 0.02 MW and
MPC controller also reduces error to product quality by 34.25% compared to the PI
controller.

15.2

Figure 9. Relationship needs of Duty
Heater to disturbance on Sea watertemperature

4. CONCLUSION
Scheme 2 LNG regasification plant requires less energy than scheme 1, withenergy savings reaching 40% from scheme 1, so scheme 2 is chosen. The optimum
condition of vaporizer output temperature is 6oC, while MPC (P, M and T) parametersettings are as follows: pressure tank control (90, 2, 1), pressure on stream 4 (95, 2, 1),vaporizer temperature (65, 2, 2) and heater temperature: (35, 6, 5) with ISE value in set
point tracking respectively 0.99, 1792.78, 34.89 and 7.54, or improved control
performance respectively 4.6%, 63.5%, 3.1% and 58.2%, compared to PI controller
performance. The energy savings that MPC controllers can perform when a disturbance

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in sea temperature rise of 1oC is 0.02 MW and MPC controller also reduces error to
product quality by 34.25% compared to the PI controller.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We express our gratitude to the Universitas Indonesia which has funded thisresearch through the scheme of Hibah Publikasi Internasional Terindeks untuk Tugas
Akhir Mahasiswa (PITTA) No.2068/UN2.R3.1/PPM.00/2017.
6. REFERENCES
Altman, W. 2005. Practical Process Control for Engineers and Technicians. IDC
Technologies
Devold, H. 2013. Oil and Gas Production Handbook: An Introduction to Oil and Gas
Production, Transport, Refining and Petrochemical Industry. Oslo : ABB Oil andGas.
Marlin, T. 2000. Process Control: Designing Processes and Control Systems for Dynamic
Performance. United States: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Ministry of Finance. 2014. Dasar-dasar Praktek Penyusunan Anggaran di Indonesia.
Smith, C. and Corripio, A. 1997. Principles and Practice of Automatic Process Control.
United States: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Wahid, A. and Tanuwijaya, R. 2015. Pemilihan Metode Penyetelan Pengendali PI padaPengendalian Pabrik Regasifikasi LNG Menggunakan Metode Skor. Proceeding of
Seminar Nasional Teknik Kimia UNPAR. Bandung, 19 November 2015.
Wahid, A. and Adha, Afdal. 2016. Model predictive control based on system reidentification for methanol and dymethil ether synthesis control. Proceeding of
Seminar Nasional Teknik Kimia “Kejuangan”. Yogyakarta, 17 March 2016

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Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

841

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THERMAL PERFORMANCE OFREFRIGERANTS IN MICROCHANNEL HEAT EXCHANGER FOR
AIR-CONDITIONING APPLICATION
Ardiyansyah Yatim1*, Muhammad Idrus Alhamid1, Budihardjo1, Dicky Alamsyah1,
Hotdian Sinambela1
1

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia,
Kampus UI Depok, Depok 16424, Indonesia

ABSTRACTThis paper describes: experimental comparison in thermal performance (COP) as the effectof the use of high ODP refrigerants and zero ODP and GWP refrigerants; and pressure
drop of the microchannel heat exchanger, in air-conditioning applications. It is found thatthe maximum COP of 1.88 achieved when charged with R22 of 300 g with cooling
capacity of 1.1 kW. The maximum COP of 1.92 achieved when charged with R290 of
300g with cooling capacity of 1.5 kW. When apply with any refrigerant, the refrigerantpressure drop in the microchannel heat exchanger remains at around 5.0 bars.
Keywords: COP; GWP; Microchannel heat exchanger; ODP
1. INTRODUCTION
Microchannel heat exchangers are widely used due to its compactness in dimension
without significantly reducing thermal performance (Shah, R.K., 2006). Microchannel heatexchangers are sufficient to use in energy efficient systems (Roth, K.W. et. al., 2002). The
potential for this technology to grow is convincingly evolving, marked with number of
research and development on it (Kandlikar, S.G., 2006). In the discipline of air
conditioning, the use of different types of HCFC-based refrigerants is phased out, replacedwith HC, HFO, and CO2-based refrigerants that posses zero ODP and GWP, make thoseuse is promising in the future (Babu, P.S., 2015). Most of cooling units for residential are
still earmarked for HCFC-based refrigerants (Wan, T., et. al., 2011). For the sake ofknowing how the thermal performance of cooling systems with miniaturized heatexchange devices, paired to HCFC-based cooling systems, charged with drop-in
environmentally friendly refrigerants, further study is needed.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Experimental setup
The P&ID of the testing facility is shown in Fig. 1, comprising the main components of thevapor-compression refrigeration system, namely: compressor; condenser; expansion
device; and evaporator. The main components were adopted from S09LFG-2 split airconditioning system by LG, with capacity of 9,000 Btu/hr, and scroll compressor withpower of 1 hp with maximum voltage and current of 220 V and 4.3 A, compatible to R22.
Evaporator of fin and tube type from LG was included in parallel with the microchannel
heat exchanger as the test section. During testing, the ball valve was left closed, so as not

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to allow refrigerants to flow into the evaporator of fin and tube from LG. The needle valve
was left to fully opened, not to give an effect of expansion.

EXPANSION
DEVICE

TR.i

AM

PR.i
TA.1
TR.i
PR.i

HW
AM

TR.o
PR.o

TA.3

TA.2
TA.4

TR.o
PR.o

A baffle inside
the header

Figure 1 P&ID of thermal performance and pressure drop on microchannel heat exchangers
testing facility, consisted of: COMP or compressor; MCHX EVAP or the microchannel heatexchanger as evaporator; NV or needle valve; CV or check valve; BV or ball valve; SG orsight glass; expansion device; T or thermocouple; P or pressure gauge; HWAM or hot wire
anemometer; and AM or ampere meters
Table 1 Detailed specification of the microchannel heat exchanger
Parameter
Specification
Material
Aluminium
Fin type
Louvered
Number of tube
98
Height
320 mm (12.6 in)
Width
450 mm (17.7 in)
Number of slab/passes
2
Hydraulic diameter of one entire tube
1.46 mm(0.057 in)Microchannel tube thickness
0.35 mm (0.014 in)
Fin Pitch
0.79 fin/mm (20 fpi)
Fin Height
7.44 mm (0.29 in)Louver length
6 mm (0.236 in)Louver pitch
0.89 n.louv./mm(22.6 n.louv./in)
Louver angle measured from fin plane
30 deg.

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843

Header diameter (measured as envelope diameter)
31.75 mm (1.25 in)Internal volume of the microchannel evaporators
1.90 L (115 in3)
The sensors used for data retrieval were: 10 points of thermocouple at the inlet and outletof the microchannel heat exchanger for air and refrigerant sides; pressure gauge at the inlet
and outlet of refrigerant side in regards to the microchannel heat; a hot wire anemometer at
the air side; and ampere meter clamped on the cable right after the compressor’s capacitor.
2.2. Data reduction
Data retrieval conducted for 3 minutes and 30 seconds. The independent variables definedin the test were the mass of refrigerant of R22 and R290. Each charging went up every 50
g, and stopped at 300 g. The dependent variables defined in the test were: the refrigerantpressure and temperature at the input and output of the microchannel heat exchanger; theoutput of air temperature at the external flow of the microchannel heat exchanger; andoperating current to supply energy to the compressor. The control variables defined were:the expansion capacity by the needle valve at about to negligible; the average airtemperature entering the microchannel heat exchanger of 28.0 oC, evenly distributed;
operating voltage at the compressor of 220 V; and the average air velocity and temperature
at the inlet on the external flow of the microchannel heat exchangers of 0.9 m/s, evenly
distributed. The data recorded were partitioned into categories of: air side; refrigerant side;
and compressor, reduced with Eq. 1 to Eq. 4 as follow:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Where and were taken at the mean air temperature of
database from Keenan, J. H. and Kaye, J, 1945.

(28.0 oC) andbased on

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Profile of output air temperature
Fig. 2 shows the profile of air temperature at the outlet of the microchannel heat exchanger
andshow consistency to exchange
when ran with R290 of 300 g. Temperatures
the least and the most heat yield the average outlet temperature of 13.0 oC and 25.6 oC.
This condition illustrates the distribution of flow of refrigerant inside the microchannel
heat exchanger. After passing the inlet nozzle of the heat exchanger, the refrigerant flows
to the headers and the channels, see Fig. 1. Lower output temperatures illustrate heatexchange occurs more effectively due to the refrigerant is not yet escalates its
temperature, yield in high heat transfer. Headers closer to the nozzle tend to cause the air
outlet temperature in the external flow of the microchannel lower heat exchanger
compared to the farther header, this indicates the refrigerant flows to the header closer tothe nozzle first. This may also apply to channels. High pressure drop inside the channels,
which discussed in Chapter 3.5, does not allow refrigerant to flow into the channels if the844

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baffle in the header is eliminated. The use of baffle in the header forces the refrigerant toflow into the canal first before leaving the heat exchanger.
TA.4
TA.1
TA.3
TA.2

Figure 2 Profile of air temperature at the outlet of the microchannel heatexchanger against time at R290 of 250 g
3.2. Cooling capacity
Fig. 3 shows the correlation between the cooling capacity of the air system against mass
charge of the refrigerants. The more the mass charge of refrigerant, representing the greater
the mass flow rate or the refrigerant mass flux. If the mass flux increases, more heat isabsorbed to evaporate the refrigerant. This reveals the reason why the higher the mass
charge of the refrigerant will result in maximum heat transfer. It applies until the optimum
condition is passed. The least heat that is able to carry, limits the heat transfer which canoccur as it is dependent to mass flow rate and specific heat capacity of the refrigerant andthe air. In the test, the maximum cooling capacity of 1.5 kW achieved at R290 of 300 g.

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845

Figure 3 The cooling capacity of the air system against mass charge ofrefrigerant with microchannel heat exchanger as evaporator
3.3. Energy consumption
Fig. 4 shows the correlation between the energy consumption by the compressor and mass
charge of the refrigerants. The more mass charge of the refrigerants, the more thecompressor consumes energy. The energy consumption by the compressor is a response to
the type of refrigerant and the operating conditions of the system. Under the same mass
charge, the energy required by the compressor to compress R290 is relatively greater. At
the same pressure and temperature as R290, R22 has a greater density. As the mass of
refrigerant to compress increases, the energy required by the compressor will escalate.

Figure 4 Energy consumption by the compressor against the mass charge ofrefrigerant

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Figure 6 Energy consumption by the compressor against the suction
pressure of refrigerant enters the compressor
Fig. 6 shows the energy required to perform compression increases as the input pressure of
the refrigerant into the compressor increases. Input pressures to compress are a time higher
to produce output pressures, as compressors always have a fixed compression ratio. In thetest, the scroll compressor used is compatible to R22 instead of R290. The role ofrefrigerant oil is considered too. This can be considered as one of the factors why for lower
pressure of R290, energy consumption by the compressor tends to be higher than tocompress R22.
3.4. COP
Fig. 7 shows no significance in COP difference regarding to variation of refrigerant type of
R22 and R290. The optimum COP of 1.88 achieved with R22 of 300 g, and the optimum
COP of 1.92 with R290 of 300 g. There are two sides, the left side and the right side of the
optimum COP. If the COP is at the left of the optimum point, then the heat transfer islimited to the refrigerant side. When the COP is at the right of the optimum point, thecompressor finds more difficult to compress the refrigerant, with unequal proportionality to
the resulting cooling capacity, resulting in a decreased COP.

Figure 7 COP against mass charge of refrigerant
3.5. Pressure drop
The pressure drop characteristics at refrigerant side are shown in Fig. 8. R22 at mass
charge of 200 g and R290 at mass charge of 150 g are not capable to overcome pressure
drop in the microchannel heat exchanger. The test shows, the more mass charge ofrefrigerant, the less pressure drops will be generated. The mass charge of refrigerant,
represents the greater the mass flow rate or the refrigerant mass flux. When the mass flux
increases, more heat is required to evaporate the refrigerant. Correlation between refrigerant

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847

mass flux and the amount of heat transferred from the air affects the phase conditions of therefrigerant in the test section. When maximum refrigerant mass flux and minimum input air
temperature apply, the existence of liquid phase of refrigerant becomes more and more, andvice versa for minimum refrigerant mass and maximum input air temperature. The liquid
phase of the refrigerant has a higher density than the vapor phase, which affects the pressure
drop of the friction factor.

Figure 8 Pressure drop at refrigerant side against mass charge of refrigerant
4. CONCLUSION
The conclusions that can be drawn from the results of microchannel canal exchanger testing
are as follows:andshow consistency to exchange the least and the most heat;
1. Temperatures
2. The highest cooling capacity of 1.1 kW achieved in the test with R22 is at a mass
charge of 300 g, and the highest cooling capacity of 1.5 kW achieved in the test with
R290 is at a mass of 300 g;
3. Energy consumption by the compressor rises linearly with the increase of mass chargeof refrigerant and refrigerant pressure input to the compressor;
4. Differences in COP are not significant between R22 and R290. The highest COP of
1.88 achieved with R22 is at a mass charge of 300 g, and the highest COP of 1.92 with
R290 also at a mass charge of 300 g; and5. Pressure drop increases exponentially. When apply with any refrigerant, the pressure
drop remains at around 5.0 bars.
5. NOMENCLATURES
average temperature of air at the inlet of the heat exchanger (oC)average temperature of air at the outlet of the heat exchanger (oC)average temperature of sensor 1 of air at the outlet of the heat exchanger (oC)848

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average temperature of sensor 2 of air at the outlet of the heat exchanger (oC)average temperature of sensor 3 of air at the outlet of the heat exchanger (oC)average temperature of sensor 4 of air at the outlet of the heat exchanger (oC)
cooling capacity (W)bulk length of the microchannel heat exchanger (m)bulk width of the microchannel heat exchanger (m)density of air (kg/m3)
velocity of air (m/s)
energy consumption by the compressor (W)energy consumption by the compressor (W)compressor voltage (V)compressor current (A)thermal performance
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research is funded through 2016 International Collaboration and Publication Research
Grant from the Ministry of Research and Higher Education, Republic of Indonesia.
7. REFERENCES
Babu, P. S. (2015). Hydrocarbon Refrigerants, Promising Substitutes in Low Capacity
Refrigeration Systems – A Review. International Journal of Research in Engineering &Technology 2321-8843.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Section of Energy Engineering at the Technical
University of Denmark. (1995). CoolPack (1.50 Version) [Computer Program].
Kandiklar, S.G., Garimella, S. V., Colin, S., Peles, Y., Pease, R. F. W., & Brandner J. J.
(2013). Heat Transfer in Microchannels-2012 Status and Research Needs. Journal of
Heat Transfer 53:175-93.
Kavanaugh, S. P. (2006) HVAC Simplified. American Society of Heating Refrigeratingand Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Keenan, J. H. & Kaye, J. (1945). Gas Tables. The U.S.A.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Roth, K. W., Westphalen, D. Dieckmann, J. Hamilton, S. D., & Goetzler, W. (2002).
Energy Consumption Characteristics of Commercial Bulding HVAC Systems Volume
III: Energy Savings Potential. TIAX LCC, Ref. No. 68370-00 for Building
Technologies Program, Contact no. DE-AC01-96CE23798, Cambridge.
Shah, R. K. (2006). Advances in Science and Technology of Compact Heat Exchangers.
Heat Transfer Engineering 27:3-22.
Wan, T., Dou, Y., Wang, L., Yang, L., Zhou, X., Wan, D., & Hu, J. (2011). Environmental
Benefits for Phase-Out HCFC-22 in the Residential Air-Conditioner Sector in China.
Advances in Climate Change Research.

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849

Investigation of Flow Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficient of R410A in
Various Minichannel Multiport Tubes
Nguyen-Ba Chien1,a, Pham Quang Vu1,b, Kwang-Il Choi2,c, Jong-Taek Oh2,d*and Honggi Cho3,e,Graduate School, Chonnam National University, 50 Daehak-ro, Yeosu, Chonnam 59626, South
Korea

1

Department of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineering, Chonnam National University, 50
Daehak-ro, Yeosu, Chonnam 59626, South Korea

2

Advanced R&D Team, Digital Appliances, Samsung Electronics, 129 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu,
Suwon, 16677, South Korea

3

bachien@ejnu.net , dohjt@chonnam.ac.kraKeywords: Heat Transfer Coefficient; R-410A; Multiport Minichannel; Correlation.

Abstract. This study demonstrates the two-phase heat transfer coefficient of R410A during
evaporation in the aluminum multiport minichannels with the hydraulic diameter of 1.16 mm (7parallel channels – Type A), 1.14 mm (11 parallel channels – Type B) and 1.07 mm (16 parallel
channels – Type D). The experimental data were measured in the following conditions: the mass
fluxes ranged from 50-150 kg/m2s, the heat fluxes of 3-6 kW/m2 and the saturation temperature of
6℃. The effect of mass flux and heat flux on heat transfer coefficient were analyzed. The
experimental data were also compared with some well-known heat transfer coefficient correlations.
Introduction
Minichannel multiport tube has being used in various advanced heat exchanger systems
including electronics cooling, automotive and modern domestic devices due to its effectiveness andcompactness. Even though two-phase flow boiling in minichannel have performed through various
studies in literature, the extensive reviews [1–3] have pointed out some remaining fundamental
issues of this topic. The wide range of tube size has been reported, but a well-establishedclassification is still lack of. Some transition criteria recommended by Kandlikar and Kew and
Cornwell [1,4] need further physical proof. Moreover, the heat transfer behaviour in small channel
acts differently than that in conventional channel [1,2,5]. The general accepted heat transfer
coefficient form for conventional tubes proposed by Chen [6] that combine two importantmechanisms: nucleate boiling and forced convective boiling should be should be revaluated. In
fact, most of well-known heat transfer coefficient correlations developed until present are based on
the empirical or semi-empirical method rather than basing on the physical approach. Hence, moreexperimental data of two-phase flow boiling in small channel is necessary to improve the prediction
as well as to expand the knowledge of the inside mechanism.
In addition, to date, report on two-phase flow boiling heat transfer and pressure drop of R410A,
and, even, other refrigerants in minichannel multiport tube is still limited.
Kaew-On and Wongwises [4] performed the evaporation heat transfer coefficient and pressure
drop of R410A flowing through aluminium multiport minichannel. The experimental data wascollected in 3.48mm hydraulic diameter tube type, the mass flux of 200 – 400 kg/m2s, the heat
fluxes of 5 - 14.25 kW/m2, and the saturation temperature of 10 - 30ºC. The authors concluded thatthe average heat transfer coefficient of R-410A during evaporation tended to increase withincreasing average quality, mass flux, and heat flux, but tended to decrease with increasing
saturation temperature while the pressure drop increased with increasing the mass flux, but
decreased with increasing the saturation temperature, and the heat flux has no significant effect.

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Vakili-Farahani et al. [7] reported the flow boiling heat transfer of R245fa and R1234ze in
multiport tubes with 7 channels of 1.4 mm inner diameter. They proposed a new approach toaccount the non-uniform distribution of heat flux. The heat transfer coefficient was found toincrease with the increase of mass flux, heat flux and saturated temperature. On the other hand, thestudy proposed the flow pattern based approach to predict the heat transfer coefficient.
Li et al. [8] showed the flow boiling of R-1234yf in vertical aluminum multiport tube with 16
and 40 parallel channels. The results were measured with the fixed saturated temperature of 15ºC,
the mass flux ranged from 60 – 240 kg/m2s, and the heat flux ranged from 3 – 16 kW/m2. As
reported in this study, the experimental heat flux decreased linearly with the increase of vapor
quality. More importance, the geometry, especially aspect ratio, strongly affects to the heat transfer
performance. Three existing pressure drop correlations used in this study [9–11] fail to predict theexperimental data.
Hence, the aim of this study is to experimental investigate the two-phase flow boiling heattransfer characteristics and pressure drop of R410A in three types of minichannel multiport tubes.
The analysis is carried out by varying the mass flux, heat flux and the comparison between different
tube types. In addition, the data was also compared with various heat transfer coefficientcorrelations in literature.
Experimental procedure
The schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus was shown in Figure 1. The model mainly
consists the refrigerant loop, three water loops and the data acquisition system. The refrigerant loop
included a magnetic gear pump, a sub-cooler, a mass flow meter, an evaporator, a test section, acondenser and a receiver. When the test facility was operated for evaporation, the refrigerant wasdelivered into the test section by the gear pump. The mass flow rate of refrigerant was measured by
a Coriolis mass flow meter and can be adjusted by changing the pump speed. The quality of therefrigerant at the inlet test section was controlled by pre-heater. The test section was heated by awater loop as shown in the figure. The heat capacity could be varied by mastering the mass flowrate and working temperature of water. The vapor at the outlet of test section was condensed by acondenser unit then accumulating in the receiver for a new testing cycle. The experimental
apparatus was well insulated with foam to minimize heat transfer between the system andFigure 1. Experimental apparatus

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851

Pressure Transducer

A

P;T

P;T

T1

T2

T3

Tw

Tw

50

50

50

50

A
Cross section
A-A

Figure 2. schematic of test section
environment.
The detail of test sections was depicted in Figure 2. The test tubes made of aluminum tube withhydraulic diameters of 1.14mm 1.16mm and 1.04 mms. The effective length was 200mm. As shownin the figure, the heat flux applied on test sections by a water loop. The T-type thermocouples wereattached at top and bottom points every 50mm along the test section. Thermocouples and pressuretransducers were also set up at the adiabatic pipes between the inlet and outlet. To visualize the flow
pattern, two sight glasses were installed at the beginning and the end of test tubes.
The data were collected using a data acquisition and analyzed in real time by the data reduction
program. All the information about test conditions and data during the operation were displayed on
the monitor.
The heat flux of each subsection Qn, is calculated from mass flow rate and rising enthalpy ofcooling water flowing inside the water tubes as follows:
Qn Wn c p (Tnout  Tnin )  Qloss(1)
where Wn, cp, Tn are the mass rate of flow, specific heat and temperature of heating water loop.
Qloss is the heat loss on the test section which was determined by calibrating system. The vapor
quality, x, at the measurement locations, z, were determined based on the thermodynamic
properties:i  if(2)x
i fg
The local heat transfer coefficient inside the channel can be evaluated as the ratio of the heat flux
Table 1. Summary of the estimated uncertainty
Parameter
Uncertainty
Temperature±0.15˚C
Absolute pressure±0.2 %
Different pressure±2.5 kPa
G refrigerant±0.2 %
G water±0.2 %
q
±3 %
x
±5 %
h
±10 %

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to saturation minus the inside wall temperature:Q(3)h
A.(Twi  Tsat )The physical properties of the refrigerant were obtained from REFPROP 8. The temperature andmass flow rate data were recorded using data acquisition and flow meter, respectively. Table 1
presented a summary of the estimated uncertainty associated with all the parameters at a 95%
confidence interval.
Results and discussions
The effect of mass flux on the heat transfer coefficient of R410A in multiport minichannel isillustrated in Fig. 3. As shown in the figure, the heat flux was fixed at 6 kW/m2 while the mass flux
was varied from 50 to 150 kg/m2s for the experiment with tube A. The heat transfer coefficient of
R410A increases with the increase of mass flux.
Figure 4 show the dependence of heat flux on the heat transfer coefficient of R410A in
minichannel. Mass flux was fixed at 100 kg/m2s while two heat fluxes of 3 and 6kW/m2 wereapplied on tube B. The effect of heat flux on the heat transfer coefficient can be clearly seen in thetrends. Higher heat flux causes the higher heat transfer coefficient.
In this study, the experimental heat transfer coefficient was compared with some well-known
correlations [5,12–16]. Table 2 shows the overall deviation of three tube types. Two best prediction
are correlations of Bertsch et al. [5] and Sun and Mishima [15] with the overall mean deviations ofabout 28%. However, five among six heat transfer coefficient correlations are under predicted,

Figure 3. Effect of mass flux

Figure 4. Effect of heat flux

Table 2. Summary of correlation comparison
MD
Correlation
AD (%)(%)
Lazarek & Black[12]61.71-61.71
M.Shah [13]47.66

-45.41

Liu and Winterton[14]58.62-57.24

Bertsch et al. [5]

27.53-19.90Sun and Mishima [15]Li and Wu [16]

28.75
46.26

-28.6239.72

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exception is the one proposed by Li and Wu [16], which is over predicted.
Conclusions
This study demonstrated the two-phase heat transfer coefficient of R410A in side multiport
minichannels. The results show that the heat transfer coefficient increase with the increase of massflux and heat flux. The experimental data was also compared with several well-known correlations.
Among them, the correlation proposed by Sun and Mishima [15] and Bertsch et al. [5] show thebest prediction with the overall mean deviation for 3 tubes about 28%.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (NRF2016R1D1A1A09919697) and Samsung Electronics Company
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S.G. Kandlikar, Fundamental issues related to flow boiling in minichannels andmicrochannels, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 26 (2002) 389–407.
J.R. Thome, Boiling in microchannels: A review of experiment and theory, Int. J. Heat Fluid
Flow. 25 (2004) 128–139.
L. Cheng, Flow Boiling Heat Transfer with Models in Microchannels, in: Microchannel
Phase Chang. Transp. Phenom., Elsevier, 2016: pp. 141–191.
P. Kew, K. Cornwell, Correlations for the prediction of boiling heat transfer in smalldiameter channels, Appl. Therm. Eng. 17 (1997) 705–715.
S.S. Bertsch, E. a. Groll, S. V. Garimella, A composite heat transfer correlation for saturated
flow boiling in small channels, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 52 (2009) 2110–2118.
J.C. Chen, Correlation for boiling heat transfer to saturated fluids in convective flow, Ind.
Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev. 5 (1966) 322–329.
F. Vakili-Farahani, B. Agostini, J.R. Thome, Experimental study on flow boiling heattransfer of multiport tubes with R245fa and R1234ze(E), Int. J. Refrig. 36 (2013) 335–352.
E. Li, Jiyang; Dang, Chaobin; and Hihara, Experimental investigation on up-flow boiling of
R1234yf in aluminum multi-port extruded tubes, in: Int. Refrig. Air Cond. Conf., 2016: p. 8.
H.J. Lee, S.Y. Lee, Heat transfer correlation for boiling flows in small rectangular horizontal
channels with low aspect ratios, Int. J. Multiph. Flow. 27 (2001) 2043–2062.
R.W. Lockhart, R. c. Martinelli, Proposed correlation of data for isothermal two-phase, twocomponent flow in pipes, Chemecal Eng. Prog. 45 (1949) 39–48.
K. Mishima, T. Hibiki, Some characteristics of air-water two-phase flow in small diametervertical tubes, Int. J. Multiph. Flow. 22 (1996) 703–712.
G. Lazarek, S. Black, Evaporative heat transfer, pressure drop and critical heat flux in a small
vertical tube with R-113, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 25 (1982).
M.M. Shah, Chart correlation for saturated boiling heat transfer: equations and further study,
ASHRAE Trans.;(United States). 88 (1982) 185–196.
Z. Liu, R. Winterton, A general correlation for saturated and subcooled flow boiling in tubes
and annuli, based on a nucleate pool boiling equation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 34 (1991)
2759–2766.
L. Sun, K. Mishima, An evaluation of prediction methods for saturated flow boiling heattransfer in mini-channels, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 52 (2009) 5323–5329.
W. Li, Z. Wu, A general correlation for evaporative heat transfer in micro/mini-channels, Int.
J. Heat Mass Transf. 53 (2010) 1778–1787.

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MASS FLOW CHARACTERISTICS ANALYSIS OF R245FA IN EEVTing Chena, Kyungjin Baeb, Dongan Chab, Ohkyung kwona,b*Advanced Energy and Technology, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology Campus,
Korea University of Science and Technology, Cheonan 31056, Republic of Korea
b
Korea Institue of Industrial Technology, 89 Yangdaegiro-gil Ipjang-myeonl, Cheonan-si
31056, Republic of Koreaa

ABSTRACTIn this paper, mass flow characteristics of R245fa through EEV are investigated. By
keeping temperature at EEV outlet at constant, the experiments were conducted undervarying EEV inlet temperature, subcooling temperature and EEV opening. According to
the experimental results, the mass flow rate of R245fa is found to increase with increasingcondensing temperature and EEV opening. And subcooling temperature has some but little
impact on the mass flow rate.
Keywords: R245fa; Flow characteristics; EEV*Corresponding author. Email adress: kwonok@kitech.re.kr
1. INTRODUCTION
As an expansion device that can control the refrigerant flow and balance the systempressure (Park, C., 2007), electronic expansion valve, which is always abbreviated as EEV,
has attracted more and more attentions from researchers all over the world. EEV has a wide
flow adjustment range, it is widely used in all aspects of the refrigeration industry, and it
can make quick response to variations in operational conditions (Saleh and Ayman 2016).
Therefore, EEVs have been more and more widely applied in refrigeration&air conditioners(R&AC), vehicle air-conditioning system and heat pumps. Many experimental researches
on flow characteristics of R22, R410A and R407C in EEVs have been done. Park etal.(2007) and Zhang(2006) measured the mass flow rate of R22, R410A and R407C
through the EEVs with different operating conditions respectively, as a result, empiricalcorrelations were proposed to predict mass flow rate for corresponding refrigerant. Hou etal. (2014) find that the flow characteristics of refrigerant would be not affected by EEVoutlet temperature when the flow is choking flow. Besides, many analytical studies havebeen done by using ANN model and other models (Tian et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2009).
However, most of the existing researches are related to high or medium temperaturerefrigerant, studies on high temperature refrigerant flow characteristics through EEV are
still limited. The purpose of this study is to investigate the mass flow rate variation of
R245fa refrigerant in EEV.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND CONDITIONS
2.1. Experimental setup

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Figure 1 Schematic diagram and Photo of experimental setup.
The schematic of the experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 1. The set-up is mainly consist ofan EEV (test subject), high temperature heat exchanger, low temperature heat exchanger
and liquid pump. The temperature at the inlet and outlet of the EEV is controlled byadjusting the temperature of high temperature heat exchanger and low temperature heatexchanger respectively. For the sensors used in the experimental set-up, the errors oftemperature sensor RTD, pressure sensor and mass flow meter is ±0.1℃, ±0.25% and±0.5%, respectively.
2.2. Conditions
The parameters of EEV and test conditions were listed in Table 1. EEV has orifice diameterof 1mm. By changing the operating conditions, the variation of mass flow rate flowing
through the EEV is measured and recorded. Since the temperature at outlet of EEV canhardly influence mass flow rate, it is kept constant at 35℃, and the temperature at EEV
inlet ranges from 60℃ to 70℃, subcooling temperature varies from 5℃ to 15℃. All data
were obtained when the system was under steady state.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig. 2 shows the mass flow rate variation of R245fa flow with EEV opening whencondensing temperature is 60℃. As shown in this figure, the mass flow rate of R245fa
increases with EEV opening, when EEV opening increases from 20% to 100%, the mass
flow rate increases by about 30 kg/h, and mass flow rate increases with increasing
subcooling temperature slightly under the same EEV opening.

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Table 1 Operating conditions
Parameter
EEV orifice diameter (mm)

Value
1

Pressure at EEV inlet (kPa)

463.4, 609.8, 788.7

Condensing temperature (oC)60, 70, 80

Temperature at EEV outlet (oC)35

Subcooling temperature (oC)

5, 10, 15

EEV opening (%)

0~100

Fig. 3 shows the mass flow rate variation with opening degree when condensing
temperature is 70℃. Similar to what we observed in Fig. 2, mass flow rate increases with
EEV opening significantly and subcooling temperature slightly. Fig. 4 shows the mass flowrate variation with opening degree when condensing temperature is 80 ℃ . The sametendency can be observed in this figure, mass flow rate increases with EEV opening
significantly and subcooling temperature slightly. By comparing the three figures, we canfind that, with the increasing condensing temperature, the mass flow rate increases forevery certain EEV opening.
70

Mass flow rate (kg/h)

Tsub = 5oC

Tsub = 10oC

60

Tsub = 15oC

50
40
30
d=1mm

20
Pin = 463.4 kPa

10

20

40

60

80

Tcon=60oC

100

EEV opening (%)
Figure 2 The variation of mass flow rate with EEV opening under 60oC condensing
temperature.

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857

70

Mass flow rate (kg/h)

Tsub = 5oC

Tsub = 10oC

60

Tsub = 15oC

50
40
30
d=1mm

20
Pin = 609.8 kPa

10

20

40

60

80

Tcon=70oC

100

EEV opening (%)
Figure 3 The variation of mass flow rate with EEV opening under 70oC condensing
temperature.
70

Mass flow rate (kg/h)

Tsub = 5oC

Tsub = 10oC

60

Tsub = 15oC

50
40
30
20
10

d=1mm

20

40

60

Pin = 788.7 kPa

Tcon=80oC

80100

EEV opening (%)

Figure 4 The variation of mass flow rate with EEV opening under 80oC condensing
temperature.

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4. CONCLUSION
According to the experimental results, we can find that, the mass flow rate increases withincreasing EEV opening. subcooling temperature has little impact on the mass flow rate. With
the increasing condensing temperature, mass flow rate increases a lot.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the platform program of KITECH(Korea Institute of Industrial
Technology). The authors gratefully acknowledge this support.
6. REFERENCES
Park, C., Cho, H., Lee, Y., Kim, Y., (2007), Mass flow characteristics and empiricalmodeling of R22 and R410A flowing through electronic expansion valve, International
Journal of Refrigeration 30, 1401-1407.
Saleh, B., Aly, A.A., (2016), Artificial neural network models for depicting mass flow rateof R22, R407C and R410A through electronic expansion valves. Int. J. Refrigeration
63, 113-124.
Zhang, C., Ma, S., Chen, J., Chen, Z., (2006), Experimental analysis of R22 and R407C
flow through electronic expansion valve, Energy Conversion and Management 47, 529544.
Hou, Y., Liu, C., Ma, J., Cao, J., Chen, S., (2014), Mass flow rate characteristics ofsupercritical CO2 flowing through an electronic expansion valve. Int. J. Refrigeration
47, 134-140.
Chen, L., Liu, J., Chen, J., Chen, Z., (2009), A new model of mass flow characteristics inelectronic expansion valves considering metastability, International Journal of Thermal
Sciences 48, 1235-1242.
Tian, Z., Gu, B., Qian, C., Yang, L., Liu, F., (2015), Electronic expansion valve mass flowrate prediction based on dimensionless correlation and ANN model, International
Journal of Refrigerant 57, 1-10.

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859

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE HEAT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICSOF ZEILITE ADSORBENT COATED FIN-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

Kyungjin Baea, Ting Chenb, Dongan Chaa, Ohkyung kwona, b, *a

Korea Institue of Industrial Technology, 89 Yangdaegiro-gil Ipjang-myeonl, Cheonan-si
31056, Republic of Koreab
Advanced Energy and Technology, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology Campus,
Korea University of Science and Technology, Cheonan 31056, Republic of Korea

ABSTRACTIn this paper, adsorbent coating thickness of heat exchangers; 0.1 mm, 0.15 mm, 0.2 mm
are experimented. The adsorbent used for the present adsorption experiment is a powder
zeolite(FAPO). The performance of adsorbent coating heat exchanger was analysed byheat transfer rate and adsorption rate with adsorption time. In the basic conditions, themaximum overall heat transfer coefficient of 2 mm coating thickness is 189.1 W/m2oC,
which is 18%, 50% higher than that of 0.15 mm and 0.1 mm, respectively.
Keywords: Adsorption; Heat exchanger; Overall heat transfer coefficient; Zeollite.
*Corresponding author. Email adress: kwonok@kitech.re.kr.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the conventional vapor compression refrigeration is powered by electricity and uses CFC
refrigerations. Thus, the use of vapor compression refrigeration causes large energy
consumption and ozone depletion. Despite the development of less ozone damaging
alternatives such as the HCFCs and HFCs, they still contribute to the undesirable effect of
global warming. Adsorption refrigeration can be driven by low temperature heat sources
such as waste heat and solar energy, and employs natural refrigerants with no ozone
depletion such as water and methanol.
Adsorption chillers employs silica gel/water as an adsorbent-refrigerant pair. The
adsorption bed is one of the most critical components in the adsorption system. In order todesign a more effective adsorption system, many researchers have focused on how to
improve the performance of the adsorption bed. In the conventional adsorption
chillers(Saha, et al., 2003; Loh, et al., 2009), silical gel is packed in between heatexchanger fins by wire meshes. Poor contact between adsorbent and metal fins deteriorates
heat transfer efficiency and performance of adsortion system.
In this study, to improve the heat transfer of an adsorbent embedded heat exchanger, a
fin-tube heat exchanger was coated with zeolite adsorbent. Adsorbent coating thickness ofheat exchanger ; 0.1mm, 0.15mm, 0.2 mm are experimented. The performance of adsorbent
coated heat exchanger was analysed by heat transfer rate and overall heat transfer
coefficient with coating thickness
2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE

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2.1. Experimental setup
The adsorbent coated heat exchanger was manufactured in order to evaluate performance
characteristics of adsorption bed with adsorbent coating thickness. Adsorption bed of the
fin-tube type was designed that the inlet and outlet pipes of cooling water branched fromheader. The tube and fins are made of copper and aluminium, respectively. The dimensionsof heat exchanger were designed as 420×274×116 mm, fin pitch 0.2 mm. The heatexchangers used in the present experiment are shown in Figure 1(a) and Table 1. An
adsorbent used for the adsorption experiment is a powder zeolite(FAPO). In order toinvestigate the heat transfer characteristics of adsorbent coated fin-tube heat exchanger, theheat exchanger is coated by adsorbent with coting thickness of 0.1 mm, 0.15 mm and 0.2
mm. The tested samples are shown in Figure 1.
The schematic diagram and photo of experimental setup are shown in Figure 2. The
experimental setup comprises an adsorption chamber, an evaporator, condenser, connecting
pipes and refrigerant valves. Also, auxiliary facilities include the vacuum pump to maintainthe vacuum inside system and constant temperature water baths to simulate the adsorption
and desorption conditions. Three constant temperature water baths were used to control thetemperatures of chilled, cooling, hot water for adsorption, desorption, evaporating,condensation load.

(a) Fin-tube heat exchanger(b) Coating thickness 0.1 mm(c) Coating thickness 0.15 mm(d) Coating thickness 0.2 mm
Figure 1 Photo of fin-tube heat exchanger with adsorbent coating.

Figure 2 Schematic diagram and photo of experimental setup.

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Table 1 Coating specifications
Unit
Value
Heat exchanger size(L,W,H)
mm
420, 274, 116
Row
12
Step
4
Pt
mm
21.65
Tube
Pl
mm
25
Out diametermm
9.53
Thicknessmm
0.36
Material
Copper
Pitch
mm
0.8
Fin
Thicknessmm
0.115
Material
Aluminum
The uncertainties of RTD (PT 100 Ω) and temperature sensors (T type) used in this study
are 0.1 and 0.3 oC, pressure transducer and mass flow meter have uncertainties of
0.25%, 0.2%, and the data are obtained by a data acquisition.
2.2. Data analysis procedure and operational conditions
The heat transfer rate of adsorption bed is expressed by equation (1). Also, the overall heattransfer coefficient is given by equation (2). The LMTD was proposed by Saha et al.(Saha,et al., 2010)
Qads = m cwCpcw (Tcw,out − Tcw,in )U overall =LMTD =

(T

cw,in

(1)

Qads
Abed LMTD(2)− Tads ) − (Tcw,out − Tads )(T − Tads )ln cw,in(Tcw,out − Tads )(3)

Table 2 Coating specifications
Adsorbent
BinderBinder ratio
Adsorbent weight
Coating thickness

862

Unit
wt%
g
mm

400
0.1

Value
FAPO
Organic
10
1,000
0.15

1,600
0.2

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Table 3 Experimental conditions
Conditions
Chilled water temperature
Temperature
Cooling
water
Flow rate
Adsorption time

Unit
℃
℃
m3/h
s

Value
12
30
1.316
420

Where, Tads is adsorbent temperature inside adsorption bed. And fin-tube heat exchanger
surface area is 10.077 m2.
The experiment was conducted by setting the cooling water inlet temperature at 30oC,
cooling water flow rate 1.316 m3/h. The Evaporating temperature was 12oC. At this time,
the adsorption time was set equally 7 minutes. The experimental conditions are shown in
Table 2.
The temperatures of inside adsorption bed were measured at three places(bottom, center,
top side) by T-type thermocouples. The temperatures of evaporator and the inlet and outlet
temperatures of cooling/hot water were measured by the RTD sensors. Pressures of theadsorption bed and evaporator were measured by absolute pressure transducers.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 3 shows the variation of bed temperature with adsorption time when cooling waterand chilled water are 30oC and 12oC, respectively. The temperature at absorbent surface
increases rapidly during the first 50s and then decreases. Like the results from Gao et al.
(Gao, et al., 2016), due to the hydrophilicity of the adsorbent itself, a lot of water vapor canbe absorbed in the beginning accompanied by a lot of heat release, this leads to the increasein surface temperature of the adsorbent. After that, with the flowing of the cooling water,
the heat released in the process of adsorption is absorbed slowly and surface temperature
decreases. The highest surface temperature is detected to be 32.3oC when coating thickness
is 0.2 mm, while highest surface temperatures for coating thickness of 0.1 mm and 0.15mm are 32 oC and 31.8oC, respectively.

Figure 3 The variation of bed temperature
with adsorption time.

Figure 4 The variation of overall heat transfer
coefficient with adsorption time.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284863

Figure 4 shows the variation of overall heat transfer coefficient with adsorption time
when cooling water and chilled water are 30oC and 12oC, respectively. The variation of
overall heat transfer coefficient shows a similar tendency with surfaces temperature asshown in Figure 3. And the peak point appears when adsorption time is about 100s. This isbecause that it need some time to transfer the released heat during adsorption to coolingwater. In this result, the overall heat transfer coefficient increases with increasing coating
thickness and more time is needed to reach maximum overall heat transfer coefficient. The
maximum overall heat transfer coefficient of 2 mm coating thickness is 189.1 W/m2oC,
which is 18%, 50% higher than that of 0.15 mm and 0.1 mm, respectively.
4. CONCLUSION
In order to increase heat transfer characteristics of fin-tube heat exchanger with adsorbent
coated, experiments are conducted on fin-tube heat exchangers with different coating
thickness. And conclusion can be draw as follows: The highest surface temperature is
detected to be 32.3oC when coating thickness is 0.2 mm, while highest surface temperatures
for coating thickness of 0.1 mm and 0.15 mm are 32 oC and 31.8oC, respectively. The
maximum overall heat transfer coefficient of 2 mm coating thickness is 189.1 W/m2oC,
which is 18%, 50% higher than that of 0.15 mm and 0.1 mm, respectively.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Energy Efficiency & Resources of the Korea Institute ofEnergy Technology Evaluation and Planning(KETEP) grant funded by the Korea
government Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy(No. 20172010105570)
6. REFERENCES
Saha, B.B., Koyama, S., Kashiwagi, T., Akiswa, A., Ng, K.C., Chua, H.T.,(2003) Waste
heat driven dual mode, multi-stage, multi-bed regenerative adsorption system,
International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 26, pp. 749-757.
Loh, W., El-Sharkawy, I., Ng, K.C., Saha, B.B., (2009), Adsorption cooling cycles foralternative adsorbent/adsorbate pairs working at partial vacuum and pressurized
conditions, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 29, pp. 793-798.
Kyaw, Thu., Ng, K.C., Saha, B.B., Chakraborty, A., (2010), Overall of heat transfer
analyses of a heat-driven adsorption chiller, International Symposium on Nextgeneration Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology, Tokyo, Japan.
Gao, W., Li, C., Wang, D., Wu, D., (2016), An experimental investigation of salt-water
separation in the vacuum flashing assisted with heat pipes and solid adsorption,
Desalination, Vol. 399, pp. 116-123.

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A NEW METHOD USING EFFECT THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY FOR A FULL
THERMAL STORAGE TANKJae Dong Chung, Min Ho Kim, Yong Tae Lee
Sejong University, 209 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05006, Korea
ABSTRACTThis study numerically carried out a research on a latent heat thermal energy storage
system (LTES) filled with phase change material (PCM). In the previous works, one
capsule which was arbitrarily positioned in the tank, was selected and this capsule wasusually assumed to represent the performance of the whole LTES. A few of researches
have been conducted for a whole domain of LTES because a tremendous computer
memory and CPU time are required. This study introduces an effective thermal
conductivity method to overcome the difficulties involved with phase changing problem. A
previous method using the effective thermal conductivity ignored timewise variation of thestrength of the natural convection in molten PCM. Conversely, the present method
increases the accuracy of the model by including the effect of temporal variation of thenatural convection in molten PCM.
Keywords: Latent thermal energy storage; Phase change material (PCM); Effective thermal
conductivity.

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1. INTRODUCTION
The latent heat thermal energy storage system (LHTESS) is an effective and widely usedsolution for dealing with electrical peak loads during the daytime. It operates chiller toflow cool refrigerant and stores cool thermal energy in a storage tank during midnight, at
relatively cheap operating cost to operate. By shifting the cooling electric load to night
hours, LHTESS can reduce the energy needed for cooling during daytime hours, whenelectrical peak load is higher and more expensive. Among the various types of LHTESS in
use today, one typical approach uses an encapsulated type storage tank system, whichcontains a number of capsules installed in a suitable arrangement inside a storage tank. A
phase change material (PCM) is charged inside each capsule. A heat transfer fluid (HTF)
flows outside the capsules and transfers thermal energy to the PCM, to melt or solidify thematerial.
This study numerically carried out a research on a latent heat thermal energy storage
system (LTES) filled with phase change material (PCM). Considering that each capsulewill experience different melting behavior due to the different HTF temperature passing
the capsule, a whole domain of LTES should be modeled at a time. Due to the required
computer memory and CPU time, effective thermal conductivity model is applied, which issuperior to the earlier one, in the view point of including timewise variation of the strengthof the natural convection in molten PCM.
2. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
2.1. Effective thermal conductivity model
The effective thermal conductivity model for phase change problem has already been used.
Figure 1 shows the schematics of the previous effective thermal conductivity model andthe present model. Note that the value of effective thermal conductivity in the previous
model in Eq. (1) is constant, which is apparently oppose to the motivation of applying
effective thermal conductivity. Effective thermal conductivity includes the effect of theenhanced melting due to the convection by using higher value of thermal conductivity. The
strength of convection in the molten PCM is changing as melting proceeds, thus the valueof effective thermal conductivity should be a function of time. That is the motivation ofthis model. In Eq. (2), present model chooses the characteristic length as
Lc =(t ) ( Do − Di (t )) / 2 , and the change of the convection strength in time is properly
implemented.
 g β (Tref − Tm ) Do3 
keff
m

= CRa
= C


kliq
αυ



m

(1)

m
 g β (Tref − Tm ) Lc (t )3   D (t )  m
Di (t ) m
 1 − i = CRa 1 −
 = C 
 
kliq
Do 
αυ
Do 




keff

m

(2)

where Lc =(t ) ( Do − Di (t )) / 2

866

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(a)
(b)
Figure 1 Schematics of effective thermal conductivity: (a) previous model and (b) present
model.
2.2. Governing equation
The governing equations for a two-dimensional model utilizing the enthalpy–porosity
formulation, which were introduced by Brent et al. (1988), can be derived as follows

ρDH= k∇2T
Dt(3)
T

The enthalpy is combined sensible enthalpy =h href + ∫ c p dT and latent enthalpy
Tref

∆H =
γ L in the energy equation. In contrast to the constrained melting model, theunconstrained melting model incorporates the movement of solid PCM by considering thedensity difference between the solid and liquid PCM. The γ means liquid fraction and isexpressed in Eq. (4).
 1
(T > Tl ) T − Ts=γ (Ts < T < Tl )
 Tl − Ts (T < T )
s
 0

(4)

2.3. Model validation
The present model is validated with experimental result of one capsule (D=101.66mm)(Tan, 2008). The initial, wall and melting temperatures are 27.2℃, 40.0℃ and 28.2℃,
respectively. Figure 2 shows the molten fraction for 4 different models. Experimental data,
numerical method of including natural convection in the present model and the previous
model are examined. We have conducted a close examination of the model by extending
the range of Stefan number, and also for different capsule diameters. The result shows
good agreement for large range of each parameter.

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Figure 2 Comparison of the molten fraction for each model with experiment.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 3 Schematic of computational domain.
Figure 3 shows the schematic of the present model. Charging and discharging of a thermal
storage tank, which is composed of 9x9x20 capsules, i.e., total 1620 capsules, arecalculated. Capsule structure is assumed to be simple cube type. To examine the superiorof the present model, we have compared the results from the previous effective thermal
conductivity model and present model. Clear advantage can be found in the present model.

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Figure 4 Temperature profiles for (left) present model and (right) previous model.
4. CONCLUSION
This study numerically carried out a research on a latent heat thermal energy storage
system (LTES) filled with phase change material (PCM). The LTES has been utilized for
air conditioning because of a high thermal storage density. However, a few of researches
have been conducted for a whole domain of LTES because a tremendous computer
memory and CPU time are required. Usually, a capsule is selected and assumed torepresent the performance of the whole LTES, which is composed of hundreds of capsules.
This study introduces an effective thermal conductivity method to overcome thedifficulties involved with phase changing problem. A previous method using the effective
thermal conductivity ignored timewise variation of the strength of the natural convection in
molten PCM. Conversely, the present method increases the accuracy of the model by
including the effect of temporal variation of the natural convection in molten PCM. The
present method has been compared with experimental result and shown no significant
difference. This method is also valid for a wide range of Stefan number, capsule sizes, andinitial temperature. The developed method can be applied to the systems for both purposeof heating and cooling in a thermal storage tank. The volume ratios of cooling PCM toheating PCM in a thermal storage tank can be obtained to satisfy the desired cooling andheating loads.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is supported by Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and
Planning (KETEP) granted financial resource from the Ministry of Trade, Industry &Energy of Korea. (No. 20132010101780)

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6. REFERENCES
Brent, A.D., Voller, V.R., and Reid, K.J, (1988), The enthalpy-porosity technique formodeling convection-diffusion phase change: application to the melting of a pure metal,
Numerical Heat Transfer, Volume 13, pp. 297-318.
Tan, F.L., (2008), Constrained and unconstrained melting inside a sphere, International
Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, Volume 35, pp. 466-475.

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Investigation of Optimal Design of Flow Header in Heat Exchangers
Nguyen-Ba Chien1,a, Jong-Taek Oh2,b*Graduate School, Chonnam National University, 50 Daehak-ro, Yeosu, Chonnam 59626, South
Korea

1

Department of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineering, Chonnam National University, 50
Daehak-ro, Yeosu, Chonnam 59626, South Korea

2

bachien@ejnu.net , bohjt@chonnam.ac.kraKeywords: CFD, Genetic Algorithm, Maldistribution, Header, Optimization, Open FOAM.

Abstract. In this study, we investigate an automated procedure to optimization the distribution offlow in manifolds by coupling the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation and a genetic
algorithm (GA). The design point is performed by balancing the liquid phase flow rate at each outlet,
and the controlled parameter is the high of baffle between each channel. The simulation of flow
distribution of R134a in manifolds has been demonstrated by using a VOF model. The flow pattern of
R134a with various flow rates and inlet qualities are well observed. The objective of this study is to
overcome the difficulty of experimental test at high quality due to the unstable of the flow. In
addition, using this methodology, a set of results which would improve the distribution of flow is
finally proposed.
Introduction
One of the most common issues in designing air-cooled heat exchanger is the maldistribution offlow in manifolds. The performance and efficiency of the heat exchanger could be significantly
affected by the non-uniformity of flow. Therefore, exploring the behavior of flow in manifolds orheader is necessary to improve the design.
In practical design, flow maldistribution in manifolds can be induced by the geometry andoperating conditions [1-4]. Beside of using experiment, various studies used modelling approaches toanalyse the flow distribution. Tonomura et al. [5] demonstrated a CFD approach to discover the effectof design header to the uniform of flow. The results of this study showed that the shape of manifolds,
length and location of inside fins, and inlet flow rate strongly affect to the flow uniformity. The
authors also proposed a CFD-based optimization method to find the optimal design of plate-fine
microdevices. Wang et al. [6] suggested a different computational approach. The authors presented a
Lattice Boltzmann method for shape optimization of the distributor. Recently, Facao [7] developed acorrelation model to improve the uniformity of flow in a solar collector. The model was thenvalidated by the CFD simulation.
In this study, beside of demonstrating the simulation of flow, we also investigate another approachto optimize the flow distribution by coupling the CFD simulation and a genetic algorithm. It comesfrom the fact that the uniformity of flow could depend on various parameters and has no general form
for specific applications. Hence, the combination of GA and CFD would be a solution that could savetime and design cost.
Numerical model
The dimensions of the manifold are referred from a report of Fei and Hrnjak [8]. In the first phase,
we set up a model to validate the experiment. A three-dimensional model was then created in Catia.
The grid was manually generated with hexahedral meshes to reduce the computational cost as well as
enhanced the accuracy and stability of simulation. In addition, to validate the independence of grid,
three types of mesh with the total elements of 377540, 415644 and 453748 were also made, and theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284871

last mesh was chosen for the simulation in this study. The detail dimension of manifold is illustrated
in Table. 1. The sample of a grid is shown in Fig. 1.
In the second phase, we propose a new geometry with the baffles between each outlet channel.
Since the baffles divide the header to subsections, the solution now can be reduced to 2D problem.
The geometry and grid are then generated using C code. The schematic of proposed is shown in Fig.
2.
In this study, two-phase flow of refrigerant is simulated using the Open FOAM software. The
working fluid is R-134a. Since the experimental test was taken under the adiabatic condition, thesimulation will only solve the continuity and momentum equations. VOF method, therefore, has been
implemented. VOF solver in Open FOAM calculates one momentum and one continuity equation forboth liquid and gas phases of R134a. The physical properties of one phase are determined based on
the volume fraction, α, of two phases in a cell. The continuity equation is defined as follow:
(1)

U 
0

The momentum equation is determined as follow:
U   UU    U   g  p  Fs
t(2)

where Fs is the surface tension force at free surfaces and is defined as:

(a)

(b)
Fig. 1 3D model: (a) Geometry; (b) Sample of gridFig. 2 Schematic of proposed model

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Table 1 Dimension of genetic manifold
Inlet length(mm)

Inlet diameter(mm)

Body length(mm)Body height
(mm)

120

9.5

305

25.4

Outletdimension(mm)
8.8

Table 2 Properties of R134a
Saturation
Temp. (ºC)
24.473Pressure (kPa)665

Density ofliquid (kg/m3)
1208.7

Density ofvapor (kg/m3)
31.841

Viscosity ofliquid (Pa.s)
1.96E-4

Fs   ( x)nViscosity ofvapor (Pa.s)
1.17E-5(3)

where κ is the curvature of the interface and n is a unit vector normal to the interface. κ and n arecalculated as follow: ( x)   n

(4)




(5)

and
n

Volume fraction, α, in a cell is 0 if it is completely filled by vapor phase and, on the contrary,volume fraction equals 1 if cell is completely filled by liquid phase. Volume fraction is calculated bya transport equation as following:   U   0
t
The compression of the surface in Open FOAM is defined as follow:

(6)


(7)
  U     1   U r   0
twhere Ur is a suitable velocity field to compress the interface.
The properties of two-phase flow of R134a are obtained in REFPROP 8 and are listed in Table 2.
In present study, a single objective genetic algorithm (SOGA) was implemented. The purpose of
the algorithm is to minimize the mean difference between the flow rate in each outlet and the average
mass flow rate of the liquid phase. The fitness type was set as domination count. The cross over is80%, the mutation scale is 10%, and the number of evaluation in this study was set as 60. SOGA
script automatically generates baffle dimension, updates the boundary conditions. In addition, script
drives the CFD code run and export the results for next evaluation in SOGA.

Results and discussions
A flow pattern is shown in Fig. 3. At second zero, there is no flow in manifold. At 5th second, theflow mostly enters the first outlet and the fifth outlet. The flow bounces back from the end wall isprevented by the forward flow from inlet. As a result, a pool of liquid is accumulated in the last space.
It turns out that, optimizing the last distance could improve this waste area.

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873

Fig. 3 Distribution of flow by time with the inlet mass flow rate and volume fration are 25 g/s and 0.7, respectively
10

0.007
0.006

Mean Difference (kg/s)

Baffle Height (mm)

8

6
4
2

0

0

10

20

30
Evaluation

40

50

60

0.005
0.004
0.003

0.002
0.001
0

0

10

20
30
Evaluation

40

50

60

(a)
(b)
Fig. 4 Evaluation history of :(a) design parameter and, (b) control parameter

Fig. 4(a) shows the variation of baffle height during evaluation. In this cases, vapor quality is set as
0.5, the mass flow rate is 25 g/s and the diameter of inlet is 5 mm. The baffle high is ranged from 0.1
to 7.9 mm and 9 populations was created.
Fig. 4(b) illustrates the mean difference of flow rate at outlets. The optimal point is found atevaluation 30 with the baffle height of 6.012 mm.
Conclusions
The simulation and optimization of two-phase flow distribution of R134a in a manifold have been
performed in this study. A procedure that combines the CFD model and GA has been developed. This
result could be used as the brief step in optimizing the shape of manifolds, and further, could be
expanded its application to other assignments like optimizing flow conditions in current equipment.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research

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Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (NRF2016R1D1A1A09919697).
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]

S. RK, D. Sekuli´c, Fundamentals of heat exchanger design, 2003.
A. Jiao, R. Zhang, S. Jeong, Experimental investigation of header configuration on flow
maldistribution in plate-fin heat exchanger, Appl. Therm. Eng. 23 (2003) 1235–1246.
J. Wen, Y. Li, Study of flow distribution and its improvement on the header of plate-fin heatexchanger, Cryogenics (Guildf). 44 (2004) 823–831.
C.C. Wang, K.S. Yang, J.S. Tsai, I.Y. Chen, Characteristics of flow distribution in compact
parallel flow heat exchangers, part II: Modified inlet header, Appl. Therm. Eng. 31 (2011)3235–3242.
O. Tonomura, S. Tanaka, M. Noda, M. Kano, S. Hasebe, I. Hashimoto, CFD-based optimal
design of manifold in plate-fin microdevices, Chem. Eng. J. 101 (2004) 397–402.
L. Wang, Y. Fan, L. Luo, Lattice Boltzmann method for shape optimization of fluid
distributor, Comput. Fluids. 94 (2014) 49–57.
J. Facão, Optimization of flow distribution in flat plate solar thermal collectors with riser andheader arrangements, Sol. Energy. 120 (2016) 104–112.
P. Fei, P.S. Hrnjak, Adiabatic developing two-phase refrigerant flow in manifolds of heatexchangers, 2004.

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875

Pressure drop during condensation of R410A inside horizontal multiportmini-channels rectangular tubes
PHAM Quang Vu1,a, Kwang-Il CHOI2, Jonng-Taek OH2,b*, Honggi CHO3
Graduate School, Chonnam National University, San 96-1, Duduk-Dong, Yeosu, Chonnam 550749, Republic of Korea

1

Department of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineering, Chonnam National University, San
96-1, Dunduk-Dong, Yeosu, Chonnam 550-749, Republic of Korea

2

3

Advanced R&D Team, Digital Appliances, Samsung Electronics, Suwon, 16677, Korea,
phamquangvu911273@gmail.com, bohjt@chonnam.ac.kraKeywords: Condensation, Pressure drop, R410A, Correlation, Multiport mini-channel

Abstract. In this research work, a new developing two-phase frictional pressure drop correlation
during condensation processing based on experimental data has been presented. The frictionalpressure drop of R410A experimental data points of two types multiport mini-channels, having 8
channels with a 1.16 mm hydraulic diameter and 11 channels with 1.14 mm hydraulic diameter. The
test sections were designed as a counter-flow tube in a tube exchanger. The experiment is performed
with mass fluxes of 50-400 kg/m2s and 3-12kW/m2 of heat fluxes, and saturation temperature of 480C.
The frictional pressure gradient increased with increasing of mass flux and vapor quality but
insignificant effect on with heat flux. The results showed that the new model can predict the twophase pressure drop during condensation and comparison between experimental data with some wellknown correlations.
Introduction
The use of mini and microchannels multiport tubes in the heat exchangers have been widely
using in automotive air-conditioning systems. There are many advantages of the using mini channels,
such as the compact size of heat exchangers, reduced air-side pressure drop, and low refrigerant
charge. Understanding the frictional pressure drop behavior of condensation flow in micro and minichannels is important to improve the design of thermal systems. Several researchers have investigatedexperimentally and theoretically the pressure drop characteristics in mini channels. Yang and Webb
[1] measured the pressure drop of single phase, adiabatic, and two-phase flow for R12 flowing in both
micro fine and rectangular plain tubes. For two-phase flow, the authors concluded that the LockhartMartinelli two-phase multiplier correlation is not predicted well the experimental data. However, theequivalent mass velocity concept proposed by Akers , Deans, and Crosser [2] provided a very goodcorrelation of the experimental data. Zhang and Webb [3] measured single phase and adiabatic twophase flow pressure drop of R134A, R22 and R404A flowing through the 2.13mm hydraulic diameterof multiport extruded tubes and two copper tubes having 6.25 and 3.25mm inside diameter,
respectively. For single phase flow, the Blasius correlation reasonably predicted the frictional factor
within ±10% error rate. Koyama et al. [4] conducted experiments of the condensation flow of R134A
in multiport tubes whose hydraulic diameters ranged from 0.81 to 1.06mm. They found that thefrictional pressure drop agrees with the correlation of Mishima and Hibiki [5]. Cavallini et al. [6]investigated the pressure drop characteristics of R236ea, R134a and R410A inside 1.4mm hydraulicdiameter multiport mini channels. The result showed that the R410A has a lower pressure drop incomparison with R134a and R236ea. Cavallini et al. [7] proposed an update of frictional pressure
drop model in mini channels of with different cross section geometries and hydraulic diameter range
from 0.4 to 3mm. (Ramírez-Rivera et al. 2015) performed an experiment to measure two-phasepressure drop in 0.715 and 1.16mm hydraulic diameters multiport mini channels tubes using R134aand R32.

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In this study, the condensation pressure drop characteristics of R410A inside 1.16 and 1.14mm
hydraulic diameters rectangular mini-channel tubes were investigated experimentally. Effects of massflux, vapor quality, heat flux and hydraulic diameter of rectangular channels on the frictional pressure
drop are examined. In addition, the experimental data are compared with some previous pressure drop
correlations in the literature.
Experimental apparatus and method
The experimental facility as shown in Fig.1 consists of liquid receiver tank, gear pump, subcooler, Coriolis mass flow meter, DC pre-heater, test section, and condenser. The test section tubes
have 8 and 11 rectangular channels with the test section length of 0.2 and 0.5m. The mass flow rateof refrigerant was measured using a Coriolis mass flow meter with flow pressure generated by thevariable speed gear pump. The saturation temperature, pressure and vapor quality of refrigerant before
entering the test section were controlled by the heat applied in pre-heat by adjusting the DC power
supply. After condensing in the test section, the two-phase refrigerant condenses to the liquid in theplated heat exchanger. All of the temperature and pressure sensors are collected by a data acquisition
system. The experimental apparatus was well insulated with foam to reduce the heat loss tosurrounding
Fig.2a shows the schematic diagram of the test sections using in this study. Two types ofaluminum multiport mini channels having 8 and 11 channels, with 1.16 and 1.14mm hydraulicdiameters, respectively. The test sections were designed as a counter-flow tube in a tube exchanger
with 200 and 500mm of effect length. The cooling water side was made of acrylic and designed as
the same geometric shape the test tube with 1mm of gap size. Four high accuracy RTDs sensors were
set up at the inlet and outlet of both fluids to measure the temperature of the refrigerant and cooling

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus facilities

Figure 2. a) Detail of test section; b) Cross section of test tubes

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water. A differential pressure transducer was installed between the inlet and outlet of the test section
for measuring the pressure drop in the test section, the length between the pressure taps is 600mm andthe accuracy of the differential pressure drop is ±0.25% of full scale or ±0.5kPa. Fig.2b shows thedetail of a cross section of the test tubes.
The heat flow rate transferred in the test section was derived from a thermal balance on thecooling water side along with measured data of the refrigerant flow rate, the wall heat flux, and thepressure. The vapor quality at the inlet of test section was controlled by a DC power supply and canbe determined as follows:
1  Qpre(1)
xinlet  C p Tsat  Tp ,inlet  h fg  mref
The total pressure gradient can be calculated as combined of the two-phase frictional
gradient, the gravitational frictional gradient, and the acceleration pressure gradient.
 dp 
 dp   dp   dp (2)          dz tp
 dz  F  dz  g  dz acc
The test sections were set up is horizontally oriented, thus the gravitational pressure gradientis neglected. And the acceleration pressure gradient can be determined from2
1  x  d  x2
 dp     G2 (3)dz   v 1    l  dz  acc
Where the void fraction α can be determined by the Steiner (1993) model.
The experiments of R410A condensing flow in test sections were carried out at thecondensation temperature of 48℃, 50-500kg/m2s of mass fluxes and 3-15kW/m2s of the heat fluxes.
The physical properties in data reduction of each experiment was calculated by using the REFPROP
Version 8.0.

Results and discussions
Fig.3 shows the effect of mass fluxes and vapor qualities on the frictional pressure gradient.
The two-phase frictional pressure gradient increases with increasing values of mass flux and vapor
quality. The increasing of vapor quality result in the increasing of the differential velocity of liquidand vapor phases. As a result, interfacial shear stress causing higher two-phase frictional pressure
gradients increase. The velocity of vapor and liquid phases increase with increasing of mass velocity.
The two-phase interfacial shear stress and the shear stress between the liquid film and wall bothincrease causing higher friction pressure gradients.

Fig. 3 The effect of mass flux on the frictional pressure drop

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Fig. 4 The effect of heat flux and hydraulic diameter on the frictional pressure gradient
The effect of heat flux on the frictional pressure gradient is shown in Fig.4. The average ofheat flux is calculated on the effect length of the test section. The heat flux is controlled by adjusting
the cooling water at the inlet of cooling water side, and the cooling water mass flow rate is 1kg/min
was fixed. It can be clearly seen that the heat flux had an insignificant effect on the frictional pressure
gradient. At the high qualities (x>0.8) the effect of vapor quality becomes ambiguously and pressure
drop appears constant with vapor quality. At the high vapor qualities, the flow pattern might transformto mist flow, so the liquid droplet included in the vapor, hence, resulting in the lower increasing of
velocity at those regions. Also, the comparisons of the measured frictional pressure gradient between
the 2 types multiport mini-channel tube in all similar test condition are shown in the Fig.4. The
frictional pressure drops for dh=1.11mm are 1.07-1.4 times higher than those for dh=1.14mm at thesame mass flux and vapor quality, this means frictional pressure drop increases with decreasing of
hydraulic diameter.
The condensation frictional pressure drop of refrigerant in mini/micro horizontal channels has
been studied for many years and many correlations have been proposed in the past decade. Therefore,
the experimental data for R410A in two multiport rectangular mini-channel tubes were compared withthe prediction values of the homogeneous model, Friedel [8] , Bankoff [9], Mishima and Hibiki [5],Zhang and Webb [3], Chen et al. [11]. The experimental data can be acceptable with the predicted

Fig. 5 Correlations comparison

Fig. 6 New correlation comparison

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values from some of the frictional pressure gradient correlations such as Mishima and Hibiki [5],Chen et al. [11] and Friedel [8] with the mean deviation about ±20% .
In order to improve the predicted heat transfer coefficient, a new heat transfer coefficientcorrelation was developed from all the experimental data. The new correlation is as follows:dp0.059 dp 
0.509(4)

1  x  Bo4.15    12.65 x
 dz  f dz  fLo
The comparison of condensation heat transfer between the experimental data and theprediction value using new correlation is shown in Fig. 6 , and the proposed heat transfer correlationshows good agreement with the mean deviation of 10.4%.
Conclusion
The condensation pressure drops of R410A in the multiport mini channel were performed in thisstudy. The results were summarized as flowing:
1. The frictional pressure gradient increases with increasing of mass flux and vapor quality, but
insignificant effect with heat flux
2. The frictional pressure gradient increase with decreasing of hydraulic diameter of channel
3. The Chen et al.(2001) and Friedel ( 1979) correlations are in agreement with measurement
data. A new correlation is proposed that give a mean deviation of 10.39%.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Samsung Electronic Company.
References[1]

Yang CY, Webb RL. Friction pressure drop of R-12 in small hydraulic diameter extruded
aluminum tubes with and without micro-fins. Int J Heat Mass Transf 1996;39:801–9.
doi:10.1016/0017-9310(95)00151-4.
[2] Akers WW, Deans HA, Crosser OK. Condensation Heat Transfer within Horizontal Tubes.
Chem Eng Prog Symp Ser 1959;55:171–6.
[3] Zhang M, Webb RL. Correlation of two-phase friction for refrigerants in small-diameter tubes.
Exp Therm Fluid Sci 2001;25:131–9. doi:10.1016/S0894-1777(01)00066-8.
[4] Koyama S, Kuwahara K, Nakashita K, Yamamoto K. An experimental study on condensationof refrigerant R134a in multi-port extruded tube. Int J Refrig 2003;26:425–32.
doi:10.1016/S0140-7007(02)00155-X.
[5]
Mishima K, Hibiki T. Effect of inner diameter on some characteristics of air-water two-phaseflows in capillary tubes. Nippon Kikai Gakkai Ronbunshu 1995;61:3197–204.
doi:10.1299/kikaib.61.3197.
[6] Cavallini A, Del Col D, Doretti L, Longo GA, Rossetto L. Heat transfer and pressure drop
during condensation of refrigerants inside horizontal enhanced tubes. Int J Refrig 2000;23:4–
25. doi:10.1016/S0140-7007(99)00032-8.
[7] Cavallini A, Col D Del, Doretti L, Matkovic M, Rossetto L, Zilio C, et al. Condensation in
Horizontal Smooth Tubes: A New Heat Transfer Model for Heat Exchanger Design. Heat
Transf Eng 2006;27:31–8. doi:10.1080/01457630600793970.
[8]
Friedel L. Improved friction pressure drop correlations for horizontal and vertical two-phasepipe flow. Eur Two-Phase Flow Gr Meet Pap E 1979;18:485–91.
[9]Bankoff SG. A Variable Density Single-Fluid Model for Two-Phase Flow With Particular
Reference to Steam-Water Flow. J Heat Transfer 1960;82:265. doi:10.1115/1.3679930.
[10] Mishima K, Hibiki T. Some characteristics of air-water two-phase flow in small diametervertical tubes. Int J Multiph Flow 1996;22:703–12. doi:10.1016/0301-9322(96)00010-9.
[11] Chen IY, Yang KS, Chang YJ, Wang CC. Two-phase pressure drop of air-water and R-410A
in small horizontal tubes. Int J Multiph Flow 2001;27:1293–9. doi:10.1016/S03019322(01)00004-0.

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Experimental study of condensation heat transfer of R410A, R32 andR22 inside a micro-fin copper tube
PHAM Quang Vu1,a, Kwang-Il CHOI2, Jonng-Taek OH2,b*, Honggi CHO3
Graduate School, Chonnam National University, San 96-1, Duduk-Dong, Yeosu, Chonnam 550749, Republic of Korea

1

Department of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineering, Chonnam National University, San
96-1, Dunduk-Dong, Yeosu, Chonnam 550-749, Republic of Korea

2

3

Advanced R&D Team, Digital Appliances, Samsung Electronics, Suwon, 16677, Korea,
phamquangvu911273@gmail.com, bohjt@chonnam.ac.kraKeywords: Condensation, Heat transfer coefficient, Micro-fin, Correlation, R410A, R32, R22

Abstract. Two-phase flow condensation heat transfer characteristics of R410A, R32, and R22 inside
a straight micro-fin tube with the outside diameter of 7mm were investigated experimentally. This
study was especially focused on the influence of heat transfer area on the condensation heat transfer
coefficient. The test section was a double tube of counter-flow type; the refrigerant was flowed
condensation inside the test tube by heat exchange with cooling water flowing in the annular side.
The temperature and pressure of refrigerant were measured at the inlet and outlet of the test section,and the surface temperature of tubes was measured. The pressure drop in the test section was directly
measured by a differential pressure transducer. The heat transfer coefficient and frictional pressure
gradient were calculated using the experimental data. The heat transfer coefficient was measured at
the saturation temperature of 48°C within mass fluxes of 50-380 kg/(m2s) and heat fluxes of 3-12
kW/m2. The experiment results were compared with the existing heat transfer coefficient correlations,and a new correlation was developed with good prediction.
Introduction
The enhancement of the condensation heat transfer in micro-fin tubes is due to the increased
wetted area, the thinning of the condensate liquid film because of helical flow and surface tension
forces, increased turbulence and mixing of vapor and liquid phase, and faster bubble coalescence andbreakup [1]. A great number of experimental studies have been done on condensation heat transfer inthe micro-fin tubes. Among these are Chamra and Webb [2] performed experiments on thecondensation of R22 inner of 15.88mm outside diameter of both single-helix and cross-grooved
surface tubes. They reported that the heat transfer coefficient increases with the helix angle and thecross grooved tubes provided higher condensation effect than the single-helix geometries. Jung et al.
[3][4] studied the condensation heat transfer of R22, R407C and R401A on a horizontal plain, low fin
and turbo-C tubes and showed that the condensation heat transfer of R410A was similar to those of
R22. Cavallini et al. [5] proposed new heat transfer model to compute the heat transfer coefficientduring condensation inside the horizontal smooth tube from an extensive analysis of 425 experimental
heat transfer points. The model includes a simple and objective criterion for the definition of thetransition between two different flow categories, depending on whether the heat transfer coefficientis dependent or independent on the temperature difference ∆T. Kim et al. [6] performed thecondensation heat transfer of R22 and R410A in 9.52mm O.D. horizontal tubes. The data were
measured for the mass flow rate of 40-80kg/h, the constant heat flux of 11kW/m2 and the saturation
temperature at 45°C. They concluded that the average condensation coefficient of R22 and R410A
for micro-fin tubes were 1.7-3.19 and 1.7-2.94 times larger those in smooth tubes, respectively.
Dobson and Chato [7] performed an experimental study on the condensation of R12, R134a, R410A
and R32/125 (60/40%) in horizontal smooth tubes with various ID of 3.14, 4.57, and 7.04 mm. They
proposed two correlations to predict the heat transfer coefficient in the stratification and annular flow

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284881

regime, respectively. Liebenberg and Meyer [8] studied the experiments performed with R22, R134,
and R407C at a saturation temperature of 40°C and at mass fluxes ranging from 300 to 800 kg/m2s.
They concluded that the transition from annular flow to intermittent flow occurred at an average vapor
quality of 0.49 for the smooth tube, 0.29 for the herringbone micro-fin tubes. Miyara et al. [9]measured the experiment condensation and pressure drop of R22 and R410A in the herringbone-type
micro-fin tube and compared to those of a helical micro-fin tube and a smooth tube. They conclude
that the heat transfer coefficient of herringbone micro-fin tube is higher than that of the helical microfin tube in the high mass velocity region, while is has slightly lower value in the low mass velocity
region.
The purpose of this study is condensation heat transfer characteristics in condensing of R410A,
R32, and R22 inside 7mm OD helical micro-fin copper tube at the saturation temperature of 48°C.
The experimental results are performed and discussed, also in present study developed a newcorrelation of condensation heat transfer coefficient.
Experimental apparatus and method

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus

Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of test section

Fig. 3 T-Type thermocouples attachment

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Fig. 4 The effect of mass flux on the heat transfer coefficientFig. 5 The effect of heat flux on the heat transfer coefficient

The experimental apparatus is schematically shown in the Fig.1. The refrigerant loop is
designed to measure the heat transfer of refrigerant. It is mainly composed of a receiver, a magnetic
gear pump, a sub-cooler, a Coriolis flow meter, a pre-heater, a test section and a condenser. The
refrigerant flow rate can be controlled by a magnetic gear pump and the vapor quality of refrigerant
was controlled by a pre-heater before it entered the test section. Fig.2 shows the details of the test
section. The test section was designed as a straight and horizontal counter flow tube in tube heatexchanger with a total length of 1.7m. The test section tube consisted of 2 sub-sections: 0.5m of theisothermal section and 1.2m of condensation section. The insulated isothermal test section wasstabilizing the flow pattern of refrigerant inside a test tube. Three absolute pressure transmitters andtwo differential pressure transducers were connected to three pressure taps located along of the test
section to measure the static pressure and pressure drop, respectively. The temperature of the tube
wall was measured using twelve T-type thermocouples that were welded at points at the top, middle
and bottom of the measurement test section. All of the thermocouples using in the experimental model
were calibrated before installation, the uncertainty of the thermocouple measurement was estimatedconservatively of ±0.1K.
The data reduction process for measuring the results was done using the methods outlined
below. The physical properties of the refrigerant were obtained from the measured temperature andpressure of the refrigerant. The condensation heat transfer coefficients are obtained as Eq (1):Qh
(1)Ain Tsat  Tw,i 
The inside tube wall temperature obtained from the one-dimensional heat conduction in the
tube wall was calculated as:
d 
q
T
Tw,o 
d o ln  o 
(2)
w ,i
2k
 di 

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Table 3: Summary of HTCs comparison
Refrigerant
R410A

Correlation

Fig. 6 Comparison of experimental data withproposed heat transfer coefficient correlation

R32

R22

MD (%)

AD (%)MD (%)

AD (%)MD (%)

AD (%)

Aker (1959)

16.4

-8.12

23.44

-19.6727.25-26.39Shah (1979)

55.24

54.10

33.52

30.28

23.87

21.11

Bivens and Yokozeki

38.39

37.27

34.28

34.18

14.51

6.86

Tang

18.73

8.30

19.39

1.89

20.43

10.99

Kedzierski

12.22

0.65

16.51

15.40

12.49

-0.21

Kaushik and Azer

53.47

53.47

44.50

44.39

46.03

46.03

Dobson and Chato

55.62

54.15

38.21

36.46

30.87

27.63

Where k is the thermal conductivity of the copper tube, in the present experiment, the different
temperature between inside and outside tube was less than 0.025K. The vapor quality of refrigerantat the inlet of test section was controlled by controlling the power of DC power supply and was definedby Eq. (3):
1  Q&p
xin  C pr Tsat  Tp ,in  (3)
h fg  mr
Where Qp is the heat supplied to the pre-heater and Tp,in is the refrigerant temperature entered
the preheater.
Results and discussion
The effects of mass flux, heat flux and vapor quality on the condensation heat transfer
coefficient of R410A, R32, and R22 were examined and discussed in the present study. Figure 4 5shows the effect of mass flux on the heat transfer coefficient of R410A, R32, and R22 inside 7mm
OD micro-fin tube. The saturation temperature was fixed at 48°C, the mass flux was varied from 100
to 380kg/m2s, and the heat flux was 9kW/m2. The trend illustrates that the mass flux has a significant
effect on the heat transfer coefficient of three refrigerants. The condensation heat transfer coefficientincrease with increasing mass velocity and vapor quality, the results for which were effect by forced
convection.
At high mass fluxes and high vapor qualities, the forced convection contribution is dominate.
Moreover, the flow takes on the annular flow regime, as the vapor quality increase the liquid film
thickness between the wall and vapor core become thinner, which results in the reduction of thermal
resistance and the increase of heat transfer coefficient. Jung et al. [10] found the same results and they
explained that due to a reduction of thermal conduction resistance in the liquid film caused by thinningof the of the liquid layer as well as an increase in momentum exchange as the mass flux and vapor
quality increase. At the lower mass flux, the entrance region annular flow is formed but this quickly
transforms to intermittent flow or stratified flow with its characteristic large amplitude waves washing
the top of the tube or to stratified wavy flow with smaller amplitude waves, respectively.
The heat flux was determined by keeping constant the mass flow rate of cooling water is
1kg/min and controlled the inlet temperature. The effect of heat flux on the condensation heat transfer
coefficient while the heat flux was varied from 3 to 12kW/m2 is depicted in Figure 5. It is clearly seenthat the heat flux has an insignificant effect on the variable of heat flux of three refrigerant.
Several correlations of heat transfer coefficient were developed for smooth and micro-fin tube
have been published in the literature, such as [11],[7],[12],[13], [14], [15], [16]. Table 3 show thesummary comparison of experimental condensation heat transfer with the existing correlations. The
Aker [11], Tang [15], Kedzierski and Goncalves [16] correlations give the acceptable prediction with

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measurement data. However, in order to improve the predicted heat transfer coefficient, a new heattransfer coefficient correlation in the form proposed by Kedzierski and Goncalves [16] was developed
from all the experimental data. The new correlation is as follows:kl
0.578 x 2  0.474 x2   2.531x (4)0.002818 Re0.294 Ja  0.232 x  Pr 2.002  Pr  log  Pr  
h
Sv

Dh
Where the Reynold number (Re), the Jacob number (Ja), the Prandtl number (Pr), thereduced pressure (Pr), the dimensionless specific volume (Sv) and the vapor quality (x).
The comparison of the experimental heat transfer coefficient with the prediction value
calculated from newly proposed correlation is presented in Fig. 6. The proposed correlation shows agood prediction with the mean deviation of 10.4%.
Conclusion
The condensation heat transfer of R410A, R32, and R22 in a micro-fin tube was performed inthis study. The results were summarized as follows:
1. The heat transfer coefficient of three refrigerants increase with increasing of vapor quality,
mass flux but have insignificant effect with a variation of heat flux.
2. The Aker [11], Tang [15], Kedzierski and Goncalves [16] correlations give the acceptableprediction with measurement data.
3. The proposed heat transfer coefficient correlation was also developed based on themeasurement data and the prediction values were in good agreement with the measurement
data within the mean deviation of 10.4%.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (NRF2016R1D1A1A09919697) and Samsung Electronic Company.
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Liebenberg L, Meyer JP. The characterization of flow regimes with power spectral density
distributions of pressure fluctuations during condensation in smooth and micro-fin tubes. Exp
Therm Fluid Sci 2006;31:127–40. doi:10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2006.03.023.
Heat IJ, Transfer M, Chamra LM, Webb RL. Advanced micro-fin tubes for condensation. Int
J Heat Mass Transf 1996;39:1839–46. doi:10.1016/0017-9310(95)00275-8.
Jung D, Kim CB, Hwang SM, Kim KK. Condensation heat transfer coefficients of R22,
R407C, and R410A on a horizontal plain, low fin, and turbo-C tubes. Int J Refrig
2003;26:485–91. doi:10.1016/S0140-7007(02)00161-5.
Jung D, Cho Y, Park K. Flow condensation heat transfer coefficients of R22, R134a, R407C,
and R410A inside plain and micro fine tubes. Int J Refrig 2004;27:25–32.
doi:10.1016/S0140-7007(03)00122-1.
Cavallini A, Col D Del, Doretti L, Matkovic M, Rossetto L, Zilio C, et al. Condensation in
Horizontal Smooth Tubes: A New Heat Transfer Model for Heat Exchanger Design. Heat
Transf Eng 2006;27:31–8. doi:10.1080/01457630600793970.
Kim MH, Shin JS. Condensation heat transfer of R22 and R410A in horizontal smooth andmicro fine tubes. Int J Refrig 2005;28:949–57. doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2005.01.017.
Dobson MK, Chato JC. Condensation in Smooth Horizontal Tubes. J Heat Transfer
1998;120:193–213. doi:10.1115/1.2830043.
El Hajal J, Thome JR, Cavallini A. Condensation in horizontal tubes, part 1: Two-phase flow
pattern map. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2003;46:3349–63. doi:10.1016/S0017-9310(03)00139X.
Miyara A, Nonaka K, Taniguchi M. Condensation heat transfer and flow pattern inside a
herringbone-type micro-fin tube. Int J Refrig 2000;23:141–52. doi:10.1016/S01407007(99)00037-7.

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Jung D, Song KH, Cho Y, Kim SJ. Flow condensation heat transfer coefficients of purerefrigerants. Int J Refrig 2003;26:4–11. doi:10.1016/S0140-7007(02)00082-8.
Akers WW, Deans HA, Crosser OK. Condensation Heat Transfer within Horizontal Tubes.
Chem Eng Prog Symp Ser 1959;55:171–6.
Shah MM. A general correlation for heat transfer during film condensation inside pipes. Int J
Heat Mass Transf 1979;22:547–56. doi:10.1016/0017-9310(79)90058-9.
Bivens DB, Yokozeki A. Heat transfer coefficients and transport properties for alternativerefrigerants 1994.
Tang L, Ohadi M, Johnson AT. Flow Condensation in Smooth and Micro-fin Tubes with
HCFC-22, HFC-134a and HFC-410A Refrigerants. Part I: Experimental Results. J Enhanc
Heat Transf 2000;7:289–310. doi:10.1615/JEnhHeatTransf.v7.i5.10.
Kaushik N, Azer NZ. A general pressure drop correlation for condensation inside internallyfinned tubes. ASHRAE Trans 1990;96:242–8.
Kedzierski MA, Goncalves JM. Horizontal convective condensation of alternativerefrigerants within a micro-fin tube. J Enhanc Heat Transf 1999;6:161–78.
doi:10.1615/JEnhHeatTransf.v6.i2-4.90.

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FROM NEGOTIATING IDENTITY TO CLAIMING SPACE: AN OUTLOOK ON
SOCIO-POLITICAL DYNAMICS OF COMMUNITY MOSQUESIN MALANG, EAST JAVA
Yulia Eka Putrie1, 3, Widjaja Martokusumo2
1 Student of Doctoral Program, School of Architecture, Planning, and Policy Development,

Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Indonesia, e-mail: ekaputrie.yulia@gmail.com

2 Department of Architecture, School of Architecture, Planning, and Policy Development,

Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Indonesia

3 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Science and Technology, UIN Maulana Malik

Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia
ABSTRACT

Mosque architecture in Indonesia is inseparable from the socio-political context of various
Islamic groups or organizations, such as Nahdlatul Ulama, Muhammadiyah, PERSIS, AlIrsyad, etc. Mosque is considered as an important institution in developing and educating the
majority of Indonesian Muslim society. Many mosques were built by Muslim communities
which had culturally been affiliated to one of the groups or organizations. Therefore, theirmosque architecture can be considered as one means of expression of their specific identity or
their particular perspective on the ideal picture of a mosque. However, there is also anothercondition where mosques were built by heterogeneous Muslim community. In this context, theimage of an ideal mosque brought by the community members of each Islamic group thenbecame the object of negotiation, where each element related to the mosque was negotiated by
the members of various Islamic groups. This paper discusses to what extent these negotiations
were resulted in the architecture of the negotiated mosques. The research is located in Malang,
East Java, where the dynamic interactions among various Islamic groups take place. This study
reveals that the negotiation process can lead to space claim with the negotiated elements ofidentity, as the result of the domination on the activity system or the physical control over themosque.
Keywords: Community mosque; Identity; Islamic groups; Malang; Negotiation
1.

INTRODUCTION

Indonesian Islamic groups and organizations have an important role in shaping thedevelopment of mosque in Indonesia. According to Barliana (2010: 4), the basis ofcommunities in many mosques can be identified as the proponents of certain Islamic school ofthoughts, such as Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah. In fact, many mosques were built byaffiliated Muslim communities. These affiliated mosques are popularly known as Nahdliyinmosques, Muhammadiyah mosques, etc. Some of these mosques’ management are structurally
related to the organizations, while some others are culturally related with the affiliatedcommunities. One of the biggest Indonesian Islamic organizations, Nahdlatul Ulama (NU),
even established Lembaga Takmir Masjid Nahdlatul Ulama (LTMNU) in order to organize alarge number of Nahdliyin mosques all over the country.
The deep concern towards mosque development was due to the importance of mosque
institution for the Muslim society. Mosque is a religiously meaningful place where Muslim

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people gather together for various ritual and non-ritual Islamic activities. Together withpesantren as an institution for the specific and formal Islamic education of a limited number ofMuslim students, mosque becomes an institution for a more informal Islamic basic educationof the majority of Muslim society.
Moreover, socio-politically mosque is also important as the physical representation of theideals, values, perspectives, and traditions of its Muslim community. As the physicalrepresentation, mosque can be used as a means of expression of the more specific identity otherthan the commonly shared-identity of Islam. Eric Roose in his dissertation stated that a specificreligious view of a Muslim group expresses a specific construction of Islam through some
cultural elements of their mosque (Roose, 2009: 34). Different Islamic groups with different
values and perspectives tend to have different ideal pictures on their mosque architecture.
However, these groups’ respect on their own values, and the differences between theperspectives of Islamic groups have not considered properly in many contemporary studies
about mosques. Roose stated, “More often than not, studies of modern mosques in the Westseem to regard patrons as a force to be countered or educated, driven by a lack of taste or
historical knowledge and by the need for cheap, populist recognizability,” (Roose, 2009: 22).
In Indonesian context, the specific construction of Islam is represented by community
affiliation to a specific Islamic group, such as Nahdlatul Ulama, Muhammadiyah, etc. The
Traditionalist Muslims (represented by Nahdlatul Ulama) and the Modernist Muslims(represented by Muhammadiyah) with their own specific values and perspectives, conceive
mosque in quite different pictures. For example, the existence of bedug and kentongan
according to van Dijk (2009: 64), were viewed as heresy and the remnant of Hindu traditionby the Modernist Muslims. In other cases, graves which are frequently preserved in the sites orinside the mosque buildings by the Traditionalist Muslims had also led to some rejection fromother Muslim groups (van Dijk, 2009: 78). Moreover, interior spatial division between men
and women is another subject of disagreement. Women area which is frequently situated at theleft or right side of men area in the Traditionalist mosques, is not considered as an ideal
arrangement by the Modernist Muslims who tend to place women area symmetrically behind
men area. In line with this, Roose found that the differences in some meaningful choices ofarchitectural elements are based on the light of the construction of Islam required to be
represented in their own mosques (Roose, 2009: 34).
However, there is also another condition where mosques were built by a heterogeneous Muslim
community. These mosques of heterogeneous Muslim community have become the object ofnegotiations where the existence of each element of the mosques was negotiated by themembers of the community. In this context, the images of an ideal mosque were brought by
the community members of various Islamic groups. Each of them could take different actions
on the existing mosque. In a more assertive statement, Abidin Kusno argued that architecture,
particularly mosque, “became the site of negotiation between the global pan-Islamic Islam andthe Javanese world” (Kusno, 2003: 57).
In a broader context of built environment, Amos Rapoport in his book “Culture, Architecture,and Design”, showed that various actions towards built environment were taken after people
evaluated their built environment based on their own ideals, images, values, norms, etc. These
actions include designing new environment, modifying existing environment, moving, or evengiving up (Rapoport, 2005: 53). Therefore, this paper will mainly discuss how thesenegotiations were resulted in mosque architecture of heterogeneous Muslim communities.
Related to this conference theme on dwelling, this paper will discuss how identity negotiationin the settlement occurs not only in the private area but also in the more public area such as
mosque.

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This paper is an initial part of a qualitative research on the identity representation in Nahdliyinmosque architecture related to the local socio-political context in Malang, Jawa Timur. Malang
is one region in East Java where the dynamic interactions between various Islamic groups andorganizations take place. On the other hand, Malang is also known as a great basis of Nahdliyin
people maintaining Nahdlatul Ulama’s Aswaja traditions in their daily lives. An idiographic
analysis of the dynamics between Nahdliyin and non-Nahdliyin communities related to theirmosques as the center of their neighborhoods were resulted in two different categories ofneighborhoods (Figure 1). One is the neighborhood with “multi-centered Muslim
communities”, where two (or more) differently affiliated mosques were built in aneighborhood, relatively near to each other, but with different ideals one another. Anothercategory is the neighborhood with a “negotiated single-centered Muslim communities”, wherea mosque were built together in a neighborhood. The dynamics between the majority and theminority, the dominant and the less-dominant parties of its heterogeneous Muslim community
in the second category of mosque is the main focus of this paper. However, this paper will also
discuss the case of two mosques in the first category to give a clear description about the ideal
picture of mosque of each Islamic group.
Neighborhood A
Modernist
MosqueNegotiatedMosqueTraditionalist
MosqueNeighborhood B

Figure 1. Neighborhood with Multi-Centered Muslim Communities (A) and
Neighborhood with Negotiated Single-Centered Muslim Communities (B)
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
2.1 Neighborhood with Multi-Centered Muslim Communities
One interesting case in this category is the case of two adjacent mosques in a neighborhood
known as Pasar Kidul, Malang: Masjid Noor and Masjid Ar-Rahmat (Figure 2). Masjid Noor
represents Nahdliyin community, while Masjid Ar-Rahmat represents Muhammadiyahcommunity. Nahdliyin community is the majority in the region, which can be observed fromthe size of the mosque building. Both mosques serve the local community as well as people
from the surrounding business area.

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Figure 2. Masjid Noor (left) and Masjid Ar-Rahmat (right) in Kidul Pasar, Malang(Source: Googlemap, 2016 (center); Documentation of Putrie, 2016 (left & right)
Besides a shared-identity of mosque architecture in general, both mosques also showed
differences in some architectural aspects. The different choices of those aspects are related tothe different ways to view several rules in Islam (Fiqh), local tradition, beauty and aesthetics,
etc. These meaningful choices of architectural elements are more than mere pragmatic choices.
The Table 1 below shows some pictures of both mosques’ physical aspects.
Table 1. The Physical Aspects of Two Mosques: Masjid Noor and Masjid Ar-Rahmat
Mosque’s Name
Masjid Noor(the Traditionalist)

Building’sExterior

Interior andSpatial Division

Furniture

Ornamentation

Ablution Facility

MasjidAr-Rahmat(the Modernist)

Source: Documentation of Putrie, 2016

From the visual data above, a comparison were made on physical aspects of both mosques. The
Table 2 below is a comparative analysis based on the visual and interview data from eachmosque.

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Table 2 Comparative Analysis on Architectural Aspects of Two Mosques in a
Neighborhood: Masjid Noor and Masjid Ar-Rahmat
Architectural
Aspects
Physical Aspects:
Building’s
exterior andinterior
Spatial division

Furniture

Ornamentation

ColorsAblution Facility

Site & Setting

Non-Physical
Aspects:
RitualAudialHistorical
Background

Masjid Noor (the Traditionalist)

Masjid Ar-Rahmat (the Modernist)

Eclectic, elaborated, excessive ornamentation, with ahuge dome and a minaret.
Reason(s): “Allah is beautiful and loves beauty.”
Calligraphy is thought as one way to spread Islamicteaching.
Women area is placed at the right corner of men area,with non-transparent and above-eye-level partitions.
Reason(s): The Shafi’i Fiqh rule shows flexibility incertain condition. The important thing is men andwomen are well separated, with less contact physicallyand visually.
Throne-shaped minbar with three-step ladder and akhotib stick. No bedug were found.
Reason(s): Maintaining tradition of the Prophet (pbuh)
as well as the Walisanga tradition. “The minbar is thecharacteristics of NU. The khotib stick, the three-stepladder… The khutbah is different from the regularspeech… Bedug is the request of the elders. It actuallymust exist, we already planned it,”
The representation of NU tradition, such as Asmaul
Husna and some quotations from Sufi tradition.
Iconographic ornaments: The logo of NU on the door
and the minaret’s wall, the massive use of star shapes in
the mihrab area.
Reason(s): “Allah is beautiful and loves beauty.”
Calligraphy is one way to spread Islamic teaching.
Iconographic colors such as green, white, and gold.
Green is widely used by Nahdliyin people and theorganization of Nahdlatul Ulama in their official flag,logo, etc.
Kullah or shallow pools with minimum 216 liters ofwater to wash feet before wudhu.
Reason(s): The Shafi’i fiqh rule of thaharah. “Thekullah is one of the characteristics of NU. We prevent
najis (dirt) from contaminating the floor by making
people go through the shallow pool with min. 216 litersof water.”
No preserved grave in the site, because the founder ofthe mosque was exiled by the Dutch and he died in
Bandung.
Setting: Main street, unplanned settlement (kampungkota), business area.
Reason(s): “The mosque was just a small prayer area(langgar) behind the market. After some times, we
decided to make a bigger mosque at the main street,”

Simple, “clean”, less ornamented, dome or minaret are
permitted but not a must-have one.
Reason(s): Calligraphy is thought as unnecessary. “We
prefer the mosque looks clean, therefore calligraphy is
not necessary”.
Women area is placed symmetrically behind men area,with transparent and below-eye-level partitions.
Reason(s): The hadith stated that women are placed
behind men in congregational prayers. “According to
the Sharia, women are behind men, not beside them…”

Maintains NU’s tradition in 23 rakaat tarawih prayer,
Shalawat Diba, Tadarusan, Yasinan, etc.
Reason(s): “This mosque is already known with
Aswaja tradition of Nahdlatul Ulama. We maintain our
tradition in Friday Prayer, Tarawih prayer…”
Two times Friday adhan, collectively recite the doa
with the loud voice after the congregational prayers,shalawat tahrim before adhan.
Reason(s): “The difference is we perform two times
Friday adhan, but they only perform one time Friday
adhan. After Tarawih, tadarus is one characteristics ofthe mosque. We begin to lower the voice about 10.00
pm in order not to disturb the others,”
Built in 1929 as waqf from one of the Nahdliyin. The
mosque has a historical background as the learning andtraining center for Indonesian fighters against theDutch. At that time, the role of the Kyai is very
important. The mosque also served as the place to holdthe Muktamar NU in 1933.

Podium-shaped minbar with no stair and no khutbah
stick. No bedug were found because it was thought as
unnecessary.
Reason(s): Nowadays, Muslim people are not in a stateof war like the Prophet times, so the khotib stick is notnecessarily used.
The only ornament in the building exterior is the
iconographic ornament calligraphy of“Muhammadiyah” and a small logo of Muhammadiyahon the glass doors.
Reason(s): Calligraphy is thought as unnecessary. “We
prefer the mosque looks clean, therefore calligraphy is
not necessary”.
Dominated by grey and light blue, with red as anaccent. Blue is known as the color of the logo of
Muhammadiyah organization.
Kullah was thought as unnecessary.
Reason(s): Muhammadiyah does not adopt the rule ofminimum 216 liter of water as the precondition for
thaharah from Imam Shafi’i.

No preserved grave. Its existence was feared to besomething sacred.
Setting: Narrow street (gang), unplanned settlement(kampung kota), business area.
Reason(s): “Because the crowd street were felt
annoying and disturbing for the ritual activity of themosque,”Maintains 8 rakaat tarawih prayers. Strictly follow only
the tradition of the Prophet (pbuh).
Reason(s): “We realized that many things are different.
It’s quite clear.”
One time Friday adhan. No loud voice from the mosque
except regular adhan, because it was thought as
possibly disturbing people.
Reason(s): “In the mosque of NU, they held
shalawatan dibaan every Friday night with loud voiceheard outside the mosque. We don’t have that kind ofactivity. We only recite al-Qur’an with low voice inside
our mosque,”
Built in 1968 by the Pemuda Muhammadiyah
Sukoharjo. The community thought that they need tohave their own mosque. “Before having a mosque, we
held Tarawih prayers from house to house. We need amosque for ritual and non-ritual activities such as
studying Islam and training the young generation.”

Source: Analysis on the visual and interview data of Putrie, 2015-2016

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From the Table 2, we can trace the differences in both physical and non-physical aspects of themosques of the Traditionalist and the Modernist. The differences in the physical aspects were
found in the overall building’s exterior and interior image, spatial division, furniture selection,
the use of ornamentation, aesthetic preferences, the use of kullah on ablution facility, etc.
Meanwhile, the difference in the non-physical aspects were found in ritual and audial aspectsof both mosques. Their historical backgrounds were another non-physical aspect whichstrengthen the sense of specific identity in each mosque.
The physical and non-physical differences are based on different views and ideals of each
Islamic group. Even on those aspects that physically showed similarities, the view behind thedecision-making could be different. For example, physically the bedug does not exist in both
mosques. However, how they view the absence of bedug in their mosques are pretty muchdifferent. The absence of the bedug in the Traditionalist mosque is due to some pragmatic
reasons. Ideologically and politically, the Nahdliyin thought that the existence of the bedug isvery important as a part of the ritual, as well as an attempt to show the identity of the NU's. On
the other hand, the absence of the bedug in the Modernist mosque mainly due to ideologicalreasons.
The different ideals of each group can also be observed from the mosques’ interior spatial
division between men and women. The position of women area towards mihrab and men area,
the height, and the transparency of the partitions indicate the different ideals in each mosque.
In the Traditionalist mosque, the spatial division between men and women are more flexible.
Women area can be placed at the right or left side of men area, or at the back corner of themosque (Figure 3, left side). The important rule is that in the congregational prayers, the firstrow (shaf) of women is one row behind the men’s row. On the other hand, the spatial divisionin the Modernist mosque is more rigid, because the women area should as much as possible beplaced symmetrically behind the men area (Figure 3, right side). Meanwhile, the height and thetransparency of the partition between men and women area is another important aspect of thespatial division in the Traditionalist mosque. There should be less visual and physical contact
between men and women in the mosque, so the height of partition should be above the eyelevel and the materials are not transparent. In contrary, the height of partition in Modernist
mosque is frequently below the eye level and the materials are quite transparent. The visualcontact from the makmum (followers) area to the mihrab or to the imam (the leader ofcongregational prayer) is thought to be important for the Modernist.
mihrabmihrabmen area

women area

men area
women area

Figure 3. Possibilities and tendencies of the position of women area towards mihrab andmen area in Traditionalist Mosques (left) and in Modernist Mosques (left)
The Table 2 shows that these meaningful choices of each Islamic group were obtained fromtheir own specific ideals towards mosque and its activities. However, those ideals are easier tobe put into the realization in a clearly affiliated mosque of specific Muslim community. In
many neighborhoods of heterogeneous Muslim communities with only one mosque as thecenter of various Islamic groups, more complex socio-cultural phenomena occur frequently.

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2.2 Neighborhoods with Single-Centered Muslim Communities: From Negotiating
Identity to Claiming SpaceThe next discussion is the three cases of mosques in three different neighborhoods which areculturally multi-affiliated. In these multi-affiliated mosques, the mosque’s ideals of each
Islamic group experienced the process of negotiation among the members of each Muslim
community. Because of the heterogeneity in the community, there are the majority and theminority, as well as the dominant and the less-dominant, although the majority is not always
the dominant party. The Modernist could be the dominant, even if they are minority, vice versa.
The dominant affiliation can be observed by its non-physical aspects, such as ritual and audial
aspects of the mosques, because these aspects are the most un-negotiated aspects in thenegotiated mosques. The Table 3 shows some pictures of these mosques’ physical aspects.
Table 3. The Physical Aspects of Mosques of Heterogeneous Muslim Communities
Mosque’s Nameand Dominant
Affiliation
Masjid Al-Falah,
Polehan Blimbing(The Modernist,
Non-Nahdliyin)

Building’sExterior

Interior andSpatial Division

Furniture

Ornamentation

Ablution Facility

Masjid Muhajirin,
Sumbersari(The Modernist,
Non-Nahdliyin)
MasjidNurul Falakh,
Klojen(The Traditionalist,
Nahdliyin)
Source: Documentation of Putrie, 2016

The Table 4 below is a brief description about the socio-cultural setting of the mosques basedon the interview data from each of the mosque.
Table 4. The Socio-Cultural Setting of Five Mosques in the Neighborhoods with
Heterogeneous Muslim Communities
Mosque’s Nameand Dominant
Affiliation
Masjid Al-Falah,
Polehan Blimbing(The Modernist,
Non-Nahdliyin)

Masjid Muhajirin,
Sumbersari

894

The Socio-Cultural Setting
The takmir of this mosque are people from various Islamic groups, dominated by the Modernists. However, they
have a strong willingness to embrace all elements of Muslim people in the mosque. Therefore, some negotiation
process took place on several aspects of the mosque, such as bedug, minbar, kullah, and ornamentation. One of the
Nahdliyin in the neighborhood donated a bedug and a throne-shaped minbar. At first, the takmir tended to rejectthe donation. However, the donor insisted to give them away, eventhough those will not be used in the ritual. Afterthe negotiation process, the takmir finally accept the bedug and the throne-shaped minbar. The bedug is situatedon the 2nd floor, while the throne-shaped minbar is modified into the podium-shaped minbar. Other negotiation
also occurred about the kullah in the ablution area. The takmir finally planned to renovate the kullah and change it
into regular floor with the water flow. Another negotiation is about the placement of ornamentation. The decision
is to place the rich ornamentation on the interior side of the dome and temporarily left the mihrab walls unornamented. Moreover, non-physical aspect such as the ritual and non-ritual activities also became the object ofnegotiation. Some people once asked the takmir to hold the Traditionalist’s activities as they thought that themosque belongs to the Traditionalist when they saw the bedug on the second floor. After a discussion, the takmir
decided to reject the request.
Masjid Muhajirin was initially related with one university in Malang which is located adjacent to this mosque.
However, since it is located separately from the campus, this mosque became a public mosque for a more

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(The Modernist,
Non-Nahdliyin)

heterogeneous community. The mosque is opened for 24/7 for Muslim people. Therefore, it has been through adynamic history related to some changes in the group dominance over the mosque. For several years the mosque
was under the domination of the Salafi groups in the management of mosque and the organization of ritual andnon-ritual activities. At that time, the throne-shaped minbar was replaced by a podium-shaped minbar. However,
the throne-shaped minbar was not removed from its place. It was modified into a place for the imam by removing
the three-step ladder, the seat, and the khotib stick. The podium-shaped minbar was placed on the left side, while
the modified throne-shaped minbar was still on the right side. This pattern is different from the general pattern ofthe minbar placement in other mosques. Other fixed elements, such as fences with the inscription of Walisanga
names and the gunungan decorations with the inscription of Quranic verses remain unchanged. Around the year
2013, the mosque was taken over by the local community. The management of the mosque was replaced, and theactivities of the Salafist Muslim in the mosque were stopped. Today, the mosque is managed by the Yayasan
Integritas Malang. Although it is dominated by the Modernist Muslim, the mosque management is eager to include
other Islamic groups in this mosque. They want to eliminate the impression of a mosque belonging to a single
group. They also call this mosque an "independent mosque". The takmir then arranged the participatory roles forvarious Islamic groups, such as Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama. In order to promote tolerance in all of theiractivities, they considered not to perform any wiridan after congregational prayers or shalawatan before adhan. It
is because both of these activities are considered as the characteristic of one Islamic group only. Moreover, elements
considered as the identity of the particular group were also excluded from this mosque, such as bedug andkentongan. However, these policies actually indicated the representation of the Modernist religious identity itself.
From an early form of the mosque which is retained, it appears that this mosque is designed with the feel of a
mixture between the modernity and traditionality. The mosque’s ornamentation utilized local carvings with theinscriptions of Walisanga’s names. A great gunungan ornament that contains the calligraphy of Quranic verses ispermanently installed above the mihrab. There is also a three-dimensional shape of a lotus bud at the top of theguardrail. Although being modified, the initial throne-shaped minbar is maintained as the imam area. The roof ofthe mosque is the two-stacked of pyramidal roof, while the façade of the mosque is made geometrically simple.

MasjidNurul Falakh,
Klojen(The Traditionalist,
Nahdliyin)

Masjid Nurul Falakh is the Nahdliyin mosque with heterogeneous Muslim communities in the neighborhood. The
takmir of this mosque are people from more than one Islamic groups, dominated by the Nahdliyin. They seek torespect the heterogeneity although the others are minority. Therefore, the takmir thought that it is not necessarily
to put the logo of NU on their mosque façade or interior wall. They said that the bedug on the porch is an adequate
symbol to state that this mosque is actually the Nahdliyyin mosque. Some tolerance consideration towards theothers occurred on the spatial division, the use of ornamentation, the design of the minbar and the kullah. The firstrow of women area has been moved three rows behind the first row of men area, however the overall position of
women area remains on the side of men area. The height of the partition remains above the eye-level and thematerial is not transparent. The design of minbar has also been modified smaller than the regular throne-shaped
minbar, but the seat, the three-step ladder, and the khotib stick are still maintained. Other than that, the design ofthe kullah is made smaller and people can choose whether they want to step on the shallow pool or not. Moreover,the selection of the ornamentation also considered the heterogeneity of the community members. They chose thecalligraphy of the name of four Imams in Aswaja’s Fiqh tradition: Imam Syafi’i, Imam Maliki, Imam Hanbali, andImam Hanafi in order to keep the unity and harmony among the members of heterogeneous Muslim community.
However, they made a clear restrictions on the role of strangers who aim to occupy the mosque. They also try tokeep the Nahdliyin tradition in the form of the ritual and non-ritual activities, such as shalawat nariyah.

Source: Analysis on the observation and interview data of Putrie, 2013-2016

From the Table 4, we can comprehend the fact that socio-cultural setting of the mosques haveinfluenced the decision making process of their architectural elements. The Table 5 below is
the brief coding of the Table 4.
Table 5. Types of Negotiation and Negotiated Elements of Three Negotiated Mosques
Mosque’s Name andDominant Affiliation
Masjid Al-Falah,
Polehan Blimbing(The Modernist, NonNahdliyin)
Masjid Muhajirin,
Sumbersari(The Modernist, NonNahdliyin)
MasjidNurul Falakh, Klojen(The Traditionalist,
Nahdliyin)

Types of Negotiation
Negotiating identity
elements; Considering
tolerance; Restricting roles
Negotiating identity
elements; Claiming space;
Managing participatory
roles
Negotiating identity
elements; Considering
tolerance; Restricting roles

Negotiated Elements
Physical: the absence of theaffiliation logo, bedug, minbar,
kullah, ornamentation
Non-physical: Physical: the absence of theaffiliation logo, ornamentation,
mimbar placement and design
Non-physical: Physical: the absence of theaffiliation logo, the selection ofornament, spatial division, mimbar
design, kullah design
Non-physical: -Source: Analysis on the observation and interview data of Putrie, 2013-2016

Un-negotiated Elements
Physical: spatial division
Non-physical: ritual and non-ritual
activities, audial
Physical: spatial division, the height andtransparency of the partition, mimbar
designNon-physical: ritual and non-ritual
activities, audial
Physical: the height and transparency ofthe partition, bedug, the three-stepladder and the khotib stick, the volumeof the kullah
Non-physical: ritual and non-ritual
activities, audial

The result of this research shows that negotiations do happen in the mosques of heterogeneous
Muslim community. The negotiation process were resulted in the negotiated elements ofidentity as well as the claimed space. It happened through the domination of activity system,

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role restriction, or physical control over the mosque. The mixture of negotiated and unnegotiated elements in these mosques of heterogeneous Muslim communities have made thesemosques showed some kind of eclectic and obscure identity.
In this matter,Roose urged that in order to understand the reasons why certain building elements
were chosen, “especially when combinations seem mixed up, confusing, cheap, fantasy, or
fake,” the researcher should study “the patrons and their rational constructions of their own
realities,” (Roose, 2009: 32). His study about the architectural varieties within mosque designin the Netherland showed that the design represents, ‘we are Muslims with such-and-such a
religious view’ instead of ‘we are Muslim with such-and-such a culture,” (Roose, 2009: 34).
According to him, “The design expresses a specific construction of Islam in direct contestationof specific other constructions of Islam,” (Roose, 2009: 34). Following that, in Indonesiancontext we can also conclude that mosques represent various religious views, where thedifferent views towards culture were inherent in the religious views as a whole. Some culturalelements, such as bedug and minbar become the object of negotiation because of the different
religious views towards some cultural aspects related to religious ritual activities.
However, in the Table 5, we can see that some elements considered ideals in a single-affiliatedmosque turned out to be opened for negotiations in the multi-affiliated mosques. Among thenegotiated elements are mostly physical, such as the interior spatial division, the bedug, theminbar, the kullah, and the use of ornaments. Meanwhile, the un-negotiated elements aremostly non-physical such as the ritual and non-ritual activities. These negotiated elements inthe multi-affiliated mosques are mostly the characteristics or the identity representation of
specific single-affiliated mosques, such as the minbar and the bedug for Nahdliyin or the
Traditionalist mosques. Therefore, negotiating these elements can be the representation ofnegotiating mosque’s identity as a whole. The combination of negotiated and un-negotiatedelements form some kind of new eclectic identity in the sense of its heterogeneity. As
Woodward (2002: xi) stated, “Identity gives us a sense of who we are and to some extent
satisfies a demand for some degree of stability and of security.” Therefore, the new eclectic
identity might give the community a sense of togetherness, engagement, and in turn, a sense ofstability and security in its heterogeneity.
Moreover, even though some elements were negotiated, they are not completely changed. The
important aspects of the elements, some conceptual aspects, such as the height and thetransparency of the partitions, are hardly being negotiated, while the placement of the partition
to form the women area can easily be negotiated. The existence of three-step ladder and thekhotib stick in the minbar of the Traditionalist mosque is another example of the un-negotiatedaspects of negotiated elements. As described in the Table 4, the size and the shape of minbar
in Masjid Nurul Falakh were negotiated, however the three-step ladder and the khotib stick inthe minbar is remain un-negotiated. These un-negotiated aspects of mosque’s architecturalelements indicate that these aspects of elements are ideologically or politically important as
specific identity of certain Islamic groups. As one of the mosques dominated by the
Traditionalists, Masjid Nurul Falakh was willing to negotiate some aspects of its minbar inorder to seek harmony by making people from other Islamic groups feel more accomodated
and welcomed. Therefore, the negotiated and un-negotiated aspects of mosque elements canalso be seen as an effort to seek mutual understanding between the various Islamic groups.
Besides intended to strive for the ideals of each group, the complex process of negotiation
among the various groups in the mosques is also intended as the effort to prevent conflict andcrisis, to seek tolerance, and to keep the community from the possibility of disintegration. The
strong relationship between the negotiation of identity in mosques and the possibility of conflictand crisis is also mentioned by Woodward in her book, “Understanding Identity”. She cited

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Kobena Mercer’s statement that identity becomes an issue when it is in crises (Mercer in
Woodward, 2002: xi). She also stated that crises occur when an identity position is challenged
or becomes insecure (Woodward, 2002: xi). In this context, insecurity arises when more than
one groups present and strive for their own ideals in the mosque. Following this perspective,
Yasser Tabaa as cited by Roose in his dissertation stated that, “Art, like cultures and religions,defines itself against its opponents, and the more intense the conflict, the sharper this selfimage,” (Tabaa in Roose, 2009: 25). However, in this research, it is found that people handled
the possibility of conflict in quite diverse ways. In the single-affiliated mosques as describedin the first part of this article, affirming or representing identity is one way to prevent conflictwith other groups. On the other hand, in the multi-affiliated mosques as described in the second
part, concealing identity is another way to prevent the possibility of conflict.
Furthermore, the negotiation process should be viewed as an on-going process. It is inseparablefrom the dynamics of the community, shaped and re-shaped by the socio-cultural context ofthe neighborhood. Roose even stated, “Religious architecture in the Islamic world never simply‘adapted itself’ to ‘its time’ or ‘its region’ but instead dynamically followed politico-religious
alliances,” (Roose, 2009: 25). The example of the on-going process happens in community
mosques is the phenomena of space claim, where one heterogeneous community mosque could
be dominated by one group at one time, and then claimed by another group at different times,
and so on. In this research, the space claim phenomena was found in Masjid Muhajirin. For
several years the mosque was under the domination of the Salafist Muslims. Around the year
2013, the management of the mosque was replaced, and the activities of the Salafist Muslim in
the mosque were stopped. Today, the mosque is managed by the Yayasan Integritas Malang
which is apparently dominated by the Modernist Muslims. However, the mosque management
manages the participatory roles to welcome the participation of other Islamic groups such as
the Traditionalist Muslims in this mosque activities.
The space claim as one of the temporary results of the negotiation process is an interesting
topic to be researched further. In unplanned settlements, the space claim could happen
spontaneously because of the regeneration of the takmir. In other cases, the space claim
happens because of the dominance of one party over the others. In planned settlements built by
the developers, space claim in mosques could occur because the site and the building were
provided by the developers, not by individuals with a clear affiliation. Therefore, mosques ofthis kind of neighborhood do not possess an adequate historical justification to prevent the
space claim by one or more groups. This kind of mosques will be explored deeper in the next
steps of this research.
3.

CONCLUSIONSSocio-political context of the surrounding community have a great impact on mosquearchitecture. In Indonesia, the existence of various Islamic groups with their own ideals on
mosque architecture has influenced the specific identity of mosques, where mosques can beseen as a single-affiliated mosque or a multi-affiliated mosque. Each category of mosque offers
different ways to handle the possibility of conflict and crisis, from negotiating identity toclaiming space, from affirming identity to concealing identity. It is important to study
Indonesian mosque architecture in their socio-political context, not only because it raises ourunderstanding in the various ideals and perspectives of Indonesian Muslim communities indeveloping their mosques, but also because it offers a proper perspective to view and topromote tolerance in the middle of the plurality of Indonesian religious lives.

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4.

REFERENCES

Barliana, S., (2010), Tradisionalitas dan Modernitas Tipologi Arsitektur Masjid, Metatekstur,
Bandung.
Kusno, A., (2003), “The Reality of One-Which-Is-Two” – Mosque Battles and Other Stories:
Notes on Architecture, Religion, and Politics in the Javanese World, Journal ofArchitectural Education, 2003, pp. 57-67
Rapoport, A., (2005), Culture, Architecture, and Design, Locke Science Publishing Company,
Inc., Chicago.
Roose, E., (2009), The Architectural Representation of Islam; Muslim-Commissioned Mosque
Design in the Netherlands, ISIM/Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam.
Van Dijk, K., (2009), ‘Perubahan Kontur Masjid’, in Nas, PJM & de Vletter, M (eds.), Masa
Lalu dalam Masa Kini: Arsitektur di Indonesia, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta.
Woodward, K., (2002), Understanding Identity, Oxford University Press Inc., London

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

The Visual Aesthetic of Landscape in Semarang
Prof. Ir. Edy Darmawan, M.Eng.a; Dr. Ir. Suzanna Ratih Sari, MM., MA.b; Adhisti
Samsinar Enis, A.Md.ca,b,sArchitecture Department, Engineering Faculty, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia

Abstract
The visual aesthetic of landscape in Semarang is determined by the lifely of the landscape, thecategory of the park: active and passive, aesthetic hardware and software the landscape. In
addition, the visual aesthetic can be identified from the landscape of street and square. The
researchers use qualitative identification method. The researchers determine the qualification oflandscape in Semarang. Based on the analysis of the elements of the parks, it can be concluded
that the aesthetic of landscape in Semarang has high visual value. Finally, the result of this study
can be used as the reference in making the map of aesthetic landscape in Semarang. The
landscape would be developed to become aesthetic visual.
Keywords: Visual Aesthetic; Landscape; Semarang City.
A. Introdution
City is a combination of natural ecosystems and artificial ecosystems. Wirasonjaya in
Sasongko (2002) says that one of the characteristics of the artificial ecosystem is the existence ofrelatively small natural ecosystems and its quality wich will affect the quality of urban
ecosystems. To maintain the ecosystem in urban areas, it is necessary to develop the green open
spaces in the city. Green open space, according to Regulation of the Minister of Home Affairs
Number 1 Year 2007 on Green Open Space Arrangement Urban Area, is a longitudinal/ pathand/ or grouped area which is accessible to the public, and it is covered by plants, trees, or othervegetation. Landscape is part of the green open space and one of the elements of urban space
which is needed by the community. Rob (1979) defines the landscape as a comprehensive system
in which there is a connection between the biotic and abiotic components, including thecomponents of human influence. However, the landscape is constantly changing due to the
influence of human’s activities. Thus, he right landscape governance is needed so that thecomponents in it can be preserved. Danier (2015) says that landscape arrangements andlandscape governance can contribute to a unique landscape character. Landscape designprinciples should be applied in designing a visually-appealing landscape. According to Judge(2003) landscape design principles consist of balance, rhythm and repetition, emphasis andaccentuation, simplicity, contrast, proportion, and unity.
One of the most common typologies of urban landscape is the city park. Urban parks
considerably important in urban landscapes as it can shape the city's character and provide thevisual beauty of urban environments to create unity between spaces (Simonds, 1983). Frick
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(2006) mentions that city parks function as urban lungs (improving air quality), as living spacesof local flora and fauna, and as human resting places.Today, the city park is not simply aphysical part of a city, but also part of the citizen’s lives. According to Nassar (1988), theaesthetic quality of a landscape can provide individual satisfaction to the individuals andindirectly affect human behavior. The existence of urban parks and elements that are in it isstrongly influenced by human activity. The city park reflects the state of society, so the city parkis designed not only as an important attribute for orientation, but also to meet human needs inrelaxation, identification or stimulation (Jessel, 2006). Darmawan (2015) said that thearrangement of city parks should be able to create the interaction between the elements in it andthe community as its users, so that the park will become lively. City park should be able toprovide comfort and prosperity for the citizens, and it should have aesthetic value to maintainand enhance the beauty of the city. Therefore, according to Susiloarifin (1994), city park should
be arranged in such a way as to provide beauty, comfort, and security in its use.
Semarang, as one of the big cities in Indonesia, experienced a very rapid development.
The development and growth of the city has resulted in reduced green open space in Semarang
and has affected the quality of urban environment. Many green areas have been converted into
establishments. This situation leads to many problems, such as rising air temperature, air
pollution, noise, congestion, and dense settlements. Many buildings are constructed without
taking the surrounded environment condition into considerations, resulting in a less goodscenery. This condition for certain cause discomfort and turns the city into such a dull place. Thiscondition can be stressful for the community. For that reason, the city government of Semarang
has developed and managed the city park in the last few years. This activity is not only to meetthe green open space needs of Semarang City which is still far from the existing provisions, butalso to improve the aesthetic visual of the city and to restore the comfort of urban environment.
City park in the center of Semarang consists of an active garden and a passive garden, where
each park has its own potential and uniqueness in creating aesthetic visuals of the city. Based on
the situation described above, the researcher are interested to study the aesthetic visuals of theexisting park in Semarang City and arrange the research result into a recommendation that can beused as input in arrangement of city park.
B. Methodology
Methodology in a study is related to data collection, compilation, and analysis. The
purpose of this study is to determine the aesthetic visuals of existing parks in the city of
Semarang. Aesthetics, according to Simonds (1983), is defined as a harmonious relationship of
all elements or components perceived. The method used is descriptive qualitative. According
Arikunto (2006), the aim of descriptive qualitative research is gathering actual and detailed
information, identifying problems, making comparisons or evaluations, and determining what
others are doing in the face of similar problems and learn from their experiences to organize
decision in the future. By taking samples at the parks in the center of Semarang City, we will
describe the physical conditions and elements of the parks, as well as the landscape designprinciples. The data are obtained from direct observation and documentation. Direct observation
activities is an activity of recording an object or event in a systematic way to obtain information
about the observed phenomenon (Moelong, 2002). Documentation can be photographs orimages, rules, history of the object being observed. Sugiyono (2014) said that document study is
a complement of the use of observation and interview methods in qualitative research. Once thedata are collected, the researcher proceed to the data analysis. Data analysis is a process of2

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searching and compiling data obtained from interviews, field notes, and other materials so that it
can be understood easily and the findings can be informed to others (Bogdan in Sugiyono, 2014).
The process of data analysis is carried out as soon as the data collection process begins, and it
will be continued after all the data are obtained.
C. Results and Discussion
The results and discussion in this article include descriptions of the physical condition of
the park, the analysis of the elements of landscape design, the analysis of landscape designprinciples, and aesthetic visual analysis of the park located in the center of Semarang.
1. Physical Condition of Parks in the Center of Semarang
Semarang has several urban parks located around the district. The parks are categorized
as active parks and passive parks. Active park is a park open for public. It can be used for public
events and functions as center of social interaction. Meanwhile, the passive park is an aesthetic
park which is designed for aesthetic purpose. People can only see the park without being able to
go inside to do activities because the park is usually surrounded by a fence (Darmawan, 2015).
This research focuses on both active parks and passive parks located in the center of Semarang.
The parks include Taman Pandanaran, Taman Menteri Supeno, Lapangan Pancasila Simpang
Lima, Taman Tugu Muda, Taman Jalan Imam Barjo, and Bundaran Taman Jalan Pemuda. The
parks have their own unique characteristics based on location, area, facility, service area, andlocal people need of open public space. Despite the fact that number of open in Semarang is still
far from the ideal number, but the number of the current parks still adequately support the public
needs of public open spaces.
Based on the observation of the selected parks, the physical condition of the parks aredescribed as follows:

No.
1.

2.

Table 1
Physical Condition of Parks Located in the Center of Semarang
Name
Physical Condition
Taman Pandanaran
Location
Located between Jalan Pandanaran and Jalan MH. Thamrin.
Types
The park, that covers an area of ± 6,000 m², is an active garden
that can be accesed freely by citizens, but not many people visit
this park due to lack of trees.
Facilities
Park benches, garden lights, parking lots, fountain, plazas,
drinking water taps, public toilets, garbage cans, several stalls
and minimarkets around the park, Warak Ngendok statue as oneof the icons of Semarang. The statue itself symbolizes the idea ofdifferent ethnicities that can co-exist and get along.
Activities
Play and relax. Not many people do exercise due to the lack of
shade and crowded street close to the park.
Function(A) To lower air temperatures and reduce pollution, but it does
not really helpful. (B) Adorn the city with an attractive garden
design and furnished with sculpture as a marker. (C) As a public
place for citizens to socialize, although the park has not be used
for this purpose optimally.
Maintenance
The park is not well taken care of as some facilities are in bad
condition due to irresponsible action by visitors.
Access
It can be accessed easily because there is no fence surrounding it.
Typesof Shade trees, grasses, cover crops, and ornamental plants varied invegetation
sizes and colors.
Taman
Menteri Location
In Kelurahan Mugasari, South Semarang District.

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SupenoTypes
Facilities
Activities
Function

Maintenance
AccessTypesvegetation3.

Lapangan Pancasila
Simpang Limaof

Location
Types
Facilities
Activities
Function
Maintenance
Access4.

Taman Tugu Muda

Typesvegetation
Location
Typesof

Facilities
Activities
Function
Maintenance
Access5.

Bundaran
Taman
Jalan Pemuda

Typesvegetation
Location
Types
FacilitiesofThis 5,000 m² park is an active park that people can be easily
accesed by people.
Parking lot, playing area, pool and fountain, sculpture, park
bench, garden lights, skateboarding area, pedestrian path, PKL
area, vegetation.
Sports, play, recreation, stroll around, culinary tour.
(A) To lower air temperature and reduce pollution, which works
well because of the trees surrounding this park. (B) Adorn thecity and cool the surrounding area off. (C) Place of socialization
for the citizens and as an alternative tourist attractions. (D)Coulinary destination because there are street vendors who sellvarious types of food and beverages around the park.
The park is in good condition, well maintained, and quite clean.
Easy to reach by any means of transportation, both public andprivate.
The trees provide shade for the visitors and cool the area off. In
addition, there are also grass and plants covering the area, andornamental plants varied in sizes and colors.
Located in the center of city (Simpang Lima area).
An active park that can be visited by public.
Sports area, park bench, garbage can, parking lot, lights,
pedestrian ways, public toilets, playing area, and plants.
Exercise, playing, recreation, ceremony, Ied prayer, stroll around.
To lower air temperature and reduce air pollution, but the park
does not serve this function optimally yet. In addition, the park
adorns the city and functions as place for citizens to socialize.
The park is in good condition and well maintained, but there arestill parts filled with garbage due to lack of awareness of thecitizens.
Easy to reach by using any means of transportation, but theaccess to this place is quite difficult due to the heavy traffic.
There are trees, grass, and plants covering the ground, andornamental plants varied in sizes and colors.
Located in Tugu Muda area
The circular garden, covering an area of ± 1.700 m², is a passive
garden.
Fountains, garden lights, sculpture, pedestrian ways, guardrail,
plants.
Because it is a passive park, there is not many activities spotted inthis area. Sometimes people come to this place to relax or takepictures.
The main function is to reduce air temperature and reduce air
pollution, but the park has not functioned optimally. In addition,
the park is a beautiful view in the middle of crowded traffic.
The park is well maintained and clean.
Easy to reach by any means of transportation, but access to thisplace is quite difficult due to the heavy traffic.
The are trees, grass, plants covering the ground, and ornamental
plants varied in sizes and colors.
Located in the center of Jalan Pemuda, Jalan Depok, and Jalan
Tanjung.
Categorized as a passive park.
Fountains, plants, pavements such as pedestrian ways, garden
lights, bulletin boards/ information, traffic lights.

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Activities
Function
Maintenance
Access6.

Taman Jalan Imam
Barjo

Types
vegetation
Location
Typesof

Facilities
Activities
Function
Maintenance
AccessTypesvegetationofNo activity spotted because it is a passive park and located in a
crowded street.
The park is expected to lower the air temperature and absorbs the
air pollution, yet it has not functioned optimally. It also provides
aesthetic visual in the middle of traffic.
The condition is quite good and well maintained, but sometimes
there are flags of parties or organizations that disrupt the park'svisual.
Easy to reach because it is on the main street, but access is quitedifficult because of heavy traffic.
There are trees, shrubs, grass covering the ground, ornamental
plants of different sizes.
Located on Jalan Imam Barjo, Pleburan.
It is a passive park as it is surrounded by offices and campus ofUndip Pleburan
Pedestrian ways, garden lights, sculpture, plants.
Not many activities spotted, but during the day the park issometimes occupied by employees taking a break from work.
As the lungs of the city, it absorbs air pollution, lower the airtemperature, adorn the surrounded environment.
Good enough, because there are officers who clean up around thestreet and the park. Nevertheless, there is still some waste that isthrown away arbitrarily due to lack of public awareness.
The open garden space is easily accesed by public and privatetransportation.
Grass as ground cover, shrubs, shade trees, ornamental plants
with varying sizes and colors.

Source: Analysis Result, 2017.

2. Elements of Landscape Design at Parks in Central Semarang City
Elements of landscape design is one component in designing a landscape. The elementsof landscape design of the parks in Semarang will be explained in the table below.

No.
1.

Name
Taman
Pandanaran

2.

Taman
Menteri
Supeno3.

Lapangan
Pancasila
Simpang
Lima

Table 2Elements of Landscape Design at Parks in Central Semarang City
Elements of Landscape DesignLine
The lines are a combination of straight lines and curved lines.
Field
The visible field element is a rectangular field.
Space
The space emphasized in this garden is a circular transparent space.
Form
The statue of Warak Ngendok is placed in the middle of the park and serve as a
new icon for the city of Semarang.
TextureIt is clearly visible on the composition of an attractively designed garden floor
pavement.
Line
The lines are dominated by curved lines.
Field
Dominated by circle shape.
Space
The space formed includes a circular transparent space.
Form
Public restroom buildings and merchant.
TextureTexture can be seen from the pavement provided for pedestrians with somesmooth or rough point.
Line
The element of the line is dominated by a straight line.
Field
The visible field element is a rectangular field.
Space
The space formed includes a square transparent space.
Form
The shape element can be clearly seen from the wall with the park’s name on it.

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4.

Taman
Tugu Muda

Texture
Line
Field
Space
Form
Texture5.

Bundaran
Taman
Jalan
Pemuda

Line
Field
Space
Form
Texture6.

Taman
Jalan Imam
Barjo

Line
Field
Space
Form
TextureSource: Analysis Result, 2017.

The texture can be seen from the pedestrian ways pavement.
The element of the line is in the form of straight line elements and curved lines.
Applied in square shape.
The visible space is a transparent space with a circle shape.
The form of the park can be seen from the monument in the middle of the park
which is a landmark of Semarang City and sculpture in the form of bamboo
spears.
Demonstrated on various vegetation arrangements and pavement of thepedestrian ways.
The line element is a straight line.
The element of the field is the square and rhombic plane.
The space element is created in the form of a square transparent space.
Form elements can be identified from the vegetation arrangement and thepresence of sculpture.
The texture element can be seen from the pavement arrangement applied to theroad.
The line element is dominated by curved lines.
The field element is applied in a circle.
The space element is created in the form of a square transparent space.
The shape element is visible on the fountain pool in the middle of the garden.
The texture element can be seen from the pavement arrangement applied to theroad so it looks attractive.

3. The Analysis of Landscape Design Principle of Parks Semarang
The principles of landscape design are the basis for the realization of a design or form
engineering. The principles of landscape design should connected one another to result the
expected design. Therefore, the design of the parks in Semarang has applied the principles oflandscape design as described in table below:

No.
1.

Name
Taman
Pandanaran

2.

Taman
Menteri
SupenoTable 3
Principles of Landscape Design At Park in Semarang City
Principles of Landscape Design
Balance
The design of the garden is made symmetrical between the two sides of
the garden footprint.
Rhythm and The repetition of colors and shapes on the pedestrian ways provides good
Repetition
visual.
Emphasis and Warak Ngendok statue in the middle of the park applies the principle ofAccentuationemphasis in Taman Pandanaran.
Simplicity
Every part is designed to maximize the function of the park.
Contrast
Various plants in different colors.
Proportion
The siteplan is ideal and well-balanced.
Unity
This park has a good unity design principles as it fulfills all landscapedesign principles.
BalanceA well-balanced design of triangle-shaped park.
Rhythm and The repetition of the line design to the path and the circular-shape space.
Repetition
Emphasis and The fountain placed in the middle of the park.
Accentuation
Simplicity
Every part of the park is designed to maximize the function of the park
itself.
Contrast
The arrangement of the garden floor pavement which enhance theaesthetic visual of the garden gives a contrast look of the park.

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Proportion
Unity
3.

Lapangan
Pancasila
Simpang
Lima

Balance
Rhythm andRepetition
Emphasis andAccentuation
Simplicity
Contrast
Proportion
Unity

4.

Taman
Tugu Muda

Balance
Rhythm andRepetition
Emphasis andAccentuation
Simplicity
Contrast
Proportion
Unity

5.

Bundaran
Taman
Jalan
PemudaBalance
Rhythm andRepetition
Emphasis andAccentuation
Simplicity
Contrast
Proportion
Unity

6.

Taman
Jalan Imam
Barjo

Balance
Rhythm andRepetition
Emphasis andAccentuation
Simplicity
Contrast
Proportion
Unity

Source: Analysis Result, 2017.

A well-balance ratio of the size and the number of every part of the park.
This park has a good unity design principles as it fulfills all landscapedesign principles.
The balance of the square form of the park and the plants planted
surrounding the park.
The trees, park benches, and dumpster are placed one after the other in acertain distance.
This element can be seen clearly from a wall with the park name written
on it.
Every part of the park is designed to maximize the function of the park
itself.
The pedestrian ways are paved in different colors to create a contrast
visual.
A well-balance ratio of the size and the number of every part of the park.
This park has a good unity design principle as it fulfills all landscapedesign principles.
The park is designed symmetrically between two pedestrian ways.
The repetition of colors and shapes on pedestrian ways and vegetation
placement gives an interesting visual.
The monument of Tugu Muda and fountain in the middle of the park.
Every part of the park is designed to maximize the function of the park
itself.
The use of plant colors and paving on the pedestrian ways.
Well-balance ratio of the size and the number of every part of the park.
This park has a good unity design principle as it fulfills all landscapedesign principles.
The park is designed symmetrically between two paths.
It can be seen from the settling of the plants and the pavement of thepedestrian ways. It can also be seen from the colors used on pedestrianpaving paths.
A fountains is placed in the middle of the park that attracts the attentionof people.
Every part of the park is designed to maximize the function of the park
itself.
The plants are varied in types and size. Contrasting colors are applied thepavements.
Well-balance ratio of the size and the number of every part of the park.
This park has a good unity design principles as it fulfills all landscapedesign principles.
The park designed symmetrically between the two sides paths.
Repeated plants settling.
A statue that resembles a temple with several platforms.
Every part of the park is designed to maximize the function of the park
itself.
Plants in different size.
Well-balance ratio of the size and the number of every part of the park.
This park has a good unity design principles as it fulfills all landscapedesign principles.

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4. The Analysis of Visual Aesthetic of Landscape of Parks in Semarang
Simonds (1983) mentions that aesthetics is a harmonious relationship of all elements orcomponents perceived. The aesthetic quality of the landscape can be identified by comparing thephysical conditions, landscape design elements, and landscape design principles of the parks in
Semarang. The comparison is conducted by assessing the parks in the center of Semarang using
the nominal data scale. The categories used in the assessment are 0 = poor; 1 = good; 2 = very
good. The assessment of the parks can be seen as follows:

No.
1.

2.

3.

Tabel 4Visual Aesthetic Analysis of Landscape At Parks in Central Semarang City
Indicators
Variables
Park A
Park B
Park CPark D
Park E
Principles
LandscapeDesignofLandscape
Function

Quality of Parks

PhysicalCondition

Park F

Balance

2

2

2

2

2

2

Rhythm and Repetition

2

2

1

1

1

1

Emphasis
Accentuation
Simplicity

2

2

2

2

1

1

and

2

2

2

2

2

2

Contrast

2

2

1

2

1

1

Proportion

2

2

2

2

2

2

Unity

2

2

2

2

2

2

Ecological

0

2

0

0

0

0

Social

0

2

2

1

0

0

Aesthetic

2

2

1

2

1

1

Hard Material

2

2

1

2

1

1

Soft Material

2

2

1

2

1

1

Facilities Completeness

1

2

2

0

0

0

Design of Park

2

2

1

2

1

0

View

2

2

1

2

2

0

Access

2

2

2

0

0

2

Maintenance

0

2

2

2

1

1

27

34

25

26

18

17

Total Assessment
Source: Analysis Result, 2017.

Information:
A = Taman Pandanaran
B = Taman Menteri Supeno
C = Lapangan Pancasila Simpang Lima
D = Taman Tugu Muda
E = Bundaran Taman Jalan Pemuda
F = Taman Imam Barjo
From assessment above, it can be seen that Taman Pandanaran has the highest value, while thelowest value is Taman Jalan Imam Barjo. Distinguished by its function as an active park and apassive park, then Taman Menteri Supeno is regarded as an active park with a high aesthetic
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visuals, followed by Taman Pandanaran and Lapangan Pancasila Simpang Lima. Meanwhile,
Taman Tugu Muda is identified as passive park with high aesthetic visual, followed by Bundaran
Taman Jalan Pemuda and Taman Jalan Imam Barjo. All in all, parks with aesthetic visuals
should be maintained properly so that it can be one of tourism destinations in Semarang.
D. Conclusion
City parks around Semarang is classified into two types parks; they are active parks andpassive park. In the center of Semarang, there are Lapangan Pancasila Simpang Lima, Taman
Menteri Supeno, Taman Pandanaran as an active park and Taman Tugu Muda, Bundaran Taman
Jalan Pemuda, Taman Jalan Imam Barjo. The parks are attractively designed to meet the needs ofSemarang’s residents. Of the six parks, Taman Menteri Supeno has the highest aesthetic visuals
because it is equipped with various elements of interesting garden, such as complete facilities,
and various plants to cool the area off. In addition, there is a statue of KB as icon for this area.
Overall, the condition of the park is relatively good, adequately maintained, and wellgrown plants. However, there is a need for further attention to the maintenance of the park
because there are still some damaged park facilities. The park has not serve its functions ofabsorbing pollution can be more optimal. The selection of elements of park also need to beconsidered so that the value of aesthetic quality of the park can be higher and it can be used bycitizens.
Reference
Arikunto, 2006. Prosedur Penelitian: Suatu Pendekatan Praktik. Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta.
Danier, L. 2015. The Little Sustainable Landscape Book. Oxford: Global Canopy Programme.
Darmawan, Edy dan Andy Wijaya Nugraha. 2015. Visual Estetika Taman Arsitektur Kota.
Semarang: Badan Penerbit Universitas Diponegoro.
Frick, Heinz dan Tri Hesti Mulyani. 2006. Arsitektur Ekologis. Yogyakarta: Kanisius.
Hakim, Rustam, dan Hardi Utomo. 2003. Komponen Perancangan Arsitektur Lansekap (PrinsipUnsur dan Aplikasi Desain). Jakarta : Penerbit Bumi Aksara.
Jessel, B. 2006. Elements, Characteristics, and Character Information Functions of Landscapesin Terms of Indicators. Ecological Indicators 6: 153-167.
Moleong, Lexy. 2002. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: PT. remaja Rosdakarya.
Nassar JL. 1988. Environmental Aesthetic. New York (US): Cambridge University.
Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor 1 Tahun 2007 tentang Penataan Ruang Terbuka Hijau
Kawasan Perkotaan.
Rob, Krier. 1979. Urban Space. London: Academy Editions.
Sasongko, Purnomo Dwi. 2002. Kajian Perubahan Fungsi Taman Kota di Kota Semarang.
Program Pasca Sarjana Magister Teknik Pembangunan Kota Universitas Diponegoro
Semarang.
Simonds JO. 1983. Landscape Architecture. New York: Mc Graw - Hill Book.
Sugiyono. 2014. Memahami Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: Penerbit Alfabeta.
Susiloarifin, Hadi dan Nurhayati. 1994. Pemeliharaan Taman. Jakarta: Penebar Swadaya.

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A LUXURIOUS PREFABRICATED HOUSE:A DIFFERENT WAY OF UNDERSTANDING PREFABRICATION HOUSING
Rossa Turpuk Gabea*, Gregorius A Gegana Ab**, Ima Rachima c**a

Departement of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia 16424,
Depokb
Departement of Architecture, School of Design, Universitas Pelita Harapan 15810,
Tangerangc
Departement of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Institut Sains dan Teknologi
Nasional 12630, Jakarta

ABSTRACTIn this modern age, prefabricated buildings have various benefits such as, faster, moresustainable, and more affordable. The prefabricated buildings have been mass produced forvarious purposes such as, temporary housing after disaster, low-income housing andtemporary worker housing. A prefabricated house is believed eco-friendlier than aconventional house, because it produces lesser waste than conventional house. However, as
common dwelling use, prefabricated construction for housing is not as popular as
conventional brick-and-mortar house. A quick survey to companies that practiceprefabrication reveals that prefab house is not popular as common housing for many people
in Indonesia because an assumption of its non-permanent construction and its limited design
preferences. In spite of these reasons, prefabricated house still can be made luxurious andwell designed for upper class segment people. This paper presents examples of deluxe prefabhouses and analyze the systems and methods. Furthermore, we compare the examples on
their prefab systems and methods to common prefab houses which have been built inIndonesia. Finally, the investigation attempts to formulate how systems and methods ofprefabrication can be made to enable prefab houses compete with traditional brick-andmortar houses in providing luxurious and well-accepted dwelling.
Keywords: prefabricated house, a luxurious prefabricated house, prefab systems andmethods

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�� INTRODUCTION
Since the industrial revolution, prefabrication concepts and methods have been explored.
Prefabrication originally took the basic form of developing systems, either conceptual or
actual, that led to the production of parts that could be used in a variety of ways (Hilgeman,2004). Modular prefab housing is faster, more sustainable and more affordable to build.
(Nadim & Goulding, 2011)
Because of its fast and cheap characteristics, prefab house gains popularity for mass
production as an ideal solution to provide low-cost housing or post-disaster housing. In
western countries, prefab house became popular choice for mass development and housing
rehabilitation after World War II. In developing countries, the growing concentration ofpeople is obvious. A mass house project is one of the most established projects of theconstruction industry to provide affordable and high quality houses (Mostafa & Dumrak,2014). This situation is also true for Indonesia. In addition of rapid people growth andurbanization, Indonesia’s position in earth ring of fire makes the country vulnerable tovarious natural disasters. Aceh Tsunami in 2004 forced the Ministry of Housing to provide
fast and mass produced emergency housing and rehabilitation. The solution is now
developed and well known as RISHA (Rumah Instan Sederhana Sehat) to fulfill mass
demand of low-cost housing as well as earthquake resistant.
Nowadays, in developed countries prefabricated housing is becoming increasingly popular
because of its potential as sustainable building. Prefabricated housing has rapidly become
more popular over the last few years as an affordable, eco-friendly and modern alternative
housing. A unique benefit of using prefab systems is the ability to consider open-systems
thinking, where a house may be flexible and re-configurable post-occupation (Luo, Riley, &Horman, 2005). These definitions help us to understand the potential of prefabrication
housing, more than just providing fast and cheap housing demand.
However, housing choice and preference usually conforms to the society perspective abouthouse itself. There is a lot of emotion involved in buying house (Koklic & Vida, 2011).
Negative consumer perceptions are a significant barrier to develop a large market for
prefabricated housing, even if some of these perceptions are not representative of theemerging industry (Dale, Karen, & Wendy, 2013). Prefabricated housing in Indonesia
carries a stigma of cheap, low quality and temporary. This paper intends to examine
prefabricated housing from its design innovation to gain a greater understanding of luxurious
and well-accepted dwelling.

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�� METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTS
We conducted this research with the following questions: 1) How is the application of prefabhouse in Indonesia nowadays? and 2) How can the use of prefab house in Indonesia be
developed further to provide sustainable and modern living? To answer those researchquestions, we conducted literature studies about various prefab house systems. Afterwards,
we conducted 2 further literature studies about examples of prefab houses.
The first study is about examples of prefab houses that have been developed in Indonesia tounderstand how is the development of prefab house in Indonesia nowadays. The second
study is about the application of prefab house overseas to compare with the development inIndonesia and to understand how is the development of prefab house can be pushed further.
We limited the study on single family housing, therefore we omitted the prefab house formess and industrial housing. We analyze the examples based on their specifications andprefab systems or prefab constructions. In the end, we compare the development of prefabhouse in Indonesia and overseas. We discussed all factors that can refine the application of
prefab house to fulfill modern house lifestyle.
�� PREFABRICATED HOUSE
The term modular prefab system is a construction methods ranging from completely off-siteand completely on-site (Nadim & Goulding, 2011). These methods promise an innovation
which more environmentally friendly building practices. As we can see on Table 1, there are
six different types of prefabricated housing systems: fully modular, sectional, panelized,
precut, components, and chassis & infill (Huang & Krawczyk, 2006)
Type

Table 1 Prefab House Types

Description
All components are assembled in factory as single complete 3D modules
Fully
Module size is limited by transport (road and ship) constraints
ModularRequires only simple connection to foundation and MEP service connector
Components are assembled as incomplete 3D modules for easy transport
Sectional
Requires additional components and treatments on site
Only modular panels are made in factory
Modular panels are usually for walls (structural/ infill), floor, roof, ceiling
Panelized
Structure is still constructed on site (cast in place)
Requires panel assembly on site
Components are made in various shapes/ dimensions for various function
Precut
The wood/ lumber components are numbered/ identified(wood)
Requires on-site construction to assemble the woods as in a kit
Components are made in various shapes/ dimensions for various function
Components/
The components are numbered/ identified
Kits of Parts
Requires on-site construction to assemble the components
The components are divided into 2 parts
Chassis and Chassis: prefab structural (posts and beams) 3D frame module
Infills
Infills: Interchangeable panels for customization and adaptability
Requires assembly on site or off site

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�� THE USE OF PREFAB HOUSE TODAY
We take examples from 6 prefab house provider in Indonesia: RISHA, Mulya Bahtera
Marina Industri, Sanwa Prefab Technology, Indocont, Domus, and J Steel.
Table 2 Prefab House in Indonesia
House Specification
PictureRUMAH INSTAN SEDERHANASEHAT (RISHA)(Pusat Litbang Perumahan dan
Permukiman Balitbang Kementerian
PUPR Republik Indonesia, 2017)
Function:
Temporary Mass Housing
Emergency/ Post-Disaster Housing
Low-cost Permanent Single Family
Housing
Unit Area: 21-45 m2, 1-2 floor(s)Figure 1 Rumah Instan Sederhana Sehat
Features: 2 bedrooms(s), 1 bathroom(s),living room
Prefab Systems:
Panelized: Precast Concrete
MULYA BAHTERA MARINA
INDUSTRI(PT Mulya Bahtera Marina Industri, 2015)
Function:
Permanent Single Family Housing
Unit Area: 36-60m2, 1floor(s)Features: 2 bedrooms(s), 1 bathroom(s),living room, kitchen
Prefab Systems:
Light Steel frame, Fiber Cement, Paint
finish, Metal roof

Figure 2 Mulya Bahtera Prefab HouseSANWA PREFAB TECHNOLOGY(Sanwa Prefab, 2017)
Function:
Permanent Single Family Housing
Unit Area: 60-96 m2, 1 floor(s)Features: 2 bedrooms(s), 1 bathroom(s),living room
Prefab Systems:
Panelized: Metal Panel

Figure 3 Sanwa Prefab House

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House Specification
INDOCONT(Indocont Prefab, 2017)

PictureFunction:
Low-cost Permanent Single Family
Housing
Unit Area: 36 m2, 1 floor(s)Features: 2 bedrooms(s), 1 bathroom(s),living room, kitchen
Prefab Systems:
Panelized: Composite styrofoam panel

Figure 4 Indocont Prefab House

DOMUS(PT Tatalogam Lestari, 2017)
Function:
Low-cost Permanent Single Family
Housing
Unit Area: 21-45 m2, 1 floor(s),Features: 2 bedrooms(s), 1 bathroom(s),living room, kitchen
Prefab Systems:
Chasis and Infills: Steel structure frame,
Lightweight concrete blocks
Figure 5 Domus Prefab HouseJ STEEL(PT Jaindo Metal Industries, 2013)
Function:
Low-cost Permanent Single Family
Housing
Emergency/ Post-Disaster Housing
Unit Area: 36-65 m2, 1 floor(s),Features: 2 bedrooms(s), 1 bathroom(s),living room, kitchen, maid & storage,
laundry & service, terrace
Prefab Systems:
Panelized: Steel frame, Calci-board
composite panel
Figure 6 J Steel Prefab House

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From all 6 prefab house providers in Indonesia, we can see that prefab house development
in Indonesia is mainly used for low-cost housing or emergency/ post-disaster housing withtotal floor area less than 100 m2, and typically only has 1 floor. Some of the providers claimthat the cost to build 1 unit of house is less than IDR 100.000.000 1.
From prefab construction system, most of the house has Panelized prefab system with steel
frame structure and wall panels. The foundation is casted in place concrete. The steel
structure components are made in factory and assembled on site. Other components, such as
wall, comes to the site in panels and assembled after the steel structures is constructed. As
in ordinary 1-story house, the MEP systems are lined up on site and there is no special
connection or treatment correlated with prefabricated panels or structure.
We observed 5 providers of prefab housing from various regions overseas: SCG Heim (joint
with Sekisui Japan) in Thailand, Prebuilt Residential in Australia, BLU Homes in California,
Karoleena in Canada, and NOEM in Spain. All of them are luxurious prefab house and pricerange around USD 100.000-1.000.000. Typically, it has 1-2 floors with total floor areaaround 100-500 m2.
An interesting finding from this study is: all luxurious prefab houses use Fully Modular
prefab construction system. The on-site works are the foundation, concrete floor bed, andbase for MEP systems. The main structure, infill structure, wall panels, floor, ceiling, roof,
and finishing are assembled as house modules (usually as big as one room) in manufacture
plant. The MEP system is prepared inside the panels and ready to connect with the
installation on-site. By doing the assembly in factory, the design details and craftsmanshipcan be done and measured more accurate. Moreover, this detail refining and design
innovations can be enabled by recent technology in Architecture Engineering andConstruction (AEC) industry such as Building Information Modeling (BIM) and CAM. It
allows designers and engineers to do simulation and experiments to the space module
arrangement and detail solution before actual construction on site. As a result, the house
design can have more sophisticated appearance. Moreover, it can reduce a lot of on-site
working which also reduce manual errors, construction cost, and pollution during theconstruction processes.
Although it can result accurate and sophisticated design, Fully Modular prefab system has aweakness on delivery to the site. It needs big containers and heavy machineries to assemble
the module on site. Therefore, the restriction would be site accessibility. The site should belocated in area that can be accessed by good road infrastructures for heavy and big vehicles.

Based on articles at Kompas.com Properti:
PT Kompas Cyber Media. (2015, September 22). Rumah Instan Buatan Indocement Hanya Rp 35 Juta Per
Unit. Retrieved from Kompas.com Properti:
http://properti.kompas.com/read/2015/09/22/225930621/Rumah.Instan.Buatan.Indocement.Hanya.Rp.35.Juta.Per.Unit
 PT Kompas Cyber Media. (2016, Mei 26). Biaya Bangun Rumah Permanen Domus Rp 19 Juta Saja...
Retrieved from Kompas.com Properti:
http://properti.kompas.com/read/2016/05/26/114005521/biaya.bangun.rumah.permanen.domus.rp.19.jut
a.saja.

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House Specification
SCG HEIM, THAILAND(SCG-Sekisui Sales Co.,Ltd ,2015)

Table 3 Luxury Prefab House
PictureFunction:
Permanent Singe Family
Housing
Unit Area: 150-400 m2,
2 floors
Features: 2-3 bedrooms(s), 3
bathroom(s), living room,
dining room, garage for 2
cars, terrace & balcony
Function:
House for Disability Care
Unit Area: 100-200 m2,
1 floorFeatures: 1 bedroom(s), 2
bathroom(s), Caretaker room,
Living & dining room
Prefab Systems:
Fully Modular: Steel frame,
Lightweight concrete panel,
Ceramic finish
PREBUILTRESIDENTIAL,
AUSTRALIA(Prebuilt, 2016)
Function:
Permanent Single Family
housing
Unit Area: 150-200 m2,
1-2 floor(s)Features: 3-4 bedrooms(s), 12 bathroom(s), 1-2 livingroom(s), dining room
Prefab Systems:
Fully Modular: Steel & wood
frame, Wood/ metal panel,
Wood finish

914

Figure 7 SCG Heim Prefab House

Figure 8 Prebuilt Prefab House

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House Specification

PictureBLUHOMES,CALIFORNIA(BLU Homes, 2017)
Function:
Permanent Single Family
housing
Unit Area: 60-570 m2
1-2 floor(s)Features: 1-6 bedroom(s), 1-6
bathroom(s), living room,
dining room, kitchen, garage
add-on, cabin add-on
Prefab Systems:
Fully Modular: Steel frame,
Wood/ metal panel, Tile andWood finish
Figure 9 BLU Homes Prefab House

KAROLEENA, CANADA(Karoleena, Inc., 2016)
Function:
Permanent Single Family
housing
Unit Area: 70-276 m2
1-2 floor(s)Features: 1-4 bedroom(s), 1-3
bathroom(s), living room,
dining room, kitchen
Prefab Systems:
Fully Modular: Steel frame,
dry-wall/ metal panel, Tile
and Wood finish

Figure 10 Karoleena Prefab House

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House Specification

PictureNOEM, SPAIN(NOEM, 2014)
Function:
Permanent Single Family
housing
Unit Area: 95-200 m2
1-2 floor(s)Features: 1-4 bedroom(s), 1-3
bathroom(s), living room,
dining room, kitchen
Function:
Vacation Cabin
Unit Area: 25-30 m2
1 floor(s)Features: 1 studio unit, 1bathroomPrefab Systems:
Fully Modular: Wood frame,
Wood panel, Laminate andWood finish
Figure 11 NOEM Prefab House�� A COMPARISON: RETHINKING PREFABRICATED HOUSECompared to prefab house application overseas, prefab house definition in Indonesia is still
limited to prefabricated materials, especially steel structure and wall panels, and also stillrequires a lot of manual works on site by labor. Moreover, the design and on-site construction
solution are still the same as how to build a conventional house, which could lose its accuracy
during on-site processes and have lack of innovation in design and details. As a result, thehouse made from prefabricated components looks dull and frail. In the end, this gives astigma that prefab houses are cheap, low quality, and temporary houses.
Nevertheless, the prefabricated components need to be treated accurately. Due to theirlimitation in module size and requirements for precision in the joints, prefabricatedcomponents should enable innovation in design and detailing processes. However, thedesign innovation and detailing processes need to be in conjunction with the expanding skillsof designers, engineers, and construction workers in handling prefabricated components.
Designers and engineers have to be equipped with skills of utilizing recent technology in
AEC industry, such as BIM, in order to enhance design innovation and detail refinement.
Construction workers need to understand how to work with prefabricated parts and maintainits accuracy control.

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�� CONCLUSION
This paper has presented the recent application of prefabricated house in Indonesia comparedwith prefabricated house overseas. In addition, the paper also has been prepared in order toexamine prefabricated housing from its design innovation to gain a greater understanding of
luxurious and well-accepted dwelling. This study has revealed that limited design innovationis the central to understand why prefabricated house in Indonesia not popular for a luxurious
modern house. The findings of this study indicate that prefabricated house in Indonesia has
crucial problems, especially inability on transforming each component to innovation system
for greater use of prefabrication. There is limited design innovation between connection of
the prefabricated panels or structure with its systems and details. The findings also suggestthat prefabricated house as an open-system thinking has enabled wide opportunities fordesigners and engineers to create ideas and innovation for a luxurious design.
However, this study does not review effects of regulations and government policies which
potentially influence in encouraging greater use of prefabrication house in Indonesia. Moredetailed aspects are needed to generate more comprehensive analysis for further study of thepotential of prefabricated house in Indonesia, especially to provide a sustainable and amodern living.

�� REFERENCES
BLU
Homes.
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Homes.
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Homes:
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Dale, S., Karen, M., & Wendy, M. (2013). Reshaping Housing - The Role of PrefabricatedSystems. Queensland: Queendland University of Technology.
Hilgeman, J. (2004). A Prefabricated Framing and Enclosure System: Economy, Flexibility,
and Applications. Washington: University of Washington.
Huang, J. C., & Krawczyk, R. J. (2006). Integrating Mass Customization with PrefabricatedHousing. Re-Thinking the Disclosure: The Second International Conference of the
Arab Society for Computer Aided Architectural Design, (pp. 124-136).
Indocont Prefab. (2017). Rumah Prefab. Retrieved from Indocont: Supply & Aplikator
Kontraktor: http://www.indocont.com/page11.php
Karoleena, Inc. (2016). Designer Prefab Homes. Ready in 6 months, delivered anywhere.
Retrieved from Karoleena: http://karoleena.com/
Koklic, M., & Vida, I. (2011). Consumer Strategic Decision Making and Choice Process:Prefabricated House Purchase. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 634-643.
Luo, Y., Riley, D. R., & Horman, M. J. (2005). Lean Principles for Prefabrication in Green
Design-Build (GDB) Projects. The 13th International Group for Lean Construction
Conference, (pp. 539-548).
Mostafa, S., & Dumrak, J. (2014). Synergistic Supply Chain for Prefabricated House
Building in Developing Countries. International Journal of Advanced Research in
Engineering and Technology , 100-111.

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Nadim, W., & Goulding, J. S. (2011). Offsite Production: A Model for Building Down
Barriers: A European Construction Industry Perspective. Engineering, Construction,
and Architectural Management, 81-101.
NOEM. (2014). Home. Retrieved from NOEM: http://www.noem.com/en/
Prebuilt. (2016). Prebuilt Residential. Retrieved from Prebuilt Residential:
http://www.prebuilt.com.au/
PT Jaindo Metal Industries. (2013). Products. Retrieved from J Steel:
http://www.jsteel.co.id/products
PT Kompas Cyber Media. (2015, September 22). Rumah Instan Buatan Indocement Hanya
Rp 35 Juta Per Unit. Retrieved from Kompas.com Properti:
http://properti.kompas.com/read/2015/09/22/225930621/Rumah.Instan.Buatan.Indo
cement.Hanya.Rp.35.Juta.Per.Unit
PT Kompas Cyber Media. (2016, Mei 26). Biaya Bangun Rumah Permanen Domus Rp 19
Juta
Saja...
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Kompas.com
Properti:
http://properti.kompas.com/read/2016/05/26/114005521/biaya.bangun.rumah.perma
nen.domus.rp.19.juta.saja.
PT Mulya Bahtera Marina Industri. (2015). Rumah Baja. Retrieved from PT Mulya Bahtera
Marina Industri: www.besibesi.com/page/rumah-baja
PT Tatalogam Lestari. (2017). Domus: Rumah Permanen Instant. Retrieved from PT
Tatalogam Lestari: http://tatalogam.com/portfolio/domus/
Pusat Litbang Perumahan dan Permukiman Balitbang Kementerian PUPR Republik
Indonesia. (2017). RISHA (Rumah Instan Sederhana Sehat). Retrieved from Pusat
Litbang Perumahan dan Permukiman: Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan
Kementrian Pekerjaan Umum dan Perumahan Rakyat: http://puskim.pu.go.id/risharumah-instan-sederhana-sehat/
Sanwa Prefab. (2017). Our Product. Retrieved from Sanwa Prefab Technology:
http://sanwaprefab.co.id/
SCG-Sekisui Sales Co.,Ltd . (2015). รู ้จักกับเอสซีจ ี ไฮม.์ Retrieved from SCG Heim: The
Ultimate of Living: http://www.scgheim.com/home/

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CHOREOGRAPHING FLOW AND PAUSE: INHABITING TRANSITIONAL SPACE
Enira Arvandaa, Amy K. Markub*aaUniversitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia
Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia

1. Abstract
Pedestrian underpass is a transit space commonly found in urban space. As the namesuggests, it is a structure that enables the act of passing through underground tunnel.
Architecturally, this type of space is typically utilitarian, straightforward and only serves theact of walking from one point to another within the city. For its users, underpass is just a
vessel that contain and direct their movements, a space without further meaning that no one
could really related to. Thus, it fits perfectly with Marc Auge’s description of ‘non place’.
Furthermore, user’s detachment from this space and its spatial characteristics could trigger
anxieties.
This paper suggests that pedestrian underpass has more potentials rather than just being achannel for mobility. As walking is an embodied act, if one’s body could engage with its
environment, in result, meaningful relationship between the body and the space could beformed. Bodies could temporarily inhabit space through events produced in-between/whilemoving from one destination to another. Thus, the idea of stasis in space of movements need
to be explored, it is to find balance between act of walking (flow) and act of momentary
stopping (pause). The dynamics of flow and pause within the pedestrian underpass will
enable users to engage with the space, hence, changing it from non-place to place.
Case study for this paper is an underpass in Kota Tua, Jakarta, which applied crossprogramming, mixing utilitarian with commercial use. In result, the writer found that flow
and pause in transitional space need to be choreographed carefully and accordingly. Various
public uses can be integrated within its spatial program, along with careful planning ofinterior architectural elements, which consider behavioral, ergonomic and psychologicalaspects of its users. This will result underground passage as a ‘habitable’ place.
Keywords: movements; transit space; pedestrian underpass; interior architecture
2. Introduction
This paper begins with the authors' fascination with underground transit spaces. Being
practically in juxtaposition with the ground space, yet everything in the space below is socontradictory. Being underground feels otherworldly and gives off strong negative
atmosphere to human. Along with gained interest in utilization of underground spaces in
Jakarta (especially due to its ongoing MRT project) the authors feel the urgency to study its
impact on people, spatial design aspects that alleviates its negative presence, well-being ofpeople while being underground and especially in exploring possibilities of spatial
engagement within this space. Underground transit space will be dissected from theperspective of interiority, which is quite a rare topic in the field of Interior Architecture.
3. Methodology
Objective of this paper is to discuss about the possibility of inhabiting pedestrian
underground passages through movements and other gestures that could encourage
engagement and connections. Thus, the authors explored some theoritical idea connectedwith mobility and urban context, particularly from scholar Ole B. Jensen, that explores*

Corresponding author.
E-mail address:enira.arvanda28@gmail.com, amymarku@gmail.com

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mobility as 'pleasurable movement' within the city' (Jensen 2009). Along with otherreferences about walking as an embodied practice (Lorimer 2011; Livesey 2004; Urry 2000;
Edensor 2010), potentials of underground space and tunnels (Lanng 2016; Hasse 2016;
Spencer 2010; Hunt et al. 2016), transit space as public realm (Livesey 2004; Worrell 2011)
also on behavior and gestures at transit space (Bissell 2010; Bissell 2009; Löfgren 2008;
Hagen et al. 2009).
Synthesis from literature studies became foundation to analyse the case study, a pedestrian
underpass in Kota Tua Jakarta, which according to authors is an interesting example of how
temporary inhabitation in transit space were enabled by events and practiced by pedestrians
movements and occupations through cross-programming and atmospheric interior. Data
collection were done by direct observations, while photographs, videos and architectural
drawings were used as tools for analysis. The study was part of an Interior Architecture
Studio Project in Universitas Indonesia, thus some observational photographs and diagrams
belong to students. But further study and analysis were done by authors.
4. Literature Studies
Definition Of Pedestrian Underpass
Underpass is a passage that runs under something. According to Meriam-Webster Dictionary,
Passage is the ''the action or process of passing from one place, condition, or stage to another;a way of exit or entrance : a road, path, channel, or course by which something passes; acontinous movement or flow; a specific act of traveling or passing especially by sea or air''(Meriam-Webster Dictionary 2017). The word passage unites movement with the constructed
entity, it is the defined linear space through which people, products and information may pass(Livesey 2004).
According to Design Guideline for Pedestrian Network in Urban Area issued by theIndonesian Ministry of Public Works (Kementrian Pekerjaan Umum 2014) pedestrian
underpass is a street crossing facility for pedestrian which is located below ground.
Pedestrian underpass can also act as building connector, so people can travel between blocksof buildings without having to go outside of it. Or, it can perform as an annex from transit
station or interchange to the surrounding areas. Access to the underpass has to be connectedwith the pedestrian system above. Other than functional and safety aspects, the guidelines has
actually recognised the need for comfort, aesthetic, and possibility for connections andinteractions (Kementrian Pekerjaan Umum 2014), but there’s no further explanation about theindicators for those aspects.
Potentials and Challenges Of Underground Passage
Albeit studies of undeground space that clearly state its benefit and potentials (Hunt et al.
2016; Belanger 2007; Labbé 2016), it suffers from people's negative impression. Studies
found that it's being labelled so because of its aseptic and claustrophobic atmosphere(Carmody & Sterling 1987; Hasse 2016). Other concerns that might also lead tounderutilization of underground space are of technical difficulties and high initial costs andoperating costs (Hunt et al. 2016)
Negative psychological effect occur in underground spaces are resulting from its physicalproperties which are fully enclosed, detached to the aboveground, no visual connection to its
surrounding, often bare and sterile. These spatial qualities often triggered misconduct
behavior or even crime to happen (Carmody & Sterling 1987). For some people, especiallywomen (Loukaitou-Sideris et al. 2009; Loukaitou-sideris 2012; Valentine 1990), fear ofcrime, or the feeling of being victimized or powerless,vulnerable and anxious, could betriggered because of the unknown nature of underground space.

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In result, to alleviate fear and other negative perceptions, people tend to behave defensively,by reducing proximity to others, avoiding visual contact with strangers, speed-walking andprotecting belongings closer to their bodies. Negative affection with space will result
minimum engagement with space, discouraging other possibilities than just movement
through space.
Passage as Living SpaceIn many cities, streets are extension of dwellings, thus a living space. The intertwine ofbuilding and streets enabled people to engage with the space, hence traditional streets are also
vital public space, they function as corridors or even front yard, where people informally
meet, gather and connect with each other (Livesey 2004). Since underground pedestriansystem is also a part of the city's street network, it's necessary for the underpass to have thesame livable qualities as its above counterpart.
On Walking
For Certeau, there's no space without movements, space is a performed place, which
activated by ensemble of movements (Certeau 1988). Inside the underground passage,
movements, primarily by walking, construct its interiority. According to Ingold, the walk isan event, the walker is the human subject and walking is an embodied act (Ingold 2011). A
walk can be understood as a cultural activity that is made distinctive and meaningful by thephysical features and material textures of place (Lorimer 2011). Thus, it can also be said that
there's an affective relationship between the walker and place, activated by spatial elements
and atmosphere,responded with emotion,activities and gestures by the walker (Bissell 2010).
In result, ‘dwelling-in- motion’ emerges (Sheller and Urry 2006).
Moving inside the passage
There are different modes of walking (strolling,wandering,marching..to name a few).
Walking produces time-space and the experience of a place (Certeau 1988). The ensemble ofplace-time-human movements create rhythm, which are specific from one time-location toanother (Edensor 2010). Walking rhythms are adaptive to circumstances and qualities ofspace, which are responded by altering pace,ways of walking, pausing, and other gestures(Edensor 2010).
Bisell (Bissell 2007) argued that, in everyday mobility, immobility is also part of the journey,or what he rather call 'inactivity'. Hence, waiting or pausing for a while, is an event which
experienced affectively by the body. For that reason, experience inside a passage should beunderstood more than just the act of getting from point A to B through series of movements.
We should also consider about the senses and emotions involved while someone walks orstops, also the qualities of space which affect the overall experience. For example, being
inside a passage full of strangers is not always perceived as negative experience, there can betactile pleasures from walking in a crowd, from an embodied participation as one coordinates one’s body with that of the moving mass of other bodies (Shields 1997a: 25).
Walking requires a tactic to maintain one's flow, he must be aware of the surroundings andevents that occurs expectedly or unexpectedly. In one's overall journey through a passage,
ensemble of movements and stillness produce rhythm, thus create sense of place.
Flow and Pause: Choreographing Movements & Engagements
Space is activated when there are events that encourage people's interaction, connection andoccupation. Temporary occupation in transit space will encourage inhabitation hence will
cultivate public life. Hinkel argued that, design insertions into public space could possibly

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support the development of new relationships, between people and people, between people
and places, even people and things. (Hinkel 2009).
So, the new paradigm of transportation architecture should not only excel at functional level,
but also at aesthetic level and atmospherically could regulate society’s emotional relationshipwith mobility (Hasse 2016). Ditte Bendix Lanng (2016) explored the feeling of travellingthrough a tunnel and seeked the potential atmospheric qualities of transit space design. She
proposed a design which invited people to engage with the materiality of the tunnel, andproviding possibilities for different kind of gestures and activities. As stated by Lanng,architecture of the passage and its materiality might allow various affordance to pedestrians,
hence allowing self-programming and become self-organising public space (Lanng 2016).
Rather than pre-programmed events (like the passage in Kota Tua), the self-programmed
architecture offer pedestrian to experience their journey through the underpass, regarding totheir own version of interiority.

Fig.1 Tunnel architecture that invites people to interact through its form and materiality(source: Lanng 2016)

5. Case study
1. Site and Context
The case study taken for this paper is a pedestrian underpass located in Kota Tua area whichconnects Jakarta Kota Railway Station with Trans Jakarta Station and Mandiri Museum (seefig.2).

Fig. 2: Kota Tua Underpass Before Renovation. monofunctional and stark atmosphere(Source: Arvanda 2015)

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The underpass mainly accessed by people coming to and from Jakarta Kota Railway Station
and Trans Jakarta Station, both are important nodes in the area. Thus, the underpass also
serves a major role as connectors between these two nodes. According to the design
guidelines issued by the Ministry of Public Works (2014), Kota underpass has to fit
requirements for ''D'' standard. This means that the underpass can be accessed in normal
speed by pedestrians, but altering positions by changing lines might also happen due to
conflicting flows and crowding. To achieve the required condition with minimum possibilityof frictions between pedestrians, the minimum width of 1,2-2,1m2/person and pedestrian flowof 33-49 person per minute/meter have to be regarded.
The Kota underpass was built in 2005 And it became the first public pedestrian underpass
facility in Jakarta which design feature was prominent. Seemingly, the municipal was wellaware of its importance and prime location, therefore it was carefully designed to meet therequirements of good public facility. Entrance heading downward to the underpass wasnoticeable because of its contrast of form and materiality from the surroundings. Although
the interior was mainly stark and monofunctional, in the middle of the tunnel lies a pleasantsurprise, an open area with water fountain at its center which gives a nice break after being
enclosed underground.
2. Cross-programming the Tunnel
After roundabout 10 years of operation, the Kota underpass started to dilapidate. Based on
our previous study of the underpass in 2015, many pedestrians were feeling anxious whenaccessing this underpass (Arvanda 2015), especially women and mostly at night. The
anxieties were caused by internal factors (decaying interior-architectural elements, bareatmosphere, lack of surveillance, etc) and external factors (lack of maintenance, occupationby the homeless and certain community, illegal conduct). Causes of anxiety and fear of crimewere all relevant to findings from theories and research references (Valentine 1990; Carro etal. 2008; Loukaitou-Sideris et al. 2009).
In 2016, the underpass interior had gotten renovated, which seemingly address primarily on
the safety aspects of the underpass. As preventive attempt for illegal occupation andmisconduct activities, cross-programming was introduced to the passage. Commercial
activities were injected within the existing spatial program.

Fig.3 Kota Tua Underpass After Renovation: pedestrians occupied the space(Source: http://poskotanews.com ; http://assets.kompas.com)

3. Spatial Analysis – Flow And Pause
Apparently, the presence of commercial activities help to enliven the underpass' atmosphere.
The previously stark tunnel interior is now enlightened by colorful goods from the sellers'booths. Inside the tunnel, presence of sellers give pedestrians a chance and reason tomomentary stop in between their transit journey. The sellers produce events in which

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responded by pedestrians through their movements and gestures. The once loosely populated
corridors are now crowded with people of various purposes : those who use the passage as itis, those who stroll around leisurely, those who watch others, those who sit and relax, those
who wait, etc. The new program have successfully altered people's movements,activities andgestures.

Fig. 4 various activities and gestures inside the underpass(Source: Intan Astari 2016)

Alteration of the underpass also has impact on the fountain area. Before the renovation,
fountain area was perceived as negative space and avoided because it was oftenly occupied
by group of homeless people and punk community. Now, it becomes the center of attraction.
Decorative objects (fake plants, seasonal decorations,etc) which are placed around thefountain and the ramp also have its share to uplift the atmosphere. Around the edges of thefountain now has become a preferred space for momentary pause: meeting and gathering
location, as well as a favourite photo spot. People's gestures around this area seemed tochange a little bit, they become less alert and their rhytm slowed down. Some people evenwalked leisurely while going up to the ramp that leads to the exit/entrance gate.

Fig.5 Crowding inside the underpass(Source: beritajakarta.com)

The downside of the new spatial arrangement is placement of sellers take up too much spacethat it ends up interrupting pedestrian flows. Although the design of seller's booth is quite
compact, the planner seemingly didn't consider how much space will be used when crowds

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accumulate around the sellers. The presence of crowds are the source of anxiety feeling,which are reflected through people's gestures, they walk faster and keep their belonging
closely attached to their bodies to maintain their social distance and proximity to others.
Wayfinding in the tunnel also becomes more difficult because people can hardly see where
and what happen at the end of the tunnel. The flow inside the tunnel becomes unpredictablebecause there are too many elements and crowds that interfere. Oftentimes, pedestrians are
pausing not because they want to engage with the space, but because something or someone
is blocking their way.
4. Choreographing Flow And Pause
For any transit space, flow of movements is the main objective for its existence, thus it
becomes the focus of architecture of the passage. However, from literature studies and fieldobservation, authors realized that in everyday mobility, there are actually various movements(flow) and non-movement (pause) in the overall journey of a pedestrian inside theunderground passage. Those variety of flows and pauses are gestures in response to spatial
qualities and behavior of others/strangers, or in Certeau's word, the pedestrians bodies are
performing spatial tactics.
Momentary pause is a gesture that come from pedestrians in respond to certain situations andtheir surroundings which is consciously done and resulting positive feedbacks and experience
for their overall journey. Momentary pauses can be abrupt and short (taking pictures,checking
on spatial features, etc) but it can also be thoughtful and longer (sitting,resting,waiting forothers,etc). Motives for those gestures are various, but certainly physical and atmosphericalattributes of space play a big role in affording those pauses.
In contrary, unwanted pauses are gestures that performed consciously or unconsciously inrespond to situations and surroundings, that result negative emotion. Unwanted pause is an
obstacle to flow, which produced by crowding (bumping into strangers,unwanted physicalcontact with others,long queue,etc) or spatial attributes that might interrupt flow.
Coreographing movements inside the passage doesn't mean to shift the primacy of flow,rather to afford pedestrians with various gestures,that in the end will help them to create
spatial engagements. There are no exact formula in composing flow and pause, rather thansensibilities from architects as planners who has to be well aware of the physiological andpsychological aspects of walking inside the underpass, in the end it will also depends on thekind of scenario architects are planning for pedestrians.
Conclusion
From the case study we learned that the pedestrian underpass as non-place could potentiallybe transformed into public realm when complimentary programs were allowed to coexist
within its utilitarian function. Although, the injected programs have to be carefully chosen,
not to interrupt its initial function as a channel for mobilities. As various events were
produced, spatial occupation will occur, thus new interiority of the underpass will emerge. A
sense of place could be formed by its spatial quality through the role of interior elements that
produce atmospheric and sensorial effects.
From the case study we also learned that spatial elements could act as choreographer ofmovements. Objects such as seatings or vending machines might suggest a pause, smoothwalking surfaces might trigger continous flow, while advertisings on the wall might cause
flow to slow down.
Different kind of movements would also trigger different emotions, monotonous flow would
exude boredom, while chaotic pattern of flow would trigger anxiety and disorientation. These
choreographed movements, in return will produce sense of engagements with space, resulting
positive or negative affect from users or pedestrians. In result, spatial engagement would

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trigger temporary inhabitation (or dwelling-in motion, a term suggested by Sheller&Urry),
users would alternate their walking rhytm and change their behavior and gestures to a morerelax and flexible state, allowing connections and interactions with the space and otherpeople.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to show gratitude to students from Interior Architecture Design
Studio 5 at Interior Architecture study program, Universitas Indonesia. Some materials(photographs and diagrams) shown in the paper are part of their initial observations for thestudio project. All materials are respective to their owners and authors have been granted
permission to use them with credit.
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Worrell, V., 2011. Inhabiting the Transitional. Carleton University. Available at:
http://www.openpsychodynamic.com/?page_id=32.

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BATCH STUDIES OF CADMIUM (II) BIOSORPTION BY DRIED Aphanothece sp
BIOMASS FROM CARBON DIOXIDE FED PHOTOBIOREACTOR SYSTEM

Awalina a,b, Eka Oktariani a , Ardiyan Harimawan a, and Tjandra Setiadi aaDepartment of Chemical Engineering-The Faculty of Industrial Technology, Institut
Teknologi Bandung, Jln. Ganesha No.10, Bandung 40132
b
Research Center for Limnology-The Indonesian Institute of Sciences, LIPI Cibinong
Science Center, Cibinong-Bogor 16911
ABSTRACT
Dried biomass of Aphanothece sp (Cyanobacter) was produced from a photobioreactor system
fed with 15% (v/v) carbon dioxide gas and employed as a biosorbent in batch biosorption testof cadmium (Cd) (II) ions from aqueous phase. It was conducted as function of pH, biomass
concentration, and solution temperature as well as contact time. The optimum operational
condition was achieved at pH, biomass concentration, temperature and contact time of 8±0.1,
0.1 g/L, 30ºC and 60 minutes respectively. The equilibrium isotherm data was most fitted wellwith Langmuir model and Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) isotherm models. Hence, it means thebiosorption process proceed in monolayer with maximum uptake capacity of 60.24 mg/g (atinitial Cd concentration range of 0.29 to 7.13 mg/L or low concentration range ) and 526.23
mg/g (at initial Cd concentration range of 5.41 to 83.07 mg/L or high concentration range).
The mean of the free energy derived from D-R isotherm model, resulted 12.91 kJ/mol both at
those two range of initial Cd concentrations suggested that chemisorption was occurred. The
calculated thermodynamic parameter (∆G= -8.39 to – 10.88 kJ/mol, ∆H= - 49.78 kJ/mol and∆S= - 0.13 kJ/mol) indicated that biosorption process was feasible, spontaneous andexothermic under observed condition. Experimental data followed better to pseudo second
order kinetics with k2=1.06E-01 to 1.68E-01 g/mg.minute at low concentration range and1.52E-03 to 5.2E-03 g/mg.minute). Further, the repetitive reusability of dried Aphanothece sp
biosorbent can be done for three cycles with HCl 1 M as eluent. In comparison with biosorbent
produced from atmospheric carbon dioxide fed photobioreactor, the biosorbent used in thisstudy gave five higher in magnitude of maximum biosorption capacity. It indicated aprospective usage of this biosorbent not only as cadmium biosorbent but also a carbon dioxide
bio fixer.
Keywords: Biosorption, Aphanothece sp, Cadmium, Isotherm equilibrium, Kinetics,
Thermodynamics
1.INTRODUCTION
Industrial activities have led to mobilize heavy metals in aquatics system. This problem must
be regarded as serious concern since these element have severe toxic impacts on human’s
health and other organisms. Aquatics environment is frequently received improper treatedmetal borne waste water streams. It will cause a significant environmental problem since heavy
metals are non- bio degradable and prone to bio-accumulated through aquatic food chain.
Cadmium (Cd) is one of those toxic metals that posed great potential hazard to human and theaquatic ecosystem. Due to some of its deleterious effects on organisms, including humans, it isconsidered as a priority pollutant. It also known that Cd has wide range of usages in industrial
processes such as electroplating, batteries, paints, and plasticizers,etc. which discharged into
water bodies. Consequently, in recent decades, there is a need to explore the proper technology
1
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for Cd removing from industrial discharge effluents (Chojnacka, 2010, Fomina and Gadd,2014).
The existing conventional methods for removing metal ions, such as physical/chemical
precipitation, ion exchange, electrochemical deposition, evaporation, adsorption, reverse
osmosis, etc., are expensive and less efficient when applied to treat low metal content in therange of 1 to 100 mg/L. Mostly, these methods require high quantity of reagents as well as
energy. Therefore, new affordable technologies are needed to overcome those problems. And
with that purpose, Biosorption based technology is immensely intriguing to be implemented.
This implementation of biomaterials as metals biosorbents, compared to other methods, is more
effective and inexpensive. Not to mention, this method also offers an eco-friendly approach for
remediation of metal contaminated waters (Kaur and Bhatnagar, 2002, Volesky, 2001).
However, there are still few studies regarding of microalgae to its ability to remove Cd,
particularly on kinetic, isotherm, and thermodynamics of this process along with information
on its repetitive use. In this study, an indigenous cyanobacter named Aphanothece sp was
isolated from a polluted urban lake Situ Rawa Kalong-Depok. Situ Rawa Kalong, located on
an area surrounded by a least five chemical/metal processing based industries, were reported
by Awalina et al. (2014) that it has been polluted with Cd. Yet it thrives there and so it has been
decided to use these microalgae for its high resistant and capability of accumulating hugeamount of Cd. These microalgae were then isolated and cultivated in the laboratory for mostprobable removal efficiency. The biosorbent made of these dried biomass of cultivated algae
were then utilized for batch aqueous solution of Cd (II) ions biosorption test. The effect ofsome operational condition on biosorption efficiency have been investigated. Study onequilibrium isotherm, kinetics, and thermodynamics of biosorption process as well as
reusability of spent biosorbent were conducted in detail.
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Biosorbent preparation
Microalgae isolated from Situ Rawa Kalong, then cultivated for 14 days in laboratory ofBioprocess Engineering-Dept. of Chemical engineering-ITB in a photobioreactor system fed
with 15% (v/v) carbon dioxide gas under illumination of ~5700 lux. Dewatering process was
conducted by centrifugation at 6000 rpm for 15 minutes. Continued by drying process in oven
60ºC for 7x24 hours. Dried biomass was grounded with mortar and sieved with 354µm particle
size to produce the biosorbent powder. The biosorbent powder then kept in air tight bottle forfurther experiments in required amount.
2.2. Cadmium solution
A stock solution (1000 mg/L) of Cd (II) was prepared using CdCl2.2.5H2O in demineralized
water added with 20 mL of 1:1 HCl solution. Working solution was prepared by diluting stock
solution with distilled water.
2.3. Effect studies
The effect of pH, biosorbent concentration, contact time, initial Cd concentration andtemperature on Cd biosorption efficiency were studied. Effect of pH were conducted in total
volume 25 mL with biomass concentration 0.1g/L and pH ranged 3 to 11 for 1 hour at 30ºC.
Effect of contact time was done in 25mL solution with biomass concentration 0.1 g/L at pH 8,
initial Cd concentration of 1.29; 9.58 and 83.07 mg/L, temperature of 30ºC, for 120 minutes.
Biosorbent concentration effect was studied in total volume of solution 25 mL resulted
biosorbent concentration of 0.1; 0,2; 0.4; 1,0; and 2,0 g/L at pH 8, temperature 30ºC, initial
Cd concentration of 8 mg/L. Operational temperature effect was observed at 27, 30, 32, 37,42,47 and 50 ºC with biosorbent concentration of 0.1 g/L, pH8 and contact time of 60 minute. Allof these effects studies were done by continuous agitation at 120 rpm.
2
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2.4. Desorption studies
Desorption of adsorbed Cd from exhausted biosorbent were conducted with 1 M HCl solution.
Pre adsorbed biosorbent was taken in 1 M HCl and shaken at 120 rpm for 60 minutes. The
eluted biosorbent was washed repeatedly with demineralized water to remove any residualdesorbing solution and placed into Cd solution for the next biosorption cycle.
2.5. Equilibrium studies
Equilibrium experiments for biosorption were carried out at different initial concentrations.
There were two concentration ranges, low range (0.29 to 7.13 mg/L) and high range (5.41 to
83.07 mg/L). All were done at pH 8, 30ºC and biomass concentration of 0.1g/L. Agitation rate
was at 120 rpm, total volume of 25 mL and contact time of 60 minutes. The reaction mixtures
then filtered and analyzed with Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer Shimadzu AA7000 series for Cd determination. All experiments were carried out in duplicate. Biosorption
and desorption capacities (qe) at specified time (t) were calculated as
𝑉𝑉(𝐶𝐶 −𝐶𝐶 )𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒 = 0 𝑒𝑒
(1)𝑚𝑚
Where qe is equilibrium biosorption or desorption capacity (mg/g); C0 and Ce are the initialand equilibrium Cd concentration in solution (mg/L); V is volume of used solution (L); m is
the mass of biosorbent (g).
2.6. Kinetic studies
Kinetics experiments for biosorption was performed in total volume of 25 mL at 120 rpm and30ºC. Biomass concentration of 0.1g/L was thoroughly mixed with each initial Cd
concentration according to concentration in two concentration ranges, which were low range(0.29 to 7.13 mg/L) and high range (5.41 to 83.07 mg/L). All of those samples were filtered
before analyzed with Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer Shimadzu AA-7000 series
for Cd determination. The Cd concentration retained in the biosorbent phase (qt, mg/g) was
calculated by following expression(𝐶𝐶 −𝐶𝐶 )𝑉𝑉(2)
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = 0 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡
where C0 and Ct are the initial and concentration of Cd at t time in solution (mg/L), V is solution
volume (L) and m is mass of biosorbent (g).
2.7. Thermodynamic studies
Measurement of thermodynamic parameters were conducted with experiments at temperature
range of 303 to 323 K for Cd biosorption. Those parameter are ∆Gº (standard Gibb’s freeenergy change), ∆Hº (enthalpy change) and ∆Sº (entropy change) were estimated to evaluate
the feasibility and nature of biosorption process using standard equation at constanttemperature according to van’t Hoff as follow
∆𝑆𝑆°
∆𝐻𝐻°
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐾𝐾𝑑𝑑 = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
(3)
Where Kd is thermodynamic equilibrium constant of biosorption, which defined as ratio of mg
Cd adsorbed per gram of biosorbent and Ce (the equilibrium of Cd concentration in solution,mg/L). The values of ∆Hº and ∆Sº were calculated from the slope and intercept of the plot ofln Kd versus 1/T.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Characteristic of biosorbent
The surface properties of biosorbent named AB was measured and tabulated in Table 1. The
BET surface area is close to adsorbents made from banana peel (in normal grounded form)
which shown 2.0 m2/g and compost that gave 1.36 m2/g. It was 8 magnitudes higher compared
to normal grounded form of macroalgae that result 0.22 m2/g as mentioned by other researchers(Castro et al., 2011, Ulmanu et al., 2003, Cochrane et al., 2006). Pore area and pore volume3
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are comparable with garden grass which shown 40.18 Å and 0.03 cc/g as reported by Hossain
et al. (2012).
Table 1. Physical and chemical characters of biosorbent AB of dried Aphanothece sp
Parameter of Biosorbent

Methods

Values

1. Surface area
2. Pore diameter
3.Pore volume
4. Carbon
5.Hydrogen
6.Nitrogen
7.Sulfur
8.Moisture

BET surface area
BJH adsorption
BJH adsorption
Elemental analysis
Elemental analysis
Elemental analysis
Elemental analysis
Gravimetric1.735 m2/g
30.74 Å5.0E-03 cc/g
43.80%
6.66%
6.43%
0.53%
90.97 to 99.46 %3.2. Effect of operational conditions
Biosorption efficiency of Cd increased as with its increasing concentration of 1.29 to 83.07
mg/L in solution test (Figure 1). As Cd concentration was increased, biosorption efficiency
increased from 82.31% to 97.64%. Maximum biosorption efficiency was achieved within 60
minutes (1 hours) along with its equilibrium (Figure 2).
Initial Cd concentration (mg/L), high range% Biosorption of Cd

100
80
60
40
20
0

5

30

60

90

120

Biosorption efficiency (%), low range

100

C0= 1.29 mg/L

9.58

19.45

53.38

83.07

100

80

99

60

98

40

97

20

96

0

Time (minutes)

5.41

0.29 0.96 1.29 1.59 2.62 2.87 3.73 5.39 6.23 7.13

Biosorption efficiency (%), high range

120

95

Initial Cd concentration (mg/L), low range
Low range
Hig range

C0=9.58 mg/L
C0=83.07 mg/L

Figure 1. Effect of contact time on biosorption
efficiency of various initial Cd concentration

Fig 2. Effect of initial Cd concentration on
biosorption efficiency both of two initialconcentration range

Biosorbent surface charge, ionization degree and Cd speciation are strongly affected by pH of
solution. Therefore pH are observed in this experiments as well. As present in Figure 3, in therange of pH 3-11, highest biosorption efficiency was achieved at pH of 8. It suggested that at
pH 8, mainly Cd ions were formed as free Cd (II) ions which involved in biosorption process.
Beyond pH 8, the biosorption process was obstructed due to immediate precipitation of
cadmium hydroxide. Hence, in the next biosorption tests, pH adjustment fixed at pH 8 has
been conducted. Biosorbent dose were varied 0.1 g/L; 0.2 g/L; 0.4 g/L; 1.0 g/L and 2.0 g/L for
biosorption test at initial Cd concentration in tested solution of 7.99 mg/L, pH8 and 30ºC .
The results showed that the percent removal of Cd rapidly decreased with the increased of
biosorbent dose (Figure 4). The decreasing biosorption efficiency was due to massive
agglomeration which hampered further Cd biosorption as the increasing biomass
concentration. The maximum biosorption efficiency was found at biosorbent dose at 0.1 g/L.
The highest biosorption efficiency (91.10%) was observed at temperature of 30ºC (Figure 3).
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933

Temperature (0C)
32

37

42

47

50

% Biosorption

100

80
100
80

80

60

60
40

40

20

20
0

Biosorption Capacity (mg/g)

30% Biosorption

120

27

60

40

20

0
3

5

pH
Temperature

7

8

9

11

0

0.1

0.2

0.4

1

2

Biosorbent concentration (gram/L)

Operational pH

Figure 3. Effect of operational pH and
Temperature on Cd biosorption efficiency

Fig 4. Effect of biosorbent concentration
on biosorption efficiency

In chemical design, knowing distribution of Cd ions between solution and biosorbent areimportant. To describe the Cd distribution on both compartment, the fitting of experimental
results on equilibrium isotherms mathematical model is needed to be determined. In this study,
the three equilibrium isotherm models (Langmuir, Freundlich and Dubinin-Radushkevich)
were used (Sari and Tuzen, 2008b). The Langmuir model supposes that biosorption process
occurs at a specific sorption surface and describe single coating layer on sorption surface. Thismodel can be written as linearized equation form
𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒
𝐶𝐶
1
= 𝑄𝑄 𝑒𝑒 + 𝐾𝐾 𝑄𝑄
(3)
𝑄𝑄
𝑒𝑒

𝑚𝑚

𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚

where qe is the equilibrium metal ion concentration on the biosorbent (mg/g), Ce is theequilibrium metal ion concentration in the solution (mg/L), qm is the monolayer biosorption
capacity on biosorbent (mg/g), and KL is the Langmuir biosorption constant (L/mg) relating tofree energy of biosorption. The plots of Ce/qe versus Ce were drawn as shown in Figure 5 for
two initial concentration range of Cd to calculate these constants. The maximum biosorption
capacity (qmax) was 60.24 mg/g at low initial concentration range and 526.32 mg/g at highrange. These value were five magnitudes higher compared to qmax of Aphanothece sp produced
from atmospheric fed photobioreactor system, reported by Awalina et al. (2016),which is only
17.27 mg/g at low concentration range and 119.05 mg/g at high concentration range.
Meanwhile Freundlich isotherm model is used for modelling biosorption on heterogenous
surface. The linearized Freundlich model is represented by the equation:1
ln 𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒 = ln 𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹 + 𝑛𝑛 ln 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒(4)
where KF and n are constants related to the sorption capacity and intensity. The plots of ln q eversus ln Ce to calculate the values of KF and 1/n are given in Table 1. It was found that theplots exhibit deviation from linearity and the correlations coefficients indicates that the data
are not well correlated to Freundlich correlation coefficients, compared to Langmuircorrelation coefficients. Same result are also reported by Sari and Tuzen (Sari and Tuzen,
2008a) who applied dried biomass of marine macroalgae Ulva lactuta in eliminating aqueous
solution of Cd (II). The equilibrium data were also subjected to D-R isotherm model todetermine the nature of biosorption processes as physio-sorption or chemo-sorption. The linear
presentation of the D-R isotherm model is expressed by equation (5) to equation (7)(5)
ln 𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒 = ln 𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚 − 𝛽𝛽𝜀𝜀 21𝜀𝜀 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ln (1 + 𝐶𝐶 )
(6)
𝐸𝐸 =

934

1

√−2𝛽𝛽

𝑒𝑒

(7)

5
Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

where qe is the amount of metal ions adsorbed on per unit weight biomass (mol/L), qmax is the
maximum biosorption capacity (mol/g), β is the activity coefficients related to biosorption
mean free energy (mol2/J2) and ε is the Polanyi potential. Ce is equilibrium concentration(mol/L). The qmax value was found using the intercept plotting of ln qe against ε2 (Figure 6),
while E is the mean free energy (kJ/mol). The E value give information about sorption
mechanism, as physiosorption or chemisorption. Chemisorption takes place between 8 and 16
kJ/mol while physiosorption proceeds in E less than 8kJ/mol. Table 1 presents calculation
results for determining parameter of those three isotherms modelling. As seen on the Table 1,very high correlation coefficient (>0.990) were found at both of Langmuir and DubininRadushkevich isotherms modelling. Therefore, biosorption Cd (II) by Aphanothece sp driedbiomass was very suitable described with both of Langmuir and Dubinin-Radushkevich
isotherm models. It means that biosorption process in this study proceeded in monolayer
biosorption which took place at the functional groups/binding sites on the cell surface. Thisbiosorption process also carried out via chemisorption, since calculated E of both at initialconcentration were 12.91 kJ/mol. This biosorption process involving valence forces throughsharing or exchange of electron between biosorbent and ion Cd (II) in aqueous phase. The valueof qmax were prone to increase as the increase of initial Cd (II) concentration.
2

4

6

8

10

12

0.026
0.024
0.022

0.05

0.020
0.018

0.04

0.016
0.014

0.03
0.02
0.01

0.012

Low range concentration
Linear Model for Low Range
High range concentration
Linear Model for High Range

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

0.010
0.008
0.006
3.0

ln qe (mol/gram), low conc.range

0

Ce/qe (gram/Liter), high range

Ce/qe (gram/Liter), low range

0.06

5e+8
-7.6

6e+8

8e+8

-7.8

9e+8
-5.4
-5.6

-8.0

-5.8

-8.2
-8.4

-6.0

-8.6

-6.2

-8.8

-6.4

-9.0

-6.6

-9.2

-9.4
-6.8
7.0e+8 8.0e+8 9.0e+8 1.0e+9 1.1e+9 1.2e+9 1.3e+9


0.004

2

2

2

(Joule /mol )low concentration range
Linear model for low concentration range
high concentration range
Linear Model for High Range Concentration

Equilibrium Concentration (mg/L), low range

Fig 5. Linear modelling of Langmuir Isotherm
applied on two concentration range

7e+8

ln qe (mol/gram) high conc.range

2 (Joule2/mol2)

Equilibrium Concentration (mg/L), high range

Fig 6. Linear modelling of Dubinin-Radushkevich
Isotherm applied on two concentration range

Information on biosorption rate prediction is needed to design batch biosorption. In otherwords, information on pollutant’s uptake kinetics is required to select optimum operating
conditions for full scale batch proses. In order to clarify the biosorption kinetics of Cd (II) bydried biomass of Aphanothece sp, the two kinetic models which are Lagergren’s pseudo-firstorder and pseudo second order (Ho and McKay, 2000) were applied to the experimental data.
Linear form of those kinetic models are given as follows(11)

ln(𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒 − 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 ) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒 − 𝑘𝑘1 𝑡𝑡

where qt and qe (mg/g) are the amounts of adsorbed ion at equilibrium (mg/g) and t (minute),
k1 is the rate constant of the biosorption (min-1). Plotting of ln (qe-qt) versus t must be done tofind k1. Experimental data were also tested by the PSO-2 which given in the following
linearized form:
𝑡𝑡

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡

1

1

(12)

= 𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞2 + (𝑞𝑞 ) 𝑡𝑡
2 𝑒𝑒

𝑒𝑒

where k2 (g/mg.min) is the rate constant of PSO-2, qt (mg/g) is the amount of biosorption attime t (minute) and qe is amount of biosorption equilibrium (mg/g). The rate constants (k1 andk2), coefficients determination (R2) and qe values are given in Table 2. As seen from the R2 and6

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284935

qe,(exp) values in Table 3, the pseudo second order model more suitable for modelling thebiosorption of Cd (II) ions onto dried biomass of Aphanothece sp. than pseudo first ordermodel.
Table 1. Three isotherms parameter of Cd biosorption using dried biosorbent of carbon
dioxide treated Aphanothece sp
Range of Initial Cd

Langmuir constantsconc. (mg/L)

q max (mg/g)

R2

KL (L/mg)

A. C0=0.29-7.13

60.24

B. C0=5.41 to 83.07
Range of Initial Cd

526.32
0.35
Freundlich constantsconc. (mg/L)

1.66

KF (mg/g(L/g)1/n)

0.992
0.995
R

n

A. C0=0.29-7.13

34.79

B. C0=5.41 to 83.07
Range of Initial Cd

113.601.567
0.943
Dubinin-Radushkevich constantsconc. (mg/L)

1.810

2

2 2

0.9561

2

q max (mol/g)β (mol /J )E (kJ/mol)

5.19E-03

3.00E-09

12.91

0.993

2.50E-02

3.00E-09

12.91

0.997

A. C0=0.29-7.13
B. C0=5.41 to 83.07

R

Table 2. Kinetics parameter of Pseudo First Order model and Pseudo Second Order model
applied on two of initial Cd concentration range
Initial concqe(exp)(mg/g)(mg/L)
A. Low range concentration
1.29
9.92
7.13
55.38
B. High range Concentration
5.4
45.83
83.2
482.40Pseudo First Order rate constants-1

2

Pseudo Second Order rate constants
R2

k1 (min ) qe(cal)(mg/g)

R

1.24E-01
1.63E-01

8.60
40.54

0.941
0.811

1.68E-01
1.06E-01

9.43
55.25

0.999
0.999

2.91E-01
1.95E-02

42.84
467.83

0.962
0.930

5.20E-03
1.52E-03

45.45
476.19

0.994
0.999

k2 (g/mg.min)qe(cal)mg/g)

Thermodynamic behavior of biosorption Cd (II) into dried biomass of Aphanothece sp was
described by using the free energy change (∆G0), enthalpy change (∆H0), and entropy change(∆S0). The value of ∆H0 (kJ/mol) and ∆S0 (kJ/mol K) parameter can be calculated the fromslope and intercept of the plot ln Kd versus 1/T yields (Sari and Tuzen, 2008b), respectively as
seen on Figure 7. The results of calculation on ∆G0, ∆H0, and ∆S0 are given in Table 3. The
negative ∆G0 values indicated that the nature of biosorption of Cd (II) onto dried biomass of
Aphanothece sp thermodynamically feasible and spontaneous. The decrease in negative ∆G0values with increase in temperature shows an increase in feasibility of biosorption at higher
temperature. Negative ∆H0 indicates exothermic nature of biosorption process at 303-323K.
Furthermore, the negative value of ∆S0 reveals the decreased randomness at solid-solution
interface during cadmium (II) ions binding on the active sites of the biosorbents.

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Table 3. Thermodynamic parameter of biosorption process using dried biosorbent of carbon
dioxide treated Aphanothece sp
T (K)ln (qe/Ce), (L/g) ∆G (kJ/mol)

303
305
310
315
323

4.32
4.20
3.88
3.50
3.13

∆H (kJ/mol) ∆S(kJ/mol.K)-10.88-10.65-10.00-9.17-8.39-49.78-0.128

4.6
4.4
Experimental data
Linear Modelln Kd (L/g)

4.2
4.0
3.8

y = 5987.6x -15.45

3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
3.05e-3 3.10e-3 3.15e-3 3.20e-3 3.25e-3 3.30e-3 3.35e-3
1/T (1/K)

Fig 7. Plotting of ln Kd versus 1/T for obtaining enthalpy
and entropy of biosorption process

7

1.00

6

0.95

5

0.90

4

0.85

3

0.80

2

0.75

1

0.70

0

I
Biosorption (B)Desorption (D)Ratio of ( D/B)

II

III

Ratio of D/B

Uptake Capacit, qe (mg/g)

Cadmium biosorbent reusability in this study was conducted using HCl 1 M as de-sorbent
solution. As shown in Figure 8 the equilibrium capacity observed in biosorption are relatively
unchanged over three cycles. However, due to the equilibrium capacity of desorption, it was
dropped at third cycle, as represented by ratio of desorption to biosorption. It suggested that
there was occurred a damaged on the surface of biosorbent caused by HCl 1 M which lead todecreasing of binding capacity of the biosorbent.

0.65

CyclesFig 8. Effect of reusability cycles on biosorption process using dried biosorbent of carbon dioxide treatedAphanothece sp

4.CONCLUSION
The dried biomass of Aphanothece sp has been successfully used as the biosorbent of cadmium(II) ions from aqueous solution which show maximum biosorption capacity of 60.24 mg/g at
8Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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low range concentration and 526.32 mg/g at high range concentration. The biosorption
mechanism and kinetics depend on experimental condition particularly pH of solution, initial
Cd concentration and biosorbent concentration. The equilibrium was best described byLangmuir isotherm and Dubinin Radushkevich isotherm, while due to reaction kinetic wasobeyed the pseudo second order reaction. It suggested that the biosorption process was
occurred in monolayer coverage and proceeded in chemisorption with mean of free biosorptionenergy of 12.91 kJ/mol. In term of thermodynamic aspect, this biosorption process was
feasible, spontaneous, and exothermic. Biosorbent also tend to be more ordered after Cd wasadsorbed. The Aphanothece sp dried biosorbent could be regenerated using 1 M HCl andrepeatedly used successive biosorption/desorption cycle for three cycles.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial and technical supports of Dept. ofChemical Engineering-ITB, Research Center for Limnology-The Indonesian Institute of
Sciences, and Research Center for Geo technology-The Indonesian Institute of Sciences.
6. REFERENCESAWALINA, HARIMAWAN, A. & SETIADI, T. Biosorption of Cadmium Ion from Aqueous
Solution by Aphanothece sp: Equilibrium, Kinetic and Thermodynamic Studies.
Current Trends in Biotechnological Research for Environmental Sustainability, 3rdInternational Postgraduate Conference on Biotechnology (IPCB) 2016, 2016 24-26
August 2016 in Surabaya City,Indonesia. IPCB Organizing Committee Dept. ofEnvironmental Engineering-Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember,Dept. ofEnvironmental Engineering for Symbiosis-Soka University,Institute of Marine
Biotechnology-Universiti Malaysia Terengganu.
AWALINA, SULAWESTY, F., OKTARIANI, E., CHRISMADHA, T., SATYA, I.,
NAIDIDA, E. & SETIADI, T. Freshwater Phytoplankton as Potential Heavy Metal
Biosorbent and its Natural Aquatic Physico-Chemical Characteristics s: A Study caseon Situ Rawa Kalong-Depok. ChemmPro2014 Mineral and Material Processing.
International Seminar on Chemical Engineering in Conjunction with Seminar Teknik
Kimia Soehadi Reksowardojo (STKSR) 2014.“Minerals and Material Processing
Toward Sustainable Development” 30-31 October 2014 2014 Bandung.
CASTRO, R. S. D., CAETANO, L. R., FERREIRA, G., PADILHA, P. M., SAEKI, M. J.,
ZARA, L. F., MARTINES, M. A. U. & CASTRO, G. R. 2011. Banana peel applied tothe solid phase extraction of copper and lead from river water: preconcentration of
metal ions with a fruit waste. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 50,
3446-3451.
CHOJNACKA, K. 2010. Biosorption and bioaccumulation – the prospects for practicalapplications. Environment International, 36, 299-307.
COCHRANE, E. L., LU, S., GIBB, S. W. & VILLAESCUSA, I. 2006. A comparison of lowcost biosorbents and commrcial sorbents for the removal of copper from aqueous
media. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 137 (1), 198-206.
FOMINA, M. & GADD, G. M. 2014. Biosorption: current perspectives on concept, definition
and application. Bioresource Technology, 160, 3-14.
HO, Y. S. & MCKAY, G. 2000. The Kinetics of Sorption of Divalent Metals onto Sphagnum
Moss Peat. Water Res., 34, 735-742.
HOSSAIN, M., NGOA, H. H., GUOA, W. & SETIADI, T. 2012. Adsorption and desorptionof copper(II) ions onto garden grass. Bioresource Technology, 121, 383-395.
9
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KAUR, I. & BHATNAGAR, A. K. 2002. Algae-dependent bioremediation of hazardous
wastes. In: SINGH VED, P. & STAPLETON RAYMOND, D. (eds.) Progress in
Industrial Microbiology. Elsevier.
SARI, A. & TUZEN, M. 2008a. Biosorption of cadmium (II) from aqueous solution by red
algae Ceramium virgatum: Equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic studies. Journal ofHazardous Materials, 157, 448-454.
SARI, A. & TUZEN, M. 2008b. Biosorption of Pb(II) and Cd(II) from Aqueous Solution using
Green Alga (Ulva Lactuta) Biomass. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 152, 302-308.
ULMANU, M., MARANON, E., FERNANDEZ, Y., CASTRILLON, L., ANGER, I. &DUMITRIU, D. 2003. Removal of copper and cadmium ions from diluted aqueous
solutions by low cost and waste water material adsorbents. Water, Air and Soil
Pollution, 142, 357-373.
VOLESKY, B. 2001. Detoxification of metal-bearing effluents: biosorption for the next
century. Hydrometallurgy, 59, 203-216.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF HONEY’S AUTHENTICITY BY
ATR-FTIR SPECTROSCOPY AND CHEMOMETRIC METHOD
Seffiani1, Heri Hermansyah1, Anondho Wijanarko1, Etin Rohmatin2, Muhamad Sahlan1,3*
1

Departement of Chemical Engineering, University of Indonesia, Depok, 16424, Indonesia
2
Midwifery Department of Health Polytechnic Republic of Indonesia’s Health Ministry,
Tasikmalaya, Indonesia
3
Research Center of Biomedical Engineering, University of Indonesia, Depok, 16424,
Indonesia
Corresponding Author: Muhamad Sahlan, Email: sahlan@che.ui.ac.id

ABSTRACT
Honey is a natural product produced by honeybees from various secretions of plants, and it
has many benefits, especially for human’s healthiness. Authentication of honey has importancefor both industries and consumers because until now; there is no guarantee of honey’s
authenticity especially in Indonesia. As for the classification of honey bees, is based on the factthat the content of honey produced between Apis sp. and stingless bees (most widely harvested
honey bees in Indonesia) have differences. Honey from stingless bees is much more expensive
than Apis sp. because the yield of honey per colony is never very high. Current rapid detection
methods like a raw fish test, turbidity test, foam test, test with ants usually either havechallenges for the accuracy. In this experiment, there is an alternative testing to identify theauthenticity of honey by using Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transmission Infrared
Spectrometer (ATR-FTIR) with the range of wavelengths between 550 - 4000 cm-1. By using
ATR-FTIR, the spectrum of each sample for real and fake honey were obtained and plottedusing the chemometric discriminant method. Real honey’s samples have been achieved fromthe local honey bees breeder from all around Indonesia while the fake honey were made fromthe mixture of water, sugar, NaHCO3, and real honey. Data were collected using OMNIC
software and processed using TQ Analyst software. This method was able to differentiate theauthenticity and classification of honey based on the honey’s spectrum. For identification ofauthenticity purpose, there were 2 classes formed, real and fake honey, the best region which
can differentiate them are 4 regions: 1700 -1600 cm-1, 1540 - 1175 cm-1, 1175 - 940 cm-1 and940 - 700 cm-1. For classification purpose, there were 2 classes formed based on the type ofhoney bees, Apis sp. and stingless bees, the best region specifically is 1700 -1600 cm-1. This
study aimed to obtain a method that can detect the authenticity and classification of honeywhich is fast, precise, and accurate.
Keywords: Apis sp.; ATR-FTIR; Discriminant; Distance Analysis; Spectrum; stingless bees
1. INTRODUCTION
Honey is a complex compound derived from the nectar synthesis where the nectar arecollected by honey bees from various plants. Honey is very famous for its therapeutic potential.
There are 3 types of honey bees in Indonesia, namely wild bees (Apis dorsata), farming bees
(Apis cerana and A. mellifera) and stingless bees. Honey that are produced from Apis sp. andstingless bees have some differences. Honey produced by Apis sp. have a sugar content of 62% -70 % and water content of 14.86 % -17.53 % (Moniruzzaman et al., 2013). Honey from940

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stingless bees has a moisture content between 30 % - 35 % and 44.08 % of reducing sugar
content. Because of the small size of stingless bees, the yield of honey per colony is never very
great, so the price for its honey is much higher than the other honey.
The benefit that comes from honey makes many people like to consumed honey as a healthsupplement. As a result, honey has been searched by many people as a natural supplement.
Unfortunately, this request can not be fulfilled by the availability of honey in nature because it
can not be harvested every time. Based on the data from Ministry of Forest, the demand forhoney in Indonesia reached 7,500 ton/year whereas the supply only reached 5,000 ton/year. So,
the opportunity is used by some persons who are not responsible for making fake honey.
Therefore, it is critical to developing a rapid, sensitive, accurate method to detect theauthenticity of honey. However, current rapid detection methods usually either have challenges
for the accuracy. Many of conventional method like raw fish test, turbidity test, foam test, testwith ants still have low level of precision, that is 60% for the raw fish test, 52.5% for theturbidity test, 17.5% for the foam test and 0.8% for the test with ants (Rachmawaty, 2011).
Here we developed an innovative method based on the characteristics of honey’s spectrum
using ATR-FTIR and chemometric method which is Discriminant Analysis. The advantage ofthis approach builds on the fact that each compound has different and specific IR spectrum, so
the sample’s spectrum obtained is represent the characteristics of an organic sample as a whole.
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy can be used to achieve biochemical
fingerprints of samples non-destructively and rapidly (Sivakesava, 2001). The crystal used in
ATR cells are made from zinc selenide (ZnSe) that have low solubility in water and are a very
high refractive index so it can be more precision (Stuart, 2004). Also, ATR-FTIR has several
advantages such as cheap and fast in operation, does not damage the sample, does not require
sample preparation and requires only a little amount of sample in the measurement. Throughthis research, we expect to produce an identification and classification methods to determine
the authenticity of honey which are fast, precise and accurate.
2. METHODOLOGY/EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Samples
A total of 85 samples consisting of 58 samples of real honey and 27 samples of fake(adulterated) honey. Real honey were collected from different graphical regions of Indonesia
and various floral origin. Most of the samples were collected directly from the primary
producers.
Samples of real honey produced by Apis cerana (n = 5), Apis mellifera (n = 19), Apis dorsata(n = 17), stingless bees (n= 10) and others (n = 7) were included in the study. As for fake honey,
there are 27 samples in total and were made from the mixture of water, sucrose, NaHCO3, andreal honey. The sample amount of each group is indicated as “n.” Honey samples were grouped
as real and fake ones basically for identification purpose. For classification purpose, honeysamples were a group as Apis sp. and stingless bees.
2.2 Instrumentation and sample analysis
Spectra from all samples were collected with Nicolet iS5 FT-IR Spectrometer(ThermoFisher Scientific Inc., USA) equipped with ATR accessory. The software OMNIC
version 9 was used for spectral acquisition. Samples were placed on Diamond/ZnSe crystal
plate (ThermoFisher Scientific Inc) and scanned from 4000 – 550 cm-1 for 16 scan time with aresolution of 16 cm-1 at room temperature. Each sample was replicated three times. Identical
spectra were analyzed in each case. This process was done to see the absorbance value
accuracy, which might be affected from the homogeneity of the sample. The diamond wascleaned between samples using propanol.

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2.3 Chemometrics
Discriminant Analysis was applied to classify the samples based on spectral differences.
Discriminant Analysis was performed with TQ Analyst software (ThermoFisher Scientific Inc)for determination of spectral differentiation. In this work, Discriminant Analysis was
conducted on ATR-FTIR spectra with range of 3000 – 2800 cm-1, 1700 – 1600 cm-1, 1540 –
1175 cm-1, 1175 – 940 cm-1 and 940 – 700 cm-1.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this study, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy has been used to compare honey samples based on
their spectral differences in 4000 – 550 cm-1 regions. The crystal used in ATR cells are madefrom materials that have low solubility in water and are a very high refractive index. A
representative of ATR – FTIR spectrum of honey are given in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The
explanation of band assignment with the corresponding modes of vibration is shown in table
1, based on literature (Gok, 2014)
Region 4 Region 5

Region 2 Region 3

Region 1

Figure 1. Representative of honey’s spectrum in the 4000 – 550 cm-1 spectral region using
ATR-FTIR

Figure 2. ATR-FTIR spectrum for real honey in the 4000 – 550 cm-1 spectral region942

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Table 1. General band assignment of ATR-FTIR spectrum of honey
Region 1 3000 - 2800 cm-1 C-H stretching (carbohydrates)
O-H stretching (carboxylic acids)
NH3 stretching (free amino acids)-1
Region 2 1700 -1600 cm
O-H stretching/bending (water)
C=O stretching (mainly from carbohydrates)
N-H bending of amide I (mainly proteins)
Region 3 1540 - 1175 cm-1 O-H stretching/bending
C-O stretching (carbohydrates)
C-H stretching (carbohydrates)
C=O stretching of ketones
Region 4 1175 - 940 cm-1
C-O and C-C stretching (carbohydrates)
Ring vibrations (mainly from carbohydrates)
Region 5 940 - 700 cm-1
Anomeric region of carbohydrates
C-H bending (mainly from carbohydrates)
Ring vibrations (mainly from carbohydrates)
Source: Gok, 2014
The different spectral region has been applied to Discriminant Analysis. The groupingclasses for identification purpose divided into 2 groups, real and fake honey. Square symbols
show the spectrum of real honey and the triangle symbols demonstrate the spectrum of fakehoney. In Figure 3a, showed that the grouping was not good enough because there was still
fake honey’s spectrum within real honey’s group. It is because the region of spectral was thewhole area which is 4000 - 550 cm-1 region. The performance index for Figure 3a was 88.7,
and there were 7 samples which still misclassified. For Figure 3b, 2 regions separated between
real honey (square symbols) and fake honey (triangle symbols). The results that shown in
Figure 3b was the best result of many trials before, where the performance index is 91.8 andno misclassified class. The spectral differences used are 4 regions, there are 1700 -1600 cm-1,
1540 - 1175 cm-1, 1175 - 940 cm-1,and 940 - 700 cm-1. As we seen in Table 2, the best
performance index based on the result is when we use region 2 to 5. While the trial for region
1 to 5 has the same score for the performance index, but region 1 can be ignored since it is aregion of group frequency. Group frequency region of 3000 – 2800 cm-1 shows the absorptionof C-C and C-H compound so it can be ignored since it owned by all of the organic compound(Janori, 2016).

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Figure 3. Discriminant Analysis scatter plots for all of the samples of honey’s authenticity
identication (a) 4000-550 cm-1 (b)1700 -1600 cm-1, 1540 - 1175 cm-1, 1175 - 940 cm-1, 940 700 cm-1
The region 800 to 1500 cm-1 corresponds to the absorption zones of the 3 major sugar
constituents of honey: fructose, glucose, and sucrose. The 900 to 750 cm-1 region is theanomeric region and is characteristic of the saccharide configurations. The bands in the 904 to
1153 cm–1 region are assigned to C-O and C-C stretching modes, and those around 1474 to1199 cm–1 are due to the bending modes of O-C-H, C-C-H, and C-O-H angles. Negative bands
were observed around 1618 and 3635 cm–1. These bands are due to lower water concentrationin the honey sample compared with the reference employed and the fact that water presents an
O-H stretching overtone at these wavelengths (Sakhamuri, 2001).
Table 2. Calculated result of selected region for identification purpose between real and fakehoney
Performance
Total
Misclassified
RegionIndex
Samples
-1
7
85
88.7
All (4000 – 650 cm )
1-5
91.8
85
2-5
91.8
85
-1
3
85
90.0
Only 1 (3000 – 2800 cm )-1

Only 2 (1700 – 1600 cm )

90.1

6

85

Only 3 (1540 – 1175 cm )

90.4

6

85

Only 4 (1175 – 940 cm )

90.5

1

85

Only 5 (940 – 700 cm )

92

2

85

700 – 550 cm

87.7

7

85

-1

-1

-1

-1

As for classification, the grouping were divided into 2 classes; there are Apis sp. andstingless bees. Square symbols show the spectrum of honey from Apis sp., and the triangle
symbols indicate the spectrum of stingless bees. Figure 4a and 4b show the scatter plots ofDiscriminant Analysis when the performance index is 88.2 and 95.4, respectively. In Figure
4a, we can see that there was still spectrum misclassified whereas there was none in Figure 4b.
The red circle in the figure shows the misclassified spectrum. The results that shown in Figure
4b was the best result of many trials before. The trial’s purpose is to find the precise grouping

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between 2 classes where the spectral region is different each other. There are significant
differences between honey which are produced by Apis sp. and stingless bees.

Figure 4. Discriminant Analysis scatter plots for all of the samples of honey’sclassification (a) 4000–550 cm-1 (b)1700 -1600 cm-1
Table 3. Calculated result of selected region for classification purpose between Apis sp. andstingless bees

Only 1 (3000 – 2800 cm )Performance
Index
88.2
93.0
93.1
92.9

Only 2 (1700 – 1600 cm )

95.4

-

50

Only 3 (1540 – 1175 cm )

93.2

-

50

Only 4 (1175 – 940 cm )

92.0

1

50

Only 5 (940 – 700 cm )

93.8

-

50

700 – 550 cm

92.4

1

50

Region-1

All (4000 – 650 cm )
1-5
2-5

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

1

Total
Samples
50

1

50
50
50

Misclassified

Based on the result of Table 3, the best performance index for the classification of honey is95.4 and no misclassified samples when we use region 2 only. The bands in the region 1700–
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1600 cm-1 had been previously assigned as amide I vibrations of the honey proteins. Protein isa minor honey component. However, they are used in detecting adulteration (Chalhoub, 2005).
Studies revealed that pollen proteins could be utilized as a marker for taxonomic classificationof honey. The bands at 1700-1600 cm-1 were originated to stretching band of carboxyl groups
C=O and C≡C stretching, this region was found to be related to phenolic molecules (Tahir,2017). Phenolic compound is linked to the biological origin of the nectar and pollen and thespecies of the honey-producing bees (Almeida, 20130). However, water molecules give strong
absorption between 1640 and 1650 cm-1 (Gok, 2014) so the discrimination in this region canbe explained by the difference in protein and moisture content, and also water–carbohydrateinteractions between sample groups.
4. CONCLUSION
Results of this study showed the potential power of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy in automatedand highly sensitive to differentiate between real and fake also Apis sp. and stingless bees
estimation of honey. This Discriminant Analysis method was able and success to differentiate
the authenticity and classification of honey based on the honey’s spectrum. The best region
which can divide between the real and fake honey are 4 regions; there are 1700 -1600 cm-1,
1540 - 1175 cm-1, 1175 - 940 cm-1, 940 - 700 cm-1 and region 1700 -1600 cm-1 for classificationof Apis sp. and stingless bees. The method is straightforward and suitable for large-scaleindustrial monitoring of honey samples.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank the member of Indonesian Apiculture Association for
supplying the real honey samples used in this study. Also, the author gratefully acknowledges
the financial support from DRPM Grant of Indexed International Publication of Student Final
Project (Publikasi Internasional Terindeks untuk Tugas Akhir Mahasiswa/PITTA) 2017.
6. REFERENCES
Almeida da Silva, Isnandia Andréa; Sarmento da Silva, Tania Maria. 2013. Phenolic Profile,
Antioxidant Activity and Palynological Analysis of Stingless Bee Honey from
Amazonas, Northern Brazil. Elsevier. Department of Food Engineering, Center ofTechnology, Brazil, 4.
BPS Statistics Indonesia. 2014. Forest Production Statistic. Jakarta (ID) : BPS, page 6.
Bunaciu, A.A., Aboul-Enein, H.Y. dan Fleschin, S. 2011. Recent applications of Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectrophotometry in Herbal Medicines Analysis. Applied
Spectroscopy Reviews 46, 251-260.
Chalhoub, C; Gotsiou, P; 2005. Novel Quality Control Methods in Conjunction with
Chemometrics (Multivariate Analysis) for Detecting Honey Authenticity. Taylor andFrancis Inc. University of Thessaly, Hellas, Greece, 2.
Ellis, D.I and Goodacre, R. (2006) Quantitative Detection and Identification Methods for
Microbial Spoilage, In Food Spoilage Microorganisms (Ed. Blackburn, C), Woodhead
Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 3-27
Feronica, Inessya. 2012. Study of Purity Degree of Commercial Honey in Bogor Using Various
Method Tests. Faculty of Animal Science. Bogor Agricultural University, 37 – 54.
Gok, Seher; Severcan, Mete; Goormaghtigh, Erik; Kandemir, Irfan; Severcan, Feride. 2014.
Differentiation of Anatolian Honey Samples from Different Botanical Origins by ATRFTIR Spectroscopy using Multivariate Analysis. Food Chemistry 170, 2-7.

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Janori, Hamdani. 2016. Analytical Instrument Report : Qualitative Analysis of Solid and Liquid
Phase Compound Using IR Spectroscopy. Chemical Major, Science and Mathematics
Faculty, University of Mataram, 17.
Jessica, Sherly. 2014. Chemical and Organoleptic Characteristics of Honey from Apis
mellifera, Apis cerana, Apis dorsata, and Trigona sp. Faculty of Animal Science. Bogor
Agricultural University, 20-24.
Moniruzzaman M, Md Ibrahim Khalil, siti Amrah Sulaiman, Siew Hua Gan. 2013.
Physicochemical and Antioxidant Properties of Malaysian Honeys Produced by Apis
cerana, Apis dorsata, and Apis mellifera, 13-43.
Rachmawaty, Maya. 2011. The Effectiveness of Several Adulteration Tests Cotton Tree
Honey. Faculty of Animal Science. Bogor Agricultural University, 26 – 27.
Sivakesava, Sakhamuri; Irudayaraj, Joseph. 2001. Classification of simple and complex sugar
adulterants in honey by mid-infrared spectroscopy. Department of Agricultural andBiological Engineering. The Pennsylvania State University, 2.
Sivakesava, Sakhamuri; Irudayaraj, Joseph. 2001. Detection of Inverted Beet Sugar
Adulteration of Honey by FTIR Spectroscopy. Department of Agricultural andBiological Engineering. The Pennsylvania State University, 1-8.
Stuart, Barbara. 20014. Infrared Spectrocopy : Fundamentals and Applications. John Wiley &Sons, Ltd: Analytical Techniques in the Sciences, 33-34.
Tahir, H; Xiaobo, Zou et. al. 2017. Rapid prediction of phenolic compounds and antioxidant
activity of Sudanese honey using Raman and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR)
spectroscopy. Elsevier. Departement of Food and Technology of Sudan University, 5.
Wang, L., & Mizaikoff, B. (2008). Application of Multivariate Data-Analysis Techniques toBiomedical Diagnostics Based on Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy. Analytical andBioanalytical Chemistry, 391(5), 1641–1654.

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MAKING HARD CANDY CONTAINING PURE HONEY AS A FUNCTIONAL
FOOD PRODUCTAtikah Ridhowati1, Heri Hermansyah2, Anondho Wijanarko3, Muhamad Sahlan4*1234

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Indonesia, Depok, 16425, Indonesia
Research Center of Biomedical Engineering, University of Indonesia, Depok, 16425,
Indonesia

41atikah.ridhowati@ui.ac.id
2
heri@eng.ui.ac.id3
anondho@eng.ui.ac.id
4sahlan@eng.ui.ac.id

ABSTRACTThis study aims to test the potential of honey as an additional ingredient in candy. Candy to be
used in the form of hard candy that has a hard and shiny texture. Research begins with finding
the optimal composition of honey contained in candy, optimal honey levels in candy by 29%.
Honey candy test data obtained from panelist assessment result in hedonic test consumer panel
which includes color, aroma, taste and texture rating on four types of honey candy, honey from
China, klanceng honey , randu honey and forest honey. Data analysis for the nutritional content
of honey candy using descriptive analysis and for the hedonic test using ANOVA test. The
results of the overall hedonic assessment of honey candy statistically there is a significant
difference. Based on the research, the honey candy produced has moisture content (0.09 0.62%) and ash content (0.04 - 0.54%), it meets the requirements of SNI 3547.1: 2008. This is
in line with the expectation that the honey candy being studied has potential as a functional
food product.
Keywords: candy, hard candy, honey, functional, food product

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1. INTRODUCTION
Food products is growing rapidly with the emergence of new creations. As the increasingly
rapid development of the times in this era of globalization, changing society's views about afood product. In the past the food just to satisfy the stomach but it is different this time. In
addition to filling the public now see from the nutritional value and benefits in the body.
Therefore manufacturers to innovate by using a substance which can increase the nutritional
value of the food product.
Efforts to use natural resources are diverse and have economic value in tropical countries such
as Indonesia, became one of the alternative economic solutions Indonesian society. One of thediversity and availability of alternative utilization of biological resources is a bioactive
biological utilization for high-value food and has economic value. Examples are the products
produced by honeybees, one of which is honey.
Honey is a unique product of the insects, which contain a high percentage of carbohydrates,
practically no protein or fat. The nutritional value of honey depends on the content of simple
sugars are fructose and glucose. The sweet foodstuffs are thick with gold until dark, producedin the pocket of various types of bee honey and nectar from various flowers. The taste and scentis strongly influenced by the type of flower where the nectar is collected.
Codex Alimentarius Commission (1984) defines honey as a sweet substance produced byhoneybees, derived from the nectar of flowers that develop or secreted plant collected by thebees, then changed form dann combined with special substances that exist in the body of thebee, then stored to cook on cells of honey. Natural bee Indonesia consists of three species,
namely Apis adrenoformis, Apis cerana and Apis dorsata. Special substance on bees thatfunction in the process of breaking down sugar is the bee salivary fluid containing hydrolase
enzymes. The enzyme invertase, written by worker bees when drinking and brings back honey,
serves to convert sucrose into dextrose (glucose) and levulose (fructose).
According to the Indonesian National Standard (SNI) 01-3545-1994, honey is a sweet fluid
produced by honey bees from various sources of nectar. Nektar is a kind of liquid produced by
the glands of nectar plants, rich in various forms of carbohydrate (3-87%), such as sucrose,
fructose and glucose, containing little pengandung nitrogen compounds, such as amino acids,
amides, organic acids, vitamins, compound aromatic and mineral. Honey that has been cookedcontains 41% fructose, 35% glucose, sucrose 1.9%, dextrin 1.5%, 17% water and othersubstances such as amino acids as much as 3.5%.
Besides the high sugar content, honey also contains other components such as pollen andvarious digestive enzymes. In addition, honey also contains a variety of vitamins, namely
vitamins A, B1, B2, and minerals such as calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, iodine
salt even radium. Honey also contains antibiotics and various organic acids such as malic,
tartaric, citric, lactic and oxalic. Because honey is very high usefulness.
The role of honey for the growth of small children is very important because in the honeycontained folic acid, which can improve blood composition, increasing the number oferythrocytes and also contains hemogoblin. Thus giving honey to children can increase levelsof hemogoblin. From the results, comparison, children who were not given the hemoglobin
content of the honey only rose 4% for 40 days. While the honey, the content of hemoglobin
increased by 23% at the same time with the normal diet.
Based on these reasons the study of the content of honey should be developed to determine thepotential utilization of one of them in food products such as candy. Chewing is one of the foodproducts are easily enjoyed, fun and penchant for consumption of children. There are many
types of candy one of which is a hard candy. Hard candy candy candy is kind of hard to havethe texture and appearance of clear and sparkling (glossy), the main ingredient in the
manufacture of hard candy in this study is the honey.

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2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Flowchart of ResearchThis research will be carried out in several stages, the first stage of making hard containing
honey. Then the next step is to elucidate methods of extraction for each sample hard candy,
and then identify the quality of honey hard candy.
2.2. Research Time and Location
This research was conducted in February - May 2017 in Centre for Nanobiotechnology
Laboratory, Integrated Laboratory and Research Center, Universitas Indonesia.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Honey Hard Candy-Making
The research begins with making honey hard candy with varying concentrations of sucrose,
glucose syrup, water and honey in order to get the optimum concentration of honey can be
added to get a good and tasty honey hard candy.
Used rating scale ranging from (1) to (5). Figures (1) very not hard, (2) not hard, (3) little
hard, (4) hard, (5) very hard.
Figure 3.1 Result of Honey Candy Formula

Honey Candy (gram)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0

SucroseGlucose Syrup

Water

Honey

From the results (Figure 3.1) obtained that the best variation concentration to produce hard
candy containing honey is 29%. Where in this combination harden properly.
3.2. Organoleptic Test
Organoleptic assessment honey hard candy products using hedonic test is done subjectively
based on observations by the human senses. The parameters observed color, aroma, flavor, andtexture. The purpose of the organoleptic test was to determine the extent of a commodity or
product can be accepted or not by the consumer, so that in this test is required panelists who
represent consumers' assessment of the product.
To determine the level of consumer acceptance of these products, tested by 20 panelists byperforming 2 replicates. Technically panelists judging by filling out the organoleptic test format
that has been provided in accordance with the level of individual favorite.
Organoleptic test conducted on honey hard candy is hedonic test and hedonic quality (level
favorite) include color, aroma, flavor and texture. The hedonic rating scale used range from (1)to (9). Figures (1) showed extremely dislike, (2) very not like, (3) not like, (4) somewhat
dislike, (5) normal or neutral, (6) little like, (7) like, (8 ) very like (9) extremely like.
How to data processing which is often used is by using analysis of variance / covarianceanalysis (Analysis of variance or ANOVA). If the price of the F count larger than F table,

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means among the examples there is differences which affect significantly against consumer
acceptance (panelists). If the calculated value is smaller than the value of F table means the
opposite. Honey hard candy hedonic test results obtained majority of panelists liked the candy
added forest honey. Then, from the ANOVA data obtained that the example of honey hard
candy samples were significantly different. This is shown in Figure 3.2 to Figure 3.5.
7.2
7

Color

6.8
6.6
6.4

6.2
6
5.8
5.6

China Honey
Candy

Klanceng Honey
Candy

Randu Honey
Candy

Forest Honey
Candy

Figure 3.2 Test Graph Hedonic-Organolepctic Color of Honey Hard Candy
7
6

Aroma

5
4

3
2
1
0

China Honey
Candy

Klanceng Honey
Candy

Randu Honey
Candy

Forest Honey
Candy

Fugure 3.3 Test Graph Hedonic-Organoleptic Aroma of Honey Hard Candy

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8
7

Flavor

6
5
4
3
2
1

0

China Honey
Candy

Klanceng Honey
Candy

Randu Honey
Candy

Forest Honey
Candy

Fiigure 3.4 Test Graph Hedonic-Organoleptic Flavor of Honey Hard Candy
8
7

Texture

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

China Honey
Candy

Klanceng Honey
Candy

Randu Honey
Candy

Forest Honey
Candy

Figure 3.5 Test Graph Hedonic-Organoleptic Texture of Honey Hard Candy
3.3. Moisture Content Test
Determination of moisture content by oven method most widely used and very simple. Thismethod can be used for all food product, unless the product contains components that easily
evaporate.
The moisture content affects the appearance and texture of the hard candy. In addition, theamount of water contained in candy affect the structure of hard candy. If the moisture content
in the hard candy is too high can cause hard candy not can be hardened so its not formed hard
candy or formed hard candy is easy to melted. Then the high water levels will also cause
humidity so easily contaminated by microorganisms as bacteria and fungi will be easy to grow,given that bacteria and fungus will grow on damp substrates. Meanwhile, if the result of low
water levels below the limit specified requirements are expected to generate a maximum of
hard candy. Results of testing the moisture content of honey hard candy are shown in Table
3.9.
Table 3.9 Data Result of Honey Hard Candy Moisture Content Test

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HoneyConcentration
%
29
14
10
9
8

Honey Candy Moisture Content (%)
China
Klanceng
Randu
Forest
Honey
Honey
Honey
Honey
0.31
0.27
0.20
0.62
0.34
0.23
0.16
0.60
0.32
0.23
0.14
0.56
0.30
0.21
0.10
0.56
0.28
0.17
0.09
0.50

Based on test data that the moisture content of honey hard candy ranging from 0.20 to 0.62%.
Based on these results it has met specifications of ISO 3547.1: 2008 is no more than 3.5% massfraction.
3.4. Ash Content Test
Determination of ash content in candy shows the total content of organic material with mineral
identics oxidized to form the oxide because in this process all organic material has been burned.
The ash content determined by gravimetric method by finding the difference weight of sample
before and after ashing. Ashing process occurs at a temperature of 525ºC. The purpose of
testing the ash content is to determine the amount of minerals in the sample.
Determination of ash content is very useful as parameters nutritional value of foodstuffs
because it is a test to determine the ingredients mineral (inorganic) (Sudarmadji, et. Al, 1989).
Too high mineral content in a foodstuff not be accepted by the human body. High mineral will
also result in damage to the intestines and digestive disturbances. The ash content is correlatedwith the mineral content in general, the greater the mineral content of which have a high ash
content. Results of testing the ash content of honey hard candy are shown in Table 3.10.
Table 3.10 Data Result of Honey Hard Candy Ash Content Test
Honey Candy Ash Content (%)
HoneyConcentration
%

China
Honey

Klanceng
Honey

Randu
Honey

Forest
Honey

29
14
10
9
8

0.54
0.53
0.52
0.52
0.50

0.34
0.31
0.26
0.26
0.24

0.13
0.10
0.10
0.09
0.09

0.06
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.04

Based on the data test on the ash content obtained that honey hard candy ranging from 0.06 to
0.54%. Based on these results it has met specifications of ISO 3547.1: 2008 is no more than
2.0% mass fraction.
4. CONCLUSION
In this study, honey candies meet the requirements set by ISO 3547.1: 2008, based on analysis
of sample hard candy has a moisture content 0.09 - 0.62%, while the ash content 0.04 - 0.54%.
Although the manufacture of hard candy candy heating process requires high temperatures but
the stability of the nutrients of honey after it became hard candy confectionery products
continue to function.
According to organoleptic hard candy is significantly different because of the different candy
content, where trigona honey is more acidic than sweetened forest honey as of panelists preferhard candy from forest honey. It can be concluded that honey hard candy products can be a

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good variety of food for health but need a refinement in terms of taste, physical, and color to
obtain the attractive candy.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by Directorate of Research and Community Service, Universitas
Indonesia. I thank my colleagues from Chemical Engineering Departement Universitas
Indonesia who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they
may not agree with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper.
I thank Dr. Eng Muhamad Sahlan, S.Si, M. Eng. for assistance, Prof. Dr. Ir. Anondho
Wijanarko, M.Eng. and Prof. Dr. Heri Hermansyah, S.T., M.Eng. for comments that greatly
improved the manuscript. I would also like to show my gratitude to them for sharing their pearlsof wisdom with me during the course of this research, and reviewers for their so-called insights.
I are also immensely grateful for their comments on an earlier version of the manuscript,
although any errors are our own and should not tarnish the reputations of these esteemed
persons.
6. REFERENCES
Badan Standardisasi Nasional, SNI 3547.1: 2008, Kembang Gula – Bagian I: Keras. Pusat
Standardisasi Industri. Departemen Perindustrian. Jakarta.
Buckle,K.A., Edward, R. A., Fleet, G.H., Wotton, M. 1987. Ilmu Pangan. Universitas
Indonesia Press, Jakarta.
De Man. 1997. Kimia Makanan. Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung.
Izzi, Shalliya Eggy. (2016). Kajian Keekonomian Pabrik Permen Propolis. Depok:
Universitas Indonesia.
Nurwati. 2011. Formulasi Hard Candy Dengan Penambahan Ekstrak Buah Pedada(Sonneratia caseolaris) Sebagai Flavor. Naskah Skripsi-S1. Fakultas Perikanan dan
Ilmu Kelautan. Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor.
Prasetyowati. 2013. Kualitas Permen Keras Dengan Variasi Konsentrasi Ekstrak Daun Sirih
Hijau (Piper bettle L.) Naskah Skripsi- S1.Fakultas Teknobiologi. Universitas Atma
Jaya Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta.
Pratiwi, Hestiawan, M.S., Hestiana., Bachtiar,A., dan Kusumaningrum. 2008. Pengembangan
Produk Permen Lolipop dari Ekstrak Daun Sirih (Piper bitle) sebagai Functional
Confectionary. Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor.
Ramadhan. 2012. Pembuatan permen hard candy yang mengandung propolis sebagai permen
kesehatan gigi. Naskah skripsi-S1. Fakultas Teknik. Universitas Indonesia, Depok.
Winarno ,F.G. 2002. Kimia Pangan dan Gizi.PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta.
Winarno,F.G. 2004. Kimia Pangan dan Gizi. PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Jakarta. 251 hal.

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THE 15TH INTERNATONAL CONFERENCE QUALITY IN RESARCH (QIR) 2017
Developing and Implementing the Patient-centered Care Model for Hospital inIndonesia

Jonnya, T. Yuri Zagloelb1aDepartment of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Indonesia andDepartment of Accounting, Faculty of Economic and Communication, Bina Nusantara Universityb
Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Indonesia

ABSTRACTThis paper is intended to present a health care model for Indonesian health care industry.
Based on previous researches, a patient-centered care model is preferred due to its
capability in reducing health care cost and improving its quality simultaneously. However,any model that integrates not only health care cost reduction and quality improvement but
also patient satisfaction and hospital profitability is still questionable. Therefore, thisresearch is conducted in order to fulfill the gap in order to integrate those performancegoals such as hospital’s profitability, patient satisfaction, quality of health care and healthcare cost. In doing so, a patient-centered care model for Indonesian hospital is being
developed by deploying Kano’s model, Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and Balanced
Scorecard (BSC). From that research, it can be concluded that there are several elementsthat need to be considered such as leadership, context of the organization, planning,support process, operations, continual improvement, patient satisfaction and financial
performance. After having the model developed, then a case study is to be considered inorder to measure those elements by their sub elements’ performances based on IndonesianCommission on Accreditation of Hospitals in order to study whether there is any
improvement taken place after deploying the model. For the result of its self assessment aspresented in percentage of compliance, it can be understood that all elements have
improved such as Leadership from 50% to 90%, Planning from 50% to 93%, Continual
Improvement from 50% to 85%, Operations from 48% to 86%, Support Process from 50%
to 84%, Patient Satisfaction from 50% to 82%, Health care cost for in-patient from average
IDR 1,000,000 to IDR 800,000 and Return on Equity of the hospital from 0.56 to 0.58. By
having these good results, it can be concluded that the model is suitable for the hospital inorder to achieve those integrated goals for the hospital’s performance.
Keywords: Patient-centered care model; Kano’s model; Quality Function Deployment;
Balanced Scorecard; Hospital’s profitability; Patient Satisfaction; Quality of Health care;
Health Care Cost

1956

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Jonny & Zagloel@ui.ac.id

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1. INTRODUCTION
In general, hospital is a part of a holistic health-care system in a certain country includingIndonesia. As in other countries, in Indonesia, hospital is regarded as the tertiary healthcare institution in Indonesian health-care system. Besides this institution, they are also
other institutions including general or family physicians as primary health-care institution
and specialist physicians as secondary health-care institution.
As the tertiary institution, hospital is intended to deliver any maintenance andimprovement of the society's prevention of any disease, accident or physical and mentallydisability. In doing this role, it cooperates with any other related industries to provide
healthcare services to the society including both out-patient and in-patient care services.
In Indonesia, there are about 2,506 hospitals established to give various medical services tothe society making this industry more complex and attractive than ever before and thisnumber is believed to grow annually due to its attractiveness and the huge Indonesian
population (Hukormas, 2016). Unfortunately, Hukormas: 2016 reported that from thisnumber, there are only 284 hospitals among that industry are accredited by Komite
Akreditasi Rumah Sakit (KARS) or Indonesian Commission on Accreditation of Hospitals.
This number is only 11.3% of total hospitals in Indonesia. Therefore, it is not surprisingly
to learn that there were about 182 mall-practice cases during the year of 2012 (Wibisono,2013) although the correlation was not researched yet. This, of course, has signified theimportance of quality of care in this industry.
In hospital, there are generally two distinct models regarding to the issue of quality of caresuch as disease- and patient-centered care models. On the first model, it emphasizes on thephysician as the person who decides any required medical treatment needed for his patients
based on his clinical experiences and his patient’s related medical results. Meanwhile, on
the second model, it requires the participation of patient in his medical treatments based on
his needs, preferences and his physician’s medical advice (Stanton, 2002). Therefore, thepatient is the central point of the medical care services not the physician as described in theprevious model.
However, in their development, the second model, namely patient-care model, has been
widely accepted and adopted especially after many hospitals (Stanton, 2002) have been
benefited from its ability to reduce the failure risk both in quality improvement andhealthcare cost as the impact of the improved relationship between physician and patient
and the efficient utilization of diagnosis tests, prescriptions, hospitalizations and referral(Rickert, 2015).
Although this model has ensured the benefit of both quality improvement and health-carecost reduction, there was still no any integrated model to generate not only these two
benefits but also on patient satisfaction and hospital profitability. Therefore, Jonny &Zagloel: 2016 has proposed an integrated Indonesian health care model. This model wasdeveloped by employing several TQM tools such as Kano’s model, Quality Function

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Deployment (QFD) and Balanced Scorecard (BSC) that resulted in several importantelements of the model including leadership, context of the organization, planning, support
process, operations, continual improvement, patient satisfaction and financial performance.
These seven elements were furthermore named as TQM enablers by Jonny &Zagloel:2016.
Based on Jonny & Zagloel:2016, these seven TQM enablers are to be measured by theirsub-elements such as 1) Leadership with Governance, Leadership, and Direction (TKP); 2)
Context of the Organization; 3) Planning with Staff Qualifications and Education (KPS); 4)
Support Process with Prevention and Control of Infections (PPI), Facility Management and
Safety (MFK) and Management of Information (MKI); 5) Continual Improvement with
Quality Improvement and Patient Safety (PMK); 6) Operations with Access to Care andContinuity of Care (AKP), Patient and Family Rights (HPK), Assessment of Patients (AP),
Care of Patients (PP), Anesthesia and Surgical Care (PAB), Medication Management andUse (MPO), and Patient and Family Education (PPK); and 7) Performance Evaluation(Jonny & Zagloel, 2016).
From previous study, these seven-elements have been tested their correlation as themodel's validity. However, it was not yet implemented. Therefore, this study was intended
to implement whether the hospital can gain any simultaneous improvement in quality
improvement, health care cost reduction, patient satisfaction and hospital profitability as
intended in the model after implementing this model or not by using PDCA (Plan-DoCheck-Action) method.
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
As mentioned in the previous section, an improvement methodology namely PDCA
method was employed to implement the model in the hospital. Therefore, a hospital isselected as a case study to ensure the improvement after implying the model in thehospital. In doing so, there are several actions taken based on the phases on the PDCA
method based on McCartry: 2005. This method consists of four phases such as Plan-DoCheck-Action and is widely used in any improvement project. The following sections give
more detail on how this method is employed.
2.1 PlanIn this stage, several steps are taken such as 1) the management and staffs of the hospitalwere gathered in order to be socialized and trained related to this model, 2) After having
the mutual understanding from the related parties, the management and staff were given
time to prepare for the self assessment to give a clear picture on the quality condition of thehospital based on the Indonesian Accreditation Standard regulated by IndonesianCommission on Accreditation of Hospitals, 3) Then, an independent team was formed to
do the self assessment and give recommendation and 4) the management and staffs were to
be required to design improvement scenario plan based on the recommendation as thecountermeasure on the gap.

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2.2 Do
Based on the self-assessment result, the hospital was to implement the recommendationby conducting several quality improvement programs as the countermeasure for closing thegap.

2.3 Check
After the implementation of those recommendations, an independent team was to check theresult of the compliance of the hospital on its Indonesian Commission on Accreditation o
Hospitals. This stage is needed to ensure that the model was implemented properly or not
Furthermore, the results were also to be compared with the four performance measures aprior-mentioned such as: hospital’s profitability, patient satisfaction, quality of health careand health care cost. If the result is not satisfactory then the team will back to the firs
phase to do the improvement until those prior-mentioned benefits were achieved.

2.4 Action
This is the final stage of the PDCA method. In this phase, the model which has been provenin its efforts to achieve the targeted level of achievement is to be standardized as effectivemodel, therefore, it can be served as additional new knowledge as contribution to thegreater knowledge on the knowledge of Total Quality Management in Health-care industry
especially for Indonesian Health-care industry.

Although this methodology is familiar with manufacturing fields, however through many
researches and practical applications, it has been proved that this methodology is also
suitable in service field. Therefore, this method can be also served as an appropriate
methodology in improving the training program.

The company also found this methodology is simple than other available methodology
Therefore after having trained, the team starts using this methodology to improve theprogram.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this section, the result of the implementation of the Indonesian Health-care model a
proposed by Jonny & Zagloel:2016 is elaborated and discussed rigorously based on PDCA
cycle as proposed by McCarty: 2005. Therefore, there will be four stages to discuss it.
3.1 Plan

As elaborated in the previous section, in this stage, the management and staffs of thehospital were gathered in order to be socialized and trained related to two topics such a
the Indonesian Health-care model as proposed by Jonny & Zagloel: 2016 and standard
from Indonesian Commission on Accreditation of Hospitals as proposed by KARS:2012.

In the first topic, according to Jonny & Zagloel:2016, the model that is suitable fo
Indonesian health care industry consists of seven TQM enablers as depicted in theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284959

following figure:

Figure 1. Integrated Indonesian Health-care Model as proposed by Jonny & Zagloel, 2016
From the above figure, Jonny & Zagloel: 2016 proposed that the proper health-care modelfor Indonesian health-care industry was consisted of seven TQM enablers such as 1)
leadership, 2) context of the organization, 3) planning, 4) support process, 5) operations, 5)
continual improvement, 6) patient satisfaction and 7) financial performance. This model
was tested to randomly 30 patients of an accredited hospital in order to validate the modelby administrating an adopted HospiSE questionnaires as proposed by Voon & Abdulah:
2014.
As proposed Voon & Abdulah: 2014, there are 21-items in the questionnaire which aregrouped by its element and sub-elements such as 1) Leadership – TKP: hospital iscommitted in serving the patients, 2) AP – Operations: hospital serves patients based ongood understanding of their needs, 3) HKP – Operations: hospital believes in delivering
excellent service to the patients, 4) Satisfaction – Customer Satisfaction Performance
Evaluation: hospital regularly measures patient satisfaction, 5) MPO, PP, PAB –Operations: hospital solves patients' problem as fast as possible, 6) TKP – Leadership:
hospital knows its competitors well, 7) TKP – Leadership: hospital responds fast to thecompetitor’s actions, 8) TKP – Leadership: Hospital targets for patients that it can serve
better than its competitors, 9) TKP – Leadership: hospital always tries to be better than its
competitors, 10) TKP – Leadership : the employees of the hospital can relate well, 11) TKP– Leadership: there are good co-ordinations among the hospital’s staffs, 12) MKI – Support
Process: there is good communication among different functions in the hospital, 13) AKP –Operations: necessary patient information is easily accessible from different departments in
the hospital when needed, 14) MFK – Support Process: the hospital provides resources toenable the staff to provide excellent service, 15) PMPK – Continual improvement: thehospital is creative and innovative (new ideas and things) in serving the patients, 16) KPS –960

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Planning: employees of the hospital who serve the patients are very well trained, 17) TKP
Leadership: employees who interact with patients are always motivated or joyful, 18) KP– Planning: hires sufficient number of staff for delivering quality service, 19) KP
Planning: the hospital chooses the suitable staff to serve the patients, 20) TKP- Leadershi
the employees are given the authority to decide and act accordingly, and 21) PPI – Suppo
Process: hospital ensures excellent safety for employees and patients all the time.

As the result, this model signifies that in learning & growth perspective, there are twelements naming leadership and context of the organization that have impact
operations. Meanwhile, in internal business process, it signifies that the quality
operations is certainly influenced by three elements such as planning, support process acontinual improvement. Furthermore, this operations element will have significant impa
both on customer satisfaction evaluation on the customer perspective and financ
performance evaluation on the financial perspective (Jonny & Zagloel, 2016).

Meanwhile, on the second topic, that was standards from Indonesian Commission
Accreditation of Hospitals as proposed by KARS:2012. These standards are grouped into
groups totaled 319 standards and 1226 assessment elements as shown in the followi
table:
Table 1. Standards form Indonesian Commission on Accreditation of Hospitals
proposed by KARS, 2012Group
I. Patient-centeredcare Standards
including APK, HPK,
AP, PP, PAB, MPO,
PPK
II. HospitalManagement
Standards including
PMPK, PPI, TKP,
MFK, KPS, and MKI
III. Hospital's Patient
Safety Goals
IV. Millennium
Development Goals
Total

Chapter
7

Standard
157

Assessment Element
614

6

153

569

1

6

24

1

3

19

15

319

1226

From the above table, it can be concluded that there were 13 standards regarding to patien
centered care and hospital management while 2 standards with one regulating how t
hospital to achieve its patient safety goals and the other regulating how it can achie
Millennium Development Goals. These 13 standards were used to be assessed by the tea

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in order to evaluate on how the hospital has implemented the Indonesian Health-care
Model as proposed by Jonny & Zagloel: 2016. Therefore there will be 310 standards with
1,183 assessment elements to be assessed by the team.
For assessment purpose, there is a guideline from Indonesian Commission on
Accreditation for Hospitals as proposed by KARS: 2012. In this guideline, it will be 3score criteria covering 3 if fulfilled (80-100%), 2 if partly fulfilled (20%-80%), and 1 if not
fulfilled (0-20%). From these scores, there will be standard and chapter assessment bydeploying the following formula such as:1) Standard assessment = (total score: total assessment x10) x 100%
2) Chapter assessment = (total assessment: total assessment x 10) x 100%
In conclusion, it can be understood that these two topics are interrelated. Therefore, it canalso be said that by implementing these standards it also implements the model. Thismutual understanding was promoted and understood among the management and staffs
from the hospital.
After having the mutual understanding from the related parties, the management and staff
have done the self assessment using the Indonesian Accreditation Standard as regulated byIndonesian Commission on Accreditation of Hospitals. The following table elaborates more
on detail related to its result:
Table 2. Self Assessment Result based on Indonesian Commission on Accreditation of
Hospitals as proposed by KARS, 2012

962

Chapter

Total
Score

%
fulfillment

Covered in

525

Total
Assessmentx10
105*10=1050

1. Access to Continuity ofCare (APK)
2. Patient and Family Rights(HPK)
3. Assessment of Patients(AP)
4. Care of Patients (PP)
5. Anesthesia and Surgical
Care (PAB)
6. Medication Management
and Use (MPO)
7. Patient and Family
Education (PPK)8. Quality Improvement andPatient Safety (PMKP)

50,0%

450

100*10=1000

45,0%Operations= 47.63% or
48%

660

172*10=1720

38,4%

370
255

74*10=740
51*10=510

50,0%
50,0%

420

84*10=840

50,0%

140

28*10=280

50,0%

440

88*10=880

50,0%Continual
Improvement = 50%

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9. Prevention and Control of
Infections (PPI)
11.Facility Management
and Safety (MFK)
13. Management ofInformation (MKI)
12. Medical Professional
Education (KPS)
10. Governance, Leadershipand Direction (TKP)

415

83*10=830

50,0%

460

92*10=920

50,0%

545

109*10=1090

50,0%

495

99*10=990

50,0%

490

98*10=980

50,0%

Support
Process =50%

Planning =50%
Leadership= 50%

From the above table, it can be concluded that Leadership was 50%, Planning was 50%
Continual Improvement was 50%, Operations was 48%, Support Process was 50%. Allelements were below required at 80%. This result gives insight that operations of thehospital was the lowest and needed to be improved. That is why from questionnaire it canbe concluded that the Patient Satisfaction was as low as 50%. On the other hand, thehealth-care cost for in-patient was reported at average of IDR 1,000,000.00. Meanwhile,
the Return on Equity of the hospital was at 0.56.
The above results have been compiled and discussed with the management and staff. Fromthat discussion, there were some recommendations generated as improvement programs forthe team to design improvement scenario plan in order to close the gap.
3.2 DoFrom the improvement scenario plan as described in the previous section, team was formed
in order to implement the plan thoroughly to the plan with a tight time line of one year as
its implementation period. A PDCA person-in-charge (PIC) was also appointed to makesure all needed action can be taken accordingly. Besides that, the high level of top
management’s commitment has also proven its effectiveness in making this happened.
During the implementation period, several problem identification and corrective actions
were also taken to ensure the plan was implemented as accordingly to the plan.

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figure 1. Assessment situation in a hospital
3.3 Check
After the implementation of the plan, a team was formed to check the result of thecompliance of the hospital on its Indonesian Commission on Accreditation of Hospitals.
This result is presented in the following table:
Table 3. Self Assessment Result based on Indonesian Commission on Accreditation of
Hospitals as proposed by KARS, 2012 after implementation of the scenario plan

964

Chapter

Total
Score

%
fulfillment

Covered in

525

Total
Assessmentx10
105*10=1050

1. Access to Continuity ofCare (APK)
2. Patient and Family Rights(HPK)
3. Assessment of Patients(AP)
4. Care of Patients (PP)
5. Anesthesia and Surgical
Care (PAB)
6. Medication Management
and Use (MPO)
7. Patient and Family
Education (PPK)8. Quality Improvement andPatient Safety (PMKP)

50,0%

450

100*10=1000

45,0%Operations= 47.63% or
48%

660

172*10=1720

38,4%

370
255

74*10=740
51*10=510

50,0%
50,0%

420

84*10=840

50,0%

140

28*10=280

50,0%

748

88*10=880

85,0%Continual
Improve-

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9. Prevention and Control of
Infections (PPI)
11.Facility Management
and Safety (MFK)
13. Management ofInformation (MKI)
12. Medical Professional
Education (KPS)
10. Governance, Leadershipand Direction (TKP)

697

83*10=830

84%

772

92*10=920

84%

915

109*10=1090

84%

921

99*10=990

93,0%

882

98*10=980

90,0%

ment = 85%
Support
Process =84%

Planning =93%
Leadership=90%

The above table was then compared with table 2 to learn that there was improvement
where Leadership was improved from 50% to 90%, Planning was improved from 50% to93%, Continual Improvement was improved from 50% to 85%, Operations was improved
from 48% to 86%, Support Process was improved from 50% to 84%. Meanwhile, fromsurvey, it can be learnt that Patient Satisfaction was improved from 50% to 82%.
Furthermore, from financial perspective, Health care cost for in-patient was reduced fromaverage IDR 1,000,000 to IDR 800,000 and Return on Equity of the hospital was increased
from 0.56 to 0.58. These results were satisfactory and it can be concluded that the model iseffective in improving the hospital condition.
4. CONCLUSION
From the previous section, it can be concluded that the Indonesian healthcare model wasable to integrate quality improvement, cost reduction, patient satisfaction and hospitalprofitability after its implementation in the selected hospital. However, the authors realizethat this finding is insufficient to be claimed as a whole Indonesian hospital industry.
Therefore, for future research, it can be taken into consideration on adding more hospitals
as its sample to be claimed as a whole Indonesian hospital industry.
This finding may have several theoretical and managerial implications. As theoretical
implication, by implementing this model, there are several principles that can be found.
These principles cover seven TQM enablers such as 1) leadership, 2) context of theorganization, 3) planning, 4) support process, 5) operations, 5) continual improvement, 6)
patient satisfaction and 7) financial performance. Meanwhile, for managerial implications,this model may encourage the stakeholders of the hospital to implement this model in orderto gain the same benefit in their hospital.
However, this research may have several limitations due to its limited sample and it should
be extended to cover many types of hospital. Therefore, in order to cover these limitations,future research directions can be extended to other types of hospitals.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

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This paper was supported by RS Bina Husada Cibinong as the first and only accredited
private hospital in Bogor Regency for administrating the survey needed to evaluate andvalidate the model.
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IMPROVING QUALITY AND PRODUCTIVITY ANALYSIS AS AN EFFORT TO
DEVELOPMENT THE SUPPORTING INDUSTRIES IN INDONESIA
Hafid Abdullaha dan Eddy Herjantob
Metal Industries Development Centre (MIDC), Ministry of Industry Indonesia
Jl. Sangkuriang No. 12 Bandung 40135
Email: hafidochan@yahoo.comb)Ministry of Industry Indonesia, Jl. Jenderal Gatot Subroto Kav.52-53 Jakartaa)

ABSTRACTThe quality and productivity on supporting industries in Indonesia was identified
low. The target of this research is to improve quality and productivity products increased as
an effort to development the supporting industries to be able to complete both in domestic
market an in a free market. The research method was taken, consist of: analysis of thecondition of supporting industries currently that seen from the reject ratios and quality
control, SWOT analysis and improved way through the implementation of the Quality
Control Circle (QCC) management for continuous improvement. The analysis showed thatmost of the rejected ratio can be decreased to be 2% approximated 45,65%, Indonesian
National Standard is less used (23.91%), which are widely applied quality system is ISO
9000:2008 (30.43%) and work instructions (30,43%). Quality improvement methods thatused are QCC approximated 45.65%, benchmark (34.78%), Failure Method and EffectAnalysis (17.39%), Quality Function Deployment (8.7%) and others 15.22% did not use
the method. The weakness of the SWOT analysis result is that the implementation of QCC
quality management system has not been optimally implemented. For examples, theimplementation QCC in PT. MTM. Result of the improvement the percentage of rejectedratios spacer component is 25% (before improvement) claimed by PT. Komatsu Indonesia
as its consumer (partnership) can be decreased to be 0% (after improvement).
Key words :QCC, 5W1H, continuous improvement, supporting industries.
1 INTRODUCTION
National industrial development is a part of industrialized process challenges allindustrial sectors to tightly compete, especially in facing globalization era. The external
challenge that must be faced is Indonesia as a member of World Trade Organization(WTO), and therefore its domestic market is open to the ASEAN economic community(MEA) and China as stipulated by ASEAN-China Free Trade Agreement (ACFTA) and
APEC in the year of 2020. It impacts on increasingly export opportunities as well as threats
for supporting industries in the country from the emergence of much larger quantities ofimported products at very competitive prices (Hafid, 2012).
Supporting industries based on GAIKINDO (Indonesian Automotive Industry
Association) is (Achadiat Atmawinata, et al, 2008) component and parts industries to meetthe needs of other industries to support the final manufacture or as a component/part aftermarket.

1

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Its important role in supporting the development of industry in Indonesia, can push thepace of regional economic development because it can provide stimulation for other industrial
sectors either directly or indirectly related through multiplier effect (Hafid dan Eddy Herjanto,2015). Its location is spreading in DKI Jakarta, West Java (Tangerang, Bekasi, Bogor,

Karawang, Sukabumi, Bandung), Central Java (Tegal, Klaten, Juwana) and East Java
(Sidoardjo, Pasuruan, Surabaya) and some in Medan (MIDC, 2012). Viewed from the scaleof the industry is very diverse ranging from small and medium enterpreses (SMEs) industry
to large scale companies with network of capital and international marketing. Large-scaleindustry is generally a PMA company or a joint venture company while SMEs are generally
local companies (PMDN).
In order to the quality, productivity and competitiveness of companies in the freemarkets (Klaus Schwab,2016), especially supporting industries scale SMEs- in order tosurvive and win the competition. The key is to be able to improve productivity andmaintain the quality of products to be marketed. This condition presupposes the optimal
effort of an industrial system (James L. Riggs, 2008; Richard B. Chase, et al, 2004; RI Law
No. 3 on Industry, 2014), namely the existence of quality control at every stage of the
production process, from input of raw materials to be finished good output (ATQC, 2004;
Sambas and Hartono, 2014), in order to satisfy consumer (partnership) and who do it.
According to Michael E. Porter (Yuyun, 2013) competitiveness is formed by theinteraction of several factors, namely: (1) rivalry among the same business people, (2) new
comer threats, (3) supplier threats, (4) substitute threats, (5) the buyer's threat. If the threats
and rivalries inside are very high, the situation will affect profitability.
One of the method to improve the competitive advantage of a company is toimplement a Total Quality Control (TQC) management system in which its implementation
is carried out with its Quality Control Circle (QCC). To produce a continuous improvement
recommendation (Jeffrey K. Liker and David Meier, 2007) is through the method of
improving the quality and productivity of the products that can satisfy the consumers andable to improve competitiveness, both in the domestic and in global markets.
Total Quality Control (TQC) is a management system that includes all leaders andemployees of all levels by applying the concept of quality control with statistical methods
to improve customer satisfaction and who do it (ATQC, 2004).
Quality Control Circle (QCC) management is defined as an effort to control QCC
activities so as to support the company's activity plan. While the QCC is a small group of
employees/organizations (4-10 peoples) of similar work who voluntarily hold regularmeetings outside of working hours to make improvements to work methods and productquality at work place (Kaoru Ishikawa, 2005).
Based on the problems above, the research objectives are: (1) to know the conditionof supporting industries currently, that seen from the reject ratio and quality control, (2)what factors influence the internal and external environment supporting industries by using
SWOT analysis method, (3) implementation of QCC management system containing
example case decresead rejected ratio of spacer component (Figure 5) in PT. MTM due toclaims from PT. Komatsu Indonesia is a consumer (partnership).
We hope that the results of research can be used for founder or the owner(managers) of the company as an effort to develop domestic supporting industries andincrease the national competitiveness.
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2 METHODOLOGY
In this research method is used the analysis of historical data, descriptive andaction. Primary data source obtained during the year of 2011 to 2016 through survey tosupporting industries by doing observation and interview directly to management of
selected company which become object of research besides hearing with technicians andexpert judgements from practitioners, academics and industry agency related. Secondary
data were obtained from literature studies from various publications, journals andinstitutional reports related to the discussion, etc.
To know the quality control in integrated to product quality at supporting
industries done implementation of TQC/QCC management system with case example in
PT. MTM. To maintain the confidentiality of the company name only mentioned initials.
Stages of TQC/QCC implementation activities in PT. MTM is as follows:
1. Preparation of the TQC / QCC committee, organizational structure and work program.
2. The kick of implementation of the TQC/QCC method.
3. Socialization of work programs of TQC/QCC committee activities: (a) establishment of
TQC/QCC team, (b) preparation of TQC/QCC team meeting schedule (c)training/implementation guidance.
4. Industry survey and start TQC/QCC team activities at PT. MTM, which includes: (a)identification of the condition of the company before improvement, (b) observing theflow of the manufacturing process, (c) documenting the initial conditions before andafter the improvement, (d) research the factors causing the rejected product from:materials, finished products, operators, machinery and equipment, working methods andwork environment.
5. Consultation, evaluation and countermeasured plan.
6. Take picture after improvement.
7. Standardization and the countermeasured plan.
8. Conclusions and recommendations of research results.
9. Presentation of results of activities by TQC/QCC team in front of company leaders andemployees.
10. Evaluation and reporting of research.
The stages of research conducted according to Moch. Nazir (2011) is as follows:
1. Identification and selection of problems.
2. Selection of conceptual frameworks for research problems and relationships with priorresearch.
3. Formulate research problems.
4. Build an investigation.
5. Provide definitions of variable measurements.
6. Selecting the sampling procedures and techniques used (Sugiono, 2012; Wibisono,2004).
7. Collection and processing of data.
8. Analyze and interpret the data.
9. Conclusions and suggestions
10. Reporting of research results.

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3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1. The Condition Supporting Industries at Present
Survey on supporting industries is to obtain data and information about the
supporting industries at this time and the obstacles that is faced. Some aspects studied are
the rejected ratio and quality control with the picture as follows (Ministry of Industry,2011):
1. Rejected Ratios
From the survey results obtained (Figure 1) shows that most supporting industries areable to suppress the rejected ratio ≤ 2% (45.65%). This condition indicates that most
supporting industries already perform standardized workmanship procedures. For
industries with rejected ratios greater than 10% need to be supported to reduce therejected ratio by less than 5% by increasing the employee's capability (technician) and
improving production process control in accordance with standard requirements.

Figure 1. Reject ratio

2. Quality Control
From the survey data obtained (Figure 2) shows that the supporting industries do thequality control, that is apply international quality standard (36,96%), quality standard
from buyer (36,96%) and company quality standard (36,96%). Quite interesting to note,
it is less use the Indonesian National Standard (SNI) or quality standards of export
destination countries While the method of quality improvement (Figure 3) used isdominated by Quality Control Circle (45.65%) and Benchmark (34.78%).
Quality system applied in the company, mainly quality system ISO-9000: 2008 (30.43%)
and Work Instruction guide (30.43%) company. Implementation of ISO 9000: 2008
quality management system that has not been certified and apply other quality
management system respectively 15,22%.

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Figure 2. Quality standards used
Note: (1) SNI, (2) International quality standards,(3) Quality standards of export destination countries,(4) Quality standards of buyers, (5) Company quality
standards, (6) None.

Figure 3. Quality improvement methods
Note: (1) QCC, (2) FMEA, (3) QFD,
(4) Bench mark, (5) None

3.2. SWOT Analysis
The tools used to analyze the state of the internal environment and external
supporting industries in this study are SWOT analysis (Che-Wei Chang, 2013, Rangkuti,
2005,2013), namely: (1) Strengths, (2) Weaknesses, (3) Opportunities, and (4) Threats.
Details of the SWOT analysis on the current supporting industries are as follows(Hafid, 2014):
1. Strengths:a. Various programs and support from the government, State-Owned Enterprises(BUMN), Private Enterprises (BUMS) and Universities (PT) and other institutions inan effort to improve ability and development are continuously improved.
b. The absorptive capacity of human resources and the increase of people's incomes.
c. The application of the product usage has a wide spectrum in the industrial field,
namely: industrial machinery of factory equipment, agriculture, textile, health,weapon, electronics, electrical components, automotive and other much needed
Indonesia.
d. Assist the government in reducing dependence on imported components so as to savethe country's foreign exchange, increase non-oil exports, strengthen industrial
structure and even distribution of development.
2. Weakness:a. The resulting product has low added value.
b. The machines and equipment used are still limited, most of them old enough for morethan 10 years and have not followed the development of new technology.
c. Production equipment technology is not up to date, especially SMEs.
d. The quality of human resources is still relatively low, especially the SMEs scale.
e. Not enough qualified human resources qualified and professional. SKKNI alreadyexist but not yet socialized and well adopted.
f. The investment capability for machinery and equipment procurement is still low due
to limited capital.
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g. Low attention research and development for materials, products, product functions,processes and equipment.
h. Produce very diverse product types with small quantities.
i. Procurement of raw materials is still imported.
j. The efficiency of production costs are still likely to be improved.
k. Implementation of operations management, such as: kaizen method (TQC/QCC) is
still not optimally implemented.
3. Opportunities:
a. Market demand continues to increase in both automotive components, heavyequipment, oil and gas equipment, petrochemicals, cement, paper industry,electronics and others.
b. The domestic market opportunity is the import of components (spare parts) is stillhigh with a high price.
c. Still a great opportunity to use raw materials originating from within the country.
d. There are still many competent and experienced human resources that have not been
given the responsibility in accordance with his expertise.
e. The opening of assistance from various institutions of government, universities andprivate for the improvement of human resources, management and technology.
f. Still high idle capacity.
4. Threats:a. Competition from imported products will be sharper as a result of the opening of the
global market.
b. To produce a quality product in accordance with the standards and technicalspecifications set need the mastery of adequate technology from the engineers andtechnicians.
c. Mass production capabilities, in which the production process flow and control
system, as well as supporting equipment for quality assurance are essential.
d. The user industry (partnership) of the product requires quality assurance, timelinessof completion and continuity of supply as well as competitive and competitive prices
3.3 Improving Quality and Productivity Analysis
For example case of quality improvement and productivity done in part productionof PT. MTM located in LIK Takaru Tegal Central Java. The company has a typefabrication of sheet metal working heavy equipent (Figure 4). Some of its customers are
PT. Komatsu Indonesia (main customer), PT. Katsushiro and PT. Hanken.
The company's quality policy is (1) fulfilling the satisfaction of its partnership, (2)maintaining the quality and productivity targets, (3) providing the best quality.
Quality control measures are performed by the QCC method (Komatsu, 2015) are as
follows:
1. Step I. Theme Selection
a. Theme: "Improved quality of PC 130-F production"b. Title: "Reduced rejected ratio of component spacer 2075465260 in drilling process"c. Reasons for choosing a theme:• Based on the results of inspections conducted under the production of PT. MTM is
still a lot of spacer components that claimed by PT. Komatsu.
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• Improving the quality of PT. MTM as an effort for the satisfaction of PT. Komatsu
who became consumers or partnership.

Figure 5. Component spacer

Figure 4. Hydraulic excavator PT. Komatsu Indonesia

2. Step II: Know the current condition and determine the target
Based on the examination of the spacer component type data of production in 2016
under the production of PT. MTM which is made for order PT. Komatsu, spacer
component 2075465260 (Figure 5) has the highest reject ratio (25%) claimed by PT.
Komatsu as shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7. This indicates that the component needs tobe given top priority to be addressed. Next team QCC PT. MTM sets the target ratio of
reject to 0% claimed.

Figure 6. The spacer component production PT. MTM
which is claimed

Figure 7. Rejected ratio component spacer
the year of 2016 in PT. MTM

3. Step III: Activity plan
After forming a QCC team consisting of small group activities with 6 members, withgroup leaders, facilitators and advisors of 1 person each, then the program schedule(plan and actual) QCC method application as shown in Table 1.
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Table 1. QCC team activity schedule at PT. MTM (November to December 2016)
Schedul of activity (Pland and actual)
Activity QCC 2016
Weeks
Step of improvement
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1.
Selecting theme and title Pemilihanxtema dan judul
2.
Recognizing current situation and
x
x
x
x
Plan
setting the goals
3
Creating the action planxx
4
Analysis of cause and effect
x
x
x
x
5
Implementation of countermeasureDo
6
Verifying the effects
Check
x
x
7
Establishing Standard
Action8
Remaining problem and future plan
Note : x = plan according to actual

9

x

10

x

4. Step IV: Analysis of the cause of the problem
To find out the cause of product damage problem of the current conditions first made theproduction process of spacer production in PT. MTM, as shown in Figure 8. Figure 6
and Figure 7 show that the spacer component becomes the highest cause of damage so
it’s needs to be addressed immediately. The cause of the damage was re-analyzed using
a fish bone covering 5M (materials, machinery and equipment, human, work methods
and work environment), is described in Figure 9.
Through QCC team discussion the main cause of damage is due to technician PT. MTM
uses a mall to mark the spacer that will be in the drilling process. After used some time
and time, then the hole in the mall getting bigger, so that the process of the mall position
is not center.
In a production process drilling (Figure 9) there can be a dispersion of product quality,
therefore, to analyze the cause of causal problems affecting the quality of Spacer
component, branstorming method is used with QCC team members (Table 2).
Cutting

Grinders

Inspection
VisualPlating zinc

Ponch

Finishing

Platting
Yellow

Marking

Inspection

Welding

Inspection
VisualDrilling

Warehouse

DeliveryFigure 8. The process of making spacer components in PT. MTM

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Faktor
MetodeOperator

Table 2. Analysis of the cause of the problem
Why 1
Why 2
Why 3
There are already methods Many components
On the check sheet
butnot
optimally riject 2075465260
look various types
implemented
workof reject
instruction in the drillingmachine.
Dimensions between NG When the process Mall marking is notholes
of marking with the standard
mall is not center

Why 4
The results of the workof new operators aredifferent from thoseexperienced
The hole point on themarking mall is alreadyenlarged

Figure 9. Drilling process using mall (before improvement)

5. Step V: Implement the repair
After knowing the root of the problem by using the method of causal analysis (Figure 9)
then is determined the ways of countermeasures reject component spacer 2075465260
through discussion in the QCC group, attempted to eliminate or reduce the damage that
occurred.
Improving product quality can be achieved one of them by using a tool (jig drill) to the
production process (Figure 10). Inaccuracy caused by the position and size of the middle
hole is not in the middle due to the use of manual drilling machine. This condition
causes loose. One effort that can be done to fix it is by using a tool (jig drill) (Henro, etal, 2010). The use of jig drill helps the technician/operator position the position
correctly, so that the quality and productivity of the spacer can increase. The next step isto implement improvements using the 5W1H method (Table 3) as follows:
What
Tool making
mall replacedwith jig drill

How
Create jig
drill&
inspection
jig

Table 3. 5W1H
Why
 Acceleratetheproduction process andavoid
non-standard
marking.
 Accelerate the processofchecking
andreplacing products

Where
Drilling
area

Who
1. Irfan
2. Joko
3. Eko S
4. Eko W.

When
November 1,
2016

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Figure 10. Drilling process using jig (after improvement)

6. Step VI: Evaluate the results of the improvement
The evaluation of the improvement results can be compared with the conditions before
and after the application of QCC which can be seen in Figure 11. From the figure it canbe seen that the percentage of reject spacer component ratio is 25% (before
improvement) so it needs to be improved. After quality control is done, the result isdecreased and the reject ratio becomes 0% (after improvement).

Figure 11. Result of improvement effort of quality and productivity

7. Step VII: Standardization
To demonstrate the success of the QCC group in decreasing the extent of damage tospacer components produced, then:a. Improving the knowledge and skills of machinery, supervisors (foremans).
b. QC control uses check jig after drilling process.
c. Implement preventitive maintenance of machinery and equipment
d. Implement continuous deviation prevention monitoring by following improvement
steps and examine other factors that still arise, so that the product quality deviation
factor can be optimally suppressed.
8 Step VIII: The next plan
Discusses the themes of process improvement, products or other components arising ona priority scale. The benefits gained by PT. MTM with the QCC is a manager andsupervisor regardless of routine jobs that meet their schedule. Decisions that initiallyrequire management approval may be given to supervisors or foreman. Decisions madeat lower levels are what should be made there.
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QCC has managed to deliver success in improving the quality of spacer component
production results in PT. MTM unit production. So the QCC team has brought profits asmuch as possible for both employees and companies.
4 CONCLUTIONS
Based on the results of improvements in quality and productivity that have been
done, then obtained some conclusions and suggestions as follows: Improving quality andproductivity analysis on supporting industries in Indonesia has been done. The research wastaken analysis of the condition of supporting industries at present that seen from the rejectedratios and QC, SWOT analysis and implementation of the QCC management for continuous
improvement. The result of implementation QCC in PT. MTM is component spacer
2075465260 has the highest rejected ratios claimed by PT. Komatsu Indonesi so that it is apriority to be overcome soon. Before improvement the production process drilling by using
mall and after improvement change by using drilling jig, the result is rejected ratio
component spacer decresed becomes zero percent claimed. The results achieved by PT.
MTM can be used as example for founder or managers of any other companys fordeveloping their domestic supporting industries.
5.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank: (1) Directors and management in the supporting
industries which has given license to visits industry and discussion, (2) Mr. Sakri
Widhianto and Mr. Achmad Sufiardi and Mr. M. Furqon from Ministry of Industry
Indonesia, (3) Mr. Nishida as experts JICA on Project on Enhancement of Metal Working
for Supporting Industries of Construction Machinery in Indonesia (2014-2016) (4) Mr.
Dwiwanto as the Director PT. MTM and Staff who have provided ease of data needed andgood cooperation in implementing QCC mehods, and all those who have contributed usefulideas and discussions that may not be written one by one.
6. REFERENCES
Astra., (2010), Astra Guidlines for Total Quality Control (ATQC), Jakarta. Pp.11.
Achadiat Atmawinata, et. Al, 2008. Depth Report of Industry Studies with Global
Competitiveness, Ministry of Industry, Jakarta. Pp. 1-3.
Cheng-Wei Chang and Chia Chun Liao, (2013), Applying SWOT analysis to explore
Taiwan foundry industry management strategy, International Journal of Innovation
Management and Technology, Vol. 4, No.1, February, Taiwan. Pp.114-115.
Hedro Prasetiyo, Harsono Taroepratjeka, Jonathan Felix, (2010), Jig & Fixture Design for
Yamaha Motorcycle Rear Gear Production, Proceeding National Seminar IV
Quality Management and Engineering 2010, ITENAS, Bandung, Pp. 211-212.
Hafid Abdullah and Kuntari Adi Suhardjo., (2012), The Highest No Good (NG) Quality
Control Problem in Battery Carbon Manufacturer Using QC Seven Tools Method,
Journal of Technology for Material and Technical Product, ISSN:2089-4767, Vol.2
No.2 December 2012, B4T- Ministry of Industry Indonesia, Bandung. Pp. 63.

11

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______ and Eddy Herjanto., (2015), Analysis of Growth Obstacles in National Machinery
Industries and Factory Equipment, Journal of Industrial Research, Vol.9 No.1, ISSN
1978-5852, Ministry of Industry Indonesia, Jakarta. Pp 50.
______ ., (2014), Analysis of Production Facilities on Ferrous Foundry Industry as an
Effort for Competitiveness Advantage of Companies, Proceedings of the National
Seminar on Industrial Technology, 2014. ISSN: 2355-925X, FTI-USAKTI,
Jakarta. Pp 019-4,5.
Jeffey K. Liker and David Meier., (2007), The Toyota Way Fieldbook. Translation
Copyright, Publishing Erlangga. Jakarta. Pp. 5.
Klaus Schwab., (2016), The Global competitiveness report 2016-2017, World Economic
Forum (WEF), Geneva. Pp. 7.
Komatsu, (2010), Casting Quality Improvement; in order to Make Quality Globally
Accepted, PT. Komatsu Indonesia, Jakarta. Pp. 7-31.
Kaoru Ishikawa, 2005, How to Operate QC Circle Activities, QC Circle Headquarters,
Juse, Japan. Pp. 4.
Ministry of Industry., (2011), A Study of Growth Obstacles in The Manufacturing Indutries
Bed on Metal, The Ministry of Industry Indonesia, Jakarta, Pp. 39-40.
MIDC., (2012), Research Capabilies Technology Manufacturing in Metal and Machinery
Industries for Development Product Substitution Imported, MIDC-Ministry ofIndustry Indonesia, Bandung.
Nazir, Mochamad. (2011). Research Methods. Seventh Print. Bogor: Galia Indonesia.
Riggs, James L. (2007), Production Systems: Planning, Analysis and Control, Singapura:
John Wiley & Sons.
Richard B. Chase, F. Robert Jacobs, Nicholas J. Aquilano. (2004), Operation Management.
USA: Mc. Graw Hill/Irwin.
Rangkuti, Freddy., (2005), Case dissecting SWOT analysis techniques, PT. Heritage
Gramedia Utama, Jakarta. Pp. 24-25.
_______, (2013). The Balanced Scorecard SWOT, Edition 4th, PT. Heritage Gramedia
Utama, Jakarta. Pp.29, 64-65.
RI Law No. 3 The Year of 2014 on Industry.
Sugiyono. (2012). Business Research Methods. Alfabeta, Bandung, Pp. 121 and 132.
Sambas and Hartono, (2014), Application of The Kaizen Concept as an effort to decreased
the appearance rejected for Xenia-Avanza Painting Process in PT. Astra Daihatsu
Motor, National Seminar on Science and Technology, FT Muhamadiyah University,
November 12, 2014, Jakarta. Pp. 1.
Wibiksono Darmawan, (2004). Business Research, Guide For Business and Academic,
Alpha Beta, Bandung. P. 47.
Law No. 3 Year of 2014 on Industry.

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LEVERAGING MOTOR CYCLE DRIVING SATISFACTION USING VEHICLE
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
Djoko Sihono Gabriel1, a, Palito J. Endthen1
1

Department of Industrial Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok Campus, Indonesia
16424
adsihono@gmail.com, gabriel@ie.ui.ac.id

ABSTRACT
Vehicle quality usually considered as key variable in maintaining Customer Satisfaction.
Good logistic and delivery of motorcycle, spare parts as well as post purchase service quality
also enhance customer satisfaction. These variables are mostly depended to overall effort of
motorcycle manufacturers and their value chain: from vehicle and spare parts design,materials choice, methods and quality of manufacturing processes, products and spare parts
quality control as well as service quality of authorized service and maintenance workshop.
No one doubt if motor cycle producers continually invest and operate their production andmaintenance facilities to ensure their products quality. But who care with motor cycle ownerrole? When a motor cycle bought, its operation and maintenance quality were strongly
depend on the owner of the vehicle that vary in their knowledge and awareness. This research
proposed Vehicle Operation and Maintenance Quality as a variable that leverage Driving
Satisfaction if the owner had good knowledge and good awareness in operating as well as
maintaining the vehicle. Otherwise, dissatisfaction will occur to owners who had lower
knowledge and awareness. A Structural Equation Modelling with Lisrel 8.8 software used
as tool of analysis in proofing of those hypothesis by identifying experience of 247 motor
cycle drivers in Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and Bekasi. The results indicated thatmost of the research hypothesis were accepted, especially that Vehicle Operation and
Maintenance Quality variable intervened the relationship between one of independent
variables with Driving Satisfaction variable. This research concluded that the proposedintervening variable will give valuable benefit if motor cycle producers and dealers develop
and maintain the variable correctly. Operation and Maintenance Quality will enhance
Driving Satisfaction and the better satisfaction will create better customer loyalty and brandloyalty. A new way of customer satisfaction improvement revealed by this research andstrategic efforts of motor cycle producers can be developed with a new perspective that neverknown before.
Keywords: motorcycle; intervening variable; operation and maintenance quality; driving
satisfaction; Structural Equation Modelling.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
This study focused on motorcycle drivers who live in Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and
Bekasi as sample respondents. The motor cycles drivers were selected as sample for two

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basic reasons. First, they are need appropriate vehicle operation and maintenance quality that
support driving quality. Second, motor cycle businesses with huge number of sales and tightcompetition need a break-through in satisfying their customers. Scooter motorcycle with
automatic transmission selected in this research because this type of vehicle need better
maintenance rather than the manual transmission one.
1.2. Objective
To deliver quantitative evident that vehicle operation and maintenance quality intervened
positively to the relationship between certain independent variable and driving satisfactionof motorcycle.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Sample and Research Instrument
With the research rationale, the sample includes 247 motor cyclists with automatictransmission who have responded to a set of questionnaire with tested answers before.
Subjects were asked to report their reactions to instrument statements by considering theirperceptions of vehicle quality, operation and maintenance quality and their driving
satisfaction. A six-item Likert scale was used as a response scale, from strongly disagree tostrongly agree. All of the 247 questionnaires were considered valid and reliable to be usedin the data processing.
2.2. Measurement Model
Measurement model is a specification of the measurement theory that shows how constructs
are operationalized by sets of measured items. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) is used
to test the reliability of a measurement model. CFA allows the researcher to tell the SEM
program which variable belongs to which factor before the analysis (Hair et al., 2007).
Salisbury et al. (2001) mentioned that CFA allows the researcher to specify the actual
relationship between the items and factors as well as linkages between them.
According to Hair et al. (2007) construct validity is the extent to which a set of measured
items actually represents theoretical latent construct; those items are designed to measure.
The reliability of variables’ value scale was examined by specifying a model in CFA using
Lisrel 8.8 software. Reliability of an instrument can also be calculated by Cronbach’s alpha,but use of SEM technique makes such a practice unnecessary and redundant (Bagozzi andYi, 2012). According to Hair et al. (2007) one incremental fit index (CFI), one goodness of
fit index (GFI), one absolute fit index (GFI) and one badness of fit index, with chi-squarestatistic should be used to assess a model’s goodness of fit.
2.3. Structural Model
After assessing the eligibility of scale for measuring different variables in the research, thenext step is to test the hypothesized relationships in a structural model. Some variables affectto motor cycle customer satisfaction according to previous research, like quality of service,
price, brand image, mileage of fuel, design (Yuvaraju & Rao, 2014) and vehicle quality(Shaharudin et al., 2010). Because of limited study of motorcycle customer satisfaction, thisProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284981

case study evaluated variables affected to customer satisfaction in passenger car by previous
researchers, because of car is categorized as motorized vehicle and have similarities that exist
in motorcycle.
Some variables affect to passenger car satisfaction identified as vehicle quality (Stylidis,2016), brand service quality, brand value, technology anxiety (Aziz, 2016), service quality(Al-Shammari & Kanina, 2014), economical to use (Srinivas, 2013), customer service
quality, product quality (Jahanshahi, 2011), and maintenance cost, fuel efficiency, andcomfort (Mahapatra, 2010). Independent variables were proposed as predictors for customer
satisfaction, but no intervening variable proposed in previous research. Table 1 resumes
proposed determinants of both motor cycle and automobile customer satisfaction by previous
research.
Table 1. Determinant of Customer Satisfaction of Motorized Vehicle
Determinant of customer satisfaction Researcher (year)
Motor cycle
Quality category
Shaharudin et al. (2010)
Quality of service, price, brand image,Yuvaraju & Rao (2014)
mileage of fuel, design
Automobile
Quality category
Post sales service quality
Price and cost category
Brand image and reputation

Stylidis (2016); Aziz (2016); Zhang & Zhang(2015); Hamza, (2014); Jahanshahi (2011); Chiu
et al. (2011); Spreng et al. (1996)
Aziz (2016); Al-Shammari & Kanina (2014);
Jahanshahi (2011);
Zhang & Zhang (2015); Srinivas (2013);
Mahapatra (2010);
Aziz (2016); Zhang & Zhang (2015);

Vehicle quality proposed as key predictors to driving satisfaction in this research. Descriptionof vehicle quality varies among researchers. Many of them suggest performance as common
terminology of quality, but various attributes proposed as quality, including reliability,
durability, serviceability, aesthetics, special feature, conformance to specification,technology, convenient, technicalities, speed, fuel efficiency, emission, ease of driving, space
utilization, functions and customization. Watson et al. (2007) mentioned that vehicle quality
strongly related to driving safety both in motorcycle and passenger car.
According to literature study of motor cycle and passenger car, three independent variables
proposed in this study as follow:
1. Vehicle Reliability
2. Operational Quality
3. Functional Quality

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With new insight in this study, a variable proposed as intervening or moderating variable wasOperation and Maintenance Quality. If the three independent variables related and managed
by vehicle manufacturers, the intervening variable managed by owner of vehicle. Theintervening variable is new variable that have not been introduced before. Figure 1 was apreliminary model proposed for SEM with three independent variables, one intervening
variable and one dependent variable.

Figure 1. Preliminary Model Proposed for SEM
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A computer program prepared for Structural Equation Modelling with serial steps of model
specification, model identification, model estimation, goodness fit tests, and then respecification of structural models generated the following figures within the model. Table 2
show evaluation of structural model between three independent variables, one intervening
variable and Driving Satisfaction as dependent variable.

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Table 2.
Evaluation of the Structural Model
Relationship among variables
Coefficient T-Value
Vehicle Reliability to Driving Satisfaction
+0.08
1.33
Operational Quality to Driving
+0.45
3.55
Satisfaction
Functional Quality to Driving Satisfaction
+0.43
3.51
O & M Quality*Vehicle Reliability to
-0.14
-2.01
Driving Satisfaction
O & M Quality*Operational Quality to
+0.29
3.31
Driving Satisfaction
O & M Quality*Functional Quality to
-1.44
-0.11
Driving Satisfaction

Relationship
Rejected
Accepted
Accepted
Rejected
Accepted
Rejected

Structural equation according to SEM indicated that t-statistic value of Vehicle Reliability
to Driving Satisfaction was less than 1.96 and the other two relationship were greater than
1.96. Therefore Vehicle Reliability will not be considered in the next analysis, including therole of intervening variable on the relationship between Vehicle Reliability and Driving
Satisfaction. The next analysis focused on the relationship between Operational Quality andFunctional Quality with Driving Satisfaction and the role of Operation and Maintenance
Quality as intervening variable. Since intervening role on the relationship between
Functional Quality to Driving Satisfaction was also rejected, the only intervening role
existed on the relationship between Operational Quality and Driving Satisfaction. Evaluationof the structural equation showed in Table 2 as followed by graphic representation in Figure
2.

Figure 2.
Result of Structural Equation Modelling between Variables

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The structural model evaluation indicated that Operation and Maintenance Quality accepted
as intervening variable in the relationship between Operational Quality and Driving
Satisfaction as shown in the Table 2 with good t-statistic value (3.31) and its significant
coefficient (0.29). Otherwise, Vehicle Reliability became not accepted in this context ofrelationship.
In this case study, observed variables in Operational Quality exists in the vehicle itself andmanufacturer and its supply chain efforts, included the following description:
1. Mileage per liter of fuel2. Durability of vehicle and its spare parts
3. Easy in driving
4. Simple in daily maintenance
5. Easy in periodic maintenance, both technical and financial aspects
Otherwise, Operation and Maintenance Quality more depend on owner intention in operationand maintenance of vehicle as follow:
1. Ability to describe schedule and type of routine maintenance and repair of vehicle
2. Ability to pay all of vehicle maintenance and repair
3. Commitment for scheduled vehicle maintenance and repair implementation
4. Commitment for vehicle operation in its loading limit
According to the accepted structural model, Operation and Maintenance Quality strengthencausal relationship between Operational Quality and Driving Satisfaction. A vehicle with
better Operation and Maintenance Quality tends to improve its driver satisfaction. Otherwise,lack of Operation & Maintenance Quality made no improvement in Driving Satisfaction.
Finding in this research contributes a new perspective in customer satisfaction determinant.
If in the past motorcycle manufacturer and their supply chain focused on vehicle quality andits post sales service, in the next era, motorcycle manufacturer who care and support vehicles
users in improving their Operation & Maintenance Quality will take important advantage intheir customer satisfaction that also will improve their loyalty and intention to buy the brand.
4. CONCLUSION
Leveraging driving satisfaction of motorcycle using Operation & Maintenance Quality
improvement was well tested by structural equation modelling in this research. This finding
also can be interpreted that bad Operation and Maintenance Quality would weaken the
Driving Satisfaction, whether the quality of motorcycle was actually genuine. Lack ofOperation and Maintenance Quality could reduce the user satisfaction. Owner role inOperation and Maintenance Quality improvement should be supported by motorcycle
manufacturers and its supply chain in order to improve customer satisfaction and loyalty. The
new finding suggests a new way of understanding about by whom and how customer
satisfaction can be improved. Motorcycle owners with lack of operation and maintenanceknowledge, and then used breakdown maintenance rule of thumb would have bad experiencein driving satisfaction. Therefore manufacturers aiming to boost their customer satisfaction
should thus consider this finding and recommend their vehicle buyers to use both preventive

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985

and predictive maintenance with good standard of maintenance practices. They might findthat an appropriate brochure and good operation and maintenance manual as well as its
direction, both in written and oral explanation, followed by regular and repetitive remainders
to vehicle owners may become more efficient means in encouraging Operation and
Maintenance Quality improvement, not only focused on improvement of vehicle quality andpost sales services. Fair and competitive pricing by authorized maintenance workshop withgood standardized maintenance practices also support the new finding implementation.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research would not have been possible without the kind support of Hibah PITTA 2017
scheme. We are grateful to Universitas Indonesia for funding the research that has been
carried out.
6. REFERENCES
Al-Shammari, M. & Kanina, A. S., (2014), Service Quality and its Relationship with
Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty in a Saudi Arabian Automobile Company, Global
Journal of Management and Business Research: E Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 8, pp. 13-21.
Aziz, S. A., (2016), Does Fear of New Car Technologies Influence Brand Loyalty
Relationship? Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 125-136.
Bagozzi, R., & Yi, Y. (2012), Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural
equation models, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 40 No. 1, pp. 8–
34.
Chiu, S., et al. (2011), Preliminary research on customer satisfaction models in Taiwan: Acase study from the automobile industry, Expert Systems with Applications, Vol. 38, pp.
9780-9787.
Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., Anderson, R., & Tatham, R. (2007). Multivariate data analysis(6th ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education India.
Hamza, P.K., (2014). A Study on the Determinants and Impact on Overall Customer
Satisfaction Evaluations with Special Reference to Automobile Industry, Journal of
Science, Technology and Management, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 0974-8334.
Jahanshahi, A. A., (2011), Study the Effects of Customer Service and Product Quality on
Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty, International Journal of Humanities and Social
Science, Vol. 1 No. 7, pp. 253-260.
Mahapatra, S. N. et al., (2010), Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Post-Purchase
Evaluation: An Empirical Study on Small Size Passenger Cars in India, International
Journal of Business and Society, Vol. 11 No. 2, pp. 97-108.
Salisbury, W.D., Pearson, R.A., Pearson, A.W., & Miller, D.W. (2001), Perceived security
and World Wide Web purchase intention, Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol.
101 No. 3/4, 165.
Spreng, R. A. et al., (1996), A reexamination of the determinants of consumer satisfaction,
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 60 No. 3, pp. 15-31.

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Srinivas, K. T., (2013), The Study on Customer Satisfaction with Respect to Hyundai Motor
Cars i20 in Bangalore City, International Journal of Management Research and Review,Vol. 3 No. 9, pp. 3569-3579.
Stylidis, K. et al., (2016), A Preliminary Study of Trends in Perceived Quality Design
Attributes in the Automotive Luxury Market Segment, International Design Conference– Design 2016, Dubrovnik, Croatia, May 16-19, 2016.
Watson, B. et al., (2007), Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider
intentions and behaviour, Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety (CARRS-Q)
Queensland University of Technology, August 2007.
Yuvaraju, D. & Durga Rao, S. D., (2014), Customer Satisfaction towards Honda Two
Wheelers: A Case Study in Tirupati, IOSR Journal of Business and Management, Vol.
16 No. 5, pp. 65-74.
Zhang, D. & Zhang, D. M., (2015), Determinants of Consumer’s Automobile Purchase
Decisions in China: Focus on Automobile Size, Int. J. Mgmt Res. & Bus. Strat., Vol. 4
No. 4, p. 61-66.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
MANAGING PORT CLUSTER DYNAMICS: DEVELOPMENT OF PORT POLICY
MODEL
a1
Armand Omar Moeis , Himawan Pranamuktiac, Akhmad Hidayatnoa, Mohammad Rizky Nur
Imana, Naufa Munaba
Universitas Indonesia, Kampus Baru UI, Depok 16424, IndonesiabTrade Analysis and Development Agency, Ministry of Trade Republic of Indonesiac
PT Sucofindo (persero), Jakarta, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
A port is a hub of a trading network. Its role becomes even more strategic in an archipelagocountry such as Indonesia, as a driver of national economic growth. Tanjung Priok Port is themost important port in Indonesia, where Indonesia's economic growth is highly dependent on
its capacity. The port's capacity development planning has been designed through 2030 andwill dynamically affect the existing systems and its environment. This study will analyze thesystem, explore the policy area and synthesize result of system analysis and institutional
analysis. The result of the synthesis is the port policy model itself and then simulated withsystem dynamic modelling to challenge the policy prior to its implementation.
Keywords : System Analysis, Actors Analysis, Port Capacity, Port Policy, System Dynamics
1. INTRODUCTION
Ports are hubs of the national trading and logistics network, even some for international
trading and logistics. The role of ports has evolved over time. At first, orientation of logistic
integration as well as the networking in maritime and port industry has redefined its
functional role regarding the value chain and has moved a new pattern on the sailing
distribution and new approach for the port hierarchy (Notteboom & Rodrigue 2005).
Up until 1980, the port activities is highly related to the economical process of its city
(Ferrari et al. 2015). Port services heavily rely on human workforce and is under the controlof the government and efficiency was not the main goal of port. The application oftechnology, especially technology related to the standardization of cargo and containers,
encouraged privatization in port management. It aims for the enhancement of the overall port
performance (Langen & Heij, 2013;Ferrari et al., 2015).
The shipping sector with the highest growth rate (8.2%) during 1990 until 2010 was thecontainered goods (Carlo, Vis, & Roodbergen, 2014 as quoted from UNCTAD, 2011). This
growth goes in line with the increase of container availability, which now is capable ofshipping 14.500 TEUs when earlier in 1955 could only ship hundreds. Therefore, the ports
must adjust its capacity to the arrival of the ships with that particular size.
The need of the capacity enhancement is limited by the country’s funding. One way to
overcome this limited funding is by granting concession to private and foreign parties forcommercially attractive ports. There are four known types of concession-granting
combination: (a) state/public ownership and public participation of port operation; (b)state/public ownership and private role on port terminal construction; (c) public/state
ownership and private participation in the superstructure construction of the port (e.g.: quay
crane) and port operation; and (d) private ownership and its operations (Notteboom 2006).
1

Corresponding Author
email address: armand.omar@ui.ac.id

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The usage of public ownership and private operations (POPO) has been widely spread (Ng etal. 2014). In POPO concession model, the agreement is signed by the private terminal
operators and the authority of port owner or any government institution whom is appointed as
port authority. The concession can be a form of long term lease agreement or operational
license for private party to operate certain terminals for a fixed period of time.
The enhancement of port capacity will increase the number of containers in the port.
Moreover, there is a need to determine what kind of policy is needed to deal with the port
capacity enhancement.
The container port policy model shall be designed to fulfill that particular need. The method
used in designing the policy covers (1) Substantive diagnostic with system analysis approach;(2) exploration of the policy area; (3) Synthesis of the system analysis and policy exploration,measured with System Dynamics simulation.
2. SUBSTANTIVE DIAGNOSTIC WITH SYSTEM ANALYSIS APPROACH
2.1. Analysis of Objective and Criteria Specification
In the analysis of the objective and criteria specification, there are two diagrams that is used,which are the Means-ends diagram (figure1) and the Objective Tree (figure 2). Means-ends
diagram is used to identify and communicate the basic goal. It is chosen at the beginning andis intentionally taken in accordance to the limitation of the problem so that it is considered as
the starting point for further analysis. This diagram provides bigger range of solutions.

Maintaining Port
Business
Environment

Maintaning
Customer Loyalty

Increase
Marketing Effort

Improve
Customer Loyalty

Improve Service
Quality

Build New Berth

Increase ProÞt
per Port

Add New
Services

Cost EfÞciency

Reduce DwellingTime

Improve Capacityof Existing Berth

Shifting Custom
Clearance
Location

Improve Port
Train Frequency

Figure 1 Means-Ends Diagram

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989

Maintaining Port
Business
Environment

Business
Continuity

Customer Loyalty

Extension
Customer
Segment

Healthy Economy

Increased
Revenue

Increased Net
ProÞtFigure 2 Objective Tree Diagram
2.2. Causal Analysis
The next phase is the exploration of the factors that affect the end result. Those factors andtheir impact is illustrated in a causal diagram. The differences between causal diagram andother, similar, tools such as means-ends and the objective tree are a). The causal diagramshows the causal relationship, not the aim or the direction of change, b). Factors that cannot
be changed or controlled by actors but are impactful to the result is included.
2.3. Identification of Possible Solutions
The ideas for problem-solving actions can be defined in a different specification levels andcombined in several ways. At this phase, we first determine the terms for specific policy
solutions. The terms used are composed by Thissen and Walker (2013).
• Policy option is the individual examination which directly affects the system.
• The strategy is the combination of the policy option which aims to accomplish a
specific goal.
• The policy is combination of strategies, which is possibly designed to help achieve
multiple goals.
There are several additional approaches to shape the idea about possible policy options suchas the causal diagram, means-end diagram, diagnostic thinking, etc.

Figure 3 Causal Analysis Diagram
3. EXPLORATION OF POLICY AREA
3.1. Actors Analysis
In this part, the analysis of relevant actors is performed, after that the indication of basic
information is elicited from those actors. The steps of actor analysis are: 1) identification of
relevant actors, 2) needs, perception, and actors’ position, 3) interdependent analysis between
all actors and 4) the passage analysis.

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The analysis of relevant actors includes the identification of the parties besides the issue
owner who play part or have any interest in the port system. The identified actors for thissystem are the port operator, shipping company, and the bureaucracy involved, which are theCustoms, Quarantine and Immigration, especially the ones in charge of dwelling time. Others
are container trucks transport company, local government and citizens.
3.2. Institutional and Decisional Analysis
As the complement of the actors analysis, institutional and decisional situation analysis
focuses on the formal and informal context where the policy issue occurs and possibly
solved. There are also characteristics of the inter-actor relationship, such as the cultural
factors and relation dynamics, the dominant habit of the actors’ interaction, the networking
characteristics like the communication pattern and the potential changes of the actors’
position and relationship.
The informal interaction structure is not easy to identify but it is possibly relevant. Interviews
with key actors or thorough research of secondary sources can be a resourceful way to findout more about informal interactions. A deeper discovery can be obtained by exploring thehistory of the issue: which actors play a part and alliance to which party as well as if there
were any coalitions between the existing actors.
4. SYNTHESIS FROM THE SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND THE ACTORS ANALYSIS
Results of system analysis and actors analysis, subsequently synthesized to produce a modelof port policy (Figure 4). This synthesis is usually called System Diagram.
Ø Number of berthØ Berth capacity
Ø Quay utilization
Ø Dwelling time limitØ Access improvement for in andout containerØ Growth of industry athinterlandØ Growth of shipping company
Ø Global economyØ Port competition
Ø Bureaucracy

A wholebusiness at
container
terminalØ Growth of container throughput
Ø Increasing of revenue
Ø National economy growthØ Environment comfort

Figure 4 System Diagram of Port Policy Model
5. THE EXAMINATION OF POLICY MODEL WITH SYSTEM DYNAMICS
The policy model needs to be tested utilizing simulations to prevent fatal errors upon thepolicy before it is issued. The examination for this policy model is a simulation with
System Dynamics. The influential factors in the system are displayed in a stock and flow
diagram, and simulated using PowerSim software, as seen in figure 5 (Anon 2016). The
dynamic model was inspired from a work by Soares et.al (2010). It was a model that
illustrates predictive capacity of a container terminal state in Brazil. We based our model onthat and conducted significant changes that reflects the requirements of our research.

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Figure 5 Stock and Flow Diagram of Container Terminal

6. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONSIn a dynamic simulation, there are several factors that were tested to determine their impact
on the capacity of the port in the future. The factors include the condition of the roadaround the harbor at this time, the addition of toll ports, railways and canals. As theindicator is the number of containers moving out of the port. The proposed projection
period is up to 2030. The result of simulation is shown in the figures below.

Flow of container out of port

TEUS/yrCurrent Road and Railway Capacity
10,000,000

5,000,000

0
Jan 1, 2011

Jan 1, 2016

Jan 1, 2021

Jan 1, 2026

Non-commercial use only!

Figure 6 Flow of container moving out of the port for current road and railway capacity

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Flow of container out of port

TEUS/yr

Port Toll Road Addition

10,000,000

5,000,000

0
Jan 1, 2011

Jan 1, 2016

Jan 1, 2021

Jan 1, 2026

Non-commercial use only!

Figure 7 Flow of Container Moving Out of the Port with the Additional Port Toll Road

Figure 8 Flow of container moving out of the port with the additional waterway
The enhancement of the container port in Tanjung Priok can be implemented as long as it isfollowed by the increment of in-and-out container access from the Tanjung Priok Port.
Based on the simulation performed by PowerSim software (Anon 2016), it can be inferredthat:i. Provided that the enhancement of the container port is not followed by the increment of
the terminal (in-and-out) access, the container will be held in the holding field(container yard).
ii. The usage of trains from the port to hinterland does not affect much to the enhancementof the out flow of the container if the train frequency did not significantly increased.
The hinder of the train frequency is that there is no dedicated railway for

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containers/goods service, yet (still hitched on the passenger railway). Therefore, aninvestment on a dedicated port railway is needed to the enhancement of port capacity.
iii. The usage of the port highway can increase the in-and-out access of the containered
goods to/from the port so that it does not interfere with the arrival of those from theship.
iv. The canal construction from Bekasi Laut to Cikarang can increase the flows of goods,
henceforth the terminal’s throughput as well.
v. The usage of canal will affect the competition between different modes of transport
providers (intermodal competition).
vi. Dwelling time does not have significant impact to the outflow of the port if the
projection is done annually, however, it influences the decision of international shipping
companies (in determining their liner services). The decision regarding the maximum
duration is decided by the Ministry of Finance for the pre-clearance, clearance, andpost-clearance processes, which must be juxtaposed with the providing appropriate
holding field out of the port.
vii. Dwelling time is also influenced by container-using importers who prefer keeping theircontainered goods in the port, rather than to moving it elsewhere, due to lower cost. The
new progressive tariff is determined by increasing the tariff after the fixed time limit.
Hopefully this can lower the dwelling time.
7. CONCLUSION
The development of container ports involves many actors, each with different interest. The
study was carried out by synthesizing System Analysis and Actors Analysis to produce a
policy model. The policy model is then tested with System Dynamics simulation to obtaininsights of the impacts (or effects) of that. The model has not explored factors that affect thecontainer demands at the port, and still assumes the number of containers according to port
capacity. Further studies are needed to develop this research in order to obtain a morecomprehensive container port policy model.

References
Anon, 2016. Powersim. Available at: http://www.powersim.com.
Carlo, H.J., Vis, I.F.A. & Roodbergen, K.J., 2014. Transport operations in container
terminals: Literature overview, trends, research directions and classification scheme.
European Journal of Operational Research, 236(1), pp.1–13. Available at:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377221713009405 [Accessed
October 5, 2015].
Claudio J.M. Soares, H.X.R.N., 2010. A Model for Predictive Capacity of a Container
Terminal State : a System Dynamics Approach. , pp.1–15.
Ferrari, C., Parola, F. & Tei, A., 2015. Governance models and port concessions in Europe:
Commonalities, critical issues and policy perspectives. Transport Policy, 41, pp.60–67.
Langen, A.P. De & Heij, C., 2013. Performance effects of the corporatisation of Port ofRotterdam Authority.
Ng, A.K.Y. et al., 2014. Port geography at the crossroads with human geography: Between

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flows and spaces. Journal of Transport Geography, 41, pp.84–96. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.08.012.
Notteboom, T.E., 2006. The Time Factor in Liner Shipping Services. Maritime Economics&#38; Logistics, 8(1), pp.19–39.
Notteboom, T.E. & Rodrigue, J.-P., 2005. Port regionalization: towards a new phase in port
development. Maritime Policy & Management, 32(3), pp.297–313.
Thissen, W.A.H. & Walker, W.E. eds., 2013. Public Policy Analysis: New Development,
Dordrecht: Springer.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)

Modeling and Simulation of Stacking Rules in Container
Terminals with a Discrete Event Simulation Approach
Armand Omar Moeis*, Muhammad Harisuddin
Universitas Indonesia, Kampus Baru UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia

ABSTRACTThe traffic flow enhancement of international containers increases every year along with
continuous economic growth. Therefore, there is a need to improve container terminal
operations. This study focuses on modeling a stacking yard. Good container stacking rules
should reduce reshuffling, which is considered as waste in container terminal operations.
This study provides a means to understand what stacking rules are and its impact on
container terminal operations efficiency.
Keywords: Container Terminal, Stacking Yard, Stacking Rules, Discrete Event Simulation
1.INTRODUCTION
The traffic flow of containers increases every year, especially in the Port of Tanjung Priok as
the biggest port in Indonesia. According to the study, the traffic flow of containers will
increase to 10,84 million TEUs (twenty equivalent units) in 2020. Meanwhile until the endof year 2012 it has reached 5 million TEUs. To anticipate the enhancement of traffic flow
containers through the Port of Tanjung Priok, the container terminal at the Port of Tanjung
Priok should improve its productivity and efficiency in loading and unloading containers.
Several main factors that have significant impacts on the container terminal productivity arestowage planning, berth allocation, crane optimization, transportation optimization andcontainer stacking (Stahlbock & Voß 2008). One of the main factors is the container stacking
in stacking yard. The way the containers are being stacked is the key determinant to container
terminal productivity and efficiency (Moeis & Goputra 2015; Carlo et al. 2014)
Therefore, the purpose of this research is to develop a container terminal model that
represents loading and unloading activities inside it. The objective of this model to help
evaluating the stacking rules that used in container terminal for stacking the containers. By
developing this model, hopefully it will give some insights about how the container terminal
works, especially in stacking yard.
The main objectives of the stacking rules are efficiency of ground usage, minimize
transportation time and minimize reshuffling (Böse 2011; Meisel 2009). Reshuffling isclassified as unproductive move in container terminal activities, especially during container
off loading/on loading from a ship and in stacking yard. Moreover, another purpose of this*

Corresponding author
email address: armand.omar@ui.ac.id

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model is to give understanding and deep insight about container terminal operational
activities. Therefore, we build this model using discrete event simulation approach supportedwith animations. The animated objects represent the activities in container terminal, such as:
gantry cranes that lift the containers, terminal trucks that carry the containers etc. The use ofanimated objects in a model can aid the verification and validation process, facilitate theunderstanding of the model, provide the help to view the result of the model and achieving
the credibility for the model (Trunfio 2011; Hou & Geerlings 2016; Van Houten & Verbraeck2006).
2. METHODOLOGYThis study uses discrete event simulation in building a model of the container terminal.
Model development begins with the conceptualization of making the model as the main basis
for building a model. Conceptualization model provides a thorough understanding of themodel. It is because it contains objective of the model, input and output model as indicator,
the process flow model, alternative scenarios and concerned stakeholders of the model. The
activity will then continue with construction, where the actual model is developed.
Furthermore, it continues with verification (where we check whether all technicalities arecorrect) and validation (whether the model represents the real system or not), then ended
with model use (see figure 1).
Start

Conceptualization

ConstructionVeriÞcation &Validation

Use

Stop

Figure 1 Basic Simulation Study Methodology

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The purpose of this model is to evaluate two methods of stacking (stacking rules) in the
conduct of container stacking. Input variables of the model are the vessel departure time,
destination of the container, the arrival of containers at the container terminal, and thecapacity of the stacking area. Vessel’s departure time and destination of the container will
be used as an attribute in the container as the container identification. The output of thismodel is the amount of reshuffling and it will be used as the main indicator of the model.
This model will do some experiments with two methods of stacking, the stacking category
based on destination and stacking category based on vessel. Problem owner of this model isthe yard planner who responsible in planning the container stacking yard.

Figure 2 Conceptual Model (adapted from Meisel 2009)
2.1. Model Development
We choose to use Tecnomatix Plant Simulation 9.0 (Anon 2013) to build our model. This
software is specialized to build discrete event model based on object oriented simulation.
This model only represents the flow of containers export. This is because the implementationof the stacking rules is only give significant effect on the accumulation of containers thatwill be heading to the vessel. While the implementation of stacking rules on container
imports that will come out of the container terminal by truck does not really have significant
influence for the container terminal performance. It is because the container trucks arrive
randomly in container terminal. Due to that situation, it is somewhat difficult to develop
stacking rules based on the unpredicted arrival of container truck (Dekker et al. 2007).
The model represents an international container terminal in Jakarta, i.e. Jakarta International
Container Terminal (JICT). JICT is owned by Hutchison Port Holding and Indonesia Port
Corporation. JICT is mainly used as our learning experience. Knowledge and insights

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derived from this JICT model will then be used in our further Maritime Logistics study. In
this model, there are 11 blocks of the stacking yard. Each block is served by single gantry
cranes. There are three berths for vessel, and each of them served by 3 quay cranes. The
model simulates the arrival of 15,598 TEUs of containers in a container terminal. Simulation
is run for 13 days including a 4-days-warm-up period to initialize the stacking yard. This
phase is used to fill the yard with containers so that when the simulation starts stacking area
is not empty.
There are two kinds of transporters are used in the model. The transporter built as trucks thattransport containers in the container terminal. The first transporter is named external truck.
It responsible to bring containers into the container terminal and heading to the stacking area.
The second transporter named head truck. It is responsible for carrying container from thestacking yard to the berth area. While in the berth, quay crane will transport containers on
board.

Figure 3 Layout of Container Terminal Model
Simulations were run with two kinds of stacking methods (stacking rules). The first method
is based on vessel category. In this method, the containers will be stacked based on theirvessel category that exist in each container. Therefore, the container with the same vessel
will be on the same area and the same container piles. The second method is based ondestination category. In this method, the container allocation is done based on the attributesof the destination in each of the containers. So that the container with the same destination
attribute will be in the same piles.
2.2. Model Validation
Model validation is done to ensure that the model is valid and able to represent the systemof container terminal in the real world. Basically, the model is not able to produce models
with 100% accuracy, but the model is a simplification that is easy to understand and can
explain the actual reality.
In this model validation is performed by measuring the occupancy rate at the yard by yard

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occupancy rate models on the JITC. Based on the data obtained during the last 5 weeks, theaverage occupancy rate of JITC yard is equal to 88%. While the values obtained in modelyard occupancy rate at 11 pieces’ block stacking area is at 89%.
The result shows that the difference between the numbers obtained in the model with thevalue of the container terminal performance JICT only differs by 1%. The difference is smallenough that it can be stated that the design model of the container terminal operation withdesigns Jakarta International Container Terminal operations are similar. So, it can be statedthat the model in this study are valid.

Figure 4 Model Validation

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
There are three simulation models compared in this study are: the basic model, the modelwith stacking rule based on destination and stacking rule based on vessel. The main indicatorof the model we want to look in this research is the amount of reshuffling. The lessreshuffling generated, it indicates the higher efficiency of operational performance in thestacking area. Because the reshuffling itself is a waste in container terminal operations. It
makes the unloading operation take longer time than it should.
Figure 5 shows the results of simulations run on three models. The graph shows that thevalue of reshuffling on three kind of the model has significant difference. Each method has
a responsibility to serve the same number of containers that 5,836 container boxes. At eachmodel, there is a difference of the amount of movement of the gantry crane in handling 5,836
boxes. The greater the amount of movement required to serve 5,836 boxes, the more
inefficient operational stacking yards. Because it indicates high amount of reshuffling inserving the stacking yards.

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Basic Model

Figure 5 Simulation Results
Figure 5 also shows that container stacking rule based on vessel gives result as follows:
6,022 moves to unload 5,836 boxes, with 186 reshufflings. Container stacking rule based ondestination requires 12.546 moves to unload 5.836 boxes of containers, with 6710
reshufflings.
The simulation results indicate that the stacking rule based on vessel show higher
performance efficiency because it produces a smaller value of reshuffling. Performanceefficiency of the model with category stacking based on vessel is higher because the main
factor in determining the order of unloading containers is based on the arrival of the ship.
So, grouping stacking containers by vessel/ship will be very significant effect on theefficiency of the container unloading activity in stacking yard. The opposite occurs inanother model, where the containers are grouped with the same destination.
4. CONCLUSIONSThe use of simulation to model the activity of container terminal is one of the tools toevaluate and deliver improvement of the activities that occurred in the container terminal.
The use of simulation to evaluate the stacking rules between category stacking based on
vessel and category stacking based on destination shows that the efficiency of container
terminal (i.e. JICT) is higher if the containers are grouped by vessel (stacking rule based on
vessel). Although this model only applies to JICT, it might give researchers in Maritime
Logistics/Container Terminal domain a base knowledge on how to model/improve such
system.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is one of our earliest work in Maritime Logistics/Container Terminal domain.
Further researches have been done and more are on the go. We thank Universitas Indonesia
and the Indonesian government that gave us financial support in doing research in this field.

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6. REFERENCES
Anon, 2013. Tecnomatix Plant Simulation. Available at:https://www.plm.automation.siemens.com/en_us/products/tecnomatix/manufacturingsimulation/material-flow/plant-simulation.shtml.
Böse, J.W., 2011. Handbook of terminal planning. Operations Research/ Computer Science
Interfaces Series, 49(1).
Carlo, H.J., Vis, I.F.A. & Roodbergen, K.J., 2014. Transport operations in container
terminals: Literature overview, trends, research directions and classification scheme.
European Journal of Operational Research, 236(1), pp.1–13. Available at:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377221713009405 [Accessed
October 5, 2015].
Dekker, R., Voogd, P. & Van Asperen, E., 2007. Advanced methods for container stacking.
Container Terminals and Cargo Systems: Design, Operations Management, andLogistics Control Issues, 586, pp.131–154.
Hou, L. & Geerlings, H., 2016. Dynamics in sustainable port and hinterland operations: A
conceptual framework and simulation of sustainability measures and theireffectiveness, based on an application to the Port of Shanghai. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 135, pp.449–456. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.134.
Van Houten, S.P. & Verbraeck, A., 2006. Controlling simulation games through rule-based
scenarios. In Proceedings - Winter Simulation Conference. pp. 2261–2269.
Meisel, F., 2009. Seaside Operations Planning in Container Terminals, Available at:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/v621985274355864/.
Moeis, A.O. & Goputra, A., 2015. Container Stacking Activity Modeling in Jakarta
Container Terminal (JCT) with Three Different Stacking Rules Using Discrete Event
Simulation Approach. In International Conference on Logistics and Maritime Systems.
Hong Kong.
Stahlbock, R. & Voß, S., 2008. Operations research at container terminals: A literature
update. OR Spectrum, 30(1), pp.1–52.
Trunfio, R., 2011. Modeling, simulation and optimization in logistics. 4or, 9(4), pp.433–
436.

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ANALYSIS OF SITUATION AND COMPETITIVE STRATEGY FORMULATIONFOR THE VISION AND MISSION TOWARD THE IN YEAR OF 2020
(Case: in MIDC Ministry of Industry Indonesia)
Hafid Abdullaha and Sony Harbintorob
a,b)
Metal Industies Development Centre (MIDC) - Ministry of Industry Indonesia
Jl. Sangkuriang No. 12 Bandung 40135
E-mail : hafidochan@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Analysis of situation and competitive strategy formulation for the vision and mission
towards in the year of 2020 (Case: in MIDC Ministry of Industry Indonesia) has been done.
The aim of this research is to guide the direction for the company leaders and the entire
employee of the MIDC in carrying out research and development (R & D) metal andmachinery programs during the period year of 2014-2020. Also to sharpen R & D activities
as an effort to increase the performance of MIDC value increase R & D results in an
optimal benefit. This research method is using primary and secondary data. The primarydata obtained through field surveys pick-test data collection through observation, directlyinterviews and discussions with the expert judgements. While secondary data obtained fromthe BPS, scientific journals, browsing internet and other sources. The analysis, include: (1)the vision, mission, strategic goals and objectives of the company, (2) current businessanalysis of the position, both internal and external, using EFAS and IFAS (TOWS)
methods, (3) the corporate strategy of MIDC, (4) strategic policy direction of MIDC basedon core competencies, core products, marketing strategies and work programs. Based on
the results of the analysis the obtained value EFAS dan IFAS approximately 7.6 and 6.6.
To shown the position of MIDC is winner in the growth. The results of this analysis are
expected to MIDC can achieve this goal in accordance with the vision and mission.
Key words : external strategic analysis (EFAS), internal strategic analysis (IFAS), Treath,
Opportunity, Weakness and Strength (TOWS/SWOT)
1.

INTRODUCTION
Free competition which is full of competition and consumer demand for
products/services better with the delivery time, has spurred the company of any
organization or institution, both private and government to improve its performance. To be
successful, they are required to cost-saving efforts, optimize production capacity, increased
efficiency and productivity and also improve services (Hafid,2013;2005).
Metal Industries Development Center (MIDC) is an institute of research anddevelopment (R & D) owned by the Ministry of Industry. MIDC have a duty and a strategicrole in the effort to accelerate the development of metal and machinery industry and otherindustrial sectors of metal products and machine in Indonesia. In providing support services
to the industry, MIDC accept a job (job orders) are done in the workshops (casting,machining and welding) as well as calibration and testing laboratories (Hafid, 2005).
As an R & D institutions, especially in the field of metal and machinery
manufacturing technology, the MIDC rule are required, at least, must have a level of1

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technology one step ahead compared to the fostered metal industry. However MIDC seems
too late in anticipating the needs of the technology in the industry so its presence needs to
get new Recognation through a show of technological capability, so that the metal industry
both SME and large-scale feeling homesick and need to get help from MIDC (Hafid, 2013;
A. Wahid,2002;Kompas,2016).
Currently the technology advances metals and machinery manufacturing industry
has been very rapid. Therefore MIDC need to have a human resources (HR) qualified witha sharp cleverness power so that they can see and solve problems. MIDC should be able toprovide a rail or path for industry so that the industry train is capable of traveling at highspeed. This can be realized when its human resources, education and experience sufficient
to be able to follow the rhythm of the speed of progress of science and technology which isvery fast. MIDC required to be able to translate and simplify the high level of technology
so that small and medium enterprises were able to apply it.
An example of the weakness of the domestic industry where MIDC should moreproactive role. According to the source: WEF and IMD survey of competitiveness ranking
obtained Indonesia in 2016 on the ranking of 41 is under the Malaysia (ranked 25th) and
Thailand (ranked 34th). Even very far behind when compared with Japan (ranked 9th) andSingapore (ranked 2th) (Klaus Schwab, 2016). According to Michael Porter competitivenessis productivity, defined as output produced by labor (1990).
Based on the above mentioned problems, it is known that various fundamental
problems faced by MIDC currently include the following: (1) the condition of the quality
and quantity of human resources not currently support, (2) the facility machinery andequipment that is not utilized optimally, (3) ability to understand and apply technology
processes and products will no longer be support the industry because most of the metal
and machinery industry is able to grow more rapidly, (4) the results of applied research andtechnical service is yet many are be used by the industry (users), etc.(Hafid,2013).
In order to enhance the role and ability of MIDC to face challenges in accordancewith the development of metal and machinery industry in the future, it is necessary toanalyze the situation and formulating strategies to compete for the Vision and Mission in
the year of 2020. The vision and Mission can be used as a guide (reference) directions forthe management and the staff of the MIDC in carrying out research and development
activities during the period year of 2014-2020.
The purpose of analysis is (a) determine the competitive strategy of MIDC in theface of competition from metal and machinery industry players as well as other relevant
institutions, (b) to formulate a follow-up strategy to compete in the business for the longterm which is expected to boost MIDC business growth at the future in a sustainable
manner in the face global competition. The benefit is expected to MIDC can know thestrengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities that can be exploited and take appropriate
policy in competition with its stakeholders.
2.

METHODOLOGY
In this study used survey methods : taking a sample of the population using a list ofquestions (questionnaires) and interviews directly to the company management selected theobject of research as well as the technicians and experts (respondents). As for the secondary

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data obtained from literature and from various publications, reports and activities of therelevant institutions and other sources.
The object of research is in MIDC the field of metals and machinery located in
Bandung, West Java Indonesia during the period of 2013-2014. The stages are carried out
in this research is the formulation of the problem, determining the purpose of research,
literature, problem-solving model development, data collection, formulation of strategic
alternatives and conclusions, namely:
1. Formulation of the problem: What will be discussed is the company's external
environment changes with studying the strengths and weaknesses of the company andalso the analysis of opportunities and threats that may be encountered in the future.
2. Determination of research objectives: The purpose of the analysis are: (a) determine thecompetitive strategy of MIDC in the face of competition from the metal and machineryindustry competitor as well as other relevant institutions, (b) to formulate a follow-up
strategy to compete in the business for the long term which is expected to boost MIDC
business growth in a sustainable future in the face of global competition.
3. The study of literature: Learning theories that supporting this study include the conceptof Strategic Management, Strategic Management Model Matrix, among others External
Factor Evaluation (EFE), Internal Factor Evaluation (IFE) Matrix, Opportunities
Threats (SWOT) Matrix (Hafid, 2013; Rangkuti,2005,2013).
4. Field study: Performed to clarify the problems faced.
5. Data collection: The data that is required in this study consisted of internal data andexternal environmental data. Internal data is data obtained from the company itself,
where we can see and assess the strengths and weaknesses of the MIDC. External datacollected from the environment outside the company, so it can see the threats andopportunities that are important to note as a reference and comparison to MIDC.
6. The formulation of strategic alternatives: This stage is the stage of solving the problem
by formulating several alternative strategies. The formulation of strategic alternatives
conducted using analytical models of Fred R. David (2004) that has been modified andadapted to the conditions of MIDC. This stage produces several alternative strategies
that will be proposed to be implemented by MIDC based on the priority scale.
7. The proposed implementation of the strategy: Based on the strengths and weaknessesof the internal factors and the opportunities and threats in the external factors.
8. Clearly outlined and more detail of the data processing to see the strengths andweaknesses of the internal condition that is associated with the opportunities andthreats from external conditions.
9. Conclusions and recommendations : At this stage the conclusions drawn from the datacollection and processing in the form of analysis and the formulation of the proposed
strategy. Furthermore, the conclusion can be suggested as several steps to MIDC forconsideration to enhance and improve the performance of institution to face global
competition.

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1. Profile MIDC
Institute of Research and Development for Metal and Machinery Industry (BBLM)
was established in 1969,under the name Project of Metal Industries Development Centre or
better known as the Metal Industries Development Centre (MIDC). Until now MIDC isunder the auspices Ministry of Industry of the Republic of Indonesia (MIDC,2014).
MIDC Vision as a leading R & D institutions in Indonesia and the world in theprocess engineering product in 2020. The Mission as following :1. Perform the applied R & D on product design, materials, processes and quality assurance
in the metals and machinery field.
2. Provide Technical services : consultancy and supervision, conformity assessment,competency develoment of human resources , product certification, personnel
certification and quality management system for metal and machinery industries.
3. Dissemination and assist the application of technology in the metalnd machinery field
into industrial society.
3.2. Analysis of Business Position
Identification of the MIDC position effort done by using TOWS/SWOT (Hafid,2014). It start with determining Treath, Opportunity, Weakness and Strength (strength andexcellence) facing MIDC to day and the future.
Results of interviews and field observations, the study conducted to analysis ofexternal strategic factors (External Strategic Analysis/EFAS) and analysis of the situationof strategic factors Internal (Internal Strategic Analysis/IFAS) is a major problem faced by
MIDC. Then set MIDC current business position become a reference material for
consideration for MIDC future development (Hafid, 2013;2014).
A. External Analysis
External strategic factor (External Strategic Analysis / EFAS), consist of :1. Demand:a. Applied research and development needs (government internal budget, national
research incentives)b. Process technology capability is still low (Noo good or NG casting > 30%, theamount of usage of imported products) need coaching and developmentc. Technical services (guidance consultation, calibration and testing, training, etc.)
2. The technical cooperation at domestic and abroad:
Opportunities to improve the reputation of the organization (ITB, Belgium, Japan,
Korea, etc.).
3. Protection of government:
Standardize their product requirements with the national standart (SNI) and use ofdomestic products
4. Competition:a. Competition with another government institutions (B4T- PT. Pindad, PT. DI,etc.)
b. University (ITB, Polman, UI, etc.)
c. Competition with private companies (PT. WIKA, PT. Bakri, etc.)

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5. Trend Import:
Increased imports of machinery equipment manufacturers, in year of 2010:
Imported machines = US $ 11.31 billion and Export machines = US $ 6.03 billion.
While Th 2013: Import of machinery = US $. 34.227 billion and Export machinery= US $ 5.561 billion (MOI, 2014).
B. Internal Analysis
Internal strategic factors (Internal Strategic Analysis/IFAS), includes:
1. Brand name MIDC: already known, their recognition and have a good relationshipwith metal and machinery industry.
2. Facilities: machinery and equipment is complete, have some new machines but
optimalization still low.
3. Government support: government assistance (research and development, staff
salaries and maintenance of the facility)
4. Human resources: many of experience employee has already retire and new
employees are lacking of knowledge and inexperienced.
5. Knowledge Technology: Only 30% of all metal machinery technology
competencies controlled by MIDC
6. Customer Service: technical services order completion time is often too late
7. Marketing: The marketing function (promotion) do not play a significant role
3.3. MIDC Corporate Strategy
From the figure of matrix external and internal environment (Figure 1) concluded
that Section calibration and testing of MIDC currently on-1 cells (7.6; 6.6), then theposition of MIDC rated Winner in the growth (Hafid, 2013).
In the mapping products/services, approached method through the analysis ofindustry attractiveness and business strength MIDC. Industry attractiveness is part of theexternal factors relating to the scope of the industry. While the strength of MIDC
businesses reflect the internal strength of the products. The products being mapped, as
shown in the figure below, that is:
1. Research and development of products
2. Technical services : casting, machining, heat treatment, welding, calibration and testing
3. Training and consulting services
From the results of the mapping position of business and product/service MIDC
note that at this time in a state of survival, so MIDC should make efforts into theimprovement to increase their competitiveness. MIDC set business direction is as follows:
1. MIDC should reach a stable condition in the period of 2013-2014 by:a. Utilize as much as possible of existing resources, in order to maintain market shareand products/services that have been mastered.
b. Improve performance by consolidating a fundamental way.
2. MIDC should be independent and going to the growing conditions in the next 5 years(2015-2020) by:a. Improving product featured R & D results and the potential market selectively.
b. Cultivate metal and machinery industry in Indonesia, especially SMEs by providing
training and technical guidance, consulting and continuous supervision.

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Figure 1. Position/services MIDC

3.4. Directions Policy and Strategy
In order to pursuit its business objectives, MIDC will implement a common strategy
based on competence and products. General strategy to be implemented is cost leadershipwith an emphasis on the benefits of competitive prices while still maintaining the quality ofthe product.
This policy direction is applied for at the moment, because MIDC still getpermanent funding from the government, and the absence of depreciation of existing
equipment. With the implementation of this strategy, MIDC will perform segmentation andmarket the following products:
1. Product strategy and development
As an institution engaged in the development of the metal and machinery industry,
MIDC should retain its core competence. To be able to still exist in the business. MIDC
has set the reverse engineering and prototyping in metal working processes as a corecompetency (core competence), by reason of (Hafid, 2013):
a. The market opportunity is still large metal castings
b. Facilities of machinery and equipment owned by MIDC can be optimized to
produce high value-added products.
c. Improving human resource competencies MIDC
MIDC core product is the casting products, tools manufacturer, and product trials, while
the final product provided to customers can be grouped into:

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a. Technical services: manufacture prototypes/products services of the equipment(calibration and testing)b. Training services: technical training (casting, machining and welding), management
training
c. Technical assistance and consulting services as well as supervision
2. Marketing Strategy
a. Selected market segmentation: Large-scale industry, medium industry, small industry
b. Seeing the competition is very high both from domestic and abroad (imports), thebusiness strategy that is made to enter the market segment that has been announced is
to strengthen the business with cooperation between public and private institutions asfollows: Development of the technology with academics/university, development of
the industrial market, the development of policies by the government, development
funds by financial institutions, the development of the information with the relevant
institutions
4. CONCLUSIONS
1. Based on the analysis of strategic factors external situation (EFAS) and internal (IFAS),
the obtained values 7.6 and 6.6. The figure shows that the calibration and testing sectionin the position as the winner (winners) in growth.
2. MIDC applied business strategy is cost leadership with an emphasis on competitively
price advantage while still maintaining the quality of the product.
3. In the making a strategic plan requires a team from each of the areas concerned, it is very
important to make a long-term plan that is integrated as a whole in order to achieve thevision and mission carried by MIDC.
4. Implementation of the formulated strategy must be executed consistently andcontinuously despite the replacement of the Director of MIDC.
5. Establish and implement the chosen strategy in this study that is market growth strategy
in order to immediately address the issues at this the moment.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In this moment the authors would like to thank: (1) The Director of MIDC which
has opportunity to carry out this research (2) Directors and management in the metal andmachinery industry which has given license to visits industry and discussion, (3) expert
judgements and all those who have contributed usefull ideas and discussion that may not be
written one by one.
6. REFERENCES
Hafid., (2013), MIDC development Mapping: the Vision and Mission toward the year of
2020, Final Report Government Internal Budget MIDC, the Ministry of Industry,
Bandung. pp 1-1.
____., (2005), Plant layout machine in MIDC machinery workshop in order to increase
productivity, Journal of Metal Indonesian, Vol.27/2005, ISSN 0126-3463, Metal
Industries Development Center, Ministry of Industry, Bandung. pp. 56.

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____., (2005). Human Resource Development (HRD) patterned P3JJ for foundry
technology competency enhancement, Journal of Metal Indonesia, ISSN 0126-3463,
Vol.27/2005, Metal Industries Development Center, Ministry of Industry, Bandung.
pp. 68.
____ ., (2014), Analysis of production facilities on ferrous foundry industry as an effort forcompetitiveness advantage of companies. Proceedings of the National Seminar on
Industrial Technology, 2014. ISSN: 2355-925X, FTI-USAKTI, Jakarta, pp.019-5.
Wahid, A., (2002), MIDC development plan : Papers in Internal Seminar MIDC, theMinistry of Industry, Bandung. pp. 1.
Klaus Schwab., (2016), The Global competitiveness report 2016-2017, World Economic
Forum (WEF), Geneva. pp. 7.
David, Fred. R., (2004), Strategic Management Concepts ninth edition Indonesian,translation by Kresno Sasono. PT. The index, Jakarta. Pp. 5,14,52.
Cheng-Wei Chang and Chia Chun Liao, (2013), Applying SWOT analysis to explore
Taiwan foundry industry management strategy, International Journal of Innovation
Management and Technology, Vol. 4, No.1, February, Taiwan. pp.114-115.
MIDC., (2003), Revitalization MIDC: Business Plan 2003-2007, Metal Industries
Development Center, Ministry of Industry, Bandung. pp. 14-30.
_____ ., (2014), MIDC Strategic Plan 2015-2019, Metal Industries Development Centre(MIDC), Ministry of Industry, Bandung. pp.30-31.
______ , (2014), Company Profile, Bandung. pp.3.
Porter Michael E., (1990), The Competitive Advantages of Nations. New York: The Free
Press. Pp.12.
Rangkuti, Freddy., (2005). Case dissecting SWOT analysis techniques, PT. Heritage
Gramedia Utama, Jakarta. pp. 24-25.
Rangkuti, Freddy., (2013), The Balanced Scorecard SWOT, Edition 4th, PT. Heritage
Gramedia Utama, Jakarta. pp.29, 64-65.
Kompas., (2016), Inovation : Main problem mindset , Publisher Kompas, 1 Juli 2016,
Jakarta. pp.14.
Ministry of Industry (MOI)., (2014), Ministry of Industry Indonesia, Jakarta.

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APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY ASSESMENT IN CARBON CAPTURE AND
STORAGE TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION FOR CO2 EMISSION IN
INDONESIA
Akhmad Hidayatno, Arry Rahmawan Destyanto, Reinaldo Giovanni
System Engineering, Modeling, and Simulation Laboratory, Industrial Engineering
Department
Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia
ABSTRACTGreen house gases (GHG) emission is one of the environmental issues that hasn’t been
resolved and continued to increase annually. Carbon dioxide gas is known as the largest
contributor for GHG emissions. This environmental issue also happens in Indonesia as adeveloping country which has focused on sustainable development. In 2020, the total
emission of carbon dioxide gas in Indonesia is predicted around 960 million ton if there isno mitigation action. In developed countries, they have a bold step to mitigate theiremission of CO2 gas by using Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technology. This
technology is effective to reduce the CO2 emission in large-scale. The study andinformation about CCS, as a new technology to reduce emission, haven’t well developed inIndonesia. Based on the situation, the author tries to find important criteria for conducting a
research of CCS technology implementation in Indonesia using participatory technology
assesment. The output from this research are giving understanding how CCS could be usedby seeing what important criteria needed by stakeholder to develop, particularly inIndonesia. The rate of carbon capture of CO2 emission and the cost of investment for
carbon capture technology are the main subcriterias for each criteria of environment andeconomic if the carbon capture technology implemented in Indonesia.
Keywords: Technology assesment, carbon capture and storage technology, CO2 emission,assesment criteria
1. INTRODUCTION
Green house gases emission (GHG emission) is one the environmental issues which has not
yet settled on a completion until now in the whole world, and it keeps increasing from yearto-year. The escalation of the GHG emission is a major cause of climate change that has
happened in the last few years (Vianello, Mocellin, & Maschio, 2014). Since 1997 to 2000
the GHG emission had increased about 1.3% per year, but in the next decade (2000-2010)
the increase of green houses gases emission was 2.2% per year. This phenomenon has also
happened in Indonesia, as a developing country focuses on sustainable development.
On the report written by Ministry of Environment Republic of Indonesia (2010) statedthat GHG emissions are divided into four types of gas. There are carbon dioxide, methane,
dinitrous oxide, and PFC. The largest contributor of GHG emissions is carbon dioxide
emission, which is accounted more than 1.1 million Gg CO2 (Ministry of Environment,
Republic of Indonesia, 2010). In 2020, the emission of carbon dioxide gas in Indonesia is

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predicted in total amount 960 million tons if there isn’t any mitigation action (Kementerian
Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral, 2013).
The government has already thought on reducing CO2 emission through various
policies, so that it can be implemented in Indonesia. Bioletty, Syahrial, & Tobing (2007)
wrote some of the policies that could be implemented in Indonesia: energy efficiency andmaterial development, reforestation, increasing-use of renewable and nuclear energy, adecrease in the carbon intensity of fossil fuels, and the use of carbon capture and storage(CCS) technology.
Using carbon capture and storage technology, as well as in developed countries,
considered as on of promising mitigation action. CCS is a highly effective technology tocapture and store the GHG emissions generated from various sectors (Department ofEnergy & Climate Change, 2012). One of the oil and gas state-company has already had
one CO2 capture facility, but it has not been fully utilized. In addition, the source of carbon
dioxide gas emission will increase because the government has plan to build more power
plants using coal as their fuel.
Indonesia has an opportunity to implement CCS technology, however, there are stilllacks of research and information about CCS technology implementation in Indonesia.
Indonesia must initiate an active role in finding out more about this technology. Huisingh etal. (2015) did a fine research about the potential of carbon emission reduction in various
sectors at different scale and how technology could reduce carbon emissions.
In this research, the authors consider to apply technology assessment method as
preliminary study before implementing CCS technology. The output of this research are
generating criteria and subcriteria needed if the CCS technology will be implemented inIndonesia. This method is expected to be a reference framework for the application of CCS
technology in the future, particularly in Indonesia. Therefore, this study focuses on
fostering technology assessment method in capturing carbon dioxide gas emission using
CCS technology. The authors also see how the implementation of CCS technology could be
a considerable action in Indonesia based on economy and environment aspects.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
From 1970 to 2010, GHG emissions continued to rise until reach 2.2% per year in theworld (IPCC, 2014). Carbon dioxide emission becomes the largest contributor to theincrease in green house gas emissions. In purpose to tackle the increase in these emissions,several countries have implemented carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology. The
application of CCS technology in developed countries has been used in power plant andindustry sector. It is because the largest contributor to GHG emissions, in general, are frompower plants and industrial production activities especially those using coal and fossil fuelas their primary energy source.
Carbon capture is one of the processes in carbon capture, utilization, and storage(CCUS). The objective of this process is to prevent the carbon dioxide emissions resulted
from human activity reaching the atmosphere. The process is started with the separation ofcarbon dioxide gas emissions with other gas components. After the separation, the emission

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of carbon dioxide gas is compressed at high pressure to save carrying cost and storage
before being delivered to the final storage (Indonesia CCS Study Working Group, 2009).
Carbon dioxide gas that has been captured, typically, will be transported through the pipes
to be stored. Storage of carbon dioxide gas can be placed in three differents area: geologicalsequestration, mineral carbonation, and storage in the ocean (Li, et al., 2013).
There are many variations on the evolvement of CCS technology, which divided into
three main technologies: post-combustion capture, pre-combustion capture, and oxycombustion capture (Folger, 2013). From capturing those carbon emissions, the CO2 gas
will be obtained which can be stored and/or reutilized. By storing the CO2 emission, thecarbon emission that comes out into the air can be reduced and the increasing ofgreenhouse gas emissions can be suppressed.
2.2 Technology Assessment
Developed countries, such as England, Japan, and Norway has applied CCS technology
to reduce GHG emissions from their industrial activities (CCS Roadmap, 2012). Before
implementing CCS technology, these countries conducted a preliminary study of CCS
technology in their countries. One of methods used is technology assessment (TA) method.
TA is a method to investigate the conditions resulting from the implementation of newtechnology to meet future requirements and aspects of sustainability. The terminology ofTA itself has been known since the 1970s. Formerly, technology assesment term appeared
due to the need of policy makers made and decided the appropriate policies to the public
about new technology implementation (Grunwald & Achternbosch, 2013).
One example in application of technology assessment method is not only branched out
in the energy sector, such as CCS technology, but also applied in other industrial sectors.
Telecommunication service provider in China (Zhang, Daim, Choi, & Phan, 2008) usedtechnology assessment method as a basis for selecting telecommunication technology in its
country. Previous research conducted by Huisingh et al. (2015) briefly discussed thepotential of technology assessment to reduce carbon emissions not only fortelecommunication service, but also in various industries and agriculture sectors.
Many studies on decreasing carbon dioxide emission using carbon capture technology
is still being conducted. Several studies linked to the carbon capture technology on energy
sector are being developed: technology assessment on capturing CO2 emission in Natural
Gas Combine Cycle (NGCC) power plant (Cormos, 2015), utilization of CO2 using
monoethanolamine (MEA) technology (Kang, Jo, Lee, & Park, 2016), and technology
assessment based on performance-cost criteria on CCS technology in power plant (Davison,2007).
2.3

The Integration Between Economy-Environment Aspects for Carbon CaptureTechnology

In this research, the authors foster the TA method based on economy and environment
criteria. The are several previous study on using technology assessment method based on
economic criterias: carbon capture technology in NGCC power plant (Cormos, 2015), costassessment on CCS in power plant (Davison, 2007), the estimate cost of capturing CO2

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from the flue gas with a pressure/vacuum swing adsorption (Susarla, et al., 2015). The
assessment of carbon capture technology with the environmental criteria generally focusedon energy sector, especially in power plant and exploration-production of oil-gas: thecapture of CO2 emission from the extraction oil-gas in Norway (Gavenas, Rosendahl, &Skjerpen, 2015), and case study of capturing CO2 in Austria (Reiter & Lindorfer, 2015). By
looking from the two aspects, the economy and environment aspect, play important role in
the implementation of carbon capture storage technology using technology assessment
method.
Indonesia, until now, has not discussed further about the technology assessment ofcarbon capture technology for carbon dioxide. There are lacks of informations andresearches of capturing carbon dioxide emission in Indonesia. Based on those reasons, theauthors do focus the study on integrating economy-environment aspects and other two
aspects (performance and technology innovation) to know the assessment criteria needed if
the CCS technology implemented in Indonesia.
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Data Gathering
This study involves two types of data: secondary data and primary data. Secondary
data contain reference criteria from reputable and trusted literatures about actual conditionsof energy and carbon dioxide emission in Indonesia. The primary data contain the result
from focus group discussion (FGD – involving some stakeholders and expert) and the result
from questionnaires. The questionnaires are filled by the experts which have deep
understanding about the issue of carbon capture technology and carbon dioxide gas
emission.
3.1.1 Data About Current Energy Situation and Carbon Emission in Indonesia
The GHG emissions are consisted of four main types of gas: carbon dioxide gas
emission, methane emission, N2O emission, and perfluorocarbon (PFC). From the fourtypes of gas, carbon dioxide gas emission is the largest contributor to GHG emissions. Thiscondition also happen in Indonesia.
Total emissions of carbon dioxide gas in the world reached 23.684 Mt/year (Davison,2007). That number will continue to increase every year. Power generation sector is thelargest contributor to the carbon dioxide gas emissions globally, which is about 35% of thetotal CO2 emissions. It is because the power plant still uses fossil fuels such as coal as
primary energy sources for the power plant. In 2011, the use of coal still counted 3.773
million TOE and it is predicted to increase by 44% in 2035 (DEN Republik Indonesia,2014). This study will focus on carbon dioxide emissions obtained from the power plant
sector in Indonesia.
The requirement of energy needed in power plant fueled with coal will increasesignificantly until 2050 in Indonesia. In 2011, the consumption of primary energy inIndonesia derived from fossil energy attained to 71% of total primary energy (Kementerian
Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral, 2013). In the BaU (Business as Usual) scenario, primaryenergy coal plays fairly large with a percentage up to 41% in 2050.

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Figure 1 Comparison of energy source usage in power plant
Figure 1 above shows how the comparison of using coal and other energy sources in
power plant. The use of fossil fuels such as coal in power plants (in Indonesia) produces the
carbon dioxide gas emission in large amount and makes it as the largest contributor to GHG
emissions.
The National Electricity Company (PT PLN) which is a state-owned company inIndonesia is still using coal as the dominant energy sources for generators. The emissions
out are varied, but the greatest amount of emissions is the carbon dioxide gas emissions.
Power plant sector accounts for a percentage of about 32% in 2012 (amount to 138,82
million tonnes of CO2) followed by industry (29%), transportation (28%), households(7%), commercial (3%), and others (1%) (PT PLN Persero, 2014).

Figure 2 CO2 emissions in Indonesia from power plant
Figure 2 shows the amount of CO2 emissions that would be produced if the electricity
production in Indonesia carried out with a fuel mix strategy (the composition of theelectricity energy production by type of primary energy projected until 2024 in Indonesia).

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3.1.2 Data About Potential for Implementing Carbon Capture Technology for CO2
Emissions in Indonesia
Most industries that produce carbon dioxide gas emissions, generally, emit the gas
directly into the atmosphere, either by burning or just releasing directly into the air throughan air filter instantly. These technologies have not been able to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions on a large scale.
Other technologies that are often used to reduce carbon dioxide gas emissions are: thegasification of coal, natural gas splitting, gasification of biomass, shift converter, methanol
synthesis, methane synthesis, and water electrolysis. Syahrial, Pasarai, & Iskandar (2010)
conducted a joint study with several government agencies and foreign companies regarding
to the potential of CCS technology in Indonesia. Those three researchers explained where
the origin of carbon dioxide emissions is, a general overview of CCS technology, and its
potential for implementing it in Indonesia. Indonesia has large opportunity to apply CCS
technology because Indonesia already have a great amount of CO2 emissions as a sourceand enough storage capacity for CO2 emissions.
3.1.3 Data About Carbon Capture Technology from Main Stakeholders
Data about carbon capture storage technology included as one of primary data which
was gathered from focus group discussion (FGD) and questionnaire filled by the expert andstakeholder. The first step to do is doing the FGD. In FGD of this research, authors asked
three persons (expert and stakeholders) from government and private institutions to get
involve in FGD. FGD was more like a discussion that lasted one day concerned in findingout how energy conditions are, the emission’s conditions are, and the criterias needed are if
the carbon capture applied in Indonesia.
Stakeholders which representing Pertamina Hulu Energi Offshore North West Javasaid that Indonesia had already the potential sources of CO2 emissions and theconcentration of CO2 is high enough. On the other hand, expert said that the biggest
challenge in implementing the technology was how the technology, technically, is capableof capturing CO2 emissions directly without any leaks because the slightest error would
cause substantial financial losses.
Based on FGD, expert and stakeholders see the potential for implementing carbon
capture technology for CO2 emissions are feasible and realistic in the long term.
Government should be involved in terms of financial support and policy so that theimplementation can proceed smoothly without any interventions.

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3.2 Conducting participatory technology assesment (pTA) for CCS implementation inIndonesia
Authors used TA activities because technology assesment is method which
systematically involve various kinds of actors with may different backgrounds or different
kinds of organizations. One of TA that authors pick is participatory TA (pTA). pTA usuallyinvite many different actors which have influence and interest about technology that would
be implemented. Person which can be invited as participant to join can be an individual
stakeholders, citizens, technical scientist/experts. Standard pTA methods include consensus
conferences, focus groups, or scenario workshops. Sometimes pTA is further divided intoexpert-stakeholder pTA and public pTA (including lay persons).
Expert-stakeholder which involved in this study consist of three representatives, first isrepresenting academic, second is representing government, and others are representing
professionals / practitioners. List of detailed experts whom involved are shown below.
Table 1 List of experts involved in participatory technology assesment
Representative

Occupation

1st Participant

Academics

PhD Researcher

2nd Participant

Professionals

Board of Executive PT. Surya Esa
Perkasa

3rd Participant

Government

Deputy Minister of Maritime and Natural
Resources

4th Participant

Professionals

VP Drilling PHE ONWJ

5th Participant

Professionals

Environmental Engineer PHE ONWJ

pTA is expected to provide an equal understanding to stakeholder and public on the
proposed of new technology, how is technology affect the society and stakeholder, andwhat criteria should be considered if new technology will be applied to reduce CO2
emission in Indonesia.
Authors conduct following steps to obtain level of importance in criteria and subcriteria as final result of technology assesment,
1. Set the issue in the study;
2. Search some literatures related to researches that using technology assessment method
and in what field of knowledge TA method has already applied;
3. Find the literatures related to TA method concern on energy sector, especially the
reduction of carbon dioxide emissions in power plant;
4. Conduct focus group discussion (FGD) as an initial step to know the perspectives fromexpert and stakeholder about the conditions, potentials, and challenges in facing the
new technology (carbon capture technology in Indonesia);
5. Select the criteria and subcriteria: economy, environment, performance, andtechnology innovation from the result of previous FGD and literatures

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The subcriteria that have been obtained then inserted into the questionnaire to be filledby experts. The experts will determine level of importance and also discussing it from eachsubcriteria and criteria for the implementation of new carbon capture technology inIndonesia. Detailed list of criteria and sub-criteria used in participatory technology
assesment is listed below,
Table 2 Criteria and sub-criteria considered for technology assesment
Main Criteria
Sub-criteria
Unit
Cleaner emission that would be produced because
MW or
Kg/Kgoutput
carbon capture technology implementation
Performance
KWh/t
Energy usage in carbon capture technology
IDR/t
Investment cost for CO2 removal
IDR/t
CO2 capture penalty cost
EconomyProfit percentage from carbon capture technology%
installation comparing to its energy output
KgCO2 per
Total amount of CO2 that can be reduced
toe or t/hEnvironment%
Capture level of CO2
Point
Technology reliability and risk of accidents
Carbon capture technology capacity to reduce gas
MWTechnology innovation
emissionyear
Technology resilience for a long term
After discussion session and all of questionnaire had been filled by experts would betreated with the help of Expert Choice software to display the results of the weight of each
sub-criteria.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Based on intensive discussion and questionnaire result, this research obtain that thehighest weight value is reliability of technology subcriterion with a value 0,211 (out of total
1,0). All results that have been obtained is listed below (ordered from highest to lowest
value),
a. The reliability technology with a value of 0,211
b. The resilience of technology with a value of 0,173
c. The capacity of carbon capture technology with a value of 0,129
d. The rate of capturing of CO2 emissions with a value of 0,116
e. The amount of CO2 emissions reduced with a value of 0,111
f. Investment cost of carbon capture with a value of 0,075
g. Cost of CO2 penalty with a value of 0,067
h. The profit percentage on the installation cost of carbon capture technology per output
energy with a value of 0,047

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i. Clean energy produced after the use of carbon capture technology with a value of
0,035
j. Total use of energy (additional energy) for carbon capture technology with a value of
0,035
The final result of the final weights each subcriterias gives an information on what thecriteria and subcriteria are more considered if there will be an implementation of new
carbon capture storage technology for CO2 emissions in Indonesia. Technology innovation
criteria becomes main concern criterion with the greatest weight value, whereas thiscriterion is the first criteria considered for implementing carbon capture technology basedon the completed questionnaires from participants. Environment and economy criteria are
the next highest weight value obtained from the questionnaire.
Inconsistency value from this calculation is about 3% where the value is still below the
maximum tolerance of 10%. This inconsistency value gives the sense that all theparticipants involved in filling out the questionnaire is an expert on climate change,
especially carbon dioxide gas emissions and carbon capture technology. Their answers on
the questionnaire is valid and reliable.
From the result of the questionnaire and the analysis both individual and general,
overall shows that the potential application of carbon capture technology is already open
and the novelty of this technology becomes a criteria with a more weight value than othercriterias. It is necessary needed a support from the government and investors as an enabler(on economic aspect) to assist in the implementation of carbon capture technology forIndonesia’s power plant.
5.

CONCLUSION
Based on the results and analysis from this research, it could be concluded from resultof the study suggests that technology assessment method could be developed in the energy
sector. Technology assesment using participatory from expert-stakeholder can provide clear
and appropriate most-concerned criteria and sub-criteria while implementing newtechnology by combining economy and environment, beside performance and technology
innovation aspect.
The investment cost of carbon capture equipment (economic criterion) and the rate ofcapturing CO2 emissions (environment criterion) become sub-criterion with the highest
weight in their own respective criteria. Sub-criterion technology innovation gains moreweight value because of the novelty value of carbon capture technology in Indonesia isreally needed to reduce CO2 emission more effectively in the future.

6. REFERENCES

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Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi. (2010, Januari 01). BPPT Kembangkan
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Cormos, C.-C. (2015). Assessment of chemical absorption/adsorption for post-combustion
CO2 capture from Natural Gas Combined Cycle (NGCC) power plants. Applied
Thermal Engineering 82 , 120-128.
Davison, J. (2007). Performance and costs of power plants with capture and storage ofCO2. Energy 32 , 1163-1176.
DEN Republik Indonesia. (2014). Outlook Energi Indonesia 2014. Jakarta: Dewan Energi
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Department of Energy & Climate Change. (2012). CCS Roadmap: Supporting Deployment
of Carbon Capture and Storage in The UK. United Kingdom.
Fleischer, T., & Grunwald, A. (2008). Making nanotechnology developments sustainable.
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SHIPPING ROUTE MODEL DEVELOPMENT FOR THE INDONESIANPENDULUM PORTS
Zulkarnain, Komarudin, Armand Omar Moeis, Seto Banuwijoyo
Department of Industrial Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok Campus, 16424,
Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Maritime logistics sector has a very important role in Indonesia for almost all domestic
commodities shipped by sea. Indonesian state has a program to balance the economy bybalancing the levels of domestic cargo shipments between the western region and theeastern region. Due to the nature of this non-commercial program, a design of marinetransport with the aim of minimizing costs is needed. The study aims to develop a shipping
route model by considering several factors: the type of Landing Craft Tank (LCT) used,
the route passed, and the amount of cargo shipped. The method used in this research is
known as the Mixed Integer Programming with the design of the shipping route called
Butterfly Route, simulated using the Gurobi software. Several factors that affect the resultsof the design is the availability of LCT, the distance between the ports and the planned
amount of cargo.
Keywords: Maritime Logistics; Cargo; Landing Craft Tank; Port; Mixed Integer
Programming; Butterfly Route; Gurobi software
1. INTRODUCTION
There is domestic cargo shipments imbalance between the western and the eastern region ofIndonesia (Kalem, 2015). Majority of the Indonesian population is situated in Java andSumatera island (western region of Indonesia), which contribute to 80.14% of the total
population. Java is the most developed region hence become the centre of the trading
activity, especially for the importers (Kalem, 2015).
National Logistics System Development blueprint stated that Indonesia as a maritime
country, hence the marine transportation infrastructure had a significant role to facilitate
logistics transport effectively and efficiently. It becomes a huge challenge, where the trendof Indonesia logistics costs has tremendously increased every year from 2004 to 2011 by anaverage of 23% annually. (World Bank, 2013).
Some research with various cost-efficiency solution on the maritime logistics problem havebeen conducted. This research focused on maritime logistic network design, which isdifferent with onshore logistics network design. Maritime logistic network design uses
different payload in each fleet meanwhile onshore logistic use the same payload in eachfleet (Ronen, 1983). In addition, a port cannot handle all vessels type, while onshore
terminal supply can serve all type of vessel (Ronen, 1983).

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Selection of a vessel or fleet is one particular focus, where the type and size of the fleet
must be determined and minimized (Danzig and Fulkerson, 1954). Fleet type and routes
should be combined in the form of a model (Cho and Perakis, 1996). Hence there should bea sensitivity relationship between determining the type of fleet and the sequencing route.
Rana and Vickson (1988) discussed the optimal route for container shipping fleet tomaximize profit. Operating costs determination is calculated by scheduling each fleet
sailing (rental cost) as well as the recommended cruising speed (consummable goods)(Fagerholt and Christiansen, 2000).
Meijer (2015) stated that, there are three stages of decision-making to determines the typeand route of the fleet. Firstly, customize the type of fleet available, determine the routerandomly and the last is to test the feasibility of the route by including a combination offleet and route into the Cargo Model Routing with Generic Alghoritmic implementation todetermine the route sequencing.
Line Blender (2011) resolve a problem in determining the fleet, ships and cargo flow using
full exact methods. Somewhat different from the Mulder and Dekker method (2013)
adopted by Van Rijn and Meijer (2015) in the Indonesia pendulum route optimization.
The differences in Line Blender’s mathematical models and solution methods (2011) withother researchers is on LCT service, where Line Blender (2011) refers to the Agarwal and
Ergun’s “Butterfly Route” design of Relaxing Outbound-Inbound fleet principel (2008).
Meanwhile Van Rijn (2015) and Meijer (2015) refers to Vickson Rana (1991)’s InboundOutbound Principle. Rana and Vickson (1991) presented the state of the North Atlantis sea
trade route Liner Shipping art models using outbound-inbound principle where LCT
docked at the port that has been defined prior to shipping and each port only docked once
before returning to first “Butterfly route” port. Rana and Vickson (1991) used a betterroute, the relaxing outbound-inbound principle, in Mediterranean, Baltic and the Black Sea
intercontinental trading shipment design where LCT docked at the predefined port before
sailing more than once on each port before returning to the first port.
According to previously mentioned background discrepancy, a further study is required to
draw together the research about the application of Relaxing Outbound-Inbound Principle
route that is butterfly route using a Mixed Integer Programming method as arecommendation for Indonesia Pendulum route planning.
2. METHODOLOGY
Linear programming is a general model that can provide best solution of limited resources
problem, which are required to determine any carried-out activity, each activity requires thesame resources but with a limited amount (Handy Taha, 1987). Integer Programming is amodel that has restrictions and objective functions which are identical to linear
programming, however it has integer value of decision variables (Render, Stair Jr., andHanna, 2012).

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Assignment problems is a matter of limited resource allocation to certain limit with the goalin profit maximization or cost minimization (Markland, 1983). Transportation is a logistics
series activity that play a role in the overall movement of the product from upstream todownstream processes (Bowersox and Closs, 1996). The network model affect performanceof supply series through infrastructure development method, in which the operating relatedscheduling and routing decisions is taken (Chopra, 2010).
Transportation costs take one-third to two-thirds of logistics total cost (Ballou, 1999).
Therefore the best way to maximize profits is to make an efficient transportation costs.
Vessel is suitable transportation method for a low-mass or low volume products and used
for sturdy products (Ballou, 1999).
Shipment planning stage is divided in three stages (Meng In, 2014):

Figure 1 Liner Shipping Stage Planning (Meng In, 2014)
Shipment route planning stage is divided into three steps (Meijer, 2015):• Feeder Network
Feeder network shipment route use a centralized port (sub port), which in charge toaccommodate relatively small volume cargo from other ports.
• Port to port RoutePort to port route shipment route visit all ports in a single cycle• Butterfly Route
Butterfly route shipment route is free visit for each cyclic but have centerpoint for eachroute cycle.
2.2. Data Collection
This research aims to provide a Landing Craft Tank (LCT) vessel route recommendationand cargo quantity (LTE) to be transported or unloaded at the port. In order to make an
optimum route recommendation, related data such as port location, the distance acrossports, port cargo demand, the type of vessel based on the capacity used, the used resources
cost and cargo shipping income.
Ports
There are six main ports that must be travelled in Pendulum Nusantara route (Figure 2), i.e.
as follows:• Belawan (Sumatera)• Tanjung Priok (Java)

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•
•
•
•

Tanjung Perak (Java)
Banjarmasin (Kalimantan)
Makasar (Sulawesi)
Sorong (Papua)

Figure 2. Pendulum Nusantara Ports
Distance across ports
The following matrix distance across ports in Nautical Miles units:
Table 1: Distance across Ports

Demand across Ports
The following matrix across ports demand in TEU units (Wardana, 2014):
Table 2: Demand across Ports

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LCT TypeLCT capacity type used in Indonesia shipping (Wardana, 2014):
Tabel 3: LCT type in Pendulum Route

Cost and Earnings Assumptions
Estimated handling fee of 34 USD per TEU, 215 USD income per TEU per port charges,
docking ports 625 USD per port (Kalem, 2015). To estimate the fuel consumption cost
(Brouer et al., 2014) with fuel consumption function (27) as follows:

600v: Fuel consumption for each distance (s) speed (v) speed.
: Fuel prices USD per liter.
: Cruising speed (Nautical miles per Hour).
: Cruising speed (Nautical miles per Hour).
: Cruising vessel fuel consumption s.
: Idle vessel port Fuel consumption.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Model Development
The research aims to develop an exact shipping route model using Mixed Integer Butterfly
Route Programming on Pendulum Route Indonesia to provide more effective route
recommendations.
The main referral of this study was the results of Rana and Vickson (1991), the state of theart models of Liner Shipping for the sea trade in Atlantis North using outbound-inboundprinciple where LCT docked at the port that has been defined prior to sailing and justdocked one each port before returning to the first butterfly route port. Rana and Vickson(1991) used to the relaxing outbound-inbound principle in designing intercontinental

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trading shipment in the Mediterranean, Baltic and the Black Sea where LCT docked at thepredefined port before sailing more than once on each port before returning to the first port.
The main outcome expected is the Butterfly Route for the Pendulum Ports in Indonesia.
The advantage of incorporation between exact method and butterfly shipping route models
is an ability to cover up the weaknesses of non-exact methods and the selection of thesetypes Inbound Outbound-Principle used in previous studies.
The first step taken was to design the butterfly route models. The model refers to the Line
Blender (2011)’s research which resolved some problem; determining the fleet, shipment
route, cargo flow; using the full method to minimize the cost.
The following notation, parameters, and variables are used in this research:
NotationI: The Initial set of anchorage point with index ij: The Destination set of anchorage point with index jv: The set type of LCT with index vm: The set amount of TEU cargo index m
Parameter: Individual LCT capacity v: Cycle time t, LCT v from port i-j: Simulation time unit
: Time docked at the port j: b cargo demand, m positive if i origin: b cargo demand b, m negative if i destination
Variable: Number of request m, transported using LCT v from port i to port j: Binary variabel value 1 if network (i, j) is the first or last network LCT v with twocycle, otherwise is 0.
: The order of the LCT, Positive integer variable.
: Binary variable, equal to 1 if the network (i, j) is LCT v s, otherwise is 0.
: Demand variable LCT v m being transported for transit in the port j.
: Binary variable, equal to 1 if the port i connect two LCT cycle v, denotated as acenterpoint.
: Demand v m at LCT, enter the port i to port j, does not pass through the network(i, h).
: The cycle time LCT v.
: binary variable, equal to 1 if the LCT v selected, otherwise value is 0.
Constraints• Constraint (1): ensure the cargo shipment flow meet all demand of each port.

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1028

•

Constraint (2): ensure the cargo flow deliver all transhipping cargo.

•

In Van Rijn (2015) and Meijer (2015) Pendulum model refers to the InboundOutbound Principle. Constraint (3) to constraint (13) are identified to make sure thecargo left at the port transported with the same type of LCT in one lane vertex(Butterfly Route) with the amount of ports more than once visited centerpoint.

•

Constraint (14): Ensure the LCT rent cost calculated•

Constraint (15): Ensure ship cycle time value equal to the cruising time and docking
time.

•

Constraint (16) – (21): Ensure the variable value is greater than or zero.

•

Constraint (22): Ensure every demand is delivered in each ship’s route.

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•Constraint (23): Ensure if the capacity is already loaded, consider cruising time anddocking time.

•

Constraint (24): Ensure there is not route that exceeds maximum period which is 30
days.

•

Constraint (25): Ensure total cargo transported not exceed the LCT capacity in 30day period.

Objective function: to minimize the delivery cost, the transhipping cost, and the LCT
rental cost.
(26)
3.2. Simulation Results
Table 4 resumes cargo volume in each route and individual type of LCT generated from thesimulation process.
• Demand: planned TEU volume.
• Volume TEU 1,2,3: Spread volume transported each LCT.
• These 1,2,3 TEU: Sequence routes that pass each LCT.
• Vessel TEU 1,2,3: LCT used for each route and volume
The total cargo volume to be shipped in Pendulum Indonesia are as much as 56.104 TEU
in one week. The volume is the total volume of 6 ports in Indonesia refers to the weekly
demand as follows:

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Table 4: Butterfly Route and Shipment Planning

4. CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that the mathematical model developed by using the Mixed Integer
Programming method produces a Butterfly Route scheme. Total cargo volume of 56.103
TEU is successfully transported in the one week period, hence the proposed mathematicalmodel has met the actual operational needs.
The three schemes did not use the 400 TEU LCT at all, hence the LCT used can be
replaced with a larger capacity of LCT. For the future research, the utilization of time
window and forecasting demand are strongly recommended so that the sailing day and theuse of LCT type based on the tidal conditions can be considered.

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5. REFERENCES
Bradley, Hax & Magnanti. (1977). Applied Mathematical Programming. Massachutes:
MIT.
D. Ronen. (1983). Cargo Ship Routing and Schedulling : Surveys of model and problems.
Our Journal of Operational Research, 12: 119-126.
K. Rana, & R. Vickson (1991). Routing Container Ships using Lagrangean Relaxation
and Decomposition. Trans Sci, 25: 201-214.
R. Presenti. (1995). Hierarchical Resource Planning for Shipping Companies. European
Journal of Operational Research, 86: 91-102.
Ballou, R.H. (1999). Business Logistics Management. New Jersey : Prentice-Hall.
Fagerhoult, K. (1999). Optimal Fleet Design ina Shipping Routing Problem. New Jersey :International operation Resesarch.
Christiansen & Fagerhoult, K. (2002). Robust Ship Schedulling with Multiple Tuime
Window. New Jersey : Naval Research logistic.
Li, Ling . (2007). Supply chain Management :concep, techniquest and practice. London :World Sceintefic Publishing Co.Pte.Ltd..
R. Agarwal & O.Ergun . (2008). Supply Ship Schedulling and Network Design for Cargo
Routing in Liner Shipping. Transportation Science, 42(2): 175-196.
Chopra, Sunnil & Meindl. (2010). Supply chain Management:strategy, planning andoperation. New Jersey : Pearson.
L. Blander Reindhart & D. Pisinger. (2010). A Branch and Cut Alghorithm for Container
Shipping Network Design problem. Danish: Springer Science and Bussines Media.
Q. Meng & S. Wang. (2011). Liner Shipping Network design with Empty Container
Repositioning. Transp Res Part E, 47: 695 - 708.
J. Mulder & R.Dekker . (2013). Methods for Strategic Liner Shipping Network Design.
European Journal of Operation Research.
Wardana, W. (2014). Centre gravity Model and Network Design to Determine Route ofLiner Shipping: The Case of East-West Container Shipping Coridor in . Rotterdam :Erasmus.
Meijer, J. (2015). Creating Liner Shipping Network Design. Rotterdam : Erasmus.
Van Rijn, L. (2015). Service Network Design for Liner Shipping in Indonesia. Rotterdam :Erasmus.
Kalem, H. (2015). Container Liner Shipping Network Design Using a Path Formulation
Model in Indonesia. Rotterdam : Erasmus.

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WHY DID NOT ALL HIGH QUALITY PRODUCTS ALWAYS SATISFY THEIRUSERS? A CASE STUDY OF PASSENGER CARS AND ITS DRIVERS
Muhammad Habiburrahman1, a, Djoko Sihono Gabriel1, b, Rahmat Nurcahyo1, c
1

Department of Industrial Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok Campus, Indonesia
16424
am.habib.st@gmail.com, bdsihono@gmail.com, crahmat@eng.ui.ac.id

ABSTRACT
Quality improvement of a product becomes an important program at most of manufacturers
and needs various resources to make the programs work properly. But if the products quality
achieved at highest level of criteria, will the customers always satisfy with it? Previous
research and experience proved that statement but need deeper elaboration why not all ofusers satisfied by genuine quality of products. A case study of multi purposes van (MPV)
automobile and its user using Structural Equation Modelling with Partial Least Square (PLSSEM) and SmartPLS software supported the analysis prepared for this work. In depth datacollecting with questionnaires from 516 car drivers in Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and
Bekasi conducted to reveal the role of users related to their post purchase satisfaction. A
computer program prepared for SEM with steps of analysis designed to clarify the
relationship between the quality of MPV and driving satisfaction as well as the role ofdriving quality. This research concluded that driving quality of MPV drivers intervened therelationship between variables. Lower quality of driving will reduce driving satisfaction
whether the quality of MPV was very good. Otherwise, high quality of driving will not only
enhance the satisfaction, but also leverage the effect of other variable to driving satisfaction.
The intervening variable role will give new approach in developing and maintaining driving
satisfaction. A new approach of customer satisfaction improvement proposed and valuable
programs of MPV producers with a new paradigm will improve manufacturer competitive
advantage.
Keywords: multi purposes van; intervening variable; driving quality; driving satisfaction;
PLS-SEM.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
This study assessed MPV drivers experience while driving and conducting the operation of
the vehicles. The MPV drivers were selected as respondents for two important consideration.
They are need appropriate skills and good driving practice that support their driving quality.
And the other one, MPV businesses in Indonesia, especially in low end quality MPV
business, face tight competition that need a new approach to support customer satisfaction
improvement.
1.2. Objective of the Study
To find out a quantitative approval that the higher a certain variable, the higher driving

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satisfaction of MPV, but the effect to driving satisfaction reduced by the lower driving
quality.
2. METHOD AND DATA ACQUISITIONAs an alternative to the classical covariance-based approach, PLS-Path Modelling is claimed
to seek for optimal linear predictive relationships rather than for causal mechanisms,
therefore, this method also viewed as a very flexible approach to multi-block (or multiple
table) analysis, that arise when a few sets of variables are available for the same set of samples(Vinzi et al, 2010). This approach is suitable to the problem in this case study that constructedby some latent variables with many number of manifest variables.
2.1. Driving Satisfaction and Its Predictors
Some variables affect to passenger car satisfaction identified as vehicle quality (Stylidis,2016), brand service quality, brand value, technology anxiety (Aziz, 2016), service quality(Al-Shammari & Kanina, 2014), economical to use (Srinivas, 2013), customer service
quality, product quality (Jahanshahi, 2011), and maintenance cost, fuel efficiency, comfort(Mahapatra, 2010). Independent variables were proposed as predictors for customer
satisfaction, but no intervening variable proposed in previous research. According to Watson
et al. (2007), vehicle quality strongly related to automobile driving safety.
Description of vehicle quality varies among researchers. Many of them suggest performanceas common terminology of quality, but various attributes proposed as quality, including
reliability, durability, serviceability, aesthetics, special feature, conformance to specification,technology, convenient, technicalities, speed, consumption of fuel, emission, stability, easeof driving, space utilization, functions and customization.
2.2. Data Collection
The research respondents were MPV drivers who have responded to a set of questionnaire
according to a preliminary model and hypothesis. The low end of quality MPV used included
the brand of Chevrolet (2%), Daihatsu (19%), Honda (11%), Mazda (1%), Nissan (8%),
Suzuki (18%) and Toyota (40%). The drivers were asked to explain their experience
according to instrument statements by chosen their perceive experience of vehicle quality,
driving quality and their driving satisfaction. The data obtained by questionnaire represents
driver perception with scores within Likert scale of 1 to 6. A number of 528 customers whodrive their own MPV participated. Of the 528 questionnaires that had been obtained, 12questionnaires collected were not considered valid because some of the answers were still
empty, therefore only 516 questionnaires considered in the data processing. Latent variables
with each number of manifest variables represented in the Table 1.
2.3. Blocks Building
Partition the manifest variables into homogenous blocks allocate each one manifest variablebeing explicitly associated with only one latent variable. After many trials and with the deepof assessment of their casual system, can be considered the division of the 28 manifest
variables into 5 blocks of latent variable as seen in Table 1.

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Block1
2
3
4
5

Table 1. Latent and Manifest Variables
Latent Variable (5)Manifest Variable (23)Driving Quality
Functional Quality
Operational Quality
Reliability

Driving Satisfaction

QDRIV1, QDRIV2, QDRIV3, QDRIV4QFUNC1, QFUCN2, QFUCN3, QFUCN4, QFUNC5QOPER1, QOPER2, QOPER3, QOPER4, QOPER5
RELI1, RELI2, RELI3, RELI4, RELI5, RELIS6DRISAT1, DRISAT2, DRISAT3, DRISAT4, DRISAT5,DRISAT6, DRISAT7, DRISAT8

2.4. Causality Scheme and Structural Model
As a result of literature study of passenger car, four independent variables proposed in thisstudy as follow: driving quality, vehicle reliability, operational quality, and functional
quality. But according to new insight in this study, Driving Quality variable proposed bothas independent and intervening variable. If the other three of independent variables related
and managed by vehicle manufacturers, the intervening variables managed by owners anddrivers of vehicles. The intervening variable was a new variable that have not been introduced
before. Supposing that the scheme reflect correctly the predictors of the driving satisfaction,
it must then propose relations between these variables, to explain the latent variable
relationship. In Table 2 the relationships proposed as a set of hypothesis.
Hypothesis
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7

Table 2. Hypothesis Proposed for PLS-SEM
Relationship Description

The lower the Driving Quality, the lower the Driving
Satisfaction
The higher the Functional Quality, the higher the
Driving Satisfaction
The higher the Operational Quality, the higher Driving
Satisfaction
The higher the Reliability, the higher the Driving
Satisfaction
The lower the Driving Quality, the weaker the effect of
the Functional Quality on the Driving Satisfaction
The lower the Driving Quality, the weaker the effect of
the Operational Quality on the Driving Satisfaction
The lower the Driving Quality, the weaker the effect of
the Reliability on the Driving Satisfaction

Relationship
Type
CausalCausalCausalCausalIntervening
Intervening
Intervening

2.5. Data Processing with SmartPLS Software
Before using SmartPLS Software in the PLS-SEM analysis, a preliminary test of 30
completed questionnaires conducted to ensure the appropriateness of questionnaires before
conducting further data collection. Validity and reliability tests results suggested that thequestionnaires were worth for further purpose, to test the hypothesized relationships in a
structural model. Structural Equation Modelling Procedures with PLS conducted according
to Hair et al. (2014) as following steps: specifying the structural model, specifying themeasurement model, data collection and examination, PLS path model estimation, assessing

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PLS-SEM results, analysis, interpretation and conclusion. Reliability test of the data
indicated that the model was accepted according to its internal consistency reliability with
Cronbach’s Alpha and Composite Reliability more than 0.7, and Average Variance Extracted(AVE) more than 0.5. A structural model measurement with bootstrapping for all samples
resulted as the following figures and tables.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Structural equation according to SEM showed that T-Statistic Value of four variables to
Driving Satisfaction were more than 1.96, therefore Driving Quality, Functional Quality,
Operational Quality and Reliability strongly considered in the next analysis. The next
analysis focused on the role of Driving Quality as intervening variable. Evaluation of thestructural equation showed in Figure 1 and Table 3 concluded that the equation with four
independent variables and one dependent variable was well accepted according to the goodresults of standard deviation, T-Statistic Value and P-Value. But the intervening variable role
only accepted in Hypothesis 6: the Driving Quality intervened the relationship between
Operational Quality and Driving Satisfaction only, as shown in Table 3, Figure 2 and more
specific in Figure 3 with good T-Statistic Value, P-Value and path coefficient. The structuralmodel evaluation indicated that the lower the Driving Quality, the weaker the effect of the
Functional Quality to the Driving Satisfaction.

Figure 1.
T-Statistic Value of Structural Model between Variables

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Figure 2.
Path Coefficient between Variables

Table 3.
Evaluation of Structural Model among Latent Variables

Relationship among variables
Driving Quality to Driving
Satisfaction
Functional Quality to Driving
Satisfaction
Operational Quality to Driving
Satisfaction
Reliability to Driving
Satisfaction
Driving Quality-Functional
Quality to Driving Satisfaction
Driving Quality-Operational
Quality to Driving Satisfaction
Driving Quality-Reliability to
Driving Satisfaction

1036

Path
Coefficient-0.147

Std.
Deviation
0.043

T
Statistic
3.476

P
Value
0.001

Decision
Accepted

0.365

0.051

7.177

0.000

Accepted

0.197

0.055

3.581

0.000

Accepted

0.241

0.055

4.379

0.000

Accepted

0.075

0.048

1.523

0.119

Rejected-0.165

0.036

4.565

0.000

Accepted

0.084

0.051

1.609

0.096

Rejected

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Figure 3.
Driving Quality as Independent and Intervening Variable in the Structural Model
Manifest or observed variables in Operational Quality exists in the vehicle itself and thevehicle manufacturer efforts, included the following description:
1. QOPER1: Mileage per liter of fuel2. QOPER2: Durability of vehicle and its spare parts
3. QOPER3: Easy in driving
4. QOPER4: Simple in daily maintenance
5. QOPER5: Easy in periodic maintenance, both technical and financial aspects
Otherwise, Driving Quality depend on driver’s knowledge, skill and driving commitment as
the follow manifest variables:
1. QDRIV1: Ability to describe good conduct in vehicle driving
2. QDRIV2: Ability to describe driver skill requirements in vehicle driving
3. QDRIV3: Driving skills fulfilment when driving a car
4. QDRIV 4: Commitment for right, safe and good conduct in vehicle driving
In the accepted structural model, Driving Quality not only affected to Driving Satisfaction,
but also intervened the causal relationship between Operational Quality and Driving
Satisfaction. The causal relationship (Hypothesis 1): The lower the Driving Quality, thelower the Driving Satisfaction and the intervening role (Hypothesis 6): The lower the Driving
Quality, the weaker the effect of the Operational Quality to the Driving Satisfaction were

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supported by this study. Otherwise, better of Driving Quality not only improve Driving
Satisfaction, but also strengthen the effect Operational Quality to Driving Satisfaction.
The new evident delivered precious information both to MPV manufacturers and MPV users.
MPV manufacturer and their supply chains strategy that focused on vehicle quality only,
would be less competitive when other manufacturers more care and deliver better support tovehicles drivers in improving their Driving Quality. The last manufacturers will take
important advantage in their customer satisfaction and loyalty. A good brochure and a simple
but effective driver manual distribution for automobile buyers will support driving quality
improvement. Qualified driving instructors from the manufacturers comply with automobilepurchase also become a strategic delivery in driving quality improvement as well as good
promotional effect in increasing intention to buy and repeat order the brand.
4. CONCLUSION
The role of driving quality as intervening variable of operational quality to driving
satisfaction of MPV was well approved by structural equation modelling with PLS. A
genuine quality of MPV still need another factor that strengthen the driving satisfaction. Bad
practice in driver license approval affected not only to unsafe driving, but also reduce safetyawarness, driving quality and driving satisfaction. These results suggest a new way ofunderstanding about who, whom and how customer satisfaction can be improved. MPV
manufacturer aiming to boost their customer satisfaction should thus consider this finding.
Good driving tutorials and practices may be effective and efficient means of encouraging
driving quality improvement.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research would not have been possible without the kind support of Hibah PITTA 2017
scheme. We are grateful to Universitas Indonesia for funding the research that has been
carried out.
6. REFERENCES
Al-Shammari, M. & Kanina, A. S., (2014), Service Quality and its Relationship with
Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty in a Saudi Arabian Automobile Company, Global
Journal of Management and Business Research: E Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 8, pp. 13-21.
Aziz, S. A., (2016), Does Fear of New Car Technologies Influence Brand Loyalty
Relationship?, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 125-136.
Bagozzi, R., & Yi, Y. (2012), Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural
equation models, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 40 No. 1, pp. 8–
34.
Chiu, S., et al. (2011), Preliminary research on customer satisfaction models in Taiwan: Acase study from the automobile industry, Expert Systems with Applications, Vol. 38, pp.
9780-9787.
Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstead, M. (2014). A Primer on Partial Least
Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.

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Hamza, P.K., (2014), A Study on the Determinants and Impact on Overall Customer
Satisfaction Evaluations with Special Reference to Automobile Industry, Journal of
Science, Technology and Management, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 0974-8334.
Jahanshahi, A. A., (2011), Study the Effects of Customer Service and Product Quality on
Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty, International Journal of Humanities and Social
Science, Vol. 1 No. 7, pp. 253-260.
Mahapatra, S. N. et al., (2010), Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Post-Purchase
Evaluation: An Empirical Study on Small Size Passenger Cars in India, International
Journal of Business and Society, Vol. 11 No. 2, pp. 97-108.
Spreng, R. A. et al., (1996), A reexamination of the determinants of consumer satisfaction,
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 60 No. 3, pp. 15-31.
Srinivas, K. T., (2013), The Study on Customer Satisfaction with Respect to Hyundai Motor
Cars i20 in Bangalore City, International Journal of Management Research and Review,Vol. 3 No. 9, pp. 3569-3579.
Stylidis, K. et al., (2016), A Preliminary Study of Trends in Perceived Quality Design
Attributes in the Automotive Luxury Market Segment, International Design Conference– Design 2016, Dubrovnik, Croatia, May 16-19, 2016.
Vinzi, V.E., et al. (2010). Editorial: Perspectives on Partial Least Squares. In: Handbook ofPartial Least Squares. Concepts, Methods and Applications. Editors: Vinzi, V.E., et al.
Heidelberg: Springer.
Watson, B. et al., (2007), Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider
intentions and behaviour, Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety (CARRS-Q)
Queensland University of Technology, August 2007.
Zhang, D. & Zhang, D. M., (2015), Determinants of Consumer’s Automobile Purchase
Decisions in China: Focus on Automobile Size, Int. J. Mgmt Res. & Bus. Strat., Vol. 4
No. 4, p. 61-66.

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OPTIMAL PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT TO MAINTAIN CONCENTRATIONON OFFICE WORK IN TROPICAL CLIMATE IN INDONESIA
a,b

Lovely Ladya*, Nisfaenib
Industrial Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering-Untirta
Jl. Jend.Sudirman Km.3 Cilegon, Banten 42435 – Indonesia

ABSTARCT
Doing Office work or learning requires concentration. The people will design comfortable work
space physical environment, including the temperature and lighting. Sometimes they set of music
background so they can work comfortable. The purpose of this study is to determine the optimal
temperature setting and sound background to maintain concentration when doing office work intropical climate in Indonesia. Others indoor physical environment on this study is set fixed and at
appropriate conditions for office work. Level of lighting is at the 250 lux, noise when there is nomusic at the level of 60 dB, and humidity at the level of 56%. Research was done by an experimentin the officeroom, independent variables are temperature and sound background, and the dependent
variable is concentration levels. Temperature was set using the Air Conditioner at three levels 18oC,
23oC, and 28oC that represents the level of indoor temperatures in Indonesia. And two setting ofsound background was background of prefered music, type of pop music with the tempo of 74 BPM
and background without music. Respondent is students with a range of age between 19 to 22 years
old. Concentration test was performed with a test of psychophysics based of software ' Design Tools 'version 3.00 of the Method, Standard and Work Design 11th Edition by Benjamin Niebel and Andris
Freivalds-Mc Graw Hill in printed version. Model of the question of concentration test is choosing alonger line between two lines on the display. The length and position of two lines at each question isdisplayed randomly. According to analysis of variance, temperature and background music affectwork concentration significantly, value of significancy = 0,000. According to post hoc test at
temperature variabel, the level of work concentration at temperature of 18oC and 23oC did not differ
significantly,  = 0.504. But at room temperature of 28oC, there was a decrease in concentrations
significantly by the value  = 0.000. There was no difference in the level of concentration whenworking with the preferred music background or without music background on temperatures of 23oC
and 28oC which respondents dominantly feel cool, warm, or heat on thermal sensation. But music
background help improving concentration score in cold thermal sensation. Based on a subjective
assessment against the convenience of room temperature using the thermal sensation scale points 7,
dominant respondent stated they felt cool (60%) and felt sligtly cool (20%) on room temperature of
23oC, above number of respondent who felt cool on others level of room temperture. Based on thisresearch the efficient temperature setting for work concentration and comfortable is 23oC either bymusic background or no music background.
Keywords: Concentration; physical environment; temperature; music background; efficient.
1. INTRODUCTION
Office work need of cognitive ability to do it. Cognitive concerned with the internal process involvedin making sense of the environemnt and deciding what action might be appropriate (Eysenk, 2005).
Cognitive process also known as mental activity include: Acquisition of – perception – memory,storage, retrieval – imagery, use of knowledge – reasoning, problem solving, decision making.

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Mental activity needed a high concentration to achieve the desired results. There are three things that
affect concentration, i.e. the power from the outside, various information and willingness. In order tobe comfortable and concentration in doing the work, work place is designed ergonomically include
the physical environment of room. Room temperature conditioned at the desired temperature using
the Air Conditioner, even by giving the background music during work to improve comfort.
Unhealthy physical environment may result bad work. It's not just affect physical work but alsomental work. The mental work require lower calories than physical activity. But morally andresponsibility, mental activity has heavier workload than any physical activity because it involves
more brain works than muscle. Creating a comfortable environment for human beings is crucial, so it
will improve the attitude and performance of the individual work, even the safety of the work.
Based on the decision letter of the Minister of health of Indonesia number:
1405/Menkes/SK/XI/2002 about air room in offices, work room temperature is recommended in therange between 18oC – 28oC. Moreover, according to Lippsmeir (in Rilatupa, 2008) boundary
condition for the comfort in the equator area are in the range of temperature 22.5°C- 29°C with an
air humidity 20% – 50%. Excessive heat conditions will lead to a sense of fatigue and sleepiness,
reduce stability and increase the number of error. Instead of excessive cold conditions will lead
reducing a sense of alertness and reducing work concentration.
Performance increases with temperature up to 21-22oC, and decreases with temperature above 23-24
oC. The highest productivity is at temperature of around 22oC. (Seppanen, 2006). They also havedeveloped a relation between performance and temperature in USA and showed a decrease inperformance by 2% peroC increase of the temperature in the range of 25-32oC, and no effect on
performance in temperature range of 21-25oC. Other similar research conducted by Haditia (2012)
said that visual inspection capabilities decrease on temperature 29.4oC and 32.2oC. In general thelevel of visual ability decreases in accordance with the increase in the temperature of theenvironment and it also increased workload.
Thermal comfort is usually measured subjectively, but there is the influence of habit factors and theeffect of the room contextual so that the assessment of the subject on thermal comfort can bedifferent. The majority of researchers have assigned the differences between reported and predicted
thermal sensation of occupants on two main factors: a) errors in measurements; and b) contextual
effects (Beizaee, 2012). The study has shown that the Fanger's PMV model is not accurate enough inpredicting people's thermal sensation in naturally ventilated homes and offices in the UK during thesummer.
North and Hargreaves (in Arya, 2014) stated that listening to music and run tasks concurrently affectthe cognitive burden of processing, where there are limited resources. Music stimulates the brain's
emotional center, as it has the dimension of creative and have parts that are identical to the learning
process in general. But often people use sound background music to enhance comfort in work.
Workers relished working in presence of music, the felt motivated and fresh at work (Talwar, 2016).
The value of music listening made positive mood change and quality-of-work were lowest with nomusic (Lesiuk, 2005). Extroverts performed significantly better during the completion of the test inpresence of music, but poorer in silence, compared to the Introverts who performed better in silence
than in the presence of music (Mistry, 2015).
Influence of indoor temperature against human performance has already examined, including its
effects on productivity (Seppanen, 2006, Federspiel et al. 2004, Heschong, 2003), complex task
(Chao et al. 2003, Heschong 2003), Vigilance task or manual tasks related to office work (Wyon etal. 1996). All the research is conduct on the respondent who live in subtropical areas. While theresearch of influence of music background against productivity is conducted separetely without
analyse the effect of combination of background music and indoor temperature. MC Nulty (2015),
Padmasiri (2014), Lesiuk (2005) researched that the employee performance can be improved further

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by using of background music. Previous studies generally have conducted on respondents who livein subtropical climates and no combination of physical environmental conditions.
While working, most office workers in Indonesia set indoor temperature below 20oC, and set up
music background to improve comfort. Indonesia have environmental temperature is always warm
because it has a tropical climate so Indonesia people would have a level of comfort for room
temperature is different from people in subtropical climates. This research aims to determine theoptimal temperature of office room in Indonesia to maintain high levels of concentration. The study
also will look at how the effects of background music combined with room temperature towards
concentration in the work.
2. METHODOLOGYThis research is a laboratory research using design of experiment. The level of concentration will beseen from the output of cognitive tests. Cognitive test was done in laboratory room in somecombinations of temperature levels and background music. Research done in the Laboratory
optimization of production systems the Faculty of Engineering, Department of Industrial Engineering
University of Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa. Indoor physical environment on this study was set fixed and at
appropriate conditions for office work. Level of lighting was at the 250 lux, noise when there was nomusic at the level of 60 dB, and humidity at the level of 60%. In each combination of physicalenvironment, respondents were given five minutes to perform a set of test. After working on theconcentration test, they filled the questionnaire about thermal comfort that they felt during the test.
The questionnaire is based on the 7-Scale Fanger.
2.1 Respondent
Respondents in this research are Industrial Engineering students of UNTIRTA with a range of 19 to
22 years of age. The total number of respondents 45 people, with 30 of the women respondents and
15 male respondents. Respondents were divided into three groups based on the room temperaturethat is conditioned, so that each group contained 15 respondents. Each group respondent has done
concentration test on two conditions : with background music and without background music
conditions. Each group conducted simulations for 30 minutes. The first ten minutes was used for
conditioning of the respondents against the temperature of the work room and filling out the form of
the respondent indentity. The next twenty minutes was used to perform tests of concentration and fill
the thermal comfort questionnaire.
2.2 Variables
This study using two independent variables and one dependent variable. The dependent variable isthe variable that is affected, due to the indepedent variable. In this research the dependent variable isthe concentration during work. The independent variable is the variable that affect or be a cause ofoccurrence of changes to a dependent variable. In this research independent variable is room
temperature and the presence of background music.
2.3 Physical environment setting
Based on the regulation of the Minister of health of the Republic of Indonesia work room
recommended temperature ranges between 18oC – 28oC. Therefore, the levels of the temperaturesthat are conditioned on this research is at 18°C, 23°C, and 28°C. Temperature 18°C represent thelower limit, 23°C represent the mid, and 28°C represent the upper limit of the recomended range.
Background music using music from player and loud speaker. Type of music is preferred by the
respondent, a kind of pop music with the tempo of 74 BPM. On environmental factors with music

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background, reference is used as the normal condition is the room environment without music
background.
2.4 Concentration test
Concentration test is performed using a psychophysics test based of software ' Design Tools ' version
3.00 of the Method, Standard and Work Design 11th Edition by Benjamin Niebel and Andris
Freivalds-Mc Graw Hill in printed version. Model of the question of concentration test is choosing alonger line between two lines on the display. The length and position of two lines at each question isdisplayed randomly. A set of concentration test consists of thirty questions. After completing a set ofquestions on the conditions with the background music, the respondents fill out questionnaires ofthermal comfort. Thermal comfort is a subjective assessment against the convenience of room
temperature using Fanger thermal sensation scale points 7. After filling out the questionnaire ofthermal comfort, simulation continued on second condition of physical environment, without music
background.
2.5 Measure of physical environment
On this research some tools are used for conditioning and measuring physical environment. Air
Conditioner for conditioning the environment temperature. Thermo-Hygrometer is used to measureindoor temperature and humidity during simulation takes place. Psychophysics tests is used to findout the level of concentration of the respondent. Speakers and player is used to play music
background during executing the cognitive test. And lux meter for measuring the level of lighting in
the room.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data of cognitive test due to the effects of temperature and the presence of background music
was processed using the Statistical software Package For Social Science (SPSS) 22. Output ofconcentration test have be carried out normality test prior to be used in analysis of variance. Analysisof the influence of the temperature level of the work environment and the presence of backgroundmusic was analyzed by anova test. There was six combinations of the physical environment which
was obtained from 3 levels room temperature and two conditions of music background. Table 1
presents the score of concentration test in six combinations of the physical environment.
Output of concentration test should be ensured have normal distribution prior to be used in analysis
of variance. Kolmogorov smirnov and shapiro-wilk test was used in this research to check that data
have normal distribution, because of the number of respondent per-simulation is less than thirty.
Output of the normal distribution test on score of concentration test in every physical environment
condition are presented in the table 2. According to the table, all of data have normal distribution in
every combination of physical environment because it have significant value more than 0.05.

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Tabel 1 Score of concentration test

Respondent
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Average

Background music
18 C
23oC
28oC

18 C

No music
23oC

28oC

27
28
27
29
27
26
27
28
28
26
25
28
27
26
26

28
30
27
29
30
28
26
30
22
28
29
23
25
27
24

23
20
25
19
23
20
24
23
23
22
20
24
25
28
27

27
26
25
23
26
24
28
26
26
25
24
25
28
27
23

26
29
25
27
28
25
28
29
24
27
28
29
28
25
22

23
25
21
24
20
20
24
24
26
23
22
24
19
20
21

27,00

27,07

23,07

25,53

26,67

22,40

o

o

Table 2 Normal distribution test on score of concentration
Music
Background

Temperature
(oC)

Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No

18
18
23
23
28
28

kolmogorov smirnov
Statistic
,167
,148
,175
,205
,156
,174

Df
15
15
15
15
15
15

Sig.
,200*
,200*
,200*
,091
,200
,200

shapiro-wilk
Statistic
,934
,944
,915
,904
,950
,937

Df
15
15
15
15
15
15

Sig.
,316
,431
,160
,109
,517
,350

3.1 The effect of the temperature of the working room and the presence of backgroundmusic towards concentration of work.
Based on Shapiro wilk test all output of concentration test have Gaussian distribution, so that allof data can be used to analyze the effect of temperature and the presence of background music
towards work concentration levels. Anova test is used to analyze the effect of the physicalenvironment conditions against concentration. The following table is the output of anova test
between concentration score of respondent that worked in some combination temperature roomand the presence of background music. The independent variables are room temperature and thepresence of background music, and dependent variable is concentration score.

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Table 3 Analysis of variance of influence of temperature and music backgroundagainst score of concentration
Type III Sum
Sourceof Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

a

5

64,673

15,043,000Intercept

57511,675

157511,675

13377,630,000

Temperatur

301,4422

150,72135,059,000

Background

21,2701

21,270

4,948

,029

temperatur * background

2,794

2

1,397

,325

,724

Error

361,124

84

4,299

Total

58242,000

90

684,489

89

Corrected Model

Corrected Total

323,365

The influence of all independent variables (Temperature and music backgound) and interaction
between the temperature and music background (Temperature * music background) are jointly
against the dependent variable (the output of the concentration test) has the significancy of lessthan 0.05 (see from corrected model significancy) means the model is valid. Based on the table
the value of significancy for temperature factor is less than 0.05. So it can be inferred that thetemperature has significant effects against concentration. The value of music background factor
significancy is also smaller than 0.05, mean music background effect concentration significantly.
The results of the third, namely the interaction of temperature and music background, havesignificancy 0.724. The value is greater than 0.05, meaning the interaction between temperatureand background music has no significant effect against concentration.
Based on the Anova is known that there are significant effects of temperature and backgroundmusic on concentration of work. To find out if these two factors generated a significant differentof concentration level, post hoc test was done. Indicators are seen from the values ofsignificance, if the value of significancy < 0.05 mean concentration on both levels differ
significantly.
Tabel 4 Post Hoc Test of temperature on respondent concentration(I)
Temperature(J) Temperature

18
23
28

95% Confidence Interval

Mean
Difference (I-J)

Std. Error

23-,6000,5353628

3,5333*

18
28
18
23

Sig.

Lower Bound

Upper Bound,504-1,8773,6773,53536,000

2,25604,8107,6000,53536,504-,6773

1,8773

4,1333*,53536,000

2,85605,4107-3,5333*,53536,000-4,8107-2,2560-4,1333*,53536,000-5,4107-2,8560

Based on table 4 working at room temperature of 28°C had concentration score different
significantly from working at temperature of 18°C and 23°C because it had value significancy
smaller than 0.05. While working at room temperature of 18°C and 23°C didn’t have significant
different of score of concentration. At temperature of 18°C and 23°C respondent had nearly theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

1045

same concentration score, but at higher temperatures of 28°C the score of concentration had
decrease significanly.
The score of concentration when work in the environment with music background and withoutmusic background at the same temperature is analysed with t-test. Next table show result of ttest.
Table 5 t-test score of respondent concentration on environment with music backgroundand without music background
No
1
2
3

Indoor temperature
18oC
23oC
28oC

t-test result (α)
0.006
0.758
0.451

The result showed there wasn’t significant different of score of concentration when working in
the room with music background and without music background at temperature of 23oC and also
at temperature 28oC with value of significancy 0.451 and 0,758. And score of concentration
when work in the room with music background and without music background at temperature of
18oC showed different significantly, with value of significancy 0,006. Music background helped
increasing the concentration of working at temperature of 18oC, which on that temperature
dominant respondent felt cold based on their opinion on Thermal comfort questionnaires. But thebackground music did not increase the concentration of the respondent at a temperature of 23 oC
because at that temperature they felt cool and comfort based on their opinions on Thermal
comfort questionnaires, and background music also didn’t increase the concentration of the
respondent at temperature of 28oC because they felt warm and hot based on their opinions on
Thermal comfort questionnaires. Music can help improving concentration in cold thermal
sensation but not in cool, warm and hot thermal sensation.
3.2 Thermal Comfort
To find out the subjective assessment of the respondent against the room temperature, therespondent fill out Thermal comfort questionnaires. Based on the ISO 7730-1994, in stating a
condition termis used index introduced by Fanger, a researcher who analyzed the Thermal comfort
PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) and PPD (Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied). Value of PMV isrevealed with a number between-3 (cold), up to + 3 (hot). Questionnaire was given to the
respondents to refer to standards of comfort are commonly used. The respondents must select therange of comfort room which they felt. Next is the graph the results of the questionnaire of thermal
comfort by PMV magnitudes at temperature of 18°C, 23°C, and 28°C.

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Hot
Warm
Slightly warm
NeutralSlightly cool
Cool
Cold
Hot
Warm
Slightly warm
NeutralSlightly cool
Cool
Cold
Hot
Warm
Slightly warm
NeutralSlightly cool
Cool
Cold

Number of respondents

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

18oC

23oC
Thermal comfort

28oC

Figure 1 Graph of subjective thermal sensation
At room temperature of 18oC, dominant respondent as much as 47% stated that they felt cold,
33% felt cool, and 20% felt slightly cool. At a temperature of 23°C dominant respondent asmuch as 60% stated they felt cool, 13% of respondents stated a neutral temperature conditions,
20% felt slightly cool, and 7% felt cold. At a temperature of 28°C dominant respondent as muchas 67% felt the heat, 20% of respondents felt warm, and 13% of respondents felt slightly warm.
Indonesia people assess thermal comfort questionnaires based on their viewpoint which live intropical climate. The Indonesia people dominantly feel comfort at temperature of 23oC, because
they stated the thermal sensation is cool or slightly cool. This selection is based on Indonesia
climate which tends to be warm or hot, so Indonesia people more prefer the cool conditions thanwarm or slightly warm. This preference contrast to people who live in subtropical climate that
more prefer warm condition. Indonesian appraisement on neutral conditions is identical to thedaily conditions in Indonesia. Based on the answers of the respondent, the condition that most
comfortable for Indonesia is workroom temperature of 23oC because of number of respondent
felt cool and slighthly cool as much as 80%, the highest among others temperature. While
presence of music background in that room temperature despite increased concentration of work
but not significantly better than the concentration of work in the room without music
background.
4. CONCLUSION
Analysis of variance on score of concentration, the level of work concentration at temperature of
18oC and 23oC did not differ significantly,  = 0.504. But at room temperature of 28oC, there
was a decrease in concentration significantly by the value of  = 0.000. Music background will
help improve work concentration at temperature of 18oC which have cold thermal sensation, but
not at at temperatures of 23oC and 28oC which have cool, warm ant hot thermal sensation. Basedon a subjective assessment against the convenience of room temperature using the thermal
sensation scale points 7, dominant respondent (80%) stated felt comfort with sensation of cooldan slightly cool on room temperature of 23oC, above the number of respondent who felt
comfort in others temperature level. Based on this research the efficient temperature setting forProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

1047

work concentration and comfort is 23oC because it gives the highest level of concentration andcomfort either by music background or no music background.
5. REFERENCES
Arya, Ayu W., Caecilia S.W., and Arie D.,(2014), Analisis Pengaruh Tempo dan Genre Musik
Terhadap Kewaspadaan Pengendara Mobil Pribadi, Jurnal Teknologi Industri. ITENAS, Vol.
002 No. 03.
Beizaee, A., Firth, S.K., Vadodaria, K., Loveday, D.,(2012), Assessing the ability of PMVmodel in predicting thermal sensation in naturally ventilated buildings in UK, Proceedings of
7th Windsor Conference: The changing context of comfort in an unpredictable world
Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, UK, 12-15 April 2012. London.
Chao HJ, Schwartz J, Milton DK, Muillenberg ML, Burge HA. (2003). Effects of Indoor Air
Quality on Office Workers’ Work Performance - a Preliminary Analysis. Proceedings ofhealthy Buildings, pp 237-243.
Eysenck, M.W. Keane, M.T.,(2005), Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th
Edition, Psychology Press, New York.
Federspiel CC, Fisk WJ, Price PN, Liu G, Faulkner D, Dibartolemeo DL, Sullivan DP, Lahiff M.
(2004). Worker Performance and ventilation in a Call Center: Analyses of Work Performance
Data for Registered Nurses. Indoor Air Journal, vol 14. Supplement 8: 41-50.
Haditia, I.P.(2012). Analisis Pengaruh Suhu Tinggi Lingkungan dan Beban Kerja Terhadap
Konsentrasi Pekerja, Skripsi Sarjana, Universitas Indonesia. Jakarta.
Heschong Mahone Group. (2003). Windows and offices: A study of Office Workers
Performance and the Indoor Environment. Prepared for California energy commission. Fair
Oaks, California.
Lesiuk, T. (2005).The Effect of Music Listening on Work Performance. Psychology of Music,
vol 33; 173, Sage Publications.
McNulty, N.J., (2015) . The Effects of Music on Employee Affect. Honors Program Thesis,
University of Dayton.
Mistry, H. (2015). Music While You Work: The Effects of Background Music on Test
Performance amongst Extroverts and Introverts. Journal of Applied Psychology and Social
Sciences, 1 (1), 1-14.
Niebel, B., and Freivalds, A., (2001), Method, Standard and Work Design 11th Edition, Mc
Graw Hill in printed version, Singapore.
Padmasiri, M.K.D., Dhammika, K. A. S., (2014). The Effect Of Music Listening On Work
Performance: A Case Study Of Sri Lanka. International Journal of Scienntific & Technology
Research, Vol 3, Issue 5.
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Sains dan Teknologi EMAS, Vol. 18, No. 3.
Seppänen, O., Fisk, W.J., Lei, Q.H.,(2006), Effect of Temperature on Task Performance inOfffice Environment, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Environmental Energy
Technologies Division Indoor Environment Department, Berkeley-USA.
Talwar, M., Marwah, S., Narula, V., Sushant. (2016). Effect of Music on Productivity ofIndustrial Workers Engaged in Repetitive Work. International Journal of Research in
Aeronautical and Mechanical Engineering, Vol.4 Issue 4, Pg: 11-19.
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* Lovely Lady
E-mail address:lady@untirta.ac.id

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THE RISK ASSESSMENT WORK OF OPERATOR BASED ON RAPID UPPER
LIMB ASSESSMENT METHOD (RULA) TO IMPROVEMENT OF WORK SYSTEM
Ayu Bidiawati*¹, Lestari Setiawati*¹Universitas Bung Hatta Padang, Fakultas Teknologi Industri, Jurusan Teknik Industri,
Jl. Gajah Mada 19, Olo Nanggalo, Padang(25143)
E-mail: ayubidiawati@bunghatta. ac.id
ayubidiawati@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
A good working system can’t be separated from the workplace and operational proceduresthat need to be done in a job. Arranging the workplace, equipment, and body position whileworking will be very influential in creating integrated working system. Through goodworking environment, industry could be run effectively and efficiently. Less supportive
working method or working system can lead to discomfort for workers during work. It could
be due to unergonomic working environment. The process of making bread is divided into
several activities, namely mixing dough, weighing, milling, printing, burning, cutting andpacking. The process of making bread involves several workers. During production process,most of workers’ activities are carried out in standing position and perform the same hand
movements over and over again (repetitive). Repetitive and monotonous activities,
unergonomic working attitude, bad temperature on some activities, are ergonomic problems
that often occur in this bread-making factory. These adversely affected workers’ physicalstate and raise the work risk in form of pain on the part of worker's body. Because of these
conditions, work risk identification was performed by method called RULA (Rapid Upper
Limb Assessment). RULA method can analyze the risks associated with disturbances inupper body. Analysis was performed to obtain risk level, so work system can be improved toreduce work risk that could endanger workers. The results of RULA method ; work stations
that have high risk with action 7 category, are work station of stirring, milling, and printing.
At the end of the research, we design working aid in form of buffer table, pallet, work
support table, and stroller. We hope that the design of working aid can change how the
workers work, so work risks can be minimized or even eliminated.
Keyword: RULA Method, Ergonomics, Occupational Risk Levels, Work Systems
1. INTRODUCTION
Inconvenience for workers occur due to less supportive working method or systems, such as
uncomfortable and unsafe work atmosphere. Conditions like this will bring operational
performance into optimal points and on the other hand, working situation will accelerate
fatigue, complaints, lead to pain or injury to workers’ body both in short and long term. The
impact in short term will lead to work fault, loss of work, and increase workplace accidents.
While on the long-term, it can cause pathological changes (shape) in muscle tissue (Chamela,2006). In one of bread-making industry, the production process is divided into several
activities, namely mixing dough, weighing, milling, printing, burning, cutting and packing.
The process of making bread involves five workers. During production process, majority ofworkers work in standing position and perform the same hand movements over and overagain (repetitive).

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Factory’s narrow space and close to the oven, can also cause hot temperatures and badworking attitude. These conditions will lead to decreased moisture and greater energy
expenditure, fatigue, increase the workload, and muscle injuries. Based on results of thequestionnaire, some workers had complaints for some activities of bread making process.
Industrial workers are easier to feel discomfort and pain in the workplace (Mali and
Vyavahare, 2015). The more work activity done by the workers, the greater the chances ofsuffering occupational health disorders (Bidiawati et.al, 2016).
Repetitive, monotonous work, unergonomic working attitude, bad temperature on some
activities are ergonomic problems that arise in bread making factory. These activity
conditions will automatically have negative impact on workers’ physical condition, causing
work risk in form of pains on the parts of worker's body. The pains felt by workers are inform of pain in spine, arms, neck and in some other parts of the body. The pain can also pose
potential hazards that cause workplace accidents such as injury, disability, and joint
disorders. The accident is commonly called WMSDs (Work Related Musculoskeletal
Disorder) (Najarkola, 2006). WMSDs can reduce worker’s health, thereby reducing worker’s
performance in completing the work. It will also reduce workers’ productivity and productquality (Mali and Vyavahare, 2015; Bidiawati and Suryani, 2015; Rosnah and Suhada, 2016).
Such circumstances should be solved as soon as possible, otherwise ergonomic work system
will not be achieved.
To reduce unergonomic problems of some activities on bread production process, we perform
work risk identification called RULA (Rapid Upper Limb Assessment) method. This method
is used to analyze the risks associated with upper body disturbances. It was developed to
identify muscular effort that related with work posture, exertion and repetitive work, which
can cause muscle fatigue. Many researchers use RULA assessment methods to evaluate work
risks in some work activity. The assessment results can lead to right working posture to
reduce occupational risk level (Kaden et.al, 2015; Mali and Vyavahare, 2015; Sahebagowda
et.al, 2016). By using this method, we can identify occupational risk that occur, and know therisk level in each activity of bread production process. Once the risk level is known, we candesign work system to reduce work risk so it no longer endangering workers.
The study of human beings in work environment by utilizing information about nature,capabilities and limitations of human beings to design a system so people can live and work
well is called Ergonomics (Sutalaksana, 1979; Santoso, 2004). Ergonomics have importantrole in improving occupational health and safety factors. It is to reduce visual discomfort andwork posture. To design instruments and control systems in order to optimize informationtransfer process and generate quick response to minimize error, and to obtain optimization,
work efficiency and eliminate health risks due to the lack of proper working methods. One
type of ergonomic problems often encountered in the workplace, especially relating to humanstrength and endurance in doing their jobs or biomechanics, is musculoskeletal or flexes(Bidiawati and Suryani, 2015).
According to Kroemer (2001), skeletal muscles are striped muscles attached to the bones thatgenerate motion power when needed to carry out decisive force. Musculoskeletal are injuries
and diseases on muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments, joints, cartilage and spinal cord.
Musculoskeletal caused by work and fatigue have something in common. Both are caused byincreasing intensity and duration of work (the higher work intensity and duration, the morecases of work-related musculoskeletal and fatigue), both cause pain and affect work
performance. Therefore, when musculoskeletal occur; it will increase the cost due to waste of1050

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time when employee can’t work, increase cost of competence demanded by employees andothers (Nurmianto, 2004; Dewayana, 2007).
RULA (Rapid Upper Limb Assessment) is a research method to investigate work-relateddisorders / pain in upper limbs. This method does not require special equipment. RULA
method will observe the parts of upper body, neck, torso and legs (Lynn McAtamney and E
Nigel Corlett, 1993). Each position of each part will have certain value. Factors that havebeen investigated are called external load factor, ie the number of movements, static muscle
work, energy/power, work posture determination of work and equipment, and working time
without a break. RULA was developed for : Quick screening method for working population, which relates to work risk causing
disturbances in upper limbs,
 Identify muscular effort associated with work posture, exertion and repetitive activity,
which can cause muscular fatigue.
 Provide results that can be combined with ergonomical assessment methods namely
physical mental, mental, environmental and organizational factors.
Body parts were evaluated by RULA method which includes hand, wrist, elbow, shoulder,neck and lower back. The use of this approach is in ergonomic evaluation of different risk
scores between 1-7, where higher score indicates greater degree of risk. RULA score isdeveloped to detect work posture or risk factors that should receive more attention.
(Qutubuddin et.al, 2013; Kaden et.al, 2015).
Many researchers use RULA assessment method to evaluate the work risk in some type ofwork (Mali and Vyavahare, 2015; Kaden et.al,
2015; Rosnah and Suhada, 2016;
Sahebagowda et.al, 2016; Kale and Vyavahare, 2016). The assessment results can lead tosolutions for right work posture that reduce work risk level.
2. METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted on bread-making industry. Steps being taken are: (a) systemassessment. (b) work risk identification and assessment with RULA method (c) analysis andimprovement recommendation.
2.1 Assessment System
Assessment system covers bread making production process. The production processes arethrough seven stages with 5 workers. They are ; (1) Stirring (worker A) (2) weighing(worker A) (3) milling (workers B) (4) printing (worker C) (5) combustion (workers D) (6)Cutting (worker E) (7) Packing (labor E). Bread production process is about 3 hours / dough,where workers were always doing repetitive work. These movements affect worker's bodythat will result in pain / complaints.
2.2 Work Risk Identification with RULA Method
Phases performed using RULA methods are;• Identify work posture by entering data of full body posture, upper arms, forearms, hands,
wrists, neck, back and legs.
• Calculating RULA scores.
• RULA Scores are obtained by inserting score C and D using table C. The result is in formof risk and action level.
• Scale of action level that provides a guideline on risk level and required to drive moredetailed assessment related to analysis obtained.

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2.3 Analysis and Proposed Work System Improvement
To analyze bread production process, labour activities are divided into 7 working ways
(working conditions) with total labour movement of 33, where each working way is analysedwith score assessment of RULA Method. Then perform the proposed work improvement
system by taking into account the level of work categorized as high risk.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONWhite bread production process lasted for about 3 hours / batter. During production process,workers were always doing repetitive work. Those movements will affect worker's body thatwill result in pain / complaints. Based on the questionnaire results, workers’ complaints inbread production process are as follows:

Figure 1 : Worker Complaints Percentage
Bread production process has seven stage and involving five workers. It can be seen in Figure
2 below;

Figure 2 : (a) Stirring Process (Worker A)(c) Milling Process (Worker B)(e) Combustion Process (Worker)(g) Packing Process (Woker E)

1052(b) Weighing Process (Worker A)(d) Printing Process (Worker C)(f) Cutting Process (Worker E)(h) Bread

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Upper Arm
3

3
Lower Arm

2

UseTabel A
4

+

0

4

2
Wrist

Score C
MuscleUse

Load / Force
+

1

5

=

8

3

1

PostureScore A2

2

Use Tabel C

Wrist Twist
1

5&8

1

10
Grand Score
Neck
4
Trunk

Use
Tabel B
7

4
Legs

PostureScore B+

MuscleUse
1

Load / Force
+

3

10

=

Score D

2

Figure 3. Score Sheet of RULA Method for Labour Movement 1

No.

Working
Condition

1.

Stirring

2.

Weighing

3.

4.

5.

Milling

Printing

Combustion

Table 1. Result of Calculation of RULA Method
WorkerGrand score
Action Category
Movement
1
5 dan 8, 10
7
2
8,6
7
3
4,3
4
4
4,5
5
5
2 dan 3,4
4
6
2 dan 3,4
4
7
4,8
4
8
4 dan 3,4
4
9
5 dan 3,5
4
10
4,8
4
11
6.5
7
12
4,5
4
13
3,5
4
14
5.4
4
15
4.4
4
16
6,9
7
17
6,8
7
18
5,7
7
19
5,7
7
20
5,7
7
21
5,8
7
22
5.9
7
23
5.9
7
24
6.9
7
25
6.9
7
26
6,5
6
27
6.8
7
28
6.9
7

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Risk Level
high
high
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
high
low
low
low
low
high
high
high
high
high
high
high
high
high
high
middle
high
high

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6.

Cutting

7

Packing

29
30
31
32
33

8,6
3 dan 4,3
3.2
3.3
4,3

7
4
4
4
4

high
low
low
low
low

Based on risk level that has been obtained using RULA methods, we analyze worker’s
position if it can cause injury or not. During production process, it turned out that most of
their working positions are at level 7, which means that their position must be corrected
immediately. Otherwise, the risk of injury to workers’ upper body will be big. Therefore
work system improvement by designing new work system in bread making process must be
performed immediately. The design of work system is carried out at work station that has
high-risk work including the design of work support tools, dough stir machine and stroller.
Ergonomics is achieved by evaluation and design of the workstation and by achieving a
golden mean between task, operator and working area. In industries there is a continuouschange regarding new employee, new adjustments, new processes etc. So every time new
ergonomic solutions are required as per the situation. (Kale and Vyavahare, 2016).
Ergonomic is a way of designing tools to accommodate the capabilities of workers. Goodergonomic design will reduce work risk factors which will give solutions for right posturelevel and also contribute to the ergonomic illness. Therefore, researcher applied designed
work system for workers such as for stirring station, for milling work station, and for printing
work station.
Work System Improvement For Workers
 For Stirring station
Stirring station is work station with high risk, because workers must bend while doing
this stirring. Figure 4 shows stirring movement performed by workers, where the state ofbending is reduced because the machine has buffer. Work movement in figure 4 shows
bread dough flattening motion. The proposed work movement shows the change in theneck, torso and legs that initially at risk, but now it is minimized.



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Figure 4. Worker Movement 1

For Milling Work Station
In milling work stations, workers put pallet into shelves. Pallet is used without handle, so
workers lift it to their shoulder. Figure 5 shows the design of worker’s workings ways,
after adding grip / handle to pallet. With this design, the position of arm and wrist to
workers in bringing pallet will be more comfortable.

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Figure 5. Worker Movement 13


For Printing Work Station
Figure 6 shows the design of improved working way of preparing Kanso and deliver
Kanso to burning place. Workers now use stroller, so working way is fixed and the risk
is minimized.

Figure 6. Worker Movement 16, 17 Dan 21
In printing work station, we do not only design stroller, but also helping desk which
serves to close Kanso so squatting position can be eliminated. Figure 7 shows the work
covering Kanso in standing position.

Figure 7. Worker Movement 19

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4.

CONCLUSION RULA method is able to analyze movement of upper body against muscle disordersthat may occur.
 RULA methods identify work stations that have high risk is stirring, milling, andprinting work stations.
 Work risk occurs because the body posture bent at work, unbalanced standing
position, the use of big force when preparing Kanso, and operator’s risky arm position
while working and uncomfortable hand position when carrying Kanso to put on the
shelf.
 Work system improvement by designing buffer of dough stirring machine, pallets,
help desk and stroller so work risk arised can be minimized and even eliminated.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge Kemenristek Dikti for the funding support of theresearch project [Penelitian Produk Terapan].
6. REFERENCES
Bidiawati, Ayu and Eva Suryani, (2015), Improving The Work Position of Worker’s Basedon Quick Exposure Check Method to Reduce the Risk of Work Related
Musculoskeletal Disorders, Procedia Manufacturing 4 ( 2015 ), pp 496 – 503, Elsevier.
Bidiawati, Ayu, Wahyuni A. and Eva S., (2016), Ergonomic Design Tool For Brick Operator
In : Proceeding of 9th International Seminar on Industrial Engineering and Management,
Padang, September 21-23, 2016, Indonesia.
Chamela,Yolly, (2006), Perancangan Sistem Kerja Pembuatan Galamai dengan Metoda
RULA untuk Mendapatkan Sistem Kerja yang Ergonomis (Studi Kasus : Usaha Erina).
Universitas Bung Hatta. Padang.
Dewayana, Triwulandari (2007). Identifikasi Variabel yang Berpengaruh Terhadap Keluhan
Musculoskeletal di PT.Sun Indo Adipersada, Universitas Trisakti : Prosiding.
Kaden, Butree, Kritsada Wannapa and Preecha Khansri, (2015), Study of Ergonomic Risks in
Wooden Furniture Production, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences,
Volume 9, Issue 17, pp 64-70, AENSI Publisher.
Kale, PN and Vyavahare, RT, (2016), Ergonomic Analysis Tools : A Review, International
Journal of Current Engineering and Technology, Volume 6, Number 4, pp. 1271-1280,
Inpresssco.
Kromer, K.H.E, (2001), Ergonomics: How To Design For Ease And Efficiency, New Jersey:
Second Edition, by Prentice Hall.
Mali, SC and Vyavahare, RT, (2015), RULA Analysis of Work-Related Disorders ofFoundry Worker Using Digital Human Modelling (DHM), International Research
Journal of Engineering and Technology, Volume 02, Issue 05, pp 1373-1378.
McAtamney, Lynn. dan Corlett, E.Nigel., (1993), “RULA : A Survey Based Method for The
Investigation of Work Related Upper Limb Disorders”, Applied Ergonomics, 24(2) :91-99.
Najarkola, SA Mossavi, (2006), Assessment of Risk Factors of Upper Extrimity
Musculoskeletal Disorders (UEMSDS) by OCRA Method in Repetitive Task”. Iranian J
Publ Healt, Vol 35, No.1, Hlm 68-74.
Nurmianto, Eko, ( 2004), Ergonomi : Konsep Dasar dan Aplikasinya, Jakarta: Guna Widya.
Qutubuddin S.M., S.S. Hebbal and A.C. S. Kuma, (2013), Ergonomic Evaluation of Tasks
Performed by Workers in Manual Brick Kilns in Karnataka, India, Global Journal of1056

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Researches in Engineering Industrial Engineering, Volume 13, Issue 4 Version 1.0 Year2013, pp 34-42, Publisher: Global Journals Inc. (USA).
Rosnah, Mohd Yusuff and Suhada, Nor Abdullah, (2016), Ergonomics As a Lean
Manufacturing Tool for Improvements in a Manufacturing Company In : Proceedingsof the 2016 International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Kuala Lumpur, March 8-10, 2016, Malaysia, IEOM Society International.
Sahebagowda, Vinayak K. and Chetan Kapali, (2016), Ergonomics Study for Injection
Moulding Section Using RULA and REBA Techniques, International Journal ofEngineering Trends and Technology, Volume 36, Number 6, pp 294-301.
Santoso, Gempur, (2004), Ergonomi: Manusia, Peralatan dan Lingkungan, Jakarta : Prestasi
Pustaka
Sutalaksana ,I.Z,dkk, (1979), Teknik Tata Cara Kerja : Laboratorium Tata Cara Kerja dan
Ergonomi, Dept.Teknik Industri-ITB.

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JOB RISK ASSESMENT TOWARD LABOR FACILITIES USING JOB STRAIN INDEXMETHODa,b,c

Dessi Mufti a* , Eva Suryanib, Yusrizal Bakarc, Tri Marta Putrid
Bung Hatta University, Gajah Mada Street No 19, Gunung Pangilun, Padang, 25134,
Indonesia

ABSTRACTThe effectiveness of tool aids is of vital importance in conducting a job. Employing
inappropriate tool aids would cause inconvenience and yet risk potential or work injury to theworker. The purpose of this research is to assess the level of occupational risk toward the use oftool aids in the traditional food making process. The production process requires the strength of
the hand muscles by utilizing coconut shell. It requires repetition as well. This may cause
grievance of pain in both wrists and hands. There are ten respondents in this research. The datacollection method is interview and filling out the Nordic Body Map (NBM) questionnaire toward
the all ten respondents. NBM is used as a tool to identify the grievance experienced by theworker. Job Strain Index (JSI) is utilized to measure the level of occupational risk. NBM
questionnaire result shows the existence of Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) pain particularly
on hand and feet. The calculation result of JSI consists of: first, intensity of exertion with a valueof 6, second the duration of exertion with a value of 2, third efforts per minute with a value of
1,5, fourth hand/wrist posture with a value of 2, fifth speed of work with a value of 1,5, and thelast one task duration per day with a value of 1. And thus, the result of occupational risk
assessment is 54. The value of JSI ˃ 7, which means the process of making food with attitude
and working position at this time is very dangerous and resulted in MSDs toward the worker.
One of the ways to reduce the occupational risk is to improve the facility of food printing and its
tool aids. It is expected that these would reduce the occupational risk but improve theproductivity.
Keywords: Distal Upper Extremity, Job Strain Index, Labor facility, Occupational Risk
1. INTRODUCTION
Raynauld’s phenomenon is a disorder that is triggered by the use of hand tools repetitively which
resulted in vibration effect. This condition can cause numbing sensation on the fingers (Wickens
et al. 2004). Job strain index is a method that can be employed to assess the estimation of handrisk. Anwar, Syamsul (2015) in their research by using job strain index method toward themaking of leather shoes found many risky working positions at certain jobs. Sulaiman, Surajo
Kamalanathan (2015) in their research found that the risk factor of the MSDs occurrence
involving the long working hours particularly for female worker. Next, Sartang, Ayuob
Ghanbary 2015 also concluded that the use of the non-ergonomic tools with excessive force cancause the hand, wrist and neck to experience MSDs. Ulfah, Nur (2014) also investigated that theergonomic problem is closely related with the repetitive work movement for all working days,
odd or static working position, lift the heavy things, implementing extra force or affected bymore frequent vibration or work in an extreme temperature.
One of the disease resulted from the inappropriate working position is MSDs. Moreover, Ulfah(2014) has conducted research toward the laundry worker, particularly washing division in

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relation with MSDs. The laundry workers need to bend their back to dispense the clothes fromwashing machine. As the result, 60% of them are in high risk to experience MSDs. The research
conducted by Tyas (2013) revealed that there occurs a significant relationship between lifting
attitude and low back pain as part of MSDs. High repetitive work with longer time span would
result in operator injury risk, although it has minor work load (Andriani, 2016). One of themethods to analyze work posture risk and to estimate hand injury risk is Job Strain Index(Chiasson, et al, 2012). Drinkaus, 2005 conducted a research to determine job risk of distal upper
extremity at the automotive work through strain index. The most common methods with nearly
accurate result and inexpensive cost are systematic observation method such as ROSA (Rapid
Office Strain Assessment) and Job Strain Index (Wijaya, Caesar Danu, et al 2012).
The effectiveness of tool aids is of vital importance in conducting a job. Employing
inappropriate tool aids would cause inconvenience and yet risk potential or work injury to theworker (Mufti 2014), productivity will be decreased (Samudra, Bambang Cipto 2002) and thelike. The use of appropriate tool aids can accelerate and ease the burden of the work (W.
Soebroto, Sritomo, 2003). The manual working activity which neglecting the convenience factor
will influence effectiveness, efficiency and working productivity (Jovianto, 2005).
Initial survey of this research was implemented to home industry that produces traditional food at
Cangkiang village, Agam District West Sumatera. Here, the workers conducting a great varietyof task at production process by using non-ergonomic tool aids. The main characteristic of thetask is the utilization of intensive hand muscle, repetitive working cycle and quite extreme handposture. These indications are suspected to cause injury at distal upper extremity. Inappropriate
body posture when lifting heavy load and inappropriate seated position would also cause theexistence of MSDs (Hariyanto, 2016).The purpose of this research is to identify Musculoskeletal
Disorder experienced by the worker when using food processor equipment through employing
Nordic Body Map Questionnaire and to get to know the risk level as the effect of highly
intensive and repetitive working intensity through Job Strain Index method. According to
Chiasson, (2012) JSI method is more conservative compared to Hand Activity Level (HAL) to
identify high risk at the workstation. This research would later focus more on traditional foodprinting workstation.
2. METHODOLOGYThis research was implemented to many same kind of small and middle enterprises that produce
traditional food located at Cangkiang village, Agam district West Sumatera. The data wascollected directly and recorded by using video. The recording shows motion and time needed by
the worker to conduct the task of food processing since the very beginning to the end. The foodprocessing can be classified into many stages, started from stirring the ingredients, shaping or
printing, frying and caramelization. Direct interview with the workers can be implemented
toward research related with injury risk of MSDs (Hariyanto, 2016). In order to obtain data ofpain felt by the automotive and controlling workers, Drinkaus, 2005 observed it directly throughvideo recording the types of job and divided the job into many elements.
The research procedure employing interview and worker observation through Nordic Body Map
questionnaire. The Nordic Body Map questionnaire can identify the MSDs experienced by theworker. The questionnaire was distributed toward 10 workers of traditional food processing at

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Cangkiang. Most of them have been working for seven years. The distributed questionnaire canbe seen in figure 1:

Figure 1: Nordic Body Map Questionnaire Form
In order to obtain information and to measure the risk level of body part that experience distal
upper extremity, JSI was implemented. The result of JSI measurement will be used to analyze
the level of working risk for every step in the food processing. The interpretation of JSI score is
as follow: if the value of JSI ≤ 3, the observed task is sufficiently safe, if the value of JSI ˃ 5, theobserved task suspected to have potency of upper limbs risk injury, and if JSI ≥ 7, the observed
task is highly risk.
Moore and VOS (2004) examined the implementation procedure of JSI as follow:(1) Data collection of the kind of task conducted by the worker in food processing(2) In Determining the rating values by using table 1, as follow:
Table 1. Rating values to assign for calculating The Strain Index.
RatingValuesIntensity of Duration of Efforts/Min Hand/Wrist
Exertion
Exertionute
PostureSpeed ofWork

Duration/D
ay

1

Light

<10

<4

2

Somewhat Hard

10-29

4-8

Good

Slow

1-2

3

Hard

30-49

9-14

Fair

Fair

2-4

4

Very Hard

50-79

15-19

Bad

Fast

4-8

5

Near Maximal

> 80

>20

Very Bad

Very Fast>8

Very Good Very Slow

(3) Determining the value of multiplier of each task variable based on table 2, as follow:
Table 2. Determining multipliers to calculate The Strain Index.
Rating Intensity of Duration of
Values Exertion
Exertion

Efforts/MinuteHand/Wrist
PostureSpeed ofWork

Duration/
Day

1

1

0.5

0.5

1.0

1.0

0.25

2

3

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

0.50

3

6

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.0

0.75

4

9

2.0

2.0

2.0

1.5

1.0

5

13

3.0

3.0

3.0

2.0

1.5

(4) Calculating the value of Strain Index which is obtained from the result of sixth
multiplication

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(5) Determining the risk level, where the value of SI ≤ 3 with low risk category or safe level,
3 - ≤ 7 moderate risk level, and the value of ˃ 5 with high risk or dangerous.
In general, this traditional food processing can be divided into 4 kinds of task such as: stirring theingredients, shaping or printing, frying and caramelization. Table 3 shows the details of the task.
Table 3. Steps and time required in the food processing
No

The steps of the work order

1.

Stirring the ingredients such as flour, egg,
butter, and salt
Shaping or printing sakura cake (traditionalfood)
FryingCaramelization

2.
3
4.

The equipment/ working tools

Time (Minute)24

Hand
Coconut shell as the printing or shaping equipment

342

Frying pan and stove
Frying pan and stove

78
42

There are six variables that need to be collected for each task; each variable is assigned a rating
and a multiplier. The abbreviations for the multipliers are in parentheses.
1. Intensity of Exertion (IE) is a qualitative measure of the percent maximum voluntary
contraction that a task requires to perform one time. This is a function of the force required
and upper extremity posture. Guideline for assigning a rating criteria are presented in thefollowing table 4:
Rating Criteria
Light
Somewhat Hard
Hard
Very Hard
Near Maximal

Table 4 : Intensity of Exertion for IE

%MS^
< 10%
10% – 29%30% – 49%50% – 79%
>80%

Borg Scales
<=2
3
4 -5
6- 7
>7

Perceived Effort
Barrely noticeable or relaxed effort
Noticeable or definited effort
Obvious effort, unchange facialexpression
Substantial effort, change facial expression
Uses shoulder or trunk to generate force

2. Duration of Effort (DE) is determined by timing the duration of the exertion and is ameasure of the physiological and biomechanical stress related to how long an exertion is
maintained. DE of exertion is calculated b measuring the duration of all exertion period thendividing the measured duration of exertion by the total observation time and multiplying by
100%% Duration of Exertion........................(13. Efforts per Minute (EM) is synonymous with frequency of exertions per minute. EM aremeasured by counting the number of exertion that occur during an observation period thendiving of exertion by the duration of the observation period measured in minutes.
............................(24. Hand/wrist posture (HWP) relates the anatomical posture of the hand. Hand/wrist posture isan estimate of the position of the hand or wrist relative to neutral position. Guideline forassigning a rating are presented in the following table 5:

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Rating Criteria
Very Good
Good
Fair
Bad
Very Bad

Tabel 5: Hand/wrist posture guideline

Wrist Exertion0 - 100
11 - 250
26 - 400
41 - 550>600

Wrist Flexion
0 – 50
6 – 150
16 – 300
31 – 500>500

Ulnar Deviation0 – 100
11 – 150
16 – 200
21 – 250>250

Perceived Posture
Perfectly Neutral
Near Neutral
Non neutral
Marked deviation
Near extreme

5. Speed of Work (SW) estimates the perceived pace of the task and accounts for the additional
stresses associated with dynamic work. Guideline for assigning a rating are presented in thefollowing table
Tabel 6: Speed of Work guideline
Rating criteria
Very Slow
Slow
Fair
Fast
Very Fast

Compared to MTM 1^<=80%
81 – 90%
91 – 100%
101 – 115%
>115%

Perceived Speed
Extremely relaxed pace
Taking one’s own time
Normal speed motion
Rushed, but able to keep up
Rushed and barely or unable to keep up

6. Duration of Task (DD) per day is a measure of how much of the workday is allocated toperforming that task.
SI= IE x DE x EM x HWP x SW x DD
The measurement through implementing job strain index method for shaping or printing task is
as follow:
1. Intensity of exertion (IE), is at level of in need for more obvious effort, unchanged facial
expression with the value of multiplier = 6
2. Duration of exertion (DE), the result of DE shows 4 seconds with 3510 cycles and thetotal amount of exertion time is 4 seconds x 3510 times = 14.040 seconds. The total
amount of observation time of 3510 shaping/printing task cycle is 342 minutes (20.520
seconds), hence the value of DE = (14.040/20.520) = 0.68 =68%. This value is at rating 4(50-79) with the multiplier value = 2
3. Effort per minute (EM), the amount of exertion is 3510 times and total observation timeis 5.7 hour = 342 minutes = 20.520 seconds, so the value of EM = 3510/342 = 10.26
times. This value is at rating 3 (9-14 with the multiplier value = 1.5).
4. Hand/wrist posture (HWP), the result of observation and measurement shows posture at
rating 3 (flexi = 500) with category “non-neutral” / fair with the multiplier value = 2
5. Speed of work (SW), shows working speed in fast category but can still be controlledwith the multiplier value = 1.5.
6. Duration of task per day (DD) is the duration of working time. Working time for 5.7
hours at rating 4 (4-8) hours with multiplier value = 1
After obtaining the multiplier value of each task of the food processing, particularly for shaping
or printing section, the obtained value is as follow:
SI = 6 x 2 x 1,5 x 2 x 1,5 x 1 = 54
It means that the SI value of 54 is at highly risk level.

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3.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
a. The Data of MSDs Pain
The result of direct observation of the worker’s posture in the traditional food processing is
working in the static position and repetitiveness. As the effect, there occur the blockage of bloodflow and resulted in lack of oxygen in that part. This will cause pain and influence MSDs. Belowis the data of MSDs of 10 workers who process the traditional food:b. The Measurement of Strain Index
The observation result shows that the biggest time proportion is at the shaping or printing thefood as follow:

The measurement of strain index is based on one worker at the shaping/printing process which
can represent the whole working system. The number of musculoskeletal complaints wasrecorded by using the Nordic Body Map Questionnare filled in by the worker (fig.1)

Figure 1: MSDs complaints
Most of the workers pain in the neck, pain in the left shoulder, pain in the right shoulder,pain in the left hand and pain in the right hand. This is particularly occurring during shaping or
printing process. It happens since the shaping or printing process requires emphasis rests on thewrist with a static body posture. Finneran, Aoife (2013) in their study revealed that the effect ofProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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strong gripping hand combination or holding hand position with a static body posture can cause
MSDs.
This shaping or printing food process has to be conducted as soon as possible right after stirring
the ingredients. Otherwise, the batter would be dry and complicate the shaping or printing
process. The observation result of this task shows that the worker keep sitting with both legs
folded.
The measurement through employing the Job Strain Index method shows that SI =54 ≥ 7.
It indicates that the observed task is highly risk. The static working position particularly on
shaping or printing task process with body posture and back bend for 200 and both hands
emphasis strongly toward the printing process can cause pain and numb at both wrists and both
hands. The following pictures show the worker position during shaping or printing process.

Figure 2. Working position on shaping or printing task
One of the factors contributed to the injury risk of very high repetitive work is theinappropriate distribution of resting time. The research finding of Andriani, 2016 byimplementing Occupational Repetitive Action (OCRA) method displayed injury risk of highrepetitive work in a working cycle less than 30 seconds although the work load experienced by
the operator is relatively small.
The pain in the right thigh, pain in the right knee and pain in the left and right calf
sections is caused by working position with legs bent and do not touch the floor. This working
attitude was performed due to the non-ergonomic working facility. The temporary effort theworker can do in order to reduce the pain is practicing stretching during the break of the working
hours. The workers should not work under this circumstance. They should be enriched withknowledge of how to work in an appropriate body postures. They should also equipped with theergonomic working facility. Moreover, it is necessary for the workers to know the impact offacility or tools utilization. Most of the MSDs grievance experienced by the workers involving
both of shoulder, both of wrists, and both of hands, particularly the worker who conducted thetask of shaping or printing in a repetitive manner. The research conducted by Mokhtar (2013)concluded that repetitive work is the main factor that has contribution in improving MSDs
prevalence. In addition, during shaping or printing process, the worker employed a non-

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ergonomic seat. One of the ways to prevent MSDs is the use of ergonomic seat. This fact is
supported with a study conducted by Kusrini (2005) who revealed that muscle disorder will becompounded by certain situation, for example the incorrect seat position, the age of the worker
and non-ergonomic seat. Instead of working attitude, the length of the working period also
influence the working risk or MSDs. This is supported with a study investigated by Salminen(2016) who revealed that the risk of working accident influenced by the duration of the working
period. The research was implemented toward workers who spend 12 hours for working. They
were exposed to a higher working risk, 38% compared to the workers who spend 8 hours
working per day. The workers of the traditional food processing has an uncertain working hours.
It depends on the target of the amount of the food resulted. However, they used to work around 6-12 hours per day.
Ulfah (2014) in her research investigated the relationship between working attitude and MSDs.
The current working position has caused the blood flow to the muscle become obstructed andautomatically affecting the oxygen supply brought by the blood toward the muscle. It obstructs
the carbohydrate metabolism and cause the lactic acid build up in the muscle. As the effect, themuscle was forced to experienced pain and grievance. Index Strain is a work analysis method
used to determine whether the worker experienced the increasing distal upper extremity disorderand this is proven as valid for single-type job (Rucker, 2010). Most of the pain occurs at bothwrists and both hands and sometimes it resulted in numbing sensation. It is caused by the use ofnon-ergonomic printing tools. The current equipment for shaping or printing task is the coconut
shell with certain print motive on it. Both hands were located at both edges of coconut shell andshould be pressed hard to shape or print the food.

Figure 3: The attitude of both hands at shaping or printing task

Overall, the problem related with ergonomic appear to be the incompatibility between theequipment and the worker. The ergonomic discipline examines the limitation of human capacity
interaction with technology and its products. Ergonomic omit the man fits to the design, but thedesign fits to the man. In other words, it is man centered in which the whole working systemdesign should be in line with the human need. The improvement of tool aids design, thereduction of lifted work load, the layout transformation and the establishment of standard
operational procedure are to reduce the injury risk of Musculoskeletal Disorders (Hariyanto,2016). Workplace Ergonomic Risk Assesment (WERA) is also one of the technique to obtain theworker injury risk which later would recommend improvement toward working tool aids in orderto reduce pain and workplace design (Budiprasetya, 2016). The strength of Job Strain Index ismore accurate result. However, the weakness is it requires longer time to determine the score

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value of JSI as well as requires additional facility, so that the injury risk can be reduced (Wijaya,
Caesar Danu, et al, 2012). Prior test by using JSI method shows accurate result to identify related
work, however big scale research requires the latest validation and methodology (More, J Steve,2010). Hand Activity Level (HAL) and Job Strain Index (JSI) methods are really useful toestimate the exposure of biomechanics pressure and to predict the Carpal Tanel Syndrome (CTS)
risk (Garg. A, et al, 2012).
The corrective action relies heavily on the skeletal muscle risk which may experience obstruction
or inconvenience. The main priority to be improved in this traditional food processing is todesign an appropriate facility of shaping or printing the food or to substitute the coconut shellwith an ergonomic facility. The next priority is to fix the facility used during seat with one leg
folded and one leg touch the floor.
4.

CONCLUSION The result of Nordic Body Map shows parts of the body that experience grievance as theresult of tiredness in working are neck, both shoulders, both wrists and both hands.
 The result of the measurement by using job strain index method revealed that the risk of
MSDs toward these traditional food processing workers is in dangerous category.
 The design of ergonomic working facility has to be executed as soon as possible,
particularly facility that is being used to print or to shape the food as well as the seatfacility employed by the workers.
 Strain Index method is appropriate in observing single-activity, particularly for repetitive
activity on both hand and wrist in detail. This method also add observation time factor todetermine the injury risk.
 Strain index is able to assess well for the occurrence of Musculoskeletal Disorders(MSDs) risk injury.

5.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is supported by the Ministry of Research and Technology of Higher
Education (Kemenristekdikti) in the scheme of research on applied products academic year I
2016/2017.
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Cleaning Service Rumah Sakit X Kota Semarang (skripsi). Semarang: Fakultas Kesehatan
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Manufacturing Facilities, Applied Occupational and Enviromental Hygiene, pp 63-73
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Ulfah, Nur, Siti Harwanti, Panuwun Joko Nurcahyo, Kesmas., (2014), Sikap Kerja dan RisikoMusculoskeletal Disorders pada Pekerja Laundry Work Attitude and Musculoskeletal
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Human Factor Engineering, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall
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Surabaya
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Pengguna Meja Notebook Dengan Metode Job Strain Index Dan Rapid Office Strain Index,
TI Working Paper, Teknik Industri, Fakultas Teknik,Universitas Bina Nusantara.

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MANGUSADA HOSPITAL GO TO THE ERGONOMICS HOSPITALI Ketut Widana
Bali State Polytechnic, Kuta Selatan, Badung 80364, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Mangusada Hospital is a regional public hospital of Badung Regency in Kapal City is a
hospital which was designed with a modern architectural approach. Ready to become themodern tourism hospital by ergonomics approach. The shape of the building is mountedwith concrete piles spread around, makes it always be susceptible to all kinds of threats,
especially acts of God such as: earthquake, fire, and whirling wind. From those kinds ofdisaster mentioned above, the earthquake is the most serious threat. The capability toescape of the medical patients when the earthquake happens is on the lowest priority as
they need assistances from their relatives. In such condition, the evacuation path, preparedrescuing facilities and volunteers are the factors that determine the success of human lifesaving effort, especially the medical patients who are staying in the hospital. Generally,
tools and infrastructures of emergency response that are available at the site are very
limited. Most of the hospital management staffs do not understand or less care about thepossibilities of dangers. This research is aimed at studying the readiness of Mangusada
Hospital management in planning emergency responses, especially in facing a threat ofcollapse of the physical construction of the hospital due to the earthquake. The analysis of
emergency response capability is performed with methods of observation and interview.
The data collection comprises a risk identification, a building lay out, an evacuation
procedure, an accuracy of physical facility supports such as in placing fire hydrants, andemergency doors. The interview is done with a safety expert and management staffs of thehospital and also observers of construction problems, especially those of the regional
assembly commissions and the contractor of the building. The result of analysis shows thatthe management’s commitment that is not written yet makes the implementation of safetycare is less maximal. As big potencies of danger at the hospital wards, such as a lot of easyburning materials, lack of volunteers, unavailable of emergency evacuation path, make itnecessary to work on an emergency management through training, preparing tools andoperators as well as the hospital management’s commitment to be care about the disasterthreats.
Keywords: commitment; management; hospital; disaster; analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Some aspects of ergonomics are important and should be a concern stake-holders
Hospitals, like the medical community, the management, the facility provider for hospitals
and patients, among others: service bureaucracy, anthropometric, physiological work,------------------------------------* Corresponding author.
E-mail address:widketut@yahoo.com

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bio-mechanics, environmental design work, psychology work, ergonomics and design
work systems, emergency response / disaster plan, potential hazards, occupational
accidents, risk management and occupational diseases. Of the many problems existingergonomics, the ability of hospitals to shorten the service bureaucracy, anticipating
potential hazards and emergency response, including the use of floor space will be focusedon the study.
Hospital to be ergonomic, management must begin to declare aspects of care that need
improvement, such as patient admission procedure when first arriving at the hospital. As
well as government hospitals in general, applied Hospital services Mangusada for new
patients still need to be improved, as well as the ability to anticipate potential hazards andemergency response.
Regional Public Hospital of Badung Regency in Kapal is an hospital that grows wellalthough its age is relatively young. The location of the hospital is about 8 kilometers from
Denpasar city and it takes about 45 minutes from Ngurah Rai International Airport. A
range of requirement to become a big hospital has been fulfilled, among those are the big
buildings for hospitalization, polyclinic and some supporting buildings that are ready towelcome patients.
The development of the hospital is directed to become ‘a world class hospital’ with aservice-based setting. The goal above becomes a challenge for the hospital management.
Several efforts has been done, such as a guaranty of in safe hands and secure environment
for the employees, medical staffs, patients and their family. Grandjean. 1988. Efforts toachieve security involve professional security staffs who are mostly from the locals. In the
future, the management will give a thought to an emergency managing strategy in facing avariety of threats, such as threats from the nature and human beings.
The research is directed to identify factors that have been existing and should be existing
to anticipate emergency situations, especially those of acts of God. The strategic designthat will be made has to consider the key of making decision, mechanism of emergency
respond system, evacuation paths, facilities, communications, infrastructures and the field
implementers.
The act of God is a natural phenomenon that cannot be predicted when will happen. We
often hear and read various theories and predictions of natural disasters, however none ofthem are indeed in accordance with the realities (Manuaba, 1992a). The seismograph isindeed able to measure the earth quake power, however, it cannot predict or even makesure when the disaster will occur. The location of Indonesia that is among three world
main ground plates, namely Australian, Eurasian, Pacific ground plates as well as in theposition of the ring of fire makes Indonesia frequently experiences earthquakes. The
powerful earthquake has happened recently in Jogjakarta which has destroyed many big
buildings. A lot of people were dead and countless were wounded. The emergency
condition that occurs when an earthquake suddenly takes place was able to be recovered as
the readiness of the rescue squads, especially those from the Indonesian Army and Police,
and the aids from the Center and Regional Governments. The aids were delivered fast to
those who needed since the transportation was good, supported with an emergency
management system which was well planned.

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The emergency condition is an extraordinary condition that cannot be predicted or planned
before. A decision in anticipating an emergency condition truly affects the amount ofvictims and length of the emergency situation. The mistake in handling the emergency
condition can result in the death of patients, a failure of service system, damages ofphysically and environmentally, malfunctions of filing and financing system and also a
bad image for the hospital in general.
The hospital as a public service institution has to pay attention all the time to the risk
management. The planning of emergency respond as a part of the risk management isdirected to lessen the moral and material loss, to be responsive to the emergency andcritical conditions. The plan can be forethought by simulations, trainings or socialization
efforts. Trainings of emergency management can be carried out with theoretical andpractical teaching systems (Manuaba, 1992b). The effort to involve the community
surrounding as a supporting emergency management system, is a breakthrough that can be
done. The success of emergency system needs a supporting management in the form of agood will of the top management and the stake holders, including the Regional Top
Manager namely the Regent. Downward delegation of authority in anticipating the
emergency situation, the designation of authority from the highest chairman to the lower
level management is a supporting factor of the emergency management success.
The anticipation towards disasters or emergency respond management is carried out with aconsideration of prosperity in a wider scope. The approach that can be used to determine
the disaster position is : 5 W namely, the first one is What, what should be done?, thesecond one is When, when will it be done?, the third one is Why, why will it be done?, thefourth one is Which, which one is done first or the priority?, the fifth one is Who, who will
implement it?
The emergency respond management emphasizes on the fluffiness of management
responsibility towards the safety of patients, patients’ family, employees and people
surrounding the hospital. Identification of the hospital capability in general can be seenfrom the plans of evacuations, K3 implementation, environment policy, security
procedure, supporting personnel, SOP, dangerous material handling, safety process
judgment, informal consent, risk management planning, corporation with other parties, andclosest communication (Suma’mur, 1995). In general, identification of human resources
and internal capability of emergency responds, comprises of :1. Physical matter of building: signposts, a main door and an emergency exit as pathsof evacuation, an emergency operational center, a shelter area to gather in, andemergency sanitation facilities.
2. Equipments : K3 tools, communication tools (HT, intercom, Central Sound System,
regular phones, mobile phones, and an alarm system as well as a back up
generator).
3. Personnel : an emergency respond team, an evacuation team, a public relation, an
emergency respond management team, medical supports, and security squads.
4. Back-up System.
A judgment of susceptibility — is an expression to describe a systemically failure of a
facility towards a possibility and potential effect of any events (Sutalaksana, 2004). It
needs to be considered about the kinds and levels of emergency conditions, policies, andtechnologies, technical mistakes or human errors, physical facilities (lay out, illumination,

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physical quality of buildings, entrance and exit line, evacuation paths, and also the distanceof shelter area to gather in).
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
This research was conducted on December 2016 through a direct observation by taking
photos of building lay – out and physical facilities of the hospital (Sutjana and Sutajaya,
2000). The identification of risks was conducted to analyze the susceptibility of thebuilding. Interviews and discussions were conducted with the management of the hospital.
This research is a descriptive study with a qualitative approach to the source of informationin this study were 10 people plus 2 expert informants.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Hospital Director or his representative has the legitimacy to make decisions in emergencies.
Decision quality is closely related to the timeliness and speed of response to an emergency
warning system. The decision making process begins and ends during the disaster known as
an alternative to the decision taken. In an eme rgency when the alternative is not too much
temptation a limited time, the range control officer decides should be made as short as
possible, so that each section, such as treatment rooms, administrative space and othersupport units it is possible to decide on their own efforts to save by using standard
operating procedure (SOP) is available (Usakti, 2008).
Mechanisms of emergency in response to the emergency system need to consider
GeoMedic mapping, the integration of the concept of health services in disaster preparation
to facilitate the mobilization of resources (Saanin, 2002). (human resources, logistics
medic and ambulance).
Every hospital needs to map out evacuation routes and determine the safe assembly(assembly point). Hepiman, et.al. 2010a. Map of evacuation hung in each room or section
and plugged in rallying point signpost points specified. Simulation disasters and rescue
measures need to be done regularly, especially for new employees.
In the hospital emergency system update regional public hospital in Badung need toestablish emergency events such as medical emergencies, fire, security threats, kidnapping
babies, bomb threats, earthquakes and evacuation orders by using the code emergency order
not to cause panic in the patient, family members, visitors and hospital employees.
Emergency code that can be used there are 7 (seven) types, namely: blue, for a medical
emergency; red, for fire; Grey, for safety; Pink, for kidnapping a baby; Green, forearthquakes; Black, for bomb threat; Purple, action for evacuation. Evacuation begins towalk, a wheelchair and a bed based on the evacuation plans of each building (Imarsan,2011).
Communication is also vital. The use of communication tools such as radio
communications using radio waves of certain frequencies that have been agreed upon, tothe relationship between buildings and between spaces or parts (Anonim, 2010;. Putri, etal., 2004). Mobile phone infrastructure that integrates the web service with mobile
communication network and voice of over internet protocol (VOIP) so the message shortmessage service (SMS) can be quickly delivered to your room or another part of thehospital or related institution. As the field staff, the hospital needs to form a disaster

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response team drawn from hospital security guards and employees trained in each section
or unit care (Hepiman, et al., 2010b)
The Regional Public Hospital of Badung Regency in Kapal is situated on the main road ofDenpasar-Gilimanuk, kilometer 8. The building for the emergency room service consists ofa two storey building in which the first floor is used as the patient reception service, triage,
roentgen, dispensary and waiting rooms. While, the second floor is used as the rooms for
hospitalization, nurses and medical doctors. From the lay out perspective, the emergency
room which is a center of hospital service, is situated in a very strategic position andreachable from all service units with a spacious access.
The building that is susceptible to the earthquake threats and need to have more attentions
is the treatment building of Jepun which consists of four floors. The first floor is used as thepharmacy service while the second, third and fourth floors are used as hospitalization
rooms. The estimation of the amount of patients and their family plus administration,cleaning service, paramedic staffs, and doctors day by day is more or less 200 people, in thebuilding. The hazard potencies that we are worried about, besides the fire, stormy rain,
thunder, chaos, bomb threats, hurricane, is the earthquake.

Pc. 1 Treatment Building seen from East
Capability to overcome threats
From the lay out viewpoint, concerning about the safety of building according to the law of
UU No. 28 tahun 2002, the place and location as well as the path to the treatment buildingof Jepun makes quite easier in supporting the evacuation aid process for those from outside
the hospital. However, as the design as well as the construction of the building, especiallythe treatment building of Jepun, are less supporting to the passive protection system when
the shake occurs due to the earthquake, therefore it should be come into consideration of
making an emergency exit. Generally, some items need to be prepared to anticipate theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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earthquake disaster, namely a signpost to the evacuation path, emergency respondmechanism, preparation of AVAR (fire extinguisher), fire alarm, sprinkler and hydrant
systems.
The vulnerability towards the electricity supply troubles influences the treatment services
and so does the availability of inter-building communication system such as intercom,
which is better prepared earlier. The Regional Public Hospital of Badung Regency at the
moment does not have a written management commitment. It should be considered by all
stakeholders: patients, patients’ family, the surrounding community, supporting staffs,
paramedics, and doctors from the very beginning, in order to pay more attention and careabout the prevention and overcome the effects of earthquake. The forming of a rescue teamis essential. Giving training and fixing on SOP (standard operating procedure) as references
for the field executors.
4. CONCLUSION
1. Director of the hospital or their designated real authority to make decisions inemergencies.
2. Hospitals need to have GeoMedic mapping to facilitate the mobilization of resources.
3. Evacuation routes and rallying points needed to accelerate rescue efforts and minimize
the number of casualties.
4. There are 7 types of emergencies that need to be anticipated to facilitate rescue efforts
and avoid panic patients and their families.
5. Radio communication and mobile communication network devices and voice of overinternet protocol (VOIP) is a facilities and infrastructure required to anticipate disaster.
6. Hospitals need to be equipped with a disaster response team.
The Regional Public Hospital of Badung Regency in Kapal is a new hospital that does
not need to be merely judged. All parties, including the researchers, should give data andsolutions that make possible the hospital management and the owner, namely the regional
Government of Badung, are able to do things considered necessary for the establishment ofcomprehensive emergency respond plan to overcome various dangers and threats, including
earthquake.
Some suggestions that can be recommended as considerations in making decision regarding
the emergency respond are :1. An emergency respond plan needs to be put into action, especially for the Regional
Public Hospital of Badung Regency in Kapal.
2. The regional government is hoped to give a good will continuously until theemergency respond team formed which involves all elements in the Regional Public
Hospital of Badung Regency in Kapal.
Supporting funds from the Regional Government of Badung should be included into theroutine budget to maintain the existence of the Emergency Respond Team.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Author would like to thank Ir. Made Mudhina, MT., director of Bali State Polytechnic
and A.A.Bgs. Mulawarman, ST., M.T, The head of Mechanical Engineering Programme,
for opportunity and facilities to follow the research.

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6. REFERENCES
Anonim, (2010). Bencana Kesehatan. (Cited
2016
May 7). Available from:http://bencana-kesehatan.net.
Grandjean, E., (1988). 'Fitting the Task to the Man : A Textbook of Occupational
Ergonomics. 4 th Edition. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.,London.
Hepiman, F., Januar, R.S., Hasyim, H. ( 2010a). Evakuasi dan assembly point. (Cited
2016 April 11). Available from:http://webcache. googleusercontent.com/
abstract+jalur+ evakuasi+darurat+rumah+sakit.
Hepiman, F., Januar, R.S., Hasyim, H., ( 2010b). Kebakaran di Rumah Sakit. (Cited 2016
February 4). Available from: http://eprints.unsri.ac.id/.
Imarsan, (2011). K3 di Rumah Sakit. (Cited
2016 May 9). Available from:http://www.rscm.co.id.
Manuaba, A., (1992a), ''Makalah disampaikan pada Seminar Produktivitas Tenaga Kerja
di Jakarta, 30 Januari 1992. Pengaruh Ergonomi Terhadap Produktivitas'' : Hal 14.
Manuaba, A., (1992b). ''Makalah disampaikan pada Seminar Membudayakan Ergonomi diPabrik Gula PTP XXI-XXII di Surabaya, 30 November 1992''. 'Upaya membudayakan
Ergonomi di PTP XXI-XXII. Hal. 26.
Putri, GAA., Rhamani, PAS., (2004), Infrastruktur telepon seluler. (Cited 2014 March 5).
Available from: http://ojs.unud.ac.id.index.php/jTE/article.
Suma’mur, (1995), Higiene Perusahaan dan Kesehatan Kerja. Jakarta : PT.Toko Gunung
Agung.
Sutalaksana, I. Z., dalam Tarwaka, dkk., (2004), Ergonomi Untuk Keselamatan, Kesehatan
Kerja dan Produktivitas. UNIBA PRESS, Surakarta-Indonesia.
Sutjana dan Sutajaya, ( 2000), ''Penuntun Tugas Lapangan Program Pasca sarjana Program
Studi Ergonomi-Fisiologi Kerja UNUD Denpasar''.
Usakti, (2008). Ringkasan Modul Jurusan Ekonomi Manajemen. (Cited 2016 December 2).
Available from: http://sites. google.com/site/kuliahteoripengambilan/gery/ SPGDT11
pdf.
UU. No. 28 Tahun 2002, (2002), ''Bangunan Gedung'.

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THE ERGONOMIC KUE BALOK BAKING TOOL PRODUCTION WHICH
FUELED BY CHARCOAL

Dwi Novirania, Gita Permata Liansariba,bIndustrial Technology, Institut Teknologi Nasional Jl. PKH. Mustapha No. 23,
Bandung 40124, Indonesia
Email: dwinovirani@gmail.com, gitapermata@itenas.ac.id

ABSTRACTThe traditional cake which is popular again in the area of western Java which haveincreasing demand is Kue Balok, but the baking tool of the cake does not currently take
into consideration of the Ergonomic factors as ECSHE (Effective, Convenient, Safe,
Healthy and Efficient), so that the cake operator always feel pain mainly on his back andwaist because he always bends, and also the heat produced by the charcoal as the fuel hit
directly to the operator, the grip of iron baking tool is hot and not convenient, etc. The
output of this research is the ergonomic baking tool prototype which is charcoal-fueled bya functional test process. The choosing of the material for the manufacture of baking tool
prototype is taken into consideration of the ECSHE factors and the prototype of the Kue
Balok baking tool is also made to be portable.
Keywords: Kue Balok, Traditional Cake, Baking tool, Ergonomic, ECSHE, Portable

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1.INTRODUCTION
Kue balok is the traditional cake increasingly popular in the Bandung city, but theexisting baking tools do not provide favourable conditions for the operators who use it.
From the sample of 30 operators that have the same baking tool, taken at various places in
the Bandung city resulted in complaints such as operator always feel pain mainly on hisback and waist because he always bends, and also the heat of charcoal as the fuel hits
directly to the operator, the grip of iron baking tool is hot and not convenient, etc.
This issue will be risking the operator’s safety, when more often interact with the
Kue Balok baking tool, there will be higher problems perceived by the operator, thus anergonomic baking tool is required. Ergonomics is the practice in designing equipment anddetails of the work in accordance with the capacity of workers. (OSHA, 2000).
In the previous research, prototype baking tool design using EFD (Ergonomic
Function Deployment) has been done, so the product becomes ergonomic (Effective,
Comfortable, Safe, Healthy and Efficient) (Liansari, 2016), but no function test and foodgrade determination, therefore further research is done that makes Kue Balok baking tool
prototype which is charcoal fuel by a functional test process sees every part of component
that must be perfected and the determination of food grade material that will be in use.
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
Existing Kue Balok baking tool, like Figure-1 is very inefficient to operate it.
Research attributes derived from ergonomic aspects ECSHE (Liansari, 2016) as shown in
Table-1No

Ergonomi
Aspect1

Effective

2

Convenient

3

Safe

4

Healthy5

Efficient

Tabel-1. Research Attributes Kue Balok design baking tool
Defines

Research Attributes

Dimension precision molds
Goals and objectives achieved
Nonstick the mold
Food grade grill tools
The heat from the baking tool, do not
Minimizing discomfort / anxiety
expose directly to the operator
operator in using the product
Table height can be adjusted
Minimizing the risk of operator, Baking tool are safe to use
while interacting directly with Grip and the lid of the grill is not hot
product
Sparks of charcoal is not to operator
Smoke does not expose directly to the
avoid health problems
operator
Baking tool is easy to use
Minimization of cost, effort and Baking tool is not easily broken
time in product use
More number of hole in the mold
Faster cooking time

Based on the derived attributes, produced three design alternatives of Kue Balok baking
tool.

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Figure-1. Existing Kue Balok baking tool

Figure-2. Existing Kue Balok baking tool and the three alternatives design
The first alternative, the dimension of the fuel container is 159 cm x 64 cm x 20
cm, three units of mold dimension 60 cm x 49 cm x 8 cm with the capacity of each 20
pieces. The handle of the mold is moved separately. There are three separate units ofbaking tool cover, which serve to cover the dough during baking process.

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The second alternative, the dimensions of the fuel container is 53 cm x 64 cm x 20
cm, one piece of mold dimension 49 cm x 60 cm x 8 cm with a capacity of 20 pieces. Thereis a handle of the mold to insert the dough into the mold. There is one unit baking tool
cover that can be used to cover the dough while baking process.
The third alternative, fuel container dimension 159 cm x 64 cm x 20 cm, threeunits mold of container dimension 60 cm x 49 cm x 8 cm with each capacity 20 pieces. The
mold container can be pulled out to fill the dough into the mold and there is one cover ofbaking tool, which serves to cover the dough while baking process.
All these alternative baking tools, the molding material used is Teflon, the material
used for the components of the fuel container, the desk, and the mold cover is aluminum
mixture consisting of a mixture of aluminum, zinc, copper, manganese, and magnesium. In
general, the mixture has been used in the manufacture of products that already exist at the
moment.
The results of the three alternatives, selected the best by morphological process
sequence, the concept of screening and concept selection. In the morphology chart, pointout the development of product concepts from a number of alternatives for each section
response. The concept of alternative products developed into a maximum of threealternative product concepts that can be combined.
The concept of screening is the stage of assessment of product concepts that may
arise from a combination of graphical parts of the morphological response, followed by
selecting concepts, alternative judgments and product concepts based on the weight of eachof the attributes of the product research.
The concept of selecting the results is the highest total value of the results obtained,
in this research the second alternative is selected for product design Kue Balok baking tool
(Liansari, 2016). Here is the picture of the product that has been designed, which can beseen in Figure 3.

Figure-3. Blueprint Kue Balok baking tool (Liansari, 2016)

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
After the design of the prototype is made, the collection of opinion from the usersof the tool is later conducted. The result of the user response is useful as a functional testingprocess for the perfection of the tool. And later on it is useful to help create a prototype
design part by part of the charcoal-fueled baking tool, and then the analysis can be made,resulting the blueprint design that can be seen in figure-4, AutoCAD software results(Omura, 2010)
Effective Aspects (Precision)
In the previous product, themain component has adifferent size and not inaccordance with the shape ofthe mold, while the results ofthe design, the mold is madeof precision components
having direct influence, so
there are no gaps that canmake the heat became
scattered.
Safe aspect (Cookware safe)
The baking tool is less secure
when used, because the heatgenerated spreads freely andthere is no thermal insulationon the component in contact
with the hand. The design
results, baking tool safe to use,
because there is a tool towithstand heat, heat can betransferred, so indirectly hit
the operator body.

Aspects comfortable (Adjustable table)
In existing baking tool, operator cannot adjust
the table, so that operators often adjust thetable’s height with additional tools. Results ofthe design, the table can be adjusted inaccordance with the posture of the operator by
adjusting the height of the table leg

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Efficient (cooking time)
The existing baking tool requires
about 13 to 15 minutes to produce
one batch of Kue Balok. The newly
design baking tool will only needabout 8 minutes to produce one batchof Kue Balok due to larger fuelvolume used.
Efficient (Easy to carry)
In previous baking tool, eachcomponent is separated, making it
difficult to carry and moved. The
results of the design, compact baking
tool or no component separated fromone another and not difficult when
carried and moved.

Convenient Aspects (Sticky)
In the previous product, when the Kue
Balok cooked and then removed from themold they are still attached to the mold. On
the results of product design, when the Kue
Kalok baked, nothing sticks in the mold,because the mold material used is Teflon(non-stick)

Healthy (Transfer of smoke)
The smoke produced is very disturbing
for the operator, because there is notool for transferring the smoke. Resultsof the draft, Smoke will be welltransferred, because there is a transfer
tool for the smoke, so the operator will
not experience respiratory issues.

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Efficient (Movement)
In previous baking tool, a cover thatweighs about 3 kg must be removed topick up the bake Kue Balok. Results ofthe design, Molds will be just simply
pulled, no cover will be required.

Convenient Aspects (The Heat)Previous product, the heat is freely
dispersed in the air and direct to theoperator's body, due to unavailabilityof cover in the fuel container anddough, the operator often feel the heatfrom the combustion process. The
results of product design, the heat willbe transferred properly due to a fuelcontainer and cover tightly closed
during the cooking process, because
there is a switch component of theheat.

Safe (Handle not hot)In previous baking tool, no heat retaineron the handle, so it takes the help of a wet
cloth during use of the mold and cover.
Results of design, there are tools for heat
resistance, so that operator can operate it
easily.
Safe (Operation tool)
Operators often hit by the splashes fromthe fuel at the time due to moving thecover. Results of the design, the operator's
body will not hit by splashes, because
there are spark of diversion of fuel in eachcomponent.

Figure-4. Break down Blueprint part of the charcoal-fueled baking tool and analyzed
By distributing additional questionnaires to users of the tool then get feedback fromthem about the specially made charcoal-fuel tray, which is useful for facilitating fastburning charcoal. The prototype design of charcoal-fuel tray can be seen in Figure-5.
The additional input of the tool users is to pair four wheels at the foot of the baking
tool table to facilitate the movement of the tool. The complete Kue Balok baking tool
prototype can be seen in Figure-6 and the Kue Balok baking tool engineering drawing isshown in Figure-7.

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Figure-5. Prototype Charcoal-fuel tray

Supporting wheel

Figure-6 Prototype Kue Balok baking tool

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Figure-7 Kue Balok Baking tool engineering drawing
The making of tools for food should also include food grade material that is safeand healthy for food. The material chosen for the manufacture of portable baking prototype
is stainless steel, because it is not corrosive, and the type of stainless steel used is S30400.
Type 304 is a variation of base class 18-8, type302, with higher levels of chromium andlower carbon. Low carbon minimizes the precipitation of chromium carbide due to its
welding and its susceptibility to granular corrosion (Askeland, 2010) and (Callister and
Rethwisch, 2010). Thickness of 304 stainless steel between 0.025 to 6.35 mm and width up
to 1219 mm. AMS 5513 design specifications; ASTM A240; ASTM A666.
4. CONCLUSION
Prototype kue balok baking tool is Ergonomic and ECSHE (effective, convenient,safe, healthy, and efficient) fueled by charcoal, portable, and easy to carry.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Author wish to acknowledge the support of LPPM Itenas Bandung in enabling
the production of this research.
6. REFERENCES
Ashby, M., Shercliff, H. and Cebon, D (2007), “Materials, Engineering, Science,
Processing and Design”, Published by Elsevier Ltd., UK, pp. 1-500.
Askeland, D.R., Fulay, P.P., and Wright, W.J. (2010), “The Science and Engineering of
Mterials”, Cengage Learning, 200 First Stamford Place, Suite 400, Stamford, CT 06902,
USA, Sixth Edition, pp 1-900.

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Budynas, RG. And J Keith Nisbett, J,K, (2006), “Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design”, 8th Edition in SI Units, The Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. pp. 71-118.
CRAIG, JR, R.R (2011), “MECHANICS OF MATERIAL”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA,
Third Edition, pp.22-61
Callister, Jr. W.D. and Rethwish, D.G.(2010), “Material Science and Engineering-An
Itroduction”, Eighth Edition, Jphn Willey &Son, Inc. River Street, Hoboken, NJ. Pp. 1800
Khurmi, R.S, and Gupta, J.K.(2005), “AText Book of Machine Design”, Eurasia Publishing
House, Ram Nagar, New Delhi, 14th Revised Edition, pp.281-676.
Lawrence Gyansah, Design, Construction and Modeling of a Mechanical Portable Barbecue
Machine, globaljournals.org/GJRE_Volume12/5 (2012)
Liansari, G.P., Novirani, D., Rifqi Nanda S. 2016, “Design Blueprint Ergonomic Kue
Balok Mold Tool Using Ergonomic Function Deployment (EFD)” in: Jurnal Rekayasa
Sistem Industri Vol.5 no 2 Universitas Khatolik Parahyangan Bandung, Indonesia.
Novirani, D., Liansari, G.P., 2016, “Design Prototype Ergonomic Kue Balok Mold Tool
Using Ergonomic Function Deployment (EFD)” in: Proceeding of The role ofengineering and design in the acceleration of national sustainable development, 2016
Bandung, 30 November, Indonesia.
OSHA. 2000. Ergonomics: The Study of Work. U.S. Department of Labour.
Omura, G (2010), “Mastering AutoCAD 2011 and AutoCad LT 201” Wiley Publishing,Inc., Indianapolis, Indians, pp. 4-911
Ullman, D.G. (2010), “ The Mechanical Design Process”, Published by McGraw-Hill, A
business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New
York, NY 10020, Four Edition, pp81-91

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
NEUROMARKETING EVALUATION OF ONLINE SHOP ADVERTISEMENTUSING ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)
Danu Hadi Syaifullaha1, Maya Arlini Puspasarib, Timotius Alfinc
a,b,c

Department of Industrial Engineering
Faculty of Engineering – University of Indonesia, Depok 16424
Tel: (021) 78888805. Fax: (021) 78885656

ABSTRACT
Indonesia has a very strong growth as an online shop market. Big market growth atIndonesia makes there are many online shops join and operate at Indonesia. To gain themarket, online shop in Indonesia was doing so many marketing activities; one of them isthrough Youtube channel. Using Youtube channel as marketing channel means using videoas the content. Before using video as marketing content, developer needs to know
characteristics of online shop advertisement which can attract the viewer. In this research,
writer evaluates online shop advertisement based on cognitive and emotional response ofviewer. The methods of this research are Frontal Alpha Asymmetry Analysis (FAA) and
Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) questionnaire. Frontal Alpha Asymmetry
Analysis using data from electroencephalogram of response of respondent while watching
advertising video. Based on result of this research, there are several characteristics ofonline shop advertising video that affect and did not attract viewers significantly.
Keywords: Frontal Alpha Asymmetry (FAA), Electroencephalogram (EEG),
Neuromarketing, Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS), Digital Marketing* Corresponding author.
danu_syaifullah@yahoo.co.id

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1. INTRODUCTION
Based on the survey from McKinsey, internet users in Indonesia who have ever shopped
online was only about 7%. That opportunity makes many online shops join to Indonesianmarket. Data from Minister of Communication shows that online transaction in Indonesia at
2013 was up to 130 trillion Rupiah. Moreover, based on data from TBI 2016 (Top Brand
Index), OLX, Lazada, and Tokopedia is the top three of online shop which well known byinternet users. OLX is at the first place with 44.5 percent, followed by Lazada with 19.9
percent, and the third place is filled by Tokopedia with 12.1 percent.
To gain their users, online shops use variance of marketing strategies such as poster,
promotion, and advertisement. Nowadays, advertising in Youtube channel has been widelyused by online shop as their marketing strategies. By using Youtube channel, online shop
needs to make their video advertisement. But, not every Youtube advertisement will be
succeed to effectively gain viewers interest. Therefore, we need to evaluate characteristics
of online shop advertisement that will gain viewers interest. One of the methods to evaluate
advertisement is using neuromarketing.
For this research, we aim to know the characteristics of online shop advertisement that will
be interesting to viewers based on cognitive and emotional aspects by using
electroencephalogram (EEG).
2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTALa)

ParticipantsThis research involves 30 participants (15 male and 15 female) with age 18-25 years
old. Participant is right-handed and never seen the stimuli before.
StimuliA stimulus for this research is online shop advertisement with duration within 2.5 to 3
minutes. Video advertisement that been used is video from Lazada, Tokopedia, and
OLX. Table 1 describes the object for more detail.

b)

Table 1 Research Object
No.

Perusahaan

123Tokopedia
LazadaOLXPart 1:
Emotional Part
Sad
Happy
ScaredPart 2:
Product Description
N/A
Implicit Description
Explicit Description

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Part 3:
Logo
With Animation
N/A
Without Animation

1087c) Equipment
Equipment that has been used is Electroencephalogram (EEG) Emotiv EPOC+,
computer, earphone, software Emotiv EPOC Test Bench, software VLC video player,
and PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Scale) questionnaire.

Figure 1. Emotiv EPOC+d) Variable
In this research, the variables are:
 Independent Variable is variable that had been changed to know the response atdependent variable. Independent variable in this research is combination of eachpart of video advertising for the stimuli.
 Dependent Variable is variable that has been measured as the response ofchanges of independent variables. In this research, dependent variable ismeasured by Relative Power Ratio (RPR) for frontal lobe of brain to represent
viewers’ interest in the stimuli.
e) Recording and Analysis
EEG recording was done during the video advertising for each online shop. Sequenceof the play decided randomly by random number. For each video changeover,participant told to be relaxed and closed their eyes for 60 seconds. Before EEG
recordings, EEG was applied to participant head until every marker show a green
signal at Emotiv EPOC Test Bench software. Green signal means that brain wave forthat channel has already recorded by EEG. In this research, recording focus on six
points which are Fp1, F3, F7, Fp2, F4, and F8. This point is based on Frontal Alpha
Asymmetry (FAA) which only measures the difference of alpha wave between frontal
left lobe and frontal right lobe. Based on FAA model, left frontal lobe activities
related to positive emotion which caused by interest while right frontal lobe activities
related to negative emotion which caused by disinterest (Chai et al., 2014). The pointof EEG can be seen at Figure 2.

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Figure 2. EEG Emotiv EPOC+ Channelsf) Data Processing
Steps of EEG data processing are:
1. Pre-Processing (Band Pass Filter)
First step of EEG data processing is Band Pass Filter to eliminate data outliers
which have the frequencies outside human brain frequencies range. Human brain
frequency is between 0 to 30 Hz. Therefore recorded data with frequency above
30 Hz was eliminated.
2. Signal Decomposition (Fast Fourier Transform)
Next step of process is signal decomposition which is to separate brain wave
depend on the frequencies category. Based on the frequencies, brain wave can be
categorized into four types which are, alpha (7.5-13 Hz), beta (14-30 Hz), delta(0-3 Hz), and theta (3,5-7,5 Hz). In this research, only the alpha will be used foranalysis.
3. Power Spectral Density
Then, based on the frequencies, power of wave is measured and called PowerSpectral Density.
4. Relative Power Ratio
Since we know the Power Spectral Density, the last step is to convert PowerSpectral Density into Relative Power Ratio (RPR) value. The value will be a ratio
and will be used for analysis.
Relative Power Ratio data that will be used is RPR data for AF3, AF4, F3, F4, F7, and F8.
The six points that stated above is part of frontal lobe EEG.

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Here is the result of this research:a) Comparison of Total RPR for each video
Based on ANOVA, between total RPR of the three video, there are significant difference(p-value ≤ 0.05 = 0.000). The difference occurs between first video and third video andalso second video and third video. From these result, we can know that overall, video
advertising by Tokopedia and Lazada is more interesting to viewers than video of OLX.
b) Comparison of RPR for Video Part 1
Based on ANOVA, between RPR for video part 1, there is no significant difference (pvalue ≥ 0.05 = 0.356). It means that there is no difference between three video for part 1
with confidence interval 95%.
c) Comparison of RPR for Video Part 2
Based on ANOVA, between RPR for video part 2, there is significant difference (pvalue ≤ 0.05 = 0.000). The difference occurs between second video and third video. It
shows that with confidence interval 95%, there are differences between part 2 of thesecond and the third video.
d) Comparison of RPR for Video Part 3
Based on ANOVA, between RPR for video part 3, there is no significant difference (pvalue ≥ 0.05 = 0.272). It means that there is no difference between part 3 of the firstvideo and the third video.
e) RPR Plot for each VideoTo know the trend of RPR value during the video advertisement, RPR plot of Video was
made. The higher difference between left frontal RPR value than right frontal RPR valuemeans that participant had interest in the stimuli, and vice versa. The RPR plots for all
three video advertisements are given as follow:

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Figure 3. RPR Plot of Video 1
From Figure 3, RPR value for frontal right lobe always higher than for frontal left lobe.
It happened for part 1 and part 3 of first video.

Figure 4. RPR Plot of Video 2
From Figure 4, RPR value for frontal left lobe is higher than for frontal right lobe forpart 1 of second video. Otherwise, for part 2 of second video, RPR value for frontal rightlobe is higher than for frontal left lobe.

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Figure 5. RPR Plot of Video 3
From Figure 5, RPR value for frontal left lobe is higher than for frontal right lobe forpart 1 of third video. Otherwise, for part 2 and 3 of third video, RPR value for frontal
right lobe is higher than for frontal left lobe.
f) Comparison of PANAS questionnaire
PANAS Questionnaire is counted by decreasing negative value from positive value ofthe questionnaire. Based on the result with Friedman test, there is significant difference
between all video (p-value ≤ 0.05 = 0.000). Difference occur between first video andthird video, and also second vide and third video. Based on PANAS Questionnaire
compared to RPR data with FAA method, it can be seen that both tests show the same
results with earlier research (Ohme, Reykowska, Wiener, & Choromanska, 2010), so canbe said that Frontal alpha asymmetry method can be used to measure customers interest
toward some marketing activities.
4. CONCLUSION
Due to time limitation, video advertisement used for research object is only one for eachemotion (sad, happy and scared). Nevertheless, based on the research, we can conclude thatbased on RPR value with FAA method, different approach in emotional part of advertising
video (sad, happy, and scared) is not affect significantly to viewer’s interest in Indonesia
while watching the advertisement for the first time.
Then, based on RPR value with FAA method, different approach in product description
part of advertising video (implicitly and explicitly) affect significantly. Implicit products
description brings more interest for the viewers than explicit product description toviewer’s interest in Indonesia while watching the advertisement for the first time.
For the next part, based on RPR value with FAA method, different approach in logo part ofadvertising video (with animation and without animation) is not affect significantly toviewer’s interest in Indonesia while watching the advertisement for the first time.

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Overall, based on RPR value with FAA method, online shop video advertisement from
Lazada dan Tokopedia bring more interest than video advertisement from OLX.
Last, generally based on RPR Plot, interest of viewers tend to be declined when they saw
product description and logo part of video advertisement.
6. REFERENCES
Andrejevic, M. (2012). Brain Whisperers: Cutting
Neuromarketing. Somatechnics, 2(2), 198–215.

throughtheClutterwith

Blakeslee, S. (2004). If you have a buy-button in your brain, what pushes it? The New YorkTimes.
Chai, J., Ge, Y., Liu, Y., Li, W., Zhou, L., Yao, L., & Sun, X. (2014). Application of
Frontal EEG Asymmetry to User Experience Research Application of Frontal EEG
Asymmetry to User Experience Research.
Drewniany, B. L., Jewler, A. J., Bingham, L., Sandberg, K., & Perry, J. (2008). Creative
Strategy in Advertising. Thomson Learning Academic Resource Center (9th ed.).
Fugate, D. L. (2014). Neuromarketing: a layman’s look at neuroscience and its potential
application to marketing practice. Journal of Consumer Marketing Iss Journal ofConsumer Marketing Journal of Consumer Marketing Sons Canada Journal ofConsumer Marketing, 2499(4), 385–394.
Maria, Z. M. (2009). Neuromarketing – Getting Innside The Customer’s Mind, Pop
Ciprian-Marcel, (1), 804–807.
Ohme, R., Reykowska, D., Wiener, D., & Choromanska, A. (2010). Application of frontal
EEG asymmetry to advertising research. Journal of Economic Psychology, 31(5),785–793.
Pamplona, C. I. O. A. (2014). Neuromarketing : insightful, but not mind reading, 93–112.

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THE 15th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON QUALITY IN RESEARCH (QIR 2017)
RISK MANAGEMENT OF NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS ON
FOOTWEAR INDUSTRY IN INDONESIA. CASE STUDY : PT BRODO GANESHAINDONESIA
Amalia Suziantia, Priandra Aditya Wattimenab, Rheinanda Kaniaswaria,b,*a,bLaboratorium Pengembangan Produk dan Inovasi Departemen Tekik Industri, Fakultas

Teknik, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus Baru UI Depok 16424, Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Footwear industry has been one of the Indonesian government’s concern in order toenhance the nation’s economy. Each year, the footwear industry’s economic value isincreasing and significantly contributing to the national non-mineral export. This indicatesthat Indonesia has a great opportunity to further enhance its footwear global market share.
However, due to the significant growth of the global market demand, the number ofcompetitors in the footwear global industry are also increasing with China as the market
greatest influencer. Hence, to compete in the global footwear industry, Indonesian businessowners have to increase their competitiveness level. This research is focused on the risk
management that might arise during the developing process of a new product in the
footwear industry, to increase the competitiveness level of Indonesian footwear industry.
Using PT Brodo Ganesha Indonesia as a study case. The method used for the research isHouse of Risk, a new method adopted from the Failure Mode Effect Analysis and House of
Quality methods. The method is not only showing the possibility of risks that might arise,
but also focused on giving a proactive strategy to mitigate the identified risk. The outcomeof this research is the list of risks that found in the developing process of a new product andthe strategy to mitigate those risks involved. This research is designed for footwear
industry’s business owners as a benchmark for their product development process to makeit more efficient.
Keywords: House of Risk; Risk Management; New Product Development; Footwear
Industry; PT Brodo Ganesha Indonesia
1. INTRODUCTION
Footwear industry is one of the industrial sectors that has a considerable
contribution to the Indonesia’s exports level. Based on the report from Ministry ofIndustry of Republic Indonesia, in 2014, the footwear product’s exports rateaccounts for 2.9% and has a tendency to keep increasing. In addition, since 2010
until 2015 the trade value also increased with the average increasing rate of 37.3
trillion Rupiahs.Beside that, Ministry of Industry of Republic Indonesia also reveals

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that the industry of footwear has a great contribution for the absorption of the labor.
By 2015, it had reached the total number of 643,000,000 local labors.
Although the needs of the global market tend to increase towards footwear
poducts, the competition between producing countries in this sector is also
increasing. Based on the report of APICCAPS (Associação Portuguesa dos
Industriais de Calçado, Componentes, Artigos de Pele e seus Sucedâneos), a
footwear association based in Portugal, in 2012, China has the largest export market
share with the number of 38%. While Indonesia only has 3% export market share,
after China, Italy, Germany, Viet Nam, Hong Kong and Belgium.
Footwear industry is a part of fashion industry that identically has a short periodof trend changing, which is opposite to the common product-based industrial market
with a short product life cycle, high level of volatility, unpredictable and frequentpurchases without planning (Bandinelli et al., 2011).
Study by Cornell University (2010) revealed that in general, fashion product hasa relatively short product life cycle. The cycle starts during the product’s launch,this graph will keep on rising due to an additional number of consumers adopting
the current style or a trend, and when most customers leave, this cycle will end. The
life cycle of fashion product has a steep degression slope after the product reaches
the highest point of sale. Therefore, the producer of fashion products should
continuously develop new products in order to keep up with the short life cycle offashion product, which increases the risk of the development process.
In order to respond to the risks that might occur in the process and the activity ofbusiness, some models had been developed to perform risk assessment anddesigning several strategies to mitigate those risks. In 2002, Preston developed arisk management model for product development by using five steps of the risk
handling, start from identification stage until monitor risk stage. Then, in 2008
Segismundo and Miguel developed a model of risk management of the developmentof new automotive products by using the FMEA (Failure Mode Effect Analysis)
approach. This model aims to calculate the Risk Potential Number (RPN) which is
the result of the multiplication of the level of Severity (S), Occurence (O) and thelevel of ease of the Detectability of risk (D).
One of the latest models in risk management is the House of Risk (HOR). Thismodel has a specialization in conducting preventive actions which combines the
FMEA and the House of Quality method to quantify the risks (Pujawan and
Geraldin, 2009). HOR model provides the company a risk priority that should be
addressed and also strategy recommendation along with the effectiveness level ofthe strategy to mitigate the risk. HOR method is once applied in the supply chain
risk management at the fertilizer company and also in the risk management of new
product development at hijab product company in Indonesia.
This study will use the HOR method to quantify risks in the footwear industry inIndonesia. A study case on PT Brodo Ganesha Indonesia (PT BGI) will be used toshow the pattern of footwear consumption in the Indonesian Market. Critical risk
points and stages would be analysed with its impacts, priorities, and mitigation
strategies.

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2. METHODOLOGY/ EXPERIMENTAL
The risk of the developing process of new products can be distinguished into
two categories, the internal risk and the external risk. The internal risk consists ofoperational, technology and organization risks. Operational risk is the risk that may
occur in the inefficient process on business activity of company such as production
activity, labor distribution, etcetera. Technology risk is the risk associated withinternal technology capabilities such as the ability to use new technology, scienceacquisition capabilities in responding to the development of technology as well as
the ability of facing the external technology. The Organization risk is the risk
associated with the system as well as organizational management strategy such as
the response to the changing of structure, changing between project team’s member,
etcetera. While the external risk consists of the market risk and the provider or
supplier risk. Market risk is the risk associated with market dynamic such as theability to respond to the demand changing and the knowledge of the competitor.
Supplier risk is the risks that may occur associated with supplier capabilities such as
the reliability of the supplier and also the production cost of the vendor (Park,
2010).
The HOR method is used to analyze the risk that might happen in thedeveloping process of a new product at PT BGI and obtain the strategy needed tomitigate the risk, it consists of two models, namely HOR 1 and 2. HOR 1 is used to
identify the risk that might occur in the process, while the HOR 2 is used to create
mitigation strategy in order to overcome the risk. For HOR 1, the data taken for thisresearch is the process data for a new product development, along with the steps
adopted by PT BGI, risk event in each step, and the causes of the risk (risk agent),
the rate of severity, the rate of incidence (occurrence) and the correlation. For HOR
2, the streategy will be obtained by assessing the difficulty level and also the total
effectivity. This method is emphasizing the determination and the mitigation of risk
agent as the cause of the risks that are identified.
On HOR1 quantification is done by calculating the Aggregate Risk Potential(ARP). The calculation of the ARP value considers the severity factor as the driving
factor for the risk event and the level of occurence as the driving factor of risk
agent.
The first stage of the HOR1 is the risk identification with interview andbrainstorming methods with several members of the internal management at PT
BGI. The members are the Chairman of the Company, the head of Marketing
Department, the head of Supply and Operation Department of, the head of ProductDevelopment Departement, and also the head of the Finance Department. The
output that will be obtained from this step is a complete the elaboration about thedeveloping process of new products at PT BGI and also the risk event as well as therisk agent.
The next stage is to determine the severity level, occurrence level and also
the correlation of risk and event risk agents which had been identified earlier. The
scale criteria for higher severity and occurence level is adjusted to the actual
condition of the company. Table 1 and Table 2 elaborate the scale used to measure
the level of severity and occurence

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Tabel 1. PT BGI Severity Scale

Rank

Criteria

1
2
3
4
5

Insignificant
Minor
Moderate
Major
Catastrophe

Financial(million Rupiahs)< 1515 - 30
45 - 60
60 - 75>75

Production Delay(days)<7
7 - 1314 - 29
30 - 60> 60

Company Image/
Negative Publicity Scope
Internal company
Internal and External
Local media
National media
National media with law suits

After the severitiy and ocuurence level is identified the next stage is tocalculate the ARP value for each risk agents. The succeeding is the calculation for
the ARP:

Severity (S) multiplied with the degree of correlation between risk agent andrisk event. In general, risk agent can cause more than one risk event, so themultiplication and the degree of severity of the correlation (R) should be summed
up, then the sum will be multiplied with the level of occurence (O) from risk agent.
After the ARP is gained, sort the risk agents from the largest to smallest, based on
the ARP value, the aim is to acknowledge the risk that has greatest impact. The risk
agents should be sorted using the pareto principle or the 80:20.
Tabel 2. PT BGI Occurence Scale
Scale
1
2
3

Level of Occurence
Never Occur
Very Minimum Occurence
Rare Occurence

Description
0Happening Once
Happening once in every 5 year

4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Minor
Moderate
Significant
Major
Extreme
Serious
Very Dangerous

Happening once every 3 year
Happening once in every year
Happening once in every 6 monthHappening once in every 3 monthHappening once in every monthHappening once in every week
Happening almost everyday

Risk agents are sorted so that the company can put their main focus on thepotential risk agent, which has the biggest ARP value. Once ARP is calculated andthe rule of 80:20 applied, 10 risk agents will be gained as shown in table 3.

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After the risk agent is determined, the next step is to establish the mitigation
strategy to confront the risk agent. The strategy is designed based on the study ofliterature and interview with those who expertise in specific area such as marketing,information system, etcetera.
The determination of strategy is the first step of HOR 2 process, and after
that, the strategy will be quantified by looking at the difficulty level, the level of
effectiveness and its impact on each risk agent.
Quantification of strategy is done by looking at the difficulty level by
establishing the scale level of difficulty which can only be applied to a particularcompany due to the adjustment that made based on the actual condition of thecompany. The level of difficulty of HOR 2 are described in table 4, and for the scalelevel of effectiveness are described in table 5.
Tabel 3. PT BGI Difficulty Scale
Scale
1

Name
Very Easy

Financial
Cost needed <20.000.000

Labor Needed
Labor workforce < 3people2

Easy

Labor workforce between> 3 people and < 6 people

3

Moderate

4

Hard

5

Very Hard

Cost needed >20.000.000 and <30.000.000
Cost needed >30.000.000 and <40.000.000
Cost needed >40.000.000 dan <50.000.000
Cost needed >50.000.000

Labor workforce between> 6 people and < 9 people
Labor workforce between> 9 people and < 12peopleLabor workforce > 12
peopleTabel 4. PT BGI Effectivity Scale
Scale
0

1098

Name
Has no effectDescription
Doesn't reduce the risk agent occurence

1

Slightly impactful

Reduce the risk agent occurence level to
3 level (1-3 level)3

Impactful

Reduce the risk agent occurence level to
6 level (4-6 level)

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9Have a big impact

Reduce the risk agent occurence level to
9 level (7-9 level)

Once difficulty level and the level of effectiveness are determined from thestrategy, the next step is to calculate the rate of effectiveness in the risk handling(TE) by multiplying the ARP from the risk agent with their level of effectiveness(E) in the risk agent handling. The succeeding is the calculation for the level of
effectiveness against the strategy:

After the level of effectiveness in the risk agent is determined, the ratio isthen calculated with the difficulty level (Dk), the succeeding is the calculation for
the rate of effectiveness ratio with the difficulty level (EtD):

After the EtD is determined, the strategies are then sorted by using thebiggest EtD value rule, the biggest one means having the highest effectivity rate.
The result of this value will be a reference for the company to carry out the strategy
in order to mitigate the risk agent that been identified.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION(The HOR method presents two different type of results that contain in HOR 1 and HOR 2)
HOR 1

HOR 1 produced the list of risk agent along with the ARP value that became
the basis for the level of impact for the developing process of a new product. The
ARP value and the list of risk priority are described in Table 6. While Table 7
describes risk agent that became a priority. On HOR 1, the data shows that thebiggest risk is the risk of the organization and in the developing process of a new
product, the biggest risk is located in the process of idea generation, prototyping anddesign.
Tabel 5. Identified Risk Agent With Its ERP Value
Rank
1
2
3
4

Risk Agents
Poor Information System
Miscommunication
Poor working procedure
Poor designers’ coordination

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Code
A04
A16
A07
A05

ARP
1848
1824
1728
1239

1099

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Dynamic market changeWrong customer preferences prediction
Human Error
Technology Development
Supplier doesn’t fulfill the agreement
Poor facility
There is no brand guideline
A lack of quality control
No demand forecasting
Delayed material delivery
Supplier doesn't recognize the material
specification
Change of supplier
Vendor has a minimum quantity policy
High dependency towards one supplier
The fluctuation ofurrency
Supplier doesn't understand the design direction
Supplier and vendor bankrupt
There is no project manager

A01
A19
A06
A10
A08
A02
A03
A15
A14
A17
A22

1188
984
910
724
690
648
558
441
324
252
216

A13
A20
A09
A11
A18
A21
A12

198
189
72
36
27
12
10

Tabel 6. Risk Agent Prioritties
Rank

1100

Risk Agents

Code

1

Poor Information system

A04

2

A07

3

Miscommunication within the internal
environment of the company
Poor working procedure

4

Poor designers’ coordination

A05

5

Dynamic market change

A01

6

Wrong customer preferences prediction

A19

7

Human Error

A06

8

Technology Development

A109

Supplier doesn’t fulfill the agreement

A08

10

Poor facility

A02

A07

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HOR 2

The final result of the HOR 2 is the list of mitigation strategy along with
their managing priority. Table 7 shows the list of mitigation strategy along with thelist of priority and EtD Value. Table 8 describes the name of mitigation strategy.
Table 7. Value of EtD for Each Stratgy
Priority
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Code
PA2
PA1
PA3
PA9
PA5
PA4
PA8
PA6
PA7

Tek
30019
23823
14592
27450
22647
14368
11919
2070
5832

Dk
1
3
4
4
4
3
3
1
5

ETD
30019
7941
7296
6851
5662
4789
3973
2070
1166

Tabel 8. Generated Strategy
Priority

Code

Strategy

1

PA2

Conduct a team building activity

2

PA3

Conduct a customer preference analysis

3
4
5

PA9
PA5
PA4

Using a specific project manager for each project
Develop an ERP system
Market Monitoring

6
7
8
9

PA8
PA6
PA7
PA1

External training
Develop a partnership with various vendor
Build a supporting facility
Conduct a job analysis

4. CONCLUSION
The results from this research are the risks obtained from the developing
process of a new product at PT BGI along with the strategy to mitigate those risks.
In the developing process of a new product at PT BGI, there are 23 risk events andProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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22 risk agents which can obstruct and causing a short term as well as long term
financial loss. To identify the risk properly, an analysis of the risk and its risk agent
is needed. Risk Agent is the main attribute in risk handling. There are 10 risks thatassumed as the risk agents that must be dealt with. 12 other risk agents assumed
don’t give a significant impact so it is not considered in this study. The 10 risk
agents are:a) Poor Information Systemb) Miscommunication within the internal environtment of the companyc) Poor working procedured) Poor designer’ coordinatione) The dynamic market changef) Wrong customer preference predictiong) Human errorh) Technology Developmenti) Suppliers who doen’t fulfill the agreementj) Poor facility
In the developing process of a new product at PT BGI, the most risky stage isat the stage of Idea Generation, Design and Prototyping with 10 risk agents for eachone of the risk. While the low-risk process is the stage of production. Risk categorythat has most impact on the developing process of a new product at PT BGI is thecategory of organizational risk while the risk category that has the least impact isthe category of operational risk. There are nine risk mitigation strategies in thedeveloping process of a new product at PT BGI. Nine of these strategies are:a) Conduct team building activityb) Conduct job analysisc) Conduct customer preferences analysisd) Using a specific project manager for each projecte) Develop an ERP system.
f) Market monitoringg) External trainingh) Develop a partnership with various vendori) Build a supporting facility

6. REFERENCES
Agaugol, M., Yurtkoru, E. (2015). The effect of ERP implementation CSFs on businessperformance: an empirical study on users’ perception. Procedia Social and Behavioral
Science 210, 35 - 42.
Bandinelli, R. Rinaldi, R. Rossi, M. Terzi, S. (2013). New product development in the
fashion industry: an empirical investigation of italian firms. Journal International ofEngineering Business Management. Vol.5, pp.1-9.
Dyah, D. Bambang, S. Eka, N. (2015). Risk management in new product development
process for fashion industry : Case study in hijab industry. Procedia Manufacturing 4,
383 – 391.

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Kim, J. Park, S. (2011). A risk management system framework for new productdevelopment (NPD). International Conference on Economics and Finance Research.
Vol.4, pp.51-56.
Kenneth, K. (2013). The PDMA Handbook of Product Development. John Wiley & Sons :New Jersey
Kementrian Perindustrian RI (2015). Nilai Ekspor Indonesia
Mohamed, B. Robert, K. Alison, O. Josef, O. (2014). Analysis of the effect of risk
management practices on the perfomance of new product development
programs. Technovation 34 441–453
Park, Y.H. (2010). A study of risk management and performance measures on new productdevelopment. Asian Journal on Quality, Vol. 11 Iss 1 pp. 39 - 45
Prein, P. Goodstein, L. Goodstein, L. Gamble, J. (2009). A Practical Guide to Job Analysis.
Pfeiffer Publishing : San Fransisco.
Pritchard, C. (2015). Risk Management : Concept and Guidance. CRC Press Taylor andFrancis Group : New York.
Pujawan, N. Geraldine, L. (2009). House of risk: A Model for Proactive Supply Chain Risk
Management. Business Process Management Journal Vol. 15 No. 6, pp. 953-967
Reed, J. Leavengood, S. (2002). Pareto Analysis and Check Sheet”, Perfomance Excellencein Wood Products Industry Statistical Process Control. EM 8771
Segismundo, A. Paulo, M. (2008),"Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) in thecontext of risk management in new product development",International Journal of
Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 25 Iss 9 pp. 899 - 912
Syvantek, J. Gard, J. Goodman, J. Benz, J. (1999). The Relationship Between
Organizational Characteristic and Team Building Success. Journal of Business andPsychology Vol. 4 (265-283)

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
DESIGNING USER INTERFACE OF MOBILE APPLICATION FOR MONITORINGCHILDREN’S HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT FROM USER AND PEDIATRICIANPERSPECTIVES
Amalia Suzianti, Shabila Anjani, Hatara Trirama, Tesar Dayansyah and Alviana Alicia Syafinal
Laboratorium Product Development and Innovation, Departemen Teknik Industri, Fakultas
Teknik,Universitas Indonesia
Depok 16424, Indonesia
Abstract
The quality issues of infant’s health in Indonesia are reflected in the number of infant’s death that are stillquite high compared to other countries in ASEAN. In order to solve this problem, creating a powerful
information systems is an important component in improving the quality of health services. A strong andtrusted information system can be built by making a mobile app which could be a source of healthinformation and connecting parents with the pediatrician. Methods that are used in this research are
analysis of persona, card sorting, conjoint analysis, and system usability scale. The research begins byidentifying problems as well as the features and sub-features, obtained through questionnaires andinterviews. Based on the questionnaire results, each persona will be identified by looking at the behavior
and features needed by the pediatrician on the mobile app. Open-ended question was conducted to ensure
the needs of the features and the results were used as the reference in generating the informationarchitecture and application flow diagrams. Next step, conjoint analysis method is used to find the mobile
app’s main page design that suits the pediatrician. Last, usability testing using Retrospective Think Aloudmethod. The output of this research is a mobile app that is capable of improving health care services byconnecting the parents to the pediatrician and help to ease the pediatrician work.
Keywords: Healthcare Mobile Application, Persona, Conjoint Analysis, Retrospective Think Aloud,System Usability Scale
1. Introduction
Indonesia's next generation, especially infants under three years old, still faces many problems on thehealth aspects. This is reflected on the number of deaths in Indonesia’s infants, which is still relatively
high. Based on the CIA The World Fact Book (2014), there are at least 25 infants die out of every 1000
infants in Indonesia. Obviously, this does not reflect the quality of the health of the future generation.
Moreover, if we compare the number of infant’s death in Indonesia with large numbers of infant’s death inSingapore or Thailand, the number of infants’ death in Singapore and Thailand is only 3 and 10 deaths outof 1000 infants respectively. Among other countries in ASEAN, Indonesia is still on the bottom of the list
along with Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar and Timor Leste. Therefore, it is highly important for Indonesia toimprove the quality of children’s health. In 2012, The United Nations Children's Fund, or commonly
known as UNICEF, published a study summary Maternal and Child Health Indonesia (2012), whichcontains five recommendations to improve the quality of maternal and child health in UNICEF:
1. The development and implementation of standards and guidelines for health services by the Central
Government.
2. Private health services should also be included in the Government's health policies andframeworks.
3. Increase the number of health facilities that provide services PONEK (Services Comprehensive
Emergency Obstetric Neonatal)
4. Increasing resources in developing and motivating health workers.
5. Creating a powerful information systems as one important component in improving the quality ofhealth services.

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From the industrial engineering’s perspective, this study will focus on the fifth point which is creating a
powerful information systems as one important component in improving the quality of health care.
Related to this, referring to eMarketer (2014), there is a very significant increase in the number ofsmartphone users in Indonesia. Indonesia is one of the countries that have the largest growth, under China,
India, and the United States. In addition, in 2018 Indonesia will have 103 million smartphone users andwill be the fourth-largest country with smartphone users. Adobe's Inspire Magazine (Klein, 2012) did a
comparative analysis of the mobile app and mobile web based on three aspects, namely:• Business Consideration• Development Consideration• Performance Consideration
Based on business considerations, the user tends to download the mobile app to do activities very closelywith their lives and routine. Users can have better user experience with mobile apps compared to thewebsite. However, the development of the mobile app require larger funds compared to the website. Basedon the consideration on the development, the mobile app has a more complicated process as well as thelimitations due to the differences of the operating system and the size of the gadget. Therefore, the timerequired for the development of mobile app tends to be longer if compared to the mobile web. Based on
consideration of the performance, the mobile web has a step of update and maintenance more simple anddirect. mobile web is also easier to find using a search engine. Therefore, it is advisable to provide a linkon the official website mobile app so that the mobile app can be found easier by the user. Despite of someweaknesses, mobile app can be used offline and thus, this study focuses on the development of mobile
application for monitoring children’s health and development.
2. Literature Study
There are 2 interfaces applied in this paper, 1 for pediatrician and the other for the user. It comes fromdifferent experiments, which is why there are different methods and flow process chart.
2.1 Persona Identification
When a mobile app developers want to design an application and want to identify what are the functions
that can be done with a mobile app, then he had to learn like What is a user, how users think, and how they
make decisions. This is necessary so that the mobile app is able to function properly in accordance withuser needs. This phase is known for the manufacture of the user's persona. Cooper (1999) explains that thepersona is a fictional character created to describe the types of users in the target demographic would use asite or product. Persona is the characteristics of which are assumed to be the basic behavior and needs ofusers that can be used as consideration when the developer will develop scenarios for conceptualizing asite (Wong et al., 2012). Persona is used to study the behavior, mindset, lifestyle, ambitions, motivations,aspirations, product usage, age, education, and much more. Persona serves to study the behavior, mindset,
needs, lifestyle, ambitions, motivation, aspirations, product use, age, education, and much more. In the useof smartphones, the person's behavior can be examined from their motivation in using existing media on
Smartphones. According to the Seyring, Dornberger (2009) there are 4 aspects which can motivate
someone to use media:• Surveillance i.e. for information retrieval.
• Personal Identity i.e. the search for reference and strengthening identity.
• Personal Relationship that is to communicate.
• Diversion to escape from the routine and problem.
2.2 Generating Information Architecture and Application Flow Diagram Using Card Sorting Method
In designing a mobile app, the navigation structure and organization is a factor that affects the convenienceof mobile app to be able to understand how it is used by the user. Therefore, it is important to have a good
information architecture, and it can be achieved through structural design of mobile app based methods
that can understand the mindset of the user. Card sorting is a research method that uses input from users in
helping to generate the navigation structure and effective organization. The advantage of this method isthat this method can be used directly to mobile app users, which would make the output from this method
better reflects the mindset and personality of the user.
2.3 Determining Mobile App’s Home Page Design Using Conjoint Analysis Method
Homepage is the main page of an application on the home page where there is the whole main functionof the mobile app. The design of a mobile app home page can affect the level of comfort in using theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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mobile app. Elements - elements that need to be considered in designing the home page is agroundbreaking feature, the use of font type, coloring, type of icon used and graphics. However, todetermine the type of home page design preferred by the user needs is passed to a study by the conjoint
analysis method that is in addition to convenient mobile app can also be used to satisfy the user. Surjandari(2010) explains that the Conjoint Analysis is a multivariate analysis method is used to analyze how
respondents build a preference for a product (both goods and services) under the terms of the attributes thatmake up the nature of the product. The main output of this method is a set scale interval "path-works"(utility) of each level for each attribute, which from the merger of these utilities will be obtained prediction
preferences of each level for each attribute of the product.
2.4 Usability Testing Using System Usability Scale
In making a product or system required a usability test on a prototype before the product was launched into
the market. It aims to find out how easy the product is used and whether the product is quite easy to use.
However, if the results of usability testing did not reach the prescribed limit, then the usability test results
will be used as a benchmark in redesigning the product. One method that is often used to measure theusability of a product or system is the System Usability Scale. This method was created by Brooke (1996)
as one measure of the subjective perception of a product or system users. Question on SUS was developed
to measure the usability of three criteria previously defined by ISO 9241-11 consisting of:• The ability of users to finish tasks using the system and the quality of the results of these tasks.
• How many resources are used in a task.
• subjective reactions to the use of a system user.
3. Research Method

Figure 1. Flow Chart From The Pediatrician

Figure 2. Flow Chart From The User
3.1 Persona Data Classification
The behavior of the parents in taking decisions related to the child's health problem is influenced byseveral factors: the work of parents, parental education and how big the family of the (Case, 2002).
Therefore, the type of persona divided by 3 (three) factors and obtained nine kinds of combinations
persona. The first persona (employees, bachelor&diploma degree, the first child) has 78,8% averageneeds, the second persona (employees, bachelor&diploma degree, not the first child) has 53% averageneeds the third persona (employees, magister &doctor degree, the first child) has 93% average needs, thefourth persona (entrepreneur, bachelor&diploma degree, the first child) has 84% average needs, the fifth
persona (entrepreneur, magister &doctors degree, not the first child) has 80% of average needs, the sixth
persona (students, the first child) has 82% of average needs, the seventh persona ( students, bachelor &diploma degree, the first child) 56% of average needs, the eighth persona (students,bachelor &diploma
degree, not the first child) has 65% of average needs and last,the ninth persona(students, magister &doctors
degree, the first child) has 60% of average needs. Based on the results of each persona, it was found that all
the features have exceeded the average requirement of 50%, which indicates that all of the features

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required by the respondent.
3.2 Data collection Preferences Pediatrician Responden
Of the respondents who participated in this research totalled 26 Pediatrician at Cipto Mangunkusumo
Hospital (RSCM). The existing division in the RSCM consists of 14 divisions which include:
Table 1. Profile of Pediatrician Respondents
14 Divisions of RSCM
1
Gastro-Hepatologist
2
ICU/PGD
3
Nutrition & Metabolic
4
Neurologist
5
Alergic Imunologist
6
Nefrologist
7
TK(Ped-Sos)
8
Ped Tropik Infection
9
Hemato-Onkologist
10
Imaging
11
Respirologist
12
Endokrinologist
13
Cardiologist
14
Perinatologist
The result of the data features and subfeatures mobile app are obtained using the tools the questionnaires
and interviews from 26 respondents divided into the 14 divisions.
3.3 Data Collection of Design Mobile App Preferences Pediatrician
In this study, researcher undertook to take the data designer homepage preferences mobile app from
Pediatrician to help researcher in obtaining the best homepage mobile app design based on calculation
method of conjoint analysis. This data was taken based on the preference of the Pediatrician that consistsof 3 attributes with each attribute consist of 2 levels.
Table 2. Attributes of Application Design Pediatrician Interface
Attribute
Level
Grid
Menu
List
3D
Icon
Flat
One
Many
Color
ColorsAttributes and this level of benchmarking with similar mobile app are:
1. Buku Saku Dokter
2. Epocrates
For the features and subfeatures of chatting, researcher conducting benchmarking with the mobile app
Whatsapp. Then, researcher conducting studies of literature in terms of drafting features, background,colors and fonts in designing mobile app which consists of:Table 3. Attributes of Application Design User Interface
Background
White
OrangeColor
YellowRed
TahomaProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

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Font
Plant
LayoutVerdana
Alphabet

3.4 Data Retrospective Think Aloud (RTA)
Retrospective think aloud data is done to find out the location of the existing problems of the usability of
an interface that is seen from the point of view of the Pediatrician. The number of Pediatrician who will be
the users or respondents i.e. totaling 9 people in accordance with the persona that has been obtained. Withmeasurement techniques retrospective think aloud usability for the user interface on the display of themobile app, the stage is done is as follows:
1. Before interviewing users, researcher must first perform a playback back video data when the user
are performing their work. The user then briefed to be able to tell the clear details of what users
think when performing the duties provided.
2. If the first phase is completed, the user is then given questions about the criticisms and suggestions
about the display of the mobile app.
Here is a task given to the qualitative assessment of knowing the preferences of the Pediatrician thatconsists of:
1. Open Subfeatures blood.
2. Open the Subfeatures kidney and urinary tract
3. Open the Subfeatures Immunization Schedule IDAI
3.5 Data Processing Persona Pediatrician
Based on the features and subfeatures that have been obtained, the processing is done on the basis of theactivity and needs of the Pediatrician to get persona from the Pediatrician. 9 persona are obtained from thePediatrician. The first one is from division TK (PEDSOS) the activities are browsing children’s healtheducation and chatting and his needs are diagnoses and therapy, nutrition, growth,development,immunization and parents chat. The second one is from division neurologist with activites
such as browsing children’s health education and chatting and her needs are diagnoses and therapy,
nutrition, growth, development, immunization, parents chat, and doctors chat. The third one is fromdivision Gastro-hepatologist the activities are browsing children’s health education and her needs are
diagnoses and therapy, nutrition, growth, development and immunization. Then another from division
Alergic Imunologist, with activities such as browsing children’s health education, email, and chatting andneeds diagnoses and therapy, nutrition, growth, development, immunization and doctors chat. The fifth one
is from division nutrition metabolic with activities such as browsing children’s heath education, email andchatting her needs are diagnoses and therapy, nutrition, growth, development, immunization and parents
chat. The sixth one his activity is browsing children’s health education and needs such as diagnoses andtherapy, nutrition, growth, development, immunization, parents chat and doctors chat. The next one fromdivision cardiologist. The activities are browsing children’s health education, email and needs parents anddoctors chat. Next is from division ICU/PGD the activities are browsing children’s health education, email
and chatting. Her needs are nutrition, growth, development, immunization and parents chat. Last, fromdivision respirologist, her activities are browsing children’s heath education, email, chatting and activities
such as diagnoses and therapy, nutrition, growth, development, immunization, parents chat and doctorschat.
3.6 Make the Information Architecture
Preparation of information architecture based on the results of an open-ended question and decisionresearchers subjectively which are then arranged in the form of a flow which contains information orfunctionality of the mobile app. Arranged in the form of flow in order to be easy to understand function orwhat features on the mobile app.
3.7 Information Architecture and App Flow Diagram
Information Architecture and Flow Diagram App created based on the results of the calculation andprocessing of card sorting has been done. Here is the IA and Flow Diagram App.

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Figure 3. Information Architecture Diagram Pediatrician Interface

Figure 4. Application Flow Diagram User Interface
3.8 Create the Application Flow diagrams
Preparation of the application flow diagrams based on results from information architecture which arethen arranged in the form of a flow which contains process flow when someone is accessing it from thestart of opening the applications (sign up or login) to close the application (logout).
3.9 Make a Mobile App Wireframe
In the creation process, researcher can directly create the wireframe design mobile app of their own
based on the literature and then compare with the mobile app wireframe model of the mobile app with thesame or similar functions that already exist in the market. In this study, researcher combine both ways.
First, the researcher compare the two mobile app design mockup that already exist in the market in termsof information and one mobile app design mockup that already exist in the market in terms of interaction(chat)
3.10 Usability Testing using Retrospective Think AloudIn this section, the analysis of the data processing of engineering Retrospective Think Aloud (RTA) will
be discussed. The purpose of the use of this technique is to find the cause of the problem in terms of theusability user experience when interacting with the display of the first mobile app to help respondents.
researcher get the design preference data of the mobile app by Pediatrician which measured using a likert
scale of 1-5. The next step is to calculate the level of attributes which have the most high value so that it
creates a combination that is best. On this research obtained result of the conjoint analysis as follows: To
help respondents assess the usability of the problems, there will be video footage screened when the
respondent perform the tasks. The result of this data is in the form on points of perceived problems wheninteracting with mobile app. Analysis of this data will be discussed based on the results of task 1, 2, and 3.
Analysis of each task as follows:• ·Task 1
The first task given is to open subfeature blood. The most problem that is obtained is respondents are
confused as there is no further designation on each subfeature. That subfeature just describe one blood
disease, even though there are various blood diseases which should be drawn up more detailed orcompleted. The next issue is the data on the subfeature. On the subfeature data file or blood disease but

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there is no explanation about categories of disease blood. The next problem was the subfeature the bloodstill confusing because the naming of features and subfeatures are not clear. Should be explained inadvance features and functions on mobile app subfeatures. For other problems, the respondents feel
confused when looking at such a mobile app design because the dividing line between the subfeatures is
too small and the size of the font in every feature is still too small.
• · Task 2
The second task is to open the kidney and the urinary tract subfeature. The most problem that is obtainedis that there is no further designation on each subfeature. On the subfeature only described one kidney andurinary tract diseases, whereas there are an assortment of kidney and urinary tract diseases that should havedrawn up more detailed or completes. The next issue is the data on the subfeature. On the subfeature data
file or kidney disease and urinary tract but there is no explanation about categories of kidney disease andurinary tract. The next problem was the subfeature of the kidney and urinary tract that are still confusing
because the naming of features and subfeatures are not clear. Should be explained in advance theusefulness of features and subfeatures on mobile app. For other problems, the respondents feel confused
when looking at such a mobile app design because the dividing line between the subfeatures is too small
and the size of the font in every feature is still too small.
• · Task 3
The third task is to open Immunization Schedule IDAI subfeature. Most of this subfeature do notexperience problems due to the subfeature is on immunization and easy to note. The existing data on thesubfeature do not the assortment because it may explain its use. For other issues, respondents feel confused
when looking at such a mobile app design because the dividing line between the subfeature is too small
and the size of the font in every feature is still too small.
3.11 Conjoint Analysis
Conjoint analysis process begins by determining each attribute and level and then compiled into
combinations as shown in Table 3. The next step is to take user preference data using a questionnaire witha scale of 1-5 for each combination of design. Once all the data obtained, the authors conducted areliability test on the data which will then be processed by the method of conjoint analysis using SPSS 23.
Based on the results of reliability test, the value of Cronbach's alpha of the data obtained is above theminimum value (0.70). amounting to 0.79. This indicates that the data obtained by the authors is reliable.
Having in mind that the data used is reliable, the authors proceed to the stage of data processing calculation
using conjoint analysis software SPSS 23. Based on the calculation shown in Figure 3.5 on the chartutilities, it can be seen that the grid has a value of 0.256 and the list has a value of - 0.256.Referring to thevalue of Pearson's R it can be seen that Pearson's R value of these calculations is above the value of 0.5,
which is worth 0959. Based on these values, it can be said that the results of calculations performed
conjoint analysis is valid. layout, white as the color of the font and icon, and Tahoma as font that will be
used on the mobile app.
3.12 System Usability Scale
To see the level of usability of each score, then there should be a scale that can be stated that a system isclassified as having a low or high usability. SUS-scale research on this has been done by Bangor, Kortum,
Miller in 2009. A product or system fit into a category based on the scale adjective usability. Based on theabove assessment scale, the SUS score calculation results can be grouped into six (6) groups: "Worst
Imaginable", "Poor", "OK", "Good", "Excellent", and "Best Imaginable". Results grouping scores andgraphs distribution SUS results can be seen in Table 4 and Figure 3. The level of reusability mobile app
can be assessed based on the calculation SUS, where it appears that there are only three (3) assessment ofrespondents who considered that this prototype "Not Acceptable", while six (6) the results ofassessments of other states that this prototype "Acceptable "and quite unfit for use by the public.

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SUS Score Distribution
Good

worst

0

1

2

3

Persona

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

3
2
4
4
2
2
5
2
5

4
4
2
5
5
1
3
3
4
2
3
4
1
3
2
3
3
1
2
5
1
4
2
4
1
5
1
Average SUS Score

4

Figure 5. SUS Score Distribution
Table 4. SUS Score Calculation

5

Q5

Q6

Q7

Q8

Q9

Q10

3
2
3
5
4
3
5
2
5

3
3
3
3
4
4
1
1
2

4
4
4
4
2
2
3
3
2

2
1
3
4
1
3
3
1
3

4
5
2
4
4
4
3
2
5

2
1
4
2
2
4
4
3
2

SUS
Score
62.5
67.5
47.5
62.5
62.5
47.5
75
45
82.5
61.4

4. Results
Based on the collection and processing of data above, researcher conducting the determination of design
home mobile app by using the method of conjoint analysis. The results obtained are a combination of Grid
+ Flat + many colors.

Figure 6. The Results of The Combination Of
Conjoint Analysis From The
Pediatrician Perspective••

Figure 7. The Result of The from The
Combination Of Conjoint Analysis from The User

5. Conclusion
Features and content of a mobile app must be made specifically according to user needs a mobile
app so that it can work optimally and can be utilized by the user right to the purpose of the
manufacture of the mobile app. Therefore, by analyzing the persona can be seen that the user
requires 5 features relating to the health, growth, development, immunization and consultation on
the mobile app later.
Navigation and organizational structure of a mobile app will greatly affect the ease of the user inunderstanding the mobile app. Therefore, the navigation structure and organization of a mobile app
must be made in accordance with the mindset and how users make decisions, one of them with a

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1111

card sorting method. In accordance with the calculation results obtained 5 card sorting initialfeature group split into 6 groups, namely emergency feature, my baby's nutrition, my baby's
physical growth, my baby's skills, immunization time, and need a doctor.
• To be able to produce a mobile app home page design in accordance with user preferences, conjoint
analysis calculation required in order to obtainment of the best design of the home page. Results ofcalculation of conjoint analysis is obtained that the user prefers the grid as a type of layout, fontcolor and white as Tahoma as font type used in the design of the home page.
• To find out how easy and convenient to use a mobile app prototype, usability test is required bymethods such as system usability scale for assessing the subjective perception of the user as well as
how easy and comfortable are the mobile app to use.
• The test results of reusability using the system usability scale was 6 of 9 respondents' assessment of
the prototype is categorized as a prototype of "Acceptable". This indicates that this prototype
mobile app is quite feasible for use by the general public
some conclusions and suggestions are obtained, among others:• Obtain a mobile app which functions in facilitating work activities Specialist Child and improvehealth services to the parents of the patient.
• In addition to having to meet the needs of its users, a mobile app also should be able to makeconvenience for users in terms of speed of access.
• Features and subfeatures in a mobile app can be designed on the basis of the questionnaire in thedetermination of the needs of the Pediatrician.
• The results of the questionnaire in the determination of Pediatrician needs, will create persona
based on work activities and needs• On ensuring the needs of features and subfeatures, open-ended question technique was taken byinterviewing each persona.
• The order of the functions or features, subfeatures, process flow and navigation in a mobile app canbe designed in the form of application flow diagrams.
• To generate a corresponding mobile app design with preference Pediatrician conjoint analysis
methods, it is useful to get the mobile app design fit the desires of the Pediatrician.
• To know the mobile app beta prototype in accordance with the wishes of the child, it takes aSpecialist usability testing with Retrospective Think Aloud which is useful to know the problemsof usability of the mobile app.
6.References
Altuntac, P(2015). The Comparison of Concurrent and Retrospective Think Aloud Methods in
Unmoderated Remote Usability Testing 1-26
Banum, C.M (2011) Usability Testing Essential: Ready, Set.. Test! Morgan Kaufmann.
Brown D.(2010) Eight Principles of Information Architecture, 30-34
eMarketer (2014,Desember 11). Article : eMarketer, Maret 2015.
Galitz, W.O. (2007) The Essential Guide to User Interface Design 2nd Ed. Nwq York : John Wiley&Sons,
Inc
Holzinger, A Errath, M.(2007) Mobile Computer Web-Application Design In Medicine : Some Research
Baed Guidelines, 31-41
Jaspers, M.W (2009) A comparison of usability methods for testing interactive health technologies :Methodlogical aspects and empirical evidence.international journal of medical informatics 78,340-353
Kementrian Kesehatan RI (2015) Profil Kesehatan Indonesia
Klein D (2012) Inspire : Adobe www.adobe.com
Mayhew D.I (1992) Principles and guidelines in software and user interface design Englewood Cliffs :Prentice-Hall
Andreas Holzinger M.E (2007) Mobile Computer Web-application design in medicine : some researchbased guidelines.Graz
Anne Case C.P (2002) Parental Behavior and Child Health. New Jersey
Bangour J (1996) SUS : A Restropective : Journal of Usability Studies Vol 8 Issue 3 29-40.
Central Inteligence Agency (2014) CIA The World Fact Book
eMarketer (2014 Desember 11) Retrieved Oktober 10,2015 from www.emarketer.com

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Kementrian Kesehatan RI (2015) Profil Kesehatan Indonesia
Orne B (2002) Formulating Attributes and Levels in Conjoint Analysis. Washington.
Princeton University (2008). Guide to Creating Website Information Architecture and Content
Righi, C (2013) Card Sort Analysis : Konsep dan Aplikasi,Universitas Trisakti.
UNICEF (2012) Ringkasan Kesehatan Ibu dan Anak Jakarta

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SERVICE INNOVATION DESIGN FOR PLATINUM MEMBERS IN GARUDA
INDONESIA SALES AND SERVICES OFFICE
Amalia Suzianti, Nadira Winaputri, and Serdi Akbar Maulana
Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Indonesia
Kampus Baru UI Depok 16424
Email : suzianti@eng.ui.ac.id ; nadira_ti2011@yahoo.com ; serdiakma@gmail.com

Abstract
Garuda Indonesia as one of the best airlines in Indonesia offers a wide range of services, one of whichis sales office service. Based on previous surveys indicates that the customer satisfaction rating for sales officeservice is relatively low compared to the other services. It is due to the service design for sales office service
does not yet include the voice of customer comprehensively. Therefore, this study uses the Kano Model andCustomer Journey Mapping to determine services attributes which in line with customers (Platinum Members)
preferences. The Kano Model shows that there are several service attributes on Garuda Indonesia sales officeincluded in “attractive” and “one dimensional” category. Customer Journey Mapping indicates that there are two
disfavored activities, which is when waiting queue and waiting for service process. Therefore, this study
followed by conducting the Focus Group Discussion to determine the problem’s causes as well asrecommendations for improving current services. This study further followed by determining the priority
recommendations using importance-performance analysis. The result shows that there are four recommendations
need to be priorities, which are increasing the number of frontliners during peak hours, providing charging
station, providing self city check-in machine and providing supporting facilities in the Platinum Lounge.
Keywords : Customer Journey Map; Garuda Indonesia; Importance-performance Analysis; Kano Model;
Platinum Members; Sales Office1.

Introduction

members have a major contribution to

The Indonesian airline industry willcompany’s revenue. Previous research also

tight

with

identified seven segments of members

increasing the number of new airlines. In

which are sorted based on their values toorder to compete and maintain a goodthe company. The segmentation shows therelationship

Garudadifference between the average flightIndonesia has a Customer Loyalty Program

frequency, contribution per member to thewhich called GarudaMiles Program.

company's revenue and the value of RFM

facecompetition

with

along

customers,

GarudaMiles Program memberships(Recency, Frequency and Monetary) of

consist of several levels, from the highest

each segment during a certain period oflevel is Platinum, and then followed bytime (Kristiani et al, 2013). According toGold, Silver and Blue. These membershiptable 1 and figure , it can be concluded thatlevels indicate the level of members’

Top Members segment, which is consists

loyalty and activity.

of Platinum Members, have the highest

However, thesemembership levels also show that not all

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RFM value and generate the most to

voice of customer comprehensively. This

company’s revenue.

resulted in the customers’ preferences andTable 1. Frequent Flyer Membership
Segmentation
Segmentation

RFM Value Membership Level Frequency

Top Members
Next Best Members
Active Members
Average Members
Base Members
Infrequent Members
Inactive members

48.3
45.3
32.1
21.3
12.7
7.3
2.32

Platinum
Platinum, GoldGold
Gold, Silver
SilverSilver, Blue
Blue

43
56
43
29
17
8
2

Rev/Member(IDR Mio)353.71
192.59
98.99
52.52
25.77
10.08
1.51

needs at Garuda Indonesia Sales Officeclearly

uncharted.

Therefore,

GarudaIndonesia needs a service design which inlinewith customers’ preferences andneeds, in order to provide more satisfactionlevels for the customers.
2.

Literature Review

2.1

Kano Model
Kano Model introduced by Professor

Noriaki Kano in Tokyo Rika University
with the aim to categorize the attributes of
Figure 1. Comparison between RFM Value andRevenue per Member

In order to maintain the mostvaluablecustomers’

loyalty,

GarudaIndonesia offers service priorities to the
Platinum Members. However, as the five
starts airline, these service priorities focus
only on flight services. Hence, otherservice areas also worth nothing theservice’s quality, especially Pre-Journeyphase. There are 4 touch points in PreJourney phase, including Website, Call
Center, Social Media and Sales Office.
However,surveysindicates

based

on

previous

that

the

customersatisfaction rating for sales office service isrelatively low compared to the otherservices. It is due to the service design foraproductorservice.

The

attribute

categorization based on how well the
product or service can satisfy the needs ofcustomers. Kano Model is divided into
three categories that affect customer
satisfaction (Tan dan Pawitra, 2001):
1. Must be or basic requirements
If these requirements are not fulfilled,thecustomerwillbeextremely

dissatisfied. On the other hand, as thecustomer takes these requirements for
granted, their fulfillment will notincrease his satisfaction.
2. Onedimensional

or

performancerequirements
With regard to these requirements,
customer satisfaction is proportional to
the level of fulfillment - the higher thesales office service does not yet include theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

1115

level of fulfillment, the higher theDetermination of customers’ needs

customer’s satisfaction and vice versa.

by Kano’s category can be classified in the

3. Attractive or excitement requirements

form of Kano’s questionnaire (Kano et al.,Attractive requirements are neither

1984). The questionnaire contained a pair

explicitly expressed nor expected byof questions for each of the attributes of

the

these

products or services, which are therequirements leads to more thanfunctional and dysfunctional question. For

proportional satisfaction. If they areeach product feature a pair of questions is

not met, however, there is no feelingformulated to which the customer canof dissatisfaction.

answer in one of five different ways. By

customer.

Fulfilling

Besides those categories, there are two

combining

the

two

answersintheother categories that can be identified :following evaluation table, the product4. Indifferent requirements

features can be classified into: A =This category refers to things that are

Attractive, M = Must-be, O = One-not good or bad. Performance of thedimensional, I = Indifferent, R = Reverse,

attributes of a product or service thatdan Q = Questinable in accordance withdoes not produce satisfaction or

Table 2.

customer dissatisfaction.

Table 2. Kano Evaluation Table

5. Reversal requirements
In this category, the customer was notsatisfied when the performance of an
attribute of products

or services

increases.

CustomerRequirements
1
2
3
Functional
45

Description

1
Q
R
R
R
R

2
A
I
I
I
R

1 – I like it that way

between2 – It must be that way

satisfaction

and

4
A
I
I
I
R

5
O
M
M
M
Q

:

Figure 2 below shows the relationshipcustomer

Disfunctional
3
A
I
I
I
R

performance attributes of a product or

3 – I am neutral

service.

4 – I can live with it that way
5 – I dislike it that way
2.2

Customer Journey Map
Customer Journey Map is a visual

picture of the customer’s experience with acompany. It describes that experience from
Figure 2. Kano Model

1116

customer’s perspective, describing theProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

activities the customer would undertake, in

improving the quality of products orwords

services.

the customer

might

use.

By

identifying the key moments of truth –Take Action and Measure Success

those steps that are most important to

The next step is to implement thecustomer-corrective actions at a certain time.

Customer Journey Maps provide a resource

Once applied, then corrective actions

allocation guide. They identify the places

should be evaluated.

satisfaction

andrenewal

where investments in higher levels ofservice are more likely to attract or retain
customers. The steps that need to beconsidered when designing a Customer
Journey Map is as follows

they are and choose what customer
groups that are going to be mapped.
Walk in the customer’s shoes
To meet the needs of customers, thecompany needs to find out everything
about the customers, tracking anddescribing customer experiences, what
happens to them and how they feel.
Importance-Performance Analysis
The

aim

of

Importance-

Performance Analysis (IPA) is to measuretherelationshipbetweencustomer

perception with priority to improve theSet-up The Mapping Context.
The first thing to do is to know who



2.3

Draw The Map
After all the information collected, thecompany needs a tool that describes

quality of products or services (Brandt,
2000). IPA method main function is todisplay information relating to the factors
on the products or services based on thelevel of importance and the level of
performance

and

shown

in

a

two-

dimensional graph to facilitate explanationof the data as well as get priority proposed
improvements to be made. IPA chartconsists of four quadrants based on theimportance-performance measurement asshown in Figure 3.

the overall information so that it canbe concluded as well as identifying thecorrective actions.


Analyze

The

Map

and

Identify

Corrective Actions
The next step is to analyze the things
that need to be improved, as well as

Figure 3. Importance Performance Analysis
Quadrants

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

1117

The following is an explanation of eachof this study is around 1773 visitors. Thisquadrants (Brandt, 2000).

study used sampling method with 10%

1. Concentrate Here (High Importancepercentage of allowance, so total samples

and Low Performance)needed are 94,66 respondents. Thus theThis sends a direct message that

number of samples required in this study

improvement

can be fulfilled with 100 respondents

efforts

shouldbe

3.2

concentrated here
2. Keep Up The Good Work (HighActivities
Table 3 shows the service attributes

Importance and High Performance)
haveof Garuda Indonesia sales office, which

exhibited high levels of performancegrouped by SERVQUAL (Service Quality)

in these areas.

dimensions. There are five SERVQUAL

Low Priority (Low Importance anddimensions (Parasuraman et al., 1988)

Low Performance)

including

Customers do not think the product orrensponsiveness, assurance, and emphaty.

The organization seems

3.

Service Attributes and Customer’s

servicequalitytocharacteristic

is4.

Platinum Lounge
Convenience of Platinum Lounge

TangibleEntertaiment
Beverages

Possibly Overkill (Low Importance

Frontliner’s Appearence

Reliabilityand High Performance)servicequalityimportant,but

Guidance from Security
Guidance from Frontliner
Service Time

Customers do not think the product orcharacteristic
theisResponsiveness

Waiting Time
Listen and Understand Customer Needs
Answer and Give Recomendation
Product Knowledge

Assurance

Kindness and Politeness
Professional Services

organization

Welcoming from Security
Welcoming from Frontliner

performs well.

Emphaty

Frontliner Introducing Themself
Farewell from Frontliner

3. Method
3.1

reliability,

Table 3. Service Attributes

important and the organization fails toperform too.

tangible,

Farewell from Security

Population and Sample
The target population of this study

is the Platinum Members of GarudaMiles
program who visit the Garuda Indonesia

Moreover, the customer’s activities
in Garuda Indonesia sales office can beseen in Table 4.
Table 4. Customer’s Activities

sales office in Senayan City. The numberof Platinum Member visitors is around 591
visitors per month. This study was
conducted for 3 months, so the population

1118

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

3.3

Table 5. Kano Category for Each Service
Attribute

ActivityEntering Sales & Service OfficeDeclaring as Platinum Member
Entering Platinum Lounge
WaitingHeading to Counter
Sitting in Counter’s Seat
Giving Personal Information
Explaining The Purpose
Waiting The Process
Approving The Results
Finishing
Leaving Platinum Lounge
Leaving Sales & Service OfficeA
Platinum Lounge
30
Convenience of Platinum Lounge 18
Entertaiment29
Beverages
38
Frontliner’s Appearence
16
Guidance from Security
33
Guidance from Frontliner
22
Service Time25
Waiting Time27
Listen and Understand Customer
Needs
Answer and Give Recomendation

Questionnaire Design

Product Knowledge

The questionnaire in this study isProfessional Services

Kindness and Politenessdivided into four major sections, including

Welcoming from Security

the description of the respondent, the Kano

Frontliner Introducing Themself

question which consists of 19 service
attributes and consists of functional anddysfunctional questions, suggestion formand customer journey mapping where
respondents were asked to describe theiremotions or feelings on each activity
undertaken during in the Garuda Indonesia
sales office.

Welcoming from Frontliner
Farewell from Frontliner
Farewell from Security

4.2

O
56
50
38
39
36
7
29
46
32

M
14
30
16
8
43
7
33
17
31

I
0
2
17
15
5
53
16
12
10

R Category
0
O
0
O
0
O
0
O
0
M
0
I
0
M
0
O
0
O

2

43

51

4

0

M

8
18
10
15
33
45
35
50
46

39
26
41
27
7
25
15
11
7

47
50
45
50
7
7
12
2
4

6
6
4
8
53
23
38
37
43

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

M
M
M
M
I
A
A
A
A

Customer Journey Mapping Results
Customers were asked to to express

their emotions while undergoing theactivities

inaccordancewithpredetermined parameters. There are threeparameters, first is "smile" which shows
happy, relaxed and excited feeling. Second
is “neutral” and the last is “frown” which

4.

Results

4.1

Kano Model Resultsshows bored, annoyed and anxious feeling.

According to the results, thoseservice attributes are dominated by “mustbe” and “one dimensional” category. This

Table 6 shows the customer’s emotion
while in Garuda Indonesia sales office.
Table 6. Customer’s Emotion

indicated that customers believe that theservice

attributes

shouldhave

been

contained in the service process at Garuda
Indonesia Sales Office.

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

1119

No
Activity
1 Entering Sales & Service Office
2 Declaring as Platinum Member
3 Entering Platinum Lounge
4 Waiting
5 Heading to Counter
6 Sitting in Counter’s Seat
7 Giving Personal Information
8 Explaining The Purpose
9 Waiting The Process
10 Approving The Results
11 Finishing
12 Leaving Platinum Lounge
13 Leaving Sales & Service Office

Smile Neutral Frown Emotion
47
53
0 Neutral
62
38
0
Smile
82
18
0
Smile
20
35
45 Frown
58
42
0
Smile
63
37
0
Smile
41
59
0 Neutral
45
55
0 Neutral
15
41
44 Frown
61
39
0
Smile
73
27
0
Smile
48
52
0 Neutral
48
52
0 Neutral

According to Customer Journeyused to determine the coordinates of theimportance-performance analysis diagram.
Table 8. Average Value of Importance andPerformance Level
Provide More Convenience While Waiting Queues

I

Provide Wifi ID and password for Platinum Lounge

4,29 3,49

P

Provide charging station facility for gadget charging

4,20 3,11

Provide an easy-operate coffe maker facility in Platinum Lounge

4,06 3,37

The allocation of additional human resources during peak hours

4,57 3,06

CSA regularly monitor the Platinum Lounge (every 10-15 minutes) 4,51 3,63
Improve Service Efficiency

I

Mapping results, there are two disfavored

Provide supporting facilities in Platinum Lounge

4,60 2,94

activities, which is when waiting queue

Provide self city check-in machine

4,54 2,63

Additional operating hours

2,51 3,14

and waiting for service process. Once thedata are collected, then proceed with the
preparation of Customer Journey Map toPStandard handling time for each customer purpose
3,23 3,31
Reservation and mobile staff to deliver First Class and Business
3,69 3,66
Class tickets
Average 4,02 3,23

evaluate the customer experience.
4.4

Importance Performance Analysis

5.

Discussion

Questionnaires

According to questionnaire results,

This study further followed byimportance-performance(IPA)

diagramThis

recommendations on Garuda Indonesia

questionnaire is addressed to the frontliners

sales office shown in Figure 5 with the

who manage the service operations at

description of the IPA diagram is shown in

Garuda Indonesia Sales Office Senayan

Table 9.

questionnaires

analysisthe importance-performance analysis (IPA)

deployment.

forserviceinnovation

City. The IPA questionnaire distributed to

4.5

Importance-Performance Analysis
Results

Importance Level

35 frontliners consist of several positions.

This study followed by calculating
the average value of the importance andperformance level of each recommendation
as shown in Table 8. Later the value is1120

Performance Level

Figure 5. Importance-Performance Analysis
Diagram

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

especially

Table 9. Descriptions of ImportancePerformance Analysis Diagramonweekend.

Currently,

Platinum Lounge has been equipped with

Code Provide More Convenience While Waiting Queues

various facilities, but there is no charging

A1 Provide Wifi ID and password for Platinum Lounge

station facility to recharge the gadget’s

A2 Provide charging station facility for gadget charging
A3 Provide an easy-operate coffe maker facility in Platinum Lounge

batteries.

A4 The allocation of additional human resources during peak hours

facility is important in order to provide

A5 CSA regularly monitor the Platinum Lounge (every 10-15 minutes)

more convenience for customers. Next

Improve Service Efficiency

process city check-in by themselves and no

B3 Additional operating hours
B4 Standard handling time for each customer purpose
Reservation and mobile staff to deliver First Class and Business
B5
Class tickets

performance

shown

the

actual

which

has

been

level

achieved so far based on the opinions offrontliners as the operational activities
executor. (Y) axis shown the importance
level

of

each

serviceinnovation

recommendation to be implemented basedon the opinions of frontliners. There aretenactivities

proposedastherecommendations to improve service at
Garuda Indonesia Sales Office. Five
activities to provide more convenience forcustomers while waiting queues and fiveactivities to improve service efficiency.
In the first quadrant, there are fourrecommendations which have a highimportance level and low performancelevel, so it needs to be the priority inimprovingexisting

stationcity check-in machine. The customers can

B2 Provide self city check-in machineaxis

charging

recommendation is the provision of self

B1 Provide supporting facilities in Platinum Lounge(X)

Therefore,

services.

First

recommendation is allocation of additional
human resources during peak hours,

need to queue to the counter. Moreover,
GarudaIndonesia

needs

to

providesupporting facilities in Platinum Lounge so
the frontliners do not need to go to backoffice and service processes can becompleted quickly and efficiently.
In the second quadrant, there arethree activities which have both highimportance and performance level, so these
activities is considered good enough inproviding services to customers. First
recommendation is provide Wifi ID andpassword in Platinum Lounge. It is
expected to provide more convenience forcustomers. Next recommendation is toprovide an easy-operate coffee maker in
Platinum Lounge. Next recommendation is
Customer Service Assistant as the floor
director during the operatting hours,
regularly monitor Platinum lounge (every
10-15 minutes) to ensure no customers
have to wait too long.
In third quadrant, there is one
recommendation which have both low

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

1121

importance and performance level. That

Platinum Lounge, waiting time and service

recommendation is additional operating

time.

hours. This is because at the moment thetoimportance-

customer is not able to buy tickets at theperformance analysis results, there are four

airport, so they require an alternative way

recommendations it needs to be the priority

to purchase the tickets.

inIn the last quadrant, there are two

improving existing services.

recommendations

toprovideTwo
more

activities which have a high performance

convenience for customers while waitinglevel and low importance level. The firstqueues and two recommendations torecommendation is standard handling time

improve service efficiency. Those service

for each customer purpose, such as ticket

innovation

reservation, ticket refund, redemption, etc.

allocation of additional human resources

Next recommendation is ticket reservation

during peak hours, providing charging

and mobile staff to deliver First Class andstation facility, providing self city check-in

Business Class tickets.

machine6.

recommendations,andprovidingincluding

supporting

facilities in Platinum Lounge.

Conclusion
According to the results, there are

7.

Future Research

two things to be concluded in accordanceThis study used qualitative methods

with the purpose of research. Service

in determining the level of customer

attributes

customersatisfaction and customer emotions, so

preferences are the service attributes thatfurther research is recommended to use

has "attractive" and "one dimensional"

quantitative methods. This study focuses

category because both categories have an

only on pre-stage journey, especially in theinfluence on customer satisfaction. Service

sales office, therefore, further research is

attributes which have “attractive” category

recommended to be focused on the otherare farewell from security, welcoming

stage of Garuda Indonesia services, such as

from frontliners, frontliners intoducing

pre-flight, post-flight and post-journey orthemself and farewell from frontliners.

at other touchpoints such as websites, call“one

centers or service at the airport. This study

Servicecorresponding

attributes

which

have

dimensional” category are the existence1122

Accordingwas specifically targeted for Platinum

and the convenience Platinum Lounge,

Members, therefore, further research canentertaimentfocus on other more general objects, so thefacilities,

beverages

inProceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

research results can be applied to a wider
service.
8.

References

Boger, Davis, et al. 1993. Kano’s Method
for Understanding Customer
defined Quality. Center for Qualityof management Journal. 2 (4).
Brandt, D.R. 2000. An “Outside-In”
Approiach to Determining Customer
Driven Priorities for Improvement
and Innovation. White Paper Series.
Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation. 2011.
Indonesia - a massive aviation
opportunity. Centre for Asia PacificAviation.
Garuda Indonesia. 2014. Annual Report –Connecting
Diversity.
GarudaIndonesia
Hagen, Mark van; Bron, Pauline. 2013.
Enhancing the experience of the
train journey: changing the focus
from satisfaction to emotional
experienceofcustomers.
Transportation Research Procedia 1
253 –263
Isaacson, Bruce. 2012. Using Customer
Journey Map To Improve Your
Customer Experience.
MMR Strategy Group.
Kano, N, et al. 1984, Attractive Quality
and Must-be Quality. Hinshitsu.
Vol.14, pp.39-48.
Kristiani, Enny; Sumawarman, Ujang.
2013. Customer Loyalty andProfitability: Empirical Evidence ofFrequent
Flyer
Program.
International Journal of Marketing
Studies; Vol. 5, No. 6.

Li, Mingzi. 2011. Applying Kano Theory
on Career Service in Library &Learning Resources of Universityof Boras. International Journal ofBusiness and Management. 6 (1).
Martinez, C.L. 2003. Evaluation Report:
Tools Cluster Networking Meeting.
Center Point Institute, Inc. Arizona.
Nenonen, Suvi; Rasila, Heidi. 2007.
Customer Journey – a method toinvestigate user experience
Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development. 2014. Airline
Competition – Note by Indonesia.
Directorate for Financial andEnterprise
Affairs
Competition
CommiteeParasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. andBerry, L.L. 1988. SERVQUAL: amultiple-item scale for measuringconsumer perceptions of service
quality. Journal of Retailing. Vol.
64, pp.12-37.
Sauerwein, Elmar, et al. 1996. The Kano
Model : How To Delight Your
Customers. International Working
Seminar on Production Economics,
pp. 313 -327.
Tan, K.C. and T.A. Pawitra. 2001.
Integrating Servqual and Kano’s
Model into QFD for Service
Excellence Development. Managing
Service Quality. 11(6), pp.418-430.
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Walden, D. 1993. Special issue on Kano’s
Methods for Understanding
Customer Defined Quality. The
Center for Quality of Management
Journal. 2 (4), pp.3-35.

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15th International Conference on Quality in Research (QiR 2017)
INTEGRATING IDEAS DIGITAL HUMAN MODELING IN ELECTRONIC INDUSTRYTO IMPROVE HUMAN-SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Tegar Septyan Hidayat aa

Universitas Indonesia, Depok

Abstract
In Indonesia, most of companies don’t consider Human factors as the important part in the workplace,so it affects occupational risk as well as performance of industrial workers especially in manufacturingsector. In this research, we explore the ergonomics aspect from electronics industry based in Indonesia
using Digital Human Modeling (DHM) approach. DHM is ergonomics concept which usually refers
to modelling physical aspect of human with main focus on anthropometry and physical strain. It is
used as the part of ergonomics improvement initiative to avoid worker injuries and improve humanperformance in order to be more productive. Based on the previous researches, we found that there isa need to propose a step by step framework in DHM in order to make the work redesign more
systematically. We propose IDEAS framework as a step by step approach for work redesign which
includes 5 steps (Identify, Design, Evaluate, Adapt, and Synergize) from situation identification until
it can be ready to be implemented. The analysis of working posture based on Rapid Upper Limb
Assessment (RULA), Low Back Analysis (LBA), and NIOSH Lifting Equation using Jack
Tecnometrix Siemens software to compare result of ergonomics postures and their interaction incurrent condition and simulated environment. After evaluating condition, we propose the solution
based on ergonomics consideration and making pilot testing in order to implement it successfully inthe real system. As the output of this research, we provide several alternative design which can reducethe musculoskeletal risk of operators as well as the service level in production line. Based on thisresearch, using IDEAS framework is suitable for redesigning occupational task based on digital humanmodelling approach, because it can provide structured approach from identifying the task, designing
virtual environment, evaluating ergonomics condition, adapting, and synergizing solutions.
Furthermore, IDEAS framework is feasible to be adopted in managing work redesign in many areas
for occupational ergonomics.
Keywords: IDEAS; Digital Human Modeling; Work Redesign; Electronic Company; Human Factors

1. INTRODUCTION
Ergonomics, as the science that concern about human factors in a system, can be applied on many
areas including in electronics industry. However, in industrially developing countries, especially inIndonesia, ergonomics improvement still limited and relatively new. Several ergonomics studies thatwere carried out in electronic industry focused on health hazards of chemical exposure andmusculoskeletal problems among fabrication and non-fabrication workers (Schenker MB et al.,1995;
Pocekay P,1995). Other ergonomics studies have been conducted in developing countries to improve

1124

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

occupation health and safety in electronics factory in Malaysia (Yeow,2004;Tan,1997 ), carpal tunnel
syndrome in Egyptian electronics (Abbas, 2001), and wrist pain study among workers in Singapore(Ho et al.,1997).
As the novelty in this research, we use digital human modeling as the focus of the ergonomics
improvement. We propose IDEAS framework as a step by step approach for work redesign using
digital human modeling approach. IDEAS framework includes 5 steps (Identify, Design, Evaluate,
Adapt, and Synergize) in order to make the work redesign more systematically from situation
identification until it ready to be implemented. The electronics industry which have a very diverse
range of production processes need ergonomics improvement as pathway to reduce ergonomics hazard
in their workplace. In electronics industry, workers used to work in awkward postures, lift awkward
load, repeat monotonous motion, and work at high pace and precision also, so it affects the ergonomics
requirement of the workers which have to adapt the risk especially in upper extremity movement. In
Digital human modeling can be used to analyze the work systematically and more cost-efficient thanmost of traditional approach. Until now, there is no study that has been conducted to integrate digital
human modeling in developing countries electronics industry.
Therefore, this research attempts to fill the gap in comprehensive study in ergonomics improvement
and give pilot study using digital human modeling framework. The study conducted in electronics
industry, specifically in semiconductor factory producing integrated circuits.
1.1 Objective
The objective of this research is to adopt digital human modeling approach in work systemredesign in semiconductor factory to make it systematically.
1.2 Advantage
The advantage of this research is to adopt IDEAS digital human modeling in semiconductor
factory. By increasing the comfort, risk on injury could be minimized. It will also have a positive
impact on health and performance of workers in order to improve service level of manufacturing sector
in Indonesia.
1.3 Previous Research
The publication of research on digital human modeling that related to electronics industry is still
limited. Most of the previous researches, mainly focused on musculoskeletal risk using traditional
approach (Yeow, 2004 ; Tan, 1997 ; Ho et al., 1997). Several studies that used digital human modelingapproach mostly not specified in electronics industry using fatigue index (T.Septyan., 2013) andposture evaluation index (T. Septyan & B. Nurtjahyo, 2013).
Based on the previous researches, we found that there is a need to propose a step by step
framework in digital human modeling to be applied in electronics industry specifically insemiconductor factory. Furthermore, we expect that this research can give contribution to industrial
workers and manufacturing sector in Indonesia.
2. METHODOLOGY
In this research, the main area is related to Digital Human Modelling (DHM). DHM isergonomics concept which usually refers to modelling physical aspect of human with main focus onanthropometry and physical strain. A step by step DHM framework is proposed named as IDEAS. It
contains 5 steps in the process, Identify, Design, Evaluate, Adapt, and Synergize.
In the identify phase, we focus on the defining scope, task process, and anthropometric data. For
data, it can be divided into several types: work design dimension and anthropometry data workers for

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

1125

designing the dimensions of an ergonomic workstation. We observe 29 male operators as the subject
for this research. After gathering initial data, we focus on creating virtual environment and virtualhuman using the input data from previous phase. We position virtual human model in virtualenvironment in accordance with the real situation and providing assignments or work on a virtualhuman according to the desired working movement. After making virtual simulation, we evaluate themodel using Task Analysis Toolkit using Jack Software. It is the software to model and simulate
human interaction with the environment and working tools when analyzing the ergonomics aspects ofthe model that has been created (Siemens, 2008;Wilson,1999). The analysis results will be used to see
conditions of ergonomics postures and their interaction. In this methodology, we use RULA, LBA,
and NIOSH Lifting Equation Index as ergonomics evaluation tools. After evaluating condition, we
propose the solution based on ergonomics consideration and making pilot testing in order toimplement it successfully in the real system.

Figure 1. IDEAS Framework in DHM
2.1 Identify
In the identify phase, Firstly, we identify the process task using micromotion study. After defining
the process task, we specify the anthropometry measurement of operators with total sample 29
operators. From measurement, we divide the data into 2 percentiles, they are 5th and 95th percentile as
can be seen in Table 1.

1126

Table 1. Percentile of Operators
95th
178.4

Percentile
Height (cm)

5th
149

Weight (kg)

44.3

78.4

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

2.2. Design Phase
In the design phase, we create virtual environment using 3D CAD model and virtual model insoftware Jack. We set the virtual human model in virtual environment in accordance with the realsituation and provide assignments on a virtual human according to the desired working movement.
Below the virtual environment based on 3D CAD and Virtual Human:

Figure 2. Body Dimension

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1127

Figure 3. Body Dimension

Figure 4. Virtual Human
2.3. Evaluate Phase
In this phase, we conduct evaluation based on Low Back Analysis (LBA), Rapid Upper Limb
Assessment (RULA), and NIOSH Lifting Equation using Task Analysis Toolkit in Jack to assess
ergonomics level of this task. For the first method, we use LBA, it is a method for evaluating theforces working in the human spine on certain load condition and posture. This analysis evaluates
the load received by the spine of mannequin models when performing a given task in real time.
Then pressure value is compared with the existing restrictions on the standard pressure NIOSH
3400 N. Using posture simulation, we found that the score is 3734 N which exceed standard of
NIOSH standard.
RULA (Rapid Upper Limb Assessment) is the method to assesss musculoskeletal posture risk
for the activity. Posture assessment by using RULA will produce a score that has range of numbers
from 1 to 7 which illustrates the risk posture of the musculoskeletal system of the worker.
Table 2. RULA Action Level
Action Level

1128

RULA Score

Description

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Action level 1

1 or 2

Action level 2

3 or 4

Action level 3

5 or 6

Action level 4

7

The posture that examined orobserved can be accepted if
it’s not done continously in along time.
The further investigation isneeded and also the changes
of working posture should be
done.
The investigation is needed
and also the changes of
posture should be done soon.
The investigation is needed
and also the changes of
posture urgently must bedone.

In this result from figure 5, we obtained the score 7 using current condition. Based on thisvalue, we found that RULA score need to be reduced because exceed the ergonomics standard. So,
we have to arrange the workstation in order to reduce ergonomics risk.

Figure 5. RULA Score

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1129

Figure 6. LBA Score
2.4. Adapt and Synergize Phase
In the adapt and synergize phase, we tried to rearrange the work station based on method
engineering and work design. We propose 2 solutions here:
For the first solution, we change posture mechanism such as in lifting, sitting, and standing position. We also eliminate ineffective motion to reduce the waste in the process and adjust workload using
NIOSH formula.
For the second solution, we change the specification of workstation with the adjustment regarding
anthropometry of operators. We also add the armrest and footrest in the chair regarding to improvecomfort of operators. We conducted testing for these solutions to compare the result before and after
simulation.

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Figure 7. Workstation Redesign
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Based on the simulation, we compare proposed design and actual design. After calculating RULA
for proposed design we obtained score 2. From this result, we can conclude that the proposed design
is better than actual design.
Table 3. LBA and RULA Score
NIOSH
Condition

LBA

RULA

Lifting
Index

Current

Proposed

3734

854

7

1.42

3

0.86

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Figure 8. Method Mechanism and Workstation

Figure 9. Model Outputs in NIOSH Lifting Equation
From the Figure 9 above, it can be seen that reconfiguration design can reduce ergonomics
risk. In the first indicator, LBA, the solution has successfully decreased low back risk from 3734N in
actual condition to 854N in proposed condition. In the second indicator, RULA, there is also decreasein the ergonomics risk from 7 to 3. In the last indicator, NIOSH Lifting index indicates that bigger thelifting index score, bigger the risk. The standard score for NIOSH is 1, which means that it needs
adjustment if exceeding that standard. Based on calculation, there is decrease about 39.4% from 1.42
to 0.86. In the last phase, we form the guideline about the proposed method and work design as an
initiative for sustaining solution in the synergize phase.

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4. CONCLUSION
Based on this research, using IDEAS framework is suitable for redesigning occupational task basedon digital human modelling approach, because it can provide structured approach from identifying thetask, designing virtual environment, evaluating ergonomics condition, adapting and synergizing
solution.
Furthermore, IDEAS framework is highly feasible to be adopted in managing work redesign inmany areas for occupational ergonomics for the manufacturing and service sector.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge Ergonomics Center Universitas Indonesia for support during the research.
6. REFERENCES
Abbas MF, Faris RH, Harber PI, Mishriky AM, El- Shahaly HA, Waheeb YH, Kraus JF., (2001),
Worksite and personal factors associated with carpal tunnel syndrome in an Egyptian
electronics assembly factory, Int J Occup Environ Health, vol 7.
Ho SF, Phoon., (1997), The significance of aches/pain among workers in an electronics factory,
Medical Journal Malaysia, vol 52.
Pocekay P, McCurdy SA, Samuels SJ, Hammond SK, Schenker MB., (1995), A cross-sectional
study of muscuskeletal factors in semiconductor workers, Journal of Ind Medical, vol.28.
Schenker MB, Gold EB, Beaumont JJ, Eskenazi B, Hammond SK., (1995), Association of
spontaneous abortin and other reproductive effects with work in the semiconductor industry,
Journal of Ind Medical, vol. 28.
Siemens PLM Software Inc., (2008), Jack task analysis toolkit (TAT) training manual, California:
AuthorTan GLE., (1997), Ergonomics in manufacturing industries in Malaysia. Education and Training,
Small Industries, Countries in Transition, Theories and Methodologies, Miscellaneous Topics
In: Proceedings of the Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association
T.Septyan., (2013), Virtual Human Modeling and Biomechanics Fatigue Index Assessment for Toll
Booth in Indonesia, Technology, Education, and Science International Conference (TESIC)
Proceeding
T. Septyan, B. Nurtjahyo., (2013), Virtual Human Modeling and Simulation for Toll Booth Design inIndonesia, Advanced Engineering Forum, vol. 10
Wilson, J.R., (1999), Virtual Environments and Applied Ergonomics, Applied Ergonomics 30
Yeow PHP, Sen RN.,(2004), Ergonomics improvements of the visual inspection process of a printed
circuit assembly factory, International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics(JOSE).

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THE PROPOSAL OF FOOTWEAR PRODUCT IMPROVEMENTS
BY USING THE METHODS OF SIX SIGMA AND QUALITYFUNCTION DEPLOYMENT IN PT. PRIMARINDO ASIAINFRASTRUCTURE TBKJulian Robecca
Universitas Komputer Bandung, Fakultas Teknik dan Ilmu Komputer,
Program Studi Teknik Industri
Jl. Dipati Ukur no.102-116, Bandung 40132, Indonesia
julian.robecca@email.unikom.ac.id
ivorobecca@gmail.com
ABSTRACTSix Sigma is a holistic approach to solve the problem and process improvement througha phase of DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control). DMAIC is theheart of Six Sigma analysis that ensures voice of the customer to run in the overall
process to produce products that satisfy customers. Quality Function Deployment(QFD) is a methodology in the process of designing and developing products orservices that are able to integrate the ‘voices of consumers' into the designing process.
Producing the products that are 100% good is not easy. This is experienced by PT
Primarindo Asia Infrastructure Tbk., as the casual shoes type production company in
Bandung area. Until 2016, there are still many defects which are generated. Althoughsigma level of Tomkins shoe production has reached level 4, the company must
continue to reduce the number of defects that occur in order to raise the sigma level.
The results showed that the defect types are most widely produced from four shoes
models; they are the defect types of slanted lasting. Although the sigma level which isresulted already exceeds level 4, it needs improvement so that the defects number isreduced. For junior shoe model variables, what must be corrected is the shoes
durability, tears on shoes, easily broken shoe eyelets, the power of adhesive glue on
shoes, and slippery footwear. The improvement on shoes durability is done at theassembly aspect. The selection of good glue raw materials and glue polishing on shoe
components should also be improved because it will influence the adhesive power. The
improvement on slippery footwear variable is the materials selection for good footwear
so the shoes does not become slippery, and the pattern on the outsole also influences
the shoe grip to the ground and it is not easily slip to the users. The Methods of Six
Sigma and QFD are expected to reduce the number of defects with the improvements
as proposed by each method.
Keywords: Defect, Six Sigma, Quality Function Deployment, House of Quality

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1. INTRODUCTION
Shoes are one of present society primary needs. The demand of shoes continues to risefrom time to time. PT. Primarindo Asia Infrastructure Tbk is a company that is engaged
in the manufacture of casual shoes type of whose its production number continues toincrease each year. The shoes which are manufactured based on two market areas are
the areas of international market and domestic market. For the production of
local/domestic market, Tomkins shoes brands have 4 shoes models; they are the shoes
models for child, junior, women and man. The company has had its own method in
producing shoes, but in the implementation, there remains to find defective productunits. Total production from 2013 continues to increase until 2016. However, defective
products are inevitable and there is still quite a lot defects number that occurs. The
defects types in the shoes production are very diverse including slanted lasting, slanted
velcro, wrinkles, upper defect, out sole, and etc. Based on the number of defective units
which is still high, it needs the improving action in order to minimize the defects
number annually. The use of proper methods in determining the improvement technique
is very helpful, including the method of Six Sigma and Quality Function Deployment(QFD).
By applying Six Sigma methods approach, it is expected to improve the stability ofcapability process, to define, to measure, to analyze, to improve and to control theprocesses to reduce or even to eliminate defective products so that companies are able tocompete in global market which is increasingly competitive and to increase productivity
and profitability. While the application of QFD method in this case, House of Quality(HOQ), it is expected that the structure and process of improvement and development
are obtained based on converting the voice of consumers (Costumers Need's) directly tothe characteristics or the technical specifications of a product. PT. Primarindo Asia
Infrastructure Tbk as one of the largest shoes manufacturers in Indonesia must be able
to compete with other manufacturers by continuously maintaining and improving its
product quality.
2. METHODOLOGY
Systematic research methodology can be seen in the figure below

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StartIdentification of problems

Literature study

Research of objective
Data collecting:- production data
- defective product data
Data processing:- Six Sigma Method- QFD Method
AnalysisConclusion and Suggestion
FinishFigure 1 The Methodology of Troubleshooting
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 The Method of Six Sigma
3.1.1 Define
In the define phase, it is conducted the determination of the products type that has thegreatest number of defects. From the four types of Tomkins shoes, the greatest numberof defects was found in junior shoes type of 927 units. The next step is to identify thevariables of Critical to Quality (CTQ), of which CTQ variables on junior shoes type areslanted lasting, slanted eyelet/velcro, out sole, wrinkles, upper defect and etc (dirty,
scratches).
3.1.2 Measure
In the measure phase, it is conducted the measurement of dominant defect and sigma
level. The dominant defect types on junior shoes type is slanted lasting defect (theslanted uppers shoes component). The measurement results of sigma level on juniorshoes type is at 4.4 level, which means that to get to six sigma level still needs
improvement.
3.1.3 Analyze
Analyze phase is performed to find the defect cause occurs. The cause of slanted lasting
defect is identified by using causal diagram (cause-effect diagram). The following is acausal diagram (cause-effect diagram) which describes the cause factors that slanted
lasting occurs.

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unscheduled machine
maintenancemachinemaninaccurate

inappropriate

shifting machine position

inappropriate material quality

too long lasting time
too short lasting time
methodin a haste inexperienced

material

SlantedLastingchanged material quality

Figure 1 The Defect Cause Factors of Slanted Lasting
3.1.4 Improve
The method of 5W + 1H is used to make the technical improvement stages based on cause
factors of the defect which are obtained from the analyze phase.
Table 1 The Stages of Slanted Lasting Improvement Using 5W + 1H Method

Improvement
Priority
Operator’s error inthelasting
process(inapprop
riate
lasting
position)

priatelastingtime

Current
Condition

What

Why

Where

When

Who

How

Supervisionofforeman/lea
der lineThe
placementof lastepositionmust beappropriat
e to theinstruction

To makelasting
positionnotslantedandslantedcan bedetectedprior tothe next
work
processing
In orderlasting to
be fully
formedAssembling
departmen
t, lasting
sectionDuringproduction
process

Foreman,
Lasting
operator

Addingforemanandinspecting
eachcompletedlasting
process

Not inproductionhours
Duringproduction
process

Lasting
operatorMoreintensive
training
Using
automatic
mode orusing
sonanttimereminderThe training
is at startworking
Manually
throughoperatormonitoring

Lastingtime mustbe fitted,
should not
be toolong ortoo short

Assembling
departmen
t, lasting
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Lasting
operator

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The
shifting
machineposition

Setting to
start

Laste
material
quality ischangedLastereplacement
when it isbrokenThemachinepositionshould be
fixed,
accordingto thelastingform
The lastequalitymust bemaintainedIn orderlasting to
be fully
formedAssembling
departmen
t, lasting
sectionNot inproduction
hours

Maintenan
ce officers

Periodicmachinecondition
monitoring

To makelasteappropriat
e to its
specificati
on

Assembling
departmen
t, lasting
sectionNot inproduction
hours

Maintenan
ce officers

Periodic
lastecondition
monitoring

3.2 The Method of Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
QFD method that is used is to create House of Quality (HoQ). The first stage is to collectthe voice of consumers which is gained 8 variables through the questionnaires that were
distributed.
The second stage is the measurement of consumers’ interest level. It aims to determine thepriority of consumers’ interests and to be a reference for company to develop strategies inorder to meet the desires and needs of the consumers. The consumers’ interests level ofJunior shoes type shows that consumers value 5 scores on the variables of shoes durability,
shoes comfort, and non-slippery shoes outsole, value 4 scores on the variables of the powerof adhesive glue on shoes, no tears on the shoes, shoe eyelets are not easily broken and neat
shoes stitching, while for the variables of shoe accessories, consumers simply value 3
scores, which means consumers are not concerned with the aspects of shoe accessories
variables.
The third stage is to calculate the value of junior shoes type quality. The variables of shoes
durability, the power of adhesive glue, and non-slippery shoes outsole, junior shoes typehave just got 3 scores. While in the variables of shoes comfort, shoes accessories, no tears
on the shoes, neat shoes stitching, materials quality, shoes color, materials types, shoes sizeand shoes elasticity have got 3 scores. The company must make improvements in order toget better respondents' assessment.
The next stage is to determine the technical characteristics of the voice of consumers
variable and the variables relation level with all the existing technical characteristics, which
the relation level has 1 or 3 or 9 scores.
The next stage is the fifth stage. It is to identify the matrix of relation between the technicalcharacteristics. The results showed that there were only 2 relations; they are strong positive
and weak positive relations.

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The last stage is the determining stage that should be taken for improvement of eachvariable. For junior shoes type, the variables that should be improved are variables of shoes
durability, no tears on the shoes, not easily broken shoe eyelets, the power of adhesive glue
on shoes, and non-slippery footwear. The improvement on shoes durability is done on theassembly aspect. Good selection of raw materials and glue polishing on shoe components
should also be improved because it will influence the adhesive power. The improvement on
non-slippery footwear variable is with the materials selection for good footwear so it does
not become slippery; and the pattern on the outsole also influences the shoes grip to theground and not easily slip to users.
4. CONCLUSION
Based on the results of data processing and analysis, it can be concluded as follows:a. The types of shoes which are made as the study object is Junior shoes type, with defectvariables that occurs are slanted lasting, upper defect, outsole, slanted eyelet/velcro,
wrinkled, and etc.
b. The most dominant type of defect is slanted lastingc. Overall, sigma level which is achieved is 4.4
d. The factors which make slanted lasting are:
 Improper lasting position for the operator is in haste, inaccurate, and inexperienced
 Inappropriate lasting time The machine position is shifting for unscheduled maintenance The quality of laste material is changede. The corrective actions that must be taken are:
 Adding foreman and inspecting each lasting process which is completed for thefactor of improper lasting position for the operator is in haste, inaccurate, andinexperienced
 More intensive training to the operators for the factor of inappropriate lasting time Using automatic mode or sonant time reminder for the factor of inappropriate
lasting time Monitoring to the machine condition regularly for the factor of the machine positionis shifting for unscheduled maintenance Monitoring laste condition periodically for the factor of the quality of laste material
is changed
f. The variables based on the voice of consumers that should be improved are:
 The shoes’ durability
 No tears on the shoes Shoe eyelets are not easily broken
 The power of adhesive glue on shoes Non-slip footwear
6. REFERENCES
Cohen, Lou. (1995), Quality Function Development: How to Make QFD Work for You,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Massachusset.

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1139

Heizer, J., & Render, B. (2009), Manajemen Operasi (Operation Management), Salemba
Empat, Jakarta.
Syukron, A., & Kholil, M. (2013), Six Sigma Quality for Business Improvement, Graha
Ilmu, Yogyakarta.

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OPTIMIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION PLANNING
WITH UNCERTAIN RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY
Farizal, Sucipto, Amar Rachman
Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia
Kampus BaruUI Depok, Jawa Barat, 16424, Indonesia
Corresponding E-mail: farizal@eng.ui.ac.id
ABSTRACTThis study discusses the optimization model ofindustrial production planning in patchouli oil
derivatives industry. Production planning always deals with uncertain demand. This industry, as
addition, is also characterized with uncertain raw material supply. Taking those issues into
consideration, the objective of this optimization model is to minimize the production cost,carrying, and backlogging costs. For the purpose.the forecasting methods used is moving
averages method through software Oracle Crystall Ball while the linear programming model was
optimized by Lingo software. The result shows that the model can streamline 19.09% of theactual conditions in the absence of planning. In addition, further analysis of efficiency can also
be done by raising the purchase price of raw materials less than 1,67% if supplying to be undercertainty
Keywords: Optimization, production planning, production costs, forecasting, uncertain supply.
INTRODUCTION
Chemical industry is one of the largest industrial sectors of the world. With the highly
competitive environment, companies are increasingly facing external pressure to improvecustomer response time, increasing product bargaining power, managing a wide range ofdemands as well as making competitive product prices.
Production planning is one tool that can be used to reduce operational costs, improvecustomer service and utilize resources optimally. Production planning will be more complicated
if there exist uncertainties (Arellano-Garcia, 2009). One chemical industry facing such a problem
is natural essential oil chemical company. The raw materials used, i.e. patchouli oil are among
the highest price when compared with other essential oils.The aroma of patchouli oil known as'heavy' and 'strong' and has been used for centuries as fragrances (perfume) and materials incense
in eastern tradition. Indonesian patchouli oil contributes 80% of the total supply for the world
patchouli essential oil.
Despite having high price, the availability of patchouli essential oil is also very uncertain.
This condition leads the industry, for many cases, could not fulfill orders or when the unfulfillingdemand is unavoidable, it leads to soaring production cost. Figure 1 shows patchouli price from2010 to 2015.

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1141

800000
700000Price (IDR)

600000500000400000300000200000
0

12

24

36

48

60

72

Month (2010 - 2015)

Figure 1. Patchouli Oil Prices at 2010 – 2015
Figure 2 shows patchouli oil availability and request for raw productl A and B. The figure
clearly indicates that the supply is scarce and barely enough to fulfill the industrial need. Thismeans the competition among the industries to satisfy their need is fierce.

60000

Kebutuhan Bahan Baku (A dan B)
Ketersediaan Bahan Baku (A dan B)

Quantity (kg)

50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0

12

24

36

48

60
72
Month of 2010 - 2015

Figure 2. Patchouli Oil Availability vs Request of Raw Materials A and B
To cope with the problem, this study will demonstrate how forecasting and optimization
will help the industry to be more competitive. For the purpose moving average forecasting
method and linear programming model will be used.

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LITERATURE REVIEW
Several studies on production planning using optimization have been done. Lin, et al(2004) studied a new approach to address the planning and scheduling of processing time
uncertainty using model Mix Integer Linear Programming (MILP). Dileep (2007) discussed themulti-engine, multi-product lot size and planning problems. The model was developed
considered not only the operational costs associated supplies, but also the cost of the machine isavailable. The solution to minimize inventory and costs associated resources. Adida and Joshi(2009) investigated the uncertainty in project management.
Javanmard and Kianehkandi (2011) proposed MILP models for optimal production
planning with a single machine. The model takes into account all the standard constraints
encountered in scheduling production (material balance, the limited supply, the capacity of theengine, shift of labor and labor restrictions). Chen and Cao (2015) presents a robust optimization
models for problems integrated multi-product of planning and scheduling under uncertainty
product prices. The approach used in the model uncertainty robust optimization is a box set, set
ellipsoidal, polyhedral set, combined Boxes and ellipsoidal set, combined Boxes and polyhedral
sets, combined Boxes, ellipsoidal and polyhedral sets.
METHODOLOGY
The production process of patchouli oil shows in Figure 3:

Figure 3. Flow Patchouli Oil Derivative Production Process Single LineI = Reaction 1 in Utilities I, J = Reaction 2 in Utilities J, K = Fractionation in Utilities K
L = Mixing and Filling in Utilities L, X1 = Raw Material for Patchouli Oil Patchouli oil products
A and B. Product A: a product of patchouli oil with 30% purity level specifications, the acidvalue is small, a small iron content and color clarity. A product is obtained with several stages
like showed on Figure 3 above. Product B: a product of patchouli oil purity level of 30%, an acidvalue is small and rather dark color.
A mathematical model of how to optimize production quantities will be produced and how
much will be saved and there backlog to limit the availability of raw materials (Taha, 2007).
Complete mathematical model is presented as follow:
𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑍𝑍 ൌ ͳʹ𝑡𝑡ൌͳ 

ʹ

𝑖𝑖ൌͳ

𝑁𝑁𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡  ൅ͳʹ𝑡𝑡ൌͳ 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 ൅ͳʹ𝑡𝑡ൌͳ 

ʹ

𝑖𝑖ൌͳ

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥𝐿𝐿𝑡𝑡 1143

Subject toʹ

𝑖𝑖ൌͳ

𝑁𝑁𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡  ≤ 𝑄𝑄∀𝑖𝑖 ൌ ͳǡʹǢ 𝑡𝑡 ൌ ͳǡ ʹǡ … ǡͳʹ𝑁𝑁𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡  ≥ 𝑀𝑀𝑄𝑄∀𝑖𝑖 ൌ ͳǡʹǢ 𝑡𝑡 ൌ ͳǡ ʹǡ … ǡͳʹͲ ≤  𝑁𝑁𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡  ≤ 𝑄𝑄∀𝑖𝑖 ൌ ͳǡʹǢ 𝑡𝑡 ൌ ͳǡ ʹǡ … ǡͳʹ
𝑁𝑁

𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡
𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡−ͳ ൅  𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 ≥  Ͳǡͻͷ
൅ 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 ∀𝑖𝑖 ൌ ͳǡʹǢ 𝑡𝑡 ൌ ͳǡ ʹǡ … ǡͳʹ𝑁𝑁𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡 ≥ 𝑂𝑂𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡 ∀𝑖𝑖 ൌ ͳǡʹǢ 𝑡𝑡 ൌ ͳǡ ʹǡ … ǡͳʹ𝑂𝑂𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡 − 𝑁𝑁𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡 ൌ  𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡 ∀𝑖𝑖 ൌ ͳǡʹǢ 𝑡𝑡 ൌ ͳǡ ʹǡ … ǡͳʹ𝑁𝑁𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡  ≥ Ͳ∀𝑖𝑖 ൌ ͳǡʹǢ 𝑡𝑡 ൌ ͳǡ ʹǡ … ǡͳʹ𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡  ≥ Ͳ∀𝑡𝑡 ൌ ͳǡ ʹǡ … ǡͳʹ𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖ǡ𝑡𝑡  ≥ Ͳ∀𝑖𝑖 ൌ ͳǡʹǢ 𝑡𝑡 ൌ ͳǡ ʹǡ … ǡͳʹ𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡  ≥ Ͳ∀𝑡𝑡 ൌ ͳǡ ʹǡ … ǡͳʹVariable:Ni,t= Total production kgof product i in month t where i = A, B and , t = 1, 2, …, 12= Total kg stock of raw material in month t
ItAt= Total kg backlog in month tParameter: Bi,t = Production cost per kg i in month t (in IDR), Ht = Holding cost per kg i inmonth t (In IDR), Lt = Backlog cost per kg i in month t (in IDR), Q = Kg equipment capacity permonth (Kg), MQ = Minimal amount of production (Kg), Pt = Purchase of raw materials per kg i
in month t, 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡−ͳ  ൌSaldo raw material stock in month t-1, and Oi,t = Total order kg i in month t

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Before running the model, based on the available data, forecasting was run. Accuracy of
the forecast is presented on Figure 4 and Table 1. Table 1 clearly shows that ARIMA (1,1,0)
gives the best forecast.
Table 1. Forecasting method accuracy
Forecasting Method
MAPE
ARIMA(1,1,0)
3.39%
Damped Trend Non-Seasonal
3.42%
Double Exponential Smoothing
3.79%

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RMSE
23081
23201
25410

MAD
15970
16079
17880

Rank
Best
2nd
3rd

Proceeding of the 15th International Conference on QIR (Quality in Research) ISSN 1411-1284

Figure 4. Fitted, Historical, and Forecast of Raw Material Price

Based on the data, the model is solved using LINGO. The results are summarized on Tables 2-4.
Table 2. Comparison of Actual Production Planning and Optimization
Product A (kg)
Product B(kg)Month
Production
Production
DemandDemandOptimization Actual
Optimization Actual
1
6.000
6.000
7.000
0
0
0
2
10.00010.000
9.600
5.000
5.000
4.400
3
0
0
0
0
0
2.400
4
18.00018.00016.000
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
16.00016.00016.4006
18.00018.00019.400
8.000
8.000
8.000
7
9.000
9.000
10.00000
08
16.00016.00016.600
4.000
4.000
4.000
9
8.000
8.000
8.800
4.400
4.400
4.400
10
8.000
8.000
7.500
20.00020.00010.000
11
4.000
4.000
9.000
24.00024.00022.80012
10.00010.00011.40010.00010.0009.000
Total 107.000
107.000
115.300 91.400
91.40081.400
Table 2 shows a significant different results between production planning proposed by
the optimization model and the actual planning for both products A and B. the optimization
model results produce the amount of products exactly the same as the demand. While the actual
planning ends up with either producing the products more than the demand (meaning overproduction) or less than the demand (unfulfilled demand).

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Table 3. Comparison Unused Raw Materials and Over Stock Products in 2015
Month
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Unused Raw Material (kg)Optimization
Actual028.447,06
027.577,22
027.103,91
012.936,8
017.351,64
0
220,730
10.152,75
000
142,86000000Over Stock Product A and B (kg)Optimization
Actual
0
0
0
600
0
3.000
0
2.400
0
2.800
0
4.600
0
4.600
0
2.800
0
2.800
0
0
0
400
0
0

Table 3 shows that under ideal conditions (using the model) the unused raw material andthe stock at the end of the month is zero, so there is no storage costs for both raw material andfinish product. While the actual planning provides some inventory for both raw material andfinish product for almost each month. This results make sense since for the actual planning, thecompany compensate the uncertainty with buying raw material more than needed and set somelevel of safety stock for the finish product. But, unfortunately, this practice will make theinventory costs higher to the company.
Table 4. Comparison of Raw Material Purchasing and backlog for the model and Actual for 2015
Total Backlog (kg)Raw Material Purchasing (kg)MonthOptimization
ActualOptimization
Actual102.343,800215.78013.867
0
600
3
0
2.053
0
0
4
18.936
2.675
0
1.400
5
16.83221.67800
627.352
12.132,25
0
0
7
9.468
19.405,70
0
821.0407.479,501.600
913.044,8
14.037,600
1029.45615.346,5010.5001129.45628.8420
1.200
1221.04022.940,7
0
1.000

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Table 4 shows planning for raw material purchased accordancing to the optimization
model and the actual practice. According to the model, raw material is not necessary purchased
every month; contrary to the actual practice. By so doing the material will directly be used up for
fulfillment the demand. For this scenario, the total cost incurred by the company for the
production of product A and product B for one year is Rp. 1.254.877.000, whereas if no actual
planning in Rp. 3.228.225.464. The difference is Rp. 1.973.328.960. This difference is the valueof planning the production process, so there are 61.13% of potential costs can be reduced on theactual condition to the ideal conditions.
To allow the company to increase the probability from the availability of raw materials, it
can buy more material when the purchase price is high to avoid backlog, it occurs at scarcity
situation. This situation will be traded off with backlog cost. By shifting the value of Rp.
1.973.328.960 per year to raise the purchase price will obtain trade off value of 1,67%, about Rp
9.742 per kg. This means that if the availability of raw materials will be guaranteed, with a raiseof 1,67% of the price of a standard, then the condition is still equal to the costs incurred in theactual process.
CONCLUSION
This research provides a production planning model to minimize the total cost of
production, the production costs, storage costs, and the cost of the backlog. The ideal conditions
on a model are characterized with the availability of raw materials, purchase only needed raw
materials, no backlog occur, no any additional costs incurred. The proposed model offers 61.13%
potential saving costs compare to the actual condition. There are two model approach performedin this study, the forecast and optimization. Raw material price forecast is using Autoregressive
integrated moving average (1,1,0) model whereas raw material forecast is using double moving
average models. This optimization model developed can streamline up to 19.09% of the actual
conditions.
In the case when high raw material price occurs, the trade-off value is 1.67% to the actual
condition. This condition is a result of balancing between minimizing the raw materials storageand minimizing the occurrence of backlog.
REFERENCE
Adida, E. and Joshi, P. (2009). A Robust Optimization Approach to Project Scheduling andResource Allocation. Int. J. Services Operations and Informatics, Vol. 4, No. 2.
Arellano-Garcia, H. (2009). Chance constrained optimization of process systems under
uncertainty. Computers & Chemical Engineering, Vol. 33, Issue 10, 14 October 2009,
1568–1583.
Chen, M. and Cao, C. (2015). Robust Optimization for a Multi-Product Integrated Problem ofPlanning and Scheduling under Products Uncertainty. Journal of Applied Mathematics
and Physics, Vol. 3, pp. 16-24.
Dileep, D.G. (2007). Product Costing for Decision-Making in Certain Variable-Proportion
Technologies. Journal of Management Accounting Research, Vol. 19, pp. 51-70.
Javanmard and Kianehkandi. (2011). Optimal Scheduling in a Milk Production Line Based on
Mixed Integer Linear Programming. International Proceedings of Economics
Development & Research, Vol. 13.
Lin, X., et al. (2004). A New Robust Optimization Approach for Scheduling Under Uncertainty:
I. Bounded Uncertainty. Computers & Chemical Engineering, Vol. 28, 1069-1085.
Taha, H. A. (2007). Operations Research: An Introduction (8th ed.). Singapore: Pearson Prentice Hall.

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Maintenance Strategy on Boiler System Steam Power Plant Based on Reliability Centered
Maintenance (RCM)
Rahmat Nurcahyo, Nanang Tri Wahyuna dan Yadrifil
Industrial Engineering Department, University of Indonesia
E-Mail: nanangntw1@gmail.com
ABSTRAKThis research discusses about Maintenance Strategy on Steam Power Plant. The steam power plant has
Complex Systems and Equipment subsystems consists of Mechanical Equipment, Electricalequipment and Instrumentations equipment with types and characteristics of different damage. Basedon the distribution system and according to the function, the power plant has 8 Main System. Failure
History Data System grouped by damage and Pareto diagram visualize Top 20% Failure on wholesystem. By doing Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) obtained by analysis of failure modes,
failure causes and effects on the equipment failure to overcome the highest risk at a power plant. After
analyzing the highest failure based on the evaluation the highest risk of failure, the failures eliminatedby approach of Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM). As a result study is a Maintenance Strategy
with approach based on RCM. Logic Tree Analysis (LTA) is a deductive method of analysis used as a
Maintenance Strategy for classifying some failure modes required in determining maintenancedecisions (Maintenance Action).
Keywords: Steam Power Plants , Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA), Reliability Centered
Maintenance (RCM), Equipment Failure, Logic Tree Analysis (LTA), Maintenance Strategy,
Maintenance Action.
1. Introduction
Indonesia has the State-Owned Enterprises (BUMN) which is engaged in power generationthat is called the State Electricity Company (PLN). In the last 6 years, 2009 until 2014, PLN's business
continued to grow in line with economic growth and electricity consumption by the public. Electricity
sales increased from 133.1 TWh in 2009 to 196.4 TWh in 2014, the number of subscribers increased
from 39.8 million in 2009 to 57.1 million in 2014, and the electrification ratio increased from 63.5% in2009 to 84.0% in 2014.
PT PJB is one of the subsidiary company PT PLN which responsible for supplying electricity
in Java and Bali. PT PJB has a mission dedicated to producing electric power that reliable andcompetitive in order to support national development considering the needs of electricity consumption
in Indonesia how many on the island of Java and Bali.
Based on statistical data of PT PJB years 2008 - 2012 it was noted that the installed power of
the average largest in power plant PT PJB produced by Power Gas and Steam (Power Plant) by 41,972%, Steam Power (power plant) amounted to 30.488%, Power hydroelectric of 19.844% and Gas
Power plant amounted to 7.704%.
From the statistical data company of PT PJB required more effort to maintain the reliability ofelectricity supply for the community needs and the company's data required high availability for theplants to meet the electricity needs. To maintain the reliability of the power generation, PT PJB must
perform maintenance on the engine generator. In the dicision operation, the steam power plant is thecore unit to be active in generating electricity because the steam power plant to generate electricity
requires a long time in preparation it is about 8 hours from heating steam to generate electricity.
Gas turbine power plant and hydroelectric power plant is a standby unit which generating units
require less time to generate electricity which is about 30 minutes. Due the steam power plant is thecore unit so the maintenance of the steam power plant must be optimized to support the performanceof generating units. Steam power plant consists of a lot of different tools depending among othermechanical equipment, electrical and instruments for the operation damaged the diverse, so that thenecessary maintenance according to the type and characteristics of each damages.
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The power plant has a complex system and usually a lot of production machinery
manufacturers little receive feedback from the operating history so the maintenance of the engine
manufacturers are less suitable for production machines which have undergone aging (Carazas dansouza, 2009). In this study will discuss maintenance strategy that systematically into account the typekind of failure and failure characteristics that is different to improve performance of power systems
effectively and efficiently.
2. Literature Review
Maintenance is an activity that is intended to prevent the occurrence of downtime (lostproduction hours) that are not planned by way of planned downtime, both when and how long time.
This activity is known as the shutdown management (joshi, 2012). The main purpose the maintenanceis to increase the availability of production machines. Availability (availability) is important in the
production systems in industrial companies which is largely determined by the availability of themachines or systems and production equipment availability is a measure of the percentage of time
where the machines / systems production equipment capable of producing at a certain level that is
acceptable.
Availability is an important production system at industrial company which is largely
determined by the availability of machines or production equipment system and availability is ameasure of the percentage of time the machines / systems production equipment capable of producing
at a certain level that is acceptable (Carazas and Souza, 2009).
RCM is the optimum mix of reactive, time or interval-based, condition-based and proactive
maintenance. The principle of this maintenance strategy is to integrate the advantages of each power
maintenance to maximize maximize reliability and minimize maintenance costs (Afefy, 2010). And
RCM is a qualitative approach, risk-based systematic approach aimed at achieving optimal
maintenance to ensure the functionality of a system. RCM also concluded a systematic analysis of thefunctions of the system and how the system can fail and priorities based on safety and economic
considerations that identify preventive maintenence applicable and effective task (Besnard et. al. 2010)
The problem faced by the Power plant is the system of power plant has large capacity, complex
and multilevel include levels of system and subsystem devices that separate and interrelated in
producing electrical energy, And the maintenance requirements are also more complex. Besides, thepower plant has varied the type of failure that requires maintenance treatment which different to beable to keep generating machine reliability at minimum cost.
3. Methodology
This study aims to obtain systematic maintenance strategies into account type of failure andfailure characteristics that is different to improve system performance effectively and efficiently.
Strategies Maintenance based on Reliability Centered Maintenance made to address the failure of
the type and characteristics are different depending where in making the strategy undertaken mappingof the entire power system, definition systems is analyzed with a Pareto chart to determine thesubsystem selected for analysis based on the highest percentage of history of failure, Manufacture
FMEA (failure modes and effects Analysis) to identify any equipment failure modes, failure causes ofeach failure mode and effect of any failure.
After FMEA next step is to identify critical equipment to sort the RPN value of the RPN RPN
steeper to the lowest. Critical RPN is used as the Risk Assessment (Risk greatest and the effect on thesystem is indicated by the value of the highest RPN) and failure mode at critical RPN can be included
as inputs in the Logic Tree to determine Maintenance Action obtained from maintenance strategy.
Here are the steps RCM in this study:
 Step 1 :Selection of the system, identifying, and collecting a history of failure Step 2 :Defining the system boundary Step 3 :Describing the system and Functional Block Step 4 : Pareto Analysis
 Step 5 : Failure Modes and Effect Analysis
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Step 6 : Critical equipment analysis
Step 7 : Maintenance Strategy
Steps in defining RCM approach implemented in the power plant to maintain the function of
the system, identification of failure modes, failure prioritization is used to maintain the function of
power plan and maintenance strategies to create a Maintenance Action of each failure mode.


3.1 Discussion
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM), Total Maintenance Assurance, Preventive Maintenance,
Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM) and many other innovative analytical approaches toovercome failure and all of them aim to make the machine work effectively and increase machine
productivity (Shayeri, 2007). Components of the RCM program is shown in Figure 1. The figure
shows the RCM program consists of Reactive Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Condition Based
Maintenance dan Proactive maintenance.
Reliability
Centered
MaintenanceTime Based
Maintenance/
Preventive
Maintenance

Reactive
Maintenance







Small item
Not a critical equipment
Easy to repair
Rarely damage
Redundancy/ Back upProactive
Mantenance

Condition Based
MaintenanceReplacement
equipment is done
consumable
Flow failure is
unknownFlow failure is
unknown ( random)
Failure detected bypreventive maintenance





RCFA
FMEA
Acceptance Testing
conducted (Accepting
Testing)

Figure 1. Components of the RCM program(Afefy, 2010)

4. Case Study
4.1 Functional Tree Steam Power Plant

Figure 2 Steam Power Plant systems
Functional Tree map all plant systems aimed to identifying the entire system of the plant.
Power plant is divided into eight main systems by function, Fuel System, Cooling System, Turbine
System, MakeUp Water System, Boiler System, Generator System, Tansformator System, Monitoring
and Control System.

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4.2 Power Plant Structure
3. Combustion
System

4. Power
Generation

2. Coolingsystem
1. Make up water
systemFigure 3 Power Plant structure
The structure shows that the power plant power plant consists of a lot of equipment that isdifferent in produce Electricity, the equipment is broken down by operating system. Figure 3 is a
structure of power plant equipment in the power plant structure. Figure 3 can be seen the power planthas 4 operational systems among others
1. Make up water system: This system is a system comprising water boiler which the water will
be converted into superheated steam by the boiler. Water filler taken from sea water is thenseparated saline water into fresh water treatment plant. After that, in the freshwater was
reduced mineral content in demin plant that aims to prevent corrosion in the engine plant. Afterthe water has been slightly put condensor mineral content to add closedloop systems in steam
cycle power plant. After that experience primary heating at low pressure heater and asecondary heating at high pressure to feed the heater before the boiler that is converted intosteam
2. Cooling system: Cooling system is a system used to change the phase of the output steam
turbine into liquid phase in the condenser. This system utilizes the temperature of the sea water
to cool the residual heat in the engine plant.
3. Combustion system: Combustion system is a system that produces steam from the vapor phase
into mixture of superheat which used to turn on turbines. The main fuel in the combustion is
HSD oil, natural gas or coal.
4. Power Generation: The steam from the boiler is used to turn a turbine, the rotation of theturbine is used to turn generator that produces electricity. Electricity from the generator istransfer to voltage transformer to be raised before the entrance to the home network.
4.3 Power Plant Pareto Diagram
Pareto diagram is helpful in determining and identifying priority issues to be resolved. The
problems most often happen is a top priority in determining maintenance planing. Pareto created fromdata processing history of failure. Pareto diagram can be seen from the subsystems of the most
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influential in the major failure of the power plant. Pareto diagram of the power plant is shown in figure
4-10.

Figure 4 Power plant Pareto diagram, 2009
Figure 4 illustrate the whole problem of power that occurred in 2009 and breaking up the red dottedline is the problem caused by boiler system. The problem is leakage on economizer, improved
insulation of gas duct outlet 4B Air Heater and leak on the water heater 4B.

Figure 5 Power plant Pareto diagram, 2010
The problem in 2010 is repair air heater, Repair boiler Fire walls 4, project work 5, Air Heatercleaning and repair gas duct.

Figure 6 Power plant Pareto diagram, 2011
The problem in 2011 is stop igniter, repair ducting air heater, Boiler trip, repair pressure
indicator air heater 4b, repair temperature indicator air heater 4b, repair economizer gas out pressure,
repair air heater 4b.

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Figure 7 Power plant Pareto diagram, 2012
The problem in 2012 is igniter boiler unit 4 Stop, improvement and replacement sootblower,
and improvement and replacement steam drum level.

Figure 8 Power plant Pareto diagram, 2013
The problem in 2013 is improvement and replacement tube bundle (39, 3%) and Boiler System
87,53 %.

Figure 9 Power plant Pareto diagram, 2014
boiler

The problem in 2014 is broken boiler isolation, burn boiler wall, and Corrective supplay valve

Figure 10 Power plant Pareto diagram, 2015
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The problem in 2015 iscorrective air heater coupling and boiler wall, so it can be concluded
from data 2009 - 2015 the most problems is on boiler system
4.4 Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
FMEA is used to identify any equipment failure modes, failure causes of each failure mode andeffect of any failure.
Appendix 1 is the result of the main boiler FMEA. FMEA is done by analyzing failure modes,
failure causes and effects of any equipment failure. To determine the priority of failure it must be
defined first of severity, occurance, and detection as well as the final outcome from FMEA form of
Risk Priority Number. Ordinal scale to assess the severity, occurance, and detection is shown inappendix 2, while the RPN is the multiplication of value Severity, occurance, and detection.
4.5 Critical RPN
Next step is calculated the critical value of the main boiler subsystem with RPN rank fromhighest value to lowest value. Figure 11 shows the value of the RPN of the main boiler subsystem

Figure 11 RPN value main boiler subsystem
From the entire value of the RPN in the main boiler selected third highest RPN as the criticalvalue. 3 selected critical value because the value of the RPN differ much between grades 3 and 4,
namely 360 and 270. Table 1 shows the critical value of the main boiler subsystem
Table 1 Critical RPN

Potensial
RPN Nilai kritis
failure modes
Leak out
441
1
Control valve
Main Boiler
Leak trough392
2
Insulation
Broken360
3System Sub system Equipment
BoilerFrom the table 1 can be seen that the highest value is the equipment control valve and pipe wallinsulation main boiler. This failure is the benchmark in the maintenance and critical RPN is used as
the Risk Assessment (Risk greatest and the effect on the system is indicated by the value of the highest
RPN) and failure mode at critical RPN can be included as inputs in the Logic Tree to determine
Maintenance Action. Table 2 is determine maintenance action to eliminate potential failure modes bycondition based maintenance, preventive maintenance, back up or redudancy, emergency, run tooverhaul and run to failure.

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Equipment

Table 2 Maintenance Action

Potensial
Failure Modes

Cbm

leak out

monitoring
failureleak throughmonitoring
failurebrokeninsulation

monitoring
failurePreventive

BackupEmergency

Run tooverhaulRun tofailre-back up
another valve
to coverfailureshutdown
unit andreplacevalve

replacevalve until
next
inspection

run valve
until unit
down-back up
another valve
to coverfailureshutdown
unit andreplacevalve

replacevalve until
next
inspection-

shutdown
unit andreplacenewinsulationrunbrokeninsulation
until unit
down

replaceinsulation
until next
inspection

run valve
until unit
downControl valve

Insulation-

In determining Maintenance Action on failure mode by using Maintenance Strategy for things
to do into the failure mode Failure input on Logic Tree (blue box in Figure 12) and then follow thedecision yes and no to obtain the Maintenance Action.
Start

Failure input

Failure makethe unit stop?

N

There is a condition
monitoring
technology approach?

Y

Development andmanufacture ofmaintenance CBM

Condition
based
maintenance

Development andmanufacturing based
preventive
maintenancePreventive
maintenanceN
Y

There is a planned
maintenance based on
time?

Y

N
Redesign systems andback-up equipment
Failure interferewith theperformance of theunit?

N
Run to failure

Y

Back up dan
redudancy

Replacement ofequipment can bedone when the unit
operate?

N

Emergency
shutdown/tripY
Run tooverhaulFigure 12 Maintenance Strategy
Damage leakout on valve inserted as the failure input then answer some questions as follows to
get Maintenance Action:
1. Is the failure to make the unit stop?
If the answer is no,
2. Is there are condition monitoring technology? If the answer is no,8

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3. Is there a planned maintenance based on time? If the answer is no,
4. Redesign and manufacture system back up equipment, so the maintenance action is to do aback-up equipment and redundancy.
5. Conclusion
Based on the results of research conducted to conclude several things:
1. Maintenance Strategy has been obtained based on Reliability Centered Maintenance toovercome Flaws by classifying the type of failure and failure characteristics which differ todetermine the type of maintenance in accordance with the characteristics of the failure to
improve system performance effectively and efficiently.
2. Logic Tree Analysis is used to select the appropriate maintenance strategy with RCM approachin this study.
Bibliography
1. Afefy, Islam. 2010. Reliability-Centered Maintenance Methodology and Application.
Engineering, Vol. 2 No.11 , 2010, pp. 863-873
2. Jozi, Ali seyed et. al. 2012. Environmental Risk Assesment of a Gas Power Plant Exploitation
Unit Using Integrated TOP-EFMEA Method. Pol. Journal Environmental Study. Vol 21 , No. 1(2012), 95-105
3. Igba, Joel et. al. 2013. A System Approach towards Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM)
of Wind Turbine. Procedia Computer Science. 16 (2013) 814 -823
4. Carazas, Fernando & Souza, Gilberto. 2009. Availability Analysis of Gas Turbines Used inPower Plants. Int. J. of Thermodynamics. Vol 12 , No 1, pp. 28-37
5. Bangu. N. 2011. Reliability Centered Maintenance in a Thermal Power Plants: a Case Study.
Int. J. Productivity and Quality Management, vol. 7, No 2, pp. 209-228
6. Feili et. Al. 2013. Risk analysis of geothermal power plants ushing Failure Modes and EffectAnalysis (FMEA) technique. Energy Conversion and Management 72 (2013) 69-76
7. Carazas, Fernando & Souza, Gilberto. 2010. Availability analysis of heat recovery steam
generators used in thermal power plants. Energy 36 (2011) 3855-3870
8. Eti, M. et. al. Reliability of the Afam electric power generation station, Nigeria. Applied
Energy 77 (2014) 309-315
9. Garg, Amik & Deshmukh, S. 2006. Maintenance management: literature review and directions.
Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, Vol. 12, No 3, pp 205-238

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Appendix 1.
Table 2 FMEA Boiler Subsistem

Equipment

Potensialfailuremodes
Corrotion

PorousWear
Bundle tube superheater Thinning of
the pipe
Fatiguematerial
structure
Corrotion

Bundle tube economizer

PorousWear
Thinning of
the pipe
Fatiguematerial
structure
Corrotion

Bundle tube downcomer

PorousWear
Thinning of
the pipe
Fatiguematerial
structure

Potensial
Cause of
Failure Mode
Steam
contamination
FOD
FOD
Friction with
steam
operating at
hightemperatures
Steam
contamination
FOD
FOD
Friction with
steam
operating at
hightemperatures
Steam
contamination
FOD
FOD
Friction with
steam
operating at
hightemperatures

Potensial
Effect of
Failure
Mode

S

O

D

RPN

Pipe leak

8

6

4

192

Pipe leak
Pipe leak

9
7

6
7

4
4

216
196

Pipe leak

7

6

4

168

Pipe leak

8

6

4

192

Pipe leak

8

6

4

192

Pipe leak
Pipe leak

9
7

6
7

4
4

216
196

Pipe leak

7

6

4

168

Pipe leak

8

6

4

192

Pipe leak

8

6

4

192

Pipe leak
Pipe leak

9
7

6
7

4
4

216
196

Pipe leak

7

6

4

168

Pipe leak

8

6

4

192

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FMEA Table Main Boiler Subsystem (extension)

Equipment

Crack
Boiler burner
Wear

Contamination
Steam drum

Fatiguematerial
structure
crack

Igniter

Control Valve
Pipe wall andInsulation

Potensial
Cause of
FailureMode

Potensialfailure modes

Jams / Ignition
failureFatiguematerial
structure
Friction withfluidaStrainer makeup waterchoke
Operating at
hightemperatures
Pressure too
high
Logic
function
failureLeak out

body leakage

Leak thru

Disk leakage

BrokenBurned out

Potensial
Effect of
Failure
Mode

S

O

D

RPN

trip

9

6

5

270

crack

7

6

6

252

erosionandabrasion

7

7

5

245

Crack

8

6

4

192

leakage

8

4

7

224

4

5

8

160

9

7

7

441

8

7

7

392

8

5

9

360

Boilercannotoperated
Burnedout
Burnedout
Heat leak

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Appendix 2.

Table 3 Severity rating scale
Severity Rank Description
1-2
3-5
6-7
8-9
10

Small failure so that the operator may not detect the
failure.
Failure will result in less damage to the part orsystem performance.
Failure would lead to dissatisfaction and damage tosome systems operator performance.
Failure would lead to dissatisfaction and been cause
non-functioning of the system.
Failure would lead to dissatisfaction very big for a
big operator or damage.

Table 4 Occurrence rating scale
Occurrence
Description
Rank
1

The probability of no occurrence: probability ofoccurrence <0,001

2-3

A remote probability of occurrence: 0,001 <probability of occurrence <0,01

4-6
7-9
10

Probability occasional occurrence: 0.01 < probabilityof occurrence <0,10
Probability occasional occurrence: 0.10 < probabilityof occurrence <0,20
High probability of occurrence: probability ofoccurrence > 0.2

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Table 5 Detection rating scale
Detection
Rank
1-2
3-4
5-7
8-9
10

Description
Very high probability that defects will be detected
High probability that defects will be detected
Moderate probability that defects will be detected
low probability that defects will be detected
Very low (or zero) probability that the defect will be
detected

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FAILURE RISK ANALYSIS ON CORE NETWORK OF GPRSEQUIPMENT USING FMEA & FTA METHOD AND SCENARIO OF
TREATMENT COST ALLOCATION
Yadrifil1, Anisa Fithrasari2, Annisa Marlin Masbar Rus3
1,2,3

Industrial Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, University of Indonesia,
UI Depok 16424, Indonesia
E-mail : 1yadrifil@ie.ui.ac.id, 2anisafithrasari@yahoo.com, 3annisamarlinmr@gmai.com

ABSTRACTDue to the increasing of mobile communication development, GSM operators are motivatedto provide more efficient data services with a high speed feature and also introduce newservices. In order to do this, GPRS could be applied as a solution to address the challenge.
However, as the GPRS becomes a key for GSM operators to compete in the market especiallyin internet service are, focus on GPRS potential risk failure should get more attention. Thus,
the purpose of this research is to conduct a risk analysis on GPRS maintenance activity thatlead to designing risk treatment action and scenario of treatment cost allocation. In thisresearch, FMEA method is employed to obtain the critical risks which will be further
analysed using FTA to identify the basic event of those critical risk. Moreover, OptQuestCrystal Ball simulation is employed to find the optimal treatment cost allocation. As a resultof this research, three main points could be concluded. First, 8 critical risks are successfully
drawn from 28 identified risks. Furthermore, based on the research, it is suggested that every
critical risk should have different treatment actions. Lastly, according to the result of costallocation using OptQuest simulation, the higher the cost allocation that is given to treat
critical risks, the higher the maximum total advantage.
Keywords: GPRS; risk analysis; FMEA; FTA; OptQuest-Crystal Ball simulation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Rapid development in mobile communication motivate GSM operators for developing more
type of services to increase their profit while keep maintaining their customer’s loyalty. In
this case, GPRS can be a solution to provide efficient data services with a high speed featureand introduce new type of services to compensate the decreasing of communication cost per
minute. GPRS is a technology that can be used by Global System for Mobile (GSM) operators
to provide high speed data services with a low price, thus their services could be morecompetitive in the market. To be precise, GPRS enable the customer to create a faster relation
phase, stay connected permanently and use faster data speed by only paying for everytransferred bit. By employing GPRS, GSM provider could attract more customer because
surely the market tendency is not moving towards increasing cost and subscription rate. For
this reason, GPRS becomes a key for GSM operators to compete in the market especially ininternet services area.

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Today, GPRS have also been used as a corporate solution. For instance, GPRS has been usedin banking system for cost efficiency. Instead of using the satellite technology, banking
corporate currently use GPRS technology to provide link service for ATM machine byleasing bandwidth. Moreover, GPRS has also been employed on Electronic Data Capture(EDC) technology to facilitate customer to make a payment anywhere. This technology isusually used in hypermarket and taxi company.
As the GPRS has become important for GSM operators, they need to pay more attention to
GPRS equipment in order to maintain the services. The principle is to get customer loyalty
and also have more customer because of excellent service. Thus, maintenance for GPRS
equipment becomes crucial to have a good performance. In this way, most of the potential
failure can be avoided or eliminated to achieve the company goals.
One of solution which could be done for achieving excellent services is by determining Key
Performance Indicator (KPI) for maintenance division should. In this research, there are 2
point of KPI, they are Attach Success Rate and PDP Context Success Rate. Attach Success
Rate refer to success of having signal and PDP Context Success Rate refer to success ofinternet connection. These KPI are driven from the common problem which frequently faced,signalling and connection failure. These failures could lead to revenue loss and customer
dissatisfaction. Beside these 2 factors of KPI, company should also focus on security attack
because it enables fraud scheme in GPRS system.
As the GPRS is a key for GSM provider to deliver the service, maintaining the GPRS
equipment becomes crucial. Consequently, in order to address the challenge of delivering
excellent service, application of risk management for the GPRS maintenance activity is
proposed in this research.
2. METHODOLOGYAs a limitation, this research will only review risks in operational and maintenance activityof GPRS equipment. Expert team which are involved in this research encompass Network
Service O&M Center General Manager, VAS Cellular Team Leader, and VAS CellularEngineer with more than 5 years of experience.
The research method of this paper will refer to standardization of FMEA step.
a.Identify the risk event
To identify risk, previously we need to collect data. Data collection is conducted bycollecting historical data of GPRS system failure, searching for similar failure data fromliterature, and then making Cause Failure Mode Effect (CFME) diagram to identify and list
the risk.
b.Determine occurrence, severity, and detection rating
Determination of occurrence, severity, and detection rating is conducted by brainstormingwith expert which is supported by literature data.
c.Assess occurrence, severity, and detection of every risks
Assessment of occurrence, severity, and detection is conducted through questionnaire to
calculate the Risk Priority Number (RPN) from each risk and determine critical risks.

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d.Analyse risks and develop risk response planning for critical risk.
In this step, Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) is a tool that is used to get the root cause of thecritical risk, so that the treatment action could be determined. As for the treatment cost forevery critical risks, it will be simulated by OptQuest to get an optimal treatment costallocation. In order to run the simulation, revenue loss and treatment cost data from
historical data and expert judgment will be used.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Risk Identification
Risk identification is an important step in risk management before continuing to the next step.
Risk identification involve risk determination which may influence the performance of GPRS
equipment. The purpose of this step is to identify the probable risk to decrease or eliminate
the impact.
After the failure and potential failure which are driven from the experts’ discussion, historicalproblem, and literature are all identified, then Cause Failure Mode Effect (CFME) diagram
is made. The result of the CFME then will help the creation of FMEA in term of impact
identification, failure mode, and root cause. CFME diagram is shown in Figure 1.
High ofdivision
load

Resources
planning is
unappropriate

Motivation
is down

Less inamount ofpersonnel

Not having
training

Less inpersonnel
capability

Firewallproblem

IP backbone
failureRoutingerrorTransmission
down

Misconfiguration

Radius HD
is broken

GGSN board
problem

SGSN board
problemFault in
HLR Division

Memory full

GN link failure

GI link failure

GGSN-Radiuslink failure

SS7 signaling
link down

BSS link
failureRadius H/W
problem

GGSN H/W
problem

SGSN H/W
problem

HLR H/W
problem

DNS H/W
problem

Personil problem

Link problem

Hardware problem
Performance of
GPRS equipment isdrop

GPRS Security
problemFree charging
mentari GPRS

Fraud freeinternet accessvia handset

Spoofing

Data
manipulation

Software problem

Datainterception

Exposure to
the internet

EMM problem

Radius S/W
problem

SGSN S/W
problem

SS7 routing
error

EMM
hang

System hang

System bugs

SS7 linkhang

DNS software
problem

Systembugs

Misconfiguration

System weakness is known by hacker

Not enough
Addreess allocation
on GGSNOver usage

SACC
problem

Misconfiguration

Systembugs

SNMP
problem

Link down

Versi SNMP isdifferent

GGSN S/W
problem

Systembugs

Misconfiguration

High ISRAU
failureDoesn’t updatein database
BSC

Figure 1 Cause Failure Mode Effect Analysis (CFME) Diagram
3.2 Determination of Occurrence, Severity, and Detection Rating
In this step, rating is determined through brainstorming process with the expert in accordancewith the company condition. The determination of occurrence, severity and detection rating
then will influence the priority of the critical risk.
Occurrence rating is the quantification of the level of risk probability. The range of scale
which is used is from 1 to 5, where 1 refers to the lowest probability while 5 refer to highest
probability. The rating could be seen in Table 1.

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Scale
5
4
3
2
1

Scale
5
4
3
2
1

Scale
5
4
3
2
1

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Table 1 Occurrence Rating
Risk Probability
Note
Risk probability per year:
Very high: cannot be avoid
81 - 100
Risk probability per year:
High: repetitive
61 - 80
Risk probability per year:
Moderate
41 - 60
Risk probability per year:
Low: seldom
21 - 40
Risk probability per year:
Very low
0 - 20
Table 2 Severity Rating
Risk Impact
Note
Fully system failure, it cause loss
Emergencyof charging data
System error, the risk give impact
Criticalto revenue management system
The risk give impact only on
Major
certain work area not on all ofsystemHave minor effect to productMinorfunction, but not give impact toservice and data traffic
Does not give impact neither toWarning
service nor system
Table 3 Detection Rating
Risk Detection
Note
Detection method / alert system is
Very low
not available
Current detection method is not effectiv
Low
detect the risk on time
Current detection method is lessModerate
effective, so it needs more time todetect the risk
Current detection method is effective
Highenough to detect the risk
Current detection method is very
Very higheffective to detect the risk real time

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Moreover, severity rating is the quantification of impact level of the risk. The scale ranging
from 1 to 5, where the value of 1 refer to the condition where there is no effect from the risk
and value 5 refer to the whole system failure as impact from the risk. This rating could beseen in Table 2.
Lastly, detection rating is a quantification of level of risk detection. Detection serves as an
early warning to see whether the risk could be identified before the failure happened andwhether there is control that could be done to minimize the risk. The scale for this rating
ranging from 1 to 5 as well, where 1 refer to a condition with high level of control to detect
the failure and 5 refer to a condition with a low level of control. The rating could be seen in
Table 3.
3.3 Determining value of Occurrence, Severity, Detection for Every Risk andCalculation of Risk Priority Number (RPN)
After the risk has been identified, the next step is to determine the occurrence, severity, anddetection value for every risks. This step is conducted by brainstorming with the expert tofilling out questioner. The value of occurrence, severity, and detection for every risk could
be seen in Table 4.
Calculation of RPN is an important step in FMEA because from this calculation the risk could
be prioritized as critical or not. RPN can be calculated by the following formula:
RPN = Occurrence * Severity * Detection(1)

After calculating RPN value for every risks, the critical risks can be determined. That criticalrisks will be further analysed as the first step of treatment action for maintaining theperformance of GPRS equipment. Risk is categorized as critical risk if the RPN value ishigher than the critical value. RPN critical value is determined by calculating the average of
RPN value from all of risks.
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

=

986
31

(2)
= 31.81As a result of the expert discussion and considering the RPN critical value, 8 critical risks are
obtained. These risks have RPN value with more than 31,81, which is the RPN critical value.
Those critical risks are:
- EMM Problem, RPN= 125- GGSN-Radius Link Failure, RPN= 100- DNS Software Problem, RPN= 80- GI Link Problem, RPN= 64- GGSN Software Problem, RPN= 48- Radius Software Problem, RPN= 40

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-

SS7 Signalling Link Down, RPN
SS7 Routing Error, RPN

= 36
= 36

Table 4 Occurrence, Severity, Detection and RPN Value for Every Risks
Risk Risk on Core Network of GPRSO S D RPN
ID
Equipment
1
SGSN Hardware Problem
1 4 3
12
2
HLR Hardware Problem
1 4 3
12
3
SGSN Software Problem
1 3 3
9
4
SS7 signaling link down
3 4 3
36
5
BSS link failure
3 3 3
27
6
SS7 routing error
3 3 4
36
7
GGSN Hardware Problem
1 4 4
16
8
Radius hardware problem
1 4 5
20
9
GGSN Software problem
3 4 448
10 Radius sofware problem
2 4 5
40
11 GGSN-radius link failure
4 5 5 100
12 High ISRAU failure
2 3 4
24
Not enough address allocation on
13
2 3 3
18
GGSN
14 EMM problem
5 5 5 125
15 SACC problem
1 4 5
20
16 DNS hardware problem
2 4 3
24
17 DNS software problem
4 4 580
18 GN link failure
1 4 4
16
19 GI link problem
4 4 464
20 Free charging mentari GPRS
1 5 5
25
Fraud free internet access via
21
1 5 5
25
handset22 Spoofing
1 5 5
25
23 Data manipulation
1 5 5
25
Data interception/unauthorized
24
1 5 5
25
access to confidential data
25 Exposure to the internet
1 5 5
25
26 SNMP problem
2 1 2
427 Lack number of personnel
2 3 530
28 Lack of personnel capability
2 3 5
30

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3.4 Risk Analysis
At the beginning of the risk analysis process, fishbone diagram is constructed. Fishbone
diagram is a tool for probing the root cause of a problem based on 5M & 1E (Man/Personnel,
Method, Machine, Material, Measurement, and Environment) classification. According to
the questioner result of this research, the root cause of the critical risk could be cut down into
3 classifications; method, personnel, and equipment. The result of this fishbone diagram thenwill be further narrowed down by employing Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) to obtain the causeof basic event of the top event (critical risk).
FTA is a graphical model which consists of many parallel and sequence of fault combinations
as it shown in Figure 2 for EMM problem. Among these fault combinations, one of them
may be the original cause of the failure event. In this research, critical risk is determined as
the top event. Eventually, the basic event which is the root cause of the top event, or thecritical risk, is obtained and right action could be executed for handling the critical risk. Afterdiscovering the root cause of the critical risk, then the right treatment actions could bedetermined and the treatment cost could also be calculated.
EMM Problem

Service malfunction

Misconfiguration

Operator does not maintainequipment periodically

Late inupgrade/update

Human
error

Operator
overload

System Hang

Over
usage

Hard disk
full

Figure 2 FTA of EMM Problem
After creating the FTA, then Cut Set of the FTA is determined to identify basic event of thecritical risk as it shown in Figure 3. Cut set of the fault tree are E1 U E2 U E3 U (E4 U E5).
It means that if event 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 is happened simultaneously, then the top event will
happen. For instance, in EMM problem, the cut set will be as below.
- Top Event: EMM Problem- Basic event 1: Late on update/upgrade software- Basic event 2: Human error- Basic event 3: Operator overload- Basic event 4: Over usage- Basic event 5: Hard disk full

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Top EventA

E1 U E2 U E3 U (E4 U E5)

B

E1

E2

E3

E4

E4 U E5

E5

Figure 3 Cut Set of EMM Problem
Subsequently, after obtaining the basic event of every critical risks, then the treatment action
is constructed. Treatment action is created by mitigating the risk in 2 ways, which are mitigate
the risk probability and mitigate the impact of the risk. Risk impact mitigation is done bydoing remedy action. Remedy action is the first action which is performed by the operator
when the risk happened. In order to obtain effective remedy actions, the following suggestion
is proposed based on data analysis and evaluation:
a. Create automatic monitoring system for every equipment in GPRS infrastructureb. Create standardization of problem solving action
c. Manage historical problem
After that, if the operator is still unable to solve the problem, then the risk could be transferredto the vendor (Risk Transfer). Moreover, to lessen the risk probability, the following
suggestions are made based on the result of FTA:
a. Provide more operator for handling operators’ overload problem
b. Provide training for every person in charge for solving the current problem
c. Upgrade the hard disk
d. Ask vendor commitment to decrease the tardiness in upgrading the equipment
informatione. Perform routine maintenance for hardware and change broken part immediately
f. Coordinate with other division about IP routing, transmission, hardware HLR, androuter internet gateway problem
3.5 Optimization of Treatment Cost Allocation using OptQuest Simulation
OptQuest is one of functions in Crystal Ball. It can be used to determine cost allocation whichgive optimal benefit. The following are the main terms which is used in OptQuest :a. Risk cost/revenue loss: cost / revenue loss incurred when the risk happened.
b. Risk coverage: risk cost / revenue loss that can be covered with given treatment costallocation.
c. Decision: determinant variable of how much budget which is allocated for any risk.
The value is 1 if the budget is allocated for the risk.
d. Advantage: (risk coverage – treatment cost) * decision

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To run the simulation, data of revenue loss and treatment cost is required. For the purpose ofrevenue loss determination, the critical risks are classified into 3 groups. The first one is
EMM problem refer to revenue loss historical data which is captured on GGSN equipmentduration based; the second is DNS software problem, GI link failure, GGSN software
problem, and radius software problem refer to revenue loss historical data which is captured
on GGSN equipment-volume based; and the last on is SS7 signalling link down and SS7
routing error based on expert judgment. According to data collection, following are data ofrevenue loss for every critical risks.
a. EMM problem (normal distribution):- Mean: Rp. 214,870,286- Standard deviation: 43856839
b. DNS software problem, GI link failure, GGSN software problem, and radius software
problem (normal distribution) :- Mean: Rp. 345,108,000- Standard deviation: 87460770
c. SS7 signalling link down and SS7 routing error (uniform distribution) :- Maximum: Rp. 360,000,000- Minimum: Rp. 12,000,000
Treatment cost is collected from cost of treatment action which is driven from FTA. Total
treatment cost for all of critical risks is Rp505.000.000, and the detail is shown as below :- EMM Problem: Rp. 130,000,000- DNS Software Problem: Rp. 20,000,000- GI Link Failure: Rp. 20,000,000- GGSN Software Problem: Rp. 130,000,000- Radius Software Problem: Rp. 55,000,000- SS7 Routing Error: Rp. 50,000,000- SS7 Signalling Link Down
: Rp. 100,000,000- GGSN-Radius Link Failure: Fund allocation for GGSN-Radius link failure does
not run in this simulation because that problem is connected with GGSN software
problem and radius software problem are handled, which if those problems are handled
then automatically GGSN-Radius link failure will solve.
Before running the simulation, variable of assumption, decision, and forecast is determined.
Assumption variable is an uncertainty value which have certain distribution. In this model,
risk cost/revenue loss is the assumption variable because the value is uncertain. Then,decision variable is budget allocation that is given for risk treatment. Lastly, the forecast
variable is formula cell which connects the assumption cell and the decision cell. Thisvariable is the total advantage which is wanted to be maximized.
Optimization’s constraint in this simulation is treatment cost allocation need to be less thanthe budget (treatment cost allocation < budget). It is assumed that company provide 4
conditions of budgeting, they are < 25%, < 50%, < 75%, and 100% from total treatment cost.

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Table 5 The Result of Treatment Cost Allocation using OptQuest Simulation
Critical
Risk
EMM
problemDNSsoftwareproblemGI link
problem
GGSN
softwareproblemRadiussoftwareproblemSS7
signaling
link down
SS7 routing
error
Sum of Cost(∑)

< 25% fromtotal treatment
cost

Condition of Budget Availability< 50% from total < 75% from total 100% from totaltreatment costtreatment costtreatment cost

Rp. 0

Rp. 0

Rp. 4,704,900

Rp.
130,000,000

Rp. 20,000,000

Rp. 20,000,000

Rp. 20,000,000

Rp. 20,000,000

Rp. 20,000,000

Rp. 20,000,000

Rp. 20,000,000

Rp. 20,000.000

Rp. 0

Rp. 107,580,000

Rp. 130,000,000

Rp.
130,000,000

Rp. 53,657,000

Rp. 55,000,000

Rp. 55,000,000

Rp. 55,000,000

Rp. 0

Rp. 0

Rp. 99,481,000

Rp.
100,000,000

Rp 32.593.000

Rp 49.727.000

Rp 50,000,000

Rp. 50,000,000

Rp.126,250,000 Rp.252,307,000

Rp.378,749,900

Rp.505,000,000

The next step is running the OptQuest simulation. Simulation is conducted for every
condition. Every simulation is run for 1000 trials. As the result, the simulation yield isdifferent for every condition.
Series1,
100%
Series1,
from
<=
75%
Total
…
from
Series1,
Total
…
<=
50%
Series1,
from<= Total
25% …
from
Total…

Figure 4 Total Advantage on Every Condition of Budget Availability

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Based on the simulation result, it is shown in Figure 4 that the higher the budget allocation,
the higher the total advantage. In detail, the following are the result of cost allocation forevery condition using OptQuest simulation.
- For budget with < 25% from total treatment cost, GI link problem and DNS software
problem will receive the full budget. Maximum total advantage is Rp. 1,135,316,690.
- For budget with < 50% from total treatment cost, GI link problem, DNS software
problem, and radius software problem will receive the full budget. Maximum total
advantage is Rp. 1,426,641,543.
- For budget with < 75% from total treatment cost, GI link problem, DNS software
problem, GGSN software problem, radius software problem, and SS7 routing error will
receive the full budget. Maximum total advantage is Rp. 1,726,020,586.
- For budget with 100% from total treatment cost, all of critical risks will receive the fullbudget. Total advantage is Rp. 1,810,302,286.
4. CONCLUSION
Based on the result of the above data analysis, it could be concluded that:a. There are 8 critical risks which is drawn from 28 identified risks. The critical risks
are EMM problem, GGSN-Radius link problem, DNS software problem, GI link
problem, GGSN software problem, Radius software problem, SS7 signalling link
down, and SS7 routing error.
b. Every critical risk will have different treatment action. Suggestions for treatment
action are proposed based on 2 methods, which are risk mitigation and risk transfer.
c. The result of cost allocation using OptQuest simulation can be seen in analysis data.
In the nutshell, the higher cost allocation that is given to treat critical risks the higher
the maximum total advantage.
5. REFERENCE
Carbone, T & Tippett, D. (2004). Project Risk Management Using the Project Risk FMEA.
Engineering Management Journal. Vol 16, No.4. hal 31.
Crystal Ball® 7.2.2 User Manual.
Harold Kerzner,(20060. Project Management, A System Approach to Planning, Scheduling,
and Controlling 9th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Information Risk Management. GPRS/3G Services : Security. O2 White Paper.
Project Management Institute. (2000) .A Guide to The Project Management Body ofKnowledge : PMBOK Guide. Pennsylvania : Project Management Institute, Inc.

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SUPPLIER PERFORMANCE EVALUATION METHODS USING DATAENVELOPMENT ANALYSIS BANKER, CHARNES, COOPER MODEL AND
SUPER EFFICIENCY MODEL IN PUMPING UNIT PRODUCER
Yadrifil1, Irmawati Ulfah2, Annisa Marlin Masbar Rus3
Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Indonesia
Kampus Baru UI Depok, 16424, Indonesia
E-mail: 1 yadrifil@eng.ui.ac.id, 2 irmawati_ulfah@yahoo.com,
3annisamarlinmr@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Performance of raw materials suppliers affects the productivity of firms. Performance isthe primary information for management decisions in managing a cooperative
relationship to a supplier. So the term evaluation is needed to monitor the performanceof suppliers. Commonly, evaluation conducted with limitation so that the result could
not satisfy improvement targets. This study attempts to propose a supplier performance
evaluation using the method of Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) which is a relative
efficiency measurement method based on linear programming. Supplier evaluation
results then enhanced by ranking the suppliers using the Super Efficiency DEA model.
This model can determine the ranking of suppliers even if the BCC model consider it asefficient. Supplier ranking aims to determine the most ideal supplier of the overall
supplier as a benchmark for future evaluation assessment. As a result, four out of six
suppliers are considered as efficient. Moreover, by applying the Super Efficiency DEA,
rank orders of the suppliers are found as well.
Key Words: Data Envelopment Analysis; model of Banker, Charnes, Cooper; supplierevaluation; Super Efficiency DEA.
1 INTRODUCTION
Efficiency concept of Supply Chain Management (SCM) is consuming the attention ofacademics and practitioners in recent years. Developing from the transportation andphysical distribution channels (Croom et al., 2000), SCM has such authority to purchaseand managing inventory. Parts purchasing played a key role in cost reduction andsupplier selection. This authority is a strategic role of SCM to reach a competitive
advantage, especially for companies that spend inventories of materials and components
in a high percentage (Saen, 2007).
The development of SCM concept is the concept of SRM (Supply RelationshipManagement) which is a process that defines how companies interact with suppliers. As
the name suggests, this is the mirror image of customer relationship management(CRM). Just as companies need to develop relationships with customers, companies
also need to foster relationships with suppliers. The desired result from this relationshipis a win-win solution where both generate benefits for both parties.

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As the condition of the ideal 100% efficiency is extremely difficult to obtain inindustrial sector, this situation also occurred in Supply Chain Management (SCM). This
ideal condition is very difficult to be achieved because there are factors that affectsupply chain processes, they are the specification and the size of the material / raw
materials used, time of booking, and the high price of materials/feedstocks. In the caseof pumping unit companies, scarcity of raw material has implications for high prices.
Moreover, late delivery of raw materials can lead to disruption of production processes
such as the declining number of production and delays in production schedules. These
events are more likely to disadvantage pumping unit industry because they work basedon contract.
Therefore, since raw material plays an important role for the company to start theirprocess, considerate decision need to be made to evaluate and choose a reliable supplier.
In order to address this challenge which, in this particular research, is faced by thepumping unit company, this research attempt to recommend alternative for supplierperformance evaluation. Due to the ideal efficiency is very difficult to achieve, then theefficiency is measured in relative terms. This means that an object is not compared to
the 100% efficient, but compared with the efficiency of other objects. The method that
accommodate this concept is known as Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). Thismethod is a relative efficiency measurement method based on linear programming
techniques by using some of the objects of research that has the same characteristics.
2

METHODOLOGY

2.1 Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)
Besides the previous three methods, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) was first
introduced by Charnes, Cooper, Rhodes (1978). It is a development of the concept of"Technical Efficiency" which was introduced by Farrell (1957) (Tao Chun-hai, 2010).
DEA is a linear programming techniques (nonparametric methods) used to measure therelative efficiency of a homogeneous Decision Making Unit (DMU) in the use ofmultiple inputs to produce multiple outputs (State Service Provision, 1997)
DEA measures the relative efficiency of each DMU compared with other DMU that ison efficient frontier. Efficient frontier is determined by the most efficient DMU among
all DMUs based on the principle of Pareto optimal. This principle states that a particular
DMU is efficient if there is no other DMU or combination of DMUs which is able toproduce at least the same amount of output, using the same amount of inputs or fewer.
On the contrary, a DMU is called Pareto inefficient if there are other DMU or
combination of other DMUs that is able to produce at least the same amount of output,
using the same amount of inputs or fewer.
In term of mathematical expression, assume that there are n decision making units(DMU), which will be evaluated, j = 1, .., n. There are s outputs (r = 1, ..., s) and the
input m (i = 1, ..., m). DMU efficiency scores to evaluate the p can be obtained by:

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(1)

Constrained to :Where:
s = number of output
m = number of input
ur = weight for r-th output
vi = weight for i-th input
xij = value from input i-th using by j-th DMU
yrj = value from output r-th using by j-th DMU
2.2 Banker, Charnes, Cooper Model
DEA model results that provide scalable return variable is called BCC model; Banker,
Charnes and Cooper (1984). In this model, ur and vi should be positive. Mathematicalmodel for this BCC model is shown as follows in Table 1.
Table 1. Model BCC

Input Oriented
Max : h o su r y io  C or 1

Constrained to :
m



r 1

Min : h o 

m

v x

i io

i 1

Constrained to:su y  C 1v i x io  1

r io

o

r 1

i 1
s

Output Orientedu r y rj 

ur , vi ≥ ε

m


i 1

v i x ij  C o  0

s


r 1

u r y rj 

ur , vi ≥ εmv x  C  0
i ij

o

i 1

2.3 Super Efficiency Model
When the evaluated DMU is not included in the reference set of measurement models,
the results of the DEA solution is called super-efficiency DEA model. The concept ofsuper efficiency was first proposed by Andersen and Petersen and its use is supported
because its simplicity and its benefits. Based on this concept, it becomes possible torank all the units, even the efficient units. With this concept, it is possible to rank all theunits, even the efficient units. The idea of super-efficiency concept is to let the DMU
efficiency values were observed more than one or 100%.

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Table 2 Super Efficiency Model
Input Oriented
Output Oriented
Min γ
Max 
Constrained to:Constrained=0γ, ≥ 0, j ≠ 0

γ,

to:

=0
≥ 0, j ≠ 0

Zhu (1996) and Seiford and Zhu (1998) then developed a super-efficiency model above
to determine the stability of efficiency that is useful for sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity
analysis is designed to study the effect of the change (disruption) in the linear model
parameters programming towards optimum solution. In other words, super-efficiency
DEA model can also be used in detecting extreme efficient DMUs (Thrall, 1996).
Assume that there are n DMU. Each DMUj (j = 1,2,3,..., n) consumes the input vector x j
to produce output vector yj. Based on the basic DEA model given in Seiford and Zhu(1999), super-efficiency DEA model can be expressed as it can be seen in Table 2 (Zhu,
2009).
In the super-efficiency model, the analyzed DMU were not included in the calculation). So, it is possible that the result of the analysis isof efficiency optimization (infeasible which then cause the optimal solution becomes difficult to be found.
Table 3 Equation of One Super Efficiency Model
Orientation
Equation
Input
OutputAs a solution to infeasibility which happened, Chen integrate γo (value of input oriented
super efficiency) and τo (value of output oriented super efficiency) into one superefficiency score (Shapiro, 2007). For example, we can determine the weight and theweight γo as wγ dan the weight τo as wτ where wγ + wτ = 1 and calculate the one superefficiency with formula in Table 3.

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3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Selection of Decision Making Units (DMU)
DMU to be analyzed is the suppliers who are registered to the Approved Supplier List
(ASL) for the company which indicates that these suppliers are reliable supplier because
they have had long cooperation relationship with the company. Following in Table 4 isthe list of material suppliers for equal angle bar 50 x 50 x 5 mm which are suggested tobe evaluated and included in the ASL.
.
Table 4 List of DMU analyzed
DMUj
Name of Supplier
1
SAPTA ASIEN MID-EAST
2
KUALA ELOK
3
SINARINDO MEGAHPERKASA, PT
4
LESTARI ERA GEMILANG,
CV
5MENTARI PARAMITRA, PT
6
SURYA PERKASAMANDIRI, PT
3.2 Selection of Input and Output Variables
Input variable in the DEA are all supports that are used by suppliers as sources to
produce output. While output variables are the output of resources which has gone
through transformation process by the supplier.
Selection of input and output variables are generally not far from the standard criteria
which has been set by the company in evaluating suppliers. In other words, after going
through interviews with purchasing sub unit combined with some insight fromliterature, it was agreed that the input and output variables which will be analyzed
include product quality, delivery, price, and service. Where the input variable includes
price factor while the output variable encompasses service, product quality and delivery.
3.3 DEA Model Selection Used
The model used in this research oriented to model input or output maximization. This
choice is based on the purchasing sub-unit consideration that gives higher priority to thecriteria of quality, performance and service rather than the price criteria. In this study, it
is assumed that increases in price do not always result in improved levels of quality,
performance and service delivery in proportion. This assumption is called variable
return-to-scale (VRS) because this assumption is better suited to applications in the realconditions.
3.4 Data Collection and Discussion
Data collected with requirement that all suppliers have the historical order record within
the range of data collection time. Since the nature of the production that is applied isbased on job order, then the production of pumping units can vary in numbers

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depending on existing orders or tender within a year. Therefore, in this study, it isdetermined that order data which will be processed comes from a period of three years
as it can be seen in Table 5 for all six suppliers.
Table 5. Data of Supplier Evaluation
Suppli Price Quality
DeliveryServiceser(%)(%)
Performance
(%)
(%)
1
93,34 100
100
66,67
2
100 98,83
85,67
73,33
3
79,70 99,08
93,34
68,89
4
66,56 78,35
72,03
73,33
5
98,89 100
100
75,56
6
65,57 98,18
77,27
77,78
The next step is to process raw data from suppliers using the selected DEA model. DEA
model combine weights that represent management's assessment of the relative
importance towards input and output variables. The process of this DEA model isconducted using Microsoft Excel Solver software 2007.
As the result of the process, it can be seen from Table 6 that the efficiency scores for
supplier 1, 3, 5 and 6 are considered efficient. Besides the efficiency, other results arealso generated by the DEA is a benchmark for inefficient suppliers. This list contains
information about efficient DMU as the benchmark and the appropriate intensity foreach DMU. Benchmark results from DEA are presented in Table 7.
Table 6. Supplier’s Efficiency Score
DMU Efficienc
Benchmarky ScoreDMU (Intensity)
1
1,0000―1(0,328); 3(0,058);
2
0,75516(0,613)31,0000―4
0,98516 (1)51,0000―6
1,0000―In addition to the benchmark, DEA also provides information about the value of slack
for inefficient suppliers as shown in Table 7. This value represents the shortage of
output variables or excessive use of variable inputs. In other words, since the usedmodel in this study try to maximize output, this value can be interpreted as lack of
output. The value of this slack then can be used as evidence-based reason forrecommending improvement for targeted suppliers who are less efficient.

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DMU
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Table 7. Slack Value
Price
Quality Deliver
{S}
{S}
y {S}
0,0000 0,0000 0,0000
0000,0000 0,0000
0,
0
0
00000
0,0000 0,0000 0,0000
0000.0000 0,1983 0,0524
0000,0000 0,0000 0,0000
0000,0000 0,0000 0,0000
0000,0000 0,0000 0,0000000Services {S}0,000000,002830,000000,044500,000000,000000,00000

In accordance with earlier decisions, the orientation which is used is the input
orientation as it shown in Table 8. But the obtained result shows the occurrence of
infeasible model for calculation of supplier the 5th and 6th. Infeasibility occurs when acollection of other suppliers that are observed do not achieve efficient condition because
the observed DMU weights is not included into the set of references. If this happens,then it can be concluded that the observed DMU is an extreme point which means thatthe supplier has an extreme value of efficiency and do not have a reference input or
output when measured using super-efficiency DEA model.
Table 8. Result of Input Oriented Super Efficiency Model
Input Oriented Super
DMU
Efficiency (γo)
Sinarindo

Megah

Perkasa, PT

1,0595

Sapta Asien Mid-East

0,7551

Mentari Paramitra, PT

1,0779Surya Perkasa Mandiri,PT

0,9851

Lestari Era Gemilang,

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Infeasible happens cause problems in determining the ranking of suppliers. One solutionthat can be done in completing infeasibility is introduced by Yao Chen (2004). Chen
developed a model where both model input and output-oriented VRS super-efficiency isused to rank the efficient DMUs. Table 9 shows the results of calculation of One Super
Efficiency model and ranking suppliers.
Table 9. Supplier Rating Result
One Super
DMU

Efficiency

Ranking

1

1,038707655

2

20,860084695

6

3

1,067547103

1

40,992555

5

1,038444971

3

6

1

4

4 CONCLUSION
Based on the results of supplier performance evaluation by using Data Envelopment
Analysis, the basic model of Banker, Charnes, and Cooper (BCC), while ranking
suppliers using Super Efficiency DEA model on manufacturing companies pumping
unit, the authors can conclude a few important points as follows:
1. Supplier performance evaluation with DEA method that uses the price criteria as a
input variable and service, product quality and delivery criteria as output variables.
From six suppliers of iron elbow 50 x 50 x 50 mm component, it is obtained thatfour suppliers are considered as efficient. The four suppliers are suppliers 1, 3, 5
and 6, while the supplier 2 and 4 are classified as less efficient suppliers.
2. Continuing from the supplier evaluation, the rank order of overall supplier isdetermined using Super efficiency DEA model. These ratings can be used as areference for managerial information in selecting the ideal supplier for future longterm cooperation.
3. Following is the obtained rank, descending from first to last rank:
1) Sinarindo Megah Perkasa, PT
2) Sapta Asien Mid-East3) Paramitra Mentari, PT
4) Surya Perkasa Mandiri, PT
5) Sustainable Era Gemilang, CV and6) Kuala Elegance

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5. REFERENCES
Chen, Y., Motiwalla, L. and Riaz Khan, M., 2004. Using super-efficiency DEA toevaluate financial performance of e-business initiative in the retail industry.
International Journal of Information Technology & Decision Making, 3(02), pp.337351.
Croom, S.R., Romano, P. & Giannakis, M., 2000. Supply Chain Management: An
analytical framework for critical literature review. European Journal of Purchasing
and Supply Management, 6, 67-83.
R. Nugroho Purwantoro, 2003. “Penerapan Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) dalam
Kasus Pemilihan Produk Inkjet Personal Printer”, Usahawan, No. 10, Th. XXXII, p.
37.
Robert M. Monczka, Robert B. Handfield, & Larry Giunipero., 2009. Purchasing and
Supply Chain Management, South-Western : Mason, USA, p. 311-313
Shapiro, J., (2007), Modeling The Supply Chain, Second ed.Thomson Brooks Cole.
Steering Committee for the Review of Commonwealth/State Service Provision, 1997.
Data Envelopment Analysis: A technique for measuring the efficiency of government
service deliver, Canberra: AGPS.
Tao Chun-hai, 2010. Review on productivity measurement of medical services Based ondata envelopment analysis. International Conference on Financial Theory andEngineering, pp. 323
Zhu, Joe, 2009. Quantitative Models for Performance Evaluation and Benchmarking.
Springer Science+Business Media: Worcester, p. 206

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ENGAGING COMMUNITY IN DEVELOPING ELECTRICAL WIND POWER
IN REMBITAN VILLAGE, CENTRAL LOMBOKTeti Zubaidah1, Bulkis Kanata2, Made Sutha Yadnya3
Research Group on Applied Electromagnetic Technology
Electrical Engineering Department, University of Mataram, Jl. Majapahit 62 Mataram,
Lombok – INDONESIA
1
E-mail: tetizubaidah@unram.ac.id, 2uqikanata@te.ftunram.ac.id,
3
msyadnya@unram.ac.id
ABSTRACTThe Rembitan village is located in the Central Lombok district, with topography of hills on
elevations of 250 - 300 m. A grant for community service (Ipteks bagi Masyarakat - IbM) is
focused on this village towards an energy independent village by means of electricity fromwind energy. These activities are intended to strengthen the relationship between the
University of Mataram and the village community, as well as to empower the local
communities to supply their electricity needs. The activities are considered very
appropriate, considering that Rembitan is close to the South coast of the Lombok island,with high wind energy potential that unexploited up today. Activities will also be in a close
relevance to the needs of local communities, since the availability of electrical energy in thevillage is not yet fully equitable. The provision of an independent electrical energy fromwind power is also expected to be a solution for social and economical problems. A windturbine with capacity of 1 kWp has been installed sucessfully in Rembitan village. By using
additional installation of batteries, inverter, and charger controller (MPPT), it can be used
to supply lighting loads and water pump. In the meantime, the University of Mataram has
operated the Lombok Geomagnetic Observatory since 2014 in Rembitan village, in
cooperation with the Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Germany and theGovernment of Central Lombok District. Considering the importance of this observatory
for the purpose of earthquake mitigation, it is indispensable for realizing mutualism
relationship with the local communities to sustain its operations. Following some otherprevious community services in Rembitan village, the current activities through IbM 2016
should also be a part for strengthening the mutual relationship.
Keywords: Wind power; Electricity; IbM; Rembitan village; Lombok.
1. INTRODUCTION
Rembitan village is located in the southern part of Lombok island, 18 km from Praya (thecapital city of Central Lombok District), around 10 km from the south coast of Lombok.
Figure 1 shows the location of Rembitan village on the map of Indonesian territory.
Topographic of this village consist of many hills with elevations of 250-300 m, covering
area of 1475 hectare, inhabitant by 2146 families. Most of populations of this village arefarmers, which are actually not familiar with electrical power generations and installation.

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Figure 1 Location of Rembitan village in Central Lombok district, marked with apin point on the map of Indonesian territory.
The wind energy potential of Lombok island in West Nusa Tenggara (NTB) province ismiddle, with average wind velocity of 4-5 m/s. The data are based on measurements in 110
locations over Indoneisian regions, issued by the Indonesian Aviation and Aeronautical
Agency (LAPAN), as shown in Table 1 and Figure 2. Among the locations that have beenused as a pilot project of wind power plant is in the village of Selayar (East Lombok), with
the installation of wind turbines with a capacity of 7 x 1 kW, which can be used forhousehold electricity and public lighting.
Meanwhile, along the southern coast of the Lombok island, the wind energy potential are
relatively high, as shown in Figure 3 (Zubaidah et al., 2012). Optimal wind velocities occur
mainly in the afternoon, which can reach 6 m/s. If the wind potential is optimally used, it
will generate enough energy to meet the needs of small household and public lighting.
While for small-scale wind turbine, an annual average of wind velocity between 2.5 - 4.0
m/s is required (http://www.library.ohiou.edu/indopubs/1994/10/19/0001.html).
A community service through “Ipteks bagi Masyarakat” (IbM) grant at this time is focusedon Rembitan village. The specific aim is community empowerment through self generatingof electricity supply by means of wind energy. These activities are intended to fulfill small
scale electricity needs of community, are considered very appropriate, since Rembitan
village is in an area close to the South coast of the Lombok island, where the wind potential
is quite high but has not been utilized up today. The activities have close relevance to theneeds of local communities, since the availability of electricity in the village is not yet fully
equitable. Only view peoples who live along the major roads that have access to electricity
supplied by the National Electric Company (PLN), while poor peoples who are staying on
top of the hills still have no access to electricity services. The electricity is also still veryfrequently outages, especially at night, which can last for more than eight hours.
Meanwhile, the road over the hills at night is very dark, because there is no street lighting.
These conditions lead to a lot of crime at night, such as the loss of livestock. The conditionis also not conducive particularly for children's learning activities. Public facilities, such as
mosques or prayer rooms, are optimally less at night, because of the lack of lighting.
Therefore, providing electrical energy from wind power is expected to be a solution to theabove problems and also be a way to solve other social and economical problems.

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No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Table 1 Wind energy potential over Indonesian regions (Soeripno, 2007)
ProvinceNTT
NTB & Bali
Maluku & Papua
Sulawesi
Java & Madura
Sumatera
Kalimantan
Others
Total

Number of
Measurement
43
10
6
19
12
5
2
9
110

Wind Velocity
Low
Middle
10
23
2
7
4
2
8
6
1
4
2
3
1
1
-

High
10
1
5
7
9

Figure 2 Map of wind energy potential over Indonesian regions (Soeripno, 2007).

Figure 3 Measuremets of wind velocity at Kidang village, in the southern coast of
Lombok island (Zubaidah et al., 2012)

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In the meantime, the University of Mataram has operated the Lombok Geomagnetic
Observatory in Rembitan village since 2014, in cooperation with the Deutsches
GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Germany and the Government of Central Lombok district.
Data from this observatory is integrated internationally and will be used for earthquake
mitigation purposes. Given the importance of this observatory and its sustainable operation,
it is indispensable to keep mutualism relationship with the local communities of Rembitan
village. To maintain a good relationship between the University of Mataram andcommunity of Rembitan village, several community service activities have been done
previously, including sacrifice on Eid Adha, Greening the land, Social Charity, and Foster
Children program. Besides socializations have been organized, to introduce the Lombok
Geomagnetic Observatory and utilization of biogass energy (Zubaidah et al., 2013), andalso to introduce wind energy potential (Zubaidah et al, 2015). The current activities
through IbM 2016 should also be a part for strengthening the mutual relationship.
2. METHODOLOGY
Based on the above situations, the lists of some problems to be resolved are:1.

How to exploit the potential of wind energy to fulfil the electricity needs of households
and public lighting in the Rembitan village.

2.

How to do survey and mapping of wind potential, to select the most appropriate
location in the Rembitan village for running a 1 kW wind turbine.

3.

How to invite the local community of Rembitan village to play an active role in theimplementation of wind potential survey and construction of wind turbine.

4.

How to raise public awareness of Rembitan village to maintain public facilities, mainly
the constructed wind turbine and the Lombok Geomagnetic Observatory.

To achieve the expected targets, it will be pursued through several phases of activity:
1.

Survey on the field, such as measuring and recording wind velocity for a few days insome hilly areas that are physically demonstrated as potential locations for theplacement of wind turbines. Data recording is not adequate if it is carried out only for aday, because the wind velocity varies with time and is not the same for each month(Musyafa et al., 2011; Soeripno and Murti, 2014)2.

Socialization of development plan of wind turbine to the local community.

3.

Construction and installation of wind power plants, including the establishment ofwind turbines, installation of battery and inverter, and other control equipment.

4.

Maintenance training for local youth groups, relating to metering procedures andtrouble shooting.

5.

Evaluations on a regular basis (every month), with the involvement of the local youth
groups who have been trained.

6.

Reporting the results of activities to the Indonesian Ministry of Research and Higher
Education, and produce a scientific publication on a seminar.

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Discussion for planning activities with the local community
Before we start field activities, we have organized discussions with local community who
will be directly involved in the implementation of activities. Discussions were held with theaim to achieve mutual understanding and commitment, as well as to explain the purposeand objective of activities, in order to have a full support of local people. The head of
Bontor sub-village be a mediator of the discussions, which were attended by the chairman
and members of the local youth group. Discussions were held at the residence of the subvillage head on 10 August 2016, as the documentation in Figure 4.
3.2 Field survey for best placement of the wind turbine
Field surveys have been conducted to estimate the wind potential over some hilly areas thatare physically demonstrated as potential locations for the placement of wind turbines. The
head of Bontor sub-village and some representatives of local community were actively
involved in the survey, since it was needed to determine the ownership status of thelocations, as well as to give permission to use the location for IbM activities. The
documentation of survey activities is in Figure 5. One among the surveyed locations will bechosen as the most suitable place, as qualified by criteria: elevation and flatness of thelocation, stable velocity and direction of winds, ease of access to transport for construction
and installation, located close to population who need electricity, safe from potential
irresponsible parties, absence of problems in land ownership and permit for its use.

Figure 4 Discussion with the local youth group of Rembitan village,
mediated by the head of Bontor sub-village.

Figure 5 Survey for choosing the most suitable location.

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3.3 Preparation of equipment and materials
Preparation of equipment and materials has been carried out in the New and Renewable
Energy Laboratory of Engineering Faculty, University of Mataram, such as checking thewind turbine components, including details of their number and actual conditions. It was
found that the steel frames are needed for repainting to avoid the possibility of rust(considering that the location which is quite close to the coastal area). Figure 6 and Figure 7
show the activities carried out. It was also noted that it is still necessary for procurement ofsome additional components, so that the electrical energy generated by the wind turbine canbe used to serve the load of lighting and water pumps. The additional components needed
are a 1-phase inverter to power 1000 VA, batteries for energy storage with a capacity of 2 x
100 Ah, a 24 volts charger controller MPPT to avoid over charging on the battery, power
cable for connecting the wind turbine to the electrical panel and battery, as well as theterminal end of the electric socket that can be used to take the electrical power.
3.4 Installation of foundation
Upon completion of equipment and materials are prepared, we performed the installation of
turbine foundation. The planning were done directly at the predetermined location, together
with the local community who will be involved, to ensure that the foundation will be
installed correctly. Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the activities carried out.

Figure 6 Preparation of equipment at the New and Renewable Energy Laboratory.

Figure 7 Re-painting of the steel frames at the Structural Laboratory.

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Figure 8 Planning for turbine foundation together with the local community.

Figure 9 Turbine foundation which has been constructed perfectly by the local community.
3.5 Testing of Generator
The testing was carried out to ensure that the generator can actually produce electricity as
expected. It was conducted at the New and Renewable Energy Laboratory of theEngineering Faculty, University of Mataram. The testing was done in the form of assemblyof all components of the wind turbine, and voltage measurements on the generator output
terminals when the turbine was rotated. Figure 10 shows the activities carried out.
3.6 Construction of wind turbine
Construction of wind turbine was done for three full days on 2 - 4 October 2016 by IbM
team together with the local community of Rembitan village. The activity began with theraising of piles, consisting of three high steel iron frames with a total height of 11 (eleven)meter. It followed by the installation of a generator at the top of the pile, and installation of
blades and wind turbine head. Figure 11 shows the construction activities carried out, andFigure 12 shows the results.

Figure 10 Testing of generator at the New and Renewable Energy Laboratory.

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Figure 11 Construction of wind turbine which has been done by IbM team together withthe local community of Rembitan village.

Figure 12 Results of wind turbine construction.
3.7 Electrical installation
After succesful construction of the wind turbine and it has been in stable operation for acouple of days, the activities are continued with the installation of electrical panel on 5
October 2016. Figure 13 shows the activities carried out. The installation was done by IbM
team, and the local people were involved to help for making simple installation. Activities
began by pulling the power cord from the wind turbines to the electrical panel, which isplaced in one of the local houses. The output of this electrical panel is still a direct current(DC), with its magnitude depends on the rotation speed of the turbine. Therefore, it needs toprovide an additional electrical installation, so that the output can be used to supply thelighting load and water pump in the form of alternating current (AC) 220 volts(https://nugrohoadi.wordpress.com/2008/05/03/pembangkit-listrik-tenaga-angin-diindonesia/).

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The electricity from electrical panel that have been installed must be stored in advance on
batteries (accumulators). This activity was resumed on 8 November 2016, with the
installation of a charger controller (MPPT), batteries, and inverter. Local community werealso involved in this activity, so that they understand the function of each part of theinstallation. After the electrical installation is complete, the generated wind energy has beenused to run a bulb light. Figure 14 shows the activities carried out.

Figure 13 Installation of electrical panel on a house of local community.

Figure 14 Installation of additional equipment, and the bulb light is shining.
3.8 Impacts for the community
The above activities are intended to fulfill small scale electricity needs of community,
particularly for poor peoples, which are still have no access to electricity services from thenational electrical company. The availability of electricity at Rembitan village is also still
very frequently outages, and especially at night the road over the hills is very dark, because
there is no street lighting. By using electricity from the installed wind turbine, we do hopethat the night situations at the village will be less of crimes and more condusive particularly
for children's learning activities and for public facilities, such as mosques or prayer rooms.
Figure 15 shows the condition of people who will receive the results of the activities.

Figure 15 Local community which will use the electrical power from the wind turbine.

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4. CONCLUSION
The activities of IbM 2016 in Rembitan village has been well done, although not fully
correspond to the expected target date. The activities got very good participations and much
help from the local community, indicating that the engagement process is quite successful.
The results of activities in the form of wind turbine construction must be followed byvarious activities to be undertaken at a later stage. It is very useful to involve students asmuch as possible in community service activities, for transfering of knowledge from one
generation to the next.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank to the Indonesian Ministry of Research and Higher Education, in providing
funding for IbM 2016 entitled “Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Desa Rembitan Menuju
Desa Mandiri Energi Melalui Penyediaan Listrik Dari Energi Angin”.
6. REFERENCES
Musyafa, A., Negara, I.M.Y, Robandi, I., (2011), A Wind Turbine for Low Rated Wind
Speed Region in East Java. International Journal of Academic Research, Volume 3,
Number 5, pp. 353-358, II Part.
Soeripno, M., (2007), Utilization of Wind Energy Conversion System in Indonesia. Jurnal
Ilmiah Teknologi Energi, Volume 1, Number 5, pp. 59-68, ISSN 1858 – 3466.
Soeripno, M., and Murti, N., (2014), Promoting Wind Hybrid Power Generation for
Economic Development in Remote Islands. Proceeding Renewable Energy World Asia
Conference and Expo.
Zubaidah, T., Rosmaliati, Paniran, Sultan, (2012), Solar and Wind Hybrid Power
Generation for the Lombok Geomagnetic Observatory. Progres Report for CApacity
development and strengthening for energy policy formulation and implementation of
Sustainable energy project in INDOnesia (CASINDO).
Zubaidah, T., Kanata, B., Rosmaliati, Paniran, Nababan, S., (2013). Sosialisasi
Pembangunan Observatorium Geomagnetik Lombok dan Energi Biogas di Desa
Rembitan Kab. Lombok Tengah. Laporan Pengabdian Kepada Masyarakat, Fakultas
Teknik Universitas Mataram (in Bahasa).
Zubaidah, T., Kanata, B., Yadnya, M.S., Muvianto, C.M.O., Ramadhani. C., (2015),
Sosialisasi Potensi dan Pemanfaatan Energi Angin di Desa Rembitan, Kec. Pujut, Kab.
Lombok Tengah. Laporan Pengabdian Pada Masyarakat PNBP, Fakultas Teknik
Universitas Mataram (in Bahasa).
http://www.library.ohiou.edu/indopubs/1994/10/19/0001.html.
https://nugrohoadi.wordpress.com/2008/05/03/pembangkit-listrik-tenaga-angin-diindonesia/

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THE 15TH INTERNATONAL CONFERENCE QUALITY IN RESARCH (QIR) 2017

Identification and Characterization of Mangrove Forest in View
of Sustainability Conservation and Management: Mangrove
Identification of Southern Coast Malang Region, East Java,
Indonesia
Erfan Rohadia*, Aida Sartimbulb, Imam Fahrur Rozica,cb

The State Polytechnic of Malang, Jl. Soekarno Hatta No. 9, Malang 65141, Indonesia
University of Brawijaya, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Jl. Veteran No. 16,
Malang 65145, Indonesia

ABSTRACTThe characteristic of Southern of Java coast area is typically rocky beach (rocky shore). Itscharacteristics which are connected directly to the Indian Ocean may affect the ecosystemof flora and fauna therein. The mangrove performs diverse functions and service on an
ecosystem and landscape scale. The important factors for sustainable coastal management
are the both economical values and ecological management as the association functions.
Furthermore, the typical of tropical marine ecology is a chain as a triangular pattern thatmeans each associated with one another such as the coral reefs, the seagrass and mangrove.
Those may have distinct characteristics in the ecosystem. The mangrove in the Southerncoast region of Malang grows scattered with various kind of interesting to do datacollection based on the characteristics of mangrove found in Southeast Asia. This work is acollaboration between The State Polytechnic of Malang with The Faculty of Fisheries andMarine Sciences of University of Brawijaya which attempt to provide helpful informationand integrative condition of mangrove ecosystems in Southern coast of Malang Region.
The information contains in the form of the identification of species, mangrove
biodiversity of the 18 beaches. The research methods of this study based on dataprocessing of satellite image ALOS (AVNIR-2) and Landsat 7. The software ENVI 4.4
and Arc GIS 9.3 are used for data processing. The identification of various mangrove
species using methods of in situ and laboratory observations. However, the satellite datum
must be processed with in situ data so that it provides the informative map with somedensity classification. The results show that the recent mangrove vegetation (forest)
condition in Southern Malang Region is recommended as a prior conservation forsustainability coastal management system. This work also provides the mangrove iBook
format and e-book. The hard copy is obliged to the library flora Malang Regency as asupporting information for Southern Malang Region management system and as theacademic learning process reference for high school students and universities students.
Keywords: Mangrove, Coastal Management, Southern Malang, ALOS, Ecosystem, e-book.

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1. INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is an archipelago country that has the largest mangrove forest in the world(Onrizal, A. et.al., 2009). Mangrove forests are generally found around the coast ofIndonesia and live and grow in locations that have a relationship tidal influence (tidal)
seeping in watersheds that are along the coast (Tarigan, M. S., 2008). The mangrove forest
is an ecosystem with an important role in terms of the ecological and socio-economic
aspects. The mangrove forest is overgrown with forest type mangrove trees (mangrove)
which are typical along the beach or estuary and is influenced by the tide. The mangrove
forest has a dual function and is a very important link in maintaining biological balance in awater cycle (Hogarth, P.J., 1999).
As an ecosystem and natural resources, utilization of mangrove directed to the welfare of
mankind and to realize its utilization in order to be sustainable. the mangrove ecosystemneed to be managed and maintained. Mangrove forest management framework, there are
two main concepts. First, the protection of mangrove forest which is a safeguard against
mangrove forests into mangrove forest conservation. Second, the rehabilitation ofmangrove forests are greening activities performed on land that used to be one of therehabilitation efforts that aim not only to restore the aesthetic value, but the main thing is torestore the ecological function of mangrove forest that has been logged and transferred its
functions to the activity other.
Walters et al., stated that the mangrove forests along the coast and rivers generally provide
habitat for many species of fish (Walters, BB., et.al., 2008). Mangrove forests as one of thewetlands in the tropics with easy access and usability of components of biodiversity andhigh land that has made these resources as tropical endangered resource (Valiela, I., J. L.
et.al., 2001) and became one of the centers of global environmental issues. Increasing
conversion of mangrove forests to agricultural land or fish/ shrimp ponds, causing adecrease in productivity of the ecosystem (Dave, R., 2006). One of the areas in Malang
Region of East Java, which one of still has a fairly extensive mangrove forests is Sinjai.
Management of mangrove forests in this area has been done by the people independently,
given some time ago when they sail into various areas, then upon return they bringmangrove seedlings to then planted around the beach because they believe that mangroves
have many functions, including can withstand strong winds, large waves, and so on. The
increasing tendency of destruction of mangrove forest along with the increasing needs of
local communities, such as felling of mangrove trees were used as firewood for household
use and charcoal to be traded, regardless of the carrying capacity and recovery, as well as
increased activity of search crab seeking mangrove crabs into the region also led toincreased damage to mangrove forests.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODSThe Southern coast Malang Region is located at 8 20 S 112 21 E bordered with Blitar
Region to 8 21 S 112 57 E bordered with Jember Region. The total area of Malang
Region is 3.534,86 km2 with the temperature of rainy season and hot season are 18-23 ºC
and 21-31 ºC, respectively. Thus, the minimum rainfall and maximum rainfall are 201 mm
and 400 mm, respectively.

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2.1. The Malang Coastal Area
Figure 2.1 shows the objects of the coastal Malang Region. The mangrove vegetation are
observed at 18 beaches for two years period.

Figure 2.1 The Malang Coastal Region
2.2. Methods
In this works, the potential of mangrove forests and mangrove forest management strategies
in the coastal of Malang Region are analyzed and mapped. The information contains in theform of the identification of species, mangrove biodiversity of the 18 beaches by two years
scheme. The research methods of this study based on data processing of satellite image
ALOS (AVNIR-2) and Landsat 7. The software ENVI 4.4 and Arc GIS 9.3 are used fordata processing. The identification of various mangrove species using methods of in-situ
and laboratory observations. In the first year, the in-situ data are collected. Then in thesecond year, the in-situ data will be processed the satellite data (Landsat Imagery, 2016,
Santosa, P.B., 2005, Jensen, J.R., 1998).

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 3.1 shows the satellite image of Malang Coastal Region. Since 2013 the South Routehas been developed due to economic strategy management. Consequently, the new objects
tourism has been developed while the communities are growing. However, the mangrove
vegetation is becoming narrower for hundred hectares. Figure 3.2 shows the satellite imageof associated mangrove vegetation domination in Sempu Island and Sendang Biru Area.
The population of residences have been grown for recent years. However, the developmentof marine and fisheries sector at this time become one of the development priorities
announced by the government Malang. The policy was adopted in view of Malang has 18
beaches with a coastline of 77 km and is located in the waters of the Indian Ocean is rich inresources large pelagic fish, such as yellow fin tuna (Thunnus albacares), bigeye tuna(Thunnus obesus), Albakora (Thunnus allalunga), southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus
macoyii), and gray tuna (Thunnus tonggol) and skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis). Based on
the assessment of fish stocks in the Indian Ocean conducted by the National Commission
on stock assessment of Marine fish Resources in 19 981, reported the potential of tuna
resources in the South Java, is estimated at 22,000 tons / year with a production rate of
10,000 tons/ year, meaning the new utilization rate reached 45%. Thus, the prospects fordevelopment is still wide open, which amounted to 55%.
Changes in national development paradigm from land-based economic development into
ocean-based economic development. Marine development platform used Malang Regency
Government's economic development, particularly in South Malang. The Coastal areas ofdevelopment priority due to the center of fisheries in Malang.
The consideration of the coastal areas development need to be planned well, because thecoastal area is an area of transition between marine and terrestrial ecosystems with some
important insights include: 1) Ecological, areas inland were still influenced by theprocesses of the marine, such as tide, intrusion sea water, etc. 2) Administrative, namely theouter limit upstream from the village beach or definitive arbitrary distance (2 km, 20 km, ff.
Of shoreline and 3). Planning: depends on the problem or the substance that became thefocus of the management of coastal areas. Similarly, the processing industry development
planning, in order to be sustainable needs to be adjusted with the existing commodity goodquantity.

Figure 3.1 The satellite image Malang Coastal Region

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Figure 3.2 The satellite image of mangrove distribution at Sempu Island and Sendang Biru
Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4 show the examples of mangrove vegetation Island and mangrove
plantation at Sendang Biru, respectively.
Figure 3.5 shows flowchart of satellite image processing of mangrove vegetation at
Tamban Beach (Sendang Biru area). The verified satellite image data of Landsat 7 ETM+
with field work data at Tamban Beach. The mangrove vegetation has been become
narrower as 5.4 Ha is shown at Table 3.1.

Figure 3.3 Mangrove vegetation at Sendang Biru

Figure 3.4 Mangrove plantation at Sendang Biru

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Satelilte image of Landsat 7 ETM+, longitude
112° 42´ - 112° 43´ and latittude 8° 24´ - 8° 25´Software Envi 4.3 to identify the mangrove
Layer Stacking

Cropping Image
Unsupervised
Classification
Results
Unsupervised Classification
FormatERDAS IMAGINE

Software
ArcGIS 9 formap layout

Validating

GroundTurth

RandomSampling

Digitalization

Layouting

Map Unsupervised
at Object Area

Figure 3.5. Flowchart of unsupervised mapping at Tamban Beach (Sendang Biru area)
Tabel 3.1. Verified satellite image data of Landsat 7 ETM+ with field work data
Class
Mangrove
ForestField
Agriculture
field
Sallow
Water
Sand
Sea
Total

29
4
0

0
16
1

1
0
18

Agriculture
field
0
0
1

0

1

1

16

12

0

0

0
0
45

0
0
21

0
0
18

Mangrove Forest

Field

Sallowwater
0
0
0

Sand Sea

Total

0
0
0

0
0
0

30
20
20

0

2

0

20

0

6

2

0

20

0
0
16

3
0
9

17
0
21

0
20
20

20
20
150

Figure 3.6 shows the map of validated Random Sampling of mangrove vegetation at
Tamban Beach (Sendang Biru area).

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Figure 3.6. Map of validated Random Sampling
Table 3.2 shows the mangrove vegetation which identified in Malang Coastal Region. The
mangrove vegetation is dominated by associated mangrove.
Table 3.2 Mangrove Vegetation Diversity in the South Malang
Index of mangrove vegetation and associated salt tolerant plant species identified from theSouth Malang
No.
Scientific name
FamilyMangrove Flora1.
Acanthus ebracteatus, ilicifolius, volubilis
Acanthaceae
2.
Acrostichum aureum, speciosum
Pteridaceae
3.
Aegialitis rotundifolia
Plumbaginaceae
4.
Aegiceras corniculatum
Myrsinaceae
5.
Avicennia alba, marina, officinalis
Avicenniaceae
Bruguiera cylindrica, gymnorrhiza, hainessi, Rhizophoraceae
6.
parviflora, sexangula
7.
Ceriops decandra, tagal
Rhizophoraceae
8.
Excoecaria agallocha
Euphorbiaceae
9.
Heritiera fomes, littoralis
Sterculiaceae
10. Lumnitzera littorea, racemosa
Combretaceae
11. Kandelia kandel
Rhizophoraceae

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12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.

Nypa fruiticans
Rhizophora apiculate, mucronata
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Sonneratia alba, apetala, caseolaris, griffithii
Xylocarpus granatum,moluccensis
Albizia procera
Amyema mackayense
Bidens pilosa
Brownlowia tersa
Canavalia maritima
Clerodendum inerme
Cynodon dactylon
Cynometra ramiflora
Dalbergia candenatensis
Dalbergia spinosa
Derris scandens, trifoliata
Dolichandrone spathacea
Drymoglossum piloselloides
Eclipta alba,
Eupatorium adoratum
Fimbristylis ferruginea
Finlaysonia abovata
Flagellaria indicata
Hibiscus tiliaceus
Hoya carnaso
Ipomoea alba
Ipomoeae pes-caprae
Leucaena leucocephala
Melastoma villosum
Merope angulata
Paspalum sp
Phoenix paludosa
Pluchea indica
Pongamia pinnata
Sarcolobus globosus
Scaevola taccada
Scirpus sp
Sesbania sp
Tamarix troupii
Vanda sp

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Arecaceae
Rhizophoraceae
Rubiaceae
Aizoaceae
Sonneratiaceae
Meliaceae
Leguminosae
Loranthaceae
Asteraceae
Tiliacea
Leguminosae
Verbenaceae
Poaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Fabaceae
Leguminosae
Bignoniaceae
Polypodiaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Cyperaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Flagellariaceae
Malvaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Convolvulaceae
Convolvulaceae
Fabaceae
Melastomataceae
Rutaceae
Poaceae
Arecaceae
Asteraceae
Legununosae
Asclepiadaceae
Goodeniaceae
Cyperaceae
Fabaceae
Tamaricaceae
Orchidaceae1199

4. CONCLUSION
The results show that the recent mangrove vegetation (forest) condition in Southern Malang
Region is recommended as a prior conservation for sustainability coastal management
system. This work also provides the mangrove iBook format and e-book. The hard copy is
obliged to the library flora Malang Regency as a supporting information for Southern
Malang Region management system and as the academic learning process reference forhigh school students and universities students after two years’ period observation. The
strategic management of mangrove forests in Malang Region is people planted by thepotential that exists, establish protected forest areas of mangrove that can not be bothered,further enhancing the role of community-based organizations and empower the community,
dissemination to the public about the dangers of harvesting of mangroves, a touch oftechnology in the development of mangrove , the people involved in every decision-making
on mangroves and increasing the role of government, elucidation of environmental andmangrove ecosystems, provide insight to the public about the use of mangrove, improving
education/ training to the community, as well as consultation between the public and thegovernment about the use and management of mangove, socialization the application of
government regulations on the environment, involving the community in the preparation of
the planning and implementation of mangrove management, government and thecommunity together to support the management of m angrove, the increase in planting
mangroves around the coast. In principle, the position of mangrove forest management
model in Malang Region in the category of growth and stability strategy is a strategy that is
implemented without changing the direction of a predetermined strategy.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Authors would like to thank to Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher
Education of Republic Indonesia for providing the funding decentralization scheme
research program. Also, The State Polytechnic of Malang that supporting to attend thisconference. One of the author would like to thank to Indrazno Sirahjuddin, Ph.D for
supporting the scientific writing.
6. REFERENCES
Dave, R. 2006. Mangrove ecosystem of south, west Madagascar: an ecological, humanimpact, and subsistence value assessment. Tropical Resources Bulletin 25: 7-13
Hogarth, P.J. 1999. The Biology of Mangroves. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Jensen, J.R. 1998. Introductory Digital Image Processing a Remote Sensing Perspective.
Prentice Hall. New Jersey. 361p.
Landsat Imagery. 2016. An Overview the Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF). Universityof Maryland http://www.glcf.umd.edu/data/landsat/. Diakses tanggal 10 November
2010.
Onrizal, A. Purwoko, dan M. Mansor. 2009. Impact of mangrove forests degradation on
fisherman income and fish catch diversity in eastern coastal of North Sumatra,

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Indonesia. International Conference on Natural and Environmental Sciences 2009
(ICONES’09) at the Hermes Palace Hotel Banda Aceh on May 6-8, 2009.
Santosa, P.B. 2005. Pemetaan Awal Hutan Mangrove Pantai Cairns Berdasarkan Data
Landsat TM (Preliminary Mapping Of Mangrove Forest Of The Cairns Coast Based On
Landsat TM). Disampaikan pada Pertemuan Ilmiah Tahunan MAPIN XIV“Pemanfaatan Efektif Penginderaan Jauh untuk Peningkatan Kesejahteraan Bangsa’’
pada tanggal 14-15 September 2005. Jurusan Teknik Geodesi UGM. Yogyakarta.
http://oc.its.ac.id/ambilfile.php.
Tarigan, M. S. 2008. Sebaran dan Luas Hutan Mangrove di Wilayah Pesisir Teluk Pising
Utara Pulau Kabaena Provinsi Sulawesi Tenggara. Bidang Dinamika Laut, Pusat
Penelitian Oseanografi, LIPI, Jakarta 14430, Indonesia. Makara, Sains, Vol. 12, NO. 2,
November 2008: 108-112.
Walters, BB., P. Ronnback, JM. Kovacs, B. Crona, S.A. Hussain, R. Badola, J.H.
Primavera, E. Barbier, dan F. Dahdouh-Guebas. 2008. Ethnobiology, Socio-Economicand Management of Mangrove Forests: a review. Aquatic Botany 89: 220-236
Valiela, I., J. L. Bowen, dan J. K. York. 2001. Mangrove Forest: One of the World’s
Threatened Major Tropical Environments. Bioscience 51(10): 807-815.

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