RESEARCH PAPER
Serious Leisure: A Diary Study of Self-directed
Learning and Motivation in Eikaiwa
Daniel Hooper, Kanda University of International Studies
While English conversation (eikaiwa) schools are widespread in Japan, little research exists on learner motivationin these settings. This exploratory study based on one learner’s L2 diary entries and reflective comments investigated the motivational factors contributing to her self-directed language learning efforts while studying at aneikaiwa school. In this study, I also sought to evaluate the potential pedagogical applications of learner diary writing in eikaiwa as well as the practical affordances and constraints specific to that context. The data revealed thatthe learner’s motivation was influenced by a variety of interrelated social and personal factors. There was also
evidence that suggested that although simple enjoyment was an important factor for her motivation to learn, shealso showed signs of significant investment in an imagined community. Furthermore, in contrast to some academic studies portraying eikaiwa as a site for hedonistic “casual leisure” rather than linguistic development (Kubota,2011), the participant engaged in an extensive amount of self-directed learning along with an impressive degree ofmetacognitive self-awareness. This, along with several points of crossover between English learning and Hawaiian
culture—a central element of her self-identity—suggested that her self-directedness represented an example of“serious leisure” or a “leisure career” (Stebbins, 2007). Regarding the secondary focus of the study, the diary writing process was found to fulfill a number of practical pedagogical functions such as maintaining student-teacher
communication and providing opportunities for meaningful production of the L2.
英会話学校で英語を学ぶ学習者が増えているにもかかわらず、このコンテキストにおいての学習者動機付けの研究は数が限られている。
本研究は、英会話教室に通うある１名の学習者対象に、彼女が日記に記した内容や内省的なコメントから自律学習に影響を与える動機付けの要因を明らかにしたものである。。さらに本研究では「日記」を一つの教授法と捉え、その実用化の可能性も追求した。本探究の結果から、学習者の動機付けの要因は相互的に作用する様々な社会的、個人的要因に影響を受けていることがわかった。また、この学習者にとって「単なる楽しさ」は学びの上で重要な学習動機の要因であるが、それと同時に、imagined communityへの「投資」(investment)の兆しもデータから示された。遊び的な要素を多く含むと捉えられてきた英会話学校の学習環境（Kubota 2011年）とは対照的に、さらに、当該学習者の英語学習は彼女のメタ認知的な認識を示し、自律学習者としての道を辿っていたことが本研究からみてとれる。さらに当該学習者は、英語学習と彼女の自己アイデンティティでもあるハワイ文化が重複しつつもあるが、象徴しているStebbins(2007)がいうところの「本格的な娯楽」(serious leisure)または「娯楽キャリア」(leisure career)を象徴していることもわかった。本研究の第二の焦点はその研究方法にあり、日記を書くプロセスは生徒と教師間のコミュニケーションを維持するだけではなく、外国語教育においては実践的かつ教育的効
果を促進する場を提供できることが明らかになった。

Keywords
diary, motivation, self-directedness, identity, eikaiwa

キーワード
日記、動機、自己志向、アイデンティティ、英会話

T

his paper describes an exploratory study that emerged from one private conversation school (eikaiwa) student’s self-directed efforts to develop her English proficiency
through writing L2 diary entries Encouraging language learners to write regular diary
entries in their L2 can not only provide significant practice time for production of the target
language, but can also open up a “private dialogue between a student and teacher” that canbe “about almost anything that the learner would like to know or discuss” (Peachey, 2004)
Greater opportunities for learners to have rich, meaningful contact with the target language
outside of a formal classroom space would arguably be one of the most desirable prospects
for language teachers in most, if not all, EFL context educational institutions Furthermore,
gaining insight into the myriad influences on learners’ fluctuating motivational states could

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provide educators with tools that could be used to bolster and sustain their learners’ efforts as
self-directed learners away from the confines of the classroom.
Using diaries as a means of gaining insight into the individual experiences of teachers or
learners is especially valuable within eikaiwa schools as they arguably represent a context
overlooked within Japanese English education and research. Tensions created from opposing
business and educational concerns within these institutions (Bossaer, 2003; Hooper & Snyder,
2017; Nuske, 2014) mean that the eikaiwa context is distinct in many ways from the traditional conception of an educational institution (Kubota, 2011) However, despite the reported
idiosyncrasies that in some ways set eikaiwa apart from established conceptions of “school”
or “education,” Seargeant (2009) maintains that eikaiwa schools are in fact the “most visible context in which the actualities of language learning within Japanese society clash withcurrent trends and recommendations in contemporary TESOL theory” (p 94) Due in part toa marginalized position “at the bottom of the EFL hierarchy” (Nagatomo, 2016, p 56), theexperiences of language learners and teachers in this context have largely been absent fromacademic inquiry (Lowe, 2015)
One area that is often central to diary studies and that has received very little attention ineikaiwa is self-directed language learning (SDLL) In SDLL, responsibility for decision making isgiven over to the learner, “with or without a variable degree of participation” by another party,
such as a teacher, who may act as a “helper in response to requests for information or advice”(Holec, 1996, pp 89-90) Both pedagogical practice and action research relating to SDLL aredesperately underdeveloped in eikaiwa with schools often unaware of the role of out-of-classstudy (Brown, 2005) and the benefits SDLL can offer learners, including more developed meta-cognitive skills and greater motivation and confidence (Du, 2013; Victori & Lockhart, 1995).
Furthermore, schools and students alike have been known to passively resist the notion ofautonomous learning as it arguably runs counter to the business model of mainstream eikaiwa: language acquisition as easily consumable product (Hooper, 2017; Makino, 2016; Sapunaru-Tamas & Tamas, 2012). Learner diaries can stand as an expression of SDLL as well as potentially providing a teacher or researcher insight into what factors might influence language
learning motivation (Matsumoto, 1989) Due to the relative lack of academic attention towards
eikaiwa students, what influences their language learning, and their degree of self-directedness, diary studies could be a valuable tool in bridging the gap in this particular context
This study examines the diary entries of one self-directed learner in a small eikaiwa school
The learner, of her own volition, completed one English diary entry a day over approximately one year while attending regular weekly classes at the school As an eikaiwa teacher, I feltthat this represented a truly exceptional case of self-directed study in a context with little
extrinsic pressure from the classroom or the institution as a whole The diary entries were
subsequently examined for themes related to the student’s motivation for SDLL and language
learning in general. SDLL was identified as an area of interest in this study due to the lack of
research in the eikaiwa context and the relatively low degree of engagement in SDLL by eikaiwa students (Brown, 2005; Hooper, 2017; Makino, 2016) The student was subsequently given several opportunities to explicitly reflect on the process she engaged in when writing thediary, what insight she gained into her learning style, and how she was able to sustain her
out-of-class efforts over an extended period of time. In this study, I endeavored to gain insight into the motivational processes behind this learner’s self-directedness and the potential
benefits of diary writing as a pedagogical tool. In addition, I attempted to document the process of conducting learner focused research in an eikaiwa setting
Through highlighting the unique constraints involved and proposing approaches to circumvent them, it was hoped that this investigation might encourage others to explore the possibility of conducting more learner-focused research in eikaiwa
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Learner Diary Studies in Research and Pedagogy
Learner diaries have been used to give learners opportunities to reflect on language learning
success and to allow them to explore learning strategies and emotional states (Barkhuizen,
Benson & Chik, 2014). In the fields of TESOL and SLA, introspective (diary writer as researcher) and non-introspective (researcher investigating a diarist-learner) diary studies haveprovided glimpses into elements of language learning usually obscured from direct view suchas motivation, anxiety, identity, cultural sensitivity, and learner perceptions of instructional
methodology (Carson & Longhini, 2002; Hilleson, 1996; Iragui & Lindsay, 2015; Peck, 1996;
Porto, 2007) Rather than producing generalizable results that can be applied to language
learning in a wider sense, diary studies offer a means of gaining a deeper, highly contextualized understanding of individual learners’ needs and behaviors that “objective” tools likequestionnaires and observations fail to register (Allwright & Bailey, 1991; Iragui & Lindsay,
2015; Tanaka, 2009)
There is a distinction, however, drawn by Bailey (1991) between an “ordinary” diary written by a language learner where there is no control over content and the explicitly reflective“learner diaries” used in more formal diary studies Additionally, a number of educators andresearchers claim that due to the primary reflective goal of “learner diaries,” language corrections should not be made, the diary may be written in the learner’s L1 or L2, and theymust be written as close as possible to the learning time they are referring to (Bailey, 1991;
Peachey, 2004; Rubin, 2003) These points predominantly address utilization of learner diaries as a formal research instrument and strive to lessen some of the concerns of researchers regarding diary usage due to inherent validity and subjectivity issues such as the issue of
diarists’ perceptions or memories being unreliable (Tanaka, 2009)
In contrast to the formal SLA-focused research previously described, some diary studies
exist that shine light upon the value of diary writing as a more practically focused pedagogical tool serving as an avenue for productive language practice and a means to review previously studied material. Vajirasarn (2014) conducted a study in which 17 Japanese university
students were asked to write a one-page journal in English that reflected on their language
learning experiences in which the students were allowed to write general diary entries about
daily life, yet received explicit instruction to focus on describing their language learning Finally, a post-semester questionnaire revealed that, for many students, the journal represented a useful means by which to review the lesson content as well as a valuable opportunity forwriting practice. One student in the study responded that the journal writing was beneficial
in three different ways: as a means of reviewing lesson content, as writing practice, and as ameans of communicating with the instructor
I think writing (a) journal is useful to my learning because I can review what I learned
today and practice writing It becomes a chance to think back (on) the lessons Moreover, I feel that I can make conversations with my teacher every lesson Though it isdemanding for teachers, language learners can get benefits from the journals. (Vajirasarn, 2014, p 115)
Contrary to the Vajirasarn’s expectations, the students that participated in this study perceived the practical aspects of journal writing (recollection of lesson content and opportunities for written self-expression in English) to be of greater value than solely reflecting on
their own learning strategies. This is relevant to this study in that it reflects Haruka’s initial
motivation for writing her diary—an opportunity to review lesson content and to write in English about topics that personally mattered to her
Vajirasarn’s findings are reflected in Pierce’s (1994) diary study of adult immigrant language learners where it was found that, despite students being told that they could write their

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entries in their mother tongue, the participants “were adamant that they wanted practicewriting in English, and asked for regular feedback on their writing progress” (Pierce, 1994,p 23) Furthermore, the researcher stated that although other studies recommend that language in diary entries should not be corrected, her participants specifically requested feedback
on grammar issues Finally, she claims that, if implemented in a supportive classroom environment with a reduced teacher-student power differential, teachers may be surprised at thelevel of writing students produce
Focusing more on learner motivation, Matsumoto (1989) carried out a diary study of aJapanese college-level student with the intention of exploring what factors influenced thelearner’s L2 classroom learning experiences during an eight-week ESL program in the United States and how the act of keeping a diary may have facilitated that learning Through thisapproach, Matsumoto sought to examine the dual purpose that diaries can potentially serveby identifying how learner diaries can be used as a tool for teachers and researchers to identify what is going on with learners “behind the scenes” in terms of motivation, anxiety, or
self-image, while simultaneously acting as a guide or tool for the learners themselves
In terms of the act of diary keeping being an effective practice for language learners, thisstudy, to a certain extent, mirrored Vajirasarn’s (2014) findings, stating that “most of thebenefits of journal-keeping rest on those of the act of writing itself” (Matsumoto, 1989,
p 187) It was suggested that the act of diary writing allows the learner to organize theirthoughts and explore their achievements and problems within the learning process However, this study proposes that any learner diaries would have to be compulsory assignments as
it is unlikely that they would commit to written reflection of their learning experiences by
their own volition. The findings from Vajirasarn (2014), Pierce (1994), and Matsumoto (1989)
suggest that diary writing may be perceived by learners as beneficial purely as a means of expressing themselves in written English. In addition, the act of reflecting on their learning in
written form, while certainly providing researchers with a rich source of data, may primarily
serve learners as a valuable record of errors and experiments with language as well as broader
struggles and victories in the target language

Learner Motivation in Eikaiwa and the Need for Research
In eikaiwa contexts where learners are not formally required to engage in any out-of-classlearning, it can be difficult to persuade learners to keep explicit reflective diaries. Eikaiwa
represents one context where students are in fact “clients” and often hold significant power over instructors (Bueno, 2003; Bueno & Caesar, 2003; Hooper & Snyder, 2017). Taken from
Bueno and Caesar’s (2003) collection of eikaiwa teachers’ narrative accounts of their professional lives, one teacher while describing the expectations of employees in a chain eikaiwa
highlights in a tongue-in-cheek fashion the customer-centered, retail-esque approach thatpervades the industry:
Remember the golden rules (who can forget) Total Customer Satisfaction The Customer is Always Right. Yes! Just like WalMart! That was it! Whatever the customer
wants, the customer gets (Bueno, 2003, p 103)
Furthermore, a number of studies concerning learners within this specific context demonstrate that rather than a desire for SLA, the primary impetus for enrolling in eikaiwa schools
is the desire for an entertaining, hobby-type experience Also, in many cases, students wish
to avoid an academic style of learning or out-of-class study (Kubota, 2011; Sapunaru-Tamas& Tamas, 2012).

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Kubota’s (2011) study of eikaiwa students and their motivation for attending classes indicated that participants identified a variety of factors outside a commitment to improving language development as reasons for enrollment Eikaiwa was posited in this study to be a formof “casual leisure” (Stebbins, 2007) where students were often “unable to articulate theirclear purpose of learning eikaiwa” (Kubota, 2011, p 480) and were largely attending classes tosocialize or for temporary exposure to “a captivating space removed from learners’ daily life”
where “white native speakers are constructed as an exotic icon to be consumed” (Kubota,
2011, p 486) Several other accounts of eikaiwa learners reinforce Kubota’s findings (Brown,
2005; Hooper, 2017, Makino, 2016). Relating more specifically to opportunities for self-directed language learning, Brown (2005) found that staff and students in a large chain eikaiwa were often unaware that materials for out-of-class study existed and, even after learners
were introduced to resources (e g , graded readers), few utilized them consistently Makino(2016) attempted to encourage greater student engagement in out-of-class study in anothereikaiwa by providing a number of free online resources for vocabulary study; however, student
buy-in was extremely limited and participation quickly dwindled
Although eikaiwa represents a multibillion-yen industry in Japan (METI, 2005) and despite
the fact that such schools can be found in every major town or city in Japan (Bailey, 2007),
research on learners and teachers in this context is relatively sparse A study by Lowe (2015)
found that of 134 articles published in JALT Journal, eikaiwa schools featured in only threestudies The limited attention that this educational sector has received in the literature can be
explained in a number of ways One factor may be that of image Due to its overtly commercial nature and due to a lack of properly-trained teachers, some researchers and commentators have likened eikaiwa to the fast-food industry (Appleby, 2014; McNeill, 2004) and, while
often exhibiting no more serious problems than Japanese compulsory English education, it
is at times perhaps viewed as “somehow crasser because it is private enterprise” (Makino,2015) Another more practical issue is related to access for researchers In Kubota’s (2011)
study, she experienced several occasions where schools refused her access to their students orteachers Kubota encountered many obstacles in getting permission to collect data from larger, franchised schools and was, instead, forced to approach participants through more casual,personal connections A further explanation for the proportionally small amount of researchcoming from the eikaiwa classroom may stem from the type of teacher that inhabits it Manyeikaiwa teachers are young, relatively untrained, and their time in Japan, or indeed within English education in general, is often fleeting and on “the bottom rung” of professional Japanese ELT (Bueno & Caesar, 2003; Nagatomo, 2016).
The above accounts of eikaiwa classrooms and learners depict the industry as a site of mere
edutainment far removed from the real “eigo” or serious English study taking place in Japanese universities and schools (Nagatomo, 2016; Hiramoto, 2013) and, due to a variety offactors, it is largely absent from most academic enquiry in Japan. That being said, the economic scale of the eikaiwa industry, as well as the responsibility it carries as one of the solepost-tertiary points of contact for Japanese people wishing to start or continue their language
studies means that more research and development is necessary in order to better understandthe attitudes and motivations of learners in this setting

Research Questions
The following questions guided this study:
1

What key motivational factors can be identified from the learner’s diary entries and how
were these factors influential in sustaining the learner’s self-directed language learning?

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2

What considerations emerge relating to the viability of learner diaries as a pedagogical tooland for learner-focused research in the eikaiwa context?

These research questions were selected as it was believed that they would provide insights
into both the pedagogical and research potential of learner diary writing Perhaps more importantly though, it was also decided that the unique characteristics of language instructionin eikaiwa schools made it vital that any findings or implications be firmly rooted in the eikaiwa context

HarukaThe participant (Haruka) was an eikaiwa student in her mid-forties who was attending one
weekly hour-long conversation class as well as regularly attending an additional 25 minute“mini-private” class roughly once every two weeks She had enrolled at the school in October 2015, approximately six months prior to the beginning of her diary writing, and had earlyon expressed a desire to engage in out-of-class learning via vocabulary flashcard apps andextensive reading with graded readers that I provided Haruka was a homemaker and mother who also ran classes teaching Hawaiian and Tahitian dance and culture in her free time
She had one son, a high school student, who was preparing to take his entrance examinations
for university during the time she was writing her diary Also, at the time of this study, she
was studying Hawaiian culture and language and was extremely invested in working towards
gaining an official qualification to teach classes in this field. Apart from English classes attended as part of her compulsory education approximately 25 years earlier, Haruka had noexperience of studying English before enrolling in the eikaiwa When she initially enrolled,
she was informally evaluated by the school and placed in a class for beginner students Her
personality could be described as extremely positive, energetic, and outgoing Four othermembers (two male high school students, one male university student, and a female full-timeworker) attended a set group class with Haruka and she quickly built friendly relationships
with everyone On March 6th 2016, Haruka began submitting daily written English diary entries for me to read and check for lexico-grammatical accuracy each week directly after class
Haruka initiated the diary writing and there were no prompts from the teacher related todesired content or any explicit requirements for reflection. Haruka’s diary writing continued
until February 9th 2017 when I completed my contract at the school

Motivation for the Study
Approximately six months into Haruka’s diary writing, it became clear that she might represent a fascinating and exceptional example of self-directed language learning that stoodapart from much of what I had experienced in eikaiwa teaching Subsequently, she was asked
to consent to use of her diary as research data for a project on motivation After securing(written) consent, Haruka provided past diary entries from which copies were made of eachdaily entry. At the end of the diary writing period in February 2017, she agreed to fill out areflective questionnaire in Japanese (Appendix 1) on her experiences writing the diary. Then,in May 2017, Haruka was asked to reread her diary and answer some reflective questions
on what she had learned from reading her own entries (Appendix 2) All of this L1 data wastranslated using an online professional translation service In addition to the diary entries,
Haruka completed two reflective questionnaires which were also examined for references
to emergent diary themes as well as her thoughts and attitudes regarding the diary keeping
process, self-directed study, and her experiences in the eikaiwa class My positionality within
this study is perhaps somewhat unorthodox due to its evolving nature throughout the research process This study was initiated due to recognition of Haruka’s commitment to her
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self-directed study that occurred when I was her teacher The data collection therefore took
place in this setting However, data analysis and the development of any conclusions fromthat data took place after I had left the eikaiwa school and had started work in another institution Therefore, it must be taken into account that this study comes from the perspective ofboth teacher and researcher

Examining Haruka’s Diary
In total, Haruka wrote 337 diary entries from March 2016 to February 2017 From this raw
data, 75 entries (22 6%) containing any reference to language learning were set aside for further analysis and subsequent coding for emergent themes Nine recurring themes were identified through this process:1

self-analysis/ monitoring of learning strategies

2

teacher-related

3classmate or social group-related

4 enjoyment/fun
5

Hawaiian culture/hula

6 her son’s studies
7

progress

8

anxiety

9 problems/difficulties
One external coder was employed to code an additional copy of the data according to thesenine themes The external coder was consulted and any disagreements over coding werediscussed until a consensus was reached. Upon finalizing the coding, the frequency of eachtheme was calculated, with one or more mention per daily entry counting as one Therefore,
if enjoyment/fun was mentioned at least once in every entry (75), the frequency would bemarked as 75 (100%)

Findings
Table 1. Frequency of themes coded from Haruka’s diary entries
Theme

No. of entries

Self-analysis/ monitoring of learning styles and strategies

44 (58 6%)

Enjoyment/fun

35 (46 7%)

Problems/difficulties

35 (46 7%)

Teacher-related

32 (42 7%)

Progress

20 (26 7%)Anxiety19 (25 3%)

Hawaiian learning/hula

18 (24%)

Classmate/social group-related

17 (22 7%)

Son’s studying

9 (12%)

From the nine thematic codes identified during the first phase of coding (Table 1), upon
discussion with the external coder, two categories were identified relating to factors that were

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perceived to be underpinning Haruka’s learner motivation - 1) Language learning as social
practice and 2) English as “fun”, “life”, and “serious leisure” (see Table 2) Language learning as social practice was comprised of the three main social influences that appeared to be
influencing Haruka’s language learning—me (her teacher), her classmates, and her son. The
second category was comprised of two elements that were perceived to have been influential
on her view of English learning as a form of “serious leisure”—the role of enjoyment/fun andher interest in Hawaiian culture/ hula
Table 2. Coding for Analysis of Research Question 1–Haruka’s Motivation
Haruka’s Motivation

ThemesLanguage learning as social practiceteacher-related, classmate/social group-related, son’s studying

English as “fun”, “life”, and “serious leisure”

enjoyment/fun, Hawaiian learning/hula

In order to address what purposes Haruka’s diary entries served as a pedagogic or researchtool, in the same manner as in Table 2, the coded data was analyzed together with the external coder to identify any salient categories that may have existed (Table 3) It was interpreted that two categories could be seen in the data One category was centered on the idea ofher diary being a line of communication with me (her teacher) based on instances where she
attempted to relate problems she experienced, concerns about class, and expressions of gratitude to me. The second category was defined as her diary acting as a point of contact withEnglish outside of the eikaiwa The coded data for this category largely consisted of Haruka analyzing her engagement with English inside and outside of class and writing down her
ideas on learning strategies she intended to try

Table 3. Coding for Analysis of Research Question 2–Learner Diaries as Pedagogic and Research Tool
Learner Diaries as Pedagogic and Research
Tool

ThemesDiary as line of communication

problems/difficulties, teacher-related, progress, anxiety

Diary as point of contact with English

self-analysis/ monitoring of learning styles
and strategies

In the following section, I will present and discuss excerpts from Haruka’s diary entries andreflective questionnaires in an attempt to address my first research question:
Research question 1. What key motivational factors can be identified from the learner’s diary entries andhow were these factors influential in sustaining the learner’s SDLL?
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From my interpretation of the coded data, two salient themes relating to her motivationand self-directed learning emerged from her diary entries:
1

Language learning as social practice2“Fun”, “life” and “serious leisure”

Language Learning as Social Practice
A consistent vein that ran through all Haruka’s entries was the vital importance of humanrelations for her language learning One of the most common themes that emerged from thediary was her perception of me as an influential figure in her learning development and motivation Often she referred to me as a friend rather than an educator and it was often mypersonality or attitude rather than just my teaching approach that she marked as a source of
motivation
I got vitality very much by talking with Dan! I felt that I love his personality very much. I’m
thankful for his kindness and his pleasant lessons. March 17th 2016
I participated in the Tuesday class of Dan for a makeup lesson today. I was nervous until I went
for the lesson, but I didn’t have any problems. Because there was Dan, I felt relieved and was able
to enjoy. August 2nd 2016
Of course, because Haruka knew that I would be reading these entries, there is an indicationthat she wanted me to understand the degree of importance my presence or support for her
learning experience held. Furthermore, her reflective responses showed that the support of atrustworthy teacher was essential for her continuing her English studies
It’s hard for me to study by myself. Speaking English is communication for me. To keep studying,
I need some support from someone I can rely on. If I have that study environment, I think I cancontinue studying. Reflective Questionnaire 1, February 2017
In addition to her perception of the teacher as a key influence, her eikaiwa classmates werealso shown to be important figures with whom she wanted to create bonds through a sharededucational pursuit Throughout the year, Haruka fostered these relationships through actions
such as chatting after class and bringing in snacks for everyone to share
I feel that it is special about the encounter with people and I’m thankful for the encounter with
my classmates. They are not only the classmates and are people who are special to me. October
8th 2016
I prepared a Halloween gift and handed it to my classmates. Because everyone seemed to be delighted with it, I was very glad too. This is my gratitude to Dan and my classmates. Always thankyou everybody. October 28th 2016
One student in particular, Masaki, gradually became an important peer to Haruka because
he attended her son’s high school, was highly motivated, usually sat next to her in class, andoften stayed behind to chat with her after the class had ended
I’m talking with Masaki after the English conversation class every week. Though he is the sameage as my son, he is my friend and he is a younger person than me but is a very reliable friend.
When I talk with him, I can get a lot of something. Because he helps me in the class, I can havelessons always happily. Thank you Masaki. October 21st 2016

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Here she once again highlights the importance of, not only the teacher but also, her classmates in creating an atmosphere where she felt comfortable pushing herself and interactingwith others using English
I was able to want to speak English more and more because I had a good teacher and goodclassmates who listened my talk. And because they listened properly to my English and also understood so I was able to continue studying English. I think that it is my motivation. Reflective
Questionnaire 2, May 2017
Haruka’s diary entries revealed an additional social relationship outside of the English
school that also may have played a role in sustaining her language learning motivation Her
son, a high school senior, was preparing for his university entrance examinations and Haruka made several references to the demanding schedule that he had to endure in order to gain
acceptance to a good university She expressed determination to provide both practical andmoral support throughout
My son took many tests at cram school this morning. He takes many tests not only at high school
but also at the cram school! Because he plays soccer too, it is very hard. So I want to support him
anytime. And I want to study English and Hawaiian language hard for me together with him.
April 24th 2016
Several of her entries suggested that she may have viewed her own language study efforts
as a way of providing motivation or moral support for her son Moreover, Haruka stated that
his hard work was a source of inspiration and encouragement that aided her in her own endeavors as a language learner
I’m feeling that it is really hard for him and I respect him. Because he makes an effort, I’m thinking that I must make an effort too! October 29th 2016
The relationships that Haruka had with her teacher and her classmates were perhaps themost decisive factor in her experience as a language learner and permeated, in different ways,
many of her diary entries Through her diary one can observe various instances where Haruka displayed a clear sense of investment in the classroom community For Haruka, herclassmates and teacher acted as role models, confidants, counselors, and most importantly,
friends Even social relationships entirely detached from the eikaiwa were influential in sustaining her motivation. The effort that her son was making in preparing for his university
entrance exams also inspired Haruka to push herself harder with her own studies Furthermore, the presence of Masaki, who was at the time experiencing the same trials as her son
and was very close with her, may have acted as a bridge between their (Haruka and her son)dual endeavors

English as “fun,” “life,” and “serious leisure”
One characteristic of the eikaiwa class experience that Haruka appeared to deeply value was
the idea of learning being “fun” In her diary entries, she often claimed that speaking English
was pleasurable for her and that English conversation or communicative tasks that I prepared
were more enjoyable than textbook exercises Although on one level we can see that Haruka
tends to favor communicative tasks and free conversation over grammar-focused textbook
activities, this represents only a very limited snapshot of what drives her as a learner andindeed as a person
I talked with everybody and I could learn English and really enjoy it. When I could talk in English,
it was very fun. May 27th 2016
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Serious Leisure: A Diary Study of Self-directed Learning and Motivation in Eikaiwa

I was tired from my English conversation class and my brain didn’t work, but the lesson was very
fun as usual. August 5th 2016
As was discussed in the previous section, many entries further support the idea that social
relations in the classroom were important for Haruka in creating an atmosphere where she
could enjoy her English learning On numerous occasions, her enjoyment seemed to stem
purely from interaction with myself or her classmates rather than resulting from a specifictask or methodological approach
Though a lot of English words don’t come out smoothly yet, it is very fun to talk English with
Dan. September 29th 2016
Because I was able to meet everybody, I was very glad. And it was a very enjoyable lesson. August 19th 2016
Haruka’s reflective responses further supported the interpretation that she believed thatboth “fun” and membership in her social group were central to her learning motivation
At first I think that it is important that oneself enjoys study English. It is because I can’t continue
it if it isn’t fun. And a teacher is really important to me because it’s up to teacher what kind of
lesson to do. I had a good teacher and classmates. It is very important to me that whom do I meet
there. Not only I learned English with them, but also the life. I want to learn English as the life,
don’t want to learn English as the study. Reflective Questionnaire 2, May 2017
The final two sentences of Haruka’s reflection are interesting because they raise the importance of language learning to her as being inseparable from interpersonal relationships andthe world beyond the classroom Her opposing categorizations of “English as (the) life” and“English as (the) study” suggest that she sees the existence of two types of English learning—one for communicating and creating relationships with others and one for academic
purposes Her apparent desire to learn English for communicative, rather than academic, purposes had been suggested in a number of her diary entries
Until now, I didn’t want to speak English as much as possible, but now I want to go to a foreigncountry and want to speak English. June 2nd 2016
And I will continue to study English so I will be able to speak English well. Then I meet many
special people and want to make friends more. January 1st 2017
This distinction between study and life also runs parallel to the perceived dichotomy within Japan between “eigo” (academic, test-focused study reminiscent of Japanese junior highschool/high school English education) and “eikaiwa” (communication-focused English learning that is often taken up as an extra-curricular activity or hobby) (Nagatomo, 2016; Hiramoto, 2013) Haruka’s rejection of English as “study,” that seemingly runs counter to the significant amount of time she spent developing her own linguistic competence, may therefore
instead represent a rejection of the “eigo” she encountered during her formal education
The importance of socializing in tandem with language learning is also raised in Kubota’s
research on eikaiwa schools where it was found that the classroom was largely a hobby-likesetting more for “socializing with like-minded people” than “developing linguistic skills as
an investment to raise cultural capital” (Kubota, 2011, p 480) In the case of Haruka, however, rather than taking precedence over linguistic development, it could be argued that thesocial interaction in her classes instead acted as a catalyst for enhancing and maintaining her
motivation for language learning

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A final significant influence in Haruka’s life and indeed on her language learning that isobservable in several diary entries is her deep passion towards Hawaiian culture As mentioned previously, Haruka works part-time as a teacher of Hawaiian dance and culture as well
as studying for further qualifications in this area. Through her diary entries the profound
impact this passion has on her daily life is clear and at times can be seen as crossing over into
her efforts learning English. There were also a number of occasions where Haruka attempted
to integrate her dual interests of Hawaiian and English learning in order to motivate herself
further
I learned Hawaiian language in the first class. I learned articles, singular and plural form ofnouns, and adjectives today. I was able to understand the difference between English words andHawaiian words. March 20th 2016
I decided to read a Hawaiian book to study both English and Hawaiian culture. Though it is adifficult book for me, I’ll try it!!! April 3rd 2016
Haruka also found that improvements in her English ability afforded her greater opportunities to engage with the world of Hawaiian culture more deeply through shared language She
also started to notice benefits from studying the two languages simultaneously and she wasable to transfer many of the skills she had learned from English class into her Hawaiian language learning
I could understand a little English that Kumu (Hula teacher) used today. March 27th 2016
(about Hawaiian language classes) “It is very difficult unlike English. However, I think that I
can understand both more because I’m learning English too! I’ll study hard more to understandboth. September 16th 2016
As Haruka’s entries show, although the pure enjoyment derived from her eikaiwa classes
was an important factor for her, on a deeper level, she saw her English learning increasingly
as an expression of her “life” Furthermore, various facets of her English learning had arguably begun to permeate her endeavors as a student of Hawaiian culture and may have actuallyafforded her greater opportunities to engage with that adopted imagined community.
One of the most influential reasons for carrying out this study on Haruka’s SDLL and language learning motivation was due to her approach being so markedly different to the majority of students I encountered in my eikaiwa classes. Just as in Kubota’s (2011) study, a great
many students were not attending the classes to develop their English language/conversation
skills but rather as a simple pastime where they could socialize with foreign instructors or
like-minded people Haruka’s case, while by no means generalizable, arguably resembles adifferent type of mindset to the “casual leisure” (Stebbins, 2007) found in Kubota’s study andthe majority of my own eikaiwa experiences“Casual leisure” is described as an “intrinsically rewarding, relatively short-lived pleasurable core activity, requiring little or no special training to enjoy it” (Stebbins, 2007, p 38)
Haruka’s references to fun and enjoyment throughout the diary may represent to some an
indication that her approach to her eikaiwa classes was in fact merely hedonistic and more“casual ” However, this fails to take into account the hours of solo out-of-class language
study that she engaged in of her own volition and the clear emotional investment she had in
her linguistic development and the continuation of her learning community. Just in the same
way that her Hawaiian culture study had become an integral part of her identity, permeating
almost every facet of her life, her English learning had become more akin to “serious leisure ”

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Serious Leisure: A Diary Study of Self-directed Learning and Motivation in Eikaiwa

Stebbins states that “serious leisure” is “the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist,or volunteer core activity that people find so substantial, interesting, and fulfilling that, inthe typical case, they launch themselves on a (leisure) career centered on acquiring and expressing a combination of its special skills, knowledge, and experience” (Stebbins, 2007, p
5) The position of the learning of Hawaiian culture and language in Haruka’s life constitutes
both a leisure and actual career as she taught hula and culture classes as a part-time job One
can also observe how her English learning gradually fed into her Hawaiian leisure career in a
number of ways (Figure 1) Her developing English skill and motivation allowed her greater
access to her English-speaking Hawaiian culture teacher, afforded her opportunities to study
both areas simultaneously through English-language books on Hawaii, and improved herunderstanding of the linguistic structure of the Hawaiian language In this way, her English
learning became another complementary form of “serious leisure” that ran parallel to her
engagement in Hawaiian culture In addition, the relevance of English to her Hawaiian studies
and the access it provided to her hula teacher could mark it as a “regime of competence”—askill that is marked as valuable and that affords enhanced participation in a particular community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p. 6). Haruka’s remarkable motivation in eikaiwa
could therefore be seen as an example of “investment” (Norton, 2001) linked to desired membership in two imagined communities: a community of English speakers (Kubota, 2011) and acommunity of experts on Hawaiian culture

Figure 1. The interrelation of two forms of “serious leisure”
Haruka’s diary entries, therefore, reveal that her motivation for language learning, both inand out of class, was mediated by social ties and responsibilities that she marked as valuable
Furthermore, rather than existing as a formalized academic subject tied to the classroom,

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English learning was perceived as an enjoyable means of expression where she could further
deepen existing and new social ties in a wider international community Development in her
English ability also acted as a means of facilitating a “leisure career” based on her investment
in an imagined Hawaiian cultural community
In the following section, I address my second research question:
Research question 2. What considerations emerge relating to the viability of learner diaries as a pedagogical tool and for learner-focused research in the eikaiwa context?
My analysis of identified two salient roles that diary writing fulfilled in her context as aneikaiwa student in Japan.
1

A line of communication with her teacher

2

A point of contact with English outside of class time

Diary as line of communication
A sizeable number of diary entries included references to problems or anxieties that Haruka
was experiencing in her daily life, through her self-study attempts, and within her participation in the eikaiwa class itself As Haruka knew that I would be reading entries weekly, one
possible role of the diary may have been that of a sounding board as she was able to reveal
insecurities or concerns to me that in a regular class setting might otherwise go unnoticed
I had an English conversation class at night, but I was very tired and I couldn’t really think. Besides I could not do the homework too. I beg your pardon Dan. I want to finish homework till thenext class!!! April 28th 2016
Sometimes these entries addressed me directly whereas on other occasions she spoke
about me in the third person even though it was understood that only I would read the diary
These third person references to me were often quite personal or complimentary and perhaps
the altered perspective created a degree of distance when relating these more emotionallyweighted sentiments
Then Dan might leave (school’s name) and might become a university teacher, I heard it andfelt really lonely. But I know it is a very splendid thing for Dan! but I was shocked. Dan is a No.1
English teacher for me and this class is my favorite class too. May 20th 2016
The diary also potentially served a more practical purpose in that it allowed Haruka tocommunicate what she perceived to be her weak points and what areas she may have wanted
to spend more time on during class Moreover, one can see in this type of entry examples ofreflection and self-analysis that traditional learner diaries explicitly attempt to elicit.
It is the past participle which I am weak in that I am studying now! Because I am unable tomemorize grammar, it is my weak point. I’ll study English little by little from now on and wantto learn more grammar. Yeah! May 26th 2016
Studying the textbook is very difficult for me, but English conversation is very fun. June 9th 2016
These excerpts illustrate incongruence in the perceptions Haruka held regarding the approach she felt was necessary in order to develop her own English proficiency. Despite thefact that these entries were under two weeks apart, she appears to contradict herself, firstembracing and then partially rejecting the grammar-centric material found in the class textLearner Development Journal • Volume 1: Issue 2 • December 201833

Serious Leisure: A Diary Study of Self-directed Learning and Motivation in Eikaiwa

book These inconsistencies were often addressed within informal advising sessions held withme as her diary entries were being checked
Although the style of her diary writing diverged from traditional explicitly reflective “learner diaries” (Bailey, 1991; Tanaka, 2009), a great deal of reflection and self-monitoring clearlyoccurred in her entries On a number of occasions and with no direction from me, Haruka independently engaged in a significant degree of deep reflection concerning her language learning motivation, anxiety using the target language, the difficulties and successes she experienced, and the value that English held for her personallyAnother key avenue of communication between Haruka and me came not from the diary
itself but from the time spent checking her entries for grammatical accuracy after the weekly group lesson At this time I was also able to discuss some of the points she raised in her
entries and hold something akin to a learner advising session (Kato & Mynard, 2016). During
these sessions, I would discuss any anxieties or questions that came up in Haruka’s diary,offer her encouragement and support, introduce additional self-study resources, and raise
open questions designed to stimulate self-reflection. In several diary entries and in her firstreflective questionnaire, Haruka marked these communicative feedback opportunities as being
central to her continuing to write the diary and expressed gratitude to me for taking extra
time to check her writing As she knew that I would be reading these comments, they may
have also served as a means of ensuring my continued support for her out-of-class study
Dan was always looking forward to my diary, encouraging me, and supporting me. That was themost important thing for me. I’m very grateful to Dan who was happy to spend his time for meafter class. Reflective Questionnaire 1, February 2017
The time that I spent with Haruka after the lesson every week allowed me to simultaneously check through her entries and offer my perspective on any reflections or problems mentioned in them These advising sessions were marked as a key source of motivation by Haruka
in her reflections on the process. However, despite the positive motivational effect that thesechecking/advising sessions may have had on Haruka’s learning, on a more practical level, it isimportant to note that, due to extremely high workloads experienced by many eikaiwa teachers, this time-consuming approach may not be viable for busy instructors

Diary as Point of Contact With English
In the first reflective questionnaire, Haruka stated that what led her to start writing her diary
was a desire to improve her grammar which she believed would in turn help her develop her
speaking proficiency. The notion of the diary being explicitly reflective was not mentioned at
all in her account. Instead, Haruka identified the main benefits of the diary as ease of review
and personalized nature of the content
If my speaking is corrected, I can’t remember what was corrected later on, so I thought that getting my writing corrected is better. I thought that it would be easy to write and review because
writing a diary is writing about myself. Reflective Questionnaire 1, February 2017
In her second reflective questionnaire, when asked what she noticed about herself as alearner, Haruka claimed that she needed to have continued contact with English in order tomaintain her progress and, through this, her motivation As she generally only met for one
hour-long class per week (to which she later added an extra twenty-five-minute private
class), she felt that she needed more sustained engagement with English This desire for consistent contact with English can also be seen in her diary entries as she refers to using vocabulary flashcard apps as well as graded readers and other literature to supplement her in-class34

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Daniel Hooper

study In this way, her diary became another means of sustaining contact with English in an
EFL environment with few opportunities to do so
I think that it is important that I continue studying. I don’t speak English every day. Therefore it
is important that I continue studying English and to speak English more. Besides, it is the mostimportant that I enjoy it and do it. It leads to the motivation. Reflective Questionnaire 2, May
2017
Additionally, Haruka often used the diary to reflect on lesson content as well as her feelings, failures, and successes from her regular eikaiwa classes Entries arguably provided an
opportunity to revisit concerns or new ideas that had arisen from the eikaiwa classes
I thought about learning English. When I hear the English sentences everybody speaks, I don’t
think about some grammar. When I understand the English sentences, I choose the words I understand from there and guess. March 19th 2016
I explained the game’s rules to everybody in English, but I couldn’t do it well. I am worrying
whether other people understand my English. I will gain more confidence and want to speak
English. June 24th 2016
Haruka stated that the diary was primarily a way to practice grammar and vocabulary andthat her continuing to write entries hinged upon me checking for any language errors she
made Each entry was written completely in the L2 for the purposes of improving linguistic
accuracy or complexity Although this approach ran counter to many of the recommendations
for learner diaries found in much of the literature (Bailey, 1991; Barkhuizen, Benson & Chik,
2014; Rubin, 2003), the fact that Haruka dictated the conditions of the diary writing (L2 only,
grammar correction) is a result of the power differential that exists between student (customer) and teacher (provider) in eikaiwa schools Despite any resistance a teacher may have toa particular learning approach, in eikaiwa the customer often has the final word in what goeson in class. This, of course, can also affect research in an eikaiwa setting The diary was also,
through Haruka’s wishes, free in terms of content with no prescriptive requirements for her
to reflect on her language learning. The fact that Haruka was able to write about whatever
was on her mind, rather than answering reflective questions, arguably sustained her motivation as it made writing in English easier while also offering me a window into her life outsideof the classroom Allowing me access to the daily ups and downs in her life further built on
our close teacher-student relationship that she valued so much This might go some way to
explaining why Haruka, of her own volition, completed almost a year of daily L2 diary entries
with no external pressure whatsoever from her teacher or the school

Conclusion
Haruka’s diary entries and later reflections provided a valuable opportunity to examine andreflect on one learner’s motivation and identity, the role of the teacher, and indeed opportunities for even “serious leisure” within the eikaiwa context Personally, I found the useof Haruka’s learner diaries as a research tool to be both valuable and problematic The rich,personal reflections and metacognitive awareness that Haruka included in her diary entries
were a compelling data source that revealed a great deal about how individual cognitive andemotional factors shaped her language learning motivation On the other hand, the closeteacher-student relationship that we had caused me a great deal of insecurity and stress as
I attempted to separate my roles as teacher, researcher, and friend whilst juggling issues ofvalidity and ethics Haruka trusted me enough to share substantial amounts of personal information with me and vice versa At times, during the analysis stage of this project, I became
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Serious Leisure: A Diary Study of Self-directed Learning and Motivation in Eikaiwa

concerned about where the line was between personal and professional relationship I sometimes felt guilty that I was unintentionally exploiting the close ties that we had built in order
to conduct this study and gain access to her private thoughts and feelings In this sense, thetrust that Haruka expressed as she confided in me through her entries became somewhat of adouble-edged sword, providing valuable insights into her learner self while also challenging
my positionality as a teacher-researcher
This study represents just one specific case of language learning motivation and self-directed learning, and is therefore not designed to produce any generalizable results Haruka
was a mature student who had started studying English of her own volition and who exhibited an extraordinary degree of self-directedness and investment in language learning This, ofcourse, may not be the case with other learners who may not display the same enthusiasm forlearner diaries and might lack the same deep insights into their learning orientations, beliefs
and attitudes This study does, however, reveal some encouraging evidence supporting the useof learner diaries in eikaiwa as both a pedagogical tool and a source of personal information
about learners for use by teachers and researchers alike Due to the unique nature of learner motivation and the reversed teacher/student power dynamic within eikaiwa as well as therelative paucity of studies into the context, it is hoped that this study will stimulate further
learner-focused, classroom-level research into eikaiwa in the future

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Peer Review ProcessThis paper was peer-reviewed by the following contributor to Issue 2: Clare Kaneko It wasalso blind peer-reviewed by members of the Learner Development Journal Review Network.

Acknowledgements
Deepest thanks to Patrick Kiernan for his tireless and invaluable support throughout thiswhole process Also, thank you to my wife, Mayu and my sons, Hayato and Takuma for keeping me smiling when the writer’s block took hold Finally, thank you to my dad, Peter I missyou and hope you know I’m always thinking of you

Author Bio
Daniel Hooper is a lecturer in the English Language Institute at Kanda University of International Studies He also holds an MA TESOL from Kanda University of International Studies
His research interests are learner and teacher identity, learner autonomy, native-speakerism,
and issues related to the eikaiwa industry in Japan. He is currently researching learner identity in a social learning space within a university self-access center Email: hooper-d@kanda
kuis ac jp

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Appendix A
Haruka Reflective Questionnaire 1 (February 2017) (English translation)1

Why did you decide to start writing your diary?
I wanted to study grammar more to speak English If my speaking is corrected, I can’t
remember what was corrected later on so I thought that getting my writing corrected isbetter I thought that it would be easy to write and review because writing a diary is writing about myself

2

Was writing a diary helpful to you? If so, why?
It’s been very useful But it’s thanks to Dan’s help If I just write a diary by myself, I neverknow if my writing is correct or not But Dan corrected my writing, and I could make useof my mistakes next time Also, I could pick up some correct grammar and words from itlittle by little. When I found out I wrote okay, I got more confident.

3

Was writing a diary difficult for you? If so, why?
It took me a long time to write a short diary because I didn’t have much grammar knowledge or vocabulary and I had to use apps and so on It was really hard at the beginning
But it became fun because I wanted to study grammar and vocabulary and I started tounderstand them little by little

4 How did you continue writing your diary every day without giving up?
I was able to have my own time one day a week, and I wrote the diary then Dan was always looking forward to my diary, encouraging me, and supporting me That was the mostimportant thing for me I’m very grateful to Dan who was happy to spend his time for meafter class
5

Do you intend to keep writing your English diary? If so, could you explain why?
As I’m not able to speak English well yet, I want to keep writing a diary to improve myEnglish for as long as possible Because Dan said he would support my diary writing and
my study, I’m sure I can keep going It’s hard for me to study by myself Speaking English
is communication for me To keep studying, I need some support from someone I canrely on If I have that study environment, I think I can continue studying

Appendix B
Haruka Reflective Questionnaire 2 (May 2017)
1

What did you learn about your language learning motivation?

•

I was able to understand English by talking English about myself•

I was able to want to speak English more and more because I had a good teacher and goodclassmates who listened my talk•And because they listened properly to my English and also understood so I was able tocontinue studying English
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Serious Leisure: A Diary Study of Self-directed Learning and Motivation in Eikaiwa•

I think that it is my motivation

2

What did you notice about yourself as a leaner?

•

I think that it is important that I continue studying•

I don’t speak English every day•

Therefore it is important that I continue studying English and to speak English more•

Besides, it is the most important that I enjoy it and do it•

It leads to the motivation

3

Were these any other points you noticed that were important to you?

•At first I think that it is important that oneself enjoys study English.

•

It is because I can’t continue it if it isn’t fun•

And a teacher is really important to me because it’s up to teacher what kind of lesson todo•I had a good teacher and classmates•

It is very important to me that whom do I meet there•

Not only I learned English with them, but also the life•

I want to learn English as the life, don’t want to learn English as the study

May 19 201740

Learner Development Journal • Volume 1: Issue 2 • December 2018