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Is Vanadium the Material for Energy Storage?
A Look at Brazil’s Considerable Mineral WealthHave Tantalum Lessons Been Learned?

The magazine of the Minor Metals Trade Association

6th Edition 2016/June www.mmta.co.uk

1

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NEW VENUEThe MMTA’s 43rd Anniversary Dinner
Tuesday, 1st November, 2016
Lord’s Cricket Ground, London

INSIDE THIS ISSUE
Photovoltaic Recycling

4-5

Vanadium for energy storage?

6-7

Brazil:: Considerable mineral
wealth8-10Tantalum: Lessons learned?

12-13

Materials in a Tesla Model S

14-15

Materials Selection in Bicycles

18-19

The MMTA promotes
essential elements that add
quality, safety andenjoyment to our lives.

The famous Long Room in the Grade II* listed Pavilion at Lord’s Cricket Groundis the spectacular new venue for this year’s Anniversary Dinner.
Join us for a networking drinks reception and dinner surrounded by theworld’s finest collection of cricketing art. (You don’t need to bea cricket enthusiast to appreciate this stunning venue!)

Numbers strictly limited to 200, so book early to avoid disappointment!

The MMTA is the world's
leading minor metals industry
organisation.

Contact Us:
Address: MMTA, Suite 53, 3 Whitehall Court,
London, SW1A 2EL, UK
Tel: +44 (0)207 833 0237

£105 MMTA Members and their guests (+ VAT where applicable)£150 Non Members (+ VAT where applicable)
Optional tour £12 (+ VAT where applicable)
An optional 45-minute tour of the Ground will be available before the start ofthe drinks reception - to book the tour, please add tour tickets to your booking
when paying online:
http://www.mmta.co.uk/events/2016/11/01/274
Alternatively, email admin@mmta.co.uk if you prefer to receive an invoice or
to enquire about sponsorship opportunities at this event.

Email: executive@mmta.co.uk

Disclaimer: The information and data contained in thisedition of the Crucible (the Material) has been compiled by the
Minor Metals Trade Association (MMTA) from sources believed
to be reliable at the time of writing but the MMTA makes norepresentation or warranty (express or implied) as to theaccuracy, timeliness or completeness of the Material. The
Material is provided for information purposes only, but is not tobe relied upon as authoritative or taken in substitution for the
exercise of the reader’s own skill and judgment. It should not be
relied upon for any specific or general application without firstobtaining competent advice. The MMTA, its members, staff andconsultants accept no liability whatsoever (however that liability
arises) for any direct, indirect or consequential loss arising fromany use of the Material.
The Crucible contains links to third party websites and material
and information created and maintained by organisations otherthan the MMTA. These links are provided solely for yourconvenience. The MMTA does not guarantee the accuracy,
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made available via the link.

3

Photovoltaic Recycling
Gina Evangelidis, MMTA

Through their members and partnerships, they offer a simple,
accessible solution for the PV industry. Those wishing to recycle
larger quantities (typically between 40 and 80 modules) canarrange for pick-up and direct transportation to the recycling site
and those with smaller quantities can take the modules to theirnearest collection point, either PV CYCLE’s or those operated by the

The European solar industry grew by 15% in 2015, continuingmunicipal network, depending on local regulation. These collection

Europe’s reign as the chief continent for solar powered energy.

points hold the modules until their containers are full, at which

Germany is currently the biggest player in Europe's renewablestage the products are taken to be recycled and the raw materials

energy game with a total capacity of 39,700 MW and was, until

are extracted.

China's recent increase in photovoltaic (PV) power capacity, theworld's leader.
Germany's largest thin-film PV power system, Waldpolenz Solar
Park in Leipzig, contains 550,000 thin-film modules that at endof life will require recycling. This is a true reflection of a steadily
growing PV power industry and with this growth comes a huge
responsibility for the modules that are created to facilitateenergy supply.
Disclosure: I am a keen advocate for renewable energy andsustainability. It simply does not make sense to me that, at a time
when technology is advancing at such a phenomenal rate, we would
continue to create conventional energy systems that are wastefulor damaging to the environment. And, if given the choice, it seems
absurd that we would choose to use a finite resource when we canharness the infinite power of the sun. However, I do accept thatthe modules are not infinite; they have potential to become waste
in huge proportions.

Indium, selenide, gallium, silicon dioxide and cadmium telluride canall be recovered from PV modules, alongside elements such asaluminium and copper, which plays a huge role in resource
sustainability.
PV CYCLE state that ‘a separation by technology and particularly
from other waste streams is key to a high recycling output.’ This
output can then be used in glass packaging or insulation, totally new
products, plastic products, aluminium/copper products and more.
A maximum of 5% of recovered raw material ends at landfill, if
applicable at all.
Silicon based and non-silicon based PV are recycled through

There are companies which specialise in recycling PV modules, with differing technologies, but both yield impressive results. Silicon
based PV modules use a mainly mechanical process, whilst
over 13,000 tonnes of solar energy products recycled since 2010.
Let’s take the PV CYCLE Association as an example: PV CYCLE is a

non-silicon based PV uses a predominantly chemical process.

legal compliance and waste management service, dealing with

The silicon based high yield PV recycling process separates the

products that fall under WEEE (waste electrical and electronic

frame, junction box and cable to allow differing materials to beequipment) and Battery Producer Responsibility legislation.

recovered on separate recycling lines. Through shredding, milling

PV CYCLE is representative of its members—PV manufacturers,

and various thermal and mechanical processes around 90% of aimporters and installers, and claims to be the first to offer

silicon based module is recycled. This figure is likely to increase as

take-back and recycling solutions on a global level for all types of

PV CYCLE has recently seen a new recycling record of 96% in

PV technology.

industrial-scale performance.

4In contrast, non-silicon based PV uses chemicals to separate theAnother key cost stems from WEEE. Simply falling under WEEE

materials, employing some mechanical techniques later to further

adds cost: for administration, product labelling and campaigningrefine the materials recovered. These boast a 97% recycling yield.

responsibility – amongst others. Of course, these costs will vary

Both silicon based and non-silicon based recycling methods go way from business to business, but they can place an additional burden
above the 70% overall recycling efficiency in the WEEE industry.

on a very essential industry.

PV materials’ recovery is not a profitable venture. This is, in part,On average, PV modules have a healthy lifespan of around 20-25

because of the low volume of waste, but other factors, such as

years, and though the PV recycling industry is relatively small withtransport costs and the tools required to recycle, currently stillaround 12 companies in the business, it will surely grow with theoutweigh the potential profit from trading the recovered materials.

increasing demand. This growth gives the industry a realThis is why PV CYCLE works through a collective approach

opportunity to show commitment to sustainability.

throughout Europe; they want to boost volumes and increase theeconomic viability of the process through economies of scale.
References:
1.
PV Module Recycling: Industry Standards & Best Practice, PV Cycle Association, 2016, http://www.pvcycle.org.uk/
2.
SolarPower Europe’s press release on March 3rd 2016, http://www.solarpowereurope.org/
3.
Minor Metals in Renewable Energy Technologies, MMTA, http://www.mmta.co.uk/
uploads/2014/09/22/160613_renewable_energy_technologies_and_minor_metals.pdf
4.
Image Source: PV Cycle Association

Spider web metal
Inspired by the 'liquid wire' technique in spider webs,
scientists have created novel composite fibres which extend
like a solid and compress like a liquid.
Pulling on a sticky thread in a spider's web and letting it snap
back shows that the thread never sags but always stays taut even when stretched to many times its original length.
This is because any loose thread is immediately spooled
inside the tiny droplets of watery glue that coat and surroundthe core gossamer fibres of the web's capture spiral.
"The thousands of tiny droplets of glue that cover the capture spiral of the spider's orb web do much more than make the silk sticky andcatch the fly," said Fritz Vollrath from Oxford University.
"Surprisingly, each drop packs enough punch in its watery skins to reel in loose bits of thread. And this winching behaviour is used to
excellent effect to keep the threads tight at all times, as we can all observe and test in the webs in our gardens," Vollrath said.
The novel properties observed and analysed by the scientists rely on a subtle balance between fibre elasticity and droplet surface tension.
The team was also able to recreate this technique in the laboratory using oil droplets on a plastic filament.
This artificial system behaved just like the spider's natural winch silk, with spools of filament reeling and unreeling inside the oil dropletsas the thread extended and contracted.
"While the web is simply a high-tech trap from the spider's point of view, its properties have a huge amount to offer the worlds ofmaterials, engineering and medicine," said Herve Elettro, a doctoral researcher at the Universite Pierre et Marie Curie in France.
"Our bio-inspired hybrid threads could be manufactured from virtually any components," explains Elettro….including metals.
"These new insights could lead to a wide range of applications, such as microfabrication of complex structures, reversible micro-motors,
or self-tensioned stretchable systems," he said.
The study was published in the journal PNAS.
5

Vanadium: the material for energy storage?
Tamara Alliot, MMTA
Vanadium may be seeking a leading position in the renewable energy revolution. The tricky issue of energy storage could be solved withvanadium redox flow batteries (RFBs). Currently, the lack of options for effective energy storage impedes the maximum utilisation ofrenewables such as wind energy and photovoltaics, especially those located in remote areas of the world, potentially without access to anelectricity grid.
Vanadium is the 22nd most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, although rarely found naturally in its metallic form. Instead, vanadium
can be found in over 100 different minerals. However, it is also not exactly a ‘new kid on the block’ in the metals world. Vanadium’s firstcommercial application was in 1905, when Henry Ford came across this metal at a racing event with a spectacular crash involving a
French car. Ford picked up a fragment of the vehicle and was surprised by how hard and light it was. He sent the piece for analysis, andthe lab discovered that there was a small percentage of vanadium in the steel. Although this steel was not available in the USA, Fordnevertheless commissioned an essential component of his own vehicle to be made from this steel. By 1927, when the Model-T was
discontinued (around 15 million vehicles had been made) gears, axels, shafts, springs and suspension were made of vanadium steel.
To follow on from the article ‘A very brief history of Swordmaking’ in last month’s Crucible, Damascus steel has been shown to be sostrong and durable due to its vanadium content. As little as 0.02% vanadium was responsible for the steel’s high quality.
In addition to its other properties, an unusual effect of vanadium has been demonstrated in feeding tests on chickens and rats, whichhave shown that this metal has growth-promoting effects and seems to stimulate the metabolism.
Energy storage batteries are just the latest application for this extraordinary element.

Vanadium redox flow batteries
Vanadium flow batteries are unfortunately too big and heavy to replace the lithium batteries found in your phone. These batteries are
instead used for large, stationary, long-term energy storage, or to supply remote areas, or provide backup power. This type of technology
is essential to create a more efficient, reliable, and cleaner electrical energy market.
Energy storage is one of the main factors limiting the spread of renewables. Solar and wind power is intermittent and not necessary
produced at the ‘correct’ time of day to meet peak demand (apparently, in the UK this is around 7:45 in the evening, halfway through asoap opera, when there is a mass tea-making frenzy). Therefore, storing energy effectively would mean that we no longer need to use
the ‘readily available’ sources, such as coal and oil, and can call upon the stored energy at peak times and then refill the store when the
renewable energy is abundant on a sunny or windy day; just like a water reservoir.

How do these batteries work?

Image :https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Vanadium_battery.svg

The name “redox” refers to chemical reduction and oxidation reactions employed in the RFB to store energy in liquid electrolyte solutions
which flow through a battery of electrochemical cells during charge and discharge.
Typically, batteries store energy and generate electricity by a reaction between two different materials – generally solid zinc andmanganese. In flow batteries, these materials are liquid and have different electric charges. Both are pumped into a “cell” where theelectric current is generated. A tiny membrane separates the two liquids, so they are able to react, but don’t come into direct contact.
6

Vanadium is used in these batteries, as it can convert back and forth batteries, and even after this period of time, the vanadium can berecovered and re-used.
from its various states, which can carry different positive charges.
As only one material is used, the risk of cross contamination iseliminated. The liquids have an indefinite lifespan, so replacement
costs are low, and there are no waste disposal problems.
Additionally, battery life is extended, potentially infinitely.
In flow batteries, the energy production and capacity are
independent of each other. Energy is stored in tanks, whereas thecapacity depends only on the amount of liquid stored. This provides
great design flexibility not possible with other batteries. They arealso safer, as the two liquids do not mix causing a sudden releaseof energy.

Battling with lithium-ion batteries
Vanadium RFBs are thought by some to be a true challenger to thelithium-ion battery, which has recently benefitted from price drops
and increased production (not to mention the Tesla-related hype),
but for stationary energy batteries, vanadium RFBs may be thebetter choice.
Vanadium RFB makers, such as Imergy, are insistent that theirbatteries deliver cheaper, more reliable, stationary energy storage
than other battery technologies.
1,000 ESP30 redox flow units from Imergy are to be delivered overthe next three years, destined for deployment in India, where they
will store solar-generated electricity for off-grid consumers andbusinesses in rural areas. This sets a new record for the largest RFBorder for any manufacturer, and gives this technology a chance tobe proved on a large scale, especially in a high temperatureenvironment, where RFBs are said to operate more safely—animportant attribute in most parts of India and Africa.
One area where RFBs could be of particular use is in the ‘off-gridworld’, where micro-grids and domestic storage coupled with
distributed renewables offer a cheap alternative to full-scale
electrification. Renewables plus storage would replace costly,
polluting diesel generators. This would also include some more
economically developed parts of the world, including island
communities. This does not rule out their use in grid–connectedareas where legislation and increased renewables use are pushing
the need for effective energy storage.
Most of the physical footprint of a vanadium flow battery consists ofplastic containers. Despite this, the issue of cost is one that must be
taken into consideration, with high-quality vanadium being
expensive; however recovered vanadium can also be used, thus
potentially lowering the price, and importantly, these batteries areable to produce energy at a lower cost than from the grid.
When it comes to longevity, flow batteries have a clear advantage
over lithium-ion, which realistically only have 2,000 or 3,000 cycles
of useful life, according to some industry experts.

Sumitomo Vanadium Redox Flow Battery

To increase capacity in a lithium-ion battery, more cells need to be
added, whereas with a vanadium RFB more electrolyte is simply
added, meaning that the larger the battery, the cheaper it becomes
per kilowatt-hour.
All this begs the question:

Why are we all talking about lithium-ion
batteries if vanadium RFBs are superior?
This is a tricky one and may, in fact, all come down to consumer‘confidence’. Many large corporations are backing lithium-ion
batteries, and for the buyers of these batteries there is reassurance
that if there are any problems the battery can be easily replaced.
Vanadium RFBs are, as yet, much less well-known, and may notcarry the same level of confidence, or vested interests.

Supply of vanadium
Vanadium is mined, and supplies are currently
dominated by China, South Africa, Russia and the US.
Vanadium has a medium risk of supply shortage
and a high political risk, due to this concentrationof supply.
As previously mentioned, it is not necessary to havehigh quality vanadium for the purpose of these RFBs,
and reclaimed or recycled vanadium is a suitablesource. Much vanadium is a by-product of the mining
process and is often wasted, meaning that there is alarge supply available in tailings and slags that could
potentially be retrieved and utilised.
Sources:
http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Pressure-Mounts-onImergy

http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/analysis/2458694/vanadium-theVanadium batteries can have a 20 to 30-year life span, as there is no
beautiful-metal-that-stores-energy
deterioration in the quality of the electrolyte as there is with other7Brazil:
Considerable
Mineral Wealth
Tom Butcher, Independent Consultant
In addition to its base metal, oil and other natural
resources, Brazil has considerable wealth in a variety of minor metals. going for it, if only just in terms of its natural resources, which areconsiderable.
Brazil has been having a very hard time of it recently. Whether it hasbrought it upon itself is, of course, a matter of opinion. For supporters I thought, therefore, that it might be worth taking a quick look,excluding oil, at just some of its mineral resources, especially itsof suspended President Dilma Rousseff, everybody else is to blame.
minor metals’ resources.
For the opposition, it is of course, Ms Rousseff, ex-president
Lula de Silva, and their Workers’ Party (PT) who are behind theIt should be noted that whilst many of the figures I quote are forcountry’s current malaise.
2014, they may (and probably have) changed significantly in the lastyear and more. But, if nothing else, they do illustrate both the scale
Not least, there’s been “Operation Car Wash” – the Petrobrasof Brazil’s wealth and how it ranks with that of other countries.
corruption scandal. It seems a little like the play “The Mousetrap” inI have also quoted Brazilian-sourced figures, as opposed to ones
London – the longest running play of any kind, ever (63 years). One
sourced from the U.S. Geological Survey.
wonders for how long “Operation Car Wash” will run.
I had an interesting conversation with one of my friends the otherday, a pre-eminent Brazilian financial journalist living in São Paulo,
who said that people outside Brazil more often than not fail tounderstand both just how staggeringly corrupt Brazilian politics are
and the enormity of the sums involved in the Operation Car Wash
scandal. Whether we will ever learn all the lurid details, though,remains anybody’s guess.

Niobium and Tantalum

And the country is really hurting from the downturn in demand from
China for its commodities. In 2013, at the height of the boom, China
overtook the U.S. as Brazil’s largest trading partner. According toStratfor: “In 2013, nearly 83 percent of Brazil's exports to China werein commodities, including soybeans, iron ore and crude oil.” From
$46 billion (19% of the country’s total exports) in 2013, exports to
China dropped to a little over $40 billion in 2014, and to under $36
billion in 2015.

According to the Brazilian SUMARIO 2015 CAPA - Departamento
Nacional de Produção Mineral, the country boasts reserves of
10,827,843 tons (contained mineable metal), constituting 98.2% of
global reserves and, in 2014, accounted for 93.7% of world niobium
production.

Finally, amongst so many other things, there was the tragedy when
the Fundão dam at Samarco’s mine burst on November 5 last year,
killing at least 19 people, leaving hundreds homeless, and wiping out
an entire village, in addition to causing catastrophic damage to the
local environment. Whatever the culpability may be of Vale and BHP
Billiton (joint owners of Samarco), the effect on their businesses bothin Brazil and worldwide will probably be significant. A civil suit lodged
by the Brazilian Federal Public Prosecution Service is now seeking
some 155bn real (US$43.4 billion) in damages.
These few “local difficulties” aside, Brazil still has a huge amount
8

First and foremost, Brazil is both the world’s largest producer andthe largest exporter of niobium (or, as many here in the U.S. would
say, columbium – even though its name was officially changed backin 1949). Followed by Canada and Australia, it also has the world’s
largest reserves of the metal.

Niobium: World Mine Production(Metric Tons - Nb2O5 Contained in Concentrate)
2012

2013

2014p

Brazil82,21476,89988,771

CanadaOther Countries

4,707
375

5,260
1,000

5,000
1,000

87,29983,15994,771

Total
Notes:p– Preliminary Figures

Source: SUMARIO 2015 CAPA - Departamento Nacional de Produção Mineral

The latest figures from the U.S. Geological Survey, published in
January 2016, for Brazil’s mine production are 50,000 tonnes(niobium content) for both 2014 and, estimated, for 2015..

The country’s largest mine (and niobium deposit) is located south of
Araxá in the state of Minas Gerais and operated by Companhia
Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração – CBMM. The second largest is
the Catalão mine east of Catalão in the state of Goiás which Anglo
American announced, at the end of April, it had sold (together with
its phosphate business in Brazil) to China Molybdenum for some
US$1.5 billion in cash.

the country in the states of Paraiba, Rio Grande do Norte, and Ceará.
Elsewhere it is to be found in Bahia, and the states of Roraima,
Rondonia, Amapá, Minas Gerais and Goiás.

As a good way of securing its niobium supply, this deal, together
with the deals struck back in 2011 (when a consortium of five
Chinese companies acquired a 15% minority stake in CBMM for
US$1.95 billion in cash) and in 2013 (when it bought Rio Tinto’s
majority stake in the Northparkes copper mine in Australia for
more than US$800 million), could, perhaps, be seen as a precursor
to China Moly’s deal to buy the Tenke Fungurume copper mine in
the DRC from Freeport-McMoRan DRC Holdings Ltd., to secure
its supply of cobalt.
Perhaps not surprisingly, in addition, Brazil is not only a producer oftantalum, but also home to large reserves. Once again, according to
the Brazilian SUMARIO 2015 CAPA - Departamento Nacional deProdução Mineral, the country hosts reserves of 34,279 tons
(contained mineable metal), constituting 33.8% of global reserves
and, in 2014, accounted for 10.0% of world tantalum production.

Tantalum: World Production of Mineral Concentrate(Metric Tons)
2013

2014p

Rwanda

600

600

DRC

200

200

Brazil185

118

Mozambique

115

85

China

60

60

Nigeria6060

Ethiopia

8

40

Burundi20

14

Canada5-

Australia--

Image: Shutterstock

Some Other Minor Metals

Whilst there has been no production of rare earths in Brazil since2013, a year in which the country produced some 600 tons (2,700
Source: SUMARIO 2015 CAPA - Departamento Nacional de Produção Mineral
tons in 2012) of monazite from the stockpiles of the Indústrias
Brazil’s tantalum reserves are to be found mainly at the Pitinga mine Nucleares do Brasil (INB) in São Francisco do Itabapoana, the(operated by Mineração Taboca), in the municipality of Presidente
country does host 22,000 tons of reserves, constituting some 17.4%
Figueiredo-AM, in the state of Amazonas, and owned by Peruvianof total global reserves.
group Minsur SA.
In addition to some uranium, Brazil also produces a number of other
The mineable reserves in this mine are about 175 Mt of ore
minor metals, none of them in any very large quantity (although it is(columbite-tantalite), with 35,000 tons of Ta2O5 contained.
the world’s ninth largest producer of cobalt), but probably worth
A “polymetallic” ore deposit, the Pitinga mine also contains cryolite
noting anyway.
(Na3AlF6), together with other minerals such as lithium, yttrium,
niobium, tin, uranium and thorium.
Notes:p– Preliminary Figures

Other occurrences of titanium are to be found in the northeast of(Continues over)9Other Minor Metals: Production and Reserves (Tons)

Cobalt2.4

570,000

0.1

1.3

48,000

g

0.4

15.3

h

18.3

1.2

2,300,000

i

0.3

0.6

27,825g

0.8

175,000

g

1.1

j

3.2

1,350

485,951
7,982
2,833
80,285

381

494

0

Vanadium

Notes:

1.2

g

1,871

Tungsten

20,425

Zircon85,000g

1,750

70,952

Titanium

3.4

2014

2,796

Manganese

Reserves% Global
Reserves

2013

7,084

Lithium% Global
Production

2012
472,501

Chromiump024,687

716,6748,519
2,723
83,112510
1,032
23,659116,000,000

1.3
1.5

2,485,000a– primary metalf– vanadium pentoxideb– mineral lump and chromite concentrateg– contained mineable metalc– concentrateh– measurable reservesd– ilmenite concentrate and rutilei– mineable ilmenitee– metal contained in concentratej– contained mineable mineral

Source: SUMARIO 2015 CAPA - Departamento Nacional de Produção Mineral

Other Metals
Apart from the minor metals mentioned above, Brazil is, of course, a major large-scale producer of base metals. In 2015, it was the world’s
third largest producer of iron ore, and bauxite and alumina. In addition, it was the fifth largest producer of tin, the sixth of nickel, and theeighth largest of aluminum metal.

Where from here?
For those who believe in it, Brazil displays all the signs of having falling under the “resource curse”. Whatever may be the case, the end of
the commodities boom certainly helped strip the country naked economically. Whilst it remains to be seen whether Ms Rousseff’s interim
replacement, Michel Temer, and his team can set the country firmly on the road to recovery, Brazil still has mineral resources of which
many countries would be envious. One can only hope that, going forward, their abundance, and the wealth they represent, are judiciously
managed.

Gallium– the practical joker’s metal
Gallium has a low melting temperature, in fact so low that it will melt in the palm of your hand,luckily it is not harmful to health either which opens a world of opportunities.
Work a bit slow? A fun way to pass the time is to fashion teaspoons from gallium which moulds
easily and looks very similar to aluminium when set. Make a cup of tea for a colleague and watch
their amazement as their spoon disappears while stirring.
For interested parties, teaspoon moulding kits and gallium for exactly this purpose are available on the internet.
http://www.techinsider.io/gallium-safe-metal-liquid-mercury-2016-5
Book recommendation: ‘The Disappearing Spoon: and other tales of madness, love, and the history of the world from the Periodic Tableof elements’, Sam Kean, 2010, ISBN 978-0-316-05164-4
10

A QUICK LOOK AT UK EU REFERENDUM
The future of the United Kingdom in the EU will be put to the vote in a referendum on the 23 rd June.
With the campaigns on both sides of the debate becoming increasingly hostile, we will attempt toconsider some of the key issues that are likely to affect the sector in the event of the UK deciding
to leave the EU.
If the vote is for a British exit or ‘Brexit’. then there will follow a 2-year ‘transition’ period; this is the time
between the UK notifying the European Council of its intention to depart and the actual departure of theUK, although many believe that much longer would be needed to renegotiate Britain’s new relationshipwith the EU.
What is currently unclear is which model of relationship the Leave campaign envisages for the future:
being part of the European Economic Area (EEA) or European Free Trade Association (EFTA), such as
Norway or Switzerland, would mean that the UK would continue to be bound by the very ‘freedom of
movement’ principle those wishing to leave object to, and the UK would, in effect, be likely to retain all
EU product standards, financial regulations, employment regulations and make substantial financial
contributions to the EU in return for access to the market.
The UK would, of course, begin a process of negotiating its own trade agreements with the EU and other countries with which the EU
currently has trade agreements, and some believe this would free the UK. Remain campaigners counter, however, that there would be
no incentive for the EU—however much it intended to continue its trade relationship with the UK—to offer terms more favourable thanthose offered to other EU members, as it might lead to other members demanding to leave. And it is questionable whether third
countries would be willing to offer the same trade terms to a single nation as to the EU as a whole.
For commodities, it seems there would be a significant potential impact were the UK to leave. For those based outside the EU, access to
the UK market may not change significantly; however if the UK and the EU failed to agree trade terms, trade would take place under WTO
rules, and there could be increased tariffs on UK goods.
For those UK firms trading with EU counterparties, new trading requirements could be introduced, and as the UK would no longer be partof the Customs Union, new customs tariffs could be created.
At the recent Holman Fenwick Willan breakfast briefing, those with physical commodity trading contracts involving parties based in the
UK or elsewhere in the EU were advised to review these in the event of a Brexit, particularly in the case of long-term or master contracts.
Other contract issues to consider would be currency and import/export and transit procedures, which may be affected.
A big concern for businesses is whether EU legislation, such as REACH, will continue to apply to UK-based companies importing into theEU, or indeed whether the UK government will implement similar domestic legislation. Again, it appears that this will depend on the typeof relationship the UK chose to adopt with the EU.
Whichever way the vote goes, this referendum is certainly an historic moment for the UK.
The outcome of the referendum will be known on the 24th June.
Sources:
openeurope.org.uk
http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/oct/27/norway-eu-reality-uk-voters-seduced-by-norwegian-model
https://fullfact.org/europe/eu-debate-what-do-switzerland-and-norway-tell-us-about-life-outside-eu/
Holman Fenwick Willan Commodities Bulletin April 2016—Brexit—Key Questions for the Commodities Sector‘Tritanium’ Posterior Lumbar Cage
Following many years of research and development, world leading medical technology company,
Stryker, has announced its new Tritanium Posterior Lumbar Cage, designed to assist lumbar spinal
fixation for those with degenerative disc disease.
The cage uses a 3D-printing process to create a proprietary porous titanium alloy (Tritanium) able
to mimic spongy bone tissue (cancellous bone) and integrate with the patient’s own bone, as wellas provide the desired radiographic properties to enable doctors to evaluate the fusion in thelonger term.
Source: 3D printed spine mimics bone, ASM International May 01, 2016 http://www.asminternational.org/news/industry//journal_content/56/10180/26286598/NEWS11

Tantalum: Lessons learned,
or will history repeat itself? Time will tell.
In 2015, an estimated 62% of global tantalum supply came from Africa, 45% of it from Central Africa, mainly from Rwanda and the DRC.
That was not the case in the past and it may not be the case in future. Much depends on whether or not the industry has learned thelessons of the last 15 or so years, and on whether or not it makes the same mistakes again, given that the nature of the industry has changed
in many ways.
Although there had long been both conventional and artisanal (“pick and shovel”) tantalum production in Africa, it was not until the late
1990s that artisanal mining in Central Africa became a major factor, with the rise in output fuelled by rapid growth in demand forcomputers, mobile telephones and other consumer electronics that use components containing tantalum. Prior to that, global supply had
come mostly from conventional mines in Australia, Brazil and elsewhere, and from slags generated during tin smelting. Slags were once themain source of tantalum, and are still of significance (about 11% of supply in 2015) but their importance fell after the tin crash of the mid1980s that led to the demise of tin mining in Thailand, where tantalum-rich ores were produced. Even as recently as the mid-2000s,
conventional mining still held the number 1 spot, with the Wodgina and Greenbushes mines in Australia alone making up perhaps 60% of
total supply.

Recorded imports of tantalum ores and concentrates from the DRC and Rwanda(estimated tonnes Ta2O5)

The first real upset came in the early 2000s when rapidly growing demand for tantalum, coupled with a wholly unfounded belief that ashortage of tantalum was imminent, saw market prices spike at US$350/lb Ta2O5 (US$772,000/t), which is about six times today’s price.
A number of major buyers locked-in to long-term supply contracts at the prevailing price. Demand then turned down, there was noshortage and prices tumbled. Buyers were left facing huge financial write-downs and large tantalum inventories that remained in thesystem for years. Those inventories were made even larger by the US government selling its strategic stockpile of tantalum, albeit over a
period of several years.
While that was happening, artisanal supply from Central Africa was growing, as shown in the accompanying charts. The very nature ofartisanal mining means that tantalum produced in this way is far lower-cost than material produced from conventional mining. There wasa snag, however. Much of the material from Central Africa was coming from the eastern DRC, smuggled out through Rwanda and othercountries, and used to fund the various warring factions. The name “conflict tantalum” appeared. Given the uncertainty over where
tantalum was really being mined, most processors outside China simply stopped buying ore from anywhere in the region. That, of course,
does not mean that they stopped buying downstream materials, such as K-salt (potassium fluorotantalate) or tantalum metal, which werethen much harder to trace back to the original mine source.
As time went on, the availability of cheap Central African material made it harder and harder for conventional miners to win the contract
prices they needed to continue producing. Although individually negotiated, the contract prices were based on market prices. In late 2008
the Australian producer Talison (formerly Sons of Gwalia and now known as GAM) tried to impose a large increase in its contract prices,which were then probably uneconomic for the company. With the global economic collapse in full swing, very low market prices and asubstantial inventory already in the system, it failed and stopped producing, which came as another shock.
Prices did go up again, prompting the by-then GAM to restart production in 2011. That did not last long because prices fell again, resulting inanother closure. While all this was going on, the Tanco mine in Canada closed, Marropino in Mozambique failed, the much-vaunted
12

mega-projects in Egypt and Saudi Arabia flatlined and most of thejunior mining projects have struggled to raise finance.
What has been happening more recently? Of great importancehave been the moves by both governmental organisations and thetantalum industry to clean up the supply chain for Central African
tantalum. In the USA, the Dodd-Frank legislation requires
SEC-listed companies to report on their sourcing of materials that
could be from countries identified as sources of conflict minerals.
Contrary to popular belief, Dodd-Frank does not prohibit thepurchase of such materials. Companies do, however, have toreport whether they are not buying such material, are buying suchmaterial or are simply not sure. The last two are a PR nightmare.
It has forced companies to put their supply chains under the
microscope, all the way back to the mine. That is not an easy task
but “bagging and tagging” systems have been introduced. Industry
itself has taken more control over the supply chain, in some cases
introducing “closed pipe” initiatives. This has all made a difference,
although work remains to be done and smuggling from the DRC via
Rwanda continues, albeit it mostly for reasons of simple tax
evasion. The net result is that processors in countries other thanChina are now more willing to purchase material from Central
Africa than they were a few years ago, as the charts show. It is
worth noting that most major Chinese processors have been very
careful about their sourcing for some years.
There are also signs of resurgence in conventional mining. The
large Mibra mine in Brazil is now essentially captive to theprocessor GAM and its future looks secure, at least for the next
couple of years until the contract expires and has to berenegotiated. Pitinga, the other large Brazilian mine is expanding,and that expansion will likely continue for several years.
In Australia, reopening of the legacy mines does not seem to be on
the cards at the moment but there are several projects in thenear-horizon pipeline that could increase tantalum production
significantly, along with good potential for increased tantalum
supply coming as a by-product of lithium production.

Roskill has released its new tantalum market report with forecasts
out to 2020. It is essential reading for anyone needing acomprehensive overview of this rapidly evolving industry.
Tantalum: Global Industry, Markets & Outlook, 12th Edition,2016 is now available from Roskill Information Services Ltd, 54
Russell Road, London SW19 1QL UK. Click here to download thebrochure and sample pages.
For further information, contact us on:
Tel: +44 20 8417 0087.
Fax: +44 20 8417 1308.
Email: info@roskill.com
Web: www.roskill.com

Personal Cooling System
A team of scientists at Pennsylvania State University is working
on a new generation of wearable cooling units which they hope will
ultimately be built into firefighting clothing or athletics wear.
Previous materials either contained lead or environmentally
unfriendly coolants, whilst also being rigid and fragile.
Using a flexible nanowire made of titanium dioxide infused withbarium and strontium ions, they have produced a lightweightmaterial that can be attached to different surfaces, including
clothing, using an adhesive tape.

What does the future hold? It is perhaps a good idea to look at past
events (and hope that lessons have been learned). Demand fortantalum is not going to suddenly surge; there are no major new
applications coming. Overall demand will grow gently, at best.
The artisanal mining sector in Central Africa has been legitimised,
not entirely but sufficiently. Increased demand could be met fromthose sources, quickly and now generally guilt-free. Supply from
Australia offers a wholly legitimate option but it will to some extent
depend upon the lithium market.
Much will hinge on whether or not the tantalum space has learned
from the mistakes of the past and become more rational.
Underlying tantalum prices should rise from current levels but not
dramatically or erratically. A fall in market prices would render theconventional mining sector uneconomic and would make evenartisanal mining somewhat unattractive. Another spike in market
prices would surely follow. This has happened before and only
time will tell if it happens again.

Image caption — Flexible electrocaloric fabric of nanowire array. Courtesy of Qing

Wang/Penn State

13

What’s inside a Tesla Model S?
Visual Capitalist produces some fantastic infographics, and they kindly gave the Crucible permission to reproduce them. After the
popularity of ‘What’s in an iPhone 6’, we’re getting inside another consumer of minor metals:
For more illuminating infographics go to http://www.visualcapitalist.com/

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15

Holman Fenwick Willan Breakfast
Seminar Summary
Members and associates of the MMTA were welcomed to theoffices of Holman Fenwick Willan on 26th May for a breakfast
seminar on Counterparty Insolvency, Warehouse Fraud and a short
Brexit Q&A.
After networking over breakfast, Marc Weisberger, a partner at thefirm with extensive experience of trading and investment
transactions, restructurings and trade finance across the energy,
metals and softs markets, welcomed the attendees with a casestudy on ‘When is a sale not a sale? The Res Cogitans judgment in
the Supreme Court’.
This judgment from the 11th May 2016 is relevant to you if:

Hypersonic Air Travel
Hypersonic travel that could propel people from London to
Sydney in just two hours is one step closer to reality, following
a successful test.
The project, which saw US and Australian military scientists
combine resources, is on track to launch in 2018 after its latest
engine trial hit the target speed of Mach 7.5 - more than seventimes the speed of sound.
It could revolutionise global air travel and provide cost-effective
access to space, Alex Zelinsky, the chief Australian scientist working
on the project said.
For a jet or rocket to be classified as hypersonic, it must travel atYou sell on open account terms

You have retention of title clauses in your sales contractsYou expect your buyer to consume or transform your material
before payment

Graham Denny then presented on Trade Credit Insurance, with aparticular focus on the new Insurance Act 2015, which comes into
force on 12th August 2016. The main changes brought in by this Act
are as follows:

The concept of "fair presentation of risk" to "replace utmost
good faith". Introduction of new knowledge regime.

Introduces proportionate remedies for breach of the duty offair presentation.



Warranties:-Abolition of "basis of contract" clauses.

five times the speed of sound, or Mach 5. The latest trial at the-Suspensory effect of breach of warranty.

world's largest land testing site in Australia saw a rocket hit thetarget speed of Mach 7.5 (5760 miles per hour), reaching an altitude of 279 kilometres.
"We want to be able to fly with a hypersonic engine at Mach 7,"
Michael Smart, a hypersonic expert from the University of
Queensland who is working on the test, told the AFP. "You could fly
long distances over the Earth very, very quickly.
"It's also very useful as an alternative to a rocket for putting
satellites into space."
The team isn't the only group to be looking at hypersonictechnology. Earlier this year, a concept design for the Antipode,which could travel from London to New York in just 11 minutes at
12,427 miles per hour, was released.
Spike Aerospace, an engineering company in Boston, also unveiledplans last year to develop a 12 to 18 seater supersonic private jetthat could cross the Atlantic in under four hours. Airbus also filed
a patent for a jet called Concorde 2 that could make the journey
in an hour.
Source: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/05/18/two-hour-sydneylondon-flight-on-track-for-2018-launch/16Clauses excluding or limiting liability for a loss of a particularkind / at a particular time or location not to apply to a loss of adifferent kind / at a different time or location.
Fraudulent claims: insurer liable for losses up to fraudulent act
but can treat the policy as terminated from time of fraudulent
act.

Graham went on to talk about the Enterprise Act 2016 which, fromMay 2017, will add new provision into the Insurance Act 2015.
Craig Neame was the final speaker, with a fascinating—andentertaining - look at Warehouse Fraud. He began by looking at thedifferences between warehousing for fast moving consumer goods
and metals storage.
He then went on to cover some of the issues that can go wrong
with warehousing including theft, fire, acts of god and a recent
example of fraud— looking at Qingdao in China.
The MMTA would like to thank HFW for hosting this event and forproviding such interesting and thought provoking presentations.

17

Materials selection in Bicycles
Tamara Alliot, MMTA
The humble bicycle, popular since… well that’s quite a disputed date, but from the early 1800s, the ancestors of the modern-day bicycle
were certainly in use. One prominent version was the Draisienne, invented in France and patented in 1818. Charles, Baron von Drais, ofSauerbrun devised a front wheel capable of being steered, added a padded saddle, and an armrest in front of the body, which assisted inexerting force against the ground. This first invention is more like a children’s balance bike and basically increases walking speed rather
than requiring any pedalling. (see image below right). The French influence on the these machines stuck, with bicycles known as‘velocipedes’ until around 1869, at which point the word bicycle came into common usage.
Bicycle usage is still going strong today (and even growing). From the thrifty commuter to the Tour de France, this tried and tested modeof transport is used by millions every day around the world.
It is of no surprise that there is a huge choice of bicycle technologies and designs, with theirrelative positives and negatives analysed in great detail on cycling forums and in magazines.
Here, we will focus on the bicycle frames and what material they are made of. This choice
has a dramatic effect on the way a bicycle rides, its weight, durability, and, importantly, its
cost.

Alloy
To people working in the metal industry, a frame claiming to be made of ‘Alloy’ seems
incredibly vague, but in the cycling world ‘Alloy’ frames always mean an alloy of aluminium.
These bikes tend to be light, cheap and therefore quite popular.
A cyclist may say, however, that an aluminium alloy bike is harsher to ride and doesn’t
A sketch of the Draisienne velocipede from around 1818
absorb road vibrations as well as other materials. Another downside is the material’s
tendency to fatigue and fail more quickly than, say, a steel or titanium frame. The average alloy bike has a life expectancy of 4-6 years,
if well used.
Some aluminium alloys commonly used in bike frames are Aluminium 2024-T4 which contains small amounts of Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Si, Ti
and Zn; and Aluminium 6061-T6 which contains the same alloys as the 2024, but with slightly different proportions. Aluminium alloy
6061 is a medium to high strength heat-treated alloy with a higher strength than other alloys. It has very good corrosion resistance andvery good weldability, although reduced strength in the weld zone. It has medium fatigue strength. It has good cold formability in thetemper T4, but limited formability in T6 temper. Not suitable for very complex cross sections. Another alloy choice would be Aluminium
7075-T6, a very high strength material used for highly stressed structural parts. Some applications beyond bike frames for this particular
alloy are aircraft fittings, gears and shafts, fuse parts, meter shafts and gears, missile parts, regulating valve parts, worm gears, keys,
aircraft, aerospace and defence applications; and all terrain vehicle sprockets.

Steel
Steel is a classic bicycle material choice, both sturdy and long lasting. If the bike is looked after appropriately, then a steel bike can last alifetime. If oiled and cleaned, a steel bike won’t rust with the added benefit of not fatiguing like aluminium alloys and will wear well. The
obvious issue when compared to aluminium is that steel is much heavier; however, if a high grade of steel is used, this difference islessened significantly. These high quality steel bikes tend to be hand-made, and this is, of course, reflected in the price. It is possible toget a bargain steel bike, but be prepared when lifting it!
Steel bike aficionados say that a steel bike offers a more comfortable ride than aluminium, so if you are looking for a pleasant journeyand durability, steel may be the right choice for you. Common steel alloys in bicycles are high strength steel alloys (generally chromiummolybdenum); one of the most successful older steels was Reynolds "531", a manganese-molybdenum alloy steel.

Beryllium
Yes, really!
A US manufacturer briefly offered a frame made of beryllium tubes (bonded to aluminium lugs), but given the health worries of thismaterial and the price ($26,000 for frame and fork), perhaps unsurprisingly, they never really caught on. Reports stated that the ride wasvery harsh, but the frame was also very laterally flexible.
18

Magnesium
Very much a choice for racing bicycles, magnesium is a very lightweightmaterial, offering a 34% weight saving by volume compared toaluminium. Other positive attributes of magnesium include the highest
dampening rate of all structural metals and a better fatigue life.
One small issue is that these bikes cost upwards of £3000.
AZ61 alloy, from which some of these racing bikes are made, contains
92% magnesium.

Titanium
A Paketa custom made magnesium bicycle

Titanium is often seen as the perfect frame material for bicycles,
whether for racing or commuting, but what exactly is it that makes this metal such a sought-after material, and why is it that in reality, it
is not actually that popular?
Titanium certainly has its positives after looking at the other choices; it doesn’t rust like steel, doesn’t fatigue or give way to rumbling road
vibrations like aluminium alloys; it is also strong and won’t crack like some non-metallic options, for example carbon fibre.
The main problem with titanium bikes is the price. The metal itself is not that expensive, but due to its properties, it is difficult, andtherefore expensive, to cut and weld. If corners are cut during the manufacture of titanium bikes, contamination can happen, causing
potentially catastrophic failure when in use.
A titanium bike is a carefully considered purchase, made by someone who is looking for quality at a high price, you are certainly looking atover £2000 for one of these bikes.
Usually, Grade 9 titanium is used for bike frames. This alloy contains 94.5% Ti, 3% aluminium and 2.5% vanadium, and is used because it
combines the variety of benefits of other grades, but with an ease of machining not seen in other similar alloys This means that it issignificantly stronger than the ‘pure’ grades of titanium, but is easier to weld and make into something useful; essential for keeping
prices down to a vaguely sensible level.
In the interest of fairness, I should also mention that carbon fibre bicycles are also available, as well as frames constructed from more
exotic materials, such as bamboo!
Sources: http://depts.washington.edu/matseed/mse_resources/Webpage/Bicycle/Bicycle%20Materials%20Case%20Study.htm
http://www.londoncyclist.co.uk/bike-made/http://www.paketabike.com/index.cfm?page=technology
https://roadcyclinguk.com/gear/what-should-your-next-bike-be-made-from-carbon-vs-aluminium-vs-steel-vs-titanium.html#fUFMQV79cCxLxtq6.97

USE THE MMTA OFFICE MEETING ROOM FOR FREE*!
*BENEFIT OF MMTA MEMBERSHIPCENTRAL LONDON LOCATION

Screen, projector & flipchartFree Wi-fiTea, coffee, water provided—other refreshments
can be arranged at cost

Library resources
Contact the MMTA at admin@mmta.co.uk to bookthe meeting room.
1920