THE LEARNER DEVELOPMENT JOURNAL
学習者ディベロップメント研究部会誌
ISSN: 2433-5401
https://ldjournal.ld-sig.org

The Learner Development Journal Issue 6:
Learner Development Beyond The Classroom
Authors: Phil Benson & Mayumi Kashiwa
Title: Space Matters: Language Learning Environments Beyond the Classroom in the PostCOVID World
Date of publication online: 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTSIG.LDJ6-9
Author contact: <philip(dot)benson(at)mq(dot)edu(dot)au>, <kashiwa-m(at)kanda(dot)kuis(dot)ac(dot)jp>
Published by the Japan Association for Language Teaching
Learner Development Special Interest Group, Tokyo
https://ld-sig.org/
Copyright 2022 each respective author
This article can be cited as:
Benson, P., & Kashiwa, M. (2022). Language learning environments beyond theclassroom in the post-COVID world. The Learner Development Journal, 6, 121–128. https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTSIG.LDJ6-9
This article is part of a collection of practitioner research on the theme of “Learner
Development Beyond the Classroom” for Issue 6 of the Learner Development Journal (LDJ6),
edited by Isra Wongsarnpigoon, Dominique Vola Ambinintsoa, Phillip A. Bennett, and André
Parsons. Published once a year, each issue of the Learner Development Journal follows a
Community of ractices approach over a period of approximately 18 months in which
contributors work together, under the guidance of the editors, to share, respond to, anddevelop their research and writing.
Articles are published in the Learner Development Journal under a Creative Commons Attribution
License (CC BY), of which CC BY 4.0 is the most recent version. Under this agreement, authors
grant users the right to unrestricted dissemination and re-use of the work. They ask only thatproper attribution is given to the work.

COMMENTARYSpace Matters: Language Learning
Environments Beyond the Classroom in the
Post-COVID World
Phil Benson, Macquarie University, Australia<philip(dot)benson(at)mq(dot)edu(dot)au>
Mayumi Kashiwa, Kanda University of International Studies, Japan<kashiwa-m(at)kanda(dot)kuis(dot)ac(dot)jp>
Phil:

Mayumi, we have known each other since 2015 when you came to Macquarie
University for your higher degree research. You completed a Master ofResearch (MRes) thesis on students’ conceptualizations of in-class and out-ofclass learning and then a PhD on teachers’ conceptions of students’ learning
environments. It was a privilege for me to be able to supervise your work andI learnt a lot from it. Without meeting you, I don’t think my ideas on language
learning environments would have developed as they did! I have a longassociation with the JALT Learner Development SIG (dating back to a one-day
symposium in Shizuoka in 1995), and you are now working at Kanda Universityof International Studies. I am sure you agree that it is an honor to be asked towrite a commentary on this issue of Learner Development Journal and entirely
appropriate that we should write in the form of a dialogue� The theme of thisissue—learner development beyond the classroom—is “right up our alley,” asthey say in Australia. But if we are to begin by commenting on the theme, I think
I would say, first, that learner development takes place both inside and outside
the classroom and that it is difficult to separate the two. But at the same timelearner development beyond the classroom is often neglected so the focus on
out-of-class learning in this issue is justified. Would you agree?
Mayumi: I can’t agree with you more, Phil! It’s a great honor to be invited to write thiscommentary with you� I truly appreciate the editorial team for giving me thisopportunity. When I started my MRes, your work on the concept of learnerautonomy was particularly inspiring to me as I was curious about how teachers(including myself) can support learners to develop their degree of autonomy,
especially by connecting in-class and out-of-class learning experiences, and how
teachers can help learners make use of the ample learning opportunities andresources that they actually have outside of the classroom. Therefore, language
learning environments beyond the classroom and teachers’ awareness ofthem have become a major research interest for me, and I was very lucky to besupervised by you! Your immense wisdom and insights guided me throughout
my journey to complete my degrees. As you said, learner development beyond
the classroom is often neglected; in particular, the connection between in-classand out-of-class learning has not been given much attention. We should
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Space Matters: Language Learning Environments Beyond the Classroom in the Post-COVID World

remind ourselves of not only the richness of resources and the value of what
the students can do for their learning outside of the classroom, but also thatlearning is seamlessly taking place both inside and outside of the classroom forindividual students. The COVID-19 pandemic actually has reminded us of such a
realization when physical classes were canceled.
In this dialogue, I would like to ask you about your views on the current
world, more specifically, about language learning environments beyond
the classroom in the post-COVID world. Hopefully this will contribute to thefurther discussion on language education in the field. Also, the work from thecontributors in this issue shows that our continuous inquiry into language
learning environments beyond the classroom is invaluable and should be paid
more attention to, now more than ever. (It should be noted that we will use firstnames to refer to the authors in a friendly manner just as this dialogue-format
commentary itself aims to create an open café-like atmosphere. Please prepare
yourself a nice cup of coffee!)First of all, I’m wondering how you would describe the current post-COVID
world. In your book (Benson, 2021), you say, “For all of us, it has been a sharp
reminder of just how much space matters” (p. 140) by pointing out “a very
different world” that we live in now. Indeed, we have all experienced the global
COVID pandemic, and a growing number of researchers have pointed out thestruggles that language learners and teachers faced when classes were turned
to exclusively online (Tao & Gao, 2022). Now, how do you perceive the influenceof the pandemic on the concept of language learning environments beyond theclassroom?
Phil:
That’s an interesting question, because although I wrote most of that bookduring the COVID-19 lockdowns in Australia in 2020, most of the ideas for itwere already laid out by then. The comment that you have quoted was reallyan afterthought, and I was very conscious that the spatiality of language
learning was changing around me in ways that I was too busy to think about at
the time! I guess I thought that everything would go back to normal after the
pandemic. But although we are now more or less “back to normal” in Australia,
I have noticed two longer-term effects. The first is that video conferencing has
been normalized—meeting by Zoom is now a matter of convenience, rather
than necessity. The second is that remote learning has also been normalized
for many students. Universities are doing their best to get students back on
campus, but 10 percent attendance has become normal and lecturers now haveto adapt their teaching methods to “hybrid learning,” where some students
are in class while others are online and some are not there at all. In a broader
sense, COVID-19 has made me think that there are three “worlds” in language
learning. We need, perhaps, to think of the online world as being additional to,and somewhat independent of, the worlds of in-class and out-of-class learning.
Mayumi: The idea of three “worlds” in language learning makes me think of anotherresearch possibility (of ours), of exploring learners’ perceptions of andengagements with their language learning environments while traversing
these worlds! I also experienced hybrid teaching, and it was a really hard task
to deliver a lesson to the students in two different worlds. However, I found it
interesting to see individual differences in attitudes and behaviors towards such
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classes! That was the time I felt that the idea of our “language classrooms” is
now different and challenging as a teacher.
When considering that we now have an additional world of online learning,
how do you see this change of our recognition of language learning andteaching environments in the so-called “post-COVID” era? Van Lier’s definition ofa language classroom, which is “the gathering, for a given period of time, of two
or more persons (one of whom generally assumes the role of instructor) for the
purposes of language learning” (1988, p. 47), sounds okay, but if “the gathering”
refers to a particular physical space where a teacher and students meetface-to-face, it would be no longer applicable since we now have more choices
and flexibility in ways of learning, for example, online/remote and on-demandlessons, in addition to face-to-face classes. When the physical location does
not matter for formal language learning, and the border between a language
classroom and outside of the classroom is less clear, the definition of language
learning beyond the classroom becomes more complex.
Phil:
Exactly! I don’t think van Lier was making a contrast between in-class and outof-class learning in his definition; he just wanted to be as inclusive as possible,
and I feel sure he would have welcomed online spaces into his definition of
the classroom. Van Lier’s definition has always been important to me, though,as a starting point for thinking about how different settings (for him, different
types of classroom) influence learning. For example, I recently taught an online
class where the students watched a video recording of a mini-lecture and thendiscussed the content with me� But most of the students watched the video
recording in their own time; some may have discussed the content with otherstudents, and some would not have discussed it at all! So, the students only
logged in to the class during class time if they wanted to talk to me, or perhaps
wanted to have that social experience of attending class! Before the pandemic,
I would have presented the content “live” in class, all of the students would
have been there, and I would have orchestrated the discussion. I could havedone that in the online class, but there has been a kind of deconstruction of
the physical classroom that made me feel that I should not be imposing that on
students in the online setting�Mayumi: The complexity of online/digital learning environments is now obvious; formal
learning can even take place in students’ bedrooms while they are browsing
their Instagram stories or watching YouTube videos at the same time. It
seems that students have experienced a lot of challenges both physically andemotionally. I believe that teachers have also found it challenging to adjust
their working styles since their workplaces were not classrooms—it could be aliving room or a café. But still, we had to make our online teaching “engaging”
for students so that the quality of teaching could be maintained. As such,
both students and teachers had to co-construct some particular “space” inthe physically limited environments. Technology was a great survival kit for
both students and teachers. In terms of teaching, Gretchen Clark in this issue
demonstrates the use of digital resources for extensive listening as well as
promoting learner autonomy of university students in Japan during remoteteaching. Teachers’ navigation of efficient use of technology has provided
students with support and in turn self-directed learning beyond the classroom.
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Space Matters: Language Learning Environments Beyond the Classroom in the Post-COVID WorldPhil:

Yes, this has actually been a challenge for teachers and Gretchen’s paper is agreat example of how teachers have been meeting that challenge. What her
paper shows me, especially, is how online teaching can give teachers an entry
point into students’ online learning. We may think of online extensive listening
as one of the main out-of-class activities that students carry out independentlyof teachers, but here is an example of how teaching can reach out into that partof students’ worlds. This would be much more difficult, for example, in relation
to offline extensive listening out in the city.
Mayumi: It’s an interesting point that students’ out-of-class learning has become more
visible to teachers, while it used to be less visible. I believe that teachers’
guidance in practicing extensive listening can also have a positive outcome,in that students’ out-of-class learning can be perceived as the extension of
their in-class learning. As such, teachers’ creativity in utilizing technology toconnect in-class and out-of-class learning experiences seems to enhance thedevelopment of learners! Chika Hayashi’s innovative international online project
collaborating with Finnish schools appears very energizing for the learners,
which allows the students to realize the true meaning of learning a language
through experiencing real communication in English� Her study also shows
positive outcomes in increasing learners’ motivation to learn English further�I think that this innovative online project demonstrates a great potential andthrough its implementation could create a new dimension of “a language
classroom” at many schools around the world�Phil:
I think that we can learn a few things from Chika’s project. It seems important tome that Yuki was a voluntary participant and that she had several motivations
for joining the project. It also seems important that the two participants werecollaborating on a task that they were both committed to.
Mayumi: Having said that the conceptualization of language learning settings andenvironments has become more complex, it seems that out-of-class learning forstudents means a lot: from something they do for their own goals and purposes(e.g., preparing for the TOEIC test, using mobile applications which suit theirlearning purposes) to informal and implicit learning such as watching movies inEnglish, and formal classes. Since it seems to be happening at the same place
and the same time, I feel that the locus of control, or how students engage
with the space, seems to be the key to defining their space. In other words,
learner agency plays a crucial role more than ever for individuals to manage ameaningful learning environment in order to survive the uncertain, changing,and complex world�
Phil:
Well, you could say that teachers should not interfere with students’ learning
beyond the classroom, that they should leave that to the students themselves.
But many students do not engage in learning beyond the classroom to theextent that they might because they lack knowledge of what is available in theirenvironments or the capacity to use resources productively� The important
point about Chika’s COIL project is that it creates opportunities for learning
beyond the classroom that learners might not be able to set up themselves.
That is one thing teachers can do. But there needs to be a balance between
the teacher’s role and the students’ agency. Jon Rowberry’s paper in this issue
also identifies selection of resources as a key area in which there needs to124

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be space for learner agency—if learners select their own resources then they
will also need to make their own decisions about how they use them, what
they will learn from them. But this also calls for skills that we associate withautonomy: Students will develop these skills in the practice of learning beyond
the classroom, but teachers can also help. Here, I like Jon’s idea of “scaffolding”
learning beyond the classroom. This is another thing that teachers can do.
Mayumi: I also really like Jon’s paper as it highlights the (new) role of teachers insupporting students to be able to have better control over their own learning.
Nowadays, the learners have ample (or sometimes too many) resources out
there, in particular, the rapid and seemingly endless development of new
mobile or online applications. The students seem to be constantly updating
or changing learning applications while not always having certain learning
outcomes in mind. We cannot catch up with all those new learning materials;
however, the learning skills, to select suitable learning resources for theirlearning purposes and needs, should be reconsidered, guided, and followed up
on by the teachers in the course of language learning.
Another aspect of a teacher’s role beyond the classroom can be support
for the learners’ emotional challenges. At my university, I’ve witnessed many
students who struggle or fail to continue their learning or nearly lose (or havelost) their future career visions mainly because of this world change. I’ve heard
students’ struggles firsthand with comments such as, “Online classes simply
demotivated me,” “I cannot focus on class if it’s online,” and “I couldn’t adjust myself
when university switched back from online to face-to-face classes, and I could notcommunicate with people well. I kind of fell into depression, and it was hard justto come to university.” Due to the cancellation of study abroad programs, somestudents had to give up their precious opportunities to experience studying andliving abroad, which also forced them to change their future career plans. Aya
Hayasaki’s investigation into the experiences of three female learners in rural
Japan also argues that language learning outside of the classroom is certainly
connected or is at least part of the learners’ life process� When students facean environmental change, in this case, a change of learning environment froma face-to-face, traditional sense of the language classroom to online learningin an isolated place due to the world pandemic, I think it’s fair to say thatthe majority of students experienced emotional difficulties in learning. The
adjustment involves significant emotional challenges, and it seems to highlightthe importance of social and emotional support (from peers and teachers) for
the development of learner agency�
Phil:
The need to adjust conceptions of in-class and out-of-class learning, andthe relationship between them was really the original contribution of your
Masters research, which we also highlighted in Kashiwa and Benson (2018).
There you were talking about the transition from “study at home” to “study
abroad,” but I agree that the changes in teaching and learning during COVID-19
represented another kind of transition, and it is interesting to think about whatthat transition involved. You make a good point here that this is an emotional
challenge. In fact, this takes towards the heart of what we mean by a “learning
ecology.” Space is one dimension—we can think of how a person’s language
learning is distributed across a range of in-class and out-of-class spaces—but
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then there is also the time of longitudinal dimension, which Aya captures in
the notion of trajectory. When we use the term “ecology,” we are often thinking
about the ways in which things fit together. So, in the case of language learning
ecology, we are thinking about how spaces of learning fit together in the context
of individual lives, but also how events and processes fit together over time,
how one set of actions in space shapes not only the next set of actions but also
the spatial field in which they take place. I find Aya’s paper especially valuable
because it shows us how language learning can be transformational for thelearner. In my view, language learning “widens horizons” in the literal sense thatit transforms spaces of learning and opens up new spaces of possibilities for thelearner�Mayumi: That’s right. Such changes do show the dynamics of learners’ language learning
ecologies; adjusting to changes in any aspect of a learning environment can
result in a change of conceptions and lead learners to engage with resources
they perceive. It reminds me of the importance of being a reflective practitioner/
researcher who is aware of the fluid and constantly changing nature of thelanguage learning environments. Mizuka Tsukamoto’s practice-based bookreview, in which she reflected on her own teaching practice by relating to Donna
Clarke’s (2019) classroom action research on a learner-centered approach tofoster learner autonomy, is one example of reflective practice that we can dofor our ongoing professional development. Also, as you pointed out, students’
engagement with resources in the environment matters for the learner’s
development. This talk with you has made me realize that we have to be more
mindful that our students are not experiencing one simple shift/transition
from offline to online, rather, they are traversing multiple learning worlds,
experiencing both benefits and constraints, and also figuring out how to maketheir learning more meaningful�In terms of research design, the use of the learners’ own reflections proves
to be a great data source for an in-depth investigation as well as a powerfultool for learner development. In this issue, the students’ engagement withresources, and how learners develop their agency beyond the classroom areexamined through students’ self-reflection. For example, Dominique Vola
Ambinintsoa, Haingoarinjaka Fanaperana Rajaonaritiana, and Volatiana Olivia
Rasoanindrina (two of them are students as well as future EFL teachers)
employed language learning histories written by the authors themselves as
research participants� They highlighted the importance of learner agency increating their language learning environments beyond the classroom and thecapacity of utilizing opportunities and resources in the given environment. Theysuggested implementing innovative classroom activities by linking students’interests and learning strategies beyond the classroom, which, in turn, would
boost the learners’ motivation. Ann Flanagan employed journal writing as atool for high school students to self-reflect on their learning outside of theclassroom. She points out the value of critical reflective practice among learners
for raising their awareness of learning beyond the classroom so that they will
be more responsible for their learning. Do you have any recommendations on
designing a new research project?

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Phil:

Yes, these two papers take us into the area of learner histories in different
ways. The first thing I want to say about Vola, Fanaperana, and Olivia’s paper
is that we really need more autobiographical writing of this kind in learnerdevelopment. There is a certain kind of conservatism in academic writing andpublishing that favors third-person research and writing and, therefore, acertain kind of perspective and insight. We need more experimental writingof this kind because it gives us different kinds of insights, coming from themultiple perspectives of co-authorship as well as the learner-teacher-researcher
perspective. We also gain a vivid picture of the development of both a collective
and individual learning ecologies over time in the Malgasay context. Ann’s
paper is an interesting one because it shows us how journal writing can be bothlearning beyond the classroom and a source of data for research. But beyond
that it highlights the crucial roles of reflection and critical self-awareness in thisview of language learning as a spatio-temporal process of “widening horizons.”
In fact, one can spend a lot of time learning a language at school without verymuch changing at all. Development comes from outside stimuli—and this is
why a widening experience of language learning beyond the classroom is so
important—but it also has to be driven from within. As Ann puts it, it is a matterof learners becoming “more involved in their language learning,” and as learners
become more involved, the spaces of their learning are also likely to expand.
Critical reflective writing journals are an excellent tool to foster that kind ofdevelopment� This is yet another thing that teachers can do�Mayumi: The discussion with you, reflecting on the current language learning andteaching environments and our experiences over the past years, has inspired
me to explore more about space, which both the learners and teachers
co-cultivate in the process of language learning ecologies. I believe that
we should keep in mind that learning involves both positive and negative
emotions� It is also the fact that the learners are traversing complex learning
environments, and their engagement with the resources is crucial in order toadjust themselves to the changes. In addition, it is necessary for the learners to
reinforce reflective practice, and also our continuous inquiry into supporting thelearners’ engagement in learning is needed. I’d also like to ask your views about
the points for a research agenda in the field of language learning environments
beyond the classroom and learner development.
Phil:
Well, this issue of LDJ points to a few directions for a research agenda on learnerdevelopment and learning environments� The two main directions that I see
are concerned, first, with what teachers can do in relation to language learning
beyond the classroom, and, second, how we can move beyond a narrowobservational view of learning environments. On the first question, I find thatthe papers in this issue are sensitive to the potential problem of “interferingin” students’ out-of-class learning. As a matter of perspective, I believe we needto decenter our point of view as teachers. Language learners are not just thepeople we meet in our classes, and these classes are not necessarily the focusof their learning either in space or in time. On the contrary, we are people thatlearners meet at certain points in wider spaces of learning, and at certain points
in their development over time. Language learning is also deeply embeddedin their lives—lives about which only they can speak authoritatively. Too much
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academic research treats the learner that we see here and now as the wholeof the learner; if we shift the center to the spatio-temporal perspective of thelearners, we will understand that our influence is limited. The contributors tothis special issue understand, I think, that we can nudge learners in certain
directions in language learning beyond the classroom, but the rest will be up
to the learners themselves. On the second question, I welcome the range ofperspectives, research methods, and writing styles in this issue and, especially,
the willingness to experiment and explore new areas and dimensions oflanguage learning. This is what the Learner Development SIG in JALT has always
been good at, and long may it continue!
Mayumi: Finally, I’d like to thank you again for sharing your views and experiences.
Having the opportunity to write a commentary with you has been a real honor!
I really enjoyed the chance to exchange ideas in this format, and I appreciate
your contributions to the field! I really hope to see you in person (and work withyou) soon!! I also look forward to your future publications!

Author Bios

Phil Benson is Professor of Applied Linguistics and former Director of the Multilingualism
Research Centre at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. His research focuseson language learning environments and informal language learning beyond theclassroom, and he has recently published the book, Language Learning Environments:
Spatial Perspectives on SLA (Multilingual Matters, 2021). He is also author of Teaching andResearching Autonomy in Language Learning (Routledge, 2013) and has co-edited several
collections of papers on autonomy and out-of-class language learning�
Mayumi Kashiwa is a full-time lecturer in the Department of English at Kanda Universityof International Studies. She holds a PhD and Master of Research in Applied Linguistics
from Macquarie University, Australia, and a Master’s degree in TESOL from the Instituteof Education, University College London. Her research interests include language learningand teaching beyond the classroom, teacher cognitions and professional development,
and narrative inquiry�

References

Benson, P. (2021). Language learning environments: Spatial perspectives on SLA. Multilingual
Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788924917
Clarke, D. (2019). Exploring autonomous learning: A teacher’s experience and learners’
perceptions. In M. Menegale (Ed.), Autonomy in language learning: Getting learners
actively involved (pp. 21–39). Candlin & Mynard.
Kashiwa, M., & Benson, P. (2018). A road and a forest: Conceptions of in-class and out-ofclass learning in the transition to study abroad. TESOL Quarterly, 52(4), 725–747. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.409
Tao, J., & Gao, X. A. (2022). Teaching and learning languages online: Challenges andresponses� System, 107, Article 102819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102819
van Lier, L. (1988). The classroom and the language learner� Longman�

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