UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIATHE MULTIPLE LAND USE MODEL OF NGORONGORO CONSERVATION AREA:
ACHIEVEMENTS AND LESSONS LEARNT, CHALLENGES AND OPTIONS FOR
THE FUTURE!

FINAL REPORT!

!

Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism
DodomaOctober, 2019ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe Team of Experts wish to extend appreciation to the Permanent Secretary, Ministryof Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) for appointment to undertake review of!iNgorongoro Conservation Area’s Multiple Land use Model. Our thanks are extended to
institutions for granting permission. Thanks are also extended to the Board of Directors
and Management of Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA) for facilitating theTeam in terms of logistics and guidance. The Team further acknowledges inputs anddiscussion with the National Land Use Planning Commission, which is reviewing
General Management Plan (GMP) of Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) andappreciates the valuable inputs from the United Nations-Education, Science and Culture
Organization (UNESCO) Commission-Tanzania Office, Tanzania Tourist Board, tourism
stakeholders and Non-Governmental Organizations operating in Ngorongoro district and
NCA in particular.
The Team is grateful to the District Commissioner for Ngorongoro Dr. Rashid MfaumeTaka, Council Management Teams for Karatu, Ngorongoro, Longido, Monduli and
Meatu districts, and the Office of the Arusha Regional Commissioner as well as the
Administrative Secretary for sharing information and knowledge on the current andfuture situation of NCA. Wildlife and natural resources management authorities,
research and higher learning institutions and the National Museum of Tanzania- arethanked for fruitful discussions and inputs.
Thanks are in addition extended to political and religious leaders from Ngorongoro
District who provided invaluable contributions. The Team is as well indebted to theelders and members of Ngorongoro Pastoral Council (NPC) who were instrumental in
sharing their experience on issues pertaining to NCA. The Team is specificallyappreciative to the Member of Parliament for Ngorongoro Constituency, Hon. William
Ole Nasha (MB), for setting aside his time to discuss issues related to conservation andcommunity development in NCA.
Last but not least, the Team thanks representatives from 25 villages of NCA and Jema
Village in Sale Division where 159 households from NCA were resettled between 2007
and 2010.

!ii

Members of the Review Team

S/N

NAME

POSITION

INSTITUTION

1.

Dr. Iddi M. Mfunda

Chairperson

Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism

2.

Dr. Victor A. Runyoro

Vice
Chairperson

Chairperson of Pangani River Basin Board &Environmental Consultant

3.

Dr. Maurus Msuha

Secretary

NCAA/Wildlife Division

4.

Dr. Robert Fyumagwa

MemberTanzania Wildlife Research Institute5.

Prof. Jafari Kideghesho

MemberCollege of African Wildlife Management-Mweka

6.

Dr. Ladislaus Batinoluho

Member

Open University of Tanzania

7.

Mr. Joseph Ngaire

MemberTumaini University Makumira Campus

8.

Mr. Willy Chamburo

MemberTanzania Association of Tour Operators

9.

Mr. Burton Mwasomola

Member

Ministry of Constitution and Legal Affairs

10.

Dr. Harriet Mtae

Co-opted
Member

Open University of Tanzania

Conservation
Commissioner

Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority

Coordinator
11

Dr. Freddy Manongi
Secretariat

12

Mr. Elibariki Bajuta

Secretariat

Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority

13

Mr. Deogratius Maige

Secretariat

Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority!iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS!iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...............................................................................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER ONE ..............................................................................................................................i
BACKGROUND INFORMATION .................................................................................................i
1.

Historical background..................................................................................................................i

2.

Justification for the Review ........................................................................................................ ii

3.

The Objectives ............................................................................................................................iv

4.

The Conceptual Framework...................................................................................................... iv

CHAPTER TWO ...........................................................................................................................vii
AN OVERVIEW OF THE MULTIPLE LAND USE MODEL .........................................................vii
1.

Preamble.....................................................................................................................................vii

2.

NCA in the context of the Serengeti – Mara Ecosystem ........................................................vii

3.

NCA and adjacent land uses ...................................................................................................... ix

4.

Conservation of Natural Resources ...........................................................................................x

5.

Archaeological, Paleontological and Cultural Heritage.......................................................... xi

6.

Conservation status ...................................................................................................................xii

7.

Community Development .........................................................................................................xii

8.

Tourism Development ..............................................................................................................xiv

9.

Cross-cutting issues ...................................................................................................................xv

CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................xviii
METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................................................xviii
1.

Data Collection Techniques ...................................................................................................xviii

2.

Data analysis .............................................................................................................................xix

3.

Limitation of the Study .............................................................................................................xx

CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................................................xxi
POLICIES, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS...............................................xxi
1.

Preamble.................................................................................................................................... xxi

2.

The Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania (1977) ...............................................xxi

3.

National Policies ......................................................................................................................xxii

4.

International Conventions and Agreements ........................................................................xxix

5.

Strategies and Guidelines .................................................................................................... xxxiv

6.

Legislation ............................................................................................................................ xxxvii

7.

Institutional Framework .........................................................................................................xlvi

KEY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................l1.

Preamble........................................................................................................................................ l!v

CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................................. 93
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS................................................... 93
1.

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................93

2.

Future Management Options ...................................................................................................96

3.

Strategies for the Future .........................................................................................................102

ANNEXES................................................................................................................................... 109
Annex 1

110

!vi

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Human and livestock population change in the past 60 years of the model ......................3
Table 2: Mean body measures of pastoral mothers in LGCA and NCA ..........................................6
Table 3: Outcome and Goals of National Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction (2005) ....33
Table 4: Land cover changes (1975 to 2000)................................................................................. 53
Table 5: Proportions of land use and land cover change (2008 and 2018) ....................................54
Table 6: Population estimates for large herbivore in NCA in 1994 and 2017 ............................... 64
Table 7: Wealth classification in NCA in 1994 ..............................................................................67
Table 8: Wealth classification in NCA in 2013 ..............................................................................67
Table 9: Number of Topical Livestock Units in the NCA in 2017 ................................................68
Table 10: Livestock mortality in the NCA at the end of November 2017 ..................................... 71
Table 11: Students bursaries by NCAA through NPC from 2014 to 2018 ....................................74
Table 12: Classes of Roads in NCA............................................................................................... 83
Table 13: List of Airstrips in NCA................................................................................................. 83
Table 14: Expenses for Community Development for five financial years................................... 85
Table 15: Expenses on Conservation of Natural and Cultural Heritage Resources....................... 85
Table 16: Expenses for Tourism Development for five years ........................................................86
Table 17: Total Expenses on Community, conservation and Tourism development ..................... 86
Table 18: Stakeholders opinions and views on NCA model ..........................................................88
Table 20: The new size of NCA after boundary alteration ............................................................90!vii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Egg of sustainability model, (A) shows the desired situation and (B) shows thecurrent situation in NCA (IUCN 1994) ................................................................................5
Figure 2: Protected Areas in the Serengeti Mara Ecosystem ................................................8
Figure 3: Significant topographic features in NCA .......................................................................11
Figure 4: Analytical framework of the current situation in NCA ..................................................49
Figure 5: Rainfall trends (mm) between 1963 and 2017 at NCAA Headquarter ..........................50
Figure 6: Rainfall trend (mm) between 1985 and 2017 at Ndutu Lodge....................................... 51
Figure 7: Type and coverage of water sources in NCA ................................................................. 52
Figure 8: water source potentials in NCA......................................................................................52
Figure 9: Changes in land use and land cover in NCA from 2008-2018....................................... 55
Figure 10: Distribution of land use and land cover across the NCA landscape ............................56
Figure 11: Proportion of high and low suitable habitats across NCA landscape in 2018 ..............57
Figure 12: Habitat suitability across NCA landscape in 2018 ....................................................... 57
Figure 13: Anticipated standing plant biomass in scenario one ....................................................58
Figure 14: Anticipated standing plant biomass in scenario two ....................................................59
Figure 15: Anticipated standing plant biomass in scenario three ..................................................60
Figure 16: Main species biomass and total biomass from 1960s to 2017 ..................................... 62
Figure 17: Population changes in four herbivore species ..............................................................62
Figure 18: Human and livestock population trend (A) in the NCA from 1954 to 2017 ................66
Figure 19: Predicted human population and TLU trends: Calculated from NBS (2017) base data. .
69
Figure 20: Livestock diseases of great economic importance (Source NCAA 2018) ................... 72
Figure 21: Community perception on livestock services in NCA ................................................. 72
Figure 22: Endulen hospital, the only hospital in NCA................................................................. 75
Figure 23: Distribution of water services in the NCA as per draft GMP report 2018 ................... 76
Figure 24: Tourist trends in NCA from 1960s to 2018 ..................................................................79
Figure 25: NCAA's revenue trends since 1999/2000 to 2017/2018 ..............................................79
Figure 26: Roads and Communication Networks in NCA ............................................................84!viii

Figure 27: Proposed boundary alteration and management zones ................................................90
ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS
CAP
CBC
CBD
CBPP
CCPP
CITES

-

CMS
CMT
CSOs
CSP
DOA
DS
EAC
ECF
EIA
EMA
FAO
GCAs
GDP
GIS
GMP
GRs
HIV
ILRI
IPPC
IRA
ITCZ
IUCN

-

Kg
Km2
LGAs
CGA
LHUs
LULC
MAB
MCF

-

Acquired Immuno-deficiency Syndrome
Chapter
Community-Based Conservation
Convention on Biological Diversity
Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia
Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Floraand Fauna
Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
Council Management Team
Civil Society Organizations
Corporate Strategic Plan
Division of Antiquities
Dry Season
East African Community
East Cost Fever
Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Management Act
Food and Agriculture OrganizationGame Controlled Areas
Gross Domestic Product
Geographical Information System
General Management Plan
Game Reserve
Human Immuno-deficiency Virus
International Livestock Research InstituteInternational Plant Protection Convention
Institute of Resource Assessment
Inter - Tropical Convergence Zone
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources
Kilogramme
Square Kilometre
Local Government Authorities
Loliondo Game Controlled Area
Large Herbivore Unit
Land Use and Land CoverMan and the Biosphere Program
Malignant Catarrh Fever
!ix

MDAs
MLUM
MNRT
MTS
NBS
NCA
NCAA
NDC
NEMC
NFRA
NGOs
NHFR
NPC
NSGPR
PAs
PO-RALG
PRA
PPR
RDP
RDS
R.E.
SEA
SDGs
SENAPA
SME
SPFFE
SWOC
TDV
TANAPA
TARURATAWATAWIRI
TFS
TLU
TTB
TZS
UN
UNEP
UNFCCCUNDP
UNESCO
URT
VPO-

Ministerial Departments and Agencies
Multiple Land Use Model
Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism
Multilateral Trading System
National Bureau of Statistics
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority
Ngorongoro District Council
National Environment Management Council
National Food Reserve Agency
Non-Governmental Organizations
Northern Highland Forest Reserve
Ngorongoro Pastoral Council
National Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction
Protected Areas
President’s Office Regional Administration and Local Government
Participatory Rural Appraisal
Peste des Petit Ruminants
Rural Development Policy
Rural Development Strategy
Revised Edition
Strategic Environmental Assessment
Sustainable Development Goals
Serengeti National Park
Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem
Society for the Preservation of Flora and Fauna of the Empire
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Challenges
Tanzania Development Vision
Tanzania National Parks
Tanzania Rural and Urban Roads Agency
Tanzania Wildlife Management Authority
Tanzania Wildlife Research InstituteTanzania Forest Services Agency
Tropical Livestock Unit
Tanzania Tourist Board
Tanzania Shilling
United Nations
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Education, Scientific and Culture Organization
United Republic of Tanzania
Vice President’s Office
!x

WTO
WFP
WHC
WHO
WHS
WMAs
WS

-

World Tourism Organization
World Food Programme
World Heritage Committee
World Health Organization
World Heritage Site
Wildlife Management Areas
Wet Season!xi

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Various stakeholders have increasingly been raising concern over the future of NCA in
the face of increasing management challenges under the current multiple land use
model (MLUM). Many facets have changed over the past 60 years of existence of NCA
under the Model. These changes include, but not limited to, human demographics andspatial distribution across the landscape; land use types and levels of use within andadjacent areas; climatic conditions in terms of magnitude and duration of rainfall
patterns and temperature regimes; human and livestock diseases; and socio-ecology ofthe people. Likewise, tourism types, products, the nature and contexts are different
today unlike early years of NCA establishment. These changes have significantly
influenced wildlife habitats, migratory routes and breeding sites and, consequently, thetypes and composition of flora and fauna of the area.

In view of the above concerns, in August 2018, MNRT formed a Team of Experts
composed of experts from different disciplines to review the current MLUM andrecommend management options that will address the current concerns and translatethem into the desired future of NCA in terms of promoting natural resources
conservation, safeguarding the interests of indigenous residents and promoting tourism.

The Team employed a variety of approaches, tools and techniques to accomplish thisassignment. The exercise started by flying over the area to get its snapshot followed bya series of field visits in villages falling within NCA and consultations with Council
Management Teams in bordering districts of Karatu, Longido, Meatu, Monduli and
Ngorongoro district itself, and other key stakeholders. Review of available documentsfrom both published and grey literature, and assessment of Satellite Images were done
to gather relevant information and establish historical trends of the changes that havetaken place in NCA since its establishment.
The findings in this assignment uncovered that the Ngorongoro Conservation Area
Authority (NCAA) had had some mixed successes and challenges in pursuing its legal
mandates under MLUM. The NCA has maintained three major different UNESCO
designations - namely the World Mixed Natural and Cultural Heritage Site, Man andBiosphere Reserve and Ngorongoro- Lengai Global Geo-park. Other designations
include cradle of mankind and one of the 7th wonders of Africa. This implies that theManagement and the indigenous residents have continued to make efforts in ensuring
the integrity and quality of the outstanding resources and values of NCA are maintained.
The area is a stronghold of the highest population of black rhino (Diceros bicornis
michaeli) in Tanzania, hosting nearly half of the country’s population. The number of thisimportant keystone species swelled from 12 individuals in 1980s, when UNESCO
inscribed the area on the list of World Heritage Sites in danger to 60 rhinos in 2018. The
NCA, unlike most of the protected areas in Tanzania has minimal levels of wildlife!xiipoaching. The area has, therefore, albeit these changes, continued to maintaininternational standards of conservation, management of biodiversity, cultural heritageand geological landscape.
In safeguarding the interests of the indigenous residents (Maasai, Datoga andHadzabe), NCAA has continued to support NCA community through provision ofservices such as, education, health, water and veterinary service. NCAA also provides
food at subsidized price to the community annually to complement pastoral foodshortage. Besides the recorded achievements, local people in NCA indicated to havereservations regarding their level of involvement in the decision making process on
matters related to governance and management of NCA. Support from NCAA has notbeen able to cope with increasing demands, most likely due to high human population
growth, effect of climate change and ecological stresses. Indigenous residents’ socioeconomic conditions have deteriorated due to food insecurity, water scarcity, income
poverty, increasing human-wildlife conflicts, unfavourable laws, poor health and highilliteracy level. Increased human-wildlife conflicts are associated with increased
interactions among people, wildlife and livestock. The Tropical Livestock Units (TLUs)
per person have declined over years from 11.6 in 1959 to 2.3 in 2017, partly due to highlivestock mortality exacerbated by deterioration of rangelands concurrent with highhuman population growth. Residents associate livestock mortality with inadequate
grazing land caused by restrictions imposed by the Authority. They gave an example on
recent restrictions or ban to track livestock into the Ngorongoro Crater for salt lick and in
Empakaai and Olmoti craters as well as Northern Highland Forest Reserve (NHFR) fordry season grazing. Other reasons cited include insufficient veterinary services,
livestock depredation, deteriorating rangelands, particularly the invasion of both alienplant species and indigenous pioneer weeds. Overall, satellite images have shown
extensive deterioration of vegetation particularly grasslands, shrubland, woodland and
NHFR.
Tourism growth is manifested by notable increase in tourist facilities, introduction of new
tourist products as well as increase in tourist numbers and revenue. Tourism products
have increased in recent years from the well-known and traditional products to walking
safaris, horse riding, hot-air balloon flights and geo tourism.Communities engage in
different tourism-based activities as part of livelihood strategy including the sale ofsouvenirs, sharing culture with tourists such as traditional dances, tour guiding andtranslation as well as provision of security services.
In a situation where conservation of natural and cultural resources and tourism are fairly
improving, while conditions of resident pastoralists are deteriorating, it is unlikely for
MLUM to bring the desired outcomes that will benefit conservation and indigenous
residents. The need for review of the model to better harness conservation, community
and tourism development was therefore imperative.
During consultations the following five different options were suggested by stakeholders
for the future management of NCA; (i) maintaining the status quo i.e., allowing people tocontinue with their activities as it is now; (ii) annexing adjacent land areas to provide!xiiimore space for humans, livestock, and tourism activities; (iii) establishing two distinctive
zones; one for human settlement and livestock keeping, and the other exclusive forconservation; (iv) reducing human and livestock population by relocating people to otherareas outside Ngorongoro; and (v) abolishing MLUM and relocating people andlivestock outside the area.
SAVANNA Model was used to predict changes in rangelands condition under threedifferent utilization scenarios. Analysis of maintaining the status quo revealed that withan average annual growth rate of 3.5%, human population will reach 200,000 people by2038. This implies worsening of the well-being of the people as resources can hardly
sustain this number and their livestock. Assuming total TLUs will remain 213,040 as it
was in 2017 (excluding donkeys), TLUs/per capita will drop to 1.0 by 2038. This meansthat the community in NCA will need supplementary food from other sources of about
87%, which is far worse than the current situation of 70%. Even if the area was to be left
solely for livestock and exclude wildlife, TLUs will grow up to 1,150,000 by 2032, butthereafter start to decline due to rangeland degradation and deterioration, and reach
800,000 by 2038. However, beyond year 2022, forbs will dominate the rangelands
followed by herbs both of them replacing palatable grasses. This suggests that manygrazer populations both wild and livestock species will continue to decline. This option
was therefore ruled out by the Team because it was not feasible for sustaining trio
objectives of establishing NCA in particular, and the Serengeti ecosystem in general andthe ultimate reduction of tourists and revenue by about 50% of expected number andincome respectively.
The Team considered stakeholders’ distinct suggestions of annexing adjacent land
areas to provide more space, establishing two distinctive zones and reducing humanand livestock population by relocating people to other areas outside NCA as processes
rather than options, which were therefore combined to form one option, which is, tomaintain multiple land use model with some adjustments. Under this option a total of
4,304km2 from Loliondo and Lake Natron Game Controlled Areas is proposed forannexation and increase the total area of NCA to 12,404km2. With enlarged land area,
population of wild herbivores will increase and exceed the 1994 estimate of 121,742
Large Herbivore Units (LHUs), and the optimal stocking capacity of the area will surpass
250,925 LHUs, that was estimated in 1994. A maximum of 20,000 people (about 5,000
households) will continue to reside in NCA with land use restrictions pursuant todelineated zones. At a minimum of 8.0 TLUs per capita, pastoral food requirements for
20,000 people will be 160,000 TLUs, which will require only 256,000ha of rangelands toguarantee health animals with market value. Initially shrubs and forbs will continue todecline giving way for grasses to recover up to around 2028 when re-appearance offorbs and herbs will be detected. Natural succession and replacement process ofgrazing and browsing vegetation in the proposed new NCA depending on climaticconditions and seasonal utilization of habitats under a revitalized traditionaltranshumance mode of livestock production will sustainably support all herbivore
categories, i.e. grazers, browsers and mixed feeders of both wild and livestock. Thismeans that despite interactions between wildlife and livestock, the proposed new NCA!xivwill be enough to accommodate both domestic and wild herbivores even in bad years ofsevere drought while ensuring minimum pastoral food requirements.
On the other hand, changing NCA into a different protected area category will involve
resettling all people and livestock outside NCA and leave the area exclusive for wildlife
and habitat conservation; an action which may be costly economically, socially andculturally while disrupting inherent dependence of rangeland progression on domestic
herbivores that has existed for many centuries. The availability of land to accommodate
about 100,000 people and ensure that new comers and the hosting community
amicably live in harmony could be challenging. However, advantage of this option is thatcondition of the rangeland in NCA, which has currently deteriorated will improve giving
way to grassland vegetation to recover while shrubs and forbs will disappear at least up
to 2028 when they will re-appear and maintain a rangeland of mixed grazing andbrowsing vegetation and support, wild bowsers, grazers and mixed feeders. With this
scenario, wild herbivore populations, composition and distribution will be ecologically be
regulated by enhancing upward trend up to 2038.
Economically, without annexation of the proposed part of Loliondo and Natron Game
Controlled Areas to encompass the Kleins-Mto wa Mbu tarmac road, which is currently
under construction, once completed NCAA may lose an estimated 25% of the expected
tourist income from entry fee as many visitors may opt to explore attraction through adifferent route from the one they used to enter in NCA. In addition to that loss, another
3.0% may be lost being half of the 6.0% tourists who attached their visit to NCA in 2008
to co-existence between wildlife and people as the major attraction that influenced themto visit the area.
In order for one of the two options i. e. either to maintain multiple land use model withsome adjustments or changing NCA into a different protected area category to work andcater for the interests of conservation, community and tourism development, the Team
proposed critical conditions and considerations. Based on the findings from various
analyses and taking into consideration different aspects including future income,conservation and tourism sustainability as well as resident pastoralists’ welfare andhuman rights, the Team recommends the option of maintaining MLUM with someadjustments. In view of that, immediate, medium and long term actions for realizing this
proposal in order to enhance conservation and tourism status of the area and increase
income from tourism without compromising the rights of legal residents of NCA and a
few who are inhabiting the proposed area for annexation are recommended. The main
critical actions include education and awareness creation, enhancing NCA and sectoralcapacities and coordination, reviewing Ngorongoro Conservation Area Act, enhancing
law enforcement, and introducing rangelands rehabilitation programme.

!xv

CHAPTER ONEBACKGROUND INFORMATION
1.

Historical background

The history of NCA dates back to 1914 when the German Administration accorded
conservation status to the current NHFR of NCA in order to protect the watershed.
However, control of the area was short-lived following the World War I. In 1928, theBritish Administration gazetted Ngorongoro Crater as closed game reserve. Althoughhunting and cultivation was prohibited; local people were allowed to live and conduct
other customary land use practices.
In 1930, the Society for the Preservation of the Flora and Fauna of the Empire (SPFFE)
sent Major Richard Hingston to Africa to investigate the need and potential fordeveloping a nature protection program. He recommended for the establishment of asystem of national parks citing Serengeti, Selous and Kilimanjaro as potential areas forthis category. The 1933 London Convention on Flora and Fauna of Africa reinforced thisrecommendation by urging all signatories including Tanganyika to investigate thepossibility of creating a system of national parks.
In 1940 the first game ordinance that gave the governor a mandate to declare any areaa national park was enacted and Serengeti including the current NCA was establishedas the first national park. However, it remained a “park on paper’ that is without effective
enforcement of the laws and regulations governing the national parks for almost a
decade, a delay that was attributed to World War II of 1939 to1945.
The Fauna Conservation Ordinance No.17 of 1951 re-established the Serengeti
National Park (SENAPA) in 1951. The Maasai responded with categorical refusal toobey government orders, which required them to vacate their homeland. The prohibitive
policies imposed by the national park caused resentment among the natives who
accused the British Administration for disregarding their interests. The resentment was
manifested through sabotage and vandalism, for example, by spearing the rhinos andsetting fires with malicious intent (Neumann, 1992). Negotiations therefore started
between a special committee of trustees of the national parks and the then provincial
administration. The result of these negotiations was a proposal to remove vested
interests from all of the more important game areas in the national park. As a result, theTanganyika Government in Sessional Paper No. 1 of 1956 outlined a projectedmodification of the Serengeti National Park.
Following increasing conflicts between the Maasai and conservation interests, theguaranteed right to the land and the priority of interests were promised by thegovernment in 1958 and by the Governor himself in 1959. The British Administration
excised the eastern part of the Park to form the current NCA - a multiple land use
category of protected area which allowed wildlife conservation to be pursued along withpastoralism and tourism. The excision of NCA from Serengeti National Park resulted
into formation of two management authorities, Tanganyika National Parks (TANAPA)!iand NCA under the governance of TANAPA Ordinance(Cap. 412) and NCA Ordinance(Cap. 413) of 1959, respectively.

TANAPA Ordinance prohibited human settlements and any forms of consumptive use
within national parks while NCA Ordinance sought to meet three objectives conservation of natural resources, promoting the interests of indigenous residents andfostering tourism development. Following the establishment of the two authorities, about
4,000 people from Serengeti were moved to NCA. Together with the other 4,000 people
who inhabited the Ngorongoro Highlands, were guaranteed that their interests will besafeguarded. When NCA Ordinance was revised in 1975, supervision of the area wasvested to the Board of Directors, NCA which was managed as a Unit under MNRT
became an autonomous organization under the management of NCAA, and cultivation
was prohibited throughout the area. However, the original policy objective was retained,
and NCAA was charged with the responsibility to: (i) conserve and develop the natural
resources of the area; (ii) promote tourism; (iii) safeguard and promote the interests of
Maasai citizens of Tanzania engaged in cattle ranching and dairy industry; and(iv)promote and regulate the development of forestry (Parkipuny, 1997). Following
reorganization of the laws by the Parliament, NCA Act was reviewed and changed to
Chapter 284 [R.E. 2002].
2.
Justification for the Review
The MLUM has rendered NCA vulnerable to constant stresses from numerous factors.
This has prompted a debate on whether the model can still be a viable conservation
option and accommodate the interests of indigenous residents or it calls for someadjustments. The notable changes likely to cause stresses in NCA include humanpopulation growth and their spatial distribution over the landscape, social structure,change of lifestyles of the indigenous people and neighbouring communities, land use
patterns and effect of climate change,. With these changes, demands for resources
have increased, and the livelihood patterns have changed.Livestock (cattle, small stockand donkey) populations have also increased, though not at the same pace withhumans. While the livestock population is increasingly exerting pressure on rangelands
and forage resources, the pastoral economy is collapsing as indicated by Tropical
Livestock Units (TLUs). According to McCabe et al., (1992), a member of a household
requires at least 8.0 TLUs for sustenance. However, average TLUs per person in 2017
were 2.3 (excluding donkeys), which accounted for about 30% of the minimum
requirement. The declining trend in livestock per capita causes pastoral food shortage,as NCA communities rely solely on livestock for livelihoods.Trends in humans andlivestock populations between 1959 and 2017are shown in Table 1.

!ii

Table 1: Human and livestock population change in the past 60 years of the model
Unit

1959

2017

PercentagechangeHumans8,000

93,136

1,064.2

Cattle161,034

238,826

48.3

Small stock

100,689

570,633

466.7

Donkeys-

22,104

-

11.6

2.3

-80.2

TLUs/person excluding donkeys

Source: NBS (2017)

Further, tourist numbers and associated facilities have increased, with some of the
facilities located in unplanned sites. Spatial and temporal use of the area by livestock
and wild animals has changed and, subsequently, causing alteration of vegetation
structure and composition. Unique features and ecologically sensitive areas including
wildlife migration routes, breeding sites and dispersal areas are progressively interferedcausing a potential risk to endangered and threatened species. Levels of land suitability
for different uses, including human settlements and tourism development have also
been altered. Both human and wildlife diseases have increased following changes inclimatic patterns and socio-ecology of the people through human-livestock-wildlife
interface. Furthermore, increased proximity and physical contacts between wildlife andhuman landscape have exacerbated property loss and wildlife-related accidents
including human deaths and injuries.
Changes in ecological, demographic and climatic conditions have colossal influence on
MLUM of NCA. Initially, the model was promising, but following the above ecologicaland socio-economic changes, their interests have run into conflict with those of wildlife
conservation. The previous assumption that indigenous residents would limit theireconomic activities to transhumance pastoralism, which was considered compatible
with natural resource conservation, did not work out. The model seems to have failed torecognize the dynamic nature of the three competing components - humans, livestock
and wildlife populations - hosted in a fixed land.
The declined pastoral economy and food insecurity have prompted some community
members to adopt coping strategies including culturally unacceptable behaviours suchas begging from tourists. Some have sought employment as guards within and outside
NCA while others have resorted to illegal cultivation and wildlife poaching. Employment
of individuals from the local community within and outside NCA has increased
purchasing power, thus increasing demand for development opportunities (e.g.
construction of decent houses) and buying more livestock. However, these options are
rarely pursued due to restrictive and prohibitive regulations governing the area.
!iii

Despite the challenges facing management of the area under MLUM, NCA has
remained one of the popular and leading tourist destinations in Tanzania. It has asignificant share to Tanzania’s tourism, whose contribution to the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) and foreign exchange is currently 17.6% and 25%, respectively. Tourist
arrivals in NCA both residents and non-residents, increased from 54,935 in 1984 to
253,001 in 2006 and to 644,155 in 2018. During the financial year 2017/2018, NCAA
generated 127 billion shillings, the highest revenue per unit area than any protectedarea in East Africa. Similarly, NCAA was among the highest Government institutions incontribution to the national consolidated fund with TZS 22.355 billion shillings.
Given its ecological, economic and cultural importance as a mixed Natural and Cultural
World Heritage Site and having been disrupted by multifaceted factors, several World
Heritage Committee decisions have been calling for an assessment of MLUM toaddress issues of sustainable livelihoods, natural and cultural resources conservationand tourism promotion within the limits of acceptable use as well as its administrationand governance. As a result, in August 2018, the Permanent Secretary for MNRT
formed a Team of Experts to review the current Model and recommend management
options that will translate into the desired future based on the past trends and existing
conditions.
3.
The Objectives
The overall objective of the assignment was to review the existing NCA-MLUM toenhance conservation of natural and cultural heritage resources, community andtourism development. The study aimed at realizing the following specific objectives:-

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

To identify factors affecting MLUM of NCA;
To analyze the extent to which NCAA has been integrated into existing government
administrative structures;
To identify important ecological implications emanating from MLUM of NCA;
To identify lessons learnt from NCA’s MLUM; and,To recommend the sound approach to manage NCA.

4.
The Conceptual Framework
In carrying out this assignment the Team adopted the ‘Egg of Sustainability Model’ toexplain the scenarios under which NCA-MLUM can or cannot be viable for people andconservation (IUCN, 1994). The model illustrates the relationship between people andecosystem as one circle inside another, like the yolk of an egg. This implies that people
are within the ecosystem, and that ultimately one is entirely dependent on each other.
Just as an egg is good only if both the albumen and yolk are good, so a society is welland sustainable only if both, people and the ecosystem, are well. According to thisconcept, sustainable development is realized when people and ecosystem well-beings
are achieved. Deterioration in the well-beings of both or one of the two components(ecosystem and/or society) will lead to unsustainable development (Figure1).
!iv

A

B

Figure 1: Egg of sustainability model, (A) shows the desired situation and (B) shows the current situationin NCA (IUCN 1994)

The egg of sustainability model explains the realities of MLUM in NCA. At the beginning,in 1959 when MLUM was adopted, the assumption was that the model would lead tosustainability where people and ecosystem would coexist harmoniously. However, thetrends and condition of NCA suggest that the model disregarded some importantvariables. Some of these variables are people, livestock, wildlife, economic factors, land
uses and human behavior.
In 1959, human population (8,000), cattle (161,034), and small stock (100,689) had
minimal impact on ecological system. However, in 2017, increase in human population(93,136), cattle (238,826), and small stock (570,633) caused unsustainable use
resulting into overutilization of natural and cultural resources which affect ecosystemservices.
The situation in NCA indicates that both human and ecological conditions are
deteriorating and, therefore, undermining the society well-being and sustainability of thearea. The indicators of deteriorating human well-being in the area include poverty(50%), hunger (70%), illiteracy (64%) and diseases, among others (NBS 2017).
According to Galvin et al. (2015), food insecurity to indigenous residents of NCA has
resulted into poor health compared to Maasai residents of Loliondo Game Controlled
Area (LGCA). In that study it was established that on average pastoral women in LGCA
were slightly taller and weighed 3.4kg more than those in NCA (Table 2). Similarly,!v

infants of 1.5 to 2 years of age of LGCA weighed more than those of NCA by at least
1.5kg and the difference was statistically significant (p<0.001).

Table 2: Mean body measures of pastoral mothers in LGCA and NCA
Weight in kg Height in cm T S F * i n m m UAC* cm (SD)
(SD)
(SD)
(SD)

BMI wt/ht2
(SD)

LGCA

50.3(5.87)

160.5(6.24)

17.5(5.87)

25.2(2.17)

19.5(1.99)

NCA

46.9(6.29)

158.2(5.63)

13.8(4.86)

25.0(2.34)

18.7(2.11)

P

0.001

<0.02

<0.001NS<0.02

Source: Galvin et al. 2015; Note*: TFS=Triceps skinfold; UAC=Upper arm circumference; BMI=
Body Mass Index; SD=standard deviation; NS=not significant

Poor ecological condition of NCA is depicted by range degradation, declined
populations of some wildlife species and reduced quality of forage due to increase ininvasive alien and pioneer weed species. Deterioration of ecological system translates
into inadequate resources for society and therefore leads to competition for available
scarce resources such as water and forage. This has consequently culminated into
existing human-wildlife conflicts. The current ecological condition is very fragile,
therefore, engaging in agricultural practices and poaching as alternative source of foodfor indigenous pastoralists will lead to loss of biological, scenic, archeological and othernatural resource values of the area as well as running the risk of extensive soil erosion(See Figure 4).

!viCHAPTER TWO
AN OVERVIEW OF THE MULTIPLE LAND USE MODEL
1.
Preamble
The MLUM entails three main components namely: i) conservation of natural resources,
community development and tourism development. According to NCA-GMP(2006-2016), NCA is currently delineated into different management zones and sub
zones. These are; i) development zone, ii) catchment forest zone, iii) external resources
zone, and iv) craters zone and two sub zones, which are located in the development
zone namely; archaeological sites (Oldupai and Laetoli) and short grass plains (NCAA,
2006). This Chapter provides an overview of NCA in the context of Serengeti – Mara
Ecosystem (SME); conservation of natural resources; archaeological, paleontologicaland cultural Heritage; community development; tourism development; and cross-cutting
issues. In cross cutting issues, the section pinpoints natural resources governance,
Human Immuno-deficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired Immuno-deficiency Syndrome (AIDS),
national security and land use issues that influence MLUM in NCA.
2.
NCA in the context of the Serengeti – Mara Ecosystem
The NCA, which is located at latitude 3⁰15ꞌSand longitude 35⁰30ꞌE, is part of SME,
which is a cross border conservation area in East Africa. NCA covers 8,292 km2 out of
25,000 km2 of SME. Other protected areas in SME are SENAPA (14,763 km2), Maswa(2,200 km2), Kijereshi (300 km2), Ikorongo (563 km2) and Grumeti (416 km2) Game
Reserves (GRs); LGCA (4,000 km2), Ikona Wildlife Management Area (WMA, 242 km2)
and Makao WMA (768.9km2). The Kenyan part of the ecosystem is the Masai-Mara
National Reserve (1,510 km2). Administratively, NCA is within Ngorongoro Division of
Ngorongoro District, Arusha Region. Other Divisions of the District are Loliondo andSalei. NCA is bordered by three GCAs – Loliondo, Lake Natron to the north-east(7,756.76 km2) and Mto-wa-Mbu to the east (1,214.7 km2) (Figure 2). Each category ofa protected area has objectives and specific uses defined by respective laws (Table 3).

Ecologically, NCA is a critical calving ground for wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus),
and a refueling site for migratory birds between Europe/Asia and southern parts ofAfrica. It is a cradle of mankind and is famous for hosting the largest unbroken caldera
in the world. The land use categories and activities taking place outside the boundaries
have impacts both positive and negative on the ecology and management of NCA.
Correspondingly, NCA ecology and activities taking place within the boundaries canaffect land use categories and activities outside. For example, on one hand, destructionof water source and/or calving/breeding grounds for wildlife species in LGCA can affectthe population of wildlife species in NCA. On the other hand, wildlife from NCA caninflict economic costs to adjacent communities through crop damage, livestock
depredation, diseases transmission, and wildlife-induced accidents. Therefore, planningand management of NCA always need to take on board the activities taking place!vii

beyond the boundaries including wildlife conservation in the entire SME and economic
activities conducted by the communities (Table 3).

!
Figure 2: Protected Areas in the Serengeti Mara Ecosystem

NCA is important in the ecosystem as the calving ground for wildebeest, one of therefueling sites for migratory birds, a cradle of mankind, has the largest and unbroken
caldera in the world and is a unique area that practices MLUM.

!viii

Table 3: Permitted and prohibited uses under different categories of PAs
S/N.

Category

Permitted uses

Prohibited uses

National park

Photographic tourism, game viewing andresearch

Consumptive use including
hunting and cultivation

NCA

Photographic tourism, game viewing,
settlements, pastoralism, and research

Hunting and cultivation

GRs

Photographic tourism, resident and tourist
hunting (licensed), and researchLivestock grazing, humansettlements, and cultivation

GCAs

Photographic tourism, game viewing,
Human settlements
resident and tourist hunting (licensed),and
research

WMAs

Photographic tourism, game viewing,
resident and tourist hunting (licensed),
and researchLivestock grazing, humansettlements, and cultivation

3.
NCA and adjacent land uses
In Tanzania, land is a public property and vested under the President as trustee on
behalf of all citizens. There are three categories of land namely: village land, generalland and reserved land. In SME, both categories of land are present and include
protected areas, villages; and general land. Land use in NCA is influenced by adjacentland use categories. Agriculture is the main land use practiced by communities adjoining
NCA to the south and south-east in Lositete, Upper Kitete, Mbulumbulu, Kilimatembo,
Rhotia, Marela, Tloma, Ayalabe, Kambi ya Simba, Slahamo, Kambi ya Nyoka, Oldean,
Nitin (Mang’ola Juu), Makhoromba and Endamaghan villages in Karatu District as wellas Selela, and Engaruka in Monduli District. Large-scale coffee plantations are found in
Oldeani and Nitin villages. The existing interactions motivate people to engage inpoaching, illegal cutting of trees, and encroachment. Also, livestock depredation, crop
raiding and wildlife attacks are common due to proximity between people and protectedareas. Edge effect caused by lack of buffer zone between villages and NCA amplifies
risks on conservation.
There is also an increasing trend of urbanization around NCA. The economic
opportunities within and around NCA are important population pull-factors to adjacentareas and, therefore, leading to rapid urbanizations in Karatu, Loliondo, Makao andEndamaghan. Urbanization and population growth around NCA threaten the natural
resources of the Conservation Area through poaching, illegal logging and overextraction of water resource. Furthermore, these towns provide market for natural
resources products from NCA such as bush meat, poles and fuel wood.
Comparatively, conservation challenges in the Masai-Mara National Reserve in Kenya
are exacerbated by the recent changes in land uses. The sub-division of land outside
the reserve has increased mushrooming of conservancies, tourist lodges, humansettlements, ranching, fencing, agriculture and other developments that have reduced!ix

wilderness and buffer zone for the Reserve. In addition, increase in livestock puts
pressure on grazing areas where livestock compete with wildlife. The contractual
condition to move out livestock except during certain specified periods (usually during
the tourism low season) has resulted in significant increases in livestock stocking
densities in the areas outside, with knock-on effects on the environment and thelivelihoods of those holding land outside, including NCA. As such, if measures are nottaken to regulate the increasing anthropogenic activities in SME, natural and cultural
resources conservation, community and tourism development may not be sustainable.
4.
Conservation of Natural Resources
The NCA is home to a variety of natural and cultural resources of internationalsignificance. Ngorongoro Crater, which is the most visited site in NCA harbors a
population of some 25,000 large animals, mostly ungulates, alongside the highest
density of mammalian predators in Africa including lion (Panthera leo), currently
standing at about 86 animals and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), which are over 300
individuals in the crater. A range of endangered species including black rhino (Diceros
bicornis michaeli), wild dog (Lycaon pictus) and Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) are foundin NCA. There is an estimated 560 bird species including European migrants (Baker
and Baker, 2004). Along with other protected areas in the ecosystem, the NCA supports
one of the largest mammal migrations on earth, which includes over a million
wildebeest, 260,000 plain zebras (Equus burchelli) and about 460,000 Thompson
gazelles (Eudorcas thomsonii) (Campbell and Borner, 1995).
High diversity of wildlife species in NCA is a function of variations in climate, landforms
and altitude, which consequently lead to distinct habitats, with short grass plains,
highland catchment forests, savanna woodlands, montane long grasslands and highopen moorlands. NHFR is the major source of water for Karatu District and the groundwater forest of Lake Manyara National Park. It also provides a critical habitat forelephants (Loxodonta africana), buffalo (Syncerus caffer), rhinos, wild dogs andleopards (Panthera pardus).
Besides the high diversity of wildlife species, Ngorongoro’s significance is distinguishedby three spectacular craters - Ngorongoro (250 km2), Olmoti (3.7 km2) and Empakaai(8.0 km2). These Craters are also critical habitats for wildlife populations. Ngorongoro
Crater, which is 600 m deep, is the world largest unbroken caldera. It offers uniquescenery in East Africa and diversity of wildlife species in a confined space. The
Empakaai Crater, mostly covered with saline water for approximately 90% of the floor, it
supports population of lesser flamingos (Phoenicopterus minor), especially during themonths of May and June. These birds migrate to Lake Natron for breeding. The Crater
slopes contain a scenically beautiful forest that is dominated by Cedar tree species(Juniperous procera).
The highest point of Olmoti Crater is situated to the northern rim of Ngorongoro Crater
at 3,090m above sea level (NCAA, 1994). At the top of this extinct mountain is found analmost circular crater, which is 6.5km in diameter. The walls of this crater, which is an
important source of water for wildlife, livestock and people rise at an average of about!x91.5m high (NCAA, 1994). The Munge River flows from the floor of Olmoti, whichcollects into a spectacular waterfall that passes through a crevice of the crater before
discharging into Lake Magadi in the Ngorongoro Crater.
Other features of outstanding importance in NCA are Lolmalasin Mountain, Oldupai
Gorge, Alaetoli Foot Prints, Nasera Rock and spectacular shifting sands (ash-dunes)
formed from volcanic ashes technically referred to as barkan (Figure 3). Lolmalasin
Mountain stands at 3,648 meters above sea level and ranks the third highest mountainin Tanzania after Kilimanjaro and Meru. The Oldupai Gorge and Alaetoli Foot Prints areimportant archaeological and paleontological sites related to human evolution. The
Nasera Rock is an exceptional stone standing at about 100 meters above the ground. It
is considered to be the tallest and biggest ancient stone in Tanzania and it provides aspectacular view for visitors in NCA. The shifting sands move about 10-18 meters ayear towards the western side of NCA depending on the strength and direction of thewind.

Figure 3: Significant topographic features in NCA

5.
Archaeological, Paleontological and Cultural Heritage
NCA has been subject to extensive archaeological research for over 80 years and has
yielded a long sequence of evidence of human evolution and human-environment
dynamics, collectively extending over a span of almost four million years to the earlymodern era. This evidence includes fossilized footprints at Laetoli, associated with thedevelopment of human bipedalism, a sequence of diverse, evolving hominin species
within Olduvai Gorge, which range from Australopiths such as Zinjanthropus boisei tothe Homo lineage that includes Homo habilis, Homo erectus and Homo sapiens; an!xiearly form of Homo sapiens at Lake Ndutu; and, in the Ngorongoro crater symbolize thedevelopment of stone technology and the transition to the use of iron. The overalllandscape of the area is seen to have the potential to reveal much more evidence
concerning the rise of anatomically modern humans, modern behavior and humanecology.
The management and conservation of cultural heritage in terms of archaeological andpaleontological resources has been transferred from the Division of Antiquities (DOA) of
MNRT to NCAA. This transfer has improved the institutional capacity to manage cultural
heritages in terms of infrastructure, human resources, and information and technology.
As a result, number of tourists visiting cultural heritage sites has increased andconsequently income. Also, Maasai cultural bomas, where their history and culturalvalues are exhibited to tourists a part of Community Based Tourism.
6.
Conservation status
NCA was inscribed in the World Heritage List under natural criteria in 1979. In 2010, theWorld Heritage Committee of UNESCO re-inscribed NCA as a mixed property on the listof World Heritage Sites (WHS). NCA’s inscription in the World Heritage List was basedon its outstanding universal value and criteria set by the Committee for selection of thesites. NCA had met five out of ten criteria: Criterion (iv) - to be an outstanding example
of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which
illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history; Criterion (vii) - to containsuperlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic
importance; Criterion (viii) - to be outstanding examples representing major stages ofearth's history, including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes inthe development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features;
Criterion (ix) - to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecologicaland biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water,
coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals; Criterion (x) to contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of
biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding
universal value from the point of view of science or conservation.
In 1981, NCA was also recognized internationally as a part of the Serengeti-Ngorongoro
Biosphere Reserve, under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Program (MAB). In 2013,
NCA was voted as one of the seventh natural wonders of Africa, and in April 2018, it
was nominated as one of the Global Geo-parks.
7.
Community Development
Community development is concerned with people and livelihoods and provision ofsocial services. In the perspective of this review, social services include education,
health, water and energy.
!xii7.1. Ethnography
Maasai are the best known of the ethnic groups in Ngorongoro, and today they make up
about 98% of the resident population. The remaining 3.2% are Datoga and few
Hadzabe families that live on the very edge of Ngorongoro by Lake Eyasi basin. Maasai
and their livestock wandered into this area around two centuries ago after pushing out
the Datoga (Mang’ati) who have remained as minority in the east and south of NCA.
Maasai and Datoga are traditional pastoralists, who lived almost solely on their livestockand revered above anything else. Traditionally, these pastoralists were nomadic, moving
with their livestock in a continuous search for pasture and water. They have since
become more settled as they are now obliged to send children to school or require
regular health services. Additionally, these people have less available space as their
populations increase within the limited landscape of NCA. The Hadzabe have remained
purely traditional hunter-gatherers using bow and arrow, feeding on roots and fruits,
dressing in animal hides, living in caves and thatches trying to stay in remote areas
away from other people.
7.2. Livestock Production System
Transhumance mode of livestock production system, which indigenous residents
practiced for many decades allowed pastoralists to move from one area to anotherwithin and outside NCA in search of pasture and water basing on seasonality. Extensive
pastoral land use is important for maintaining savannah ecosystems. However,increase in human and livestock populations is disrupting traditional pastoral systems,
which is detrimental to natural resources and leads to ecological changes. Thus,
maintaining acceptable limits in livestock production is advocated.
Plate 1A below shows movements of livestock in NCA going to watering point during
the dry season.

A!
Plate 1: Movements of cattle herds in the highland during the dry season in NCA!xiii

7.3. Crop Production
Historically, crop production was not prohibited in NCA Ordinance of 1959; therefore,
few pastoralists produced crops legally to complement pastoral food shortage. However,
Ngorongoro Conservation Area Act of 1975 prohibited crop production in the area.
Temporary permission to allow crop production from 1992 to 2013 was caused byincrease in human population, which did not correspond with livestock production,
leading to decline in livestock per capita from 12.5 in 1960s to 3.23 in early 1990s(Galvin et al., 2015). Generally, crop production is one of the pull factors that motivatedimmigrants to settle in NCA since indigenous residents are not agro-pastoralists.
Usually, crop fields interfere with wildlife and livestock movement and rangelands(Runyoro, 2007).
8.
Tourism Development
NCA is known for its tourist attractions such as the Ngorongoro, Empakaai and Olmoti
craters, Lolmalasin Mountain (the third highest mountain in Tanzania after Kilimanjaro
and Meru), and annual wildlife migration. The Ngorongoro Crater harbours highconcentration of wildlife including endangered black rhinos, densest known populationof lions and variety of birds including migrant species. The lowlands provide calving
grounds for migratory wildebeest population. Other significant geological features, which
are important tourist attractions, include Olkarien Gorge, which is a vital nesting site for
the Ruppell’s Griffon Vulture and Nasera Rock; a huge monolith jutting out from theplains to an elevation of 100m on western side of the Gol Mountains and 27 kilometres
north of Olduvai Gorge. In addition, the area has Shifting Sands, which are spectacularmoving dunes known as “barkan” with remarkable crescent-shaped and black in colour
composed of volcanic ashes that originated from active Oldoinyo Lengai. Also, the area
contains globally renowned archaeological and paleontological sites; the Olduvai Gorge
and Laetoli footprints as well as indigenous residents who are pastoralists and huntergatherers.
The developed tourism infrastructure and facilities facilitate tourism development in theconservation area. The main infrastructures and facilities in the area include roads,
airstrips, lodges and tented camps, campsites, cultural bomas and walking trails.
8.1. Roads, airstrips and communication towers
Besides serving a number of purposes such as administration, anti-poaching anddelivering community services, roads and airstrips play a crucial role in enabling tourists
to access attraction sites. NCA has about 500 kilometres of roads and 800 kilometres oftracks and walking trails. There are six airstrips at Olbalbal, Oldupai, Kapenjiro,
Endulen, Ndutu and near NCAA Headquarters. Nonetheless, only the last two airstrips
are regularly maintained and used.There are more than 10 communication towers in thearea located at Oldean, Mokilal; Kayepus; Meshili, Endulen, Nasipaoriong’, rhino lodge,
Gol Mountains and Nainokanoka. Apart from tourism development, these infrastructures
support natural resources conservation and community development.

!xiv

8.2. Accommodation facilities
NCA has several accommodation facilities including six lodges, 12 permanent tented
camps, and 48 campsites both special and public campsites. In addition, there are 52
accommodation facilities that are located in Karatu District. The available
accommodation facilities located both in NCA and Karatu District are currently not
sufficient to satisfy the growing number of tourists that has continued to increasesteadily from 54,935 in year 1984 to 644,155 in year 2017.
8.3. Walking Safaris
As tourists are increasingly seeking exploration and remoteness, several tour
companies are offering short hikes and walking safaris in the area. Olmoti and
Empakaai craters have long been used for walking safaris and during interview with tour
companies, discussants proposed to open new walking trails in areas most preferred by
tourists to provide visitors with enough experience and satisfaction. During field visits it
was observed that sometimes large herds of cattle and small stocks were interfering
walking expeditions.
9.

Cross-cutting issues

9.1. Natural Resources Governance
The way in which natural resources are managed is in principle a governance issue.
Governance is defined as the process by which public officials and institutions acquireand execute their authority to provide public goods and services (Mfunda, 2010). The
roles of NCAA and other authorities are statutory and malfunction in the application of
instruments means twisting resource use mechanisms. As a result, unsustainable use,degradation of natural resources and environment, and conflicts could be observed in
the conservation area. Good governance practices through:-transparency andaccountability, access to information, rule of law, bureaucratic efficiency, and avoiding
conflict of interest among staff, non-residents and other participating stakeholders would
always ensure sustainable conservation, economic growth and improved livelihoods.
9.2. HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS is a pandemic problem but it impacts is more serious in developing countries
particularly in Africa. The main mode of transmission is unsafe heterosexual
relationship, and having sexual relationship with many partners is a major risk. Majority
of indigenous residents in NCA are polygamists, therefore, they are at high risk ofcontracting HIV infection if one member of a family is infected. Also, high interaction ofindigenous residents with other visitors such as tourists, tour guides, and other nonresidents increases the risk of exposure to the infection. Education and awareness on
health sex and regular screening to understand the exposure status to the infection isvital to safeguard the labour force of NCA indigenous pastoralists.
!xv

9.3. National Security
The security of nations depends on security of natural resources, since people andeconomies of countries depend on the availability of ecosystem services for livelihoods
and economic growth (Mfunda, 2015). Based on the national security concerns, theprimary goal of protecting NCA is to ensure the integrity of national border and internal
security. As a cross boarder conservation ecosystem, it is necessary to protect natural
resources and biodiversity for the interest of economic growth, livelihoods and nationalsovereignty as stipulated in the Natural Wealth and Resources (Permanent
Sovereignty) Act of 2017.
9.4. Land use conflicts
Several boundary-related conflicts between NCA and neighboring villages were also
noticed during this survey. This was evident in Olpiro village, which borders
Endamaghan village in Karatu District, Kakesio that adjoins Makao village in Meatu
District and Naiyobi that borders Piyaya and Malambo in Loliondo Division in
Ngorongoro District as well as Kerimasi boundary in Monduli District. This was also thecase in villages of Karatu that border NHFR. Local stakeholders claimed that beacons
delineating NCA administrative boundaries were erected by NCAA without involvementof respective local communities. In some places where NCA fall in neighboring district
administrative boundaries, conflicts have become intense to the point of causing
physical fights. In areas around Ndutu, the boundary between NCA and SENAPA wasalso not clear. This causes tour drivers who unknowingly cross the boundary to eitherside be fined by relevant authority.
Information available at Ngorongoro District Council (NDC) indicates that while all 25
villages in NCA are not surveyed, only 16 villages had registration numbers. Those withregistration numbers are Meshili, Osinoni, Kakesio, Irkeekpus, Bulati, Nainokanoka,
Naiyobi, Kapenjiro, Alailelai, Sendui, Esere, Endulen, Oloirobi, Mokilal, Olpiro and
Ngoile. Those without registration numbers but which existed in terms of elected or
appointed leadership are, Iltulele, Alchaniomelock, Alaitole, Nasiporiong, Kayapusi,
Masamburai, Misigiyo, Loongoijoo and Kaitakiteng. Further, the Commissioner of Landprovided names of 18 villages in NCA, which are part of the 366 villages across thecountry that have been earmarked for survey and legalization. The villages located in
NCA contained in the President decree of 15th January 2019 are, Oloipiri, Alailelai,
Alchaniomelock, Bulati, Endulen, Esere, Irkeekpus, Kakesio, Kapenjiro, Meshili,
Misigiyo, Nainokanoka, Naiyobi, Ngoile, Oloirobi, Olpiro, Osinoni and Sendui. However,Oloipiri ward and village is in LGCA and not in NCA.
In a bid to reduce human population in NCA, 159 families that were recognized to be
immigrants were resettled at Jema Village in Sale Division, Ngorongoro District. Before
resettlement NCA established infrastructure for social services including a primaryschool, a dispensary, police post and piped water. Because there was no Memorandumof Understanding between either NDC or NCAA with either Jema Village or Sale
Division, residents from the nearby Oldonyo Sambu Village invaded the new developedarea and started to harass new comers including depriving land that was set aside forthem. Between 50 and 70 families that were settled in the village and still staying there!xviare harassed to the extent that are also planning to leave. Others have moved either
back into NCA while others have gone as far as Handeni and Kilindi districts in Tanga
Region.

!xvii

CHAPTER THREEMETHODOLOGY
1.
Data Collection Techniques
The study was carried out in five stages: (i) understanding Terms of Reference andpreparation of inception report; (ii) Reconnaissance survey including flying over the area
to get an overview of NCA in terms of natural and cultural resources management,
human settlements and socio-economic activities, tourism development, and otherforms of land uses; (iii) literature review including assessment of land use changes
using satellite images; (iv) stakeholders’ consultations using checklist and Participatory
Rural Appraisal (PRA) and participant observation. Consultations involved key
informants including natural resources management institutions, policy and decision
makers, village governments’ leaders, NDC, NPC, academic and research institutions,private sector, civil society organizations, religious institutions, Council Management
Teams of neighbouring districts including Karatu, Meatu, Monduli and Longido, Arusha
Region Secretariat Office and indigenous residents (Maasai, Hadzabe and Datoga
tribes) (Appendix 1); and v) validation meetings to share the study findings and receive
feelings of stakeholders on issues of common interest.
Existing information including published and unpublished reports were used topredict
the status of NCA in the next 20 years with some assumptions. The Team of Experts
consulted the National Land Use Planning Commission, which was reviewing the
2006-2016 NCA-GMP on issues pertaining to climate, bio-physical description, andcultural heritages. Consultation with indigenous residents involved representatives fromwomen, youths, village leaders and elders with a minimum of 30 people from each of
the 25 villages. The consulted institutions were pre-determined based on their relevanceto NCA, and participation in consultation was open according to stakeholders’ desire. In
total, 1,382 people from 40 groups and 25 villages were consulted (Plate 2).
Validation meetings involved MNRT, NCAA, Parliamentary Committee on Lands, Natural
Resources and Tourism, Arusha Regional Commissioner and government
representatives from Ngorongoro, Monduli, Longido and Karatu districts; Permanent
Secretaries and Deputy Permanent Secretaries of all ministries in Tanzania andindigenous residents. Other stakeholders were representatives of higher learning
institutions, research institutions, TANAPA, TAWA, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs),
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and private sector.
3.1.1 Revisit to Ngorongoro, Longido and Monduli districts
After the validation meetings with different stakeholders, the Minister-MNRT asked theteam to revisit the three CMTs of Ngorongoro, Longido and Monduli to seek theiropinion on the proposed annexation of part of the land from respective districts thathave conservation potential. The team was also instructed to visit communities in NCA
but restricting itself at ward level for all 11 wards to collect more opinions with regards toproposed zoning of NCA including conservation core zone, transition zone andsettlement and development zones. During this phase of opinion gathering, a total of!xviii2,170 resident pastoralists and three management teams for Longido, Monduli and
Ngorongoro districts were contacted.
2.
Data analysis
Data collected by using checklist were analyzed through content analysis. The recorded
discussions were broken down into meaningful themes and inference made to fit themain and specific objectives. Quantitative data were recorded as information fromsecondary sources and key informants. Minimal statistical analysis was applied in thisstudy. For instance, content assessment using the Geographical Information System(GIS) computer program was conducted to analyze qualitative information and prepare
maps to show spatial information. Simulation of change in NCA rangelands referring todifferent management scenarios that were recommended by stakeholders was
performed using SAVANNA model. The model was developed in 1993 (Coughenour,1993) and modified in 2000 (Boone and Coughenour (2000) to suit NCA situation forassessing interaction between livestock and wildlife in terms of spatial-dynamic
competition for forage and disease transmission. SAVANNA model is also used toquantify the impacts of population increase and conservation policy on pastoral welfare,livestock production and ecosystem integrity. Collected information was used todetermine achievements, challenges, lessons learnt, and different options for the futureof NCA.
The second collected opinions from communities at 11 ward level and three CMTs, werealso analysed and incorporated in the main report.

A

!

!B

Plate 2: Community participation in consultative meeting (A) and a group photo (B) at
Sendui village in Alailelai ward

!xix

3.
Limitation of the Study
The only limitation to the study was difficult in accessing some important documents
including an agreement between the Maasai and British Government of 1959 and a listof illegal immigrants into NCA who were identified in 2006.To address this limitation, forthe former, the Team relied on information from key informants particularly Maasai
elders, and for the latter it was suggested that identification of immigrants should bedone as part of the implementation process.

!xx

CHAPTER FOURPOLICIES, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS
1.
Preamble
NCA Ordinance of 1959 underwent major amendments in 1975 through Act No.14 of1975 (CAP. 284 R.E. 2002). The Act as per section 6 provides functions andmanagement of NCA with full responsibility for the administration and management. The
area is designated as a protected area and bares its boundaries. However, NCA Act is
conflicting with other legislations hence puts NCAA into difficulties in exercising its
mandate. For instance, the Local Government (District Authorities) Act No. 7 of 1982
[CAP. 287 R.E. 2002] section 22, empowers district authorities to establish villages as
the corporate entity with all mandate to own land pursuant to the Village Land Act No. 5
of 1999 [CAP. 114 R.E. 2002]. NCA Act is also inconsistence with the Constitution of theUnited Republic of Tanzania (URT) of 1977. While Article 24 gives the rights to thepeople to own property as one of the fundamental right, the indigenous residents in
NCA are deprived the right to own land due to the conservation status of the area.
Further to that, NCA Act conflicts with the Land Use Planning Act No.6 of 2007 whichamong other issues requires all land in the country to be used for the benefit of people
referred to as ‘’beneficial use’’ meaning that land be conducive to public welfare andsafety; and the Grazing-land and Animal Feed Resources Act No. 13 of 2010, whichamong other issues stipulates that grazing land should be demarcated within village
land. However, villages in NCA do not have village land.
On one hand, in order to lessen land use conflicts, which are currently prevailing in
NCA, the future MLUM should consider delineating the area into zones where socioeconomic activities including schools, health, livestock infrastructure and other social
facilities shall be allowed. On the other hand, the model conflicts with the Animal
Diseases Act No. 17 of 2003, which stipulates that in order to prevent the spread ofanimal diseases, there shall be barriers for institution of quarantine for a place or area
for animals that are deemed to be potentially infected with notifiable diseases.
This chapter presents review of legal frameworks including national and international
policies, agreements, conventions and Acts, which have relevancy to NCA
management. Institutional framework with respect to management of the area is also
discussed in this chapter. The policy, legal and institutional frameworks provide basic
principles, which guide the design or formulation of the future MLUM.
2.
The Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania (1977)
The protection of natural resources is insisted in the Constitution of the United Republicof Tanzania of 1977. According to Article 8 (1), 9(i) and 27 (1) and (2) of theConstitution:i. Every person has the duty to protect natural resources of the United Republic, theproperty of the state authority, all property collectively owned by the people, and also
to respect another person’s property; and!xxi

ii. All persons shall be required by law to safeguard the property of the state authority
and all property collectively owned by the people, to combat all forms of waste andsquander, and to manage the national economy assiduously with the attitude ofpeople who are masters of the destiny of their nation.
In addition, Article 26 states that “every person has the duty to observe and to abide bythis Constitution and the laws of the United Republic”.
3.
National Policies
For the past few years, the Government of Tanzania has been implementing policy
reforms aimed at addressing development problems affecting social and economic
conditions of rural populations and the local environments. The reforms are designed todirectly improve the capacity at local levels to serve the local population and to support
the fundamental level of governance in Tanzania. Reforms were initiated through thelaunching of the broad policy framework; the Tanzania Development Vision 2025, which
stipulates the vision, mission, goals and targets to be achieved with respect to economic
growth and poverty eradication by the year 2025. Since then several policies have beenformulated for different development sectors. Policies and strategies, which are relevantto the management of NCA include:3.1. The Tanzania Development Vision 2025
Tanzania’s Development Vision (TDV), 2025, which provides the overall national policy
framework, advocates “Sustainable socio-economic development by the year 2025”.
TDV is an economic and social development visualization, which emanates fromreforms that were pursued since 1986. In 2005 the government launched the National
Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) as the second national strategy
for coordinating and ensuring attainment of Development Vision 2025 by focusing on
poverty reduction through enhanced economic growth. Accordingly, NSGRP recognizes
the contribution of all sectors towards growth and poverty reduction and stresses the
cross-sector collaboration and inter-sector linkages and synergies. NSGRP iscategorized into three main clusters namely (i) Growth and reduction of income poverty,(ii) Improvement in quality of life and social well-being, and (iii) Governance andaccountability.
Actions that are undertaken within NCA should aim at balancing the three management
objectives, which MLUM was established to achieve namely the conservation of natural
resources, promoting resident pastoralists’ development and fostering tourism sector.
Planning and decision making towards the realization of this balance should ensure
active participation of NCA pastoralists with the aim of contributing to improved foodsecurity, high quality livelihoods, increased life expectancy and the ultimate reduction of
abject poverty among NCA pastoralists as well as increasing the contribution of the
tourist industry to the country’s GDP thus accomplishing the three 2025 vision’s targets.

!xxii

3.2. National Environmental Policy (1997)
Tanzania is currently aiming at achieving sustainable development through rational use
of natural resources and incorporating measures in any development activities in orderto safeguard the environment. The National Environmental Policy seeks to provide aframework for making fundamental changes that are needed to bringing environment
consideration into the mainstream of decision-making in the country. Two out of the
major environmental problems, which the policy outlines, are environmental pollution
and land degradation (URT, 1997). It emphasizes that environmental considerations
should not become an afterthought in planning and decision making; rather it should bepart of a conscious awareness of Tanzania’s development realities.
The policy puts more emphasis on public consultations as the most effective way during
the process of initiating development projects (URT, 1997). The Environmental Policy
states that wildlife resources shall be protected and utilised in a sustainable manner on
the basis of careful assessment of natural heritage in flora and fauna, fragile
ecosystems, sites under pressure and endangered species, with participation of, andbenefit to, the local communities. The Policy advocates further that tourism
development will be promoted based on careful assessment of limits of acceptable use
and prior to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) application.
Environmentally friendly tourism (eco-tourism) and diversification of tourism activities
will be promoted, e.g. conservation and promotion of cultural heritage sites, in order todecrease pressure on heavily impacted areas. Financial benefits from tourism activities
shall accrue in part to the local community to motivate them in conservation of tourism
resources. It was revealed during the consultation process when undertaking this review
that some of the tourist projects in NCA in particular accommodation facilities were
either established without close consultation with stakeholders particularly resident
pastoralists or were developed in areas contrary to provisions of the area’s GMP. In
view of that, any future management approach of NCA’s MLUM should consider thelimits of acceptable use as provided in GMP for achieving suitable balance ofcommunity development, natural and cultural resources and tourism development
interests.
3.3. National Land Policy (1995)
One of the major clauses in the National Land Policy of 1995 states that during theimplementation of any development project, the aim will be “to promote and ensure asecure land tenure system that will encourage the optimal use of land resources, and to
facilitate broad-based social and economic development without upsetting or
endangering the ecological balance of the environment” (URT, 1995). In order to ensurethat NCA is utilized optimally and facilitates a broad-based socio-economic
development, any land uses including the establishment of tourism development,
community and natural and cultural resources conservation facilities as well as grazing
and game viewing patterns should be designed in an environmentally and sustainable
manner. The aim is to preserve the inherent natural, cultural-historical and wilderness
characteristics and engendering regional self-sufficiency for the purpose of benefiting
NCA local community and Tanzanians without compromising international interests.
!xxiii3.4. National Rural Development Policy (1996)
The Rural Development Policy (RDP) augments the National Development Vision of2025 and serves to lay down the parameters for the Rural Development Strategy(RDS). Both RDP and RDS strive to improve the well-being of rural dwellers with a viewto eradicating poverty. An important provision in this policy relevant to the ideal MLUM
for NCA states that “for the planning of development projects, the government shallensure sustainable and profitable utilisation of natural resources for the benefit of rural
people by involving local communities in the management and utilisation of theseresources” (URT, 1996). RDP focuses on four key issues namely, promotion of widely
shared economic growth, increasing opportunities and access to social and economic
services, reducing risks and vulnerability and enhancing good governance. One of thesignificant tactics to ensuring that benefits from living with wildlife is embraced will be
the provision of training to pastoralists on livestock husbandry and modern breedingpractices so as to increase milk yield and fatten cattle for slaughtering within possible
shortest time thus, contribute to improving the livelihoods of this community, whichlargely depend on livestock production economy. Other important actions will include
involvement of resident pastoralists in the production of goods and services, promotionof small business, getting better communication facilities and roads as well as
improvement of markets and rural marketing facilities.

3.5. National Wildlife Policy (2007)
According to the National Wildlife Policy, wildlife is a natural resource of great biological,
environmental cleaning, climate ameliorating, water and soil conservation, nutritional,
and economic values (URT, 2007). The policy promotes conservation of biologicaldiversity; participatory management and benefit sharing; sustainable use; capacity
building; institutional collaboration; engagement of private sector; and revenue
generation. Based on the Policy, NCA interventions include;
i. Involving rural communities and other stakeholders in taking joint responsibility forthe sustainable management of wildlife and other natural resources;ii. Working in partnership with rural communities;iii. Enhancing the use of indigenous knowledge in the conservation and management of
natural resources;
iv.Continuing to control dangerous/problem animal species as a matter of priority; andv. Devolving progressively the responsibility for problem animal control to ruralcommunities, operating community based conservation schemes, and continuing togive assistance where rural communities have not developed capacity.
3.6. National Forest Policy (1998)
The National Forest Policy emphasizes on sustainable forest Management, which
entails strategic sectoral planning. The Policy takes into account changes in the macroeconomic policies towards market economy and participation of the private sector and!xxivother relevant stakeholders. Based on the Policy, in 2001, Tanzania developed a
National Forest Programme to promote conservation and sustainable use of forests tomeet local, national and international needs. The Programme, which is relevant to NCA
where a vital NHFR for water catchment exists, is also meant to increase the forest andsectors’ contribution to the national economy and poverty reduction as outlined in
NSGRP.
3.7. National Beekeeping Policy (2012)
The Bee-Keeping Policy of directs appropriate beekeeping practices, maintenance ofquality bee products, and protection of bee resources, bee fodder and consumers ofbee products (URT, 2012). Five main areas are addressed to move the bee-keeping
sector towards the goal of sustainable development of Tanzania and the conservationand management of her natural resources. These are:i. Establishment and sustainable management of bee reserves;
ii. Apiary management;
iii.Beekeeping based industries and products;
iv.Beekeeping in cross-sectoral areas;v. Beekeeping for ecosystem conservation and management; andvi.Institutions and human resources.
Of importance to NCA is a provision, which states that; “formal, cross-sectoral
coordination mechanism between bee-keeping and wildlife authorities will beestablished to improve coordination of activities under approved management plans ofspecific protected area”. In order to diversify livelihood alternatives in the face ofdeteriorating livestock production in the conservation area, NCA legislation should
encourage bee-keeping in appropriate locations so as to improve the socio-economic
situation of resident pastoralists under the future management of NCA’s MLUM. The
formal establishment of bee reserves will also be an important strategy to alleviate
poverty and increase food security among NCA resident pastoralists and in adjacentareas. These bee reserves can take the pressure off actual use of NCA by bee-keepers,
and enhance habitat conservation.
3.8. National Tourism Policy (1999)
The National Tourism Policy seeks to support efforts, which promote the economy andlivelihood of the people, essentially poverty alleviation, through encouraging theimprovement of sustainable and quality development projects that are culturally andsocially acceptable, ecologically friendly, environmentally sustainable, and economically
viable. It also seeks to market Tanzania as a preferred tourist destination and thusincrease progressively the number of capable tourists to visit the country with the aim ofincreasing its contribution to the country’s GDP (URT, 1999).
3.9. National Livestock Policy (2010)
The National Livestock Policy takes cognisance of the importance of conservation ofnatural resources and environment. This is clearly indicated in one of its objectives!xxv

which states that, “to balance the optimal use and conservation of natural resources i.e.
land, soils, water and vegetation so as to conserve the environment’ (URT, 2010). This
policy statement has great implications to NCA where livestock production and natural
resources are the major land uses, which need to be harmonized. In order to achievethat balance any approach to ensuring that MLUM remains sustainable, quality rather
than quantity with regard to livestock production through cross-breeding the traditionalzebu breed with improved races and ultimately have few livestock numbers of highproductivity and profitability should be a prerequisite.
3.10.
National Cultural Policy (1997)
The National Cultural Policy recognizes that cultural industries shall be identified andencouraged to contribute towards national economic development. The government
shall also supervise the promotion of cultural heritage and their protection shall remain
to be a public responsibility (URT, 1997a). The policy emphasizes on the close linkage
between culture, natural resources, the environment and development programmes andrecognizes that the public remains free to earn a living from cultural activities. All
conservation and development activities in NCA should therefore, be undertaken in amanner that recognizes the cultural heritage potentials in the area.
3.11.
National Water Policy (2002)
The National Water Policy of 2002 provides a comprehensive framework for
management of water resources. Also, the policy provides a legal and institutionalframework to guide protection and sustainable use of water. The Policy puts moreemphasis on participatory management, engagement of private sector and inrecognizing the role of local government authorities in management of water resource.
Further, the policy identifies the danger of water scarcity in few years to come, byshowing that, an annual average water availability per capita will decline by 45% from2,700 cubic meters in 2002 to about 1,500 in 2021 (URT, 2002). This is in tandem with
NCA, which faces acute scarcity of water both in quantity and quality, thus, if MLUM is
to be sustained, intensive survey of water availability in NCA to uphold the growing
resident human and livestock population should be conducted.
3.12.
National Energy Policy (2015)
The National Energy Policy is geared to enhance provision of adequate, reliable andaffordable modern energy services to Tanzanians in a sustainable manner. The policy isa basis for legal, regulatory and institutional frameworks for petroleum, electricity,
renewable energies, and energy efficiency (URT, 2015). The implementation of Energy
Policy will lead into improved socio - economic transformation of people and the country
at-large.Therefore, if MLUM has to be upheld, detailed assessment of alternative energy
sources that will be environmentally friendly, socially acceptable and economically
viable without compromising the National Energy Policy requirements has to beundertaken.

!xxvi3.13.
National Trade Policy (2003)
The goal of the National Trade Policy is to facilitate smooth integration into theMultilateral Trading System (MTS) and reduce marginalization among her people (URT,2003). The policy intends to ensure that liberalization offer meaningful, identifiable andmeasurable benefits to Tanzanians. The main objective of this policy is to raise
efficiency, widen linkages in domestic production and build a diversified competition inexport sector as means of stimulating higher rates of growth and development (URT,2003). Chiefly, in order to maintain MLUM, production of quality livestock, which is themainstay of NCA residents and their products, exploring reliable markets as well aprotecting and promoting NCA’s tourist attractions, should be a precondition. This
attitude if accomplished will conform to the National Trade Policy in the sense that while
meat and milk production for domestic uses will be increased and opportunity for selling
surplus ensured, revenue generated from wild-based tourism will not be compromised.
3.14.
National Investment Promotion Policy (1996)
The National Investment Promotion Policy is geared towards creating an open market
economy, which among other things focuses on creating an enabling environment for
private sector development and liberalizing the economy (URT, 1996a). Compliance of
MLUM relates specifically to livestock industry, which supports NCA pastoralists under
the guidance of NCAA and NPC to keep few livestock but of high production andprofitability on relatively small production area that may ultimately result in surplus
production for trading.
3.15.
National Construction Industry Policy (2002)
One of the modernization aspects among NCA pastoralists is the construction of decent
houses so as to enable them experience lifestyles similar to other Tanzanians. Amongthe major objectives of the National Construction Policy, which supports natural
resources conservation interests are the promotion and application of cost-effective andinnovative technologies and practices that sustain socio-economic development
activities. The Policy aims to ensure the use of practices, technologies and products,
which are not harmful to both the environment and human health (URT, 2002a). To
uphold MLUM, building codes that will conform to the National Construction Policy need
to be developed, disseminated and enforced.
3.16.
National Health Policy (2007)
The National Health Policy envisions for a healthy community that contributes effectively
to individual and nation development. The policy objectives include the need to reducemorbidity and mortality and increase life expectancy by delivering better health services,which focus on requirements for vulnerable groups such as infants, under-fives, pre andschool children, youths, people with disability, women of reproductive age and elderly
people to access health services (URT, 2007). In addition, the policy provides strategies
to improve people’s health physically, mentally and socially and their welfare through!xxviipromotion, prevention and/or reduction of diseases, disabilities and deaths. The policy
is implemented in collaboration with the private sector, communities, Civil Society
Organizations (CSOs), international organizations and development partners, which allthese groups are key stakeholders to NCA.
3.17.
National Education and Training Policy (2014)
The National Education and Training Policy emphasizes for Tanzania to haveknowledge and worthwhile broad in depth modes of thought, skills, attitudes andunderstanding needed for the full development of the country. It ensures that people
are aware of their own potentials and responsibility to change and improve their own
conditions and that of the society. Also it embodies within it science and technology(URT, 2014).In NCA where illiteracy rate was around 64% in 2017, the implementationof this Policy is of paramount importance,
3.18. National Population Policy (2006)
The population policy is a set of measures taken by a State to modify the way its
population is changing, either by promoting large families or immigration to increase its
size, or by encouraging limitation of births to decrease it. In Tanzania, the policy
provides guidelines that determine priorities in population and development
programmes and strengthening the preparation and implementation of socio-economic
development planning. The policy objective is to coordinate and influence other policies,
strategies and programmes to ensure sustainable development of the people andpromote gender equality as well as empowerment of women. Like other policies, it is
implemented in collaboration with various stakeholders including Non-Governmental
Organizations (NGOs), private sector, communities and development partners (URT,2006). The population policy, TDV, other policies and population issues need to be
implemented in an integrated manner. As such, the policy provides a good linkage
between population dynamics and quality of life on one hand, and environmental
protection and sustainable development on the other hand. Its implementation in NCA
gives a new dimension to development programmes by ensuring that population issues
are appropriately addressed.
3.19.
National Employment Policy (1997)
Employment in Tanzania falls in two main categories namely, wage and selfemployments. In both categories, employment is defined as any acceptable activity inwhich a workforce is actively engaged. Such activity yields payment in some form,
which accrues to a worker as an income required to meet his/her basic needs (URT,
1997b). In view of that, the National Employment Policy advocates for effective ways
and means of utilising available resources with ultimate objective of combating poverty.
The policy also sets a venue for inculcating the culture of self-reliance through diligent
and hard work among its people. To realize the policy provisions, opportunities should
be made available for whoever is capable of working either in formal employment
available in NCA and outside or informal sector like subsistence agriculture outside thearea in order to do away with hand-outs. However, in case of difficulties NCAA may
subsidize food requirements for those residing in the Conservation Area.
!xxviii

3.20.
National Policy on Gender and Equality (1999)
The key objective of the National Policy on Gender and Equity is to provide guidelinesthat will ensure the development of gender sensitive plans and strategies in all sectors
and institutions. While the policy aims at establishing strategies to eradicate poverty, itputs more emphasis on gender equality and equal opportunity of both men and womento participate in development undertakings and to value the role-played by eachmember of the society (URT, 1999).MLUM strategies should therefore, ensure thatfemales will be given priority over men in all aspects that relate to employment andother income generating activities.
3.21.
National Policy on HIV/AIDS (2001)
The National Policy on HIV/AIDS has been developed to deal with challenges
emanating from social, cultural and economic issues. Women and girls are given extra
consideration in this Policy aiming at protecting them from increased vulnerability to thedisease infection (URT, 2001). Due to the fact that HIV infection is mainly throughheterosexual intercourse, the problem touches on private life styles of individuals. But
the risk is highest among young people and especially girls. Girls and women in oursocial and cultural environments are more vulnerable to HIV infection as they do nothave control over sexuality. Poverty increases the vulnerability of HIV infection as some
women engage in high risk sexual behaviour for survival (URT, 2001). In order to abide
to the National Policy on HIV/AIDS, employment priority should be given to women in alljobs that can be done by them and emphasis be placed on females earning income
from the sale of milk whereas men will be encouraged to the sale of meat. This will
break down a tradition that has persisted since time immemorial among Maasai
community whereby women are not allowed to own livestock and generate income. Achange in this tradition will contribute to reducing the economic problems amongfemales, which in most cases men have used as a tool to meeting their sexual desires.
4.
International Conventions and Agreements
Tanzania as a part of international community has subscribed to a number ofinternational agreements on natural and cultural resources, tourism, environment andhuman welfare rights. These agreements have been either signed and/or ratified
between Tanzania and other individual countries and through United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP), UNESCO, United Nations World Tourism
Organization (UNWTO), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO), World Food Programme (WFP), World HealthOrganization (WHO) and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC). As such, some decisions and actions on specific issues are based oninternational policies, agreements, common agreed goals, and principles or procedures.
This section provides an overview of important agreements related to the managementof NCA.
4.1. The Sustainable Development Goals (2016-2030)
As part of international obligations, in 2015, the United Nations (UN) launched newsustainable development agenda to guide global actions for the next 15 years. The!xxix

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs-2016-2030) unanimously adopted by the UN’s
193 Member States at a historic summit in September 2015, address the needs ofpeople in both developed and developing countries. Broad and ambitious in scope, theAgenda addresses three dimensions of sustainable development: social, economic andenvironmental, as well as important aspects related to peace, justice and effective
institutions. NCAA mandates link very well with SDGs. The review of NCA’s MLUM
therefore considered 17 SDGs including poverty, hunger and food security, health,education, gender equality and women’s empowerment, water and sanitation as well as
energy and economic growth. Others are infrastructure and industrialization, inequality,
cities; sustainable consumption and production, climate change, biodiversity, forestsand desertification, peace and justice and partnerships.
Specifically, the review of MLUM puts more emphasis on Goal 1: No poverty; Goal 2: No
hunger; Goal 3: Good health and well-being; Goal 4: Quality education; Goal 5: Genderequality; Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation; and Goal 15: Sustainable management offorests, combating desertification, halting and reversing land degradation, and halting
biodiversity loss. The goals give facts and figures regarding poverty, hunger, health,education, gender equality, water and sanitation and forests. For instance, Goal 15
clearly states that around 1.6 billion people depend on forests for their livelihood. This
includes some 70 million indigenous people; NCA indigenous residents inclusive. It also
states that forests are home to more than 80 per cent of all terrestrial species ofanimals, plants and insects.
NCA, being part of SME has a huge part to play in supporting community, conservation,
protection of forests, combating desertification, halting and reversing land degradationand halting biodiversity loss. Throughout the review of MLUM, great care was observed
to ensure that the goal and related issues of SDGs were translated into the vision,
mission and strategies of NCA management.
4.2.
Treaty for the Establishment of the EAC (Amended in 2007)
The Treaty establishing the East African Community (EAC) was signed by heads ofstates of the Partner countries on November 30, 1999 in Arusha, Tanzania and cameinto operation on July 7, 2000. The Community was formally launched on January 15,
2001. Currently with six Party States including Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan,
Tanzania and Uganda, the broad goal of EAC is to enhance cooperation in all areas ofmutual benefit of the Partner States (http://www.africa.union.org.,visited on 13th
November, 2018).
One of EAC objectives is to promote a sustainable growth and equitable development ofPartner States including rational utilization of the region’s natural resources andprotection of the environment (http://www.africa.union.org., visited on 13th November,
2018). The future management of NCA bears significant contribution to the scenic andvariable habitats of SME including dispersal areas for migratory wildlife species and!xxxtherefore any management consideration of NCA should take this into account toensure its conformity with this Treaty.
4.3. Lusaka Agreement (1994)
The Lusaka Agreement is an intergovernmental cooperative enforcement of operations
directed at illegal trade on wild fauna and flora taskforce with the main function offacilitating cooperation activities in and among Party States in carrying out
investigations on violations of national laws pertaining to illegal trade in wild animals andvegetation. The Agreement was the brain-child of Wildlife Law Enforcement Officers
from eight Eastern and Southern African countries, which met in Lusaka, Zambia in
December 1992 under the auspices of Zambia’s Ministry of Tourism. One year later, thedevelopment of this African initiative led to formal intergovernmental negotiations under
the support of UNEP, which resulted in adopting this Agreement on 8th September,
1994. The Agreement came into force on 10th December 1996 with ratification or formal
acceptance by four signatories. Later on there were six Party States to the Agreement,
which are Lesotho, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and the Republic of Congo(Brazzaville). Currently, the Republic of South Africa, Ethiopia and the Kingdom of
Swaziland are signatories but have never ratified it.
The Agreement provides for setting up a permanent Task Force that would implement
its objectives. Consequently, the Task Force was launched on 1st of June 1999 with its
headquarters located in Nairobi, Kenya. The mission statement of Lusaka Agreement is
to support Member States and Collaborating Partners in reducing and ultimately
eliminating illegal trade in wild fauna and flora in Africa through:i. Facilitation of cooperative activities in undertaking law enforcement operations;ii. Investigation on violations of national wildlife laws;
iii.Dissemination and exchange of information on illegal trade activities; and,iv.Capacity building including promoting conservation awareness among different
stakeholders.
Since NCA harbours abundant and diverse species of wild fauna in particular migratory
wildlife species, any management option to be adopted by the Authority should aim at
controlling potential violations of the Lusaka Agreement provisions.
4.4.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora andFauna (1973)
Some of the wild animals that inhabit NCA belong to categories of endangered andthreatened species according to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). These animals include the African elephant, blackrhino, lion, leopard, cheetah and wild dog. Among the animal groups in the lower risky
category are the African buffalo and the giraffe, which is the country’s symbol. Other
species of mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds and plants listed in the Convention butlack detailed account might also be present in the area. In recognition of thisConvention, NCAA should set aside enough resources in terms of money and personnel!xxxi

for conducting anti-poaching tasks within and in the vicinity of NCA in order to ensurethat requirements contained in the CITES are complied with.
4.5.

Convention on the Protection of International Cultural and Natural
Heritages (1972)
This is a Convention of UNESCO, which recognizes that global cultural and natural
heritages are increasingly threatened with destruction not only by traditional causes, butalso by changing social and economic conditions. This recognition was made by
UNESCO’s General Conference that was held in Paris between 17th and 21st November
in 1972. Having noted that deterioration or disappearance of any item of the cultural or
natural heritage constitutes a harmful impoverishment of the heritage of all the nationsof the world, Conference members agreed upon that, parts of the cultural or natural
heritage of outstanding interest wherever they are should be preserved as part of theworld’s heritage of mankind as a whole. To that effect, Tanzania being a State Party tothis Convention identified and delineated NCA as one of WHSs found in the country due
to its outstanding universal values. According to Article 4 of this Convention it is the dutyof a State Party to protect, preserve and transmit to future generations of the culturaland natural heritage belonging primarily to that State. This is one of the reasons thatnecessitated review of the current MLUM so as to identify actions that will either reduceor eliminate impacts that may threaten the outstanding universal values that made NCA
to be inscribed on the list of WHSs.
4.6. Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
Adopted at the Rio de Janeiro “Earth Summit” in June 1992, the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) recognizes that biological diversity is not only about plants,
animals and microorganisms and their ecosystems, but it includes people and theirneed for food, security, medicines, fresh air, safe water, shelter and clean and healthy
environment in which they live (Http://www.cbd.int.org/cbd., visited on 13th November,
2018). The Convention is geared towards addressing the fragmentation, degradation
and upright loss of forests and other habitats, all of which represent much larger threat
to biodiversity. It aims at developing national strategies for the conservation of biologicaldiversity, sustainable use of its components and fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. Since Tanzania is a signatory to thisConvention, any management approach for NCA should be dedicated to promoting
sustainable development and to becoming a practical tool for translating principles ofAgenda 21 into reality. This is by ensuring that the area’s biological environment
including flora, fauna, rare, threatened and endangered species as well as ecologicallysensitive sites are sustainably conserved without compromising people’s needs such as
food, traditional medicines, fresh air, clean and safe water, shelter as well as security
from wildlife attacks.
4.7. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)
Adopted in May 1992, UNFCCC sets an overall framework for intergovernmental efforts
to tackle the challenges posed by climate change. It recognizes that the climate system
is a shared resource whose stability can be affected by emissions of gases such ascarbon dioxide and carbon monoxide produced from various development projects.
!xxxiiDeforestation is often attributed to climate change among other factors in lessdeveloped countries including Tanzania. The fact that the lifestyle among NCA resident
pastoralists is changing very fast towards modernization, any future management
approach of NCA should consider control of activities that might increase emissions ofgases that are known to contribute to global warming.
4.8.

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals(1979)The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (abbreviatedas CMS or referred to as the Bonn Convention) aims at conserving terrestrial, marine
and avian migratory species throughout their range. It is an intergovernmental treaty,
concluded under the auspicious of UNEP, concerned with the conservation of wildlife
and habitats on a global scale. State Parties acknowledge the importance of migratory
species being conserved and of Range States agreeing to take action to this end"whenever possible and appropriate", paying special attention to migratory species theconservation status of which is unfavorable and taking individually or in cooperation
appropriate and necessary steps to conserve such species and their habitat. State
Parties appreciate the need to take action to avoid any migratory species becoming
endangered. In addition to NCA habitats supporting migratory wildlife species of SME,
the area also consists of alkaline lakes that attract migratory birds, which any
management model to be adopted should consider the sustainable wellbeing of
migratory species both wild animals and birds.
4.9. International Plant Protection Convention (1952)
The purpose of this Convention is to secure common and effective action of preventing
the spread and introduction of pests of plants and plant products, and to promote
appropriate measures for their control. The implementation of the Convention has been
applied mainly to crops, but it also extends to the protection of natural flora. Thus, thescope of theInternational Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) covers any invasive alien
species that may be considered a plant pest. Since various construction materials forboth residents and NCA infrastructure come from outside the Conservation Area, which
in recent years has resulted into proliferation of alien plant species and increasingly
causing the rangelands to deteriorate, any management approach of the area should
comply with this Convention particularly by instituting close screening on construction
materials before are brought in the area. Strict measures to prohibit the introduction of
exotic ornamental species and cooperation with relevant stakeholders particularly the
pastoralists in removing any observed exotic plant species should be initiated so as toprevent interference with existing indigenous species.
4.10.
International Labor Organization Convention (1991)
The Convention provides that Governments with the participation of the people
concerned shall have the responsibility for developing a co-coordinated and systematic
action to protect the rights of indigenous people and to guarantee for their integrity.
Article 13 of the Convention directs governments to respect cultures and spiritual valuesof those people and their relationship with lands or territories or both as applicable,!xxxiii

which they occupy or otherwise use. Land in this Convention includes the concept ofterritories, which covers the total environment of the area that the people concerned
occupy or otherwise use. Article 15 deals with rights of indigenous people to natural
resources pertaining to their lands including the right to participate in the use,management and conservation of the resources. Article 20 directs governments within
the framework of national laws and regulations and in co-operation with the people
concerned, to adopt special measures and ensure effective protection with regard to
recruitment and conditions of employment of workers belonging to those people.
Because NCA belongs to a protected area where indigenous residents are dependent
mainly on livestock production economy and thus bearing close relevancy to thisConvention, all important steps pertaining to how the area should be managed, must
involve resident pastoralists and any management action to be considered shouldpreserve human rights of legal indigenous people residing in NCA.
5.

Strategies and Guidelines

5.1. The National Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction (2005)
The National Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction (NSGPR) is a revised versionof the Poverty Reduction Strategy of 2000 which emanated from TDV of 2025.The
Strategy has three main outcomes and a number of goals within each of the outcomes(Table 3). The review of MLUM of NCA has taken on board this strategy to ensure thatany management approach of the area does not compromise any of the strategy’s
outcome and goals.

!xxxiv

Table 3: Outcome and Goals of National Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction (2005)
Outcome

Goals

Growth of income andthe reduction of poverty

•
•
•
•
•

to ensure sound economic management
to promote sustainable and broad-based growth
to improve food availability and accessibility
to reduce income poverty of both men and women in urban areas
to provide reliable and affordable energy to consumers

Improved quality of lifeand social well-being•

to ensure equitable access to quality primary and secondary education
for boys and girls, universal literacy among men and women, andexpansion of higher, technical and vocational education
to improve the survival, health and well-being of all children andwomen and especially vulnerable groups
to ensure access to clean, affordable and safe water, sanitation,
decent shelter and a safe and sustainable environment. This will
reduce vulnerability to environmental risks
to ensure adequate social protection and the provision of basic needs
and services for vulnerable people
to ensure effective systems that allow access for all people to quality
and affordable public services••••
Good governance andaccountability

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

to ensure that structures and systems of governance as well as therule of law are democratic, participatory, representative, accountable
and inclusive
to ensure equitable allocation of public resources-with corruption
effectively addressedto put in place an effective public service framework as a foundation
for service delivery improvements and poverty reduction
to ensure that the rights of poor and vulnerable groups are protected
and promoted in the justice system
to reduce political and social exclusion and intolerance
to improve personal and material security, reduce crime and eliminate
sexual abuse and domestic violence
to enhance and promote national cultural identities

5.2. General Management Plan (2006-2016)
NCA-GMP (2006-2016) sets NCAA’s vision as self-financed WHS that provides
sustainable benefits to residents and guarantees protection of natural, cultural andarchaeological resources (NCAA, 2006). The GMP acknowledges that NCAA andindigenous residents have vested interest in cooperating to achieve MLUM objectives of
the area. Thus, NCAA is committed to manage the conservation area according to GMP
framework.
According to GMP (2006 – 2016), NCA is divided into four main management zones: i)development zone, ii) catchment forest zone, iii) external resources zone, and iv)craters’zone. The development zone has two sub zones namely Oldupai and short grassplains. The GMP provides description of zones, allowable uses and limits which guide
resource management. Despite that the Wildlife Legislation requires all wildlife
protected area in the country to have GMPs for guiding their management andadministration, the first four GMPs, which were developed since NCA was established in
1959 until 1996 were not adequately implemented. The first four GMPs, which!xxxv

contained relevant information and strategies pertaining to the management of NCA
are:i. The 1960 GMP that was developed by Mr. Henry Fosbrooke, first Conservator of
Ngorongoro;ii. The second GMP was an amendment of the first one that was conducted by Eggling
in 1962 with one of the major emphasis put on realizing a stable environment inwhich human and animal inhabitants could prosper;
iii.The third GMP, which was developed in 1966 by Dirschl, drew attention to the needfor three levels of policy and objectives;
iv.The fourth GMP was developed by Bureau of Resource Assessment and Land-Use
Planning (BRALUP) of the University of Dar-es-Salaam currently known as theInstitute of Resource Assessment (IRA) in 1982.
Important actions, which were recommended for implementation in the 1996-2006
GMP; the first one to be approved for implementation and recommended again in therevised 2006-2016 GMP but are not yet implemented or have been partially realized
include the natural resources management actions. In this aspect recommended actions
but not adequately implemented include; ensuring that the human, livestock and wildlife
populations have access to quality and adequate water resources, as well as
developing measures to maintain wildlife corridors and sensitive habitats. Other actions
are; developing a building code to preserve the natural scenery of NCA and putting inplace measures to prevent the introduction of exotic species in the area.
Actions not yet sufficiently implemented and related to community development are,ensuring improved income for NCA indigenous residents by developing a training
programme in tourism-related jobs, encouraging employment by tour companies, andassisting them in tourism-related economic activities. Additional actions include
developing non-traditional income generating activities other than tourism, ensuring
sustainable food distribution programmes and providing reasonable level of price andspecial subsidies to the poor and destitute families. More actions that were proposed
but not adequately implemented are, ensuring the provision of satisfactory basic
services such as education, health and water supply, co-operating with indigenous
residents to control permanent immigration and establishment of unplanned
settlements, initiating and implementing compensation schemes for NCA families willing
to resettle outside the area voluntarily. Also developing birth control strategy to control
high human population growth as well as reducing the incidences of property damage
and costs related to wildlife disturbance.
With regard to tourism, the proposed actions, which have not been well implemented
include placing a moratorium on any additional lodges, tented camps and otherpermanent commercial facilities around the rim of the Ngorongoro Crater. Also reducing
the number of special campsites at Ndutu and Masek lakes from 10 to five as well as
rehabilitating the sites and access roads, and reducing the number of vehicles per day
in the Ngorongoro Crater.
!xxxviInvestors in tourism industry proposed actions that can improve communication
between them including organizing regular meetings to discuss management andadministrative issues related to tourism promotion and holding annual meetings of all
tourism companies operating in NCA. The investors proposed also publication of
biannual newsletter for lodges and tour operators in order to disseminate important
information and levels of stakeholders’ achievements. Because the current GMP (2006– 2016) is under review, it is expected all these actions, which were not adequately
implemented will be considered and proposals presented in this review so as toadequately realize the major trio objectives of establishing NCA.
.
5.3. The NCA Corporate Strategic Plan (2017 - 2022)
According to the Authority’s Corporate Strategic Plan (CSP) the vision of NCAA is to use
her prominence as one of the 7th wonder of Africa to guarantee sustainable
conservation of natural and historical resources, and human development in
Ngorongoro, African continent and the world. The mission statement is to conserve thenatural and historical resources and provide optimal social services to residents andstaff as well as provision of high-quality services to tourists. NCAA’s CSP recognizes
that in order to achieve its vision and implement its mission, core values of the Authority
which are, sustainability, valuing people and accountability to stakeholders shall beobserved. CSP addresses i) Wildlife resources, ii) Tourism resources, iii) Revenue
collection iv) Community development, and; v) Corporate governance as key objectivesof managing NCA.

6.

Legislation

6.1.

Tanzania Natural Wealth and Resources (Permanent Sovereignty) Act No. 5
of 2017
The Act is related to all materials or substances occurring in nature such as soil, subsoil,
gaseous and water resources' and flora, fauna, genetic resources, aquatic resources,
micro-organisms, air space, rivers, lakes and maritime space, including the Tanzania's
territorial sea and the continental shelf, living and non-living resources in the Exclusive
Economic Zone which can be extracted, exploited or acquired and used for economic
gain whether Processed or not. Specifically it gives directives in the following key
areas:i. Proclamation of permanent sovereignty: the People of the United Republic shall havepermanent sovereignty over all natural wealth and resources;ii. Inalienability of natural wealth and resources: the natural wealth and resources shallbe inalienable in any manner whatsoever and shall always remain the property of thePeople of the United Republic of Tanzania;!xxxvii

iii. Prohibition of exploitation except for the benefit of the People': it shall be unlawful tomake any arrangement or agreement for the extraction, exploitation or acquisition
and use of natural wealth and resources except where the interests of the People
and the United Republic are fully secured.
iv. Guarantee of returns from natural wealth and resources: ln any arrangement oragreement for extraction, exploitation or acquisition and use of natural wealth andresources, there shall be guaranteed returns into the Tanzanian economy from theearnings accrued or derived from such extraction, exploitation or acquisition and use;v. Participation of the People and Government requirement for beneficiation: Any
authorization granted for the extraction, exploitation or acquisition and use of natural
wealth and resources, arrangements shall be made or given to ensure that theGovernment obtains an equitable stake; andvi. Retention of earnings: Any arrangement or agreement for extraction, exploitation or
acquisition and use of natural wealth and resources shall require that earnings from
disposal or dealings be retained in the banks and financial institutions established in
the United of Republic.
6.2.
Environmental Management Act No. 20 of 2004
Environmental Management Act is an umbrella law on environmental management in
Tanzania. The Act defines mandates for: national, regional and local level institutions;civil society; private sector; and other stakeholders; contains provisions for theestablishment of environmental sections/offices at all government institutions down tothe village level; and provides Vice-President’s Office, Division of Environment andNational Environment Management Council (NEMC) with the overall coordination andoverseeing responsibilities. Further, it includes provisions for environmental planning at
national, sectoral, and LGA levels; provisions for management of the key environmental
challenges: land; aquatic systems including wetlands and coastal zones; pollution andwaste; wildlife, forests and fisheries resources and biodiversity; and provisions forenvironmental analysis and record keeping, environmental information, education,
research, public participation in environmental decision making. In addition, it defines
key environmental planning and management tools including Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA), and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA); and provides forenvironmental quality standards, economic instruments, and meeting of international
obligations; and provides directives on enforcement and compliance.
Sectoral legislation like natural resources management acts – wildlife, forest andbeekeeping - must comply with the Environmental Management Act (EMA). In this case,each sector ministry shall, prepare and coordinate the implementation of sector
environmental action plans at the national level, undertake analysis of environmental
impacts of sectoral legislation, regulations, policies, strategies, plans, and programmes
through SEA, and oversee the preparation and implementation of EIAs required forinvestments in the sector. To largely sustain NCA MLUM all development projects and!xxxviii

activities should be subjected to EIA and/or environmental audit in accordance to thearea’s operating GMP.
6.3. Wildlife Conservation Act No. 5 of 2009
Wildlife management in Tanzania is governed by the Wildlife Conservation Act, whichallows the Government to establish PAs and outlines how these reserves shall beorganized and managed. NCA is one of the PA categories in Tanzania recognized bythis Act and established as a multiple land use area to reconcile the interests of natural
resources conservation and human development. The future MLUM that should be
adopted should ensure that any development or activity in NCA be undertaken in amanner that does not compromise the predetermined objectives for which the area wasestablished, which are natural resources conservation, community development andtourism development.
6.4. Ngorongoro Conservation Area Act No.14 of 1975 [Cap. 284 R.E, 2002]
NCA Act aims at controlling entry into and residence within NCA, to make provision forthe conservation of natural resources and development of indigenous residents living
therein and other purposes connected therewith”. According to section 6 of NCA Act,
functions and all primary responsibility for the administration and management of NCA
are vested in NCAA. NCAA functions as stated in this legislation are:i. To conserve and develop the natural resources of the Conservation Area;
ii. To safeguard and promote the interests of Maasai citizens of the United Republic
engaged in cattle ranching and dairy industry within the Conservation Area;
iii.To promote tourism within the Conservation Area and to provide and encourage theprovision of facilities necessary or expedient for the promotion of tourism;
iv.To promote and regulate the development of forestry within the Conservation Area;
v. To promote, regulate, and facilitate transport to, from and within the Conservation
Area;
vi. To construct such roads, bridges, aerodromes, buildings and fences, to provide such
water supplies and to carry out such other works and activities as the Board of
Directors of the Authority may consider necessary for the purposes of development orprotection of the Conservation Area;
vii.To do all such acts and things, as in the opinion of the Board, may be necessary to
uphold and support the credit of the Authority and to obtain and justify publicconfidence, and to avert and minimize any loss to the Authority; and!xxxix

viii.To do anything and enter into any transaction which, in the opinion of the Board, iscalculated to facilitate proper and efficient exercise by the Authority of its functions
under this Ordinance.
A large part of NCA Act deals with the set-up and functions of the Authority, the Board,
financial autonomy, accounts, auditing and reporting procedures. Also, the Act restricts
entry and residence in the Conservation Area, controls residence and settlement, andprohibits cultivation. However, neither rules nor regulations have been made by NCAA
as required by section 21 and 23 of the Act. Since provisions in the Act that restrict entry
and residence in NCA are of paramount importance to controlling the current highhuman population growth rate, an attempt to revise the legislation should consider thisissue very strongly.
6.5. Antiquities Act No.22 of 1979 [Cap. 333 R. E. 2002]
The Antiquities Act provides for the preservation and protection of sites and articles of
paleontological, archaeological, historical or natural interest. Section 3 (1) stipulates that
the Minister may declare any place to be a “monument” under this legislation. The
Oldupai area was declared a monument under the predecessor of the Antiquities Act(The Monuments Preservation Ordinance) in 1937.
Section 5 (1) subject to provisions of subsection (2) of the Act states that “no person
whether beneficially interested or not, shall do any of the following acts to or in relation
to any monument or protected object declared as such by the Minister under section 3
or included in the list published by the Director under section 2(c) and for the time being
in force or to any other place, site or structure which he knows or has reasonable cause
to believe to be monument, permit any animal under his control to damage a Monument
or to enter any part of a Monument fenced by or on behalf of the Director of Antiquities”.
Despite this clause in the Antiquities Act, pastoral activities in NCA have become
serious threat to hominid and faunal remains in the Oldupai and Laitole areas.
Since NCAA is responsible for a large area of land rich in cultural heritage resources,
the Antiquities Act should under the future multiple land use management approach
confer special responsibilities and roles to NCAA to manage archaeological andpaleontological heritage resources contained in the land, which is entrusted by theGovernment to administer.
6.6. Forest Act No. 18 of 1997 [Cap. 323 R. E. 2002]
The Forest Act provides for conservation and management of forests and forest
products. The main objective being the demarcation and reserving in perpetuity for the
benefit of present and future Tanzanians sufficient forested land and land capable ofafforestation. It also aims to protect water supplies. Forestland is administered by the
Forestry Division, which has both “productive” and “protective” areas. Permits forutilisation can be issued for use of forestry products in productive reserves. However,when NCA was established in 1959, the responsibility to manage NHFR, which is awater catchment forest, was vested to NCA.
!xl

6.7. Bee-keeping Act No. 15 of 2002 [Cap. 223 R.E. 2002]
This Act provides for the orderly conduct of beekeeping, for the improvement of
products of beekeeping and for the prevention and eradication of diseases and pests
among bees. It also promotes, and enhances the contribution of the beekeeping sector
to the sustainable development of Tanzania and the conservation and management ofher natural resources for the benefit of present and future generations as per section 3(1) (a)-(f) . Further, the Act aims at improving biodiversity and increase employment andforeign exchange earnings through sustainable bee products-based industrial
development and trade. One of the occupations, which NCA residents could engage infor the purpose of enhancing food production and income without compromisingconservation importance, is bee-keeping.
6.8. Animal Welfare Act No. 19 of 2008
This Act provides for humane treatment of animals, monitoring and mitigating of animal
abuse, and promoting awareness on the importance of animal welfare. It prohibits
causing unnecessary or avoidable suffering in specified circumstances for specified
categories of animals and prohibits transporting animals in a way that is likely to cause
pain, injury or undue suffering or distress. Trekking to, or from livestock market domestic
animals by NCA pastoralists will therefore be violating this Act.
6.9. Animal Diseases Act No. 17 of 2003
This Act gives provisions for control and prevention of animal diseases, monitoringproduction of animal products, disposal of animal carcasses and other related matters.
It also provides measures for checking livestock diseases and diseases of animals otherthan livestock. In a manner prescribed by regulations, this Act provides for institution ofquarantine of a place or area for animals other than livestock that are deemed to bepotentially infected with a notifiable disease. As a measure of preventing the spread of
diseases, the Act provides for establishment of barriers where by Section 9 (1)stipulates that no person shall herd or graze animals within two hundred meters of apublic road unless there is a barrier between the public road and the area of herding or
grazing.
6.10.
Livestock Identification, Registration and Traceability Act No. 12 of 2010
This Act provides for the establishment of the National Livestock Identification,
Registration and Traceability System for purposes of controlling animal diseases andlivestock theft, enhancing food safety assurance; to regulate movement of livestock,
improve livestock products and production of animal genetic resources and to promote
access to livestock market.
6.11.
Tourism Act No. 29 of 2008
In response to objectives contained in the 1961 “Arusha Manifesto”, the Government of
Tanzania has formulated, improved and is implementing wildlife conservation
Regulations due to the fact that the country’s tourism is largely wildlife-based so that!xli

existing tourist attractions are sustainably protected for the benefit of the present andfuture generations. Currently, funding for community development, livestock
development, social services and grain supplements for NCA resident pastoralists islargely dependent on tourism income. Despite, that NCAA envisages to increasing selfproduction of pastoral food and household income from the sale of surplus milk andmeat, the future MLUM will be sustained if humans and livestock populations will bemaintained within the limits of acceptable use so as to avoid impairment of the area’s
rangelands, water resource and tourism attractions of which NCAA is largely dependent
for its revenue.
6.12.

Local Government (District Authorities) Act No.7 of 1982 [CAP. 287 R.E.
2002]
The Local Government (District Authorities) Act creates district-based local government
authorities in Tanzania. The Act provides for among others, the establishment,
composition, functions and legislative powers of the district and township councils andvillage authorities. Section 22 (1) establishes a village as the corporate entity of aregistered village with all mandates and functions including planning and coordinating
activities, rendering assistance and advice to villagers engaged in agriculture, forestry,horticultural, industries or any other activity, and to encourage village residents toundertake and participate in communal enterprises. At the district level, there is aDistrict Council composed of members among others those elected from each ward.
District Councils, through appropriate District Committees, supervise the implementationof all plans for economic, commercial, industrial and social development in their areas.
Section 118 of this Act provides for the protection and management of the environmenton the part of the District Council. Under this Section, District Councils are required totake necessary measures to control soil erosion and desertification, to regulate the useof poisonous and noxious plants, drugs or poison, regulate and control the number oflivestock, maintain forests, manage wildlife, ensure public health, provide effective solidand liquid waste management, and protect open space and parks. Since NCA is one of
the three divisions that fall under the jurisdiction of NDC, the extent to which NCAA is
integrated into LGA and procedures for the establishment of villages and wards in NCA
should be analyzed under the future MLUM of the Conservation Area.
6.13.
Land Act, No. 4 of 1999 [Cap. 113 R.E.2002]
The Land Act categorizes land into different forms including public land, village land,
and reserved land. NCA is one of the categories that belong to reserved land andestablished to reconcile the interests of natural resources conservation anddevelopment. Livestock production is one of the land uses that are allowed in NCA aspart of compatible activities for pastoralists' economic development and food production.
So long as NCA falls under the reserved land according to this Act, the ambiguity of
having villages in the area should be re-examined. Improvement of livestock production,
which is one of the fundamental principles of utilizing NCA land profitably andanticipated to offer optimal benefits to the community without compromising theprinciples of sustainable natural resources conservation, should be given priority
because the activity does not deviate from the provisions of the Land Act 4 of 1999.
!xlii

6.14.
Village Land Act, No. 5 of 1999 [Cap. 114 R.E. 2002]
The Village Land Act is arguably amongst the laws that most directly impact the wellbeing of most Tanzanians. The Act advocates for the major parts of administration ofland in the country to be decentralized to villages and guarantees firm administrative set
up to protect small-holder security of tenure. Fundamentally, the Act vests all village
land in the Village Authority. The fact that NCA falls under the reserved land category
and because some villages in NCA possess only registration numbers without physicalboundaries demarcation, while others have no registration at all, implies that under thecurrent MLUM, villagers in the area have no right of land ownership, a situation thatneeds specific assessment if the future management of NCA will have to beadministered without critical conflicts.
6.15.
Land Use Planning Act No. 6 of 2007
Basically, the Land Use Planning Act requires land uses to be organized in a planned
fashion, with certain approvals from respective government authorities. Among otherissues, the Act requires all land in the country to be used for the benefit of people
referred to as “beneficial use”; meaning the use of land that is conducive to publichealth, welfare and safety. Section 45(1) specifies that any approved plan shall apply tothe area or zone to which it relates whether or not it is embodied in a local government
authority by law. It stipulates further that every person, agency or relevant planning
authority shall comply with the requirements of the approved plan. Section 47 spells outthat any landholder or occupier of land shall take all steps necessary to ensurevoluntary compliance with aspects of an approved plan that are relevant to activities
carried out on the land one holds or occupies.
In order to lessen land use conflicts which are currently prevailing in NCA the future
MLUM should delineate the area into zones where socio-economic activities including
schools, health facilities, livestock infrastructure and other social facilities shall beallowed and living other zones exclusively for natural resources conservation andcontrolled livestock grazing. Once NCAA in collaboration with resident pastoralists and
NDC have developed the main proposed management zones, every person, agency or
relevant planning authority shall be obliged to comply with the requirements of theapproved zoning plan.
6.16.
Water Resources Management Act No. 11 of 2009
The Water Resources Management Act was enacted to control and protect all water
resources in the country. This legislation defines water as all water flowing over thesurface of the land or contained or flowing in, or from a spring or stream or natural lake,swamp or in, or beneath a watercourse. The Act puts in place a regime of water rights togovern access to water use. Pollution control norms are also embodied in water rights.
This law requires water utilization permit by various users to be granted by relevant
authorities. Because NCA is currently facing acute shortage of water resource both interms of quantity and quality, comprehensive survey should be undertaken to determine
criteria for implementing the proposed zoning scheme under the future MLUM.
!xliii6.17.
Water Supply and Sanitation Act No. 5 of 2019
An Act to provide for Sustainable Management and adequate operation and transparent
regulation of water supply and sanitation services; establishment of water supply andsanitation authorities; rural water agency, National Water Fund and Community based
water supply organizations; and provide for appointment of service providers. Section
4(1) promotes and ensures the right of every person in Tanzania to have access toefficient, effective and sustainable water supply and sanitation services for all purposesby taking into account the fundamental principles as stipulated under paragraphs (a) –(j) of subsection (1). Section 4 (2) provides that all persons exercising powers under thisAct or under any written law having a bearing on provision of supply and sanitation
services shall strive to promote and have regard to the National Water Policy, 2002, in
respect of Urban Supply and Sanitation and Rural Water Supply.
6.18.
Employment and Labour Relations Act No. 6 of 2004
Employment and Labour Relations Act makes provisions for core labour rights,
establishes basic employment standards, gives a framework for collective bargaining
and provides for the prevention and settlement of disputes, and for related matters. The
Act applies to all employees including those in the public service of the Government of
Tanzania in the Mainland but does not apply to members, whether temporary or
permanent in service of the Tanzania People’s Defence Force, the Police Force, thePrison Service and the National Service. Principal objectives of the Employment andLabour Relation Act are:i. To promote economic development through efficient productivity and social justice;
ii. To provide the legal framework for effective and fair employment relations andminimum standards regarding conditions of work;
iii.To provide a framework for voluntary collective bargaining;iv.To regulate the resort to industrial action as a means to resolve disputes;
v. To provide a framework for resolution of disputes by mediation, arbitration andadjunction;
vi.To give effect to the provision of the constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania of1977, in so far as they apply to employment and labour relations and conditions ofwork; andvii.Generally, to give effect to the core conventions of the International Labour
Organization as well as other ratified conventions.
Section 5 of this Act prohibits child labour of under 14-year olds and restricts labour of
14-18-year olds to light work, which is not harmful to the child health or development or
prevent the child’s school attendance. It also allows for participation in vocational
orientation or training programmes that are approved by the concerned Authority. The
same section prohibits labour to less than 18-year olds in mines, factories, ships or any
other worksites including non-formal settings or agriculture, where conditions can beconsidered hazardous for the child. Sub-section 7(1) provides for employers to ensure
the promotion of equal opportunities and elimination of discrimination in employment
practices. All NCA residents who are capable of working should be considered for!xliv

formal employment whenever opportunities arise and when individuals have requisite
qualifications. While those who will not be having required qualifications in formal
services should be encouraged to engage themselves in livestock keeping and othercompatible income generating activities either within or outside in order to make themself-sufficient instead of waiting for hand outs and other free social services from NCAAand aid agencies.
6.19.
National Public Health Act No. 1 of 2009
The National Public Health Act provides for the promotion, preservation andmaintenance of public health with a view to ensuring the offering of comprehensive,functional and sustainable public health services to the general public and to provide forother related matters. Since there is potential for health risk that may arise from remainsof drugs, vaccines, acaricides and accumulation of animal feces and other compatible
income generating activities either within or outside, the future MLUM should consider
the control and speedy treatment of both traditional and emerging human and zoonotic
diseases.
6.20.
The Education Act No. 25 of 1978 [Cap. 353 R.E. 2002]
The Education Act aims at providing for the development of the system of education.
Section 4 (1) stipulates that the Minister shall, subject to the provisions of this Act, be
responsible for promotion of education of the people of Tanzania and the progressive
development of institutions devoted to that purpose, The Act provides further for
securing effective execution by local authorities, under the Minister’s guidance, control
and direction, of the national policy for providing a varied, comprehensive and nationallybeneficial educational service in their respective jurisdictions.
21. Grazing-land and Animal feed resources Act No. 13 of 2010
The Act provides for the development and management which shall safeguard anddevelop grazing-lands. It also provides for management of communal and strategic
grazing-land. Section 16 (1) provides for grazing-lands that shall be demarcated ordelineated in accordance with the provisions of the Village Land Act and the Land Use
Planning Act. Section 16 (2) imposes the Village Council to grant the right of way forstock-driving for purposes of providing access to water, dipping, marketing facilities andother services which are not within the grazing-land. The Village Council is empoweredby the Act to set aside part of the communal village land to be a strategic grazing-land inaccordance with the provisions of the land use planning Act.
Section 19 (1) imposes power to local government authorities to prepare grazing- land
inventory trend condition and land use planning for sustainable grazing- land
productivity. Section 37 of the Act, empowers the local government authority to makeby-laws for soil conservation, prevention of adverse effects to soil and soil erosion in a
grazing- land, rehabilitation, protection or improvement of the grazing land.
To conclude this Chapter, the Team of Experts perceived that, existing policy and legal
frameworks outlined herein above, makes it complex to manage NCA due to the factthat while some policies and laws complement each other, others are either overlapping!xlv

or conflicting. In view of that, minimum threshold for sectoral policies and legal
integration in NCA should be a pre-requisite to achieving the stated objectives. Yet,factual evaluations of harmonized policies, laws, regulations and procedures have to bedone with a number of assessing mechanisms in place. Accordingly, all Ministerial
Departments and Agencies (MDAs) have an individual and collective responsibility tooversee that harmonization of sectoral policies is implemented. Moreover, as sectoral
policies of tourism, conservation, industrialization infrastructure, climate, transport andcommunication, energy, natural resources, community development and others areconstantly being formulated – policies, regulations and procedures require an
integration component to optimize benefits from the area.

7.
Institutional Framework
The management of NCA is under different ministries and management authorities
based on mandates related to community development (people and social services),land use issues, natural resources and environment, livestock, water, energy andinfrastructure. The lead ministries are MNRT, Vice President’s Office (Environment),
President’s Office – Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG) andLivestock and Fisheries Development. Also there are other sector ministries andauthorities that have a stake in the management of NCA. As a multiple land use area,
NCA that occupies 59 percent of Ngorongoro District is managed by NCAA. Details on
relevant institutions with different responsibilities in NCA are provided below.
i.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism
The mandate of MNRT is to ensure sustainable conservation of natural and cultural
resources, and development of tourism in collaboration with national and international
stakeholders. The mandate involves policy formulation; formulation and review of laws
and regulations; monitoring and evaluation; regulation and control; development of
tourism sector; and capacity and institutional building.The functions of MNRT are
implemented at three levels: i) MNRT itself whereas directorates of wildlife, forestry andbeekeeping, tourism and antiquities are overall responsible for coordination, monitoring,
reporting and evaluation of the implementation at sector level; ii) Institutions mandated
to manage different categories of PAs by laws - NCAA manages NCA; TANAPA
manages national parks; Tanzania Wildlife Management Authority (TAWA) manages
GRs, GCAs, WMAs and Open Areas; and Tanzania Forest Service Agency (TFS)
manages national forest reserves (natural and plantations), bee reserves and forest andbee resources on general lands; Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI)
undertakes, co-ordinates and supervises wildlife research; and iii) other sector
ministries and authorities.
ii. Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority
The NCAA manages NCA under NCA Act No. 14 of 1975 (CAP 284, R.E. 2002). The
objective of the Authority is to conserve and develop natural resources, promote
tourism, and safeguard and promote interests of resident pastoralists in theConservation Area. According to the setup, NCAA is under the Conservator who is!xlvi

assisted by two Deputy Conservators: i) Conservation, Community Development andTourism; and ii) Corporate Services. The Conservator is also the secretary to the Boardof Directors that reports to MNRT on performance of the functions and management ofaffairs of NCAA. The management structure has been designed to ensure efficient andeffective management by avoiding bureaucracy.
Administratively, NCA is under Ngorongoro Division in Ngorongoro District with 11 wards
and 25 villages that follow administrative structure similar to other villages of Tanzania.
Councilors from 11 wards of NCA are part of NDC and participate in all meetings that
deliberate issues related to development of the district including NCA. As such, NCAA
collaborates with NDC in addressing issues related to community development.
Further, NPC was established in 1994 as a mechanism of engaging indigenous
residents in the planning and management of NCA. NPC is responsible for active
participation of indigenous residents in decision making, food security, and provision ofbasic social services such as education, health, water, and livestock development. NPC
is composed of Ngorongoro Division Councilors, village government chair persons, andrepresentatives from different community social groups such as women, youths, andtraditional leaders. Government leadership in Ngorongoro Division most often
advocates development activities to enhance socio-economic development in a multiple
land use area. Therefore, the objectives of natural and cultural resources management
may conflict with community development objectives, and at the expense of the former.
iii. Other Ministries and Authorities
Other key ministries and authorities with responsibilities in NCA include:a. President’s Office Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG):
Has a role to coordinate and supervise regional development management andadministration. The ministry coordinates rural and urban development management
policy and strategies; coordinates Regional Secretariats activities and builds theircapacity in institutional development strategies for integrated socioeconomic
development and financial development of LGAs. Also, the Ministry coordinates andsupervises development planning and sectoral interventions on donor supported
programmes at district and other local levels; The Ministry also issues ministerial
guidelines to Regional Secretariats and LGAs; and strengthens the channel ofcommunication and information flow between the national and sub-national levels.

b. Vice President’s Office (Union Affairs and Environment): Has a mandate toprovide overall policy guidance, coordination, expertise and services for sustainable
environmental management and development. Specifically, the functions of VPO(Environment) include to: coordinate issues relating to articulation andimplementation of the National Environmental Policy and the Environmental!xlviiManagement Act 2004; develop, coordinate and assess the implementation ofstrategies and plans to address crossing cutting challenges related to environmental
management and promote the integration of environment in other sector
development frameworks. Other functions include; Advising the government on
legislative and other measures for the management of the environment and/or the
implementation of relevant international agreements in the field of environment;
preparing and disseminating reports on the State of Environment; and coordinating
the implementation of the green growth and climate resilient development agenda.

c. Ministry of Home Affairs: Ministry of home affairs has a mission to "save lives andproperties, facilitate and control movement of aliens and non-aliens, assist refugees,
and rehabilitate convicts through implementation of relevant laws and regulations."
The police force, prisons service, immigration service, fire and rescue force, refugees’service, and community service are departments of the Ministry.

d. Ministry of Lands, Housing and Settlement Development: Has been mandated toadminister land and human settlement". It provides various land related services toindividuals and institutions in the country, and provides advice to government and the
public on matters pertaining to human settlements development.

e. Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development: Has been mandated of overallmanagement and development of livestock, and Fisheries resources for sustainableachievement of the Millennium Development Goals, NSGRP, improved livelihoods,
particularly those communities, which are dependent on livestock for food safety andsecurity without compromising animal welfare and environment conservation. Other
responsibility of the Ministry is to build and support the technical and professional
capacity of local government authorities and private sector in order to develop,
manage and regulate the livestock and fisheries resources sustainably.

f. Ministry of Water: The Ministry of Water is the government ministry principally
responsible for water supply and management of water resources in Tanzania. Its
mandate is to ensure that water resources are developed and managed sustainably
in collaboration with all stakeholders. It also facilitates participatory improvement andmanagement of water resources so as to enhance sustainable productivity, foodsecurity, poverty reduction and achieve national economic development.

g. National Environment Management Council!xlviii

NEMC is under the Vice President’s Office (Union Affairs and Environment) and has
the main role to provide advice on all matters pertaining to environmental
conservation and management. The Council is responsible for consultation,
collaboration and partnership arrangements with other entities concerned withenvironmental matters, and for facilitating and promoting measures necessary to help
achieve an important quality of lives for Tanzanians. In terms of legal and institutionalframeworks in connection to NCA, NEMC has a key role to play toward natural
resources with respect to coordinating the conduction of EIA and environmental
audits.

h. Tanzania Rural and Urban Roads Agency (TARURA):
The aim of TARURA is to provide sustainable and cost effective maintenance anddevelopment of Rural and Urban Roads Network to support the social economic
development of Tanzania. Specific objectives of TARURA include advising PO-RALG
on matters relating to rural and urban roads, developing and maintaining rural andurban roads, and demarcating and protecting road reserves. In NCA, TARURA is
responsible for maintaining road networks that link district headquarters, villages andsocial services infrastructures.

iv.Other NCAA stakeholders include but not limited to;a. Indigenous residents (Maasai, Datoga and Hadzabe) as well as neighbouringcommunities;
b. Civil Societies (Community Based Organizations and Non-Governmental
Organizations);c. Private Sector; andd. Development Partners.

!xlixCHAPTER FIVEKEY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
1.
Preamble
Based on the background information and key components of MLUM, this Chapter
presents and discusses main findings. The findings and discussions are categorized
into conservation of natural and cultural resources, community development including
livestock sector and tourism development. In addition, the Chapter summarizes
important trends, achievements and lessons learnt. Before discussing these aspects,
summary of current challenges facing NCA, which lead to land use conflicts,
incompatibility and ultimately to unsustainable conditions of both the ecosystem andpeople’s livelihoods is summarized in an analytical framework (Figure 4).
The framework illustrates that humans and livestock populations are increasing, but thelatter at a relatively slower pace causing a decreased livestock per capita. On one hand,negative implications of low livestock per capita on pastoral economy and food security
force people to diversify their livelihood options. Some of the options pursued, forexample, crop production and poaching are ecologically destructive and unsustainable,
thus threatening the sustainability of the model. Unpredictable climatic conditions,diseases, predation and rangeland quality influence livestock number per unit area. For
instance, dry periods will lead to rangelands deterioration and create an ideal condition
for diseases transmission, which may lead to human wildlife conflicts due tocompressed grazing land. This has negative implications on the health of livestock, asituation, which lessens the value of animals for the market. On the other hand, frequent
droughts, diseases and rangeland degradation along with government policies andlaws, political interventions, attitudes and change of lifestyles have implications on
wildlife numbers and distribution as well as choice on alternative livelihood strategies,
which may ultimately, threaten the sustainability of NCA as a MLUM.

!lLivestock
populations
compressedon smallgrazing land

Relatively bigger
average household
size and total
human population-Drought;

Wi l d l i f enumbers anddistribution-Diseases-Predation- degradedrangelands

Low livestock unit
per capita••-Government Policies-Political interference

incomepovertyFoodinsecurity-Activists-Attitudes and Norms

Diversification:-Off farm activities-Crop production-Formal employment-ThreatUnsustainable
livelihoods in NCA:•

Habitat degradation,
corridors blockage
etc.

on

conservation
LAND USE CONFLICT-Threat on tourism-Threat on livelihoods- Relief food
- Poaching

Illegalcultivation andunplanned
settlements& INCOMPATIBILITYUNSUSTAINABLE
MANAGEMENT OF
MULTIPLE LAND USE
MODEL

Unsustainable natural
resources
conservation

Figure 4: Analytical framework of the current situation in NCA

5.2 Conservation of Natural Resources
Conservation of natural resources involves precipitation hydrology, land use, land coverchange, wildlife population trends, land use conflicts and cultural heritage.

5.2 1 Precipitation and Hydrology!liIn NCA, rainfall is highly variable within and between seasons and years, and isdetermined by large-scale tropical weather patterns, and modified by local topography.
As local topography is so pronounced, there are great variations of rainfall patterns
within NCA. The rainfall is associated with the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) ofthe trade winds of the northern and southern hemispheres. This causes areas close to
the equator to have two distinct peaks in the rainy season.
Generally, NCA is currently going through a series of drought with almost complete
failure of the short-rains (NCAA, 2006). Simulation of the inter-annual rainfall data
between 2006 and 2100 from NCAA Headquarters rain station revealed that rainfall in
NCA will continue to depict a sustained quasi-cyclic oscillation pattern (Ogutu et al.,2019). The plains are poorly supplied with springs and permanent water sources
because the peaks of the Crater Highlands intercept the easterly moisture laden winds
and force them to drop most of the rain on the eastern side compared to the northwestern part of the region, which lies in rain-shadow area (Aikman and Cobb, 1997).
For instance, between 1963 and 2017, the only long-term station (on the Ngorongoro
Crater rim at NCAA headquarters shows an annual average of 870.5mm. The spatial
rainfall variability is depicted by annual rainfall data from NCAA HQ and Ndutu rainstations (Figures 5 and 6). The latter station received an annual average of less than
500mm between1985 and 2017,!
Figure 5: Rainfall trends (mm) between 1963 and 2017 at NCAA Headquarter

!lii

!
Figure 6: Rainfall trend (mm) between 1985 and 2017 at Ndutu Lodge

Rocks underlying the north-western region are the ancient crystalline, which are largely
devoid of cracks and cavities to enable them hold large quantities of water as comparedto the eastern side where many cracks and holes known as vesicles are present andtherefore allow rain water to seep relatively easier into those rocks (Aikman and Cobb,
1997). Underground water in many parts of the lowlands is saline with fluoride
concentration estimated to be as high as 20mg/liter, which is extremely beyond
consumption limits for both livestock and humans, which is 4mg/litre (Aikman and Cobb,
1997).
The scattered pattern of settlements in NCA contributes to the deprivation of many
people in the area from accessing enough and quality water for domestic and livestock
uses and other social services. Figure 7 and 8 show type as well as coverage of water
sources and areas with potential water sources in NCA respectively.

!liii

!

!
Figure 8: water source potentials in NCA

Figure 7: Type and coverage of water sources inNCA

5.2.2 Land Use and Land CoverAnalyses of vegetation cover changes in NCA using remote sensing images (Landsat
MSS 1975, Landsat MSS 1991 and Landsat MSS 2000) between 1975 and 2000
indicated major changes during a period of 25 years where forests increased by about
49.0% from 93,128.6ha to 138,437ha, woodland by 1,190% from 11,066ha to142,735.7ha bushland by 43.0% from 28,048.5ha to 40,012ha and highland grasslandby 34.0% from 25,438.8ha to 34,187.1ha (Niboye 2010; Table 4). Swelling in highlandtussock grass was accompanied by an increase in invasive plant species andunpalatable grass species both indigenous and exotic (Niboye, 2010; Clarke et. al.,2011) (Plate 3A&B). Conversely, shrubland decreased by 29.1% from 165,290.2ha to118,971.6ha and low and mid grassland by 37.0% from 449,875.1ha in 1975 to283,307.1ha in 2000 (Niboye 2010; Table 4).These changes were associated withnatural vegetation succession as well as anthropogenic activities including livestock
overgrazing, land clearing for cultivation, cutting of trees for commercial and domestic
uses as well as damages of forests and woodlands by elephants.

!liv

Table 4: Land cover changes (1975 to 2000)
Land cover typeArea Cover(ha) 1975% cover
1975

Area Cover(ha) 1991% cover Area Cover
1991(ha) 2000% cover
2000

Forest93,128.6

11.6

141,940.6

17.7

138.437.0

17.2

Montane heath

24,235.4

3.0

24,235.4

3.0

24.235.5

3.0

Woodland

11,066.2

1.4

143,417.5

17.9

142,735.7

17.8

Shrubland

165,290.2

20.6

117,737.2

14.7

118,971.6

14.8

Bushland

28,048.5

3.5

40,012.2

5.0

40,012.0

5.0

Grassland

449,875.1

56.0

282,977.0

35.2

283,307.1

35.3

Highland Grassland

25,438.8

3.2

32,453.2

4.4

34,187.1

4.3

Cultivated area

108.9

0.01

16,909.1

2.1

17,695.9

2.2

Bare ground

31.2

0.004

807.7

0.1

1,021.7

0.13

Wetland3,865.0

0.5

44.0

0.01

Water body

3,000.0

0.43001.00.4

2,408.5

17.8

Total

802,898.6

99.9

802,898.4

100.0

803,056.5

100.0

Source: Niboye, 2010

A

B!
Plate 3: Buffalo grass (Eleusine jaegeri) in highlands (A) and Bidens schimperi in the
Crater (B)Further, the analysis indicated an increase in bare soil mostly in areas which werepreviously covered by grassland vegetation especially in Embulbul depression, Olbalbal
and Ndutu plains. The increase might be attributed to a shift from keeping cattle to small
stocks especially sheep which are more concentrated in these areas and mole rats!lv

trampling. An increase of about 16,150% from 108.9ha to 17,587ha of cultivated area
was inevitable following a lift on ban of cultivation in NCA, which existed for a period of
21 years from 1992 to 2013.
Recent analysis of Landsat images which covered a period of 10 years between 2008
and 2018 (Landsat MSS 2008 and Landsat MSS 2018 revealed that in 2008 shrubland,
woodland and grassland covered 1,030 km2 (12.47%), 1,884 km2 (22.81%) and 4,020
km2 (48.65%) respectively (Mwita & Kija, 2019),. The land use and land cover (LULC)
types with least coverage were water and bare land, which covered 28.5 km2 (0.34%)
and 154.56 km2 (1.87%) respectively. However, by 2018, shrubland had increased to
1,578 km2 (19.10%), woodland decreased to 1,629km2 (19.72%) and grassland
decreased to 3,774 km2 (45.67%). In general, in the span of 10 years, shrublandincreased by 53.2% while woodland decreased by 13.53% and grassland decreased by
6.11%. Details of other LULC types for the year 2008 and 2018 (area coverage andproportions) are shown in Table 5 and Figure 9.
Table 5: Proportions of land use and land cover change (2008 and 2018)Land cover

2008
Area (Km2)2018

Proportion (%)

Area (Km2)

Proportion (%)

Change (%)

Bare land

154.561.87

108.95

1.32

-0.06

Water

28.50

0.34

35.35

0.43

0.01

Grassland

4019.9448.65

3773.81

45.67

-0.30

Shrubland

1030.34

12.47

1578.10

19.10

0.66

Woodland

1884.4422.81

1629.10

19.72

-0.31

Forest376.33

4.55

131.20

1.59

-0.30

Non palatable

768.549.30

1006.50

12.18

0.29

Results indicate that, there have been notable changes in land use and land cover overtime across NCA. For instance, NHFR has experienced massive decrease in the forest
cover; the 2018 satellite image shows an increase in shrubs and decrease in woodland
mostly in areas surrounding Kapenjiro, Irkeekpus and Bulati villages and this is mostprobably due to livestock grazing and cutting down of trees for construction of temporary
bomas.
Between 2008 and 2018, only water, shrubland and non-palatable grasses registeredpositive changes, while other classes of land cover had negative change. Increase in
non-palatable species indicates a deteriorating habitat, implying reduced available
wildlife habitat and reduced forage availability for herbivore species both wildlife andlivestock. Spatially, changes are distributed over the whole NCA landscape (Figure 10).
!lvi

7.00

5.25

3.50

1.75

0.00

-1.75

-3.50

!

-5.25

Bareland

Water

Grassland

Shrubland

WoodlandFigure 9: Changes in land use and land cover in NCA from 2008-2018!lvii

ForestNon palatable

!
Figure 10: Distribution of land use and land cover across the NCA landscapeBased on land cover of NCA (Figures 11 and 12, about 53% of rangeland is in excellent
condition followed by good condition (~11%), fair condition (~26%) and poor condition(~10%)). The fair and poor conditions threaten sustainable conservation therefore
immediate interventions are required to rescue the situation.

!lviii!
Figure 11: Proportion of high and low suitable habitats across NCA landscape in 2018!
Figure 12: Habitat suitability across NCA landscape in 2018!lix

Prediction of rangeland condition was performed using SAVANNA Model on three
scenarios to determine the relative better one to adopt. Seven vegetation functionalgroups were categorized including palatable grasses, palatable forbs, unpalatableherbs, palatable and unpalatable shrubs, evergreen forests and deciduous woods(Boone et al. 2002). Eleven animal species were classified under three functional groups(wild migratory ungulates, wild resident ungulates and livestock). Migratory ungulates
included wildebeest, zebra, grazing antelopes; Thomson’s gazelle. Resident herbivores
comprised of zebra, grazing antelopes, wildebeest, browsing antelopes, African buffalo
and elephant. Livestock group composed of cattle, goat and sheep.

In scenario one it was assumed that optimal stocking capacity of the area will remain
250,925 LHUs as was estimated in 1994 (Boone et. al., 2002), livestock allowed toincrease unabated at the 2017 growth rate, large herbivore numbers and distribution
remain the same as they were in 1994 and total NCA land area remains 810,000ha as
was determined in 2006. Simulation revealed that beyond year 2022, forbs will dominate
in the rangelands, followed by shrubs both of them replacing palatable grasses (Figure13). This suggests that many grazer populations including livestock will continue todecline.

!
Figure 13: Anticipated standing plant biomass in scenario one!lxWith scenario two where it is assumed that about 430,414ha will be annexed to thecurrent NCA area to make it 1,240,414ha,optimal stocking capacity of the area
increased to over 250,925 LHUs than was estimated in 1994 (Boone et. al., 2002),
populations of wild herbivores increased to 141,075LHUs.thus,exceeding 121,742LHUs
that was estimated in 1994. In this scenario it was however assumed that some people
will be encouraged to voluntarily settle outside NCA leaving about 20,000 people ofwhich others to be resettled on less settled peripheral areas to be annexed to NCA.
Simulation revealed that, shrubs and forbs continue to decline progressively giving way
for grasses to recover up to around by 2028 when re-invasion of forbs and herbs aredetected. This vegetation mixture will favour all herbivore species including grazers,
browsers and mixed feeders (Figure 14).

!
Figure 14: Anticipated standing plant biomass in scenario two

In scenario three is assumed that MLUM is abolished and NCA is changed into a
different conservation category where human habitation and livestock keeping is notallowed but allowing the current 810,000ha to be utilized exclusive by wildlife and habitat
conservation. Because with this scenario, wild herbivore populations, composition anddistribution will be ecologically regulated, grassland vegetation category will continue todominate the rangelands at least up to 2032 when some forbs will vividly emerge, but
this will be a normal plant succession process. Throughout the simulation period until up
to around 2038, herb vegetation category in the rangelands will be insignificant. Thismeans with wildlife only in NCA rangelands will continue to improve progressively for the
next 20 years (Figure 15).

!lxi

!
Figure 15: Anticipated standing plant biomass in scenario three

In conclusion, vegetation change simulations under three different scenarios, indicatedthat while status quo i. e. leaving NCA to continue be managed as it is now will
negatively impact the rangelands. While wild herbivores in particular small-sized animals
will continue to be displaced by livestock, by 2032 the area will have no capacity toaccommodate more domestic herbivores thus their populations will also start decline.
Conversely, both expanding NCA area to give space for traditional transhumance modeof livestock production but, relocating some people and their livestock outside the areaor changing NCA into a different conservation category where habitation and livestock
keeping will not be allowed, rangelands be impacted positively by initially allowing
grasses to increase on the expanse of forbs and shrubs and reach a point wherecomposition of grasses, forbs and shrubs will stabilize favouring all herbivore species
i.e. grazers, browsers and mixed feeders.
5.2.3 Human settlements
There is an increase in construction of improved houses with corrugated-iron sheets.
Most of these improved houses do not blend with the environment and changes the
scenic view of NCA. The situation is caused by absence of guideline to ongoing
constructions. Hence, it is necessary to design and use building code to guide!lxii

settlement development in areas earmarked for settlements within NCA.Plates 4A and4B show Kimba business center as well as a primary school, a dispensary andsettlements in Kayapus and Misigiyo villages respectively.

A

!

!

B

!lxiiiPlate 4: Kimba business centre in Kayepus village (A) (unregistered) and residential andbusiness centre in Misigiyo village (B) (registered).
5.2.4 Wildlife Populations Trends
5.2.4.1 Drivers of Wildlife Population Trends
Primary drivers of changes in herbivore populations are vegetation change anddiseases, which are directly linked to precipitation. Long-term data analysis on rainfall
from the meteorological station at NCAA headquarters for a period of between 1963 and2012 revealed that the projected ungulate population dynamics in the Ngorongoro crater
emulate upheld oscillations in the predictable rainfall patterns (Ogutu et al., 2019). Thismeans that rainfall influences significantly herbivore abundance in NCA. The oscillations
are associated with recurrent severe droughts that cause food scarcity and hence
nutritional stress for large herbivores. High rainfall supports above-average production ofplant biomass, which may be of low quality due to the dilution of plant nutrients. Largesized herbivores dependent on bulk, low-quality forage should prosper under the wet
and cooler conditions whereas small-sized ones requiring high-quality forage should
thrive under relatively low rainfall and warmer conditions (Ogutu et al., 2019).
Data collected in Ngorongoro Crater for the period of 53 years from 1964 to 2017 show
a general decrease in wildebeest and plain zebra populations and its replacement by
buffalo as the dominant herbivore in terms of biomass. The wildebeest indicates adecreasing trend from an average of 8,179 to 5,526 while zebras decreased from 2,900
to 2,655 and buffaloes are increasing in number and corresponding biomass (Figures 16& 17). The decrease in wildebeest population size was quite high (32%) compared tothat of zebras which was about 8%.
The buffalo and warthogs (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) are relatively recent colonizers of
the crater grassland. Wild dogs were present in the 1960s but now occur very
ephemerally. Small numbers of elephants use the crater floor and cheetah appear to beintermittent visitors.

!
Figure 16: Main species biomass and total biomass from 1960s to 2017!
Figure 17: Population changes in four herbivore species

Other factors that may regulate wildlife population such as poaching and diseases alsoneed consideration when designing any future MLUM. The significant decline in blackrhino population in NCA since early 1970s through 1980s was mainly attributed topoaching. Before 1960s black rhinos in Serengeti plains were about 700, in Oldupai
there were 60 rhinos, and in Ngorongoro Crater there were more than 100 individuals(Mascarenhas, 1993, Fyumagwa & Nyahongo, 2010). By 1980s, poaching for trophy
decimated rhino population to two and 12 individuals for Serengeti and Ngorongoro
Crater respectively. With regard to diseases, from 1880s to 1980s rinderpest (aMorbillivirus similar to canine distemper virus) was a major cause of mortality for buffalo,!65

wildebeest and eland in the Serengeti ecosystem including the Crater Highlands andthere was a serious outbreak affecting yearling buffalo adjacent to the Ngorongoro
Crater in 1961 (Machange, 1997). Inoculation campaigns of cattle against rinderpest
supported the buffalo population to more than double and wildebeest population morethan triple in SME from the numbers that were recorded in 1960s. Fortunately, rinderpest
virus was eradicated and Tanzania declared free from the virus in 2005. However, overtime other wildlife diseases have been emerging. For example, Babesiosis caused byBabesia bicornis parasite, which killed five black rhinos in the Ngorongoro crater inJanuary 2001 was an emerging disease in NCA (Morkel, 2001; Nijhof et al., 2003) andfrequent outbreaks of anthrax in other herbivore species.

5.2.4.2 Stocking rate and limits of acceptable use
In 1994, total LHUs in NCA were estimated to be 488,886 in wet season and 122,110
during dry season. Out of this total, domestic herbivores accounted for 20% (97,033)
during wet season and 80% (97,033) during dry season (Boone et. al., 2002). According
to the 2017 livestock and wildlife counts in the Ngorongoro Crater, LHUs were estimatedto be 602,544 in wet season and 235,477 during dry period where livestock accounted
for 35% and 90% respectively. This analysis indicates that livestock populations in NCA
were increasingly displacing wild herbivores. Further, whereas cattle accounted for 86%
of the total domestic LHUs in 1994, its contribution declined to 80% in 2017 (Table 6).
The above analysis shows that while the rate of livestock populations’ increase in NCA
was relatively higher than that of wildlife, small stock and particularly sheep wasincreasingly replacing cattle, which was probably a strategy to cope with deteriorating
rangelands’ condition, increased water scarcity, disease epidemics and effect of climatechange.
The fact that the total LHUs for both wildlife and livestock during wet season in 1994
(488, 886) and 2017 (602,544) was above the estimated limit of LHUs (250,925)
stocking rate of NCA in 1994 (Boone et. al., 2002) and that of 2017 dry season(235,477) was approaching threshold, is an indication that NCA capacity to support any
additional herbivores both wild and domestic was no longer feasible. However, thisconclusion does not take into consideration of some negative aspects, which may havelowered further the area’s carrying capacity that was estimated to be 250,925 LHUs in
1994 (Boone et al., 2002). These aspects are,persistent deterioration of therangelands, increasing water scarcity, prolonged drought, some years having relatively
fewer rain-days and prevention of co-utilization of the plains by wildebeests and cattle
between February and April due avoidance of the latter from contracting Malignant
Catarrh Fever (MCF) disease, which is transmitted by the former.

!66

Table 6: Population estimates for large herbivore in NCA in 1994 and 2017
FunctionalGroup

Body Mass 1994 (Source: Boone 2002)(Kg/Animal)
Number

LHUs

LHUs

(WS)

(DS)

2017 (Sources: * NBS 2017;**NCAAWS, 2017 *** NCAADS2017;***
Boone et.al.2002)
Number

LHUs

LHUs

(WS)

(DS)

Cattle180

115,468

83,137

83,137

238,826*

171,955

171,955

Goats and
Sheep

18

193,000

13,896

13,986570, 633*

41,08641,086Migratory
Wildebeest

123625,000

307,500

0625,000****307,5000Migratory
Zebra

200

62,95950,567

062,959****50,5670Migratorygrazing
antelopes

15

150,000

9,000

0

150,000****

9,000

0

Resident
Wildebeest

123

9,000

4,428

4,428

9,575**

4,710

4,710

Resident
Zebra

200

7,087

5,670

5,670

4,027**

3,258

3,258

Resident
Grazing
Antelopes

30

13,600

1,632

1,632

13,600****

1,632

1,632

Buffalo

450

3,150

5,670

5,670

2836****

5,105

5,105

Browsing
Antelopes

40

2,654

425

425

2,654****

425

425

Elephant

1,725

300

2.070

2,070

300****

2,070

2,070

Rhinoceros

816

15

49

49

59*****

193

193

Giraffe

750

1,666

4,998

4,998

1,666****

4,998

4,998

Warthog

45

250

45

45

250****

45

45

TOTAL

--

--

488,886

122,110602,544

235,477

Note: One Large Herbivore Unit (LHU) = 250Kg; WS = Wet season; DS = Dry season**** Boone et al, 2002 (Assumption that populations have remained aswere in 1994!67

5.2.4.3 Archaeological, paleontological and cultural heritages
Management and conservation of archaeological and paleontological resources in the
NCA has been harmonized after transfer of jurisdictions from the Division of Antiquities(DOA) to NCAA. This harmonization has resolved misunderstandings and inefficientmanagement of these resources; hence NCAA has invested substantially in improving
the exhibits for archeological and paleontological resources and is already generating a
lot of revenue.
On the other hand, despite the richness in cultural resources in NCA and visitors’ greatinterest in traditional way of life, the knowledge and culture of the Hadzabe and Datoga
who are also indigenous residents of the area have received little attention. Similarly,
while management of Maasai cultural bomas, where history and cultural values arecommunicated commercially over provision of authentic experience, uncontrolledpresentation particularly by youths who display dances along roads is eroding norms
and customs. Also, some individuals in particular youngsters are displaying themselves
for photography in a way that is disrespectful of the culture, and hoard incomes rather
than sharing, as tradition dictates.
5.2.4.4 Achievements and Lessons Learnt
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Improved infrastructure and social amenities particularly roads, schools, healthfacilities
Introduction of geo-park in NCA as additional tourist attraction
Diversified tourist activities
Sustaining cultural heritage resources.
Improved education and awareness on natural resources and environment;
Ecological variations due to leeward and seaward influences in terms of rainfall
availability motivate land availability for different purposes, hence moreconcentrations in the highlands;
Few infrastructures to support conservation, community and tourism development
inside and outside NCA;

5.2.4.5 Challengesi.
Uncontrolled establishment of cultural Bomas and tourism facilities;ii.
Unsustainable use of natural resources within and outside NCA;iii. Overgrazing, land degradation and invasive species;
iv. Local extinction of some species (gerenuk and oryx);v.
Diseases transmission among livestock, wildlife and humans;vi. Increased pressure on fragile resources: traffic congestion in the Crater andCamps on ecologically sensitive areas;vii. Human-wildlife conflicts: livestock depredation and human attacks;viii. Conservation and human development conflicts;
!68

ix.
x.

Encroachment reduced the size of NCA from 8,292 km2 in 1959 to 8,100km2 by
2006; andInadequate infrastructure to support conservation of natural and cultural
resources.

5.3 Community Development
5.3.1 Human and livestock population trends
In 1960 immediately after NCA was established human population was about 8,000
people (Kijazi et. al., 1997; Macbe, 1997). The 2017 Population and Livestock Census in
NCA revealed that there were 93,136 people (Figure 18), of which 48,025 or 51.6%
were females (NBS, 2017). The NCA is characterized by a young age structure, with
49.48% of the total population being below 15 years of age (NBS, 2017).

!
Figure 18: Human and livestock population trend (A) in the NCA from 1954 to 2017

Immediately after the establishment of NCA in 1960 the number of cattle increased
steadily with some decline in bad years from 161,034 and reached 238,826 in 2017, andsmall stocks increased steadily with some decline in bad years from 100,689 andreached 570,633 by 2017 (Kijazi et al., 1997; NBS, 2017). Further to that, other livestock
types, which NCA households kept in 2017, were 22,104 donkeys, 6,497 chicken, 225
pigs, 48 camels, 6,220 dogs and 1,036 cats (NBS, 2017).
Based on minimum livestock per capita of 8.0 TLUs (Macbe, 1997), which influence
utilization of available land of about 8,292km2, Grandin et al. (1988), estimated the
optimal number of people that could be accommodated in NCA to be about 25,000. Liveweight of cattle weighing 250kg is equated to one TLU, thus Maasai zebu cattle whichon average weighs 180kg is equal to 0.72 TLU. Corarrubia et al. (2012) report that inmany agro-pastoral communities in African countries, 80% of livestock is normallyowned by 20% of the community members. However, this is contrary to the situation in!69

NCA where 80% of the total livestock is owned by only 3% of the community members(URT 2013). Ideally, in pastoral community under MLUM, the percentage of community
members who own livestock should be much higher than what was observed in NCA.
From the observed discrepancy in livestock ownership, the level of wealth has been
deteriorating with time among indigenous pastoralists in NCA (Tables 7 & 8). On
average, poor households have increased from 58% in 1994 to 75.1% in 2013 (Naomi
and Carol 1997; URT 2013).
Table 7: Wealth classification in NCA in 1994
S/N

% Households

Wealth classification

TLU/ Household

1

21%

Destitute

<2.1

2

16%

Very poor

2- 5

3

21%

Poor

5- 10

4

Average poor 58%

520%

Middle10- 20622%

Wealthy

>20

7

100%

Source: Naomi and Carol (1997); Ereto I Project document

Table 8: Wealth classification in NCA in 2013
S/N

% Households

Wealth classification

TLU/ Household

1

22.5%

Destitute

0- 2

2

29.9%

Very poor

3- 4

3

22.7%

Poor

5- 6

4

Average poor 75.1%

5

14.7%

Middle

7- 20

6

10.2%

Wealthy

>20

7

100%

Source: URT (2013)
5.3.2Tropical Livestock UnitTLU is a measure used to compare the number and density of livestock grazers so as toassess the overall effect on grazing land of different types or of mixture of animals,
expressed either as a total for the whole field or as units per land area. On average 8.0
TLUs is a minimum number for a person who solely depends on pastoralism to maintain!70

sustenance. According to the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), one TLU
equal 250kg cattle and equal 10 small stocks. The relative slow growth rate of livestock
populations than that of people means that TLUs per person have decreased steadily
from 11.6 in 1960 to 2.3 in 2017 (Table 9). The decline below the minimum number forsustenance implies that livestock economy can no longer sustain the food base and bea dependable occupation for NCA pastoralists. This is the reason why NCA resident
pastoralists are progressively becoming in dire need of grain supplement either by own
production, subsidized by NCAA or free supply from aid organizations. This is among
other factors that compel pastoralists to resort to other livelihoods strategies including
illegal cultivation, which in the long run may become detrimental to sustainability ofresident community’s livelihoods, the ecosystem and tourism industry.
Table 9: Number of Topical Livestock Units in the NCA in 2017
No.

Type of livestock

Number of livestock in 2017

TLUs in 20171

Cattle238,826

171,9553

Goats

226,260

16,291

4

Sheep344,373

24,795

5

Donkeys

22,104

15,915

831,563

228, 955

Total
5

Per capita TLU in 2017 (excluding donkeys)

2.3

Source: NBS, 2017. Note: One Cattle=10 small stocks= One TLU
In the recent human and livestock census (NBS 2017), it was established that out of
20,890 total households of NCA, 4,596 (22%) households had no livestock suggestingthat they have lost qualification to live in NCA as pastoralists pursuant to NCA Act 284(R.E. 2002).
Because WHO estimates an average minimum intake for a person to be 400gm ofgrains (cereals) and 100gm of legumes per day, the 70% deficit of pastoral food (2.3 in2017 against minimum requirement of 8.0 TLUs per capita)should be supplemented bygrains and legumes. Out of the total 93,136human population in NCA, 70% pastoral
food deficit should be equivalent to 65,195 people of the total population, which face
food scarcity crisis in NCA. Because the average required flour from maize was
26,078kg, equivalent to about 435 bags per day (100kg of maize will yield 60kg of flour),required grain supplement to cover one year in 2017 was 9,518,470kg of flour (158,641
bags).In order to fulfill grain requirements and at an average price of 50,000.00 shillings
per 100kg bag of maize, NCAA was supposed to spend about will 7.94 billion shillings topurchase grains in 2017. In addition, NCAA needed to purchase 6.52 tons of legumes
per day, which is equivalent to 2,380 tons of legumes per year.
Statistical prediction in a scenario where it was assumed that optimal stocking capacityof the area will remain 250,925LHUs as was estimated in 1994 (Boone et. al., 2002).
livestock allowed to increase unabated at the 2017 growth rate, large herbivore numbers!71and distribution remain the same as they were in 1994 and total NCA land area remains
810,000ha as was determined in 2006, total LHUs accounted for by domestic herbivores
were 228,955 (including donkeys). This means that the remaining 21,970 should havebeen accounted for wild herbivores. However, this was not the case because wild
herbivores contributed 389,503 and 22,436 to total LHUs in wet and dry seasons
respectively implying that the dry season carrying capacity for NCA (the worst weather
condition) was exceeded by 366 LHUs, which could have been the reason for massive
livestock deaths during that year.
At an average of 3.5% annual growth rate, human population will reach 200,000 people
by 2038. Assuming total TLUs will remain 228, 955 as it was in 2017, TLUs/per capita
will drop to 1.0.This means that the community in NCA will need supplementary foodfrom other sources of about 87%. This situation might force households in NCA to spend
more money on food purchase and thus cut down expenses on other social anddevelopment needs.
Analysis revealed further that, even if wild herbivores were removed and left for humansettlement and pastoralism alone at an average annual growth rate of 3.5% for humans
as well as livestock, TLUs will grow up to 1,150,000 by 2032 and thereafter start to
decline due to rangeland degradation and deterioration and reach 800,000 by 2038
(Figure 19). Because human population will have increased over two-fold to about
200,000 people by 2038, TLUs per capita will be 4.0 (50% of the minimal requirement
for household sustenance). This will necessitate the community to complement pastoral
economy by 50% from alternative sources despite that revenue from tourism will bemeager due to absence of wild animals, which is a major attraction of tourists.
Because total TLUs will have surpassed the area’s stocking capacity in 2025 livestock
populations will be unstable and suitability of rangelands will be depleted by invasions offorbs and herbs thus favouring small stocks, which are more destructive.

!
Figure 19: Predicted human population and TLU trends: Calculated from NBS (2017) base data.

!72

In a scenario where it is assumed that about 430,414ha will be annexed to the current
NCA area to make it 1,240,414ha,optimal stocking capacity (carrying capacity) of thearea will increase and reach 375,363LHUs above 250,925 LHUs that was estimated in
1994 (Boone et. al., 2002). Because human population will be maintained at 34,632(20,000 in NCA & 14,632 in Gilal meirugoi) people annually by encouraging somepeople to voluntarily settle outside NCA and others resettled on peripheral areas to beannexed, pastoral food requirements will be derived from a total of 189,264TLUs(29,264 TLU from Gilai), which will require 302,822.4ha in order to guarantee healthanimals with market value. TLUs per capita will be 8.0, which is a minimum forsustenance, therefore, unless in bad years, no supplementary food will be required. Wild
herbivores’ populations will increase and contribute about 186,099 LHUs to total LHUs
(domestic and wild herbivores), which will be above 121,742LHUs that was estimated in
1994.
With a scenario, which assumes that MLUM is abolished and NCA changed into a
different conservation category by resettling all people and livestock outside the area
and allowing the current 810,000ha to be utilized exclusively by wildlife as well as more
focus put on habitat conservation, NCA will lose its uniqueness of being the only
protected area in Tanzania and probably globally where management model allow
wildlife-human coexistence. Ultimately NCA may lose 6.0% of tourists who in 2008 said
that their interest of visiting NCA was induced by this type of management approach.
However, this loss and its associated income may be compensated by high conservation
value of the area where there will be minimal interference with the nature.
5.3.3 Status of rangelands
Analysis on rangeland utilization by both wildlife and livestock gives a general indicationthat NCA habitats are undergoing rapid changes, suggesting that livestock productivity
is increasingly threatened. Physical and natural resources’ analysis has shown that
pastoralists in NCA have traditionally utilized the rangelands under communal property
regime and practised transhumance mode of livestock keeping based on seasonality ofresource abundance. Shrinkage of grazing land, which is caused by diverse factors, hasconfined cattle into smaller grazing areas. High grazing pressure in NCA has induced
retrogressive ecological changes, which reduces primary productivity of rangelands.
The constricted grazing land has disrupted traditional pastoral land use system that also
maintained the landscapes, which the tourism industry depends on. As a result,
livestock diseases and the ultimate failure in productivity are partly associated withrestriction of livestock in smaller areas.
The fact that NCA rangeland has already deteriorated due to invasion of both exotic andindigenous plants, water scarcity and recurring dry spells and it also supports wild
herbivores implies that the area is already overstocked (Plate 4). Further, livestockcomposition in NCA has changed favoring keeping more small stocks from 6.0% in
1960 to 19.0% in 2017 of total TLUs. Sheep, which its feeding habit is more destructive!73

to the rangelands accounted for 56% of the total 41,086 TLUs that was accounted for bysmall stock in 2017.

A

!

B

C

!

!

Plate 4: (A) shows bare ground resulting from overgrazing in the NCA; (B) shows
spread of pioneer weeds (invasive species) on degraded land after onset of rains and(C) shows movement of cattle during the dry season.
Research has shown that drought causes mortality of an average of between 30% and
50% of livestock in years of severe dry spells in NCA (Machange, 1997). In 2017 about
77,889 cattle, 78,490 sheep and 72,881 goats, which accounted for 32%, 23% and 32%
of livestock populations respectively that existed in NCA died and the mortalities wereassociated with drought (Conservator of NCA, 2018), see also Plate 5 A and B, andTable 10.

!

A

!

B

Plate 5: Burning of cattle carcasses that died from starvation at the end of November
2017

!74

Table 10: Livestock mortality in the NCA at the end of November 2017
S/N

LivestockTotal population

Livestock died1

% mortality

Cattle243,069

77,889

32.04

2

Sheep

344,37378, 490

22.8

3

Goats

226,260

72,881

32.2

Source: NCAA’s Community Development Department (December 2017)

5.3.4 Veterinary Services
Common livestock diseases in NCA, which claim high number of livestock include East
Coast Fever (ECF), Malignant Catarrhal Fever in cattle, Anthrax and Contagious Bovine
Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) for cattle and Peste des Petit Ruminants (PPR) and
Coenurosis (Ormilo) for small stock (sheep and goats) and Contagious Caprine
Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) specifically for goats. Rabies has been a serious problem forhuman, livestock and wildlife because of inadequate domestic dogs and cats’
vaccination. Majority of resident pastoralists associated poor quality condition of
livestock with poor veterinary services, deterioration of rangelands particularly invasionof both exotic and indigenous plant species. Inadequate innovative breeding practices
such as natural mating using improved bulls and artificial insemination is anotherconstraint.
In addition, pastoralists associated poor condition of livestock with water scarcity,
insufficient mineral lick points, and restrictions on utilizing core livestock grazing areas
such as the craters and NHFR, (NBS, 2017). According to the Animal Diseases Act No.
17 of 2003, NCA is construed to be an infected area. This means that if livestock
movement was to seriously be instituted based on the Act of 2003, animals from thearea may not easily be moved outside to markets without putting into action 21-day
quarantine. Indigenous pastoralists in NCA are very knowledgeable with livestock
diseases with some minor differences among individuals except for the newly introduced
one PPR (Figure 20).

!75

!
Figure 20: Livestock diseases of great economic importance (Source NCAA 2018)

Despite NCAA providing livestock services to the community including but not limited to
improved bulls, artificial insemination and free vaccination, overall majority of thecommunity members (69.3%) felt that livestock services are generally poor and only
13.5% perceived livestock services to be good (Figure 21).
89.8

90

Percent

67.5
45

69.6 69.3

63.9

57.9

54.4

67.6

61.6

40.5
37.2
30.2
28.8
25.7
22.622.3
19.0 20.8
15.4
13.5
13.3 11.4 9.9
12.7

73.0

78.7
58.2

Good

Naiyobi

Alailelai

Nainokanoka

Kakesio

Eyasi

Alaitolei

EndulenMisigiyo

Ngorongoro

NgoileOlbalbal

Ngorongoro Division

5.3.5 Poverty
levelsComparison of thePoor0
well-being between
the resident
pastoralist in NCA
and those of LGCA
that used several
measures such as
Wardlivestock to human
Figure 21: Community perception on livestock services in NCA
ratios, acreage
cultivated before a ban was reinstated and nutritional status indicated that those who
resided in LGCA were better-off (Galvin et. al., 2002, 2015; Smith 2000; Smith 1999).
About 50.0% of all households in NCA experienced food shortage at different times in2017 (NBS, 2017).
!76
22.5

24.5
22.1
17.4
13.8 14.2
10.2 13.2 7.2
6.7
3.5

Moderate

5.3.6Alternative livelihood strategies
NCA consists of households, which are located in very remote and difficult environment
and majority of them are poor with estimated household size of 4.5 (NBS, 2017). The
household livelihoods rely on livestock keeping and subsidized grain supplements fromNCAA. Those without livestock and do not engage in other income generating activities
like beekeeping, small businesses are destitute and account for 62.2% of all households
in the NCA. Only 5.0% of all households in the area had at least one member partly
engaged in tourism activities in 2017 (NBS, 2017).Although beekeeping was not readily
mentioned as one of the alternative occupations among NCA pastoralists (Runyoro,
2007; NBS, 2017), it is currently undertaken by some members of the community
particularly those residing in Ngoile, Nainokanoka and Meshili villages with support fromNCAA and other stakeholders (Plate 7).

!
Plate 7: Women beekeeping group in NCA
5.3.7Social Services
5.3.7.1 Education
Although some villages had two or three primary schools, the majority of the villages
owned one and others had no school at all. There are 21 government and three (3)private preprimary schools, 22 governments and one (1) private primary school and two(2) governments and one (1) private secondary school in all 25 villages. Many schools
had insufficient teachers and teaching materials. Many pupils are walking long distanceand, in an environment, where wild animals are wide spread. Difficulty to easily accesseducation in NCA was one of the reasons that accounted for relatively high dropouts
compared to other districts in Arusha region. In 2013, illiteracy level in NCA was 69.1%(PMO-RALG, 2013), however, by 2017 illiteracy level of the population of age five andabove had dropped to 64.2% (NBS, 2017). The literacy rate for males was 44.4%!77

compared to females’ 27.8%. This means that 72.2% of females were illiterate in 2017
(NBS, 2017). Plate 8 shows Sendui and Kakesio Primary schools respectively.

B

A

Plate
8: Sendui (A) and Kakesio (B) Primary Schools in NCA
NCAA through NPC from 1995 to 2018 has provided bursaries to 6,083 students at
different levels from primary to universities. For university students all of them were
undergraduates except one male student who was sponsored for Master degree (Table
11).
Table 11: Students bursaries by NCAA through NPC from 1995 to 2018

Education level

FemalesMales

Sub total

Primary

15

35

50

Secondary

2,072

3,159

5,231

VETA

32

36

68

Colleges

135

232

367

Universities

69

298

367

2,323

3,759

6,083

Total

5.3.7.2 Health
The risk of contracting infectious diseases in NCA is mostly attributed to many
settlements being located in isolated and remote areas where water is scarce andhealth facilities are not available. Communities in NCA have the highest risk ofcontracting infectious diseases including anthrax, diarrhea/dysentery, cholera,
respiratory diseases, Sexually Transmitted Infections and HIV/AIDS as well as hydatid
disease because of multiple factors including feeding habit, inadequate clean water,
inadequate and use of latrines, and polygamy. People are compelled to walk long
distance to access health facilities where most of them experience insufficientavailability of essential medicines and insufficient health personnel (NBS, 2017). During!78community consultations, it was often reported that some people experience animal
attacks while going to seek medical services.

Plate 9:Endulen hospital
Figure 22: Endulen hospital, the only hospital in NCA

5.3.7.3
Water sources
In 2017, households, which accessed water from improved sources accounted for about
52.0% of all the households. The distribution of water sources is mainly close to thehighland (Figure 23). However, communities that accessed piped/ tape water out of themain improved water sources was 36.0% of the total households. Further, 22.1% ofhouseholds use unprotected spring as their main source of drinking water followed bysurface water including rivers and small seasonal dams (NBS, 2017).

!79!
Figure 23: Distribution of water services in the NCA as per draft GMP report 2018

5.3.7.4 Communications
Almost all roads in NCA that form a network of approximately 500 kilometres and 800
kilometres of tracks serving different functions including administration, anti-poaching,tourism activities and delivering of community social services were in poor condition
during this assessment. Only two airstrips located at NCAA Headquarters and Ndutu
were operating. Cellular phones are in use as there are 11 communication towers
located at high points, including four on the Ngorongoro Crater rim, Oldean hill, at
Nainokanoka, Endulen, Nasipaoriong’, Mokilal, Kayepus and Meshili villages, but notavailable in some parts of the area as witnessed by the Team of Experts when visited all
the 25 villages in January and February 2019.

5.3.7.5 Energy for domestic use
Firewood is the main source of energy for cooking in NCA, which is used by 95.0% of allhouseholds in the area (Plate 10). For lighting purpose, 55.0% are using torches/rechargeable lamps as their main source of light and 31.2% use firewood (NBS, 2017).
This state implies that there is potential for depletion of natural forests in NCA.

!80

A

!

B

!
Plate 10: Maasai women in NCA with bundle of firewood
5.3.8 Achievements and Lessons Learnt
i. Initiating and implementing a number of development projects for communities andsupporting social services (health, education, and water supply) and providing handouts to communities. For example, from 2014 to 2017, NCAA spent 11.1 billion
shillings for community development projects;
ii. Through NPC education program, NCAA has sponsored 6,083 students at different
levels between 1995 and 2018;
iii.A total of 25 primary schools and two secondary schools have been built and theiroperation supported;
iv.Provision of veterinary services to pastoral community;
v. Implementing school feeding program to enhance attendance in schools;
vi.Facilitate establishment of 12 primary cooperative societies in order to enhance foodsecurity and livestock production;
vii.Construction of 28 dams and bore holes for water supply for people and livestock;viii.Support communities to health services;
ix.Facilitate development of food security strategy to address food insecurity; andx. Provision of livestock extension and veterinary services to communities;
5.3.9 Challenges
i. High human and livestock populations but population of the latter has been relatively
lower resulting into decline in livestock per capita;
ii. Food insecurity (pastoral food deficiency of 70%);
iii. Change of life style among indigenous residents and demand fordevelopment
opportunities;
iv. Human-wildlife conflicts: livestock depredation and human attacks;
v. Conservation and human development conflicts;
vi. Unstructured and non-legal binding of NPC;
!81

vii. Inadequate infrastructure for livestock development, veterinary services and market
for livestock and their products;
viii. Limited livelihood alternatives to livestock keeping;ix. High illiteracy rate (64%) compared to other divisions in the district and among
districts in Arusha Region;x. Severe water scarcity for humans and livestock both in quantity and quality;
xi. Disease outbreaks in human, livestock and wildlife including zoonoses;xii. Lack of land ownership for resident pastoralists for private use;xiii. Boundary conflicts and clarity with neighboring divisions and districts;
xiv. Rangelands deterioration, including increased invasive species and weeds;
xv. Existence of crop production in some villages’ particularly eastern zone such as
Irmelili, Kapenjiro, Naiyobi, and Nguruman, which is against NCA Act;xvi. Uncontrolled expansion of cultural Bomas and other tourism facilities;
xvii.Destruction of natural resources and environment – Habitats (Boundaries between
NCA and Karatu, community areas within and outside NCA;
xviii. Unsustainable use of natural resources within and outside NCA;
xix. Expansion of community development activities (primary and secondary schools,
health centres, and livestock development structures) motivates movement ofpeople from other different places to NCA;
xx. Inadequate infrastructures to support community development inside and outsideNCA.
xxi. Emergence of several modernized settlements, which later on are registered as
sub-villages, villages and wards. However, these settlements are against
Ngorongoro Conservation Act; andxxii. Spatial distribution of indigenous people in NCA.
During consultative meetings and focus group discussions pastoral communities
suggested the following:i. Permission to build decent permanent houses according to building code that should

be developed;
ii. Maintaining MLUM with more benefits generated from tourism revenue;iii. Land ownership with title deeds;
iv. Allowed to grow crops to ensure food security;
v. More social services in terms of water, health facilities, schools and electricity;
vi.More grazing land including access to restricted management zones,vii.Reclaim encroached and excised area of NCA (192km2);
viii.Involvement in all issues which affect community livelihoods; andix. Compensation for livestock depredation and human attacks.

!82

5.4Tourism Development
NCAA has made achievements in terms of increasing number of tourists and revenue,
availability of tourism facilities, diversification of tourism products over the past years.

5.4.1 Increase in tourists and revenue

Tourist numbers both non-residents and residents have continued to increase
remarkably over the past five decades as shown in Figure 24. Tourism revenue in NCA
has also been increasing over the years. For example, for a period of 19 years between
1999/2000 and 2017/2018 revenue trend showed a consistent and continous increase
except for the 2008/2009 and 2014/2015 financial years (Figure 25) when the global
economic recession and Ebola threat decreased the number of foreign tourists
respectively. Consequently, NCAA’s contibution to Government consolidated fund has
increased in recent years. For example, in 2017/2018, NCAA contribution to thegovernment consolidated fund was TZ 22,355,000,000/= compared to TZS
13,000,000,000/- in 2016/2017.Situation of the above achievement is a result of NCA
having retained its status as the popular tourism destination in Tanzania.

!
Figure 24: Tourist trends in NCA from 1960s to 2018!83

!
Figure 25: NCAA's revenue trends since 1999/2000 to 2017/2018

5.4.2 Increase in tourism facilities
Development of tourism facilities to cope up with increasing number of tourists havebeen ongoing. The Consrvation Area has a total of 58 tourist accommodation facilities
with capacity of over 620 beds. Number of lodges has increased from three (Ndutu,
Wildlife and Rhino lodges) in 1960s to six in 2018. As for permanenttented camps there
was none in 1960s and the number has increased to 12in 2018. Similarly, the number ofcampsites has increased from nine in 1980s to 48 camp sites in 2018.
5.4.3 Diversification of tourism products
Tourism products have been increasing in recent years from the well-known products
such as the Ngorongoro, Olmoti and Empakaai craters; shifting sand, Oldupai Gorge
Museum and Laetoli footprints to products including walking safaris, horse riding, hot air
balloon flying and geo tourism.
5.4.4 Community Based Tourism
Communities engage in different tourism-based activities as part of livelihood strategy(selling of souvenirs, entertainment of tourists including traditional dances, tour guiding
and translation as well as provision of security services). There are also cultural bomasthat provide the community, especially women with an opportunity to sell traditional
goods (Plate 11). Currently, there are 14 cultural bomas, which are managed byresidents from Meshili, Ngoile, Oloirobi, Kayepus, Nasipaoriong’, Kaitakiteng,
Loongoijoo, Misigiyo, Alchaniomelok, Nainokanoka and Irkeekpus villages.

!84Plate 11: One of the Maasai
tourist cultural boma in theNCA

5.4.5 Tourists travel motivation
In 2017/2018, out of the total 1,327,143 tourists recorded in Tanzania, 644,155 visited
NCA. A survey conducted in 2008 revealed that five topmost attractions influenced
decisions of tourists to visit NCA prior to arranging for travel. These attractions werevariety and wildlife abundance, which accounted for 30.0% of all the respondents(n=2,907), the Ngorongoro Crater (19.0%), the landscape and scenery (9.0%),
presence of black rhino (8.0%) and about 7.0% mentioned annual wildlife migration(Runyoro, 2009). These findings tallied well with those of Nyahongo et al. (2005).
Although it is often asserted that if human-wildlife co-existence was to be abandoned,
NCA would attract relatively fewer visitors than today, during the same study, humanwildlife co-existence and the area being renown as the origin of humankind ranked sixth
as reasons for arranging visitation, and each accounted for 6.0% of all the respondents(Runyoro, 2009).
According to these studies, the five attractions, which tourists enjoyed most after visiting
the area were, wildlife abundance, that accounted for 44.0% (n=2,907), the Ngorongoro
Crater (14.0%), landscape and scenery (11.0%), wildlife-human co-existence (5.0%) andwildlife migration (5.0%). On the other hand, when asked to list things they disliked after
their visits, majority (49.95%) mentioned poor road condition, tourists and vehicle
congestion in the Ngorongoro Crater (20.0%), poor tourist facilities in campsites(12.0%), sub-standard accommodation facilities and services (6.0%) and poor reception
and customer care, which accounted for 3.0% of all the responses (Runyoro, 2009).
NCAA Corporate Strategic Plan (CSP) mentioned five things tourist disliked in thefollowing order: livestock in NCA, poor distribution of human settlements and buildingsthat do not blend with the environment, delay at the main gates, poor road condition andinadequate interpretation services (CSP, 2017). The attractions, which tourists
recognized prior to visiting NCA and those, which they liked after their visit, were all
naturally occurring. Those, which they disliked were administrative, which could be
addressed by NCAA without making change in the policy. In view of above, if good land
use planning could be realized and populations for both people and livestock controlled,
the presence of resident pastoralists in NCA may continue to add value as one of the
tourist attractions.
!85

5.4.6 Achievements and Lessons Learnt
5.4.7 Challenges
Despite the successes recorded on increase in tourists, increases in tourism facilities
and diversification of tourism products and its corresponding revenue, there area isfacing the following tourism challenges. These include:
5.4.7.1 Vehicle trends and congestion:
The number of vehicles entering the Ngorongoro Crater, which has been increasing
remarkably creates congestion of tourists and vehicles at few visitor attractions thus
reducing visitor enjoyment and satisfaction. The congestion also causes significant
adverse visual and environmental impacts in the Crater by contaminating forage close toroads with vehicle emissions and dust that reduces its palatability. It further interfereswith wildlife activity patterns particularly feeding, resting and mating. During the past five
years vehicles entering the Ngorongoro Crater increased from 45,090 in 2014 to 73,514
in 2018 (Figure 25), which ranged from 70 in April to about 350 vehicles per day in
B
AugustA 2018 (Plate12).

Plate 12: Vehicle congestion at Ngoitokitok picnic site (A) and visitors watching wildlife
in the Crater (B)!86!
Figure 25: Number of vehicles that entered the Crater in year 2017 and 2018

5.4.7.2 Inadequate infrastructure
While there are diverse tourism products, tourism development is challenged byinadequate road network (Table 12 and Figure 26), airstrips (Table 13) andaccommodation facilities. Absence of improved tourism infrastructure and facilities islikely to have negative impacts on environment and may have negative effect on visitor’s
experience.

!87

Table 12: Classes of Roads in NCA
Class
Class IClass IIClass II
UpgradesClass III

Road Section

Distance inKilometers

Lodoare to Serengeti Boundary (Golini)

86

Oldupai Museum access5

Ngorongoro to Kakesio

76

View Point to Empakaai Crater (Forsbrooke Road)

78

Crater main roads (including ascent and descent)83

Empakaai to Kapenjiro

7

Empakaai to Naiyobi

11

Endulen to Olpiro

9

Crater tracks

100

Olbalbal from Main Road

20

Ndutu from Main Road25

All other tracks and walking trails including a track to Loliondo

800

Total

1300

!88

Table 13: List of Airstrips in NCA
AirstripStatusPosition (x; y)EndulenNot paved on black cotton soil and ridge. Dry weather only. 35.2631; -3.1943
700 m

Ndutu

Paved with gravel. 1 200 m

Ngorongoro

Paved with gravel on edge of Ngorongoro crater. Unusable 35.474; -3.2213
June to Sept owing to fog. 1100 m

Kapenjiro

Not paved on slope. Currently used by flying doctors

Oldupai

Not operating for a long time due to high wildlife population

34.979; -3.013

35.503; - 2.978!
Figure 26: Roads and Communication Networks in NCA

5.4.7.3 Over- dependence on foreign tourists:
Trends in foreign and domestic tourists for the past 12 years show that the former out
numbers the latter. Likewise, in terms of revenue foreign tourists contribute more
revenue than domestic tourism. This means that in the face of economic and othersocial crisis in tourists’ source countries, revenue to NCA will shake and may lead to
failure to implement its mandate of conservation, community development and tourism
development.

5.4.7.4 Uncontrolled expansion of cultural bomas!89Uncontrolled expansion of cultural Bomas frustrates community based tourism andbenefit sharing arrangement. The main challenges being:a) Inadequate coverage and exploitation of cultural resources. For example, theknowledge and culture of the Hadzabe and Datoga tribes are not fully developed andutilized;b) Inadequate designing, management and coordination of cultural bomas cause limited
representation of history and culture of indigenous residents.
c) Uncontrolled presentation of history and culture particularly by youth erodes norms
and customs;d) Inadequate participation and benefit sharing arrangement from tourism; ande) Uncontrolled tourists sometimes offend residents by either getting wrong impression
or disregarding cultural norms.
5.5 Financing the Components of the Model
5.5.1 Income accrued from tourism
Tourism revenue in NCA has been increasing over the years in line with increasing
number of tourists and facilities. In 2017/2018, for instance NCA was the only protected
area, which generated more income per unit area than any other protected area in East
Africa. NCAA’s income and distribution of funds to the components of the model include
community development; conservation of the natural and cultural heritage resources;
and tourism development.
5.5.2 ExpenditureOver the past five financial years (2013/2014 -2017/2018), there has been an increase
in revenue generation. However, the proportion of disbursement of funds to support
community development, conservation of natural and cultural resources and tourism
development has been declining from 12.6%, 6.8% and 11.0% in financial year
2013/2014 to 4.8% 2.5% and 4.2% in financial year 2017/2018 respectively (Table 14,15, and 16)). Likewise, the proportion of funds to support declined from 6.8% to 2.5%
during the period (Table 15). Also, allocation of funds to support declined from 11.0% to4.2% (Table 16).
Table 14: Expenses for Community Development for five financial years
YEAR

TOTAL INCOME

TOTAL EXPENSES% EXPENSE OF TOTALREVENUE2013/2014

60,499,703,374

7,641,205,303

12.6

2014/2015

58,591,378,664

5,202,699,514

8.9

2015/2016

69,658,661,000

4,073,299,000

5.8

2016/2017

102,678,667,000

4,855,441,000

4.7

2017/2018

128,927,004,000

6,136,810,000

4.8

Source: CAG reports for 2016, 2017 and 2018!90

Table 15: Expenses on Conservation of Natural and Cultural Heritage Resources
YEAR

TOTAL INCOME

TOTAL EXPENSES% EXPENSE OFTOTAL REVENUE

2013/2014

60,499,703,374

4,131,966,523

6.8

2014/2015

58,591,378,664

4,214,923,000

7.2

2015/2016

69,658,661,000

4,991,941,000

7.2

2016/2017

102,678,667,000

2,035,946,000

2.02017/2018

128,927,004,000

3,242,190,000

2.5

Source: CAG reports for 2016, 2017 and 2018
Table 16: Expenses for Tourism Development for five years
YEAR

TOTAL INCOME

TOTAL EXPENSES% EXPENSE OF TOTALREVENUE2013/2014

60,499,703,374

6,630,607,871

11.0

2014/2015

58,591,378,664

4,012,709,977

6.8

2015/2016

69,658,661,000

2,850,592,000

4.1

2016/2017

102,678,667,000

4,480,211,000

4.4

2017/2018

128,927,004,000

5,405,215,000

4.2

Source: CAG reports for 2016, 2017 and 2018
Cumulatively, there has been a decline in total expenditure on the components of themultiple land use model for the past five years (2013/2014 to 2017/2018) from 30.4% to11.5% respectively (Table 17). The Team of Experts noted that, as NCAA’s tourism
revenue increases the proportion of expenditure on conservation, community andtourism development decreases. This implies that high proportion of revenue accrued
from tourism in NCA is spent for infrastructure and other administrative issues to support
the three components of the model and contributions to the government.
Table 17: Total Expenses on Community, conservation and Tourism development
YEAR

TOTAL INCOME

TOTAL COMMUNITY, TOURISM % EXPENSE OF TOTAL& CONSERVATION EXPENSES
REVENUE2013/2014

60,499,703,374

18,403,779,697

30.4

2014/2015

58,591,378,664

13,430,332,491

22.9

2015/2016

69,658,661,000

11,915,832,000

17.1

2016/2017

102,678,667,000

11,371,598,000

11.1

2017/2018

128,927,004,000

14,784,215,000

11.5

Source: CAG reports for 2016, 2017 and 2018!91

Assuming 50% of tourist entering NCA will exist through Kleins-Mto wa Mbu road after
tarmacking the ongoing development of that route, NCAA will lose about 25% of visitors’
entry as at least half of the visitors who used to travel through NCA after visiting
SENAPA may opt to use a new route where there is new tourist attractions. In addition,
at least another 25% income may be lost if severe decline in wildlife will occur.
Annexation of the proposed areas in Loliondo, Lake Natron and Mto wa Mbu GCAs thatwill embrace a tarmac road, which is under construction will take care of thisshortcoming and at the same time increase stay days in NCA as more tourist attractions
will also be contained in the proposed area for annexation. Because the current sourcesof revenue will be retained and new source established the budget proportion fromtourism income to support the three major components of MLUM might increase.

!92CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
1.
Conclusion
The analysis and discussion has revealed that NCA is an important component of SME.
The conservation area harbours natural and cultural resources that provide ecosystemservices to humans and biodiversity in general. The area contains water catchment
forests, refugee sites of endangered species such as black rhinos, breeding andrefuelling sites of a diversity of bird species and calving grounds for wildebeest. Also, ishome to indigenous residents (Masai, Datoga and Hadzabe) and their livestock, it
contains important cultural heritage sites, contributes to foreign exchange generation,
economic growth and livelihoods improvements. Thus, despite the challenges observedin addressing the three components of MLUM, it is worth maintaining the area since theconservation benefits outweigh the cost of losing it.
During consultations, stakeholders acknowledged that NCA is experiencing ecologicalproblems to balance conservation of natural and cultural resources, community
development and tourism development. Representatives from 25 villages of NCA andmembers of NPC proposed that a “Status Quo” i.e. allowing people to continue with
their activities under indigenous knowledge application and strict enforcement of actions
provided in GMP should be the future option for managing the multiple land use area.
Other stakeholders’ groups suggested four different options including; (i) maintain statusquo (ii) Annexing some areas on the periphery of NCA to resettle humans and livestock;(iii) Demarcating NCA into two distinctive zones - one for humans and livestock and theother for natural resources conservation; (iv) Reducing humans and livestock tomaintain limits of acceptable use; and (v) Disregarding MLUM and relocate people andlivestock outside NCA (Table 18).
If the proposed scenario of status quo was to be adopted and assuming that total TLUs
would remain at 228,955 as it was in 2017, the TLUs per capita will drop to 1.0 by 2038.
This means that supplementary food to pastoral community in NCA will increase toabout 87%, which is far worse than the current situation of 70%. Even if the area wasleft solely for livestock and an average annual human population growth rate remains at
3.5%, the population will increase over two-fold to about 200,000 people by 2038. TLUs
will grow up to 1,150,000 by 2032, but thereafter start to decline and reach 800,000
TLUs by 2038 due to rangelands degradation and deterioration. If the wish of theGovernment is to have perpetual NCA, the indigenous pastoralists and theirrepresentative organ (NPC), the option of status quo will not be feasible to sustain coexistence of people, livestock and wildlife.
The Team of Experts merged suggestions 2, 3 and 4 above and formed one option ofmaintaining MLUM with adjustments (Appendix 1). Under this option it is suggested thatsome areas from Loliondo, Longido (Lake Natron) and Monduli (Mto wa Mbu GCAs) beannexed to the current NCA. Relocation of immigrants outside the area and voluntary
resettlement of indigenous residents be conducted to maintain only 34,632 (20,000 in!93NCA & 14,632 in Gilal meirugoi) people with livestock totaling 189,264TLUs (29,264 TLU
from Gilai) in the new proposed NCA. Analysis revealed that with this option, LHUs
accounted for by wild herbivores will increase from 121,742 that was estimated in 1994
(Boone et. al, 2002) to approximately 186,099TLUs because by assuming that all othervariables will remain constant, the optimal carrying capacity for both wild and domestic
herbivores will expand from 250,925LHUs that was estimated in 1994 (Boone, et. al.,2002) to 375,363LHUs. In order to maintain livestock composition of the 1960, small
stock population should be maintained at about 153,800 and cattle at around 248,410
animals accounting for 6% and 94% of total 189,264TLUs respectively. An estimatedhuman population of 20,000 people in NCA (about 5,000 households) and their livestock
will continue to reside in the new proposed NCA with strict control according to the foursuggested zones and one sub-zone. In the annexed area of Lake Natron, about 14,632
people will be accommodated at Gilai Meirugoi ward (about 3,000 households), somehouseholds will also be included from Engaresero and Pinyinyi villages after annexationfrom Ngorongoro district. TLUs per capita will, therefore, be 8.0 for the entire period up
to 2038, implying that all food requirements will come from livestock. Nonetheless,because some locations within the proposed settlement and development zone can
support small-scale crop production, with this option it is possible for future NCA
residents to produce agricultural food particularly legumes and vegetables tocomplement pastoral diet.
Predictions of the option that suggests abolishing the model indicated that resettling all
people and livestock outside NCA and leave the area exclusive for wildlife and habitat
conservation would be costly, availability of land to accommodate about 100,000 people
may be a challenging endeavour and the exercise may face antagonism from those
identified for relocation and the hosting community, particularly in areas of culture
differences as was experienced with 159 families that were resettled at Jema Village,
Salei Division in Ngorongoro District between 2007 and 2010.

!94

Table 18: Stakeholders opinions and views on NCA model (Appendix 1)
S/N

Stakeholders’ names

Key Comments

proposed options

1

TFS, WD, CAWM-Mweka,
NCAA-Board, TATO, HAT,
TTGA, TTB, National Museum,
UDSM, WWF-TCO, TWPF,
Ngorongoro-DC, NgorongoroCMT, Lodges, FZS, SUA,
NGOs, NCAA, NPC, MeatuCMT, MGR, NCA (VEOs,
WEOs, VCs), Political Leaders(NDC)

Very high human and livestock
population; poor roads; revisit
governance issues; GMP & CSP
are not followed; MLUM is theselling point for NCA;

Retain MLUM but
reduce number ofpeople and livestock toacceptable minimum.

TAWIRI-HQ, SWRC, National
Museum,UNESCO
Commission, TANAPA, TAOA,TWPF, TFS, WD, NM-AIST,
SUA, TCT, Longido-CMT,
Monduli-CMT, Karatu-CMT

Very high human and livestock
population, extensive habitat
destruction has caused invasive
alien & pioneer plant species;
Spoon feeding is affecting
communities psychologically;
Retain cultural bomas; Majority of
Maasai families have dual
settlements; Resettlement of
Maasai in NCA will not be a newevent in Tanzania.

Abandon MLUM byrelocating people toestablish Ngorongoro
Nature Reserve.

3

F Z S , TA W A , i n d i g e n o u s H i g h h u m a n a n d l i v e s t o c kresidents in NCA, NCAA staff
population; Restriction to cultivate
is affecting food security; NCAA is
causing poverty; invasive plant
species is wide spread; Improveroads; Reclaim original boundary ofNCA from Eyasi, Ndutu, Karatu &Sale division; Allow maasai to build
decent houses; Involve community
in decision making.

Zoning the NCA and degazette some areas forpeople to grow crops
and the rest be forconservation andtourism

4

Indigenous residents in NCA, There is no serious problem except Maintain the status quo
TTGA
that NCAA is restricting livestock
access to three craters, NHFR and
Ndutu marsh

5

SUA, TAWIRI, CAWM-Mweka, The area is small to accommodate Annex some areas like
TANAPA, Ngorongoro CMT, h i g h h u m a n a n d l i v e s t o c k Loliondo GCA.
TAWA
population

2

Invasive plant species is wide
spread; Reduce number of small
stock; social services e.g. schools
be outside NCA; Educate all
children in NCA!95

Retain historical bomas
for cultural tourism.

2.
Future Management Options
Based on key findings, analysis of current situation and prediction of the future under
different options the Team of Experts believe that two options can be adopted toguarantee sustainable conservation of NCA. However option one, which is to maintainmultiple land use model with some adjustments has more advantages economically,socially, culturally, politically and internally than the one that advocates for changing
NCA to other protected area category. Environmentally and ecologically both options
have more or less similar merits at least within the next twenty years up to 2038. In viewof the above, key considerations; strengths and weaknesses of both options arepresented as follows:
2.1.

Key conditions for maintaining multiple land use model with someadjustments

Alter existing boundary of NCA: The proposal aims to include Loliondo GCA (1,500
km2) in Ngorongoro district (Appendix 11), part of Lake Natron GCA in Longido district
and a site that contains Engaruka ruins and part of Upper Kitete-Selela wildlife corridor
in Mto wa Mbu GCA in Monduli district. To enhance the ecosystem function, there should
be a mechanism to protect NCA– Upper Kitete- Selela – Manyara Ranch wildlife corridor
to connect SME with Lake Natron – Manyara – Tarangire ecosystem (Figure 27).
Located in Monduli District are Engaruka historical site, which also contains an importantcatchment forest that is being degraded by overgrazing causing and resulting into gully
erosion and Oldonyo Lengai; one of the remaining active volcano mountains in the
country. Also, Lake Natron is the only breeding site of lesser flamingo in Eastern Africa,
contains hot springs and hominid footprints and its shores are important rangeland forrare species like the Oryx. The aim of the proposed annexation is to maintainconservation of core areas, tourism and community development (Appendix 2, 3 &4).
According to Wildlife Conservation Act No. 5 of 2009, settlements and human activities
are not allowed in GCAs; therefore, the proposed alteration will legalize existing
settlements and human activities in Lake Natron GCA as well as part of Mto wa Mbu andavoid resettlement inconveniences to residents in those areas. Also, the proposition
aims to enable settlement and development to communities as opposed to current
situation in GCAs. In terms of conservation, altering of boundaries will enhance geneflow from different wildlife populations between ecosystems. Further, the boundary
alteration will increase tourism products under the management of NCAA, which will
ultimately increase stay-days and the resulting revenue from tourism. The boundary
alteration will increase the size of NCA for about 50% from the current size of 8,100km2
to 12,404 km2, which is an increase of about 4,304km2 (Table 19).

!96

!
Figure 27: Proposed boundary alteration and management zones

The boundary alteration will increase the size of NCA from the current size of 8,100km2
to 12,404 km2, which is an increase of about 4,304 km2 (53.14%) (Table 20).
Table 19: The new size of NCA after boundary alteration
Proposed management zonesi.

Area (Km2)

Percentage

Conservation core zone

3,326

26.8

Conservation sub-zone

1,053

8.5

Settlement and Development

2,629

21,2

Transition zone

5,398

43.5

Total

12,404100

Reduce human and livestock population based on scientific recommendations(Boone et al., 1994; UNESCO 2009), and the Grazing Lands and Animal Feeds
Resources Act No. 13 of 2010. This recommendation involves;a. Non-indigenous residents: Based on the requirement of NCA Act, this group ofpeople should be asked to return to their original homelands. There are three
categories of non-indigenous residents including those who moved in NCA to conductcrop production when a ban on cultivation was relaxed in 1992 and subsequent
years, those who were compensated and moved out of the area in 1975 when crop!97

production was prohibited and their descendants but decided to come back and those
who were civil servants and religious workers and their descendants who decided toremain in NCA after retirement (Appendices 1, 3 & 4).
b. Resettlement of indigenous residents: Since this group is legally residing in NCA,
negotiations shall be conducted between the Government and those interested to moveout of NCA on an attractive incentive package to enable them move into areas of theirchoice. Negotiations shall be participatory and include concerned families, NCAA,
experts and traditional leaders. There shall be time to implement this recommendation(Appendices 1-4).
Construction of a modern school outside or in settlement zone on the periphery ofNCA:
Modern secondary schools shall be established outside or in the settlement zone where
pupils shall be prepared and make them realize development opportunities available
outside NCA to encourage them to resettle after their studies.
d. Resettlement scheme: The scheme shall be handled in three levels – i) resettlement
within NCA should be strictly for indigenous residents, ii) resettlement in alteredboundaries, and iii) voluntary resettlement whereby compensated indigenous residents
will move to other places of their choices (Appendix 5); ande. Development of social services infrastructure: Social service
infrastructure shall be established in proposed zones designated forsettlement and community development. These will include schools, healthfacilities, water supply facilities, livestock health centers and religious
facilities. Notwithstanding this proposal, establishment of social infrastructure andsettlement in the development zone shall be conducted according to the Land Use Planning
Act No. 6 of 2007. Section 45(1) specifies that any approved plan shall apply tothe area or zone to which it relates whether or not it is embodied in a local
government authority by law. It stipulates further that every person, agency
or relevant planning authority shall comply with the requirements of theapproved plan (Appendix 5).
f.
iii. Strengthening institutional collaboration: to improve capacities ofdifferent Management Authorities and institutions and other collaboratingorganizations to effectively manage natural resources, community and tourism
development in NCA and neighboring areas. Specifically, there should be aconsideration to establish collaboration between Tanzania and Kenyan
institutions to address natural resources management, human livelihoods andlivestock development issues in SME. Maasai is a cross border tribe; hence, thechallenges experienced in NCA are likely to exist in areas adjacent to Maasai
Mara National Reserve.
!98iv. Review the existing Ngorongoro Conservation Area Act to:-a)

Embody GMP into NCA Act to recognize natural and cultural resources
conservation zone (no-go-zone), transitional zone (regulated use zone – i.e.
grazing only and no settlement), and community development zone
(settlement, crop production, grazing, and other regulated uses).

b)

Restructure and embody NPC into NCA Act to guide establishment,
appointment of members, functions, and the link between NCAA and NDC(Appendix 6).

c)Strengthen legal compliance and enforcement;

i. Enhance natural resources and environmental education and awareness toindigenous residents;
j. Introduce adult education to indigenous residents to reduce illiteracy level;k. Regulate tourism development by encouraging construction of hotels and lodges
outside NCA, development of tourism products to diversify tourism activities inside
NCA (including activities that involve communities);
l. Introduce rangeland rehabilitation programme; andm. Enhance participatory management in conservation, community development andtourism.

2.1.1.

Strengthsi.

Existence of political will to address challenges facing NCA;

ii.

Assurance of maintaining co-existence of conservation, tourism and community
development in NCA;iii.

The existing NCA Act, Cap. 284 and GMP embrace multiple land use model;

iv.

Revised NCA Act will resolve conflicting policies and laws;v.

Retain its national and international recognition and designation;

vi.

Avoid community unrest from the fear of unknown with regard to government
decision on their existence in NCA;vii. Minimize human-wildlife conflicts;!99

viii. Improved revenue generation through diversification of tourism products;
ix.

Improved social services and livelihoods;x.

Possibilities to acquire land for voluntary relocation, removal of immigrants, andestablish special resettlement scheme. For example, replicating Jema resettlement
scheme with improvements;

xi.

Improve human settlement and livestock grazing in designated community
development zones;

xii. Existing NCA capacity to execute conservation, tourism and community
development activities;
xiii. Enhanced community participation in conservation and tourism development;
xiv. To retain about 25% of tourist entry fee that NCA may lose from returning visitors
when construction of the Kleins-Mto wa Mbu Road that traverses Loliondo andLake Natron GCAs by encompassing part of the road stretch in the proposed
portion for annexation to NCA;
xv. If the two proposed options are ignored in favour of maintaining the status quo or
leaving NCA to indigenous pastoralists the government will lose 50% of expected
revenue by 2038; andxvi. Maintaining 50% of expected revenue from tourism that NCA may otherwise lose
when all wildlife will have been extirpated before 2038 by maintaining the statusquo or leaving NCA exclusively for habitation and livestock keeping. In a 2008
study about 50% mentioned that they visited NCA to see wildlife variety andabundance, wildlife migration, rhinos in their natural habitat and pristine
environment.

2.1.2.

Weaknessesi.

If not controlled, increased human population will affect conservation, tourism andhumans;ii.

If not controlled in terms of numbers per household, increased livestock will affectconservation of natural resources and environment;iii.

If not appropriately handled, resettlement may not be desirable to somepastoralists, politicians and CSOs; andiv.

If not controlled, conflict of interest among NCAA staff and other non-residents willaffect execution of NCAA obligations.

!100

2.2.

Key conditions for Changing NCA to other protected area categoryi.

The area can be designated as a National Park, or Game Reserve. The category ofnational park permits photographic tourism, game viewing and research, while thecategory of GRs permits photographic tourism, tourist hunting and research. Bothcategories prohibit human settlement and development such as livestock grazing
and crop production. As such designating NCA into either of the two will mean
abolishing MLUM and relocating people to other places;ii.

Redefine the management of NCA based on the conservation category that will be
adopted; andiii.

Review the existing NCA Act to reflect other protected area category.

2.2.1.

Strengthsi.

Existence of political will in addressing challenges facing NCA;

ii.

Increased protection status in favour of conservation and tourism;iii.

Removed communities will diversify socio-economic activities outside NCA. For
example, livestock, crop production and other Income Generating Activities;

iv.

Minimize human-wildlife conflicts to neighboring communities;v.

Improved quality of social services and livelihoods in resettled areas;vi.

Improved human settlement and livestock grazing in resettled areas;vii. Maintain ecological integrity and biodiversity;viii. Possibilities to acquire land for voluntary relocation, removal of immigrants, andestablish special resettlement scheme (i.e. replicating Jema Resettlement schemewith some improvements); andix.

Existing experience of relocating people (e.g. Ujamaa villages 1974, naturalizationof Somali-Zigua at Chogo village in Handeni, and resettlement project by NCAA in
Jema village).

x. Maintaining 50% of expected revenue from tourism that NCA may otherwise lose
when all wildlife will have been extirpated before 2038 by maintaining the status quoor leaving NCA exclusively for habitation and livestock keeping. In a 2008 study about
50% mentioned that they visited NCA to see wildlife variety and abundance, wildlife
migration, rhinos in their natural habitat and pristine environment.

!101

2.2.2.

Weaknessesi.

Total removal of people from NCA may not be supported by some pastoralists,
politicians and CSOs;

ii.

Ignore co-existence of conservation, tourism and community development in NCA;

iii.

Loss of international recognition as a multiple land use area;iv.

Discourage community participation in conservation and tourism development; andv. Antagonism between families to be resettled and hosting community may arise andmore profoundly if the two communities are of different ethnic groups that differ intheir culture and mode of production.

3.
Strategies for the Future
Based on the proposed management options, the following short, medium and long term
actions are proposed: -3.1.

Short term actions (2020 – 2023)

i.

Implement natural resources and environmental education and awareness creation
programmes;ii.

Enhance NCA and sectoral capacities and coordination: There is need to adhere to
the objectives of NCA through enhancement of NCA, districts, local communities
and other stakeholders’ capacities to effectively manage and benefit from theecosystem. The following areas need considerations:a.

Strengthening staff including those from sector ministries, NCAA andNgorongoro LGA on capabilities for management and field operations
especially extension services;b.

Improving communication and information delivery among stakeholders;c.

Developing monitoring and evaluation frameworks;d.

Improving mechanisms to engage and benefit indigenous residents; ande.

Enhancement of training and awareness creation on policies andlegislation, regulations and guidelines related to MLUM to indigenous
residents.

!102

iii.

Review Ngorongoro Conservation Area Act to adequately address relevant issues
related to conservation, tourism development and community development,
institutional collaboration and mandates and strategies to deal with previous andcurrent challenges facing NCA;iv.

Enhance law enforcement by developing regulations to operationalize NCA;

v. Revise the current GMP in accordance to approved adjusted MLUM and reviewed
Act;

vi.

Restructure NPC and its mandate (Appendix 6);

vii. Negotiate and facilitate interested NCA residents to settle outside the area;viii. Enhance participatory management to engage indigenous residents andneighboring communities in planning, decision making and monitoring;a.

Develop and implement community-based conservation (CBC) frameworkin collaboration with other conservation institutions and stakeholders (e.g.
TANAPA, private sector and NGOs) through:-b.

Establishing natural resources and environment management institutions/committees in neighboring villages;c.

Introducing and supervise various CBC scheme including WMA,
Community Based Tourism and other benefit sharing mechanisms; andd.

Promote sustainable use of natural and cultural resources.

vii. Introduce adult education to indigenous residents to reduce illiteracy level incollaboration with the respective Ministry and Local Government Authorities;

viii. Regulate tourism development and activities in accordance to GMP.

3.2.

Medium term actions (2020 – 2025)

i. Implement education and awareness creation programmes particularly on familyplanning and entrepreneurship;

!103

ii.

Alter existing boundary of NCA to include Loliondo GCA (1,500 km2) and part ofLake Natron GCA (2,804.14km2), Engaruka historical site as well as Upper KiteteSelela wildlife corridor in Mto wa Mbu GCA to increase land size for conservation,
tourism and community development (Figure 27);iii.

Comply with GMP requirements;

iv.

Relocate people and livestock to designated areas based on acceptable limits andthe requirement of GMP by respective management zones;v. Continue with negotiation, encouragement and facilitation of interested NCA residents
to settle outside the area;vi.

Develop social services in community development zonesaccording to GMP;

vii. Enhancing capacity and coordination to effectively manage NCA; andviii. Implement participatory management programmes especially in community
development zones and communities neighboring NCA.

3.3.

Long term actions (2020- 2029)

i. Continue to implement education and awareness creation programmes on all issues
that promote sustainability of adjusted MLUM;
ii.

Continue to develop social services infrastructure in community development zones
accordingto GMP;
iii.Continue with negotiation, encouragement and facilitation of interested NCA residents
to settle outside the area;iv.

Establish and operationalize institutional collaboration between NCAA and othercollaborating authorities and institutions in Tanzania and Kenya;v. Strengthen border security to regulate movement of people, livestock between
Tanzania and Kenya.
vi. Strengthen communication among institutions and other stakeholders particularly
indigenous residents;
vii. Implement participatory management programmes; andviii. Promote good governance practices through:a. Transparency and accountability,b. Access to information,!104

c. Rule of law,d. Bureaucratic efficiency, ande. Avoiding conflict of interest among staff, non-residents and other participating
stakeholders. .

!105

REFERENCES
Baker, N., and Baker, L. (2001).Ngorongoro: Checklist of Birds. Tanzania Bird Atlas.
Moshi, Tanzania
Boone, R. B. and Coughenour, M. B. (2000).Integrated management and assessment
system: balancing food security, conservation and ecosystem integrity using
SAVANNA and SAVIEW in ecosystem modelling. NREL, CSU, Fort Collins,
Colorado, USA.68pp.
Campbell K. & Borner M. (1995). Population trends and distribution of Serengeti
Herbivores: Implication for management. In: Sinclair ARE, Arcese P, Eds.
Serengeti II: dynamics, management and conservation of an ecosystem. Illinois:
Coughenour, M. B. (1993).Savanna-a spatial ecosystem model. Model description anduser guide. NREL, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. 56pp.
Estes, R.D. (2006). Downward trends in Ngorongoro Crater ungulate populations
1986-2005: Conservation concerns and the need for ecological research. J. Biol.
Cons. 131:106-120.
Frame, G.W. (1980). Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis [L.]) subpopulation on the
Serengeti plains, Tanzania. Afr. J. Ecol. 18:155-66.
Fritz, H. & Duncan, P. (1994). On the carrying capacity for large ungulates of African
Savanna ecosystems. Proc R Soc B 256, 77–82.
Fyumagwa, R.D., Runyoro, V., Horak, I.G., & Hoare, R. (2007). Ecology and control ofticks as disease vectors in wildlife in Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania. S. Afr. J. Wildl.
Res. 37(1): 79- 90.
Fyumagwa, R.D., & Nyahongo, J.W. (2010). Black rhino conservation in Tanzania:
Translocation efforts and further challenges. Pachy. 47(1): 59-65
Fyumagwa, R.D.,Simmler, P., Meli, M.L., Hoare, R., Hofmann-Lehmann, R., & Lutz, H.
(2011). Molecular detection of Anaplasma, Babesia and Theileria species in a diversityof tick species from Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania. S.Afr. J. Wildl. Res. 41(1): 79-86
Galvin K. A., Boone R. B., Smith N. M. & Lynn, S. J. (2001). Impact of climate variability
on East African Pastoralists: linking social science to remote sensing. Climate
Research; 19(161-72).
Galvin, K.A.,Boone, R.B., McCabe, T., Magennis, A.L., and Beeton, T.A. (2015).
Transitions in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area: The Story of Land Use, Humanwell-being and conservation: In; Sinclair, A.R.E., Metzger, K.L., Mduma, S.A.R.,
and Fryxell, J.M. Eds. Sustaining Biodiversity in a coupled human- natural
system. Serengeti IV.
Goddard, J. (1967). Home range, behavior and recruitment rates of two black rhinoceros(Dicerosbicornis [L.]) populations. African Journal of Ecology. 5:133-150.
Herlocker, D. J. &Dirschl, H. J. (1972). Vegetation of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area.
Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series Number 19. Ottawa: Canada. Ottawa
Printing Office. 1-39.
Homewood, K. M. & Rodgers, W. A. (1991). Maasai land ecology: Pastoral development
and wildlife conservation in Ngorongoro, Tanzania. Cambridge: University ofCambridge Press 1991.
!106

International Union for Conservation of Nature, (IUCN), (1990). Ngorongoro
Conservation and Development Project, Final Report: Phase I. Nairobi: IUCN
1990.
IUCN (1994). The egg of Sustainability. International Union for the Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources. Gland, Switzerland.
Kissui, B. J. & Packer, C. (2004). Top-down population regulation of a top predator:
Lions in the Ngorongoro Crater. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, pp.188, 1–8.
Kruuk, H. (1972). The spotted hyena: A study of predation and social behavior. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
McCabe J.T. (1997) Risk and uncertainty among the Maasai of the Ngorongoro
conservation area in Tanzania: A case study in economic change. Nomadic
Peoples:54-65.
Machange, J. (1997). Livestock and wildlife interactions in: Thompson, D. M. (Ed.),
Multiple Land-Use: The Experience of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area,
Tanzania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, 127–141.
Makacha, S. & Frame, G.W. (1986). Population trends and ecology of Maasai
pastoralists and livestock, in Ngorongoro conservation area. Serengeti Wildlife
Research Institute, Contribution No. 338. Serengeti: Arusha Mimeograph 1986.
Mascarenhas, A. (1993). Ngorongoro – Perspectives on Conservation and Management
Practices. In: Caroline Rusten and HalvorWØien (eds). The Politics ofEnvironmental Conservation. Proceedings from a workshop in Trondheim, March
26, 1993. Report No. 6/93.
Mfunda, I. M (2010). Wildlife Conservation and People's Livelihoods: Lessons Learnt
and Considerations for Improvements. The Case of Serengeti Ecosystem,
Tanzania. Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Thesis for the
Degree Philosophiae Doctoral. Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology.
Department of Biology.
Mfunda, I. M. (2015). The Linkage between Natural Resources, Tourism and National
Security: A Case Study of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism of theUnited Republic of Tanzania. A dissertation submitted to the National DefenceCollege - Tanzania, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the Master’s Degree
Moehlman, P. D., Amato, G, &Runyoro, V. (1996). Genetic and Demographic Threats to
the Black Rhinoceros Population in the Ngorongoro Crater. Conserv. Biol. 10 (4):1107-1114.
Ogutu, O.J.; Moehlman, P.D., Piepho, H., Runyoro, V., Coughneour, M. and Boone, R(2019). Long-term historical and projected herbivore population dynamics in
Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania. BioKxIV. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, USA.
Mwita, M., and Kija, H. (2019). Analysis of change detection and habitat suitability(2008-2018) in Ngorongoro Conservation Area, northern Tanzania (unpublisheddata).
NBS (2017). Human and livestock census for Ngorongoro Conservation Area. National
Bureau of Statistics, 2017.
NCAA (2006). Ngorongoro Conservation Area General Management Plan (2006-2016).
Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority, Ngorongoro, Tanzania.
!107NCAA (2017). Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority strategic corporate plan(2017-2022). Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority, Ngorongoro, Tanzania.
NCAA (2018). Livestock diseases of great economic importance. Ngorongoro
Conservation Area, Tanzania. Unpublished report.
Niboye, P. E. (2010). Vegetation Cover Changes in Ngorongoro Conservation Area from1975 to 2000: The Importance of Remote Sensing Images. The Open Geography
Journal (3): 15-27
Nijhof, A. M., Penzhorn, B. L., Lynen, G., Mollel, J. O., Morkel, P., Bekker, C. P. J.
&Jongejan, F. (2003). Babesia bicornis sp. Nov. and Theileria bicornis sp. nov.:
Tick-Borne Parasites Associated with Mortality in the Black Rhinoceros (Diceros
bicornis). J. of Clinical Microbiology. May 2003, 2249-2254.
Pratt, D.J. & Gwynne, M.D. (1977). Rangeland management and ecology in East Africa.
London: Hodder and Stoughton 1977.
Rose, G. A. (1975). Buffalo increase and seasonal use of Ngorongoro Crater. E. Afr.
Wildl. J. 13:385-87.
Runyoro, V. A., Hofer, H., Chausi& E., Moehlman, P. D. (1995). Long-term trends in theherbivore populations of the Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania. In: Sinclair, A.R.E.,
Arcese, P. (Eds.), Serengeti II. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 146–168.
Runyoro, V. A. (2007). Analysis of alternative livelihoods strategies for the pastoralists ofNgorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Phd Thesis. Sokoine University ofAgriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania.
Runyoro, V.A. (2009).Global tourism marketing campaign: The case of Ngorongoro
Conservation Area. MBA Dissertation. Washington International University,
Trollope, W. S. W. & Trollope, L. A. (2001). Relationship between range condition andthe incidence of ticks in the Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania. Report to NCAA
Conservator.
Trollope, W. S. W. (1995). Report on the fire ecology of the Ngorongoro Conservation
Area in Tanzania with particular reference to the Ngorongoro Crater. Report toNCAA Conservator.
URT, (1997). Final Report of the Ad-hoc Ministerial Commission on Ngorongoro
Conservation Area: In Thompson, D. M (ed). Multiple Land Use: The Experienceof the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland andCambridge, UK. pp486.

!108

ANNEXES!109

Annex 1
PROPOSED MANAGEMENT ZONES, IMPORTANCE AND USES
N
o.
1

Area

Managementzone

Northern Highland Core
Forest Reserve
conservation(NHFR)
zone•

Ngorongoro
crater• Olmoti crater
Empakai Crater

•

•

2

Ecological/
Economic
Importance

Oldupai Gorge
and Laetoli
footprints

•

•

Core
conservation
zone

•

•
•
3

Lake Ndutu/
Masek BasinCore
conservation
zone

•
•
•

4

Engaruka
historical siteCore
conservation
zone

•

•
•

ConservationWildlife
refugeWater
catchment•

Major
cultural,historicalandarchaeologi
cal sites
Geopark
Conservation•ConservationWatercatchment
Marshesand feedingarea forwater birds•

Cultural,historical(ruins) andarchaeologi
cal site
Geopark
Watercatchment

•

!110

•
•

•
•

•
•

•
•

Uses

Remarks•
Tourismdevelopme•nt
Researchand training
ConservationRestricted tocommunities
Protection ofendangered
andthreatened
species esp.
rhinos andelephants
and plants•
Researchand training
Tourismdevelopme
nt
ConservationRestricted tocommunities•
Tourismdevelopment
Researchand training
ConservationRestricted tocommunities•
Tourismdevelopment
Researchand training
ConservationRestricted tocommunities

N
o.
5

Area

Selela village
forest reservearea

Management
zone
Core
Conservation
zone

Ecological/
Economic
Importance•••ConservationWatercatchment
Wildlife
corridor
especiallyelephants

Uses

•
•
•

Tourismdevelopment
Researchand training
ConservationRemarks

•
•
•
•

•

6

Lake Natron andits escapement
and basin (Gilai
meirugoi ward)••

Transitionzone.
Settlement anddevelopment(Magadini,
Londoluo&Meirugoivillages)
.

•
•

•
•
•

•

•
•
•
•

Water
catchment
Cultural,historicalandarchaeologi
cal sites
Geopark
Flamingo
breeding
sites
Habitat forrare wildlife
species –e.g. Oryx
OldonyoLengaiactivevolcanic
mountainConservation
Hot springs
Water falls
Foot prints

!111

•
•
•
•
•

Researchand training
Tourismdevelopme
nt
Conservati
onLivestockgrazing
Settlement

•
•
•
•
•

•

No
settlement
No grazing
No cropproduction
Protection of
migratoryroute, esp.
elephantsfrom NCA to
ManyaraandTarangireNP iscrucial.
Reducing
humanwildlife
conflicts.
limitedsettlement
seasonalgrazing
controlledcropproduction
Protection of
L. Natron
againstsiltation
Protection of
Flamingo
breeding
sites

N
o.
7

Area

Loliondo GCA(1,038 km2)

Management
zone
Core
conservation
sub zone

Ecological/
Economic
Importance
•
•
•

•
•
8

Loliondo GCA(462 km2)

Transition zone

•
•
•

Water
catchment
Buffer zone
to SENAPA
and NCA
Breeding
anddispersal
area
Wildlife
migration
routeConservationWildlife
migration
ConservationTourism

Uses

•
•
•

•
•
•

9

Oldonyo Gol &west of Kakesio

Transitional
zone

•
•
•
•

1

Easternpart of Endulen,
Osinoni, Kakesio
and Eyasi

Community
development
zone

•
•
•

Buffer zone
Maasaipastoralists
DatogaHadzabe•Datogaagropastoralists
Hadzabehuntergatherers
Maasaipastoralists

•

•

•
•

•
•

Touristdevelopment
Researchand training
Conservati
onLivestockgrazing
Conservati
ontourism
Seasonal
livestockgrazing
ConservationRemarks

•
•
•
•

No
settlement
No grazing
No cropproduction
Tourism
activities –e.g. trophy
hunting•

Reducing
humanwildlife
conflicts•

Nosettlements
No cropproduction
Limited uses
– e.g.
seasonalgrazing••

Settlement/ •registeredvillages
Livestockgrazing
Establish
pasturedevelopme
nt
programme
Crop
production
Community
based
tourism

Humanpopulation
growth andinfrastructuredevelopmen
t controlled
within limitsofacceptableuse.

Annex 2:

!112

!113

PROPOSED RESETTLEMENT PLAN

Current Settlements and
ward

No.
Ward

Villages/settlements

1

Kakesio••Kakesio,
Osinoni,

2

Eyasi

•
•

3

Alaetoli

4

Endulen5

Ngorongoro

6

Misigiyo

Proposed villages and
wards
Ward
Kakesio

Remarks

Villages••

Kakesio,
Osinoni,Olpiro,Eyasi
Masamburai••

Olpiro,Masamburai

Consideration
for minority
group andphysical barrier
was the reason
to make aseparate ward••

Esere,
Laetoli

None

•

None

Alaetoli ward isabolished••

Endulen,Nasipaoriong’,

Endulen•Endulen,Nasipaoriong’
Esere,

Esere village isannexed to
Endulen•••

Oloirobi,
Kayepus,
MokilalSettlemen Mokilal
ts/ or No
settlements

Oloirobi and
Kayepusvillages are
abolished

None

Misigiyo•••

Misigiyo,
Loongoijoo,
Kaitekiteng

Misigiyo,
Kaitekiteng
andLoongoijoo are
abolished•

7

Ngoile•NgoileOlbalbal•••

Ngoile,Meshili,

Ngoile ward isabolished

8

Meshili•

Meshili

None

•

None

Meshili ward isabolished

Alaelilai•••

Alaelilai,
Alaelilai
Sendui,Alchaneome
lock

•
•

Alaelilai
Alchaneomelock
Bulati

Bulati village isannexed to
Alaelilai and
Sendui isabolished

!114

•

9

Nainokanoka

10 Naiyobi

11

None

None

•

•

Nainokanoka,Erkeekpus,
Bulati•••Iltulele,
Naiyobi,
Kapenjiro

None

None

None

Gilai
meirugoi

•

!115

•
•
•

None

Nainokanoka
Erkeekpus are
abolished
Naiyobi ward
and its villages
is abolishedbecause of riskof active
volcano of
LengaiMagadini
Meirugoi
Londoluo

Ward isannexed from
Longido district