State of Play for

Circular Built Environment

in Asia

Countries considered:
China, India, Indonesia, Nepal and Pakistan
Authors: Zeenat Niazi, Apurva Singh and Isha Sen
Organisation: TARA, Development Alternatives
Reviewed by: Christina Cheong, Global Green Growth International		Prof Usha Iyer-Raniga, RMIT University
October 2020

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

© Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme 2020
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means electronic
or mechanical without prior written notice to and permission from the One
Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme.
The findings, interpretations, conclusions, and views expressed in thisreport are entirely those of the author/s and do not necessarily reflect theviews and policies of the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings
and Construction Programme or the institutions and governments they
represent. Any error in content or citation in the respective reports is thesole responsibility of the author/s.

Suggested citation:
Niazi, Z., Singh, A. and Sen, I. 2020. State of play for circular built
environment in Asia. A report compiling the regional state of play forcircularity in the built environment in Asia across China, India, Indonesia,
Nepal and Pakistan. Final report October 2020, TARA, Development
Alternatives and United Nations One Planet Network Sustainable
Buildings and Construction Programme.
Material in this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted with proper
acknowledgement.
Cover design: Ninni Westerholm
Cover photos: Pekka Huovila (left) & Ninni Westerholm (top, down)
Layout design: Ninni Westerholm
ISBN/ISSN: 978-952-361-264-8

2

One Planet Network
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Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production(SCP), which supports the global shift to SCP and the achievement of
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State of Play Reports
The Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme has been
preparing regional reports on the state of play for circular built environmentin Africa, Asia, Europe, Gulf Cooperation Council countries, Latin America
and the Caribbean, North America, and Oceania. In addition to regional
outlooks, a global report has been produced to summarise and compare
the state of play regarding circularity in different regions. A crucial role of
the reports is not only to provide a benchmark but also recommendations
on how to move forward towards a sustainable and circular built
environment.

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Table of contents
List of figures

7

List of tables

7

List of acronyms

8

Executive Summary

91.

Introduction

102.

Significance of this study to the Asian context

11

2.1
		

Pressures driving the need for greater material efficiency
and the potential for circularity

11

2.2

Population

13

2.3

Rapid urbanisation and growth

14

2.4

Economic growth

15

2.5

Environmental impact of the built environment17		

2.5.1 Carbon emissions in Asia

18		

2.5.2 Material consumption patterns in Asia

18

2.6

Social impact and potential of the construction sector

19

2.7

Informal economy

21

2.8
		

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Asia and the 			building and construction sector
22

3.

Circularity in the construction sector

24

4.

State of circularity in the construction sector in Asia

25

4.1

The vernacular view of circularity26

4.1.1 Examples of vernacular and indigenous construction

26

		

			

4.1.1.1 Use of rammed earth

26

4.1.1.2   Tribal architecture27

4.2
Biomass-based construction in Asia: bamboo, timbers and 				agri-residue
28
4.3

Construction and structural application

4.3.1 The first International Bamboo Architecture Biennale,
			China

2930

		
4.3.2 Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training 						Institutes (IPIRTI)
31
		
4.3.3 Straw bale as a construction material: Heilongjiang, 					China31		

4.3.4 Timber construction in Malaysia

32

4

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

		
4.4
		

4.3.5 Forest Research Institute of Malaysia, Selangor

32

Circular principles in building product and space design32

4.4.1 Examples of circularity in building product and design33			
4.4.1.1 Lego-style prefab construction: The Clement 						
Canopy, Singapore
33			
4.4.1.2 Space reuse: Stone Art Gallery, Guangzhou, 						 China
33
			

4.4.1.3 Adaptive reuse of Kolkata Town Hall, India

34

			

4.4.1.4 Industrialised building systems: Malaysia

35

4.5
Materials and building elements: extraction, manufacturing 				and construction
35
4.5.1 Examples of circularity in material manufacturing
			

4.6

37

4.5.1.1 Metal product supply chain in South Asia’s 		   building sector
37
4.5.1.2   Coal gasification plant and the use of
   by-products: Angul, India

37

4.5.1.3   Fly-ash brick industry in India

37

Building use phase38		
4.6.1 Natural heating using the ‘kang’ arrangement: ancient 					northern China
39		
4.6.2 Cradle-to-cradle design: Development Alternatives 						headquarters, New Delhi
40		

4.6.3 Co-living in India

41

4.7
		

End of life and recycling: overview of construction anddeconstruction waste in Asia

41

4.7.1 Materials produced by C&D waste recycling in New Delhi 43
4.7.2 Construction waste to 3D printed houses, China

44

4.7.3 Traditional wooden housing in Indonesia using			waste-wood composites

45

4.7.4 Nepal: Citizen-led reuse and reconstruction from			earthquake debris

45

5.

Policies related to circular models in the construction sector in Asia

46

5.1

Material production phase policies

46

5.2

Design/construction phase policies

47

5.3

Usage phase policies

48

5.4

C&D waste policies (recycling phase)49

5

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

5.4.1 Examples of C&D waste management policies from other			countries of Asia50			

5.4.1.1 Legislation on waste disposal in Japan

50

			

5.4.1.2 Construction waste regulations in the Philippines 50

			
5.4.1.3 Construction Waste Charges Ordinance in 							 Thailand
51
5.5

Incentives

51

5.5.1 Incentives in C&D waste management from other regions
			of Asia

51

			

5.5.1.1 Extra funding incentive in Singapore

51

			

5.5.1.2 The ‘polluter pays’ principle in Hong Kong51

			5.5.1.3 Summary of existing formal institutions that 					
motivate zero waste in the construction industry 						 throughout Asia
52
6.

Analysis and recommendations

52

6.1

Potential benefits of circularity

53

References

60

6

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

List of figures
Figure 1
Urbanisation in Asia and Pacific across subregions, 1990-2020
12Figure 2
Regional material consumption per capita - Asia and Pacific12Figure 3
Population and growth rate of selected Asian countries
14
Figure 4Construction sector contribution to national GDP in selected		
Asian countries
15
Figure 5
GDP and growth rate of selected Asian countries
15
Figure 6
Built-up area change and built-up area per capita in selected 					Asian countries
16
Figure 7
Global energy-related CO2 emissions by sector, 2015
17
Figure 8
Industry direct CO2 emissions in the sustainable development scenario, 				2000-2003
17
Figure 9
Global CO2 emissions in 201718
Figure 10
Domestic material consumption of the 10 highest consumers of 					materials in the Asia-Pacific region, 1970-2005
19
Figure 11
Domestic material consumption in the Asia-Pacific region by major 				
category of materials, 1970-2008
19
Figure 12
Batak house
27
Figure 13
Contribution of bamboo by continent
28
Figure 14
Countries with largest bamboo resources
28
Figure 15
Transformation of traditional bamboo construction to modern 					construction techniques
30
Figure 16
Left: Contemporary Celadon Ceramic Museum; Right: Welcome Center
30
Figure 17
Eco-energy efficient experimental house
30
Figure 18
Demonstration House
31
Figure 19
Stone Art Gallery, Guangzhou
34
Figure 20
Kolkata Town Hall, before and after restoration
34
Figure 21
Jalan Pekeliling Flat, Kuala Lumpur
35
Figure 22
Plan and section of kang arrangement
39
Figure 23
DA world headquarters
40
Figure 24
C&D waste generated in selected Asian countries
42
Figure 25
Material flows from C&D waste in India
44
Figure 26
3D printed houses using construction waste
44
Figure 27
Natural Disaster in Nepal
45
Figure 28
CE policies in Asia
46

List of tables
Table 1		Economic growth and potential of the construction sector
16
Table 2		Labour type in the construction sector of selected Asian countries
20
Table 3		Proportion of informal sector workers by sector activity in India
22
Table 4 		Significance of construction sector in Asia in relation to SDG goals
23
Table 5 		Extent of bamboo forest area as reported by previous inventories (1000 ha) 29
Table 6
Potential industrial symbiosis applications and analysis studies
36
Table 7		C&D waste and MSW in selected Asian countries
42
Table 8		C&D waste composition and C&D volume per capita in selected		countries
43
Table 9		
Energy building codes in selected countries
48
Table 10Considerations for different lifecycle phases of the built environment
55

7

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

List of acronyms
ADRA		
ASEAN		
BEE		
BF		
BIM		
C&D		
CAGR		CIDB		DRI		ECBC		
FAR		
FSI		
GDP		
GHG		
GoI		
GRIHA		
HR		
IBS		
IDR		
IMF		
INR		
LFG		
MoEFCCMoSPI		MSME		
MSW		
NBC		
NGO		
NPR		
OECD		PKR		PPVC 		
RCC		
SCP		
SDG		
SME		
SWM		
Syngas		UN		
UNICEF
USD		

Adventist Development and Relief Agency
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Bureau of Energy Efficiency
Blast Furnace
Building Information Modelling
Construction and demolition
Compound Annual Growth Rate
Construction Industry Development Board
Direct Reduced Iron
Energy Conservation Building CodeFloor Aspect Ratio
Floor Space Index
Gross Domestic ProductGreen House Gas
Government of India
Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment
Human Resource
Industrial building systems
Indonesian Rupiah
International Monetary Fund
Indian Rupee
Landfill gas
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Micro, small and medium enterprise
Municipal solid waste
National Building CodeNon-government organisation
Nepalese Rupee
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Pakistani Rupee
Prefabricated Prefinished Volumetric Construction
Reinforced cement concrete
Sustainable consumption and production
Sustainable Development Goal
Small and medium-sized enterprises
Solid waste management
Synthesis gas
United Nations
United Nations International Children's Fund
United States Dollar

8State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Executive Summary
Three words that characterise the Asian region are diversity, disparity and rapid transformation.
Diversity in material resources, geo-climatic contexts and cultural traditions is reflected in its
variety of very rich construction practices and traditions. Wide socio-economic disparities exist
within and across countries of the region reflected in consumption levels, living standards
and per capita material and carbon footprints with over 30% of the Asian population livingin extremely derelict housing and infrastructure conditions. The Asian region is the fastest
urbanising region in the world with associated trends of increasing material and energy intensity
in building construction. The nature of urbanisation in the region focus largely on green-field
growth. The building sector is also among the largest contributor of GHG emissions that result
from fossil fuels used in the production, use and end of life phases of a building.
Most countries in Asia have rich deposits of minerals, including coal and iron ore that are mined
for industrial applications and power production. The construction sector in the region is asignificant employer; a largely informal, artisanal and unskilled construction workforce that form
important stakeholders in the strategies for new economy models.
Rapid urbanisation and rising demand for new infrastructure and housing, which need materials,
are placing significant strain on natural resources. Many resources such as sand, soils andaggregates are already in the critical space, competing with other economic sectors such as
food production and with serious negative impacts on eco-system services. The increasing
densification of cities is resulting in an increase in the volume of construction debris. Although
the potential to reuse this waste in new construction exists, the quantum of material needed ismuch higher than what is available from the recycled debris.
Comprehensive circular models across the whole life-cycle of buildings and built environments
are not evidenced in the region. However, we find that many new developments are integrating
circular models in one or more parts of the building value chain; for example, in modular building
designs and in the design and production of building elements. We also see emergence of new
business models in the adaptive reuse of buildings. There are many examples of water andenergy recycling and reuse within and across buildings at neighbourhood levels. In addition,
waste streams from other sectors such as mining, power, agriculture and municipal solid
wastes are also finding their way into replacing virgin materials such as pozzulanas in cements,
aggregates in concretes and mortars and fillers in masonry blocks.
Countries in the region are alive to the environmental impacts of the building and construction
sector and resource efficiency policies range from zero-carbon strategies in China to construction
and demolition waste regulations in India. Standards for secondary material use in China andMalaysia, rating systems for incentivising resource efficiency and circularity in Japan and India
are some examples. However, financial incentives, public procurement systems and regulatory
measures with respect to material, water and energy circularity are not yet mandatory in the
countries that were studied for this report.
Opportunities for building and construction circularity in the region exist in both green-field
and brown-field urban areas. Availability of secondary materials from other sources such asindustrial by-products, bio-waste and construction and demolition waste provide opportunityof substitution of critical virgin materials and building circularity through industrial symbiosis.
Many countries in Asia have rich traditions of biomass use in construction, especially bamboo.
Regeneration of bio-resources provides a regenerative resource that is a major area ofopportunity for the region. The construction of new cities, housing and infrastructure has thepotential to ensure future circularity through the use of modular assembly-based construction
systems. Circular models of construction in Asia have the potential to create economic
opportunities through green jobs and green entrepreneurship through reskilling the large
informal construction workforce and create new business models.

9

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

1.

Introduction
Objective of the report: This report provides a brief overview of the state of the built environmentand construction sector in Asia in relation to the practices and potential of establishing a circular
economy in the region. The overview sets out the characteristics of the sector and explores how
it can be made more sustainable through circular economy approaches. The focus is on someof the fastest-developing Asian countries: India, China, Indonesia, Pakistan and Nepal. These
countries have been selected to provide a representative sample of the different scales andnature of the built environment in Asia. The study analyses the current situation with regard to
the built environment of Asia, identifies critical areas of improvement in relation to sustainable
development and provides recommendations on how to achieve these improvements.
In order to build a broad understanding of the state of play with respect to circularity in the built
environment in Asia, this report in organised as outlined below.
Section 1 explains the significance of the study in the Asian context based on the current
and future impacts on the environment and the related socioeconomic impacts in this rapidly
urbanising and very diverse region. It also lays out the drivers of circularity in the region.
Section 2 underlines the concept of circularity and the associated economic and environmental
benefits.
Section 3 describes the state of play of circularity in the built environment in Asia. It cites
practice examples from representative countries to highlight the situation in the rural, vernacularand rapidly urbanising contexts. It looks at the different stages along the value chain of thebuilt environment and provides examples from the design, material production, construction,use, deconstruction and reuse phases of buildings. In the context of industrialising andurbanising countries in Asia, this section also describes both ‘within the sector circularity’,that of construction debris, and ‘cross-sectoral symbiosis’, connecting industrial wastes to theconstruction sector. This is unique to the Asian context.
Section 4 discusses various policies and strategies adopted across numerous Asian countries
that are designed to address the resource efficiency, sustainable construction and production,and circular models in the construction sector.
Section 5 concludes the report by summarising the discussion in a format that enables
comparison across regions.

10State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

2.

Significance of this study to the Asian context
The Asian region provides a very diverse palette of population densities and growth,urbanisation, industrialisation of economies and geo-climatic conditions. On the one hand,
the two most populous countries in the world, India and China, are located in this region; on
the other, the region includes very sparsely populated countries such as Mongolia. The Asian
region has countries that have some of the highest income brackets globally, including Japanand South Korea, as well as countries that have the lowest rates of development worldwide,such as Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Nepal (World Population Review, 2019). By and large,
most Asian countries are industrialising – some rapidly, such as, India, Malaysia and Indonesia– or are already industrial, like China. However, in some Asian countries, such as Nepal andBhutan, the primary sectors within the economy are agriculture and forestry.
The region also has the widest variety of geo-climatic zones in the world and high degrees ofvulnerability to climate change impacts. While on the whole Asia is rich in natural resources,
their availability and diversity vary across the region. Countries like India, Pakistan, Indonesia,
Vietnam, and many in Central Asia have a variety of both mineral and biomass resourcesthat are used in the construction sector, while the island countries such as Maldives have
limitations with respect to mineral resources and Central and Middle Eastern countries face
limitations in the availability of biomass. These peculiarities have over centuries shaped theform, structure and materiality of the built environment in the different sub-regions of Asia.
However, globalisation and urbanisation are changing this feature of the region. Whether slow
or rapid, the general trend in the region is that of shifting from rural to urban forms of settlement;
and even though large parts continue to build with vernacular and traditional methods, using
biomass, stone, earth and agri-residue such as straw, we see a distinct trend towards longer-life,
more energy-intensive materials such as cement, steel and glass. This shift in the materiality ofthe built environment has implications for the durability and maintenance requirements in new
constructions and for the quantity of non-renewable mineral resources required, and therefore
for the strategies and solutions related to circular models that countries can adopt.

2.1

Pressures driving the need for greater material efficiency
and the potential for circularity
In the Asian region, there are multiple drivers of circularity. A few are identified below that havea direct impact on the transition towards circular systems. Figures 1 and 2 show urbanisationin Asia and Pacific across subregions,1990-2020 and regional material consumption per capita
for the Asia Pacific.
Urbanisation: Rapid urbanisation has created a demand for housing and infrastructure at ahuge pace and scale. For example, in India, it is estimated that 70% to 80% of the housing
and infrastructure needed to meet the urbanisation demands is yet to be built, but should becompletedby 2030 (McKinsey Global Institute, 2010). This has implications for the quantityof material required, and in terms of the potential GHG emissions that the manufacturing
processes, construction and use of buildings will generate.
Population and demographic: With over 55% of the world’s population, and with a populationthat is young, a median age of 32 years (Worldometer, 2020) and therefore in the working andreproductive age group, the Asian region is expected to see increased aspirational demand for
housing and infrastructure.
Consumption patterns: The growing middle class across Asia alongside the fulfilment of the
housing and infrastructure needs of the poor have triggered a boom in housing, such thatwaste management, recycling, reuse and refurbishment of buildings has become a focal pointof intervention.

11

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

80

Pacific

70

North andCentral Asia

60

East and NorthEast Asia
South-East
Asia

50

ESCAP region
40

South andSouth-West
Asia

30

20
1990

2000

2010

2020

Figure 1: Urbanisation in Asia and Pacific across subregions, 1990-2020
Source: UNESCAP, 2013
Graphics modified by Ninni Westerholm

per capita, by
AfricaResource criticality: As demand for land and building materials increases, pressure is also
being felt in other sectors, such as food, where agricultural land and soils are being diverted
for urban growth and brick-production. The concomitant rising demand for sand drawn fromrivers is disturbing natural hydrological processes and ecosystems. Over-consumption andpoor replacement of timber lead to deforestation and unsustainable forestry. Scarcities thencause price spikes and reduce the access of the poor to quality building materials. This in turnnecessitates action around improving resource efficiency, resource substitution (industrial andbiomass) and materialRegional
recovery.domesc extracon per capita, bymaterial category - Asia & Pacific

10.0
10.0

9.0

8.0
8.0

7.0

6.0
6.0

5.0

4.0
4.0

3.0

2.0
2.0

1.0

2000

2010

Metal ores
Biomass

on per capita, by
Caucasus & Central Asia

0.0
0.0

1970
1970

1980
1980

1990
1990

Non-metallic
N O N-M E TA L L Iminerals
C MINERALS
Fossil fuels
M E TA L O R E S

2000
2000

2010
2010

Metal ores
Biomass

FOSSIL FUELSRegional
domesc extracon per capita, by
BIOM
ASS

material category - Europe
16.0
Figure 2: Regional material consumption per capita - Asia and Pacific14.0
Source: UNEP, 2016
Graphics modified by Ninni Westerholm
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0

12

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Industrialisation: The shift from agriculture and forestry to manufacturing and services
throughout Asia has meant that while pressure is being placed on the availability of land, thereis the availability of large quantity of industrial by-products that are finding new applications in
the construction sector. These industrial by-products are environmental hazards if left in the
open or in landfills. However, they have use in the construction sector as substitutes for criticalsoils, sands and aggregates, and even as binders, so can be brought into productive use.
Environmental impact: The GHG emissions generated by the production, construction anduse of materials and services necessitate action around energy efficiency and recovery. The
ecological impacts of the extraction of minerals for construction require greater efficiencies intheir use and reuse. As buildings reach their end of life or need to be demolished to make way
for newer spaces and denser developments, construction debris becomes available that may
be brought back into use – a concept that has been termed ‘urban mining’ but is now morecommonly referred to as construction and demolition (C&D) waste utilisation.
Employment/entrepreneurship potential: Throughout Asia, a significant economic development requirement is the creation of jobs and income opportunities for the region’s large populationof young people. Sectors that offer new and green job creating potential are desirable, suchas the construction sector through the supply chains of materials manufacturing, assemblyof products, repairs and refurbishment, and the delivery of infrastructure services of water
and waste management. Circular models adopted in the construction sector that leverage thepotential of human resources via new jobs and businesses will also contribute to much-needed
local economic development. In most Asian countries, a large informal recycling economy
exists and at the same time a large proportion of the workforce in the construction sector
is informal (see Tables 2 and 3). New business models for the recycling, refurbishment andremanufacturing of new products provide opportunities for new skills development, bringing theinformal workforce into the formal economy and with it added labour security benefits.

2.2

Population
Out of the estimated global population of 7.7 billion in 2020, the population of Asia is estimated to
be 4.6 billion, over 55% of the total. With an average growth rate of 0.86%, the Asian population
is expected to surge in the next few years (World Population Review, 2019). Asia has the twomost populous countries in the world, China and India, with populations of 1.4 billion and 1.3
billion respectively. India, with a population growth rate of 0.99%, is expected to become themost populous country in the world, surpassing China, by 2030. Meanwhile, China is projected
to see a decrease in population, with a low population growth rate of 0.39%.
Indonesia and Pakistan, each with a population of over 200 million in 2019, are the third andfourth most densely populated countries in Asia; and with a high growth rate of 1.07% and 2%
respectively, the two are expected to see a rapid surge in population. The population of Nepal,
which was at approximately 18 million in 1990, is likely to peak at 35.5 million by 2050 before
starting a decline (World Population Review, 2019). Eastern and South-Eastern Asia with apopulation of 2.3 billion people and Central and Southern Asia with 2.0 billion people in 2019were the world’s most populous regions representing 30 and 26% of the global population.
The World Population Prospects Report 2019 of UNDESA, estimates that Eastern and SouthEastern Asia is projected to reach a maximum population size of 2.4 billion around 2038 andCentral and Southern Asia is projected to peak some 27 years later at under 2.6 billion around
2065.
Asia also accounts for the world’s largest population in an informal settlement. Two of the fivelargest slums in the world – Dharavi in Mumbai, India, and Orangi Town in Karachi, Pakistan– are in Asia (Hutt, 2016). According to the World Bank (2014), the informal settlements, as apercentage of total population, comprised 25% in China, 24% in India, 22% in Indonesia, 54%
in Nepal and 46% in Pakistan.

13

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

A majority of the population in Asia still does not have access to clean water and sanitation.
Asia accounts for the most of the open defecation cases in the world. A large proportion of the
population, estimated at 134 million in South-East Asia, does not have access to clean drinking
water, with between 68% and 84% of water sources in the Asian region contaminated (UNICEF,
n.d.). Rising urbanisation has led to the migration of rural workers to the cities, in turn fuellingthe sprawl in informal settlements, exacerbating unhygienic water and sanitation conditions.

Rapid urbanisation and growthHome to 55% of the global urban population, the region’s urbanisation has important global
implications (UNESCAP & UN-Habitat, 2015). In 2016, 48.7% of the region’s 4.3 billion
population lived in urban areas. Estimates indicate that within the current quarter of a century(2000–25), an addition of 1.1 billion people to Asia’s urban areas is expected (UNESCAP &UN-Habitat, 2015). This rapid growth of the urban population is undoubtedly one of the key
processes affecting Asian development in the 21st century. Figure 3 shows population andgrowth rate of selected Asian countries.
However, its dimensions, characteristics and impact vary significantly from one country toanother. Millions of people in Asia continue to depend upon informal systems to gain access tohousing, land, infrastructure and services. As incomes have risen, the resultant consumption
and production patterns have led to a waste crisis in the region’s cities. While traditional waste
management practices like landfills threaten to overwhelm public resources (including land),some cities in the region are adopting waste-to-resource and waste-to-energy initiatives(UNESCAP & UN-Habitat, 2015). Even in the construction sector, late-stage solutions will nolonger be viable in the future; thus, much greater commitment is needed to managing solid
waste and valuing waste as a resource.

1433,78

1 400,00

2,51366,422%

1 200,00

1,85% 2,0

1 000,00

1,5

800,00

0,99%

1,07%

600,00400,00200,00216,570,5

NEPAL

PAKISTANINDONESIA

28,61
INDIA

0

270,630,39%

1,0GROWTH RATE (%)

1 600,00

CHINA

POPULATION (in million, 2019)

2.3

0

P O P U L AT I O N
G R O W T H R AT E

Figure 3: Population and growth rate of selected Asian countries
Source: World Population Review, 2019
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

Asia underwent a high rate of development from 2000 to 2014. Among the five countries
selected for this study, India has observed the highest built-up area change rate since 2000, at
46.6%, owing to rapid urbanisation, followed by Nepal at 40.5%, China at 39.8% and Indonesia
and Pakistan, changing at a rate of 34.76% and 33.4%, respectively.
14

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

In terms of built-up area per capita, Indonesia recorded the highest, at 83 m2 per capita,
followed by China at 75 m2 per capita in 2014. India, Nepal and Pakistan had a similar built-up
area per capita in 2014, as shown in Figure 4 (OECD, n.d.).

NEPAL

13,50%

INDIA

11,00%

CHINA

6,86%

INDONESIA

6,00%

PAKISTAN

2,70%

Figure 4: Construction sector contribution to national GDP in selected Asian countries
Source: OECD, n.d.
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

Economic growth
In 2019, Asia and the Pacific recorded a gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate of 4.8%,
contributing USD34.86 trillion. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) projects a GDP growthrate of 5.2% in the Asia-Pacific region in 2024, contributing USD44.17 trillion (IMF, 2019). The
construction sector is one of the top performing sectors in the Asian region. Figures 5 and 6
show the relationship between growth rate and GDP and built up area change per capita inselected countries respectively.
Figure 5: GDP and growth rate of selected Asian countries
8,0

13 608,15

14 0006,1%

12 000

7,1%

6,1%

6,0

5,0%

10 000

5,0

8 000
6 000

3,0
2,0

GROWTH

314,59

29,04
NEPAL

INDIA
G D P (U S D)

INDONESIA

1042,17

PAKISTAN

2718,73

2 000
0

4,0

3,3%

4 000

7,0

1,0

Real GDP growth rate (%)

16 000

CHINA

POPULATION (in million, 2019)

2.4

0Source: IMF, 2019
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

The contribution of the construction sector to the national economy and to the projected growthwithin the selected countries is summarised in Table 1.

15

39,80%34,76%

60

40,48%

40%
30%

40

25

20

20%
21

15

10%

INDIA

0%
CHINA

0

33,40%

BUA change (2000 to 2014)75

PAKISTAN80

50%

46,60%

83

NEPAL

100

INDONESIABUA (square meter/capita)

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in AsiaB U I LT U P A R E A (m 2 /capita, 2014)
B U I LT U P A R E A C H A N G E (2000-2014)

Figure 6: Built-up area change and built-up area per capita in selected Asian countries
Source: OECD, n.d.
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

Table 1: Economic growth and potential of the construction sector
Source: Authors
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

Countries

Construction sector’s
contribution to GDP

Current economic value of
construction sector

Projected economic value of
construction sector

China

Construction is the largest
sector in China, contributing
to 6.86% of the country’s
GDP (Zhao, 2018).

GDP from construction in
China increased to USD996
billion in the fourth quarterof 2019 from USD672 billion
in the third quarter of 2019
(National Bureau of Statisticsof China, 2020).

The Chinese construction industry
is expected to grow at a Compound
Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 4.54%,
reaching USD4.1 trillion by 2023 (ata constant 2017 US dollar exchangerate) (GlobalData, 2019).

India

The construction industry is
the second-largest industry
in India after agriculture.
It accounted for 7.54% ofIndia’s GDP in 2018–19(Statistics Times, 2019).

GDP from construction inIndia increased to USD34
billion in the fourth quarter of2019 from USD32 billion in
the third quarter of 2019
(MoSPI 2012).

The construction industry in value
terms is expected to record a CAGR
of 15.7% to reach USD738.5 billion by2022 (InvestIndia, 2020).

Indonesia

The construction sector inIndonesia contributes to
6% of the country’s GDP(Soemardi & Pribadi, 2018).

GDP from constructionin Indonesia increased to
USD19.5 billion in the fourth
quarter of 2019 from
USD18.6 billion in the third
quarter of 2019 (Trading
Economics 2020).

The construction sector in Indonesia
is projected to grow at a fast paceat CAGR of 5.59% from 2020 to2024. In May 2019, the government
announced plans to invest USD412
billion in developing the country’s
overall infrastructure during the period
2020–24 (GlobalData, 2020).

Nepal

The industry sector in
GDP from construction
Nepal, comprising mining,in Nepal increased to
manufacturing, energy
USD451 million in 2018 fromproduction and construction, USD414 million in 2017contributes to 13.5% of(CEIC 2020).
Nepal’s GDP (CEIC 2020)

Nepal’s construction industry is
expected to experience an average
growth rate of 10-11% from 2016 to2029 (Nepal Build Con, 2019).

Pakistan

Pakistan’s construction
sector contributes to 2.7%of the country’s GDP(Tribune, 2017).

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor
will drive Pakistan’s constructionindustry growth, with real annual
growth at 8.9% from 2019 to 2024
(FitchSolutions, 2019). According to
Trading Economics (2020b),GDP fromconstruction in Pakistan is expected toreach USD2.186 billion by the end of
2020.
16

GDP from constructionin Pakistan increased to
USD2.133 billion in 2018from USD1.994 billion in2017 (State Bank of Pakistan,n.d.).

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

2.5

Environmental impact of the built environment
The construction industry is the largest contributor to global GHG emissions. Together, building
and construction are responsible for 39% of all carbon emissions in the world (UNEP &IEA, 2017), with operational emissions (from energy used to heat, cool and light buildings)
accounting for 28% of total global energy-related emissions. It is the second-largest emissionintensive sector, after industry. With increasing access to energy in emerging economies, theresidential sector consumes the highest amount of energy. The role of the built environment inenergy related emissions are shown in Figures 7 and 8.
TRANSPORT
22%
OTHER
9%

Ch
ar
t

Ti t
le

BUILDINGS
28%

RESIDENTIAL (DIRECT)
6%
RESIDENTIAL (INDIRECT)11%
NON-RESIDENTIAL (DIRECT)

1
OTHER
2
INDUSTRY
330%

NON-RESIDENTIAL (INDIRECT)

4

5

6

CONTRUCTION
INDUSTRY
11%

Figure 7: Global energy-related CO2 emissions by sector, 2015
Source: UNEP & IEA, 2017
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

Figure 8: Industry direct CO2 emissions in the sustainable development scenario,
2000-2003
Source: IEA, 201917

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

In 2017, the total industrial GHG emissions amounted to 8.5 Gt, a 0.3% rise on the previous
year. Of this amount, the cement industry contributed the most, amounting to 26% (2.6 Gt) of
the total industry emissions, followed by the iron and steel industry, at 24% (2.04 Gt). Energyefficient technology and resource-efficient materials can be used to support sustainable
manufacturing in these two emission-intensive manufacturing industries (IEA, 2019).
In the complete lifecycle of the building and construction sector, the proportion of energy usage
and its corresponding emissions are the largest during the building use phase, followed by theindirect energy emissions from the material manufacture and production sector. Increasing
built up area is the main driver behind energy consumption and carbon emissions, and is
expected to grow globally, in particular, as a result of projected growth in the built-up areas ofdeveloping countries.

2.5.1 Carbon emissions in Asia
Asia is the largest CO2 emitter in the world, contributing to 53% of total global emissions in
2017, amounting to an order of 19 billion tonnes CO2 (Our World In Data, 2019). China, India
and Japan, are among the top five emitting countries in the world. Asia’s total CO2 emissions
are projected to grow further, particularly as a result of urbanisation and development in China.
See Figure 9.
ASIA

19 billion tonnes CO2
53% global emissions

JAPAN
INDIA

2.5 billion tonne CO2
6.8% global emissions

IRAN

672 million tonne CO
1.9% global emissions
2

CHINA

9.8 billion tonne CO2
27% global emissions

SAUDI ARABIA
635 million tonne CO
1.8% global emissions
2

SOUTH
KOREA

616

million tonne CO2

1.7%

1.2 billion
tonne CO2
3.3% global
emissions
INDONESIA

489

million tonne CO2

1.4%

global emissions

global emissions

THAILANDKAZAKHSTAN

331M tonne CO2

293 M tonne CO2

1.4% global emissions 0.8% emissions

Figure 9: Global CO2 emissions in 2017
Adapted from: Our World in Data, 2019
Graphics modified by Ninni Westerholm.

2.5.2 Material consumption patterns in Asia
In 2013, according to the UNEP (2013), the Asia-Pacific region surpassed the rest of theworld in becoming the highest material consumer, at a rate three times that of the rest of theworld, and is expected to continue growing in future years.From 1970 to 2005, consumption of
construction minerals increased by 13.4 times, metal ores and industrial minerals by 8.6 times,
fossil fuels by 5.4 times and biomass by 2.7 times.In 2008, among all the Asian countries,
China and India accounted for the majority of consumption by 2008, with China accounting
for over 60% of total regional domestic material consumption and India contributing over 14%.
Figure 10 shows the domestic material consumption of the ten highest consumers of materials
in the Asia-Pacific region, 1970-2005.
18

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

40 000CHINAMILLION TONNES

35 000INDIA

30 000J A PA N
INDONESIA

25 000

AUSTRALIA

20 000

REP OF KOREA
PA K I S TA N

15 000

VIET NAM
THAILAND

10 000M A L AY S I A

5 000

OTHER

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Figure 10: Domestic material consumption of the 10 highest consumers of materials in
the Asia-Pacific region, 1970-2005
Source: UNEP, 2013
Graphics modified by Ninni Westerholm.

Consumption of the major categories of materials – metal ores/industrial materials, fossil fuels,
construction materials and biomass – rose considerably across the Asia-Pacific region from1970 to 2008. See Figure 11. Construction material consumption observed a rapid growth in
this period, driven by the growth of the built-up environment, primarily in China and India.
40 000MILLION TONNES

35 00030 000M E TA L O R E S A N D
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS

25 000

FOSSIL FUELS

20 000

CONSTRUCTIONMINERALS

15 000BIOMASS

10 000
5 000
1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Figure 11: Domestic material consumption in the Asia-Pacific region by major categoryof materials, 1970-2008
Source: UNEP, 2013
Graphics modified by Ninni Westerholm.

2.6

Social impact and potential of the construction sector
The construction sector in Asia is one of the top employers of workers in the region. Increased
investments in large infrastructure projects, like China’s ambitious Belt and Road Initiative,
population growth and government spending will further drive growth in the construction sector
in Asia in the coming years. Hence, employment in this sector is also slated to rise, creating

19

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

millions of jobs over the next five years. The Asian construction industry is labour-intensive,highly informal and decentralised, employing unskilled rural workers who are not protected bylabour laws and are often subjected to exploitation. There is thus an urgent need to formalise
the construction sector, and to protect the labour interests and skills of workers. The state oflabour market in the selected Asian countries are summarised in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Labour type in the construction sector of selected Asian countries
Source: Authors
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm
Countries

Employment

Type of labour

China

Chinese construction
enterprises employ 45.37
million workers, accountingfor 5.7% of the country’s
employed population(Zhao, 2018).

The Chinese construction industry is still a traditional
industry, characterised by low efficiency, high pollution,
large capital requirements and an amorphous
structure, hindering its development (Zeng, 2011).
As a labour-intensive industry, with low requirements
in terms of workers’ skills and education levels, andflexible employment, the construction industry has
become the main industry that employs rural migrant
workers (Zhao, 2018). Migrant workers are usuallysubjected to relatively low wages, long and irregular
working hours and a very intense pace of work. The
daily wage of a construction worker is around USD23.3(165 yuan, based on the exchange rate at the timeof writing of 1USD = 7.08 yuan) (Statista, 2020).The
vast majority of them do not receive written labour‘contracts’ and often only have verbal agreementswith labour subcontractors. Moreover, the construction
sector is traditionally dominated by men, with 88%
male employees and 12% female employees (Bohong,Li, & Yang, 2015).

The constructionindustry, driven by large
infrastructure projects, will
see rapid expansion and is
expected to create millions
of jobs in the coming years.

India

The Indian constructionindustry employs 35 million
people and its market size
is estimated to be valued at
USD126 billion.
The construction and realestate sectors in India are
expected to create over 15
million jobs in the next five
years, with an estimationof over 67 million people
working in the construction
and real estate sectors by
2022 (NITI Aayog, 2019).

Indonesia

The construction sector
in Indonesia employed
7.21 million people or
6.10% of total employment
in February 2014,
representing the strongest
performance of the sectorin over a decade.

The labour employed in the construction sector in
India is primarily informal and most of its workforce
consists of migrant rural workers. India’s construction
sector is labour-intensive and traditional, not requiring
skilled workers. The informality of the sector is
discussed in section 1.7. One-third of the workers in
the construction sector are women, working mostly as
helpers or unskilled workers. There remains a wage
disparity between male and female workers: womenare paid USD1.09 per day compared to the daily wageof USD1.36 of men (Devi & Kiran, 2013).

Most Indonesian construction labourers are unskilled,
not possessing a specific job skill. Meanwhile,
Indonesian labourers who are skilled have special
skills in carpentry (25%), bricklaying (20%), plumbing(14%) and painting (5%). For construction work, astandard of technical skills has been established,known as the National Work Competence Standardof Indonesia (SKKNI) (Adi, 2017). The daily wage of
construction labourers in Indonesia is USD0.19(1USD= 15717 IDR) (CEIC, Labor wage by occupation,2019). The construction sector is dominated by men.

20

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Nepal

Nepal’s constructionindustry has the secondlargest labour force
in the country, next toagriculture. It is estimatedthat this sector is creating
employment opportunities
to about 1 million people.
According to World Bank
data, 13.5% of the labour
force was employed in thisindustry, and is expected to
grow in future years.

In Nepal, the recruitment of labourers in the formal
sector through intermediaries (labour contracting),
called naikea, is an established practice in theconstruction sector. Labour outsourcing is responsible
for most of the labour in the construction industry.
Unskilled labourers recruited by naikeas receive onthe-job skills training (Wells, 2006). Informal labour inthe construction sector in Nepal is prevalent. Women’s
participation is primarily observed in unskilled labour,
where they earn a daily wage of between USD0.65
and USD0.91; while men in unskilled labour earn
between USD0.85 and USD1.07 (1USD = 123.05
NPR) (International Labour Organization [ILO], 2005).

Pakistan

Construction is one of
the most labour-intensive
industries in Pakistan – its
contribution to the labour
force in monetary terms(7.3%) is more than double
its contribution to GDP(2.7%) (SBP, 2020).Within
the construction industry,
housing is deemed to be
more labour-intensive,
especially in urban areas.
Thus, a projected boost in
the housing industry will goa long way in generatingurban employment.

Pakistan’s construction industry, in spite of its sizable
share in GDP and its fairly large contribution towards
employment generation, remains neglected, especiallyin relation to skills development among its workers.
Most of the construction enterprises in Pakistan remain
distanced from modern HR practice and therefore
do not consider investment in the development of
their human resources (Riaz, Din, & Aftab, 2015).
Women’s share of the labour force is 21.2%compared
to 78.8% for men. However, female participation in
the construction sector has increased over the years.
Most of these female workers are unskilled, working
as helpers, movers, labourers and carriers. However,
women in the construction sector earn a daily wage
almost equal to that of their male counterparts (ILO,
2011).
The daily wage of unskilled labour in 2017 was noted
to be around USD0.012 (1USD = 167 PKR) (CEIC,
2018).

2.7

Informal economy
A recent ILO report shows that 1.3 billion people work informally in the Asia-Pacific, comprising
65% of the world’s informally employed. Most of them lack social protection, rights at work anddecent working conditions. Informal employment represents the highest share in the industrial
sector (68.8%) in the Asia-Pacific region (ILO 2020).The construction sector requires legal
procedures such as tenders from the government, legal contracts and monitoring, but at thesame time employs labour on a completely casual basis. Therefore, while the sector is formal
it perpetuates informality.
China’s experience in the expansion of the informal economy is unique. It has established ahighly centralised economy. Those who have been laid off from public enterprises and large
numbers of internal migrant workers have been absorbed by small production units and service
industries in the private sector. The informal economy has thus become the source of alternative
employment and income opportunities for many workers who have lost jobs in the transition,yet, is rife with lack of skills and low productivity. Most informal workers are vulnerable, as theirlabour rights are easily infringed (Zhao, 2018). Women’s share in informal sector employment
in China is on the rise; a survey revealed that 42.39% of women were engaged in informal
employment in 2015 (Bohong, Li &Yang, 2015).
India’s construction sector has boomed, especially in the big cities such as Delhi, Mumbai,
Chennai and Bangalore. The workers employed on a casual basis are seldom registered with
the Labour Commission and therefore do not have any legal entitlements. Out of all workers
in the non-agriculture informal sector, 76% in rural areas and 72% in urban areas belong to21

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

India’s construction sector has boomed, especially in the big cities such as Delhi,
Mumbai, Chennai and Bangalore. The workers employed on a casual basis are
seldom registered with the Labour Commission and therefore do not have any legal
entitlements. Out of all workers in the non-agriculture informal sector, 76% in rural
construction,
manufacturing,
andareas
wholesale
andtoretailtrade. These
are sectors whereareas and
72% in urban
belongconstruction,
manufacturing,and majority
wholesaleof workers
in trade.
informal
employment(MoSPI,
2012).
See Table
3.
and areretailThese
are sectors
wheremajorityof workers
are in informal
employment (MOSPI, 2012). See table 3.
Table 3: Proportion of informal sector workers by sector activity in India
Table 3: Proportion of informal sector workers by sector activity in India
Source: MoSPI, 2012
Source: MOSPI, 2012
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

INDUSTRY ACTIVITY

RURAL

URBAN

Manufacturing

86%

78%

Construction

64%

72%

Wholesale or retail trade etc.

91%

92%

Transport, storage and communication

82%

68%

According to the World Bank, in 2007 almost 61% of the labour force belonged to theinformal sector in Indonesia. Yet, more recently, there has been considerable
Accordingto the towards
World Bank,in 2007 almostof the labour
force belonged
the informal
progressformalisationof the61%
economy.
In February
2014, intoIndonesia
sector 46.4%
in Indonesia.
Yet,
more
recently,
there
has
been
considerable
progresstowardsof those employed were working in the formal economy, while 53.6%
wereformalisationoftheeconomy.
In
February
2014,
inIndonesia
46.4%
of
those
employedworking in informal employment. The pattern of economic growth since 2010, were
workingin the formal
economy,while
53.6% were
working inreform
informal
employment.
The patternalongsidegains
in labour
productivity,
regulatory
andsocial securityof economic
growthsince
2010,
alongsidegains
inlabourproductivity,
regulatory
expansion, is likely to have played an important role in the shift towardsreform
formalandsocial employment
security expansion,islikelytohaveplayedanimportant
role
in
the
shift
towards
formalis inin Indonesia (ILO, 2014). In Nepal, more than 70% of the workforce
employment in Indonesia (ILO, 2014). In Nepal, more than 70% of the workforce is in thethe informal sector. Moreover, the country’s informal economy is rapidly expanding
informal sector. Moreover, the country’s informal economy is rapidly expanding (ILO, n.d.). In(ILO, n.d.). In Pakistan, the bulk of the female labour force is employed in the
Pakistan, the bulk of the female labour force is employed in the informal economy and is not
informal economy and is not covered by legal protection or labour welfare
covered by legal protection or labour welfare institutional mechanisms. In the urban informal
institutional mechanisms. In the urban informal sector of Pakistan, 67.5% of women
sector of Pakistan, 67.5% of women work as home-based or casual workers on low wages, orwork as home-based or casual workers on low wages, or as domestic workers withas domestic workers with extremely low remuneration (ILO, 2011).
extremely low remuneration (ILO, 2011).
Overall, the Asian construction sector employs a massive workforce of informal and unskilled
Overall,construction
sector employs
massivemodels
workforceof theinformalandworkers.
There theis a Asianneed todrive the adoptionof circularabusinesswithininformalworkers.
Thereandis abetterneed livelihoods
to drive theofadoptionof circularbusinessmodelssector,unskilled
to support
formalisation
the workforce.
Large-scalecapacity
withintheinformalsector,tosupportformalisation
andbetterlivelihoodsofthebuilding across the workforce in all sectors, in accordance with the shift to circular business
workforce.
capacitycampaigns
building acrossthe workforce
in allatsectors,
in ismodels,includingLarge-scale
awareness-raisingtargetingstakeholders
all levels,
accordance
with
the
shift
to
circularbusinessmodels,includingawareness-raising
required, complemented by an emphasis on sustainable design and technology adoption in the
campaigns
targeting stakeholders at all levels, is required, complemented by an
constructionindustry.

2.8emphasis on sustainable design and technology adoption in the constructionindustry.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Asia and the 		2.8
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Asia and the building andbuilding
andconstruction
sectorconstruction
sectorThe UNESCAP(2019) (2019)BaselineBaseline
report estimatesthat the Asia-Pacificregion willregion
miss allthe
The UNESCAP
report estimatesthat the Asia-Pacificwill2030 SDG targets considering the current pace of progress. Moreover, in view of the prolonged
miss all the 2030 SDG targets considering the current pace of progress. Moreover, in
lockdown in various countries of the Asian-region due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020,
view of the prolonged lockdown in various countries of the Asian-region due to thewith a registered slowdown of the economy, achieving the SDG targets will take more time
COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, with a registered slowdown of the economy, achieving
than anticipated by many monitoring bodies. With the growing informal sector in most Asianthe SDG targets will take more time than anticipated by many monitoring bodies.
countries, the region has seen negative trends in terms of Goal 6 (clean water and sanitation),
Goal 8 (decent work and economic growth) and Goal 12 (responsible consumption andStatus: FINAL
Document: SBC__CBE_SoP_Asia_FINAL 28 Sept
Version: 1.0
Zeenat Niazi, Apurva
Isha Sen
production). Among all the goals, SDG 12 (responsible
consumption and Authors:
production)
has Singh,
seen
Save Date: 28/09/2020
the greatest decline. The construction and housing sector in Asia significantly impacts manyof15 of 65
Page
the SDGs, so it is important to track the interrelationships between these impacts and goals,
as shown in Table 4 below, especially in the context of understanding resource efficiency andcircularity in the sector.

22

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Table 4: Significance of construction sector in Asia in relation to SDG goals
Source: Authors
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm
Goals

Impacts (direct/indirect)

Significance in the Asian context

1. No poverty

Poverty reduces access tohousing and infrastructure

3. Good healthand wellbeing

Quality shelter and safe
human settlements
contribute to better health,wellbeing and productivity.

As Asia is home to the world’s largest poor
population, improved access to shelter andquality housing is a critical need across theregion. This will mean the creation of housing
and infrastructure of a more permanent nature
and at a rapid pace. This requires shifts inconstruction technology and materials.

6. Clean waterand sanitation

Safe and resilient shelter
and human settlements are
required to ensure cleanwater and sanitation.

Harvesting rainwater and recycling wastewaterfor productive use will be necessary to satisfy
the demands of the growing populations ofcities, necessitating water system circularity atthe building and settlement levels in the designof new buildings and townships and the retrofitof older constructions.

8. Decent workand economic
growthThe construction sector is
one of the most significant
job creating sectors andpromotes GDP growth.

Most Asian countries are young, with a
median age of 32 years (Worldometer,2020) and there is a need for jobs anddecent work opportunities. Skills, jobs
and entrepreneurship, especially in ‘green
construction systems’, can promote lowcarbon and resource-efficient construction.

9. Industry,
innovationandinfrastructure

The building andconstruction industry
is important in terms of
economic development
and potential as wellas environmental andsocial impacts. Therefore,
innovation in the constructionindustry affects all threepillars of sustainability.

The construction sector in Asia is responding
to high demand and market potential in aresource - and climate-constrained context.
This drives research and innovation in design,
construction systems, business models andpolicies to promote resource efficiencies andcircular models in technology and businesssystems. Industrial development in Asia also
provides an opportunity for cross-sectoral
synergies or industrial symbiosis strategies.

11. Sustainable
cities andcommunities

The nature of buildings
and the construction sector
impact the sustainabilityof cities and humansettlements. The materiality,
technology and sustainabilityof buildings are in turnimpacted by city planning,land use and decisions
regarding settlement density.

Rapidly urbanising Asia has both greenfield(new cities) and brownfield (densification andexpansion of existing cities) situation. Newer
settlements that integrate circular models
in the design of buildings and communities
will need to ensure savings in materials andenergy, both at construction and at the end oflife of buildings. Brownfield situations will needto integrate strategies of recycling and reusing
construction debris and waste.

12. Responsible
consumption
andproduction

The building andconstruction sector is thelargest consumer of mineral
resources and energy, andhas a huge water footprint.
At the same time, users
or consumers of buildings
are driven by needs andaspirations that drive thenature and quantum of
market demand.

Enabling sustainable consumption andproduction (SCP) strategies in the construction
sector will bring savings in materials, energy
providing climate change mitigation benefits
and reduced ecological impacts. It will
also reduce the demand for materials thatare needed in other key sectors such as
agriculture (critical for the Asian region).
SCP in the building and construction sector isthe most significant connecting goal between
the social and economic development goals(1–11) and the environment management
goals (6, 7, 13–15).
23

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

3.

13. Climate
actionThe building andconstruction sector is thesecond-largest emitter of
GHGs. Material extraction
for building impacts landuse
and natural eco-systems
impact adaptive capacities
of natural systems and ofsociety.

Asia is the biggest contributor to global
CO2 emissions, accounting for almost 53%(Our World In Data, 2019). Additionally,
rapid urbanisation and the explosion of the
middleclass are pointing to increased percapita emissions. The Asian region also hashigh vulnerability to natural disasters andclimate change impacts. This requires thebuilding and construction sector to reduce
GHG emissions across its value chain andto respond to shifts in temperature andprecipitation in design, material use andconstruction systems in order to adapt to thechanges.

14. Life below
water

The extraction of sands
from river systems forconstruction impacts themarine life in rivers.

Asian rivers are the life blood of the agriculture
and energy sectors in Asia. Materials thatcan substitute river sand and/or construction
systems that do not require river sand areneeded in all Asian countries.

15. Life on land

Land use shifts from forest to
mining to mineral extraction
and from agriculture to urban
development impact land,
forests and biodiversity.

The Asian construction sector, especially inrural areas, depends significantly on biomass
and forest resources, even though this trend
is reducing. Timber, bamboo and agri-produce
provide zero waste to landfill models of
construction. However, the increased use ofland-based resources will require resource
regeneration strategies. At the same time,
the growth in the number and scale of humansettlements and the need for greater land use
efficiency must be addressed in the context ofa rapidly urbanising Asia.

17. Partnerships
for the goals

The construction sector does
not work in isolation. By
nature, it brings in a varied
range of stakeholders thatcreate, manage and operate
the built environment.

The construction sector throughout most of
Asia has a high degree of informality acrossits value chain connected to a well-establishedformal market response system. All countries
have well-developed institutional frameworks
with standards and regulations that govern
and guide the sector. The Asian construction
materials sector is also connected withinternational trade flows. Domestic, interregional and international public–private
partnerships can provide knowledge sharing,
technology transfer and learning.

Circularity in the construction sector
A circular economy approach calls for ‘closing the loop’ in production and consumption cycles
and is based on the following three key principles (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017):
1. Design out waste and pollution
2. Keep products and materials in use
3. Regenerate natural systems.
Circular economy thinking necessitates that the production and consumption systems be seen
systemically beyond the waste minimisation and recycle and reuse approaches. Closing theloop essentially means zero waste in both production and consumption processes; it means
maintaining the highest value of resources within a production system for the maximum time,24State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

requiring durability and increasing the lifespan of products; and it means the return of resources
into the eco-system after use in essentially the same state as they were drawn out – thus using
regenerative methods. Three shifts in our ways of production and consumption are therefore
called for:• Design re-think or eco-design• Process re-think or eco-production• Use re-think or eco-consumption‘The concept of circular economy is about decoupling growth from resource consumption
and maximizing the positive environmental, economic and social effects’ (World Economic
Forum, 2014). The Green Growth Knowledge Platform has called it ‘more with less for more’.
Circular economy thinking is thus a trans-economy systems thinking approach that addresses
production and consumption processes across different sectors and explores the possibilityof creating synergies and value from the by-products of all processes. In addition, it provides
new economic opportunities for local wealth and prosperity, a necessary outcome for theachievement of the SDGs. The key operational elements emerging from these principles are
as follows:• Products and production systems are designed such that they generate no waste.
By-products from one process in the production cycle become inputs for another in thesame or a different sector.
• Products are designed for extended life, reuse and repair, thus ensuring that the valueof resources in the consumption cycle is retained for as long as possible.
• Products that cannot be reused any more for a different application are refurbished andpreferably upcycled so as to retain or enhance the resource value in the system while
maintaining the CO2 footprint of the new product or service.
• Consumer behaviours change from consumption to use, such that ownership gives way
to sharing, renting and leasing, thus expanding product use, and services are the new
products.
• End of life and next life conception is a key criterion in the design of products andproduction processes. All products have to be either biodegradable or durable sothat everything can be either reused or put back into nature. Disposable products are
replaced by biodegradable resources, while extended life and reuse, repair, retrofit
or recycle methods are applied to durables. Complex objects are designed to be
dismantled so that they can be sorted into either the ‘to be composted at the end oflife’ or ‘to be recycled as a next life ’category once they are no longer in use (TheEarthbound Report, 2014).

4.

State of circularity in the construction sector in
Asia
The Asian region encompasses huge diversity in terms of material resources, geo-climaticconditions and the cultural traditions that have influenced its building practices. Although theregion is rapidly urbanising, over 50% of its population still lives in rural areas (Worldometer,2020) and many of these rural areas still employ vernacular construction practices dependent
on low processed earth, stone and biomass resources. Some of these vernacular ways ofbuilding are providing inspiration and a basis for the new circular models in construction and
it is therefore important to understand the inherent and embedded aspects of circularity in thevernacular traditions in the region.
The construction technologies, material use and practices are transforming quite rapidly inthe urban areas. However, as different aspects of the construction practice are managed and25

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

controlled by different stakeholders, the changes are not seen uniformly across the value chainof construction in rural and urban areas. Consequently, we do not see a holistic ‘circular building
approach across the life cycle’ in either urban or rural areas. However, we do find examplesof the core principles of circularity (as discussed in the previous section) in different phases ofthe building lifecycle, including: (1) design – of the building as well as of the building products;(2) manufacturing – both of the products and the construction of buildings; (3) building use– use of the buildings and of the built environment more broadly; and finally (4) post life –reuse as well as recycling of materials and building elements, that is, reuse of deconstruction
and construction debris. The sample buildings presented in this chapter are by no meanscomprehensive, but they do give us an idea of how the core principles of circularity are being
applied in building and construction. For example, these applications include: (a) designingout wastes from the production and construction processes by using modular assembly–based
products and modular designing; (b) keeping resources in use through durable design,
adaptive reuse of buildings, reuse of building elements, recycling of construction debris at
the end of building life, recycling water and energy or using secondary materials from otherindustrial processes; and (c) contributing to the regeneration of natural systems by opting
for recyclable and biodegradable products such as bamboo, timbers and earth in different
phases of the building lifecycle.

4.1

The vernacular view of circularity
Vernacular traditions in Asia reflect the core principles of harmony with nature and in materialuse.Civic architecture in rural areas has been based on the use of available natural resources,
mainly low processed lime, stone and earth, and biomass. With perishable materials being
returned to the earth, only community buildings such as temples were expected to last for a longtime, while common people’s homes would be renewed often (Ranjith, 2018). Based on local
material availability, the building elements of vernacular homes are more or less standardised
and modular. Therefore, windows, lintels, beams and roofing units are sized so that they canbe reused in new buildings.
In most Asian countries, 50–70% of the total population still lives in rural areas. And eventhough there are shifts in the materiality of construction in these regions, there remains a hugedependence on biomass – timbers, bamboos and other grasses – for structural support, wall
panels, roof under-structure and thatching. The Asian region accounts for 65% of the total
bamboo production in the world. And within the region, China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines,
Vietnam and Myanmar use the largest share of bamboo, with Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh
following close behind(Lobovikov et al., 2007). Bamboo is used widely in the rural buildings inthese countries, for all parts of the building. Indeed, in India, a special bamboo mission wasestablished and the Prime Minister’s rural housing programme supported the documentationand standardisation of design of rural home options using engineered and treated bamboo
products. A growing industry of ‘Bamboo Wood’, which consists of bamboo slivers in resin
shaped as timber sections, used for supporting beams, door frames and furniture and floorboards, is growing in both China and India (DA & CANSA, n.d.).

4.1.1 Examples of vernacular and indigenous construction
4.1.1.1 Use of rammed earth
Rammed earth is an ancient construction technique based on compacting loose soil inside aformwork in successive layers to make a homogeneous wall. The technique has been developed
independently in different regions of the world, with variations according to a number of factors,
such as the availability of materials and the capacity of the workforce (Schneider et al., 2019).
Rammed earth has been applied as a vernacular practice in Asian countries including Bhutan,
China, India and Nepal, and provides many advantages in terms of sustainability compared to26

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

other traditional and modern construction methods (Jaquin, 2011). The soil for the construction
can be sourced onsite, at zero or almost zero cost, providing a solution for housing in remoteareas and avoiding the consumption of energy in transportation. Besides, rammed earth
structures are durable and do not require any painting or wall treatment, ensuring easy, lowcost maintenance.
An example of rammed earth usage is a typical Bhutanese house, wherein a three-storey
rammed earth structure with space for livestock on the ground floor, a grain store on the middle
floor and living quarters on the top floor are constructed. Another storage space for drying meatand vegetables is normally kept between the top floor and the roof (Natural Homes Bhutan,
2020).

4.1.1.2 Tribal architecture
Sherdukpen houses in Arunachal Pradesh, India: Sherdukpen houses are usually
rectangular, built on three levels with a ridged-roof, and often with a Tibetan Buddhist prayer
flagpole on top. Floors are made of wood. Walls are made of stone from the ground up to halfa metre above the floor of the living room and then wood above that, withbamboo matting walls
on the second floor. The roof is covered with wooden shingles and stone weights, although
recently layers of bamboo matting or metal have been used (Kolkman & Blackburn, 2014).
Bamboo in these regions is locally available and reusable.
Batak architecture, Indonesia: The Batak are one of the many ancient populations ofIndonesia. They live in the volcanic regions of northern Sumatra. The traditional house of the
Batak Toba community (See Figure 12),‘rumahadat’, is essentially a rectangular infrastructurecomposed of impressively large wooden pillars resting on flat stones that protect the residents
from humidity. At the front of the house are two rows of pillars that support the entrance. The
pillars are connected to each other by inset planks that not only help to stabilise, but also toform a more closed structure in which to keep livestock (Ownvilla, 2018). Stone and wood,
which are the primary construction materials of the Batak houses, can be reused for future
constructions.

Figure 12: Batak house
Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 201927

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

4.2

Biomass-based construction in Asia: bamboo, timbers andagri-residue
The Asian region has the world’s largest bamboo reserves, mainly found in India, China,
Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines and Vietnam. Figures 13 and 14 show the contributionof bamboo by continent and countries in the Asian region, respectively. Table 5 the extent ofbamboo forest area as reported by previous inventories.
This material has been traditionally used in almost all parts of building – as under-structure forroofs, roofing tiles and structural framing, wall panels, floors, and door frames and door panels.
There are three kinds of bamboo housing: the traditional houses that use whole bamboo culms
as the primary building material, and bamboo mesh panels plastered with clay; an upgradedtype in which bamboo panels are plastered with cement and lime and panels are standard andmodular sizes; and modern prefabricated engineered bamboo buildings made from laminatedboards, veneers and panels. Along with rural and vernacular applications, the use of bamboo
treatments and re-engineering that produce longer-lasting building products for modern
applications is now growing across Asia. Resin-bonded bamboo wood, bamboo panels madefrom woven bamboo mats and bamboo particle boards are now being produced by both smallscale entrepreneurs and large factories. China started producing bamboo panels as early as
the 19th century. Presently, more than 20 different types of bamboo panels are manufactured
in Asia, and bamboo wood and bamboo floor boards are particularly popular. In 2004, China
was producing over 17.5 million square metres of bamboo floor boards annually, supplying tomarkets across Asia and Europe. Now this technology is available in India and Indonesia also
(Lobovikov et al., 2007).

Chart Title

7%

ASIA
AFRICAAMERICA

28%
65%
Asia

AfricaAmericaFigure 13: Contribution of bamboo by continent
Source: Lobovikov et al., 2007
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

Chart Title

INDIA

30%

CHINA

43%

INDONESIAECUADORMYANMAR
VIET NAM

14%
2%
India

China

Indonesia

2% 4% 5%
Ecuador

MyanmarOTHERS

Vietnam

OthersFigure 14: Countries with largest bamboo resources
Source: Lobovikov et al., 2007
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm
28

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Table 5: Extent of bamboo forest area as reported by previous inventories (1000 ha)
Source: Lobovikov et al., 2007
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm
Country

FRA 1980

FRA 1985

Kigomo 1988

FRA 2000

213

23

Bangladesh
Cambodia

380

380

China
India

3 300
1 440

1 420

Japan
Lao People's
Democratic Republic

34
9 570
125

600

600

1 532
20

Malaysia
Myanmar

632

617

Nepal

1

1

3 251
8

Philippines

8

Republic of Korea

4.3

4 211

Thailand

900

865

1 020

261

Viet Nam

1 200

1 200

1 300

813

Construction and structural application
Traditionally bamboo culms were used as primary building materials for constructing houses
or a bamboo frame was plastered with cement or clay, but building practices are now shifting
towards the construction of prefabricated bamboo houses with the help of bamboo-based
panels, veneers and laminated boards. Figure 15 shows some examples. The technology thathas evolved can be used for the construction of low-cost (single-storey) houses, for a cost
ranging from approximately USD45 to USD75 (1USD = 73 INR) per square meter, dependingon the design of the house and the nature of the interior finish. Research and technology
development has resulted in improving the technology and techniques used to produce
bamboo that is suitable for construction. There has been improvement in bamboo preservationand protection technology as well as in jointing techniques so that the use of bamboo can beproliferated as construction material. These technologies are helping to increase the durabilityof bamboo as a construction material (DA & CANSA, n.d.).
Agri-residues also offer huge potential as a construction material in the Asian region (Bentsen,
Felby & Thorsen, 2014). The use of a variety of grasses and rice stalks in thatching is anestablished rural practice. Agri-residues have been compressed and bonded to produce wall
panels and boards. Engineered straw-bale construction is a recent innovation of which someexamples are seen in China.

29

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Draft Case Study

Traditional Bamboo Roof

Traditional BambooWindow

Traditional WallModern Bamboo Roof

Modern Bamboo Window

Modern Bamboo Wall

BambooConstruction and Structure Application
Figure15: Transformationof traditionalmodernTraditionally,
bambooculms1 were usedas primarybamboo
buildingconstruction
materials fortoconstructing
houses orconstruction
techniquesbamboo frame was plastered with cement or clay which has now shifted to the construction of
Source: DA& CANSA,n.d. bamboo is used to make prefabricatedprefabricated bamboo housing. In modern
times,
engineeredbamboo houses with the help of bamboo based panels, veneers, and laminated boards. The technology
evolved can be effectively adopted for construction of low-cost (single storied) houses with cost ranging
300 International
to 500 per square feetdependingupon the design ofthe house andnature of interior
4.3.1 from
TheRs.
first
BambooArchitecture
Biennale,Chinafinish, and also upon the local conditions (K.Shyamasundar and Jagadish Vengala, u.d). Lot of
The first International
was and
heldtechniquesin Baoxi, Longquan,
China,
development
has takenBamboo
place toArchitecture
improve theBiennale
technologythat can beused onto make
28 September 2016, which showcased the work of 11 architects who used bamboo as thebamboo suitable for construction. There has been improvement in the preservation and protection
primary building material to construct structures in the rural space (CDC, 2018). See Figures
technology
16 and 17. of bamboo as well as in jointing techniques so that the use of bamboo can be proliferated as
construction material. These technologies are helping in increasing the durability of bamboo as
construction material. Advances in structural engineering and the development of bamboo composites
have opened new vistas for lightweight, durable and aesthetic construction for a variety of applications
with proper treatment.

1

The woody, hollow aerial stems of bamboo grow in branching clusters from a thick underground stem (rhizome).

2
Figure 16: Left: Contemporary Celadon
Ceramic Museum; Right: Welcome Center

Figure 17: Eco-energy efficientexperimental house.

Source: CDC (2018)

Source: CDC (2018)30

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

4.3.2 Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institutes 		(IPIRTI)
IPIRTI is an autonomous body under the Indian Government’s Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change (MoEFCC). It is an innovative organisation dedicated to developing newenvironmentally friendly technologies for the wood-based industries. One of IPIRTI’s areasof applied research is developing technologies for manufacturing wood alternatives fromnatural/renewable fibers. It has also come up with new and innovative bamboo-based products
such as bamboo mat corrugated roofing sheets, bamboo mat board and bamboo mat veneer
composites. IPIRTI has been involved in the construction of affordable housing and earthquakeresistant housing systems using bamboo and its composites (DA & CANSA, n.d.). Figure 18 isa demonstration house constructed using wood alternatives by IPIRTI.

Figure 18: Demonstration House
Source: IPIRTI Bangalore, 2001

4.3.3 Straw bale as a construction material: Heilongjiang, China
In June 2000, the Province of Heilongjian in north-east China joined with the international
non-government organisation (NGO) Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) in a
project with an objective to promote energy-efficient housing in the local rural communities of
the region. (China Daily 2005, Schneider et al., 2019). As the region is one of China’s grain
production bases, especially of wheat, for this initiative ADRA elected to employ straw bales
as the insulation material used in the construction of houses. In comparison to conventional
construction with bricks and rocks, straw bale housing is a more efficient insulator, thereby
reducing fuel consumption in the house (IGES, 2010). The material also improves housing
resistance to earthquakes, given its enhanced elasticity compared to traditional building
materials, and allows for constructions with much lower costs (IGES, 2010).As of 2009, morethan 600 buildings had been built within the project, which, in 2005, won the United Nations
World Habitat Award. One of the key achievements of the project was the cooperation withlocal communities and local government to empower and build capacity, involving them in the
housing design, material acquisition and village education (World Habitat, 2017).

31

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

4.3.4 Timber construction in Malaysia
Indigenous construction in Malaysia has often made use of timber as a material due to its
local abundance. In recent times, Malaysia’s National Green Technology Policy establishedstandards for construction under the Timber Certification Scheme enacted by the Malaysian
Timber Certification Council which is responsible for the overall development of the timberindustry in the country. In Malaysia, timber is mainly used for non-structural elements such as
formworks, panelling and partitions (MTCC, 2020).

4.3.5 Forest Research Institute of Malaysia, Selangor
The use of three-dimensional structural systems in building construction is derived fromprogress made in jointing techniques. With a three-dimensional structure, loads are spread inall directions and forces are balanced out. As a result, less material with less weight is required
for a three-dimensional structural system. The development of this structural system can beseen at the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia where, in 1989, an experimental shed for a
motorbike parking space was built using a timber space frame. Space frame structures provide
a more economical solution where reused off-cut timber is used to construct roof members.
This form of construction represents another feasible alternative for long-span structures that
illustrates versatility, strength and potential for industrialised prefabrication (Wong, 1995).
Engineered wood products like glue-laminated posts and beams and cross-laminated timber
panels are being experimented with in the architectural design space. In 2011, the Malaysian
Timber Industry Board built Galeri Gulam in Johor Bharu, the first completed building in the
country that uses glulam beams for its main structure (Shari, 2019).

4.4

Circular principles in building product and space design
Modularity as the core principle of design of both space and building elements lends itselfvery well to circularity – it involves assembly, disassembly and reuse after the useful life of thebuilding is over.
At one end is building element modularity promoted through industrial building systems (IBS)or prefabricated building elements assembled onsite (such as assembly-based interlocking
blocks for masonry, or Hydraform), standard lintel and opening elements, stone slabs for roofs,
steel frame under-structure, precast concrete elements for roofs and panels for walls suchas brick panels, RCC planks and joists, and ferro-cement panels. These systems, although
not always properly used, are seen in a number of Asian countries including Malaysia, India
and Nepal. They were first promoted with the aim of reducing waste during the construction
process and enhancing quality and resource efficiency. They are mainly used in integrated
structures where core elements are prefabricated and assembled and the roof slabs, stairways
and service cores are cast onsite (Schneider et al., 2019). At the other end is complete unit
modularisation, as we see in the case of the Clement Canopy in Singapore, discussed below.
Disassembly of both individual building elements as well as complete unit design would be abasic requirement for future circularity at the end of a building’s life.
Modularity in space design, such that the building may be repurposed to increase its usefullife, is used for the purpose of heritage conservation in Asia. There are many examples ofrepurposing or adaptive reuse of old buildings such as the conversion of industrial sheds
and factories into offices or exhibition spaces. The most popular examples are seen in thehospitality sector where heritage buildings and historic housing developments are converted
into shopping spaces, heritage hotels and museums. This has the advantage of maintaining
the character of a city and retaining cultural continuity while saving on materials and costs.
Examples can be found in Singapore (Development Asia, 2017; Urban Hub, 2018), China(JLL, 2018; M Moser Associates, 2019), India (Thakkar, 2018), Thailand and Malaysia (ASEAN

32

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Tourism, 2015). However, these are mainly niche architectural and urban regeneration projects,
and there are no such examples in mass housing. This is primarily because it is more financially
viable for developers to pull down old structures and rebuild afresh when undertaking thehigher-density construction required for housing developments. This process does generatesome construction debris that can be reused, but the reuse of whole buildings in this context
is not preferred.

4.4.1 Examples of circularity in building product and design
4.4.1.1 Lego-style prefab construction: The Clement Canopy, Singapore
Standing at 140 metres tall, the 40-storey residential twin towers of the Clement Canopy private
condominium at Clementi Avenue 1 in Singapore are considered the world’s tallest concrete
modular towers, built using the prefabricated prefinished volumetric construction (PPVC)
method. In modular construction, the carcass of the building and the modules are completed in
an offsite factory before they are transported to the site and assembled. With the PPVC method,
construction time is 24 to 30 months, a 20–30% reduction on the time required for businessas-usual construction. Lifting operations to hoist the modules into place are also less noisy anddusty than traditional construction methods. Another benefit of modular construction as seen in
the Clement Canopy is the consistent high quality, as up to 85% of the interior finishing is predone before assembly. The fittings in each module are completed in a controlled environment
at an offsite production facility. This includes plumbing, tiling and waterproofing works, wallfinishes and painting, installation of electrical outlets, and the installation of air-conditioning
units, as well as doors and window frames. The Cement Canopy under construction is seenin Other finishing work completed offsite includes the installation of wooden flooring, kitchencabinets and bathroom units (Shari 2019).

4.4.1.2 Space reuse: Stone Art Gallery, Guangzhou, China
The Stone Art Gallery (See Figure 19) is an architectural experiment involving an industrialsite that has been transformed into a postmodern relic, located in the highly urbanised Pearl
River Delta Area in Guangdong Province, China (DIVISARE, 2017). This renovation project
was aimed at establishing a new art gallery to showcase stone art and culture, within the
1960s building. In order to preserve the historic memory of the era of centralised state-based
economic planning, the building and site context of the YJQ building was fully respected andmaintained in the design scheme. A cross-shaped public area is the backbone linking theinterior and outdoor spaces. It works as the T-stage of the gallery and allows for various formsof exhibit and activity, including art performance or forums. The remaining interior space isdesigned to house specific showcases, and a cafeteria and sitting area. Again, a cross-shaped
office deck has been implanted into the prefab concrete structural framework and hung above
the public space, highlighting its core area. The bottom of the new steel-structure deck is
furnished with translucent polycarbonate panels, and includes an LED lighting installation. Thisimplanted lighting vessel floats in the air of the historic brutal prefab concrete structure. The
architectural dialogue has been created between the new and the old, between the weight andthe weightless, between the past and the future, all together form the performing backgroundof the stone art, the art that represents a billion years of geological memory.

33

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Figure 19: Stone Art Gallery, Guangzhou
Source DIVISARE, 2017

4.4.1.3 Adaptive reuse of Kolkata Town Hall, India
The British-built Kolkata Town Hall in 1813 in Kolkata, India, is located in a central business
district. The town hall was designed on the Palladian-Doric Roman style, reflecting thephysicality and functionality of the city at that time. The process of restoration included repair
work of different building elements such as roofs, floors and doors. The building currently
comprises the first high-tech storytelling museum Kolkata Panorama, a public gathering space,an administrative area, an academic seminar area and a sociocultural event area. Figure 20
shows the Kolkata Town Hall before and after restoration (Wikimedia Commons, n.d.).

Figure 20: Kolkata Town Hall, before and after restoration
Source: Wikimedia Commons, n.d.

34

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

4.4.1.4 Industrialised building systems: Malaysia
IBS are construction methods characterised by the mass production of structural components
in a factory or at site. The use of IBS in construction allows for a higher-quality control ofthe structural components, less labour onsite, reduced construction time and cost savings.
Additionally, IBS represents a more sustainable construction method compared to conventional
systems, generating less waste due to the controlled production and enabling faster and lessenergy and water consuming construction works.
Since the early 1960s, the Malaysian Government has undertaken efforts to establish andsuccessfully implement this practice throughout the country. Jalan Pekelling Flat in Figure 21
is the first IBS undertaking initiated by the Government at Jalan Pekeliling, Kuala Lumpur. In
the 1990s, IBS became more popular with the construction of many infrastructure and mega
projects, such as the Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre and the Kuala Lumpur International
Airport. In 1999, the Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) formed the IBS Steering
Committee to promote a greater use of IBS in the Malaysian construction industry, leading to
the development of different strategic plans and roadmaps for IBS in the country. However,many efforts did not result in significant progress. Therefore, Malaysia’s Construction Industry
Transformation Programme 2016–2020 emphasises the importance of accelerating the
adoption of IBS in the country’s construction industry.

Figure 21: Jalan Pekeliling Flat, Kuala Lumpur
Source: Othuman Mydin et al., 2014

4.5

Materials and building elements: extraction, manufacturing
and construction
Many Asian countries are blessed with large mineral deposits and natural ores that are
extracted for use in the building and other industries such as automobile and white goods
manufacture. Industrial efficiencies that reduce material wastage and use the by-productsof mining and material production are becoming increasingly prevalent in the Asian region.
For example, China and India boast one of the most efficient industry standards as far as
production of steel and cement is concerned. Extraction and manufacturing processes produce
many by-products that are increasingly being seen as secondary resources that can substituteprimary resources in the building industry. The case study of fly-ash from the power sector
being utilised as a limestone replacement in cements and a soil replacement in bricks is now anestablished practice, accompanied by industry standards and regulatory guidelines that govern
the quality of the products being manufactured from these secondary materials. Similarly, slagfrom iron and steel and red mud waste from aluminium production have been used to replaceaggregates and soils in concrete and bricks. The most recent breakthrough in mining waste

35

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

utilisation comes from the use of china clay mine over-draft as a substitute for virgin limestone
in cement production, resulting in reduced requirement of raw material and emissions. This
industrial symbiosis is not unique to the Asian region, but has tremendous potential in Asia,
especially in the new industrialising countries in South and South-East Asia and in China. It
provides a source of materials that was hitherto ignored or considered to be a waste or anenvironmental hazard. This enables savings in virgin materials, partially decoupling resource
use and environmental impact from development. Table 6 provides some examples of industrial
symbiosis.
Table 6: Potential industrial symbiosis applications and analysis studies
Source: Neves et al., 2019
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm
State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia
State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Country

Location

SectorWaste/Secondary materials

Country
China

Location
HandanChina

HandanSectorAgriculture, manufacturing
and energy
Agriculture, manufacturing
and energy

Waste/Secondary materials
Ash, water and wastewater,
plastics and rubber, waste heat
Ash, water and wastewater,and steam, metallic and others
plastics and rubber, waste heatand steam, metallic and others
Plastics and rubber, organic andothersPlastics and rubber, organic andothersShanghai Cityand Jiangsu
Shanghai City
Province
and Jiangsu
Province
JinqiaoJinqiaoYunfu
Yunfu
GuiyangGuiyang
Liuzhou
Liuzhou
Wuhan
Country

Wuhan
Location

Country
South
Korea
South
Korea
Japan

Location
Ulsan
Ulsan
Shinchi Town

Japan

ShinchiTown
Tanegashima

Tanegashima
Malaysia Kedah
Malaysia Kedah

Manufacturing and urban
areas
Manufacturing and urban
areas
Manufacturing, energy andwater and waste
Manufacturing, energy andwater and waste
Manufacturing
and energy
Manufacturing and energy
Manufacturing, energy, andcommercial and residential
Manufacturing, energy, andconstruction sectors
commercial and residential
construction sectors
Manufacturing,energy andconstruction
Manufacturing, energy andconstructionmanufacturing,
Agriculture,

Sludge and waste oil
Sludge and waste oil
Chemicals and waste heat andsteam
Chemicals and waste heat andsteam plastics and rubber, ash,
Metallic,
waste heat and steam, and others
Metallic, plastics and rubber, ash,waste heat and steam, and others
Chemicals, waste heat and steam,plastics and rubber, and ash
Chemicals, waste heat and steam,plasticsand
andwastewater,
rubber, andsludge,
ash
Water

and water and waste
Agriculture, manufacturing,
and water and waste
Sectorand paper
Water and wastewater, sludge,
and paper
Waste/secondary
materials

SectorManufacturing
and urban
area
Manufacturing and urban
area
Manufacturing and energy

Waste/secondary
Wood,plastics andmaterials
rubber, waste
heat and steam
Wood, plastics and rubber, waste
heat
and
steam
Waste
heat
and steam

Manufacturing
and energy
Agriculture, manufacturing
and energy
Agriculture, manufacturing
andenergyManufacturing,energy, andwater and waste
Manufacturing, energy, andwater and waste

Waste
Waste heat
heat andand steamsteam, organic
and wood
Waste heat and steam, organic
andwood plastics and rubber,
Chemicals,organic waste, water andChemicals, plastics and rubber,wastewater, and sludge
organic waste, water andwastewater,and sludge
Organic, plastics
and rubber,TurkeyGaziantep

TurkeyGaziantep

Manufacturing, energy,
water and wastes
Manufacturing, energy,
water and wastes

AnkaraManufacturing

India

AnkaraBihar, Odisha

Manufacturing

India

Bihar, Odisha

Manufacturing

sludge, chemicals, non-metallic,
Organic, plastics and rubber,waste heat and steam, and otherssludge, chemicals, non-metallic,
waste
Wasteheat
heat andand steam,steam and others

Waste
and
Fly-ash,heatslag,
redsteammud, China clay
mine wastes
Fly-ash, slag, red mud, China clay
mine wastes

Examples of circularity in material manufacturing
Examples of circularity in material manufacturing
Metal product supply chain in South Asia’s building sector (Balakrishnan et al., 2016)36

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

4.5.1 Examples of circularity in material manufacturing
4.5.1.1 Metal product supply chain in South Asia’s building sector
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) make a significant contribution to the environmental
and resource friendliness of production processes in Asia. Against this background, a team oflocal and international project partners has begun advising 400 enterprises from the metalworking
and building sectors in Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka through the METABUILD project(2016–20) onthe adoption of sustainable production processes in the metal products supply
chain for the building and construction sector (Balakrishnan et al., 2016). The project’s target
industries cover steel rerolling mills, ferrous and non-ferrous foundries, and blacksmith andlight engineering products that are linked to the construction sector, such as bathroom fittings,
electrical cables, roofing materials, gates, doors, grills and frames. The project is funded by the
EU SWITCH-Asia Programme.

4.5.1.2 Coal gasification plant and the use of by-products: Angul, India
Jindal Steel and Power Ltd’s Angul site has adopted the use of coal for steel making. The lackof natural gas at the Angul site was overcome by an innovation: a coal to gas plant was set
up at Angul. It uses high ash coal that is available in the vicinity of the site and converts it into
synthetic gas, or syngas. It is the first plant of its kind in India and the second in the world. At
Angul the syngas contains methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and water
vapour from coal, water and air produced by the gasification process. This process has a lesser
impact on the environment compared to the coal combustion process – the CO2 emitted in theprocess is entirely absorbed back into the process and all of the hydrogen sulphide emitted
is converted into sulphur production. The setting up of the syngas plant required a very large
initial investment and had a long gestation period of three years. But it will improve energy
efficiency and reduce the environmental impact in the long term. In addition, all the sevenby-products of the Syngas plant are being recycled through internal use or by sale to external
parties. This also protects the health and safety of employees and local communities, andsupports environmental protection (Jindal Steel Power, 2020).

4.5.1.3 Fly-ash brick industry in India
The Indian brick industry is dominated by resource depleting and highly polluting technologies.
In Bihar in East India, the production of fired clay bricks consumes around 4.8 million tonnes ofcoal per year, emitting 16 million tonnes of CO2 (Schneider, et al., 2019). About 6000 acres ofland are destroyed every year in the city due to red brick kilns, compromising the agriculturalland in the region and depleting groundwater sources. In response to the issue, the Bihar
State Pollution Control has mandated the adoption of fly-ash brick by all traditional brickkilns. In many markets, fly-ash can be a cost-effective substitute for Portland cement with theadvantage of being more environmentally friendly, given that it is a by-product and has low
embodied energy. Moreover, the production of fly-ash requires less water than the productionof Portland cement and includes other benefits such as better resistance to cold weather,greater workability, reduction of cracking, permeability problems, and CO2 emission reduction.
In addition, the technology does not consume any top soil in the brick production process andpresents an opportunity for Bihar to shift to a technology that promotes circularity through theemployment of by-products in production and thereby reduces the use of natural resources.
In order to promote the utilisation of fly-ash, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change (MoEFCC) of the Government of India has issued a notification under the Environment(Protection) Act 1986,dated 14 September 1999, stating that the manufacturing of clay brick,tiles or blocks for construction within a radius of 300 kilometres from coal- or lignite-based
thermal power plants should contain a mix of at least 25% of ash (that is, fly-ash, bottom ash or

37

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

pond ash) . Besides, every construction agency located within the same radius should use only
fly-ash-based products for construction, such as cement or concrete, fly-ash bricks or tiles, orclay fly-ash bricks. Moreover, in the 2019 budget, the Indian Government reduced GST from
18% to 5% on products like fly-ash or fly-ash aggregate with 90% or more fly-ash content.

4.6

Building use phase
Circular models in the building use phase can be classified into two types: (1) circular models
for building services (water, energy and sewage); and (2) circular models of space use.
Circularity in building services includes water systems, energy systems and sewage. Integrated
during the design phase, double/triple plumbing systems that enable water recycling and reuse,heat exchange for space conditioning and water heating, and human excreta to compost andhorticulture are now mainstreamed in architectural projects across the world, and Asia is no
exception. However, these are primarily seen in institutional and commercial buildings. The
integration of circular building services is not common in housing, especially mass housing.
While circularity in water and sewage services can be retrofitted in older buildings, boththe expense and the facilitation of different stakeholders involved often make it unviable.
However, many countries have introduced water and energy circularity as mandatory in new
constructions of all building types, whether institutional, commercial or residential. It also helps
that circularity in building services is recognised and awarded points in the building rating
systems that are popular in different Asian countries; for example, green buildings rated by
Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) are awarded extra Floor Aspect
Ratio (FAR) and financial assistance (Indian Green Building Council, 2020).Thus, there are
now a growing number of examples of circular building services in greenfield developments
and new urbanising areas.
While rural and vernacular houses in many Asian countries traditionally incorporated
mechanisms for heat exchange and waste to compost into their design features, these aredisappearing as lifestyle changes and building styles respond to the forms and structures ofindustrial modern architecture. For example, in Mughal architecture, inspired by the gardens ofparadise in the Holy Quran, vegetation was added to improve the quality of outer spaces and toenhance cooling by evapo-transpiration. Fountains or Nahar-i-Bahisht (water channels) werealso installed in internal spaces to modify the internal environment (Ali, 2012).
Another type is seen in the circularity of services at the urban scale. This is not very popular
but there are some examples of integrated development that connect extra heat, energy andtreated water generated from residential to industrial and agricultural use. This brings analignment with sustainable urban and regional planning principles.
Circular models in space use during the building use phase include the adaptive reuse ofbuildings, remodelling from one application to another, or space sharing within or themultipurpose use of buildings. The concept of multipurpose buildings and shared space iswell known throughout Asia and can be understood as a feature of community/institutionaland business model design for circular models in the building and construction sector. There
are innumerable examples of community buildings being used for a variety of functions, suchas schools, neighbourhood meeting places, wedding halls and common activity areas. There
are also examples of community kitchens and community washing areas, where the same
space is used by many, thus eliminating the need to build additional structures. The early wave
of urbanisation in cities like Mumbai, Bangkok and Shanghai has involved co-living models
for migrant workers employed in factories and industries. However, serviced and technologysupported space sharing as a business model is a fairly new concept. Co-working and coliving models are now fairly common across Asian cities, particularly given the high demand
for affordable living and working spaces for the neo-urbanite young working population. In the38

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

residential sector, co-living concepts have been developed more recently in high rent cities toaddress the need for affordable housing for young people. Community-driven shared spaces
in which people cook together, eat together and launder together are key features of co-living
spaces, again designed to increase density and facilitate social interaction.

4.6.1 Natural heating using the ‘kang’ arrangement: ancient northern
China
A kang system consists of a stove, a kang (bed), channels and a chimney. It utilises theresidual heat of smoke produced by a cooking stove, which burns biomaterials; uses the bed
frame to release heat into the bedroom; and releases the smoke via a chimney. A kang system
supports four different home functions of cooking, sleeping, domestic heating and ventilation.
The ventilation is integrated into one system, which harnesses the energy from the biomass
burnt for both cooking and space heating and thus reduces the use of commercial energy.
This method developed out of the accumulated traditional knowledge and experience ofcrafts people, handed down from one generation to another; and, according to the Ministryof Agriculture, over 67 million kangs are still being used by 175 million people in China today(Sun, 2013). Figure 22 shows the plan and section layout of the ‘kang’ arrangement.

SMOKE DAMPER

CHIMNEY

INSULATED WALL

COOKING POT

FLUE

FUME
STOPPERSTOVE

KANG MAIN BODY

CHIMNEYCEILINGLEVELING
COAT

KANG MAIN BODYFUMESTOPPERFLUEPILLARSFACEPLATE

POSTS

STOVE

SOLEPLATEOPENING TO SUPPLY FIRE WOOD AND AIR

Figure 22: Plan and section of kang arrangement
Source: Zhuang & Li, 2009
Graphics modified by: Ninni Westerholm

39

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

4.6.2 Cradle-to-cradle design: Development Alternatives 			headquarters, New Delhi
The design, materials and techniques used in the construction of the Development Alternatives
world headquarters in New Delhi (See Figure 23) demonstrate a viable alternative for theconstruction of comfortable, green and affordable buildings of many types. This project tests
innovative, specially designed elements and components such as a hybrid air-handling unitthat incorporates available components in a new way to achieve significant energy savings.
Nearly all of the interior and exterior walls are built of cement-stabilised compressed-earth blockand cement-stabilised fly-ash lime-gypsum block, the manufacture of which recycles plentiful
local materials in processes that use local labour and low energy. Efficiently built in reinforced
concrete and masonry, the Development Alternatives world headquarters uses less than half thequantity of reinforced steel used in comparable structures of conventional design. The method
used holds significant potential for reducing resource consumption and GHG emissions. The
building uses predominantly natural, recycled, renewable and reusable materials embodying
low process energy. Some highly energy-intensive materials like aluminium are not used atall; others, such as glass and steel, are used frugally. Eighty % (by volume) of the building
materials were sourced within 500 kilometres of the site, thus minimising the CO2 emissions
produced by transport. All rainwater that falls on the site is used to recharge the groundwater,while all wastewater is recycled, treated onsite and used for irrigation and flushing toilets (A. B.
Lall Architects, 2015).

Figure 23: DA world headquarters
Source: Development Alternatives, 201440

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

4.6.3 Co-living in India
From dharamshalas (free or donation-based accommodation for pilgrims and other visitors)
to paying guests, shared rental housing has always existed in India in various forms. Morerecently, co-living has emerged as a new business model that brings a fresh lease of life to
India’s shared rental market. The biggest driving force behind the rising popularity of co-living
spaces is the influx of young renters to new cities seeking employment, who are scouting for
housing options that are both convenient and affordable. Co-living is still in its nascent stages inIndia. In the past decade, there has been a surge in the number of unregulated operators in theshared rental accommodation sector, looking to tap into the strong demand from the migrant
workforce and students across major metropolitan cities in India. Sensing the huge potential in
the domestic market and taking cues from established global players, start-ups in this space
are seeking to transform this line of business into a professional service-based offering. Further,
the absence of a regulatory framework has led to the emergence of various business models
in the market. There is a lack of clarity with respect to design specifications, and approvals
and licences for properties operating as co-living spaces. Many players like Zolostays and
Oyo Life operate according to the Management Contract Model. In this model, operators sign
long-term management agreements with developers, investors or property owners to run theirpremises as a co-living facility. In this case, the owner is responsible for managing the returns
from the property, while the co-living player receives a commission for operating the facility.
The operator simply acts as a custodian of the property and the end users/tenants enter into alease agreement directly with the owner (JLL & FICCI, 2019).

4.7

End of life and recycling: overview of construction anddeconstruction waste in Asia
The rapid pace of urbanisation and the new housing and infrastructure requirements
being introduced across the Asian region have resulted in the growth of many greenfielddevelopments. At the same time, as discussed above, the increasing densification of cities
has resulted from changes in landuse and floor space index (FSI) rules, which have led tothe construction of new higher rise buildings replacing low-rise, low-density developments.
This phenomenon is seen across Asia. The cradle-to-cradle concept underpinning the new
greenfield developments requires design for modularity in building elements. At the same time,
the use of construction debris in new buildings is a great opportunity as brownfield is converted
into greenfield construction. There has been an increased interest in the use of C&D waste
in new building construction driven by two objectives: (1) an objective of the municipalities tobetter manage waste, and (2) a resource efficiency objective adopted by industry aimed atsaving materials and costs. However, it must be noted that the quantity of C&D waste being
generated is very small compared to the quantity of materials required for new buildings. In
addition, the materiality of older buildings determines the quantity and quality of recycled new
product and its application. For instance, India generated around 630 million tonnes of C&D
waste in 2015, whereas the demand for sand and crushed stone aggregates was projected to
be in the order of approximately 1000 million tonnes and 1300 million tonnes, respectively, inthe same year (DA & GIZ, 2015).
In the Asian region, China is the top contributor to construction and demolition (C&D) waste,with a per-capita generation of 0.36 kg per day (Beijia et al., 2018). Among the countries
selected for this study, Pakistan and Indonesia have a higher C&D waste generation rate thanIndia, which is estimated to be the second most construction-intensive country in Asia. The
C&D waste volume per capita per day is calculated on the basis of available data on municipal
solid waste (MSW) (in terms of %) generated in 2012 in the countries selected for this study.
Figure 24 and Table 7 show the C&D waste generated in selected Asian countries. Table 8shows the C&D waste composition and volume per capita in selected Asian countries.

41

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

0,40

0,36

0,35
0,30
0,25

0,20
0,15

0,15

0,10

0,10

0.02

INDIA

INDONESIAPAKISTAN

0,00

CHINA

0,05

NEPAL

kg/capita/day

0,25

Figure 24: C&D waste generated in selected Asian countries
Source: Authors
Note: Data from Table 7 has been used to create Fig 25
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm
State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia
State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Table and
7: C&Dwaste
and MSW
incountries
selected Asian countries
Table 6: C&D waste
MSW
in selected
Asian
Table 6: C&D waste and MSW in selected Asian countries
Countries
Countries

MSW generation
MSW
generation(kg/capita/day)(kg/capita/day)(World Bank,(World2012) Bank,
2012)

Source: Authors
C&D waste
Total MSW
Total
MSW
C&D
(as awaste% ofgeneration
generation(as
a % ofMSW)(tonnes/day)(tonnes/day)
MSW)(World Bank,(World2012) Bank,
2012)

C&D waste C&D waste
C&D
waste C&D
waste
generation
generation
generation(tonnes/day)(kg/capita/d generation(kg/capita/d(tonnes/day)
ay)
ay)

China
China

1.02
1.02

5025485025480.36
0.36179409.64
179409.64

Pakistan
Pakistan

0.84
0.84

50438
50438

0.25
0.25

12710.38
12710.38

Indonesia
Indonesia

0.52
0.52

61644
61644

0.15
0.15

8975.378975.37

India
India

0.34
0.34

1095891095890.10
0.1011178.0811178.08

Nepal
Nepal

0.12
0.12

427
427

0.02
0.02

8.86
8.86

35% (Beijia et
35%(Beijia etal., 2018)
al., 2018)
30% (Khalid
30%(Khalidand Baig,
and
Baig,
&
Baig,
2016)
2016)
2016)
28%
28%
(Sembiring,(Sembiring,
2018)
2018)

30%
30%
(Shrivastava(Shrivastava(Shrivastava
andChini,&
Chini,
and
Chini,
2010)
2010)
17% (Dangi et
17%(Dangi etal., 2011)
al., 2011)

Table 7: C&D waste composition and C&D volume per capita in selected countries
Table 7: C&D waste composition and C&D volume per capita in selected countries
Countries
Countries

C&D waste composition
C&D waste composition
 Soil, sand and gravel: 36%

C&D volume per capita
C&D volume per capita
C&D Processing: 5%42

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

Table 8: C&D waste composition and C&D volume per capita
selected
countries
Stateinof Play
for Circular Built
Environment in Asia
Table 7: C&D waste composition and C&D volume per capita in selected countries
Countries

C&D waste composition

India








(TIFAC,
2001)

China

Indonesia

Nepal

C&D volume per capita
C&D Processing: 5%
Recovery: 10–30% (Niti Aayog, 2019)Landfill: 65%

Soil, sand and gravel: 36%
Bricks and masonry: 31%
Concrete: 23%
Metals: 5%
Wood: 2%Others: 3%(Zhao & Rotter, 2008)
 Brick & tile (48%)
 Concrete (45%)
 Wood (1%)
 Glass (0.64%)
 Plastic (0.34%)
 Metal, porcelain, soil

Recycling rate: 3–4% (Lu, 2014)
Landfill: 50% (Zhao & Rotter, 2008)
In coastal cities, 70–80% of theconstruction dregs are used for sea
reclamation (Lu, 2014)
Burnt/fuel for factory: 10%(Faridah,and&Hasnain,(Faridah,Hasmanie
Hasmanie
Hasnain,2004)
2004)
 Concrete (12.32%)
 Metal (9.62%)
 Brick (6.54%)
 Plastic (0.43%)
 Wood (69.10%)
 Others (2%)

Recovery: 50–60% (Sampa, 2019)

Dirt, concrete, wood, steel, pipes, bricks,
and other construction materials

C&D processing: ~ 50% (Ehler &Shresta, 2015)

Source: Authors
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

4.7.1 Materials produced by C&D waste recycling in New Delhi
It is estimated that New Delhi generates around 5000 tonnes of C&D waste every day (BMTPC,
2016). However, as a recent initiative in New Delhi illustrates, the recycling of C&D waste cancontribute to closing the material loop in India’s urban construction sector. Since 2009, the local
authorities of New Delhi have begun collecting C&D waste separately and recycling it. The two
C&D waste processing plants in New Delhi, with a combined total processing capacity of 2500
TPD of C&D waste (BMTPC, 2016), recycle about 95% of incoming waste. An additional C&D
waste recycling plant has been established by the National Building Construction Corporation torecycle C&D waste generated by the government’s large-scale urban redevelopment projects(BMTPC, 2016). This waste is being converted into useful products, such as aggregates ofvarious sizes, bricks, pavement blocks and kerbstones. The recycled products from C&D waste
are found to be of acceptable quality and are up to 20–30% cheaper than conventional building
materials (DA & GIZ, 2015). Several stakeholders are trying to overcome the regulatory andmarket challenges and close the material loop in the urban construction sector by promoting
the use of recycled C&D waste for both low-and high-value applications (DA & GIZ 2015).The

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State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

WOOD
SECONDARY
MARKET

REUSE
METAL
OPEN
DUMPING

PLASTICS/CHERAMICS
WHOLE
BRICKSEXCAVATEDSOIL
CONCRETE/
BRICKS/LIMEMORTAR

LOW LYING
AREAS

PAVER
BLOCKSPROCESSINGAGGREGATESFOR CONCRETE

LAND FILL
COVER

SAND

material flows from C&D Waste in India is illustrated in Figure 25.

Figure 25:  Material flows from C&D waste in India
Source: DA & GIZ, 2015
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

4.7.2 Construction waste to 3D printed houses, China
A company in China is using C&D waste and industrial waste as material to create 3D printed
houses with a low-carbon footprint. This initiative is aimed at reducing the impact current buildings
and future construction activities will have on the environment and air pollution levels in China.
The company, WinSun Decoration Design Engineering, has showcased the construction of
10 houses in one day using construction waste, as well as a five-storey apartment buildingin Shanghai (Kira, 2015) (See Figure 26). According to the CEO of WinSun, the waste fromconstruction and mining produces a lot of carbon emissions, but using3D printing the company
has been able to turn suchwaste into brand new building materials. This process also meansthat construction workers are at less risk of coming into contact with hazardous materials or

work environments (WinSun, 2018).
Figure 26: 3D printed houses using construction waste
44

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Source WinSun, 2018

4.7.3 Traditional wooden housing in Indonesia using waste-woodcomposites
Communal longhouses on stilts with steep sloping roofs and heavy gables were the major
type of the earliest Austronesian structures, evident in the traditional Batak house andTorajanTongkonan in Indonesia. Typically, a post, beam and lintel structural system is used,which transfers the load straight to the ground, and includes either wooden or bamboo wallsthat do not bear any load. In Indonesia, because wood is no longer affordable for local people,
concrete has become the major construction material used in these traditional houses andtherefore buildingthese types of houses has also become increasingly difficult.
Currently in Indonesia, most waste wood is used to produce chipboard or are burned in power
stations. To achieve this, the waste wood is industrially processed and then shipped long
distances, often overseas, which leavesa major carbon footprint. However, a large portion ofwaste wood is reusable. As an alternative to shipping the processed waste wood, four small
pieces of waste wood connected with steel nails or self-tapping screws can beassembled intoa rectangular waste-wood composite, serving as secondary beam, column or brace. These
waste-wood composites are considered recyclable and low-cost, and provide local people withan alternative solution supporting an affordable and sustainable construction system.

4.7.4 Nepal: Citizen-led reuse and reconstruction from earthquake
debrisAs a result ofthe 2015 earthquake in Nepal, the Kathmandu valley generated approximately
3.94 million tonnes of debris, ‘An equivalent of nearly 11 years of waste’ in one day. Earthquake
debris in Nepal are shown in Figure 27. In the absence of a government plan and drivenby
economic necessity, the people of Kathmandu, and indeed across the whole country, took it
upon themselves to sort the debris and begin the reusing, recycling and rebuilding process.
Across Kathmandu city, bricks and wood havebeenseparated and piled up for reuse. Building
contractors, too, have been buying up reusable bricks and wood. Since the earthquake, thedemand for bricks has risen and so has the price. The Nepalese Government plans to pull down
all the severely damaged buildings, sort theconcrete and bricks that cannot be reused, crush
these materials and create recycled bricks or filling material for roads and other structures.
Debris that is contaminated by lead-infused paint or contains asbestos, pesticides and acids is
to be appropriately processed before being reused or cast away (Gyawali, 2015).
In Indonesia, the remanufacturing industry,led mainly by SMEs, remains environmentally
unfriendly. Only a few large companies, like SanggarSarana Jaya PT Komatsu Remanufacturing

Asia, have recognised the value of remanufacturing strategies in Indonesia,specificallythe
economic, social and environmental benefits.
45

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Figure 27: Natural Disaster in Nepal
Source: Wiki Loves Earth 2016

5.

Policies related to circular models in the 			construction sector in Asia
Over the past decade, most Asian countries have been developing policies in tune withinitiatives towards a circular economy and resource efficiency. Interventions at each stage ofthe construction lifecycle designed to reduce waste and enhance resource efficiency have beendeveloped in the form of policies, guidelines and/or standards across Asia. Circular Economy
policies adopted by different Asian countries are illustrated in Figure 28.

Figure 28: CE policies in Asia
Source: WEF, 2018
Graphics modified by Ninni Westerholm

5.1

Material production phase policies
In general, four materials – cement, steel, concrete and brick – are the key contributors to theenvironmental impacts of building materials. Interventions in the production of these materials
can immensely decrease emissions within the manufacturing sector. Asian countries, heavily
dependent as they are on the energy- and labour-intensive brick kiln industry, natural sandfor manufacturing, and cement and concrete for construction, have introduced policies and46

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

guidelines to drive sustainability in the construction sector.
China’s 11th Five-Year Plan mandated aggressive energy-efficiency goals for the country’s
top 1000 most energy-intensive industries. China’s cement industry was previously dominatedby polluting and energy-intensive vertical shaft kilns. The Chinese Government’s campaign
reduced the share of these kilns to only 20%of all plants by 2010 and prompted existing plants
to become more energy-efficient; but overall emissions from the sector remain high. The 13thFive-Year Plan mandated a 25% cut in the number of cement enterprises by 2020. In early
June 2018, the ministry deployed 18,000 inspectors to impose new regulations on the cement
industry (Schneider et al., 2019).
In India, the 1957 Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act (The Mines andMinerals, 2015) was originally enacted to regulate the mining sector in India, and was amended
in 2015 and 2016. It classifies sand as a minor mineral if used for construction purposes andits management comes under the purview of state governments. Sand used to make concretemust adhere to the specifications for fine aggregates set out in Indian Standard 383:1970, whilesand used for masonry mortar must adhere to Indian Standard 2116:1980. Both standards
specify the use of ‘natural sand deposited by streams’ (river sand).The MoEFCC (2016a) also
released the Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines 2016, which encourage the useof recyclable materials such as quarry dust, incinerator ash and manufacturer sand (M-sand)as sand substitutes. India’s National Mineral Policy (Government of India, 2019) proposes togrant the status of industry to mining activity to boost the financing of mining for the private
sector and to support the acquisition of mineral assets in other countries by the private sector.
In Nepal, a national level policy has been introduced for the brick sector to achieve a substantial
reduction in black carbon and other brick kilns, by employing a range of technologies and policy
and market strategies (MinErgy, FNBI, 2017).
Pakistan’s National Mineral Policy (2013) was established to mitigate the adverse environmental
effects of mineral development through the implementation of regulatory frameworks; theimplementation of post-mining rehabilitation; the promotion of the recovery, recycling andreuse of minerals, metals and mineral-based products; and the implementation of effectivemine waste management measures.

5.2

Design/construction phase policies
The design of a building has major impacts on the building lifecycle stages, determining whichmaterials will be employed, and the construction and operation of the building. While Building
Information Modelling (BIM) technology is actively promoted in China, every Asian country
selected for this study has enacted national building codes or standards regulating the building
construction design requirements in the areas of water and sanitation, mechanical systems,lighting and structural systems, among others.
Energy building codes set the minimum efficiency requirements for new and renovated buildings
in order to guarantee a reduction in energy consumption and GHG emissions throughout thebuilding’s lifecycle. By ensuring that information on energy consumption is taken into accountduring a building’s design stage, energy codes represent a significant opportunity for savings
during the building’s operation.
Building Information Modelling (BIM) is widely applied in the construction industry in China. BIM
refers to the 3D modelling of architectural design, structural systems and energy costs, among
other aspects of the process. It advances sustainability by reducing wastage and improving
efficiency at each step of the process. In China, the Development Guidelines for digitalisationin the construction industry were issued in 2011 to progress BIM implementation through theestablishment of standards, and to achieve digitalisation within construction firms. Chinese BIM
Standards were officially launched as part of the Engineering and Construction Standards in2012. China’s 12th Five-Year Plan for the Construction Industry, combined with the 12th Five-47

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Year Plan for Energy Conservation and Emission Reductions, put forward a strategic focus on
and development priorities for sustainable construction in China for the ﬁve-year period (2010
to 2015) (Chang et al., 2016).
China, India, Indonesia, Nepal and Pakistan have existing energy building codes and standards
Countries

Energy building codes/standards

China•Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Residential Buildings (1986)•Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Public Buildings (1993)•Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Rural Residential Buildings (2013)(Xueliang et al., 2017)

India

The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) 2018 (Gazette of India 2018)

Indonesia•Energy conservation for building envelope – SNI 03-6389-2011•Energy conservation for air conditioning system in building – SNI 03-6390-2011•Energy conservation for lighting system in building – SNI 03-6197-2011•Energy audit procedure for building – SNI 03-6196-2011(GBPN, 2020)

Nepal

Design guidelines for energy-efficient building construction are provided in the
National Building Code(NBC) 206:2015 (MOUD, 2015)

Pakistan

Building code of Pakistan Energy Provisions - 2011 (IEA, 2011)

designed to enhance energy efficiency of Heating Ventilation and Cooling systems in thebuilding usage phase. Table 9 below summarises the existing energy building codes in thesecountries.
Table 9: Energy building codes in selected countries
Source: Authors
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

Apart from building codes, certifications and ratings of green building materials guide thearchitects and developers in abiding by national building codes. In a few countries, green
buildings are provided with incentives, which help to drive the market in sustainable green
building materials. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, a rating tool of green
buildings established by the US Green Building Council, is also used for rating new building
construction in China, India, Nepal and Pakistan.
Chinese building certification systems, such as their source conservation programme (forenergy and water conservation), environmental product certification and the green building
material assessment label, are managed by the government ministries (Xueliang et al., 2017).
In India, the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has developed a measure for rating energy
efficiency in buildings based on a scale of 1–5 stars. GRIHA evaluates buildings based onenergy efficiency, water consumption and 32 other criteria. The MoEFCC provides fast-tracked
clearance for green building projects based on this rating, and local government in many
Indian states provides incentives in the form of increased floor area or financial assistance andsubsidies (IGBC, 2015).
The Green Building Council in Indonesia evaluates buildings and allocates the GREENSHIP
rating; however, the rating is voluntary and take-up is low (ITEBuild & Interiors, 2015).The
Pakistan Green Building Council has issued the Green Guideline that has four certificationlevels for green buildings (Hussain and Hanif, 2018).

48

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

5.3

Usage phase policies
The usage phase in the building lifecycle accounts for the majority of a building’s energy
and water consumption, and generation of waste (UNEP & IEA, 2017). This phase also
has implications for soil and water pollution. The design and construction codes ensure thereduction of water and energy consumption up to a certain level. Solid waste management(SWM) and water management policy strategies have also been developed to deal with issues
such as a system’s low efficiency, the excessive pumping of groundwater and the recklessdisposal of waste.
China has developed comprehensive standards and labelling programmes for end-use
energy efficiency. The country’s 12th Five-Year Plan includes a specific section on water, witha particular focus on addressing the current challenges facing the water sector. It has set
targets that include connecting the water supply in urban areas to 95% of the urban population,
treating 85% of the total wastewater generated in urban areas and reusing 20% of all treatedwastewater (Schneider et al., 2019).
The primary objective of India’s National Energy Policy 2017 (NEP, 2017) is to promote energy
conservation by business, households, transportation and agriculture. The aim is to improve theenergy efficiency of all electrical appliances and apply the Energy Conservation Building Code(ECBC) to all buildings, enhance the availability of better insulation and increase investment inbuildings and domestic appliances with higher energy. The Energy Conservation Act 2001 has
been enacted to encourage the efficient use and conservation of energy.
India’s National Water Policy 2012 (Ministry of Water Resources, 2012) highlights theimportance of prioritising access to safe water for households. It states that urban and rural
domestic water supply should preferably come from surface water as well as groundwater andrainwater. Should a reliable alternative source of water be available, it should be connected tothe domestic water supply. Also, the reuse of urban water effluents from kitchens and bathrooms(after primary treatment) in flush toilets should be encouraged, so long as no human contact
is ensured. Agencies managing the urban domestic water systems need to collect and publish
water accounts and water audit reports indicating leakages and pilferages, which should be
reduced albeit while taking into consideration the social issues underpinning these problems.
The Energy Building Code of Indonesia (GBPN, 2020) guides energy usage in residential
and commercial buildings in the urban space. Pakistan’s National Energy Efficiency andConservation Act 2016 instituted a National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Board, whichis responsible for the promotion of energy conservation, the development of energy-efficienttechnologies, and the certification of energy-efficient products and projects (World Bank, 2019).

5.4

C&D waste policies (recycling phase)
Asian countries are recognising the need to tackle the problem of immense C&D waste
generation in the coming future. Countries like China and India, which have developed rapidly
in recent years, have introducedregulationstargeting the minimisation and reuse of C&D waste.
However, the laws and regulations governing C&D waste management in most Asian countries
are minimal and encompassed within the SWM rules/regulations of each country.
The Chinese policy and institutional system has many regulations governing the managementof C&D waste. The 2005 regulation on the administration of urban construction garbage
mandates the producers of C&D waste to bear the responsibility for the treatment and disposalof it. Technical specifications for C&D waste disposal and guidance for C&D waste design andmanagement have been issued centrally by the Chinese Government. In 2014, a regulation
was passed outlining technologies for building deconstruction, C&D waste classification andtreatment of recycled aggregate. At the national level, China's Circular Economy Promotion
Law came into force in January 2009, defines the standards and regulations for energy-efficient49

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

design and building construction (Xuelianget al., 2017). In May 2017, the Chinese Government
issued The Guiding Action Plan for Circular Economy for 2016–2020, which includes new
actions to promote circular development (IRP, 2017).
In India, the C&D Waste Management Rules were introduced in 2016 by the MoEFCC(2016b). These rules apply to every waste generating construction, remodelling, repair anddeconstruction of any civil structure owned/managed by an individual, organisation or authority.
The government’s C&D waste management and utilisation strategy is intended to help facilitate
the implementation of the C&D Waste Management Rules to ensure that urban local bodies
across the country are able to adopt proper C&D management practices. Further, the rules
state that local authorities shall procure and utilise 10–20% of materials made from C&D waste
in municipal and government contracts (MoEFCC, 2016b).India’s National Resource Efficiency
Policy has been drafted to enable circular approaches across the lifecycle of resource use
based on the 6R principle (reduce, reuse, recycle, recover, redesign and remanufacture).
The policy aims to minimise resource use and environmental impact, by adopting concepts ofresource efficiency and circular economy. India has set a target to achieve a 50% recycling rateby 2025 and a 75% recycling rate by 2030. Moreover, by 2025, 30% of all public procurementof materials for construction will be from recycled materials. Municipalities in Tier 1 and Tier 2
have to start inventorising C&D waste by 2022.
In Indonesia, there are two Acts regulating waste management practices: Act 18/2008 (Act,2008) regarding SWM, and Law 32/2009 concerning environmental protection and management(Environmental Protection and Management, 2009).The SWM Act, based on the 3R principles(reduce, reuse, recycle), stipulates policies around waste minimisation and the handling of all
types of solid waste, not only C&D waste.
In Nepal, under the Solid Waste Management Act 2011, local bodies in the country, such as
municipalities, have been made responsible for the construction, operation and managementof infrastructure designed for the collection, treatment and final disposal of MSW. The Act
mandates local bodies to take the necessary steps to promote reduce, reuse and recycle (3Rs),
including segregation of MSW at the source. It also provides for the involvement of the private
sector, community-based organisations and NGOs in SWM through competitive bidding.
Policies and regulations regarding C&D waste managementhave not been explicitly enacted inPakistan; however, the country does have infrastructure for handling other specific types of solid
waste. Pakistan’s Environment Protection Act 1997 (PEPA, 1997) the Hazardous Substances
Rules 2003 (ILO, 2003) and the National Environment Quality Standards Rules (NEQS, 1999)
guide the safe and proper disposal of waste. Many organisations do convert waste for reuse;
however, these efforts are limited and these organisations act in silos without the support ofconcrete policy (State Bank of Pakistan, n.d.).

5.4.1 Examples of C&D waste management policies from othercountries of Asia
5.4.1.1 Legislation on waste disposal in Japan
Since the 1970s, C&D waste management in Japan has been governed by the Act on Waste
Disposal and Cleaning. Nevertheless, this has not been effective in resolving the country’s
waste problems. A series of policies have subsequently been adopted to reformulate waste
management, including C&D waste management, since 1991. This reform has proven to be
more effective in addressing C&D waste problems, with the Environmental Basic Act of 1993
and the Basic Act on Recycle-Based Society of 2000 also making significant steps towards thegoal of zero waste. These Acts embody some important environmental policy principles, andhave shifted the paradigm of waste management away from disposal towards recycling. In

50State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

addition, other legal tools have been developed, including the Resources Recycle Act of 1991,
which provided the legal basis to facilitate recycling (Crocker et al 2018).

5.4.1.2 Construction waste regulations in the Philippines
The Philippines Government implemented a National Solid Waste Management Strategy
between 2012 and 2016. This strategy was intended to establish sustainable waste management
through financing mechanisms that could help create economic opportunities for advancing thereuse of waste. The government then created the Republic Demonstration 9003, or ‘Natural
Strong Waste Administration Unmaking Waste in Construction in the EU and the Asian Circular
Economy Demonstration of the Philippines’, to decrease the generation of waste at the source,
encouraging its reuse. Three years after this demonstration was established, the extent ofreuse had increased by no less than one-quarter of wastes generated across the country.

5.4.1.3 Construction Waste Charges Ordinance in Thailand
In Thailand, in 2000, it was estimated that between 16% and 34% of MSW sent to landfill could
be reused; however, only 7% (or 2360 tonnes/day) was actually being reused. In 2004, around
78% of 425 waste storage areas were open dumps and the remainder were landfills. Several
critical factors have contributed to the development of a more sustainable waste management
system in the country: financial support, effective administration, and clear goals and targets.
The Thai Government introduced charges for the accumulation, transportation and transfer ofindustrial and C&D waste in order to lessen the incentive to send this material to landfill. As aresult of these waste dumping charges, close-looped materials usage is now being encouraged.

5.5

Incentives
Under the Interim Regulation on Financial Subsidy Funds for Production and Usage ofRenewable Energy-saving Building Materials (Xueliang et al., 2017), the Ministry of Finance,
China, provides funds to support the production and use of renewable energy conservationbuilding materials, which includes the subsidised loan interest rates for expanding the use ofrenewable energy conservation building materials, reward for the promotion and application ofrenewable energy conservation building materials, and research and development to inform
relevant technical standards and specifications. Under India’s C&D Waste Management Rules
2016 (MoEFCC, 2016b), it is mandated that the local governing authorities shall offer incentives
to waste generators for salvaging, processing and/or recycling C&D waste, preferably insitu.
In Indonesia, Act 32/2009 (Environmental Protection and Management, 2009) which governs
industrial and hazardous waste management, stipulates that the polluter pays and that thewaste generator is fully responsible for their waste.

5.5.1 Incentives in C&D waste management from other regions ofAsia
5.5.1.1 Extra funding incentive in Singapore
Although each Singaporean generates over 1330 kg of waste every year, a high recycling rate(62%) has successfully increased the Semakau Landfill’s lifespan to about 35–40 years. Since
it is costly to collect and handle waste for recycling, incineration plants have become necessary
for the remaining 38% of waste (Bohong, Li & Yang 2015). The Singapore Government charges
approximately USD57 per tonne of waste from construction sites, a charge that motivates
construction firms to reduce the volume of waste they send to landfill. The government has

51

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

also launched an Innovation for Environmental Sustainability Fund, which is available toconstruction companies to set up recycling facilities and plants. The plan is for more than 90%
of all waste to be recycled (Crocker et al., 2018).

5.5.1.2 The ‘polluter pays’ principle in Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, a charging scheme for construction waste disposal, implemented by the Hong
Kong Government, has been in effect since 2005 and has reduced the volume of constructionwaste generated The government adopted the polluter pays principle to provide the constructionindustry with an incentive not to dump waste in landfill. Nevertheless, as Hong Kong’s land spaceis very limited, land prices are high and storing waste is only feasible on some construction
sites – those that are very large. The high storage costs deter many contractors from storing
waste onsite. In many circumstances, it may even be cheaper to dump waste to landfill thanretain and store it for future use. This is a different problem to that encountered in Thailand,
where waste management practice is more conventional.

5.5.1.3 Summary of existing formal institutions that motivate zero waste in the 		construction industry throughout Asia
Incentives provided by formal institutions:• Japan – Government subsidises a quarter of construction costs.
• Malaysia –Government has implemented regulations to alleviate the environmental
impacts: the Ministry of Works via the Standard Specifications for Buildings Works(2005),the CIDB via its Pembinaan Malaysia Act 1994 (Act 520), the Ministry of Housing
and Local Government via its Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Act 2007
(Act 672), and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment via its Environmental
Quality Act 1974 (Act 127)
• Thailand – The BMA Ordinance on Service Charge B.E.2543 sets charges for thecollection, transportation and disposal of C&D waste. It is aimed at reducing the amountof waste sent to landfill.
• Hong Kong –The polluter pays principle is adopted to charge construction companies
that dump waste.
• Singapore – USD57 per tonne is charged for construction waste disposal.

6.

Analysis and recommendations
This report reveals the following important findings in relation to the Asian situation:
1. Rapid urbanisation and rising demand for new infrastructure and housing, which needmaterials, are in turn placing significant strain on natural resources. Considering thecriticality of resources, the need to service the growing demand for materials not only
requires greater efficiency, but also the substitution of these critical materials withsecondary materials from other sources such as industrial by-products, bio-waste and
C&D waste.
2. Industrial and mining waste streams are available in many countries in Asia. These
secondary resources are being used to replace virgin minerals such as sands, soils andaggregates.
3. Many countries in Asia have rich traditions of biomass use in construction, especiallybamboo. The regeneration of bio-resources provides a replenish-able resource.
4. The increasing densification of cities and urban transformation are resulting in an
increase in the volume of construction debris. Many countries are recycling C&D
waste into new building materials. Despite the potential to reuse this waste in new
construction, a much larger amount of material is needed to replace virgin materials
52

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

and reduce eco-system stress.
5. The greenfield construction of new cities, housing and infrastructure has the potential
to ensure the future adoption of circularity through the use of modular assembly-based
construction systems.
6. There is tremendous resource diversity across Asia and also a large construction
workforce, which is largely informal and unskilled. Circular models of construction in
Asia have the potential to respond to this resource diversity, but there is also a needfor new materials and technology, reskilling and new business models that will provide
economic opportunities.

6.1

Potential benefits of circularity
a. Economic benefits: The circular economy has been gaining traction with business andgovernment leaders alike. Their imagination is captured by the opportunity to gradually
decouple economic growth from virgin resource inputs, while encouraging innovation,
increasing economic growth and generating more robust employment. If we transition to acircular economy, the positive impact will be felt across society (Ellen MacArthur Foundation,2017), and will include the following:• Economic growth – Economic growth, defined by GDP, would be achieved primarily
through a combination of increased revenue from emerging circular activities and lower
costs of production. The changes in input and output production will affect economywide supply, demand and pricing, adding to overall economic growth.
• Material cost savings – The material and energy cost saving potential of the circular
economy is high since circularity allows for the conversion of potential waste into
system inputs, thus reducing manufacturing and production costs.
• Job creation potential – A significant number of studies report the potential for thecircular economy to generate employment (European Environment Bureau, 2014,
Friends of the Earth, 2010, Government of Scotland, 2019).New jobs will be createdin the development of innovative design and business models, research, recycling,
remanufacturing and product development. The high degree of informality in theconstruction sector in Asia can be directed towards the development of new skills forrepairs and refurbishment, new production manufacture, recycling materials and skills
for new assembly-based construction systems.
• Business models – The circular economy in the context of building and construction
offers a range of new business opportunities, from small-scale onsite production
or conversion of C&D wastes to micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) or
industrial-scale product manufacturing units. Waste exchange platforms, complete
refurbishment services, and space share and co-living models based on internet
technology are all emerging.
• Innovation – The high rate of technological development, arising from the demand forenergy-efficient technology, and more durable materials have enormous potential in thearea of innovation in terms of shifting from a linear to a circular metabolism.
b. Environmental benefits: The concept of circularity focuses on zero waste production
from the lifecycle of the building and the built environment. It also calls for durability, thus
addressing the need to keep materials in the production and use lifecycle for as long as
possible and then directing these either to a reuse/refurbish or recycle process (if non-biotic)
or, if biodegradable, back to the source for regeneration. Clearly, this has a net positive
impact on the environment. Further, circularity significantly reduces the volume of waste thatis disposed of in landfill. It is estimated that reducing the volume of organic waste sent tolandfill will lower landfill gas (LFG) production (LFG is composed of roughly 50% methane(the53State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

primary component of natural gas), 50% carbon dioxide (CO2) and a small amount of nonmethane organic compounds).
• Reduced stress on ecosystems and competing sectors: Efficient design that
supports the use of fewer raw materials and the substitution of critical primary mineral
resources by industrial and agri-wastes and biomass reduce the stress placed on
ecosystems and on primary sectors such as agriculture.
• Material and energy recycling and reduced emissions: Reusing processed waste
in the value chain results in a reduction in the use of primary materials, and therefore
in decreased GHG emissions. However, it must be noted that the conversion of C&D
waste into aggregates and concretes requires energy and water. Thus, the embodied
energy of these reconstituted aggregates is higher than that of the virgin material. Given
the very local impact of sand and aggregate extraction, location-specific decisions
regarding the balance between energy and material efficiency will be required.
• Biomass regeneration and CO2 sequestration: A move towards the use of bamboo
and timbers would lead to inter-sectoral synergies. Plantation, sustainable extraction
and application in buildings resulting in biomass regeneration and CO2 sequestration

54

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

Table 10: Considerations for different lifecycle phases of the built environment
Source: Authors
Graphics: Ninni Westerholm

C A P I T A L

C O S T S

MANUFACTURE
Use of industrial wastes and by-products as resources

DESIGN
Higher value for green design

CONSTRUCTION
Reduced use of expensive resources, and tax and interest
benefits

OPERATION
AND USE

Reduced true costs due to recycled water and energy services

RENOVATION
Assembly-based products and spaces enable cheaper renovation

DECONSTRUCTIONEND OF LIFE

Value of C&D waste and building elements that can be used ina new building

55

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in AsiaO P E R A T I O N A L

C O S T S

MANUFACTURE
Water and heat recovery

DESIGN
Passive design, renewable energy, water harvesting, design for
durability

CONSTRUCTION
Reduced maintenance, rapid and cheaper construction ofmodular and assembly-based elements, reduced onsite waste

OPERATION
AND USERENOVATIONDECONSTRUCTIONEND OF LIFE

Lower energy and other utility expenses, better return on
investment

Cheaper and easier renovation of assembly-based elements,
a recycled material market to access second-hand building
elements

Easy deconstruction of assembly-based products, cost reduction
and new products sourced for next building from onsite recycling
of C&D waste

56

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

E N V I R O N M E N T A L
MANUFACTURE

I M P A C T S

Reduced or no waste from manufacturing, reduced emissions
from manufacturing processes, reduced mining of virgin minerals
and lower ecological impacts on ecosystem, increased use ofrenewable materials leading to reduced dependence on mineral
resources, carbon locking and increased CO2 sequestration

DESIGN
Reduced material and energy footprints of buildings, reduced or
net zero emissions

CONSTRUCTION
No debris to landfill, low or no critical virgin material used

OPERATION
AND USE

Longer life, no emissions or pollution, closed water loops,
domestic nutrient recycling

RENOVATION
Keeping energy and materials in the value chain, reduced waste
to landfill, reduced emissions

DECONSTRUCTIONEND OF LIFE

C&D debris use, CO2 locking and regeneration, no waste tolandfill

57

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

N E W

B U S I N E S S E SMANUFACTURE
MSME material production businesses, material aggregation
platforms, secondary resources available for production

DESIGN
Green design services, green certification and valuation services

CONSTRUCTION
Green building business – affordable housing, higher value ofreal estate, green construction services

OPERATION
AND USE

Rental and shared ownership models, space sharing platforms,
energy and water sale to the grid

RENOVATION
Repair and renovation service providers, second-hand productsuppliers

DECONSTRUCTIONEND OF LIFE

Secondary resource aggregation services, new resource
streams, waste aggregation and exchange platforms

58

State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

G R E E N

J O B SA N D

S K I L L S

MANUFACTURE
Green skills for production workforce, new skills for application of
new green materials

DESIGN
Certification and rating consultants, green design skills

CONSTRUCTION
New assembly skills, green construction skills

OPERATION
AND USENew management skills for material aggregation platforms,
rental and space sharing businesses

RENOVATION
Retrofitting and repair artisans

DECONSTRUCTIONEND OF LIFE

Recyclers and assembly workforce

59State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Asia

can lead to net zero carbon buildings.
• Water conservation and recycling: Urban areas are water stressed due to overextraction, particularly from groundwater sources. Water recycling across individual
buildings, neighbourhoods and between housing and industry or agriculture can lead toreuse and considerable savings of this precious resource.
The following table, Table 10, provides a summary of the potential benefits emerging from goodpractice examples and policy strategies in the Asian region.

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