マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）【Special Feature Articles: Chao Foon Magazine and the Chinese Publication Network
in East and Southeast Asia during the Cold War】

Introduction
Shinozaki Kaori1

The featured articles of the Chinese language literar y magazine Chao Foon tracetransnational Chinese-language publishing network centred at Malaysia, which developed
during the Cold War in the 1950s and 1960s, linking East and Southeast Asia. They also trace
the human and ideological exchanges that developed within this network.
Chao Foon was first published in Singapore in November 1955 by intellectuals who
had moved from mainland China to Hong Kong and Singapore. In the late 1950s, themagazineʼs publishing base was moved to Kuala Lumpur, Malaya. 488 issues of the magazine
were published until February 1999 when publication ceased. However, the magazine wasreinstated in November 2002 and has since been published by the Malaysian Chinese
Literature Centre (MCLC, 馬華文學館 ) at the Southern University College ( 南方大學學院 ),Skudai, Johor. The latest issue (as of April 2023) was the 515th, with readers and contributors
from Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan supporting its long history of over 70
years.
Chao Foon has attracted attention in Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong andJapan in recent years. Several books on the theme of Chao Foon have also been published.
Memoirs of those involved in the publication of Chao Foon were published in Hong
Kong in 2014 and 2017 (Lo and Hung, 2014; 2017). These books revealed support from U.S.
organisations and institutions for journalistic and literary activities critical of the Communist
Party of China (CPC) and communism.
A series of studies by Malaysian researchers were published between 2021 and 2022.
A book by Lim Choon Bee (Lim, 2021)2, a Malaysian researcher and writer who served as
the lead editor for Chao Foon, was published in 2021. A collection of academic papers editedby Tee Kim Tong, Ng Kim Chew, and Lee Soo Chee (Tee, Ng, and Lee, 2022), whose
research and creative work were based in Malaysia and Taiwan, was published in 2022. The
collection contains a foreword by Ng and 13 papers by 11 authors, including Tee, Lee, andLim. The main focus of these studies is Malayanisation (indigenisation) and modernism.
Malayanisation examines the national image of the Chinese in Malaya during the
1
2

篠崎香織 , Faculty of Foreign Studies, University of Kitakyushu ( 北九州市立大学 ).
It was introduced to Japan in a book review by Oikawa (2022).

1

マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

independence period of the 1950s and 1960s and their attempts to be involved in the foundingof Malaya. Modernism focuses on the modernist literature from Taiwan, brought to Malaya
through Chao Foon, and attempts to reconsider the history of Chinese literature in Malaya/
Malaysia, where realist literature with strong left-wing currents has been regarded as
mainstream. Furthermore, the Cold War was emphasised as a factor that determined thesedevelopments. Considering the U.S. subsidisation of press and cultural activities in Hong
Kong and Taiwan, the perspectives of the advocacy of Malaynisation by the founders of Chao
Foon, who moved from Hong Kong to Malaya, and the rise of modernist literature in Taiwan
and its influx into Malaya are discussed.
Additionally, in 2022, a retrospective analysis of the history of the Union Press, which
published Chao Foon, was published in Singapore (Zhong, 2022). In Japan, Shinozaki,
Masutani, and Yamamoto (2022) was published. Rikkyo University and Kyoto University
were also equipped with access to all issues of Chao Foon3.
Recent studies of Chao Foon focus on the international environment during the Cold
War. Thus, this special feature also focuses on the Cold War. Specifically, it focuses on therole of Chao Foon in the Cold War context. It also evaluates the contribution to Asia of those
involved in the Chao Foon, particularly Malaysian Chinese.
For the Chinese in East and Southeast Asia, the Cold War was primarily about thecommunisation of mainland China. The CPC came to power in 1949 and founded the Peopleʼs
Republic of China (PRC). In the PRC, building a country based on socialism was prioritised,and culture and arts were supposed to serve this purpose. All the literature was evaluated interms of socialism. Chinese classics were rejected as nostalgic for feudalism, and theirinterpretations became a tool for political contestation. The Chinese in East and Southeast
Asia travelled frequently to and from China from the end of the Qing dynasty to the period of
the Republic of China. They could influence society and politics in China. However, after theestablishment of the PRC, free travel to and from outside the PRC became impossible, andthe exchange of information was blocked.
In the 1950s and the 1960s, Southeast Asia underwent decolonisation during the Cold
War. Newly independent states inherited Western systems of governance developed during
the colonial period by their Western masters. After independence, attempts were made toremould them to suit Southeast Asian conditions. In this process, references were often
made to Asian civilisations. For example, in the Malay-Muslim world, the independent statesof Malaya/Malaysia and Indonesia emerged. State institutions based on the Western system
3

2

Back issues of Chao Foon were assembled by Masutani Satoshi of Rikkyo University andYamamoto Hiroyuki of Kyoto University. An index of all the titles published in Chao Foon
issues from No. 1 (Nov 1955) to No. 488 (Feb 1999) was also compiled by Yamamoto (2022c).
This index is published in Shinozaki, Masutani, and Yamamoto (2022) which is available online<http://hdl.handle.net/2433/276308>.

Introductionof governance inherited from the colonial period were developed. However, in the 1950s and1960s, the limitations of the direct application of Western-style parliamentary democracy
became evident. Muslim intellectuals experienced setbacks in the Islamisation of state
institutions and felt threatened by Western modernisation. Thus, they sought to counteract itby modernising Muslim society by strengthening religious education and incorporating
science and technology4.
The Chinese in Malaya, who had closely witnessed the Muslimsʼ attempts, werelimited in their efforts such that even if they tried to refer to Chinese civilisation, thecivilisation to be referred to could be denied or destroyed in mainland China. Therefore, anattempt was made to transfer the heritage of Chinese civilisation outside China, extract theessence of Chinese civilisation that could respond to the changing times, position it in theworld, develop it consistent with the times, and transmit it to the world. The Chao Foon was
one such attempt.
In addition to literary works in Chinese, Chao Foon included numerous introductions,translations, and critiques of foreign literature. Following the two major currents of Western
and Chinese literature, Chao Foon focussed on Latin American, Soviet and Japanese literature
and was conscious of the relationship with Malay literature to position Mahua literature ( 馬
華文學 , Chinese literature in Malaya/Malaysia) in the world consistent with the need of thetimes (Yamamoto, 2022b; 2022c). By sending messages in Chinese, it was possible to connect
with the Chinese in Singapore, Malaya, Taiwan, and Hong Kong and those in mainland
China. Literature from different parts of the world appeared frequently in Chao Foon, bothfor referencing ideas and values from around the world and for connecting with the world. In
Singapore, Malaya, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, many Chinese are multilingual and haveconnections worldwide. The ideas and values emanating from Chao Foon have reached theworld and are sometimes translated through a multilingual and cross-border Chinese
4This interest has to the development of the Qalam project in Japan. Qalam is a periodical firstpublished in Singapore in 1950 and later moved to Malaysia, where it remained until 1969. Its
main readers were Muslims in Singapore and Malaya/Malaysia. It also had a wider readershipin northern Borneo and southern Thailand. The articles were written by prominent Muslim
intellectuals from Malaya and Singapore, and from Indonesia. Many articles were publishedon the situation of Muslim communities in Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries. The
magazine actively introduced Islamic thought in the Middle East through contributions frominternational students studying in Egypt (Yamamoto, 2009: 57-58). All the issues scattered inseveral libraries in Malaysia and Singapore were collected, digitised and published on the web
by Yamamoto Hiroyuki. Through a joint research project by Kyoto University, all the articles
were translated from Jawi into Roman characters. An article search database was also createdon the web (http://majalahqalam.kyoto.jp/eng/). The discussion paper titled “The Age of
Qalam” was published in 13 issues by Kyoto University. Issue 1 is edited by Yamamoto
Hiroyuki, issues 2 to 10 by Tsuboi Yuji and Yamamoto Hiroyuki, and issues 11 to 13 by
Mitsunari Ayumi and Yamamoto Hiroyuki. The discussion papers are also available at the URL
above.

3

マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

network.
As a Chinese-language literary magazine, Chao Foon is not simply a “luo ye gui gen (落葉帰根 , fallen leaves returning to their roots)”, oriented to return to China. It is rather “luodi sheng gen (落地生根 , putting down rotts)” in a way oriented towards the universal valuesof the Chinese civilisation being refined in multicultural, multireligious and multilingual
society in Malaya/Malaysia, resulting in new universal values. It also has the spirit of “daochu kai hua (到処開花 , blossom ever ywhere)”, in which the essence of the Chinese
civilisation refined in Malaya/Malaysia is transmitted across borders and mixes with thelocal culture at the destination to further blossom anew5. The contributions of the Malaysian
Chinese and other supporters of Chao Foon can be positioned as contributions to specificcountries such as Malaysia and Singapore and the wider region from East Asia to Southeast
Asia.
Malaysian and Malaysian-Chinese studies in Japan have focused on the universal
values in Malaysian and Malaysian-Chinese experiences.
Malaysia has embraced diverse people and ideas from various regions, including
Islamic, Chinese, Indian, and Western regions. Together with people with different ideas andvalues, Malaysians have peacefully created a multilingual, multicultural, and multireligious
state where major conflicts stemming from differences in ideas and values have rarely
occurred. This phenomenon has attracted the attention of Japanese researchers. In the 20th
century, the nation-state was based on the principle of “one people, one nation”. Therefore, if
a group of people maintained a unique culture different from that of the majority ethnic
group, it was often seen as an obstacle to national unity. Against this theory, Okabe Tatsumi(1968) and Tanaka Kyoko (2002)6 pointed out that although the Malaysian Chinese maintaintheir cultural identity as inheritors of the Chinese civilisation, their political identity lies in
Malaysia, and they actively participate in the construction of a culturally pluralistic society in
Malaysia.
Research has shown that the identity of the Malaysian Chinese as inheritors of theChinese civilisation is shaped more by Malaysiaʼs political and social situation than by theirlinks to China. Imatomi Masami (1987) discussed this based on Mahua literature, while Ogi
564Shinozaki, Masutani, and Yamamoto (2022) titled the book Banana, Coconuts and Hornbill.
Banana and Coconuts represent the idea of Mahua literature growing roots and bearing fruitin Southeast Asia. Hornbill is used to describe the idea of a fruit flying away from Malaya/
Malaysia to bear fruits in other places. Hornbill is the state bird of Sarawak, and represents
the hope that those from Sarawak will act as a bridge to further develop Mahua literature(Yamamoto, 2022a).
Tanaka (2002), although published in 2002, is a compilation of papers published individually inthe 1980s and 1990s and is representative of research from that period.

Introduction

Hirofumi (1995) studied the histor y of Chinese language education in Malaysia, which
supported the survival and development of Mahua literature. Contrarily, Ota Isamu (1998)
highlighted that, as the Malaysian Chinese are multilingual and multicultural, it would be
difficult to capture their dynamism by only focussing on Mahua literature and Chinese
language education.
Furthermore, research has progressed in the field of anthropology. Kawasaki Yuzo
(1986) described a Chaozhou fishing village in Selangor that maintained contact with mixed
communities outside the village and carried on the culture of its origin in China throughancestral rites and funeral rituals. Sakurada Ryoko (2008) argued that houses in new
residential areas in the suburbs of cities had become home to Malaysian Chinese and thatancestral rites were passed on to the next generation in these homes. Huang Yun (2011)
traced the development of the Dejiao (德教). Dejiao was founded in Chaozhou, China, with
Confucian, Buddhist and Taoist doctrines and was introduced to Malaysia via Hong Kong asa unique religion in a multireligious environment with Islamic and Christian doctrines.
Active research has been conducted on the integration of Chinese into Malaysia
regarding their political participation. Kaneko Yoshiki (2002) discussed how the Chinese
gained representation in the federal government through the Malaysian Chinese Association(MCA) in the 1950s and 1960s. Murai Hiroshi (2013) conducted interviews in a new village
near Seremban about the state of emergency period and discussed the steps adopted by the
local Chinese elites, who became members of the MCA, in the mediation between the
Chinese residents and the British colonial government. Hara Fujio (2003) focused on theindirect contributions of the political forces that had not become mainstream, such as theCommunist Party of Malaya, in shaping Malaysian society.
In education, several institutions teach in vernacular languages other than the national
language (Malay) within and outside the national education system. Moreover, diverse
educational pathways with links to networks outside the country exist. Takekuma Hisao(1998) argued that although independent Chinese secondary schools are outside the national
education system, they respect Malaysiaʼs national integration policy and are conscious ofliving in harmony with other cultures. Sugimura Miki (2000) argued that the survival of
Chinese language schools in Malaysia was because those involved in Chinese schools
recognised the impor tance of national integration and patiently engaged in verbal
negotiations with the government. Sugimura noted that, since the 1990s, higher education
institutions teaching in languages other than the national language had been established,indicating the development of multiculturalism in the field of education. Sugimoto Hitoshi(2005) argued that from the colonial period to the 1960s, Malaysia was forced to identify withexternal standards such as British, Islamic, and Chinese standards; from the 1970s to 1980s,
Malaysia isolated itself and pursued its own identity, while from the 1990s onwards, it5マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

pursued its own identity and became compatible with globalisation. Ishii Yuka (1999) argued
that the Malaysian government expanded the overall economic and educational pie, while
the Chinese networks in East Asia and English-speaking regions provided opportunities for
upward social and economic mobility.
Malaysians have enacted laws through debates in parliament and the media andformed a consensus through verbal negotiations based on the law. In addition, there is a
widely shared mindset and attitude in the society that does not accept the use of violence toredress grievances. By doing so, Malaysia has avoided major conflicts. Such Malaysianpolitical culture is universally significant. Some studies focus on this aspect, including
Yamamoto Hiroyuki (2006), who discussed the independence period from the 1950s to
1960s; Suzuki Ayame (2010), who discussed the period of development from the 1970s to
1980s; and Shinozaki Kaori (2017), who discussed the colonial period.
Since the 1980s, the seeds of Mahua literature, borne in Malaysia, have spread andblossomed outside Malaysia, mainly in Taiwan, which is indeed “blossoming everywhere”.
From this perspective, since the 1990s, Masutani Satoshi (1993; 2022) tangentially introduced
Chao Foon to Japan, while Oikawa Akane (2019) discussed Ng Kim Chew, who is both awriter and researcher of Mahua literature in Taiwan; Oikawa has also translated andintroduced Mahua literature to Japan.7
The featured articles included five papers. Shinozaki provided an over view of thedevelopment of publishing networks across East and Southeast Asia in the 1950s and 1960s.
In Chinese-speaking regions, the sale of textbooks suppor ts bookshop development.
Singapore was a hub for textbook supply to Southeast Asia, with Shanghai as a source.
However, Hong Kong became the textbook source after the PRC was established in 1949. At
the end of the 1950s, imports of general books into Singapore and Malaya were severely
restricted, and the textbook supply network linking Hong Kong and Singapore developed
into a general book supply network. From the 1970s onwards, the era of development
seeking prosperity in each country led to the local publishing of textbooks in Singapore andMalaysia. This was suppor ted by literar y scholars who travelled from Hong Kong toSingapore and Malaysia, and the human links between Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia
were maintained.
Kho8 summarises the activities of Union Press (publishers of Chao Foon, Hong Kong),
7

8

6

For example, Lee Yung Ping (李永平)ʼs The Jiling Chronicles 《吉陵春秋》() was co-translated
by Ikegami Sadako ( 池上貞子 ) and Oikawa and published as Kitsurinchin Monogatari 『吉陵(鎮ものがたり』) from Jimbun Shoin (人文書院) in 2010.
Kho Tong Guan has played a central role in the reissue of Chao Foon and has been responsiblefor its editing and publication. Kho is currently Chief Librarian, Head of MCLC and Editor-inChief of Chao Foon. This featured articles has received full cooperation from Mr Kho, with

Introduction

before the launch of Chao Foon, Singapore, and Malaya, both in and out of the magazine andagainst the backdrop of the Cold War. Those involved with Union Press worked hard to
realise freedom and democracy in the Chinese world, and those based in Malaysia became
involved with Chao Foon. Others moved from Malaysia to other centres in Europe, the U.S.,
Hong Kong, and Taiwan and worked to build a better society there.
Tanigaki discussed the Union Press in Hong Kong. In the 1950s, Hong Kong becamea base for the cultural and information strategies of the Western capitalist world while beinga base for the cultural and information strategies of the CPC. Hong Kong was placed on thefront line of the Cultural Cold War, where the growing influence of the CPC could be felt.
This situation in Hong Kong was one of the major factors behind the expansion of the Union
Press to Malaya.
Ng provided a close reading of Chang Fuʼs collection of poems, Outside the Wall, fromthe Chao Foon Literary Series, published preceding the independence of the Federation of
Malaya in 1957. Chang Fu likened the series of circumstances to a storm, in which thecountr y was moving from the devastation caused by the Second World War towards
independence, although once it became independent, it was caught up in the Cold War
structure. Acknowledging the fear of jumping into a storm, he called on his readers to beprepared by supporting them with his literary work.
Chen analysed classical literature published in Chao Foon from its inception to its
temporar y suspension in 1999. Chinese classical literature, regarded as a hotbed ofconservative ideas that hindered development and modernisation in mainland China in thefirst half of the 20th centur y, was refer red to in Chao Foon for moder n literaturedevelopment. These essays were developed based on the responses from contributors andreaders in Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. Chao Foon provides a platform forthe transnational development of classical Chinese literature across Southeast and East Asia.
While there has historically been a Chinese-language publishing network linking
Southeast Asia and East Asia, Chinese-speaking regions are divided into several countries
and administrative regions, with limited access to literature and materials for each region
owing to differences in political systems. Japan is not a Chinese-speaking region but a part of
the Sinosphere, which has historically acquired knowledge through Chinese civilisation andhas archived a large number of Chinese-language documents. By archiving Chineselanguage documents in Japan, Japan could support researchers from Chinese-speaking
regions to gather and deepen exchanges regardless of political positions. We hope thesefeatured articles will help build a platform for research exchange in Chinese-language
contributions from Mr Kho himself, as well as from Dr. Ng and Dr. Chan from Southern
University College. I would like to take this opportunity to thank them.

7マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

literary and publishing activities.

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kindai to sono our you: squatter saiteiju jigyou to shokuminti seihu, kajin
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マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

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CIRASDP_108_60.
Zhong Hongzhi 鍾宏志 (2022) A Look Back: Commemorative Book for the 70th Anniversary ofUnion Book in Singapore《回望̶新加坡友聯書局 70 周年紀念特刊》, 新加坡 : 友
聯書局 ( 新加坡 ) 有限公司 Singapore: Union Book Company Pte Limited.

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