UNESCO-JASTIP Joint Symposium on
Intra-Regional Water Security and Disaster Management
15-16 November 2017, Quezon City, Philippines“Understanding potential conflicts among sectors due
spatial and seasonal water use and availability
in Bali, Indonesia”
Eva Mia Siska
Supervisors:
Prof. Dr. Kaoru Takara
Assoc. Prof. Takahiro Sayama

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Contents of presentation• Problem Statement• Study context• Methodology• ResultsoWater demando

Water supply• Conclusions
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Economic growth and water reallocation
Population Growth  Urbanization
Industrialization  Economic diversification
Hydrological variation havebigger impact during dryseason

More people,
water
consumptive
lifestyle

Hydrological variation have less
impact during dry season

Less population, modest
lifestyle (less water percapita)

ModernwatersupplyClean watercompetition
between
tourism andlocals

Different water users
with higher
economic value(more cash per drop)More farmers,
Higher lifestyle,more crops peryearLess water user, simpler
water management, lessconflict

Larger area same water amount

6,000

4,000

Water withdrawal in the world (km3/year)(Shiklomanov, 1993)

2,000
01900

1940

1950

Agriculture

1960
Industry

1970

1975

Municipal1980 1990* 2000*
Reservoirs*) Estimation

3

Economic growth and water reallocation• Industrialization and urbanization are currently taking place in most of developing
countries in the world. Inevitably, water transfers to the growing urban centers andinter-sectorial water allocation are likely to happen (Komakech, Van Der Zaag, & Van
Koppen, 2012; Wang, Fang, & Hipel, 2003);•“Water is too often devoted to economically inefficient, low return (usuallyagricultural) uses and that reallocation to more efficient, high return (usuallyurban) uses would increase total economic welfare.”(Molle, 2006);• Water reallocation due to limited amount of resources has been known assource of conflicts among sectors;• Water scarcity condition creates higher vulnerability for conflict due
to water transfer which may escalates to destruction and fights
among water users

Study Context : Bali, Indonesia

Suara Pembaruan Newspaper(September 2015)

1.
2.
3.

Area : 5,634.40 km2 1)
Population (2014): 4,104,900 2)
8 regencies and 1 city

Merdeka.com (September 2014)

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Bali Province
2013

16.82%

200321%

199322%

198729.89%

15.56%

30%

14%

30%

14%

47%

0%

10%

20%

19%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

10%

80%

Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry and Fishery

Mining&Quarrying

Manufacturing Industry

Electricity, Gas and Water Supply

Construction

Trade, Hotel&Restaurant

Transport&Communication

Financial,Ownership and Business Services

ServicesSources: 1) Bali Provincial Government; 2) Bali Statistical Agency

90%

100%

5Study Context : Bali, Indonesia
Number of tourists visiting
Bali Island
Millions

Jan-82
Sep-84May-87
Jan-90
Sep-92May-95Jan-98
Sep-00
May-03Jan-06
Sep-08May-11350,000
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000-Paddy fields (HarvestedArea) in Th. Ha (1982-2013)

Population (1979-2013)
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
Population Growth Rate (2000-2010): 2.14
1.5
1.0
0.50.01979 1987 1994 1999 2004 2009

200

150
1005001982

1988

1995

20002005• This study takes an example of rapid development in Bali as one of the world’s
tourist destinations• The shifting water distribution from agriculture which is mostly owned by thelocals to tourism industries about 85% of which is owned by non-Balinese(MacRae, 2010) is one of the examples of a conflict ridden process;• Research on water conflicts in Bali were mostly discussed through social andpolitical perspectives (Cole, 2012; Tarigan, Dharmawan, Tjondronegoro, &Suradisastra, 2014; Trisnawati, 2012);• Very little research were published about the scientific reasons behind theseconflicts;• The objective of this study is to understand conflicts between sectors
in Bali by comparing the spatial and seasonal variabilities of wateruses and availability.

2010

Water Resources and infrastructure
Rainfall
1,500
1,250
2,500

1500
1,750

1,750
2,000

2,750

2,000
2,250

2,250
3,0001,750

3,250
3,000

2,500

3,000

Dams : (total storage 14.37 million m3)• Palasari Dam (Jembrana Regency) - 8 million m3• Telaga Tunjung Dam (Tabanan Regency) - 1million m3,• Gerokgak Dam (Buleleng Regency) -3.75 million
m3 and• Benel Dam (Jembrana Regency) -1.62 million m3

2,750

2,250

2,000

(Ministry of Agriculture, 2017).

1,750

P (mm/y)Rainfall Station Ngurah Rai
Mean monthly rainfall period 1990-2014
500
428
450400331350288300226250200
144
143
150
7772100
45 33
13 315001500

Rainfall (in mm)

Month,

Clean water is supplied by Regional Drinking Water
Companies (PDAM), which are managed by eachregency/city.

Alternative water supply
Shallow wells (less than 12 m)
Deep wells (max. 60 m with less than 100 m3/month)Rivers,,Data source:
Isohyet Map: JICA
Rainfall Data: BMKG
Location map of PDAM JICA.

7

Water Crisis and Conflicts

Info-graphic in local newspaper (BaliPost) about Bali Water Deficit

Water crisis has been the media headline for the past decade in Bali.

JFMA

M

Water crisis because of damage ininfrastructure due to floods/landslides

JJASOND

Water crisis because of lack of water
source8SocialScience

Complains from community:
I have to walk more than 2 km to find water during season”(Bali Post, 2015)“The water in this “cubang” (water storage) is still enough before the peak of dry season, but
after the peak, discharge decreased and we have to buy clean water (from water tank). Thissituation happened since a long time ago”(Bali Post, 2016c)
Complains from farmers:“ Drought happened because volume of water in irrigation channel is small”(Bali Post, 2017),“I cannot do farming anymore. There is no water. I lost my source of income.”(Bali Post,2016b).
Some conflicts of water has been escalated from the crisis (Strauß, 2011; Tariganet al., 2014) and some even lead to destruction of public property such as roadand pipes (Bali Post, 2011b, 2011c). Conflicts happened between farmers andPDAM and fights among local population over clean water.

9Water Balance Calculation• Period of calculation: 1994 to 2013 (20 years – monthly for every regency)
Water Use:
1) Agriculture2) Domestic3) Tourismvs.

Water Availability:1) Rivers2) Springs
3) Groundwater

Water useData

Standard

Domestic

Population data(National population census)

1 person = 100 l/d(Indonesian NationalStandard/SNI)

Tourism• Number of hotel rooms• Monthly occupancy rate
(only occupied room were counted)(Bali Province Statistical Agency)(unit in m3/room/year)• 4-5 star = 1,424• 1-3 star = 949• Non-classified = 548

Agriculture• Harvested Area (Bali Province
Statistical Agency)• Rainfall data (Ministry of Public Workrain gauges)• Climatic data (BMKG climatic stations)*) next slide

Agriculture water use
JANFEB
1MAR

APRMAYJUN

11515

115

115115kc

1.1

1.1 1.08 1.05

10.95

-

-

1.1

1.1 1.08 1.05

I

22222

1122222

LP

-

---

3.33 6.67 3.33

-

----

WLR 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67
JUL

-

AUG

-

115

1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67

SEPOCT

DEC

115

115

115

15

115

115

kc

10.95

-

-

1.1

1.1 1.08 1.05

10.95

--

I211222222112LP

3.33 6.67 3.33-----

3.33 6.67 3.33

WLR--1NOV

1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67--1.67

Units: kc (-), I (mm/d), LP (mm/d), WLR (mm/d), DR (mm/d), E (-)
All constants were based on JICA et al. (2006)••

ETc + I + LP + WLR + 0.7DR
IW =E•••

Formula obtained from JICA et al. (2006)
IW = Irrigation Water
ETo= Potential Evapotranspiration obtained by Penmann-Monteith equationfor <=23.33 mm, = 0.6 – 3.33

for >23.33 mm, = 0.8 – 6.000.5

Water AvailabilityRivers••Estimated from daily river discharge of major 31 rivercatchments;
Estimation method provided by Ministry of Public
Works of Indonesia. (based on a water balance equation
using daily rainfall and evapotranspiration) including
related coefficients suitable for Bali’s settings.

Springs••

Based on data inventory of springs’ yield from Ministryof Public Works data.
The spring water availability is calculated with thefollowing equation:j nSW (m, r )   Qs ( j, m)
j 1•SW = spring water ; Qs is max. yield, n= is number ofsprings in one regency.

Groundwater••

Estimated groundwater availability of a regency/city used based from JICA’s revision on the calculationfrom the Integrated Urban Infrastructure Development Program-Bali (IUIDP-Bali) Project.
The recharge volume of each regency is calculated based on the proportion of each geological formation in
the respective regency and the rainfall in the area and the exploitable limit is 10% of the recharge.

Annual Water Use (Bali)
1994

Water use in Bali (1994-2013)(in million m3)
1,700300

AGR
92%TOTAL
250

1,500
200
1,400Agriculture

150

1,300
1,200

Domestic
Tourism

1,100
1,000
1994

1005001999

2004

2009

Domestic and tourism

Total and agriculture

1,600

2013

DOM
7%

AGR
89%
DOM
9%

TOU
1%

••
•
•

TOU
2%

Total water use increased by 0.01 billion m3 (0.54%) in
20 years;
Domestic Water Use increased by 0.04 billion m3
Tourism Water Use increased by 0.01 billion m3
Agriculture Water use decreased by 0.04 billion m3

Water transfer:
Agriculture to Domestic (82%) and Tourism (18%)

13Spatial Water Use (9 Regencies/City)
1994

Domestic

Total

2013
In million m31994<77-141994

Domestic water use
increased in most partof Bali and the highest
in in Badung andDenpasar

Tourism

14-21
21-28
>28

Legend2013

adm_bali_kab

In million m3

Inmillion m3
T1994
<100

<4Badung

4-8
8-12
12-16>16100-200
200-300
300-400>400

Overall the highest
water use is still inTabanan area

2013
1994

Agriculture

2013

Legendadm_bali_kab
In million m3
T2013<80Gianyar

80-160160-240240-320>320

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Legend

1994

Tourism seasonal
MAYwater use

Seasonal Tourism.csv.May< 0.18

Legend0.18 - 0.36

MAY

0.36 - 0.54

In million m3
0.54 - 0.72
Seasonal Tourism.csv.May< 0.180.72 - 0.90

0.18 - 0.36

0.90 - 1.09

0.36 - 0.54

1.08 - 1.26

0.54 - 0.72

1.26 - 1.44

0.72 - 0.90

> 1.440.90 - 1.09

2013

1.08 - 1.26

Millions

Badung Regency
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8

1.26 - 1.44
> 1.442013

1994

In the peak periods, water used 1.05
times higher than the average. Thisvalue is lower in 2013 than in 1994

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1994

Agriculture seasonal
water use
LegendMAY

In million m3
Seasonal agri 13.csv.May< 2020 - 40
40 - 60
60 - 80> 80

2013
Millions

Tabanan Regency
10090807060
504030201001994

2013

In 1994, peak happened only inTabanan and Buleleng but in 2013 italso happened in Gianyar

16Seasonal Water Availability
1.6

1.4

in billion m3

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.01994

•
•
•

2003

2013

Annual water availability in Bali is ranged between 3.5 billion m3 to 7.1 billion m3.
Most of water resources (76%) comes from rivers, 18% from springs and 6% is fromgroundwater (exploitable limit)
The comparison of seasonal water availability in 1994, 2003, and 2013 (above picture)shows yearly and monthly variation of water availability. The lowest water availability
is from August to October.

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Water use vs. water availability

Water Use/Availability

Stress Level

<0.1

Low

0.1 – 0.2

Moderate

0.2 -0.4

High>0.4

Extreme18

Conclusions•

Most water crisis which were reported in the local newspapers during July to October werecaused by lack of water resources while those which were reported during February toApril were caused by damage in water infrastructures (due to landslides or floods).
Some of the reported crisis were escalated to conflicts and destructions of public properties (BaliPost, 2011b, 2011c, 2016) happened in Badung (July 2011), Karangasem (July 2011),
Gianyar (October 2017), Klungkung (November 2016), and Tabanan (October 2009).
All of these conflicts happened when water stress level in extreme condition.

•This study suggested that even though the Bali’s GRDP shows a change in regional income fromagriculture to tourism, but agriculture water use was only slightly decreased (2.73%) from 1994 to2013. It even shows increasing trend since 2003. As the original income for the Balinese, this may
cause conflicts between farmers and other sectors. It should be therefore well regulated in termsof timing and location based on available water resources. Accurate information with scientificevidence on spatial and temporal availability of water as well as suggestion on planting scheduleshould be communicated through proper method such as through the traditional subak system.
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Conclusions•Urbanization and tourism development happened in Badung Regency andDenpasar City and water was reallocated from agriculture sector (decreasedby 62.78 million m3) to tourism and domestic (increased by 33.83 millionm3). Furthermore, these regencies have in nature smaller water
availability compare to other regencies (9% of all Bali). This situation
makes these regions prone to conflict due to hydrological variation
especially in prolonged dry period.

•The use of relatively stable water sources such as springs and groundwater
should be therefore regulated and monitored in a better way to avoid
uncontrolled use during dry period. On the other hand, assessment on thesustainable limit of the use of these resources particularly for these regency andcity should be done more carefully to allow access during dry period.
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Acknowledgement

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Thank you…..

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