Japanese Journal of Applied Psychology
2024, Vol. 50, No. 1, 31-40

実践報告

Prospective Teachersʼ Awareness of Intercultural Conflict
Factors in Japanese Schools―Toward the Development of a Multicultural, Inclusive
School Environment―
Yuri OKUNISHI＊
This study aims to examine how prospective teachers in Japan critically recognize the characteristics
of Japanese school culture that could result in intercultural conflicts. 117 students participated in thisstudy. They were given three 90-minute lectures on Japanese school education in the globalized era andpossible intercultural conflicts among dominant cultural group members and minorities. Among the minority groups in Japan, participants were educated extensively on Muslim culture. After the lectures,
they were asked to analyze a case study of an intercultural conflict between a Muslim student and herclassmates within a Japanese school environment. A qualitative analysis of the open-ended responses
yielded 11 subcategories, 5 medium categories, and 2 large categories. The unique educational values ofJapanese schools were identified as possible causes of intercultural conflict. They included group consciousness and prejudice, aversion, and discomfort with being different; a sense of resistance to breaking
rules and disturbing public morals; and desire for approval and dissatisfaction regarding legitimacy ofendurance and effort. The possibilities of nurturing self-respecting and culturally tolerant students for
an inclusive school environment are discussed.
key words: intercultural conflict, Japanese education, inclusive school environment, foreign students,
Muslim culture

Introduction
Background of Study

pan reached a record high of 3,075,213, representing
195 countries and regions ( Immigration Services
Agency of Japan, Ministry of Justice, 2022).

In todayʼs 21 st-century world, globalization has

According to the Ministry of Health, Labour andled to increased human mobility across borders. In-

Welfareʼs Employment of Foreigners report (2021),

dividuals with different nationalities and cultures

the number of foreign workers in Japan reached a

now reside within single regions, even in an island

record high of about 1.72 million at the end of Octo-

country like Japan, which has long been consideredber 2020. Additionally, data from the National Insti-

monoethnic. As of October 2022, Japanʼs total popu-

tute of Population and Social Security Research

lation is 124,947,000 (Statistics Bureau, Ministry of(2023) indicates that the proportion of the foreign

Internal Affairs and Communications, 2022). By the

population in Japan is estimated to increase to

end of 2022, the number of foreign residents in Ja-

10.8% by 2070.

＊

Department of Secondary Education, Faculty of Education, Okayama University of Science, 1-1 Ridai-cho, Kita-ku,
Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-0005, Japan.

（okunishi@ous.ac.jp）

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応用心理学研究

Vol. 50, No. 1

With the growing foreign working population incountries like Australia and Canada, which haveJapan, there has been a corresponding increase in

adopted multiculturalism policies and incorporated

the number of foreign children enrolled in Japanesethe promotion of intercultural understanding into

schools. The presence of children lacking sufficient

their educational curricula in order to address local

Japanese language skills or understanding of Japa-

diversity (Australian Curriculum, Assessment andnese culture has become a notable concern. These

Reporting Authority, 2023), nurturing competencechildren require language and cultural support

to address diversity has not yet been an educationalfrom Japanese schools, which, historically havepriority in Japan.

been designed to be monolingual and are illprepared for multiculturalism.

Qualitative empirical studies have reported thatJapanʼs unique school education culture can serve

As of May 1, 2018, the number of foreign students

as a contributing factor in intercultural conflicts andin public elementary, junior high, and senior highschool maladjustment experienced by foreign stu-schools in Japan needing Japanese as a second lan-dents who face invisible and exclusionary pressuresguage instruction was reported to be 40,755. By(Fukuyama, 2016; Kojima, 2007; Takenoshita, 2012;

May 2021, this number had risen to 47,619 (Ministry

Sakuma, 2006). The Ministry of Education, Culture,of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technol-Sports, Science and Technology Report (2017a) ac-

ogy, 2020, 2022). National statistics surveys on chil-knowledges the international appreciation for thedrenʼs school attendance as of May 2019 indicatedefforts in “Japanese-style school education” aimed atthat approximately 10,000 foreign elementary andfostering high moral character. However, it also

junior high school students in Japan were consid-

points out that social and economic changes haveered to be out of school (Ministry of Education, Cul-

created new challenges regarding the acceptance ofture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2020).

foreign children, making the issues faced by Japa-

Given the current circumstances and the un-nese schools more complex and diverse.

precedented influx of foreign residents into Japan,

Implementing traditional education, which tends

there is an urgent need for heightened awarenessto pursue uniformity and order, is becoming in-regarding the development of young individuals

creasingly difficult, because a monolingual, mo-equipped with the mindset and skills to navigate do-

nocultural, monoethnic, unity-oriented school envi-

mestic diversity. This would place Japan into align-ronment can lead to a sense of discomfort and lackment with the practices observed in many otherof belonging at school for foreign children.

multicultural developed countries. Conversely, theIn dealing with culturally and ethnically diverse

Japanese government has historically emphasized

populations, Japan has successfully assimilated cer-

the cultivation of interculturally competent indi-tain ethnic minorities into its society, including long-viduals with a specific focus on fostering economic

standing Korean residents and the Ainu, who are

activities in foreign markets, aimed towards

indigenous people from Hokkaido and the northernstrengthening Japanʼs economic competitiveness.

Tohoku region. However, there is a notable gap inOver the past decade, the government has pur-educational programs that fully address the coexis-

sued a strategy of “global human resource develop-

tence of these minorities with the majority popula-ment,” actively promoting the cultivation of youngtion (Kim, 2006). In fact, the substantial population ofindividuals possessing strong international lan-non-attending foreign students suggests that Japa-

guage skills. These individuals are expected to en-nese schools are not providing an inclusive environ-gage in overseas economic activities, thereby

ment for students with diverse backgrounds.

strengthening the nationʼs economic power ( Cabi-

In the pursuit of fostering inclusivity of students

net Office, 2021 ; Yonezawa, 2014 ) . In contrast tofrom racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds,

OKUNISHI：Prospective Teachersʼ Awareness of Intercultural Conflict Factors in Japanese Schools（ 33 ）

multicultural education was advocated in the U. S.

cultural backgrounds to comfortably participate(Banks, 1994). This approach not only aims at pro-and actively build mutual relationships. Japanesemoting equitable education for minority children

schools have many unique customs and events that

but also highlights the notion of “ whiteness ” as aare seldom encountered in other countries. The in-privilege that teachers from the majority group

tricate rules associated with these customs are

may unconsciously hold, potentially impacting non-often too complex for foreign students and their

white students negatively (Banks, 1994) . Matsuo

parents to comprehend or accept ( Yamagata Pre-(2007) asserts that a similar concept of whitenessfecture, 2010). Examples include school lunches andexists in Japan, emphasizing that raising awarenessschool cleaning which are integrated into compul-

about this “Japaneseness” is crucial for realizing asory education programs, group-based activities

multicultural Japanese society.

such as athletic meets, overnight training, andWhile there has always been a general discourse

school trips that are mandatory for all students, andasserting that diversity creates abundance, actual-junior high and high school club activities con-izing this requires schoolteachers to be acutely

ducted in the morning and evening hours outside ofaware of the “ Japaneseness ” they may uncon-

regular weekday classes and on holidays. Further-sciously hold. Matsuo argues that for a diverse stu-

more, these long-standing school customs are exe-dent body to enrich the learning environment,

cuted at exceptionally high levels of perfectionism

teachers must be highly sensitive to and thought-

and are strongly supported by teachersʼ beliefs andfully consider how their assumptions might cause

enthusiasm.

discomfort or disadvantage to those culturally dif-

For children from other countries accustomed toferent. Cultivating such awareness is fundamentala more liberal and relaxed school environment,in establishing the necessary conditions for an inclu-

where bringing snacks and juice to school, wearing

sive learning environment in Japanese schools.

casual clothing and accessories, and prioritizing in-Regarding the ʻ deconstructionʼ of Japaneseness,dividual values over the group norms are allowed, aMorimo (2013) emphasizes the need for school cur-Japanese school might prove burdensome. Reports

ricula to include content that raises awarenessindicate that foreign students experienced frustra-

among students about the privilege associated withtion with Japanese school practices, with some in-being a majority Japanese. Additionally, the curric-stances of rebellious behavior (Kojima, 2007). Whenula should address the conflict and confrontations

Japanese educational values and teachersʼ beliefs di-

between majorities and minorities, presenting nar-verge significantly from those of foreign students,

ratives from opposing standpoints of minorities.

and efforts are not made to bridge the gap, schools

Morimo aligns with the position of Inoue et al.

risk becoming exclusionary places for them.

(1992), asserting that the multicultural coexistence

Purpose of Study

targeted by multicultural education should foster

To foster an inclusive environment for foreignsocial cohesion embracing heterogeneity. It should

students within the conflicted educational land-

not merely be a coexistence or co-prosperity withinscape, Japanese school teachers need to cultivate

an inner circle but form should be a social cohesion

skills that bridge the gap between their idealized

where people with different forms of life can ac-

perceptions of educational values in Japanese

tively build mutual relationships, with mutual rec-schools and the cultural values of foreign students.

ognition of opportunities for free activity and par-For this to happen, Japanese teachers must have aticipation.

profound awareness of their own culture identity as

Due to the distinct nature of Japanese school edu-

the majority and actively engage in the deconstruc-cation, it may be difficult for children from differenttion of their “Japaneseness.” To facilitate this proc-

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応用心理学研究

Table 1Vol. 50, No. 1

Topics addressed in intensive lectures＜1st Lecture＞Drastic technological changes in the globalized era/Challenges in Japanese education in the 21st
century/Fourth Industrial Revolution, SDGs, IoT, Society5.0/Low birthrate and ageing population in Japan/Japanese working abroad/Foreigners working in Japan/Legal reform to secure labor force in Japan/More foreign
pupils due to acceptance of foreign workers/Intercultural conflict in Japanese schools/Common senses in Japanese schools＜2nd Lecture＞Non-enrollment of foreign nationals in Japanese schools/Non-adaptation of foreigners to Japanese schools/Various problems faced by foreign children/Contradictions between Japanese school culture andglobalized society/Difficulties in understanding others in a globalized society/Differences in communication perspectives between Japan and other countries/Difficulties with common senses in Japanese schools for foreign
parents and children/Cultural differences, cultural diversity, visible and invisible cultures＜3rd Lecture＞Life of Muslim people as one example of different cultures/Customs and behaviors of Muslims/
Halal and Haram, frequency and timing of prayers

ess, educational initiatives have been implemented

Following each lecture, students were requiredwith the explicit goal of enhancing prospective

to complete a short quiz to assess their understand-teachersʼ intercultural awareness and dismantlinging of the lecture material. Additionally, as a sum-preconceived notions of “Japaneseness” that may bemary of the three lectures, students were tasked

ingrained in them.

with writing an analysis report on a case involving

An essential aspect of this effort involves clarify-

intercultural conflict between Muslim culture anding what kind of awareness regarding “ Japanese-

Japanese school culture. With their consent, theseness ” is attained through intercultural education.

reports served as subsequent research data. The

Understanding the outcomes of such education pro-students were assured that their anonymity andvides a foundation for discussions concerning theprivacy would be protected, with explicit confirma-

appropriate direction for the implementation oftion that non-participation would not result in any

multicultural education in Japan.

disadvantage. As a result, all 116 students in the

Methods
Participants
The study included 116 participants (30% female

class unequivocally expressed their agreement toparticipate in the study. Among those, 30 % werefemale and 70 % were male students.
Procedures

and 70% male) enrolled in a teacher training course

The three 90-minute lectures covered a range ofat University X. University X is a medium-sized uni-

specific topics, as outlined in Table 1. In addition toversity located in western Japan. Study partici-

presenting current situations and theoretical knowl-pants, all prospective teachers, willingly agreed toedge about Japanese and foreign cultures, schools,

participate in the study. The study was conducted

and education, the lectures provided real-life exam-

from late July to early August 2019 during aples of intercultural conflict commonly experienced

second-year class in University X. This class, which

by foreign students in Japan. The curriculum also

was focused on contemporary issues in education indelved into the culture and ways of life of Muslims,

Japan, was an omnibus class of 15 lectures, eachconsidering their increasing numbers and growing

lasting 90 minutes. Five professors, each delivering

global influence. Although there are more Muslims

three face-to-face lessons, taught the class. The

living in local communities in Japan than ever be-class sessions were held once a week, with thefore, they are still a minority in number and theirauthor teaching three classes that specificallyculture is unfamiliar to the majority of Japanese.

delved into global and intercultural issues related toJapanese schools.

To ensure a nuanced understanding and avoid
stereotypical or essentialist perceptions, the lec-

OKUNISHI：Prospective Teachersʼ Awareness of Intercultural Conflict Factors in Japanese Schools（ 35 ）

tures limited explanations about Muslim culture tohostility, hatred, and grievances but also everyday

basic customs and ideas shared among Muslims inchallenges like cultural ignorance, miscommunica-

general. Additionally, emphasis was placed on high-tion, and misrecognition of differences. In the de-lighting the unique aspects and the rationale behind

picted story, despite the special measures granted

these cultural elements. The specific scenario cho-by the school to a Muslim student regarding foodsen to illustrate an intercultural conflict between

and prayer, Japanese students find it difficult to ac-

Muslim and Japanese cultures was as follows：

cept these differences.

You are a fifth-grade homeroom teacher. A Muslim

In the research, participants were tasked with re-girl, Leila, has just transferred to your class and has been

flecting on their understanding of the cultural cir-

granted two special considerations by her school: 1) she

cumstances of the Japanese schoolchildren in thedoes not eat school lunch but brings her own lunch, andstory that potentially led to the conflict. They were2) she is allowed to leave her classroom for her prayers

encouraged to express their interpretations andand use an empty room. After a while, you begin to hear

opinions freely, and were asked to submit theircomplaints from her classmates. It started with the cherry

analysis reports within a week following the third

tomatoes served during school lunch. Leila said, “I don’t

lecture given by the author. Building on the concept

like tomatoes. I don’t even eat them at home.” Four orof “Japaneseness” discussed earlier, the resolution offive students came up to you and insisted, “The teacher

intercultural conflicts necessitates teachersʼ ability

always says to us that even if we do not like anything, we

to comprehend not only the unique cultural circum-

should eat whatever is offered at school lunch. Leila only

stances of foreign individuals but also the social andbrings what she likes from home and eats it. Even after

psychological circumstances of host Japanese thatlunch, when everyone else is cleaning up the classroom,

may trigger conflicts. A qualitative study was thenshe disappears. That’s not fair ! The teacher patronizes

conducted to determine what insights gained fromher.” Leila seems to get increasingly isolated in the class.

the participantsʼ intensive cultural learning.

In this scenario, a Muslim student transfers to an

Analyseselementary school in Japan. This story highlights

Qualitative analysis of the data was conducted us-

the intercultural conflicts that occur when aspects

ing the KJ method (Kawakita, 2017), a widely usedof the Muslim culture, specific dietary restrictions

approach for organizing diverse ideas of different

and prayer, are encountered by the typical Japa-

dimensions into the same levels and ultimately cate-nese student that might be unfamiliar with them.

gorizing them. First, the descriptive responses

Eating halal food and praying are religious acts thatwere separated and organized into cohesive

are deeply rooted in Muslimsʼ daily lives, and they

meaning-based cards, resulting in a total of 177

are seen here as potential “ culture ” clash issues

cards comprising multiple sentences. Next, the card

based on the idea that religion is an important partdescriptions were grouped into piles, each repre-of culture (Igoa, 2014). Culture is defined as a sys-

senting the same type of description, and were ap-

tem that each group has created for its own sur-propriately labeled. Then these labeled piles, repre-

vival and relates to attitudes, values, beliefs, norms,

senting subcategories, were then further groupedand behaviors ( Matsumoto, 2000 ) . According to

into medium categories based on similarity andTing-Toomey (1999), intercultural conflict is charac-then into large categories.

terized by the perceived or actual incompatibility of

The entire process of analysis and categorization

values, norms, processes, or goals between a mini-

was undertaken by the author, with the assistancemum of two cultural parties over content, identity,of a researcher specializing in language and culture.

relational, and procedural issues. This concept en-

This collaborative effort ensured the utmost valid-

compasses not only enduring historical forms of

ity in categorizing the data to the greatest extent

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応用心理学研究possible.

Vol. 50, No. 1

ing them to help each other complete tasks. The exResults

One hundred and seventy-seven cards weregrouped into eleven sub-categories. These sub-pected behaviors of pupils based on these uniquely
Japanese educational values could be inconsistent
with those of pupils from other cultures that do notemphasize these values.

categories were grouped into five medium catego-

The second sub-category, “ Respect for a groupries and divided into two large categories. Eachand egalitarianism,” the third sub-category, “Group

category was given a name. The two large catego-consciousness and prejudice, aversion and discom-ries, five medium categories, and eleven sub-fort with being different,” the fourth sub-category,

categories are listed in Table 2, along with exam-“Sense of resistance to breaking rules and disturb-

ples of specific descriptive sentences. The total

ing public morals,” and the fifth sub-category, “Edu-number of cards classified in sub-category, medium

cation and culture that are less likely to recognize

category and large category is shown in brackets indeviant individuality ” pertain to Japanese educa-

Table 2.

tionʼs emphasis on groups rather than individual

The first large category, “Unique educational cli-

students. Japanese collectivism is based on the be-mate, ” consisted of the three medium categories :lief that everyone is equivalent. From this perspec-“Indigenous methods of education,” “Collective cul-

tive, special treatment tends to be considered to in-ture,” and “Teachers as authorities.” These catego-

terfere with the value of equality. The importanceries were related to the unique educational tenden-

placed on group cohesion is reflected in the factcies or culture of Japanese schools. The second

that Japanese students tend to exhibit discomfort

large category, “ Underdeveloped intercultural un-

and prejudice toward those who act differently.

derstanding,” consisted of the two medium catego-

The collectivist culture also pressures individual

ries: “Lack of understanding of other cultures” andmembers to follow the rules rather than pursue“Lack of understanding of religion.” These catego-

personal benefit. As a result, students tend to resist

ries were related to Japanese pupilsʼ lack of inter-any deviation from the rules.

cultural knowledge and awareness.

Under such circumstances, despite its nominal

The sub-category, “Emphasis on the educational

emphasis on individuality ( Ministry of Education,

value of school lunches and cleaning, ” is the only

Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2017c,

one that belongs to the first medium category: “In-2017d), accepting individuality would be difficult if it

digenous methods of education.” The unique educa-

is perceived as deviant. Although each childʼs per-tional practices were recognized as potential con-sonality traits and background are respected in the

flict factors for foreign students. In Japan, school

Japanese educational environment, acceptance islunches are considered part of the compulsory edu-

more difficult when they differ significantly from

cation curriculum as a means of dietary education

what is typically expected.

(Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and

The sixth sub-category, “Obedience to teachersʼTechnology, 2017b). Related activities are con-teachings, ” the seventh sub-category, “ Desire forducted daily, including serving meals, finishingapproval and dissatisfaction regarding legitimacy ofmeals with no leftovers, and communicating withendurance and effort,” and the eighth sub-category,classmates while eating the same food. Cleaning“Expectations for teachersʼ guidance,” belonging toschool premises at assigned times and in their as-

the medium category of “Teachers as authorities,”

signed cleaning areas is considered an essential

relate to the fact that in Japanese education, teach-part of student life. Cleaning is intended to improveers have significant authority and students are ex-

studentsʼ cooperation and work ethic by encourag-pected to obediently follow their instructions. Stu-

OKUNISHI：Prospective Teachersʼ Awareness of Intercultural Conflict Factors in Japanese Schools

Table 2
Large
category

Analysis of Japanese Culture as a Factor in Intercultural Conflict among Teacher Training Students

Mediumcategory

Subcategory

Examples of actual statements by participants

Indigenous
methods ofeducation(18 responses)

Emphasis on the
educational value ofschool lunches andcleaning (18 responses)

In Japan, there is a belief that it is wrong to like or dislike food,or to leave or waste school lunches, and that students have theresponsibility to keep their school clean. Japanese education instills these values in the children.

Collective
culture (97responses)

Respect for a groupand egalitarianism (27responses)

In Japanese education, cooperation is very important and students are taught that everyone is equal, so when you see that
Leila is the only one being treated specially, you naturally think
it is strange.

Group consciousness
and prejudice, aversion, and discomfort
with being different(48 responses)

School education is developed and centered around group behavior, and when you see someone doing something different, it may
create a sense of discomfort. Even if it is for religious reasons, it
is natural to feel that they are cheating because they are doing
what they want if that is contrary to school rules.

Sense of resistance tobreaking rules anddisturbing public
morals (13 responses)

We believe that there is merit in students having the mindset
that rules and regulations must be followed, and that everyone
must do things even if they do not want to. We see value in or
understand when they cannot tolerate someone who is not following the rules and is allowed to do what they want.

Education and culturethat are less likely torecognize deviant individuality (9 responses)

The reason students like Leila are seen as problematic is deeply
related to the education system that nurtures an average child inJapan. They say they value individuality, but they only value individuality within a set of rules. In order to accept other cultures, education that teaches acceptance of divergent characteristics is necessary. If we could conduct education that can accept
students with natural brown hair and any individuality of students, students like Leila would be able to fit in better.

Teachers as Obedience to teachersʼ
authorities teachings (7 respons(16 respons- es)
es)

The children are not saying this because they do not like it.
From the childrenʼs perspective, they would not be happy that
Leila is the only one who is allowed to do what they are usuallytaught and told not to do, whether it is eating or cleaning. It is
no wonder they think it is unfair.

Uniqueeducational
climate(131 responses)

Underdeveloped
intercultural
understanding(46 responses)（ 37 ）

Desire for approvaland dissatisfaction
regarding legitimacyof endurance andeffort (7 responses)

Behind the studentsʼ feelings of her being privileged, is a sense of
insecurity that they are not acknowledged. Since they do theirbest to eat school lunch even though it is something they do not
like, they would like their teachers to recognize their efforts andthey would also want Leila to do her best to eat the school lunch
as well.

Expectations forteachersʼ guidance (2responses)

There should be a value system that the teacher should teachthe students, so that students do not do whatever they want.

Lack ofunderstanding of othercultures (26responses)

Lack of interculturalcontact experiences
and learning (22responses)

Students spend their school life in a small living area with a few
people. In this kind of life, they are not exposed to other cultures.
I believe that it does not foster an awareness of other cultures
like Leilaʼs.

Lack ofunderstanding of
religion (20responses)

Indifference to, andlack of understanding
and education about
religion (20 responses)

Lack of different and I can say that it is a successful education in terms of fostering aother cultural perspec- sense of camaraderie. However, thinking from another personʼstives (4 responses)
perspective, this is not ideal, and they are likely to be dissatisfied
with the ways of people with freedom. It is true that we have to
eat things we do not like. Itʼs not wrong. Itʼs correct as an education, but I feel the education has been conducted in an extreme
way, such as removing the option of leaving food even when
students are unable to eat it.
I think a big factor is the way Japanese people think about religion. Religion is often not a big thing for the Japanese. There areparts of daily life where religious ideas are rooted, but there are
no restrictions on behavior like in the case of Islam. I think thisleads to the misunderstanding that a foreign student is privileged by their teachers.

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応用心理学研究

Vol. 50, No. 1

dents who do not participate in various compulsory

mity, it can result in not only foreign children feel-school activities are subsequently criticized. Not

ing isolated but also hinder Japanese host students

criticizing children who avoid the effort related tofrom building tolerant relationships with interna-such compulsory school activities may be consid-

tional individuals.

ered favoritism. Students are expected to patiently

The complex challenge lies in reconciling the dis-fulfill many of the collective obligations associatedtinctive educational climate of Japanese schools

with schooling in Japan and gain social approvalwith those of other cultures. Although there are nofrom their teachers. Failing to fulfill obligations may

definitive answers or clear directions on achieving

be regarded as self-centered or selfish and is notthis reconciliation, the exposure of schoolteachers tolikely to be tolerated by their peers. Moreover,critical perspectives on their own school culture canwhen such failure occurs, teachers are expected toassist them in developing a comprehensive ap-

guide students, which would apply to foreign stu-

proach to establish a fair and inclusive environment

dents as well.

for foreign children. The findings of this study indi-

The ninth sub-category, “ Lack of intercultural

cate that participants, who are poised to assumecontact experiences and learning, ” and the tenthleadership roles in dealing with foreign children in

sub-category, “Lack of different and other cultural

schools, were able to identify potential intercultural

perspectives,” belonging to the medium category of

conflict factors on the part of hosts. The unique edu-

“Lack of understanding of other cultures, ” reflect

cational climate in Japanese schools was acknowl-

the realization that Japanese education overempha-

edged as the potential cause of intercultural con-sizes in-group camaraderie and in-group correct-

flicts. Moreover, it was recognized that the lack ofness and students have very little exposure to for-intercultural understanding among students stems

eign cultures in their daily school lives, which limits

from the absence of realistic intercultural contact

their ability to see things from other perspectives.

and related educational opportunities in Japanese

Finally, the eleventh sub-category, “Indifference

schools.

to, and lack of understanding and education about

It is challenging to definitively attribute the ob-religion,” is the only one belonging to the medium

tained results solely to the three lectures, as various

category of “Lack of understanding of religion.” Itother factors may have influenced the outcomes.

refers to Japanese studentsʼ low level of awareness

Nevertheless, previous studies on the intercultural

about religions and their practices. With a lack ofcompetence of Japanese students has highlighted

basic knowledge about religion, students are likely

the psychological barriers they face in creating an

to misinterpret the actions of religious people.

inclusive environment for foreign students in Japan.

Discussion

For instance, a study examining Japanese university students engaged in international volunteer

This study examined how intercultural education

projects with close intercultural contact found that

contributed to the critical reflection of prospective

those pursuing leadership roles tended to prioritize

schoolteachers on their own school culture. In Japa-

strengthening in-group relationships with theirnese school education, there is significant emphasis

Japanese peers, often overlooking the needs of for-on fostering studentsʼ ability to cooperate with oth-eign students (Okunishi, 2020). The study revealed

ers through the accomplishment of collective tasks,that Japanese college studentsʼ intercultural under-

which was meant to facilitate the development of astanding tended to remain superficial, with their in-diligent and well-mannered workforce, social order,

terpersonal relationships with foreigners confinedand social unity. However, when teachers strongly

to homogeneity-based intrapersonal relationships

adhere to beliefs centered around unity and confor-

rooted in peer-group consciousness.

OKUNISHI：Prospective Teachersʼ Awareness of Intercultural Conflict Factors in Japanese Schools

Additionally, Komatsu (2017) underscores theneed for specialized education and training for Japanese students to increase awareness and respect
for cultural diversity and improve their communication abilities. In the context of the study, the threeintensive lectures, which focused on the unique aspects of Japanese education as a potential source ofcross-cultural conflict, were perceived to have positively contributed to mitigating the cultural awareness gaps among participating Japanese students.
The increase in the number of foreign pupils has
posed a challenge for host Japanese teachers andstudents in navigating unforeseen cultural conflicts(Kojima, 2007; Pan, 2015; Shimizu ＆ Shimizu, 2001).
The growing acceptance of foreigners in Japanesesociety and increased exposure to different culturesin everyday school life may open new possibilities
for global education for Japanese host students(Fukuyama, 2016). However, intercultural educationin Japan has often been confined to an attitude ofunderstanding and respecting other cultures ( Ijo,
2012; Oda, 2012). Current intercultural education in
Japanese classrooms has been criticized for its superficial nature, often characterized as focusing
solely on the 3Fs (food, fashion, and festival), without achieving significant educational effect (Matsuo,2007). The cognitive and behavioral skills requiredof teachers to effectively conduct intercultural education and create inclusive educational environment have not been widely discussed in Japan. Crucially, teachers must liberate themselves from any
unconscious ethnocentric perspectives they may
hold.
While the present study explored the culturalawareness of prospective teachers resulting from
intensive intercultural education, the study is limited in that it did not identify how teachersʼ deep
awareness of their own cultural traits would lead toeffective cognitive and behavioral skills needed tocreate a more inclusive school environment. Further in-depth research on the competencies required to effectively establish inclusive environments for both foreign and domestic students is（ 39 ）

eagerly anticipated.
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f(Received: September 15, 2023
2024)

Accepted : March 21,