マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）【Special Feature Articles: Chao Foon Magazine and the Chinese Publication Network
in East and Southeast Asia during the Cold War】

Development of Textbook Supply Networks
Connecting Singapore and Hong Kong
Shinozaki Kaori1

Introduction
This paper examines the formation of a publishing network connecting Singapore andHong Kong in the 1950s and the 1960s by focusing on textbook supply networks. Specifically,
it clarifies (1) the formation of a textbook supply network from Hong Kong to Singapore, (2)the development of the network in other literary fields, and (3) its subsequent development.
The focus was on textbooks because their publication and sale led to the establishment andbusiness expansion of bookstores in the Chinese language publishing industry, including in
Hong Kong, Singapore, and China, which became a basic infrastructure to support literary
activities.
The supply of textbooks from Hong Kong to Singapore has been documented in thehistory of individual bookshops, such as the Shanghai Book Company (上海書局) (Chen,
2012; CUHK Library, 2014) and the World Book Company (世界書局) (CUHK Library, 2013).
This paper presents a comprehensive overview of the history of individual bookstores bysupplementing this information with newspapers published in Singapore.
Chinese schools and textbooks in Singapore and Malaya/Malaysia2 have been part of
the national education system since the 1950s. Singapore established an English-centred
national education system; however, until the mid-1980s, Chinese schools constituted a partof the national education system. Chinese schools were closed in late 1980 3, but the bilingual
education policy of making English and the mother tongue compulsory was implemented,
1
2

3

篠崎香織 Faculty of Foreign Studies, University of Kitakyushu.
Malaya refers to todayʼs Peninsular Malaysia. In Malaya, the Malayan Union was established
as a British colonial administrative unit in April 1946, and the Federation of Malaya wasestablished in February 1948. After 1946, Singapore was separated from Malaya and became asole British crown colony. Malaya became independent from the United Kingdom in August
1957 and formed Malaysia with Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak in September 1963. Singapore
separated from Malaysia in August 1965.
In Singapore, approximately 100% of the students enrolled in elementar y schools chose
English schools in 1984, and since 1987, all primary schools have become English schools(Tanaka, 1987: 103-105).

11マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

and the Chinese language continues to be a compulsory subject for most Chinese students.
In Malaya/Malaysia, a Malay-centred national education system was constructed, butschools teaching in Chinese and Tamil also became part of the national education system inprimary education.
This paper consists of five chapters. ChapterⅠ overviews that Singapore became acentre for supplying textbooks to Chinese schools in Malaya and other parts of Southeast
Asia, relying on Shanghai for supply. Chapter Ⅱ discusses the emergence of Hong Kong as
the sole supply source after 1949. Chapter Ⅲ explains the factors under which Hong Kong
became a hub for textbook supply in terms of human resources and printing technology.
Chapter Ⅳ shows that the textbook supply channels from Hong Kong also became the booksupply channels after the import of books from China was severely restricted in Singapore
and Malaya in the late 1950s. Chapter Ⅴ discusses the demise of the cross-border textbook
supply network due to a growing consensus in Singapore that Hong Kong was a threat to its
development. It also discusses human resources, which supported the cross-border supply
network internalised in Singapore and Malaysia by the 1970s.

Ⅰ Establishing Bookstores in Singapore:
Connections with Shanghai (the 1910s-1941)
Singapore has developed as a free port since 1819. By the middle of the 20th century,
Singapore had become a major trading centre for expor ting agricultural and mineralproducts produced in Malaya and the Dutch East Indies to European and American markets.
Singapore became a nodal point for sea routes connecting the inside and outside of the Straitof Malacca and a place where people sailed through. In particular, economic and personalties between Singapore and Malaya were strong. Singapore also functioned as an informationbase for the Malacca Straits region, and newspapers and books were published in multiple
languages, including English, Chinese, and Malay. Many of these publications had readersfrom Malaya.
Modern Chinese schools were established in Singapore and Malaya after 1904, withcurricula based on the modern educational system introduced in 1902, during the Qing
dynasty of China, which taught mathematics, geography, history, and science. By 1937, thenumber of Chinese schools in Singapore and Malaya had increased to 1,180, with 94,516
students (Tay, 1999: 286-287).
The increase in Chinese schools in Singapore and Malaya and the students studying
there became the background for establishing Chinese bookstores and publishers in
Singapore. The Commercial Press (商務印書館), founded in Shanghai in 1897, and theChung Hwa Book Company (中華書局), established in 1912 as an independent company
12

Development of Textbook Supply Networks Connecting Singapore and Hong Kongfrom the Commercial Press, expanded their business by selling textbooks in China. A
reporter dispatched to Shanghai by the Nanyang Siang Pau (南洋商報, NYSP) noted thattextbook publishing, with a fixed sales channel of primary and secondary school students
across China, was the most profitable business in the publishing industry and that all large
bookshops in China expanded their business through textbook publishing and sales (Wang,
1948).
In response to the growing demand for textbooks in Malaya, the Commercial Press
and Chung Hwa Book opened branches in Singapore. The Commercial Press opened its firstoverseas branch in Singapore in 1915, while Chung Hwa Book set up an agency in Singapore
in 1914 and opened a branch in 1923 (Chou Sing Chu Foundation, 2016: 33-34; 43-46).
In the 1920s, Shanghai Book and World Book entered the Chinese book-andpublishing industry in Singapore. The Shanghai Book was founded in 1925 by Chen Yoh
Shoo (陳岳書) and Wang Shu Yang (王叔陽), and the World Book was established in 1934 as
the predecessor of Cheng Hing Company (正興公司), which was founded in 1924 by ChouSing Chu (周星衢). Both bookstores entered the publishing and sale of textbooks for
Chinese schools business and have expanded since then by importing and selling literaryworks published in China, especially from Shanghai and Beijing, where publishing became
active under the New Culture Movement after the May Fourth Movement (Chou Sing Chu
Foundation, 2016: 53-54; 63-64).

Ⅱ Changes in Sources of Textbook Procurement:
From Shanghai to Hong Kong (1945-1949)
Chinese schools in Malaya and Singapore were forced to close during the Japanese
occupation period but reopened after the Japanese army withdrew, and the number ofstudents increased. In 1941, there were 121,000 students in Chinese schools in Malaya, andby the first half of 1947, the number had increased to 200,000 (NYSP, 1947.7.20). As thenumber of students increased, procuring textbooks written in Chinese for each subject
became a major challenge, a matter of both quantity and quality.
In China, the Central Foreign Affairs Department of the Kuomintang (國民黨中央海外部) was aware of the shortage of textbooks at Chinese schools overseas. The department
ordered the National Institute of Compilation (國立編譯館) to compile national textbooks
soon and provide them to Chinese schools overseas in cooperation with the Guangzhou
Textbook Supply Committee (廣州供應委員會) and the Seven Textbook Suppliers (七家聯合供應處)4 in China (NYSP, 1946.5.20; 1946.9.11).
4

It consisted of seven companies: the Commercial Press, the Chung Hwa Book Company, theDa Tong Book Company (大東書局), the Kai Ming Book Company (開明書店), the Cheng

13マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

Bookshops in Singapore sought to secure textbooks from China proactively rather
than waiting for them to be supplied. At the end of 1945, Chen Yun Qing (陳雲卿), themanager of the Singapore branch of the Commercial Press, went to Shanghai to procure
textbooks. However, due to postwar turmoil and soaring prices, it was not possible to procure
suf ficient copies of textbooks to meet demand in Singapore and Malaya. The price ofreference books in China was 1,000 times that before World War II. In 1914, Chen Yun Qing
visited Hong Kong and established a branch of the Commercial Press. It kept stock of
textbooks before the Japanese occupation. Chen Yun Qing transported them to Singapore tomeet the demands in Singapore and Malaya. When stocks in Singapore ran short, theSingapore branch duplicated textbooks (NYSP, 1946.9.7; 1947.2.8).
Chung Hwa Book duplicated textbooks in Singapore and used pre-war textbooks for
Chinese schools in Southeast Asia to survive supply shortages. However, labour and material
costs in Singapore were several times higher than before the war. The price of textbooks was
expected to fall if the Hong Kong branch of the Chung Hwa Book, established in 1927 5,
resumed operations at full capacity (NYSP, 1946.9.7).
Regarding quantity, they managed to procure textbooks relying on supplies from
Hong Kong. Bookstores and Chinese schools were aware of these quality problems.
Schools in Singapore and Malaya increased after World War II due to the involvementof Chinese political organisations. Colonial authorities were concerned that these politicalorganisations, particularly the Communist Party of China (CPC) and its affiliates, would
propagate political ideas to students through schooling. The Education Department ofSingapore issued documents banning political propaganda in schools (NYSP, 1946.9.6; ST,
1946.10.25). Therefore, in September 1946, the Chinese Textbook Advisory Committee held
its first meeting; their members were the directors of education of the Malayan Union andSingapore, assistant directors of education (Chinese schools), Chinese inspectors of schools,
and teachers from the Malayan Union and Singapore. Government representatives urgedthat textbooks used in Chinese schools were immediately and significantly suitable for the
Malayan context (ST, 1946.9.13).
Even before the meeting, Chen Yun Qing of the Commercial Press highlighted that
there would be a problem with whether national textbooks edited and published in China
were suitable for Chinese schools in Malaya and Singapore (NYSP, 1946.9.7). Zhong Zhen
Jia (鐘振家), manager of the Chung Hwa Book, stated that he had provided schools withsamples of national textbooks procured from Shanghai; however, many schools were

5

14

Chung Book Company (正中書局), the World Book Company, and the Wen Tong Book
Company (NYSP, 1948.1.13).
There are two theories about when the Chung Hwa Book Company was established in HongKong: 1913 and 1927. The theory that it was established in 1927 is believed to be the mostconvincing (Chow, 2016: 9-10).

Development of Textbook Supply Networks Connecting Singapore and Hong Kong

reluctant to adopt those textbooks (NYSP, 1946.9.7).
In February 1947, the Chinese Textbook Advisory Committee discussed the revisionof textbooks used in Chinese schools in Singapore and Malaya (NYSP, 1947.2.6). The
Education Department of Singapore decided on the principles for revising Chinese school
textbooks and communicated them to the Commercial Press and Chung Hwa Book. The
principle was that textbooks and teaching materials should incorporate the climate, naturalfeatures, and demographics of Singapore and Malaya. For example, walnuts, mentioned in
Chinese textbooks should be replaced with plants commonly found in Singapore and Malaya,where walnuts do not grow naturally (NYSP, 1947.2.8).
The Commercial Press sent the textbook revision policy of Chinese schools,
requested by the Education Department, to its headquarters in Shanghai, where it wasedited by specialists familiar with Southeast Asia. The Chung Hwa Book edited textbooks forthe lower grades of primary schools in Singapore while sending textbooks for the upper
grades to its headquarters in Shanghai for revision (NYSP 1947.2.8).
Some bookstores and publishers have established bases in Hong Kong. The ShanghaiBook Company established Hong Kong Shanghai Book in 1947. In 1948, it established the
textbook editing committee (現代版教科書編委會) suitable for the time, gathering writersand educators who were living in Hong Kong to edit and publish textbooks for Chinese
schools overseas. It was Wen Ping (温平), the son-in-law of Chen Yue Shu, the founder of the
Shanghai Book, who saw a business opportunity in textbook publishing, and Xia Yan (夏衍)6
recruited the talent. The editor-in-chief was Song Yun Bin (宋雲彬)7, the deputy editor-in-

6

7

Born in Zhejiang, China in 1900. Joined the CPC in 1927. Since 1929, he has written numerous
plays and films. He also worked as a translator of foreign literature and as a journalist. From1941 to 1942 and from 1946 to 1949, he lived in Hong Kong and worked for the CPC organ
Huashang Daily (《華商報》). He travelled to Singapore in mid-March 1947, but was deported
to Hong Kong by the British colonial government in September 1947. Since returning toBeijing in April 1949, he has held impor tant posts in the CPC and has written many
screenplays for movies and storytelling, as well as literary theories and criticisms (Kanzaki,
1997; Hou, 2009: 244).
Born in 1897 in Zhejiang, China. Joined the CPC in 1924. He entered Kai Ming Book Company
in Shanghai and oversaw editing. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, he became the headof the publishing depar tment of the Press of Cultural Supply (文化供應社), which wasestablished in Guilin by the CPC, and the professor of Guilin Normal University. Additionally,he edited the magazine Wild Grass 《野草》(
) with Xia Yan and others. After the end of the SinoJapanese War, he stayed in Hong Kong and worked for CPC-affiliated institutions such as theHong Kong Press of Cultural Supply (香港文化供應社), Wen Wei Po 《文匯報》(), and Ta Teh
Institute (達德學院), founded by CPC Guangdong District Committee. From the time hereturned to China in 1949 until the 1950s, he wrote numerous history books and was involvedin editing textbooks for local governments and publishers (Wang (Nagahori), 2007).

15

マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

chief was Sun Qi Meng (孫起孟)8, and the well-known educator Ye Sheng Tao (葉聖陶)9served as supervisor (Chen, 2012: 65). These people established close ties with the CPC, andall returned to China around the time the Peopleʼs Republic of China was founded, in
October 1949. Subsequently, those who remained in Hong Kong 10 took over textbook editingat Shanghai Book.
The Commercial Press and Chung Hwa Book edited and printed textbooks inShanghai until June 1949, consistent with the principles of the Education Departments ofSingapore and Malaya. However, owing to the Chinese Civil War, the situation in Shanghai
became tense; the market fluctuated greatly, prices rose, and it became difficult to arrange
ships for transportation. Therefore, Commercial Press and Chung Hwa Books increased
their dependence on Hong Kong for textbook procurement. In Hong Kong, the price of
textbooks for primar y and secondar y school students rose by 150%, and the price ofreference books by 100%. It was reported that this was done in response to the situation in
Shanghai (NYSP, 1949.5.14), but it might have also partly reflected the increasing demand inSoutheast Asia.
In June 1949, the CPC stipulated an editorial policy for textbooks for primary andsecondary schools in China, stating that textbooks must support communism and be anti8

9

10

16

Born in Anhui, China in 1911. After graduating from Soochow University (東呉大学) in
Suchow in 1929, he worked as a teacher at the Suzhou Womenʼs Normal School (蘇州女子師
範學校) in Jiangsu Province and the Shanghai Chinese Vocational School. During the SinoJapanese War, he worked at the Sichuan Of fice of the Chongqing Chinese Vocational
Education Company (重慶中華職業教育社四川辦事處). In 1945, he was involved inestablishing the China National Democratic Construction Association (中國民主建國会),
whose main members were businessmen and others, and in 1947, he was dispatched to Hong
Kong as the associationʼs resident representative. He returned to China in 1948 and joined the
CPC in 1950 (Guo, 2008).
Born in 1894 in Jiangsu, China. After graduating from secondary school in 1912, he wrote
poetry and novels while working as an elementary school teacher, and edited collections offairy tales and novels. In 1923, he entered the Commercial Press, and in 1930, he moved to Kai
Ming Book Company. He spent the Sino-Japanese War in Sichuan and returned to Shanghai in
1946. Invited by the CPC in 1949, he moved from Shanghai to Beijing via Hong Kong, where
he engaged in textbook publishing, education, publishing, and literary activities (YRAC, 2022).
CUHK Library (2014) lists the names of editorial staff members such as Zhao Ke Ren ( 趙克任 ,editor-in-chief), Lee Yee (李怡), and Au Yeung Nai Chim (歐陽乃霑). Born in Guangzhou in
1936, Lee Yee spent his childhood in Beijing and Shanghai, and during the Sino-Japanese War
in Anhui Province. In 1948, he moved to Hong Kong, where he studied at a left-wing school
before joining the Hong Kong Shanghai Book Company in 1955. He supported the CPC andlaunched the magazine The Seventies 《七十年代》(, later renamed The Nineties《九十年代》) in
1970, but after 1981 he turned to a critical tone against the CPC. Since 1995, he has publisheda series of critics, “Lee Yeeʼs Column” 〈李怡専欄〉() in the Apple Daily 《蘋果日報》() (Lee,1990; Chong, 2020). Born in Guangdong Province in 1931, Au Yeung Nai Chim has lived in
Hong Kong since the age of seven and studied Western painting. From the 1950s to the 1980s,
he worked as an art editor for the Shanghai Book Company and art magazines (Hou, 2016).

Development of Textbook Supply Networks Connecting Singapore and Hong Kong

imperialists. The CPC authorities had organised a publishing committee involving theCommercial Press, the Chung Hwa Book, the Kai Ming Book, and the World Book,
responsible for managing and supervising the production of textbooks (NYSP, 1949.6.17).
To sell textbooks reliably in Singapore and Malaya, bookstores in Singapore no longer
relied on bookstores in Shanghai to produce and procure textbooks. Consequently,
bookstores in Singapore increasingly depended on Hong Kong bookstores.
World Book established a World Publishing Company in Hong Kong in 1949. It
became a base for publishing, printing, and importing Chinese books. It provided newliterary works, books for teenagers and children, and textbooks for Southeast Asia (CUHK
Library, 2013).
Consider a textbook on moral education published and revised in 1949 by ShanghaiBook. An illustration of the Capitol Theatre on Stanford Road, Singapore, was provided on
the cover. A textbook of the Chinese language included topics related to China and sentences
set in Southeast Asia, and the folk tale ʻMouse Deer and Crocodileʼ widely spread inSoutheast Asia, including Malaya11.
However, the ʻFenn-Wu Reportʼ, published in 1951,12 highlighted that the textbooks
used in Chinese schools in Malaya and Singapore still had many Chinese elements. The
report stated that it was important for Chinese school students to understand their Chineseroots but that more Malayan elements should be included (Fenn-Wu Report, 1951). In
response to this report, textbooks were revised again after 1952.

Ⅲ Hong Kongʼs Publishing Industry Supported the National Education Systemsof Singapore and Malaya
In Singapore and Malaya, schools teaching in English, Malay, Chinese, and Tamilremained a part of the national education system during the 1950s and the 1960s.
Until the mid-1950s, Singapore had an educational policy emphasising English, andgovernment subsidies for vernacular schools taught in Chinese, Malay, and Tamil languages
were not treated as generously as English schools. However, since 1956, vernacular schools
have received the same treatment as English schools (Tanaka, 1987: 101-103).
In Malaya, the Education Ordinance was enforced in November 1952, and schools
teaching in Malay or English received full government subsidies as national schools. Chinese
11
12

The content of the textbooks will be discussed in a separate paper.
ʻFenn-Wu Reportʼ was a set of recommendations for the state of Chinese schools in Singapore
and the Federation of Malaya. It was drafted by William P. Fenn, who had experience inrunning higher education institutions in China, and Wu Teh-yao (呉徳耀), a UN official, at therequest of the Government of Federation of Malaya, after visiting Chinese schools in theFederation of Malaya and Singapore.

17マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

and Tamil schools did not become national schools but continued to exist. Due to a lack offinancial resources, the government failed to expand national schools nationwide. Chineseand Tamil schools filled this shortfall and continued to provide educational opportunities. In
1957, the Education Ordinance was amended, and Malay and English schools became
standard schools, fully subsidised by the government. In contrast, Chinese and Tamilschools became standard-type schools, partially subsidised by the government13.
During this period, textbooks were again revised between 1952 and 1953. The
textbooks in English, Malay, Chinese, and Tamil schools were all revised based on the samecontent, reflecting the social and cultural realities of Malaya and Singapore (ST, 1952.10.13).
In revising Chinese school textbooks, the General Textbook Committee, consisting of 11
government representatives (seven from Malaya, four from Singapore) and nine civilian
representatives (seven from Malaya, two from Singapore), and the Teachers Advisor y
Committee, consisting entirely of civilians (10 members from the Federation of Malaya andfour members from Singapore) were formed. Consultations began in April 1952 (NYSP,
1952.4.17; 1953.1.1; SS, 1952.5.6). The editorial policy for the textbook was consistent withthe social and cultural realities of Malaya and Singapore, fostering awareness regarding
Malaya and Singapore and maintaining Chinese culture (NYSP, 1952.10.13).
Initially, the governments of Singapore and Malaya had a policy in which only one
government-designated publisher would be responsible for editing and publishing textbooks.
It was also planned that four companies–Chung Hwa Book, Commercial Press, ShanghaiBook, and Nanyang Book–would jointly establish one publishing house, which thegovernment would commission to edit and publish textbooks (SCJP, 1952.3.21). However,
the Teacher Advisor y Committee urged the General Textbook Committee to allow
publishers to edit and publish textbooks independently with government approval and toallow each school to select textbooks (SCJP, 1952.9.15).
The United Publishing House (聯營出版社) was established as a joint publishinghouse, but it was effectively run by the World Book. Companies such as Chung Hwa Book,
Commercial Press, Shanghai Book, and Nanyang Book did not par ticipate 14. These
companies were allowed to edit, publish, and sell their textbooks after obtaining government
approval.
13

14

18

See Tan (1997) for the process and struggle in which Chinese and Tamil schools in Malaya
moved from outside the national education system to within it. Under the Education Act 1961,
schools taught in Malay language became national schools and schools taught in English,
Chinese, Tamil became national-type schools. English national-type schools in peninsular
Malaysia were converted to national schools taught in Malay after 1970.
Chew (2017) discusses this process in detail. However, Chew writes that there are no materials
regarding why multiple publishers did not participate in the alliance publishing company, andthe background is not well understood.

Development of Textbook Supply Networks Connecting Singapore and Hong Kong

Chung Hwa Book and Commercial Press jointly edited and published the textbooks.
Its headquarter was in Hong Kong. The Hong Kong branches of both the Chung Hwa Bookand the Commercial Press developed textbooks for Southeast Asia to secure the Southeast
Asian market under the title of Zhong Shang United Textbook for Overseas (中商聯合版海外課本). The Nanyang Book and Shanghai Book also published textbooks for Chinese schools
with government approval (SCJP, 1955.12.15).
Between 1954 and 1956, the textbook markets of Singapore and Malaya became
highly competitive. Due to competitive discounts, bookstores could not profit. In 1957, a new
joint company was established to ease the competition among bookstores. Zhang Zi Hong (張子宏), General Manager of the Hong Kong Commercial Press Printing Factory, and Wu Shu
Tong (呉叔同), Chairman of the Hong Kong Chung Hwa Book, visited Singapore to establish
the new joint company. It included United Publishing House, Nanyang Book, Shanghai Book,and other bookstores known as Educational Suppliers Limited (教育供應社). Each publisher
handed over textbooks approved by the government to Educational Suppliers, which soldthem at a uniform price, and 20-25% of the sales were returned to the publishers (SCJP,
1957.9.23).
Even after establishing Educational Suppliers Limited, schools maintained theirdiscretion in selecting textbooks (SCJP, 1957.10.24) published by other publishers. Malaya
Educational Suppliers (大馬出版供應社) published textbooks on Malay, Chinese, arithmetic,
civics, hygiene, nature, English, geography, and history for Chinese elementary schools.
These textbooks, which conformed to the curriculum and social realities of Malaya, wereedited in Hong Kong and transported to Singapore (SCJP, 1962.12.11).
Hong Kong publishers had also entered the Singapore and Malaya textbook markets.
The Xiang Gang Da Gong Book Company (香港大公書局)15 received approval from theSingapore government for textbooks for Chinese schools, and some schools adopted them
(NYSP, 1955.1.9; 1955.12.8). The Hong Kong Language and Culture Publishing Company (香港語文出版社) published materials to study the Malay language, such as A Guide toComposition ( 馬來作文指導 / Panduan Karang-mengarang), and A Guide to Letter Writer in
Malay ( 馬來書信指導 / Panduan Surat-menyurat Melayu). These materials were written in
Malay, Chinese, and English and used as textbooks and reference books in primary andsecondary schools (SCJP, 1961.2.7).
As textbooks were printed in Singapore, the printing industry grew, and by 1955, thenumber of Chinese-run printing houses had exceeded 100. However, Singaporeʼs printing
industr y stagnated after the Korean War ended (around 1953). Since 1953, Singaporeʼseconomy had been sluggish as a whole, however, the standard of living and labour costs had
15Founded in 1937, by Xu Shao Mei (徐少眉) from Shaoxing, Zhejiang; who worked at the
Guangzhou Commercial Press (Hui, 2020: 220).

19

マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

risen (NYSP, 1955.10.17). In Singapore, except for some large printing houses, small- andmedium-sized printing houses used old printing equipment and mainly handled the
production of wrapping paper and receipts printed with trademarks and store names (NYSP,
1957.6.6).
However, Hong Kong had facilities to print textbooks in quality and quantity, andlabour costs were low. The total value of textbooks imported into Singapore from overseas
reached S$4.5 million around 1960 (NYSP, 1960.2.23). Most are believed to have been
imported from Hong Kong. Additionally, statistics in 1967 showed that Singapore imported a
lot of printed matter from Hong Kong. Hong Kong expor ted S$12.6 million wor th of
publications to 50 countries, with Singapore being its largest customer. Exports from Hong
Kong to Singapore amounted to approximately S$3 million, accounting for 26% of the totalexport value (NYSP, 1968.9.16).
Yang Quee Yee (楊貴宜), who published a Malay language dictionary Kamus Umum
Bahasa Malaysia, in 1972 from the World Book, recalls that in the late 1960s, printing
technology in Malaysia and Singapore had not yet reached a satisfactory level, and longmanuscripts were generally sent to Hong Kong for printing. Yang also noted that
proofreading typesets and galleys across Singapore and Hong Kong took time. He stayed in
Hong Kong for a month during the final stage of editing and proofreading of the dictionary(Yang, 2006: 464-468).
However, some literary and publishing workers moved from Hong Kong to Singapore
and Malaya during this period. Union Press (友聯出版社), established in Hong Kong, is an
example. The company is known for launching the Chinese literary journal Chao Foon 《蕉(風》) in Singapore, in November 1955, but before that, it had published teaching materials for
Chinese schools in Malaya and Singapore. The most notable material was You Lian Hua Ye
Wen Xuan 《( 友聯活葉文選》), containing 129 Chinese literary works (NYSP, 1955.7.8). In
February 1957, Yao Tuo (姚拓) of the Union Press, who edited the material, moved from
Hong Kong to Singapore and became involved in editing The Student Weekly and Chao Foon
(NTNU Library and MCLC, 2022).

Ⅳ Loss of a Major Supply Source of Chinese Books and Construction of a New One
As discussed in the previous chapters, the supply of textbooks from China to
Singapore and Malaya ceased in 1949. China had ceased to be a major supplier of generalbooks by the late 1950s. Huang Guo Xiang (黄国祥), who joined the Shanghai branch ofSingapore Shanghai Book in 1945 and moved to the Hong Kong branch in 1954 to serve as
manager, recalls that 80% of Chinese books in Singapore, Malaya, Hong Kong, and Macau, inthe 1950s, were supplied from China (Huang, 1990: 53).
20

Development of Textbook Supply Networks Connecting Singapore and Hong Kong

Other articles report the situation around 1957 as follows:
Very few literary books have been published in Singapore in the past year, and thosein bookshops are exclusively published in China and Hong Kong. Books published in
China were Chinese classics, or foreign literature translated decades ago. Hong Kong
publications tended to have amorous, horrifying, and violent content. We should rely
on outside sources to supply us with culture and create a culture consistent with thepeculiarities of our society and create the publications we need (NYSP, 1957.11.2).
Singapore and Malaya began to significantly restrict the supply of books from China
from the late 1950s onwards under the Undesirable Publication Ordinance of 1949, the Banon the Sale and Circulation of Publications Ordinance of 1956, and the Control of Imported
Publications Act of 1958, which tightened controls on imported books.
In Januar y 1957, the government of Malaya uniformly banned the sale of books
published by 29 publishers in China and Hong Kong, regardless of their fields or content(Table 1). The reason was that the communists controlled these 29 publishers. Somebookshops had their books confiscated, incurred losses, and went bankrupt (NYSP,
1957.1.25). Among the books banned for sale were those unrelated to communism, including
Chinese classics such as The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Dream of the Red Chamber, andThe Water Margin, and translated literature by foreign authors such as Shakespeare andAndersen. Complaints were made that it was a great loss for bookshops not to be able to selleven those (NYSP, 1957.1.25).
In October 1958, Singaporeʼs government uniformly banned the sale of books by 53
publishers in China and Hong Kong to contain Communist propaganda (see Table 2). A
bookstore owner in Singapore stated that books from publishers accounted for 80% of the
product (SCJP, 1958.10.24). Chen Mong Tse also recalls that over 90% of the books circulated
in the Chinese-language publishing markets of Singapore and Malaya could not be soldbecause of import and sales restrictions (Chen, 2012: 68).
As imported books from China and Hong Kong became harder to reach, publishers
who had established branches in Hong Kong supplied textbooks to Singapore and Malaya.
Shanghai Book and World Book, which set up editorial departments in Hong Kong and built
distribution networks to supply textbooks to Singapore and Malaya, took steps to resolve thisshortage. Shanghai Book established new publishing houses in Hong Kong to acquire
copyrights for books published in China to supply to Singapore and Malaya. They alsoorganised Hong Kong writers and editors to publish their books (Chen, 2012: 69-70). Huang
recalled that books published in Hong Kong in the 1950s depended heavily on markets in
Singapore and Malaya, with less than 30% of books distributed in Hong Kong (Huang, 1990:
21

22
朝花美術出版社
中国青年出版社
海燕書局
解放社
少年児童出版社
開明書店
立明出版社
新美術出版社
新中国書局
人民美術出版社
人民文学出版社
人民出版社
大衆書局
三聯書店

Chao Hua Mei Shu Chu Ban She

China Youth Publishing House

Hai Yan Shu Ju

Jie Fang She

Juvenile & Childrenʼs Publishing House

Kai Ming Shu Dian

Li Ming Chu Ban She

New Art Publishing House

New China Book

Peopleʼs Fine Arts Publishing House

Peopleʼs Literature Publishing House

Peopleʼs Press

Popular Book

San Lian Shu Dian

(NYSP, 1957.1.25)

北新書局

Bei Xin Shu Ju

Publishersʼ Name

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

Place

Xue Wen Shu Dian

Self-Study Publisher

Qiu Shi Chu Ban She

Chen Guang Chu Ban She

Youth Press

Xin Wen Yi Chu Ban She

Xin Hua Shu Dian

Workerʼs Publishing

Wen Hua Gong Zuo She

Wen Hua Gong Ying She

Ta Tung Book

Sin Min Chu Chu Ban She

Shi Dai Chu Ban She

Shanghai Publishing House

Publishersʼ Name

Table 1：29 Publishers Banned in Malaya in 1957

学文書店

自学出版社

求実出版社

晨光出版社

青年出版社

新文芸出版社

新華書店

工人出版社

文化工作社

文化供応社

大東出版社

新民主出版社

時代出版社

上海出版社

Hong Kong

Hong Kong

Hong Kong

Hong Kong

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

China

Place

マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

(SCJP, 1958.10.23)

Publishers nameAcademic Life Publishers
Bei Xin Shu JuChildrenʼs Publishing
China Record FactoryClassical Literature Publishing House
Jian Zhu Gong Cheng Chu Ban She
Jiao Yu Tu Pian Chu Ban She
Juvenile & Childrenʼs Publishing House
Peopleʼs Art Publishing House
Ping Ming Chu Ban She
Science and Technology Press
Shanghai Culture Press
Shanghai Medical Pulishing House
Xin Wen Yi Chu Ban She
Shanghai Magazine Company
Xin Zhi Shi Chu Ban She
Qiu Shi Chu Ban She
Chen Guang Chu Ban She
Xiang Gang Xue Sheng Shu Dian
Wen Xue Chu Ban She
Hong Kong Self-Study
Hua Qiao Xue Sheng Chu Ban She
Xiang Gang Xue Wen Chu Ban She
Xiang Gang Zhong Liu Chu Ban She
Xin Jiao Yu Cong Shu She
Xiang Gang Wen Zong Chu Ban She

Table 2：53 Publishers Banned in Singapore in 1958

Publishersʼ Name
Place
Chao Hua Art Publishing
朝花美術出版社 Beijing
China Light Industry Press
輕工業出版社
Beijing
China Machine Press
機械工業出版社 Beijing
China Theatre Press
中國戯劇出版社 Beijing
China Youth Publishing House
中國青年出版社 Beijing
Chinese Academy of Science
中國科學院
Beijing
Electric Power Industry Publishing
電力工業出版社 Beijing
Ethnic Publishing House
民族出版社
Beijing
Financial Economic Publishing House
財政經濟出版社 Beijing
Gu Ji Chu Ban She
古籍出版社
Beijing
Higher Educatoin Press
高等教育出版社 Beijing
Music Publication House
音樂出版社
Beijing
Peopleʼs Education Press
人民教育出版社 Beijing
Peopleʼs Literature Publishing House
人民文學出版社 Beijing
Peopleʼs Medical Publishing House
人民衛生出版社 Beijing
Peopleʼs Press
人民出版社
Beijing
Peopleʼs Sports Publishing House
人民体育出版社 Beijing
Popular Science Press
科學普及出版社 Beijing
Posts and Telecom Press
人民郵便出版社 Beijing
Science Press
科學出版社
Beijing
Sheng Huo, Du Shu, Xin Zhi, San Lian Chu Ban She 生活・讀書・新知・三聯出版社 Beijing
Tong Su Du Wu Chu Ban She
通俗讀物出版社 Beijing
Workerʼs Publishing
工人出版社
Beijing
Writers Publishing House
作家出版社
Beijing
Xin Hua Bookstore
新華書店
Beijing
Zhong Hua Quan Guo Ke Xue Ji Shu Pu Ji Xie Hui 中華全國化學技術普及協會 Beijing
Ren Jian Shu Wu
人間書屋
Guangzhou
學習生活出版社
北新書局
児童読物出版社
中國唱片廠
古典文学出版社
建築工程出版社
教育圖片出版社
少年児童出版社
人民美術出版社
平明出版社
科学技術出版社
上海文化出版社
上海衛生出版社
新文藝出版社
上海雑誌公司
新知識出版社
求實出版社
晨光出版社
香港學生書店
文學出版社
香港自學出版社
華僑學生出版社
香港學文出版社
香港中流出版社
性教育叢書社香港文宗出版社

place
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai
ShanghaiHong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong

Development of Textbook Supply Networks Connecting Singapore and Hong Kong23

マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

52-53).
The Cultural Revolution unfolded in China between 1966 and 1976. Chen states thatas Chinese publications propagated the revolution, the publishing industry in Hong Konggrew by further enhancing its publications and expanding its distribution channels overseas,
including Singapore and Malaysia (Chen, 2012: 70-71).
The Singaporean government lifted the ban on books from publishers in China andHong Kong after examining the books upon application by booksellers (NYSP, 1958.10.25).
The books lifted ban between 1959 and 1960 were Chinese classics, translated literature,reference books, science, technology, and knowledge of daily life, but there were hardly any
books on politics (SCJP, 1959.5.23; 1959.8.22; 1959.10.19; 1959.11.21; 1959.11.29; 1960.1.16).

Ⅴ The Internalisation of Textbook Resources in Hong Kong
into Singapore and Malaysia
Singapore and Malaya were criticised for their dependence on Hong Kong textbook
procurement in the late 1950s from the perspective of domestic industrial protection andeconomic development. Articles appeared pointing out that although Singapore and Malaya
had many printers, they lacked printing facilities and personnel, and labour costs were high.
Therefore, they were losing to Hong Kong, which had high quality and low costs. It waspointed out that printing costs in Hong Kong were about two-thirds of those in Singapore andthat the printing industr y in Singapore was at a disadvantage compared to the printing
industry in Hong Kong (NYSP, 1957.11.2). This view led to the argument that textbooks
imported from Hong Kong would maintain Hong Kongʼs advantages, harming the economic
growth of Singapore and Malaya.
In Singapore and Malaya, there were two or three large companies with advanced
printing equipment, but few printing engineers could operate these machines. Therefore, it
was pointed out that an educational institution to train printing engineers should beestablished (NYSP, 1957.12.18). In addition, some argued that the government should takemeasures to protect Singaporeʼs printing industr y. As a measure, it was proposed thattextbooks used in schools in Singapore and Malaya be printed and published domestically(NYSP, 1959.7.9, 1960.2.23). Ronald Scott, General Manager at Straits Times, stated at a
meeting organised by the Singapore Printing Employeesʼ Union in 1963, that Hong Kong
threatened the printing industr y in Singapore and that restrictions should be placed on
importing printed matter into Singapore (ST, 1963.3.11).
Malaya gained independence from Britain in August 1957; Malay members ofparliament said that textbooks from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan should not be imported
because they were subversive. In response, Deputy Prime Minister Abdul Razak replied that24

Development of Textbook Supply Networks Connecting Singapore and Hong Kongit was impossible to immediately ban the import of textbooks from overseas because of thelack of textbook circulation, but the government would consider it in the future (SCJP
1960.7.7; BH, 1960.7.7).
Singapore achieved independence and formed Malaysia in September 1963 but
separated from Malaysia in August 1965 and became an independent state. Since then,Singapore has promoted economic development to survive. The Singaporean government
developed various industries, including the printing industr y. It established the Printing
Industr y Advisor y Council in 1967 (ST, 1970.8.2) and a school for human resources tosupport the printing industry in 1968 (ST, 1968.8.25).
By 1972, Singaporeʼs printing industry had grown to a level comparable to that ofHong Kong. The number of printing houses in Singapore increased to approximately 220;
many introduced new printing equipment imported from Japan and hired trained personnel
who studied at government printing schools. Most books in bookstores were printed in
Singapore (NN, 1972.6.26).
In Singapore and Malaysia, editing and publishing Chinese school textbooks
continued to be handled by private publishers (ST, 1973.10.9; 1974.8.4). However, in bothcountries, textbooks were increasingly printed and published domestically. In the 1970s,
almost no textbooks were imported from Hong Kong to Singapore or Malaysia.
Since the 1970s, many textbooks for Chinese schools published in Singapore andMalaysia have been supported by literar y workers who migrated from Hong Kong. For
example, Yao Tuo, editor of The Student Weekly and Chao Foon 16 became editor-in-chief oftextbooks in 1975 at The Malaya Press ( 馬來亞文化事業有限公司 ), under the umbrella of
the Union Press. He has published many primar y and secondar y school textbooks in
Malaysia and Singapore17. The human resources that supported the supply of textbooks in
Hong Kong were internalised in Singapore and Malaysia and continued to develop textbooks
in both countries.

Conclusion
In the mid-1910s, Singapore became a centre for supplying textbooks to Chinese
schools in Malaya and other parts of Southeast Asia. While Singapore initially relied on
Shanghai for its supply, after 1945, it became increasingly dependent on Hong Kong. With
16

17

The editorial office of The Student Weekly and Chao Foon moved from Singapore to Kuala
Lumpur in 1959.
Examples of textbooks include textbook of Mandarin for secondar y schools in Malaya/
Malaysia (1960 to 1986) and primary schools in Singapore (1970 to 1980), and textbook of
Mandarin, mathematics, moral education, and human and environment for Chinese primaryschools in Malaysia (1980-1996) (NTNU Library and MCLC, 2022).

25

マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

the establishment of the Peopleʼs Republic of China, the textbook supply base shifted
completely to Hong Kong, where mainland Chinese intellectuals came and went, printing
technology was high, and costs were low. Hong Kongʼs textbook supply channel became ageneral book supply channel after importing books from China was severely restricted in
Singapore and Malaya in the late 1950s. However, from the late 1950s onwards, there was a
growing consensus in Singapore that Hong Kong was a threat to its development. The
government subsequently made efforts to develop the printing industry, and by the early
1970s, Singapore had the equipment and workforce to produce its own textbooks.
In the 1970s, Singapore cut its textbook supply network with Hong Kong, regarding
physical distribution channels. However, literary and intellectual figures who moved from
Hong Kong to Singapore and Malaya in the 1950s and 1960s became key players in textbook
production in Singapore and Malaysia from the 1970s onwards. A prime example is from theUnion Press in Hong Kong, those engaged in the publication of Chao Foon. The textbook
supply network linking Hong Kong and Singapore, in terms of human connections, is still
alive, and its legacy is inherited.

References【Newspapers】
BH: Berita Harian, Singapore
NN: New Nation, Singapore
NYSP: Nanyang Siang Pau (南洋商報), Singapore
SCJP: Sin Chew Jit Poh (星洲日報), Singapore
SS: Singapore Standard, Singapore
ST: Straits Times, Singapore【English and Malay books and articles】
Fenn-Wu Report (1951) “Chinese Schools and Education of Chinese Malayans: The Reportof a Mission Invited by the Federation Government to Study the Problem of the
Education of Chinese in Malaya”, June 1951.
Tan Liok Ee (1997) The Politics of Chinese Education in Malaya, 1945-1961, Kuala Lumpur:
Oxford University Press.
Yang Quee Yee (2006) Memoir Yang Quee Yee: Penyusun Kamus Anak Penoreh, Bangi:
Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
【Chinese books and articles】
Chen Mong Tse 陳蒙志（2012）〈上海書局的時代印記〉《學文》2, 61-80。
26

Development of Textbook Supply Networks Connecting Singapore and Hong Kong

Chew Wee Kai 周維介（2017）〈殖民地政府干預華校教科書始末〉《怡和世紀》32、34-43。
Chong Hiu Tung 荘暁彤（2020）〈國安法令李怡糾結―國家之外沒有人安全但我仍選擇自由〉《䱾新聞》2020 年 8 月 2 日、https://www.hkcnews.com/article/32342/
李怡 - 國安法 - 寫作 -32515/ 國安法令李怡糾結：國家之外沒有人安全 - 但我仍選擇自由。
Chou Sing Chu Foundation 周星衢基金編著（2016）《致讀者 ―新加坡書店故事 18812016》新加坡 : 周星衢基金。
Chow Kai Wing 周佳栄（2012）〈中華書局百年史略〉周佳栄編（2012）《百年傳承―香港學者論中華書局》香港 : 中華書局（香港）、3-13。
CUHK Library: Chinese University of Hong Kong Library 香港中文大學図書館（2013）〈館藏精粹：世界書局與世界出版社〉《香港文學通訊》第 121 期（2013 年 8 月 28 日）、
https://hklit.lib.cuhk.edu.hk/newsletter/?issue=121#3。
-（2014）〈館藏精粹：香港上海書局〉《香港文學通訊》第 126 期（2014 年 1 月 24 日）、
https://hklit.lib.cuhk.edu.hk/newsletter/?issue=126#2。
Guo Zhen 郭楨（2008）〈孫起孟〉中國政府網、http://big5.www.gov.cn/gate/big5/www.
gov.cn/gjjg/2008-12/02/content_1165805.htm。
Hau Siu-ching 侯紹政（2016）〈一筆一畫一生 我手寫我心̶訪香港老畫家歐陽乃沾先生〉
藝 術 香 港 編 輯 部《 灼 見 名 家 》、2016 年 8 月 25 日、https://www.master-insight.
com/ 一筆一畫一生 - 我手寫我心 - 訪香港老畫家歐陽乃 / 。
Hou Gui Xin 侯桂新（2009）〈從香港想像中國―香港南來作家研究 (1937-1949)〉香港嶺南大學博士論文、http://dx.doi.org/10.14793/chi_etd.3。
Huang Guo Xiang 黄国祥（1990）〈回憶香港上海書局〉上海書局（新嘉坡）編（1990）《源遠流長―上海書局 65 周年紀念刊》新嘉坡、吉隆坡 : 上海書局、51-59。
Hui Ting-ming 許定銘（2020）《從書影看香港文學》香港 : 初文出版社有限公司。
Lee Yee 李怡 (1990)〈畢生事業的搖籃〉上海書局（新嘉坡）編（1990）《源遠流長―上
海書局 65 周年紀念刊》新嘉坡、吉隆坡 : 上海書局、41-42。
Lim Choon Bee 林春美（2021）《《蕉風》與非左翼的馬華文学》台北：時報文化出版。
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Chinese Literature Centre, Southern University College 國立台湾師範大學図書館・
南方学院馬華文學館（2022）〈専家作品展―姚拓〉《馬華文學数位典藏系統》、
http://da.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/mahua/ug-401.jsp。
Sin Yee Theng 沈儀䆾（2013）《譜写虎標伝奇―胡文虎及其創業文化史》新加坡 : 國立新加坡大學中文系、新加坡茶陽（大埔）会館客家文化研究室、八方文化創作室。
Tay Lian-soo 鄭良樹（1999）《馬來西亞華文教育発展史》第 2 冊、吉隆坡 : 馬來西亞華校教師会總會。
Wang Ji Shen 王季深（1948）〈従上海文化街看中國出版事業〉《南洋商報》1948 年 1 月 13 日。
Wong Hong Teng 王慷鼎（1998）〈独立前華文報刊〉林水檺、何啓良、何國忠、頼観福《馬27マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

來西亞華人新編》第 3 冊、吉隆坡 : 馬來西亞中華大會堂總會、87-130。
YRAC: Ye Shengtao Research Association of China 葉聖陶研究會（2022）〈葉聖陶生平〉、
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Kanzaki Mariko 神崎麻里子 (1997)「夏衍」大阪外国語大学青野研究室 1997『オンライン中
国 20 世紀文学辞典索引』https://www.lang.osaka-u.ac.jp/~s_aono/zjcidian/pyall.
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ジアを中心として」『国際政治』84、95-117。
Wang Fanxi 王凡西（translated by Nagahori, Yuzo 長堀祐造訳・解題）(2007)「宋雲彬と許志行を思う」『慶應義塾大学日吉紀要 言語・文化・コミュニケーション』39、210-182。

28