マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）【Special Feature Articles: Chao Foon Magazine and the Chinese Publication Network
in East and Southeast Asia during the Cold War】

Walking into the Mist of Chao Foon:
Unravelling Union Press Organizationʼs Relationship with the United States
Kho Tong Guan1

Introduction
Chao Foon 《蕉风》(
)2 was launched in Singapore in November 1955 by the Chao Foon
Press (under the Union Press Organization: UPO, 马来（西）亚友联出版社) and moved its
publishing base to Petaling Jaya, Malaya, with its sister publication, The Student Weekly 《学(生周报》)3, in 1959. Chao Foon was published for 40 years, but temporarily ceased publication,
after 488 issues in 1999 after the UPO was sold. However, Chao Foon was reinstated in
December 2002 when the Malaysian Chinese Literature Centre (MCLC, 马华文学馆) of theSouthern College (南方学院)4 published Issue 489, and to date, Chao Foon has published up
to 515 issues (as of July 2023).
There is a wide range of information available on Chao Foon, as it has spanned a long
period of time. It has survived the independence of Malaya (1957), the formation of Malaysia(1963), Singaporeʼs separation from Malaysia (1965), and the suspension and resumption of
the publication. Besides the works published in Chao Foon itself, it has two sister
publications, The Student Weekly and The Chinese Students Weekly 《中国学生周报》() as well
as Yao Tuo (姚拓)ʼs biography (Yao, 2005) and Bai Yao (白䐖)ʼs autobiographical novel (Bai,
1

2

3

4

許通元, Chief Librarian, Head of Malaysian Chinese Literature Centre (马华文学馆), Southern
University College (南方大学学院). Editor-in-Chief of Chao Foon.
Since its inception, Chao Foon has been published semi-monthly from its inaugural issue toIssue 72 (October 1958), monthly from Issues 73 (November 1958) to 433 (December 1989),
then bimonthly from Issue 434 (Januar y 1990) until its defunct at Issue 488 (Januar y/
February 1999). Since December 2002, it has been taken over by the MCLC and published asa (semi-)annual publication up to its 515th issue.
The Student Weekly, founded on 27 July 1956 and edited from 29 August 1958, issue No. 110,
was moved from Singapore to No. 13, 201 Road, Camarines, Kuala Lumpur, and was later
converted to a monthly newspaper in March 1973, issue No. 866. In early February 1978, issue
No. 924 was converted to a semi-monthly newspaper. Issue 1070 is the last issue available
today, published on 1 October 1984. In Hong Kong, The Chinese Students Weekly was foundedon 25 July 1952 and ceased publication on 20 July 1974, with a total of 1,128 issues published in
22 years.
Southern College was upgraded to the Southern University College (南方大学学院) in 2012.

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マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

2006; 2016).
There are many academic studies on Chao Foon (Chan, 2001; Lim, 2021a; 2021b; Ng,
Fan, Ding, 2011; Ho, 2012; 2015; 2017; Huang 20055; Phoon, 2010; Teoh, 2006; Chong, 2015a;
2015b; 2016; Jin, 2015; Long, 2016; Ng, 2015). Most studies focused on the earlier periods of
Chao Foon (before and after Malayaʼs independence in 1957), when modernist works
dominated the magazine. Studies on the middle period, from September 1991, edited by Xiao
Hei (小黑), Dou La (䯳拉), and Lim Choon Bee (林春美), and on the post-revival period,
from December 2002 published by the Southern College, are scarce. Due to the long historyof Chao Foon, there have been few attempts to obtain a full picture of it, and it has only been
discussed in sections by period.
Even with the focus on the early period of Chao Foon, some aspects were notadequately studied. One of these aspects is the process leading to the publication of Chao
Foon, specifically, the UPO, which was the big company behind the Chao Foon Press topublish Chao Foon.
After the MCLC resumed publishing Chao Foon, many leftist realist literary friends
and writers, who had originally associated with the MCLC, began to boycott it and stopped
inviting people attached to the MCLC to their literary activities6. Given the background of
how Chao Foon was published and the people who published it in 1955, the reactions of leftwing realist literary colleagues and writers might be understandable.
This paper focuses on the UPO and its relationship with the United Statesʼ (U.S.)
cultural institutions, which represent the interests of the U.S. government, such as the U.S.
Information Ser vice and Asia Foundation. It is hoped that Chao Foon, published by the
MCLC, will be read and appreciated by a wide range of readers, regardless of their political
position.
Lim (2021a) states that Chao Foon was published by the UPO and founded byintellectuals who came to Hong Kong from mainland China (Lim, 2021a: 1). However, the
UPO was not discussed in depth. At the time the article was written, material on the UPO
was still lacking. Since the 2010s, several memoirs of people involved in the UPO have been
published, such as (Hu Wang, 2010) and (Lo and Hung, 2010; 2014). This study uses these
memoirs as its main source of material, to shed light on the UPO.

5
6

30

Its third chapter was published in Chao Foon, in Issue 500.
This episode was based on my own experience when I was the Deputy Head of the MCLC.

Walking into the Mist of: Unravelling Union Press Organizationʼs Relationship with the United States

The emergence of Chao Foon opened a new trend of modernism in the Chineselanguage literary scene in Singapore and Malaya, which was previously dominated by leftist
literature. Modernism subsequently swept through the Chinese-language literary scene inSingapore and Malaya. This study questions the coincidence or ar tificiality of thisdevelopment 7.
This paper is divided into three sections. Chapter I sets out the background of those
who founded the Union Press (友联出版社) in Hong Kong, a company that later establishedthe UPO in Malaya, what kind of publications the Union Press published and examines how
the Union Press was critical of the Communist Party of China (CPC). Chapter II examines
how the Union Press established relationships with information and cultural institutions
backed by the U.S. government. Chapter III shows how and when the Union Press expanded
its activities to Singapore and Malaya and what was discussed in the activities.

Ⅰ Establishment of Union Press in Hong Kong
1. Background of the Founders of Union Press
The Union Press was under the Union Cultural Organization ( 友联文化实业有限公司 : UCO) which was founded in 1950 by a group of young university students who came toHong Kong from the mainland China, including Chen Zhuo Sheng, Xu Dong Bin, Shi Cheng
Zhi, Maria Yen, Si Ma Chang Feng, Xu Guan San, and Sun Shu Xian (孙述宪). Table 1 showstheir backgrounds.

7

Choong argues that modernist poetr y took hold in Malaya in the 1960s and 1970s, whenindustrialisation was not yet fully developed and urbanized, which modernism required.
Choong argues that it was the discontent of the youth and historical coincidence that led to themodernist new poetry taking root in Malaya in the 1960s and 1970s (Choong, 2009:81-82).
Bing Gu (冰谷), who participated in a picnic camp organised by Yao Tuo and Huang Ya, also
states that the activities were the attempt to connect young Malayan authors. He further
argues that the subject matter of writing was free and not subject to any interference orpressure, and that the Chao Foon was a purely literary activity. In contrast, Chong Fah Hing, iscritical of the view that it was purely a literary activity or a coincidence of history, based on thefact that Union Press in Hong Kong was supported by the U.S., (Chong, 2015a: 210-213).

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マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

Table 1: Founders of UCO in Hong Kong
Chen Zhuo Sheng(陈濯生)alias Chen Si Ming(陈思明),
Chen Wei Cang(陈维玱),
Xue Luo (薛洛)Born in Hebei, China. He is the son-in-law of Ding Ting Biao (丁庭標).
Chen graduated from the National Central University. He was a member of
the Youth Union for Democratic China (民主中國青年大同盟: YUDC) andedited the Free Front（《自由阵线》）in the 1950s before joining the UCO(Lo and Hung, 2014: 11; Yao, 2005: 542). Under the pen name Chen Zheng,
he contributed articles to The Student Weekly on topics such as youth
development, the history of human rights, and the new society and ideals.
He emphasised realism and was vocal in the UPO editorial meetings, butlistened quietly to the editorial policies of The Student Weekly and Chao
Foon. During the Malaya independence, he joined activities to help people
living in the New Villages 8. After Malayaʼs independence, while presiding
over the UPO, he established the Malaya Press Sdn Bhd (马来亚文化事业有限公司) and published textbooks for the Chinese Schools. He alsoestablished the Esquire Kitchen restaurant (大人餐厅). In 1978, he left
Kuala Lumpur and moved to the United States (Bai, 2007: 62-64).

Xu Dong Bin(徐东滨)
alias Xu Xin Yue(徐心岳)

Born in Hubei, China, he graduated from Peking University. He was thesecretar y-general, editor-in-chief and president of the Union Press, thedirector of the Union Research Institute, the chief writer of Ming Pao 《明(报》) and Sing Tao Daily 《( 星岛日报》), and wrote special ar ticles.
Additionally, he wrote poems and dramas as Yue Xin (岳心), and essays as
Wang Yan Zhi (王延芝). He died in 1995 in the United States, leaving
behind literar y works such as Guancha Jiayan《灌茶家言》, Collected
Works of Dongbin《东滨文集》，a novel Pantu《叛徒》，and Yue Xin Poems
Collection《岳心诗集》(Yao, 2005: 542). His wife He Feng Ru, (赫凤如)was originally married to Si Ma Chang Feng.

Shi Cheng Zhi(史诚之),
alias Shi Cheng Zhi(石诚志)

He was a Military officer and one of the founders of the UCO. He is theauthor of On the Military Development of the CPC (Shi, 1952), Historical
Turning Point and China s Future: On the Past of the People s Liberation
Army and the Future of the CPC (Shi, 1972), etc (Lo and Hung, 2014:15).

Maria Yen(燕归来),
alias Yan Yun(燕云)

Her real name is Qiu Ran (邱然), she is the daughter of Qiu Chun (邱椿,alias Qiu Da Nian, 邱大年), who was a professor at Peking University,
which is where Yen graduated. She was one of the founder of the UCO, thehead of the Union Research Institute, and in charge of liaising with the
Asia Foundation. She moved to Malaya in the 1950s and briefly taught at
the Chinese University of Hong Kong. In 1967 she obtained a doctorate inphilosophy in Germany and taught at the University of Zurich in
Switzerland. She wrote (Yen, 1952a; 1952b; 1954a; 1954b) (Lo and Hung,2014: 63).

8

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New Villages were new settlements for those living in suburban squatters formed during theEmergency, proclaimed in June 1948 following the outbreak of an armed revolt by theCommunist Party of Malaya (CPM) and ended in July 1960. The British authorities thoughtthat the CPM were supported by the Chinese residents in the suburban squatters. To severrelations between these residents and the CPM, the British relocated the residents of thesquatters to new residential areas to tighten control over them.

Walking into the Mist of: Unravelling Union Press Organizationʼs Relationship with the United States

Si Ma Chang Feng His real name is Hu Ruo Gu (胡若谷). Born in Northeast China, he cameto Hong Kong in the late 1940s and was a member of the YUDC. Si Ma(司马长风),
alias Hu Yong Xiang Chang Feng was one of the founders of the UCO. He taught at the Hong(胡永祥), Hu Ling Kong Shue Yan College (香港樹仁学院) and the Hong Kong Baptist
Yu (胡䈻雨), Hu Yue University. He was married twice, first to He Feng Ru and second to Wang(胡越), Hu Xin Ping Zhuan Ya (王篆雅). Wang Zhuan Ya, under the pseudonym Sheng Zi Juan
(胡欣平)，Qiu Zhen (盛紫娟), was editor of the literary columns (such as “Sui Hua” ,〈穗华〉)
L i ( 秋贞理) , Z e n g of the Chinese Student Weekly from 1959 to 1964. She published many
Yong Ye (曾雍也), works by Taiwanese writers, including Si Ma Chang Feng, Qiong Yao (琼Fan Peng Tao (范澎 瑶), Duan Cai Hua (段彩华), Chu Xi Ning (朱西䑳), and Kuo Guo Dong (郭涛), Lin Yin (林吟), 衣洞）. She moved to the U.S. with her children in 1969. Si Ma Chang Feng
L u o Q i n g ( 罗晴) , died in 1980 in New York, U.S., after a long illness.
Gao Jie (高节), and
Yan Jing Wen (严静文)
Xu Guan San(许冠三)

His pseudonym is Yu Ping Fan (于平凡). He studied at the Northeastern
University (东北大学) and was trained by Xie Cheng Ping (谢澄平), themain director of the Free Press (自由出版社). He was a member of the
YUDC. After publishing Every Man s Literature 《人人文学》() in 1952, hefocused on his academic work and taught in the Department of History at
the Chinese University of Hong Kong (Lo and Hung, 2014: 13).

The UCOʼs initial source of income came from the salaries of the founders who
worked at Zhong Sheng Bao 《中声报》(), a newspaper agency. Zhong Sheng Bao was led by
the leading figures of the YUDCʼs Freedom Press, such as Xie Cheng Ping and Ding Ting
Biao, who had already received U.S. aid at the time. Ding Ting Biao was the father-in-law ofChen Zhuo Sheng, one of the UCO founders, which enabled him to use Dingʼs influence inliterary and political circles in Hong Kong (Lo and Hung, 2014:176; 178).
According to The Union Press（《友联出版社》）, a booklet published in November
91955 , the founders fled to Hong Kong after the CPC gained power in China in 1949, to avoid
being liquidated by them. Some advocated that they “choose freedom, but with a sense of
responsibility and determination to dedicate themselves to the destruction of Communist
rule and the establishment of a democratic society in China” . Others advocated that they
had “carried out youth organisations and cultural work, running two schools, an institute andtwo magazines” . However, regardless of their claims, when they arrived in Hong Kong, they
were almost all refugees.
According to The Union Press, they opposed the communist regime on mainland
China and wanted to “teach Chinese youth in the free world, especially in Southeast Asia, torecognise the truth about communism and communist rule, and to cooperate wholeheartedly
with other people in Southeast Asia to counter communist subversive activities” (Law, 2009:111).
9

Images of the front cover and one page of the booklet are published in Lo and Hung (2014:1213).

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マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

The Union Press had three main principles, namely, “political democracy, economic
justice and social freedom” (Lo and Hung, 2014:11). To implement these core values, thepresidents were chosen through democratic meetings. For security reasons, contact with
Americans was kept confidential at the time (Lo and Hung, 2014:11).
The Union Press was a commercial organisation which was actually under the UCO(Lo and Hung, 2014:14). Key figures in the UCO are believed to have been associated withfounders of the Union Press, and in the 1960s, with Xi Hui Zhang ( 奚会暲 ) 10.
2. Publications of Union Press
In an article “Book Publishing Work of the Union Press” published in the Catalogue ofBooks of the Union Press 《友联出版社图书目录》() in 1964, the Union Press is mentioned asfollows:
The Union Press is a cultural publishing institution founded to supply useful readingmaterials of different natures to society according to the needs of readers of different
interests and degrees. We strive to make the Union Press a multifaceted supply of
spiritual food and provide the greatest possible cultural service to the vast number ofChinese readers overseas, and to foreign readers everywhere who are interested inlearning about Chinese culture and studying Chinese issues (Union Press, 1964: 1).
The catalogue lists seven periodicals published by the Union Press, each withdifferent natures and readerships, as follows:
1. The China Weekly《祖国周刊》: First published in January 1953. A comprehensive
publication with a literary, academic, and political focus (Union Press, 1964: 1),
1034

He was born 18 December 1929 in Shenyang (沈䧈), but his ancestry can be traced to Dangtu
County (当涂县), Anhui Province. When his father, who had completed his PhD at Columbia
University, joined the Shanghai Bank, he too moved to Shanghai where he stayed until highschool. In 1948, he visited his second daughter, brother-in-law and younger brother in Taiwan
and did not return to China. In 1949, he studied in the Faculty of Economics at New Asia
College. In 1951, on Qian Muʼs recommendation, together with Yu Ying Shi, he participated in
the activities and work of the UCO. After graduation in 1953, he joined the UCO to work fulltime. In 1954, he was appointed as the person in charge of the printing of The Chinese Students
Weekly. Between 1956 to 1959, he worked in Singapore and Malaya as the head of The Students
Weekly. In 1960, he went to the U.S. to study and in 1963 obtained a masterʼs degree inbusiness administration and returned to Hong Kong. After returning to Hong Kong, heofficially became a liaison of the UCO with the Asia Foundation. In 1967, he moved to the U.S.
for family reasons and started new business dealing in toys and gifts (Lo and Hung, 2014: 4955).

Walking into the Mist of: Unravelling Union Press Organizationʼs Relationship with the United States

aimed at intellectuals (Law, 2009: 111). It was intended that this journal become an
authoritative journal in the study of the CPC (Union Press, 1964: back cover).
2. The College Life《大学生活》: This was a semi-monthly journal, first published in
April 1955. It was used as an academic and literar y supplementar y reading forstudents in higher education institutions.
3. The Chinese Students Weekly: First published on the 25th of July 1952, with an edition
published in Hong Kong and a sub-edition published in Burma. It was used as an
extra-curricular reading for secondar y school students in Hong Kong andSoutheast Asia (except Singapore and Malaya).
4. The Student Weekly: First published on the 27th of July 1956. It is an extra-curricularreading for Chinese High School students in Singapore and Malaya.
5. The Children s Paradise《儿童乐䭉》: Published from January 1953 to 1994. It is afortnightly magazine for childrenʼs education and learning.
6. Union Research Service《友联研究通报》: It is a semi-weekly English language
magazine that provides a comprehensive coverage of the current situation in the
CPC to foreign readers.
7. Chao Foon: This is a purely literary journal published in Malaya (Union Press,
1964: 1).
In addition to these seven periodicals, there was a bi-weekly magazine, The Teenagers
Paradise 《( 少年乐䭉》), first published on the 15th of March 1964. It was published by the
Teenagersʼ Paradise Company (少年乐䭉社) in Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, with the Union Press
Circulating Company in Singapore as the general agency. Further, it was printed by theUnion Printing in Kowloon, Hong Kong and sold at 40 cents in the Malaysian Ringgit. After asuspension, the magazine resumed publication on the 15th of May 1977 11 and continued until
Issue 107, which was published in November 1981.
The catalogue lists 1,091 titles and 1,213 volumes covering a diverse range of fields,
including academic, literar y (including eight titles from the Chao Foon Literar y Series),
educational, scientific, entertainment, youth, childrenʼs books, current affairs (translated
books on communism in China, Russia, and U.S. foreign policy), and Chinese current affairs(a research series on the CPC written in English and Chinese).
The following statement from the article “Book Publishing Work of the Union Press”
is worth noting:
We introduce translated books on foreign culture and foreign affairs to Chinese
11

The edition first published in 1977 and all the collection are referenced in the MCLC
collection.

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マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

readers, as well as foreign language books on Chinese culture and affairs to foreign
readers. In doing so, we hope to make a small contribution to the communication
between Chinese and Western cultures (Union Press, 1964: 1).
In addition, it was stressed that the existing policy should be maintained with anemphasis on publishing books for young people, children, and literature (Union Press, 1964:2). Here, the policy refers to three main principles: “political democracy, economic justice,and social freedom” .
He Zhen Ya (何振亚) said in an inter view that The Chinese Student Weekly was apublication for young people and had no editorial policy, expect that it must be anticommunist. He said that they did not necessarily adhere to the three main principles, as
everyone had their own sense of fairness. He also said that “if you open a garden, you should
also open personnel affairs” (Lo and Hung, 2014: 20).
Lin Yue Heng (林悦恒) 12, one of the main directors of the UCO, also mentioned in aninterview:
The Union Press was a relatively politicised organisation, with democratic politics, faireconomy and free culture as the main principals. We felt that education was ver yimportant to our work in Hong Kong and we wanted to reach out to different age
groups. This is why we published Children s Paradise, The Chinese Student Weekly,
The College Life, and China Weekly. We all felt that we had to include different age
groups in our readership (Lo and Hung, 2014: 181).
The above shows that the Union Press did not only focus on the three main principles
but also anti-communist ideals and the education of people from different age groups
through its publications. In the interview, He Zhen Ya stated that anti-communism was an
ideological issue. These intentions are in line with what Brayton Wilbur, the first President of
the Committee for Free Asia (CFA, the predecessor of the Asia Foundation), said in a letter
1236

Born in Xinhui (新会), Guangdong Province, he moved to Hong Kong in 1949. He studied in
Hong Kong until high school and then entered the Depar tment of Philosophy, Taiwan
University in 1954. After graduating in 1958, he retur ned to Hong Kong on therecommendation of his teacher Yin Hai Guang (殷海光) to join the UCO, where he was incharge of organising materials at URI and editing the China Weekly. In the early 1960s, hewent to Canada to study and returned to Hong Kong in 1964 to work for UCO again. Together
with Wen Lau (文楼) and Dai Tien (戴天), and others the Chuang Jian Experimental Institute(創建实验学院) was established. From the 1960s onwards, he was editor-in-chief of The College
Life and president of The Chinese Student Weekly and remains a senior executive of the UCO.
He is now settled in the U.S. and travels frequently between mainland China, Singapore,
Malaysia and Hong Kong, where he organises calligraphy exhibitions (Lo and Hung, 2014:176).

Walking into the Mist of: Unravelling Union Press Organizationʼs Relationship with the United Statesof intent published by the CFA in May 1951. Wilbur was a strong suppor ter of anticommunist ideology-based individuals and organisations. He stated that no money would bespared to realise the freedom ideology (Cummings, 2011).
In addition to publishing, UCO established the Union Research Institute (友联研究所,
URI), that studied Chinese current affairs. It also had the Union Press (友联图书编译所)13,
the Union Press Circulation Company (友联书报发行公司), the Union Printing Company
with headquar ters in Hong Kong. It also had sister companies such as Malaya Book
Company (马来亚图书公司) in Kuala Lumpur, Macao Union Press (澳门友联图书公司), andUnion Book (友联图书公司) in Hong Kong.

Ⅱ Financial Aid from the U.S. to the Union Press
1. Relationship with the U.S. Information Service
The U.S. Informational Service commissioned the Union Press to print, distribute andpublish books that illustrated the growing power of the Soviet Union and the CPC. As thesebooks were biased towards anti-communist literature, the Union Press was cautious aboutpublishing them by themselves. Therefore, the Union Press published them in their original
manuscripts, unaltered, and the U.S. Information Service bought them back in bulk. Later, asAsia Press became involved, their planning and publishing volumes grew, and they became
more familiar with the Hong Kong environment; the U.S. Informational Service switched toself-publishing. By injecting money into the Union Press, the U.S. Information Bureau
achieved its goal of translating and publishing, while simultaneously spreading resistance tocommunism, promoting Western liberalism, and moving closer to a Third Force in HongKong. The Third Force was a political movement that developed in Hong Kong, oriented
towards a third way, different from both the CPC and the Kuomintang (KMT).
Both the U.S. Informational Ser vice and the Asia Foundation were Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) stooges and were funded by the CIA; therefore, their aims were
obvious. The Union Press was chosen because of its similar philosophy of trying to curb the
spread of the CPC among the younger generation of students. This was done by collecting
raw information on the CPC and the KMT, analysing and researching them, and publishingcultural and educational books.
13

Published cultural books related to China were books by Tang Jun Yi (唐君毅), Mu Zong San(牟宗三), and Zou Shun Sheng (左舜生) from the New Asia College, as well as the You Lian
Huo Ye Wen Xuan (友联活叶文选). Through the introduction of Zhang Huai Jie (张丕介), ateacher at the New Asia College, Yu Yong Shi, Li Yong Zhen (黎永振), Xi Hui Zhang, Gu Mei,
Sun Shu Yu, and others who had studied at the college came to help out (Lo and Hung, 2014:
182).

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マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

2. The Relationship with the Asia Foundation
The Asia Foundation is a private organisation that advances U.S. interests in the AsiaPacific region. It was created in 1954 from its predecessor, the CFA, established in 1951 14.
After the Korean War (25 June 1950 - 27 July 1953), the U.S. wished to gain a better
understanding of Far Eastern and Chinese issues and found the work of the URI helpful (Loand Hung, 2014:181).
The URI was established by the UCO, which collects and publishes research in China.
Each day, dozens of personnel were assigned to material with which they were familiar, thematerial was marked, and articles were clipped, classified, and stored by the archivist (Loand Hung, 2014: 220). Index to the Classified Files on Communist China Held by the Union
Research Institute, published in March 1962 by the URI 15, shows that the clipped articles
were divided into five categories: general, political and social, military, finance and economy,
and culture and education. These articles were so informative that many researchers wishing
to study contemporary Chinese issues sought information from the URI.
There are two explanations for the first contact between the UCO and Asia
Foundation: First, according to He Zhen Ya, he and Chen Zhuo Sheng had a relationshipwith Professor He Yi Jun (何义均) of the National Central University (中央大学). He
explained that this was because he and Chen Zhuo Sheng were related to Professor He, thehead of the KMT parliamentar y group at the university (Lo and Hung, 2014: 32). In his
review, Guan Ping（平）offers the following interpretation: Both recollections of the early activities of theThird Force refer to He Yi Jun as an adviser to Clark, the resident officer of the American
Embassy in Guangzhou. The membership list published by the YUDC, the earliest
organisation of the Third Force, listed He Yi Jun as the head of the political group (Guan,
2014). However, He Zhan Ya never discussed this with He Yi Jun, who was his teacher, andthe UCO has never previously explained why it contacted the Asia Foundation through He Yi
Jun. Chen Zhuo Sheng studied politics at the National Central University and was related to
He Yi Jun; however, this explanation is likely to be an assumption by He Zhen Ya.
Chen Zhuo Shengʼs father-in-law is Ding Ting Biao, a key figure in the Free Front 《自(由阵线》) group. In the early 1950s, the group cooperated with the U.S. to publish the weekly
newspaper Free Front. Cooperation between the Free Front group and the U.S. was further
14

15

38

The website of Asia Foundation states that it was established in 1954. However, Wong Ching (黄静) states that the Asia Foundation was established in June 1950 (Wong, 2002: 20).
There is a Chinese version of this catalogue, titled《友联研究所分类资料目录》, which isavailable on the Hong Kong Baptist Universityʼs website: https://librar y.hkbu.edu.hk/
collections/special-collections-archives/contemporar y-china-research-collection/ccrc-mf/
union-chi/.

Walking into the Mist of: Unravelling Union Press Organizationʼs Relationship with the United States

extended to other projects such as the Free Press (自由出版社), Zhong Sheng Ri Bao 《中声(日报》), and Zhong Sheng Wan Bao (《中声晚报》). These projects were aimed at “establishinga cultural centre, developing from a cultural movement to a political movement and then to amilitary movement, forming a Third Force as a whole, fighting the Communist Party andtaking back the country” (Chen, 2011: 49).
Many of the key figures of the first generation of the UCO were also involved in the
Third Force political activities in Hong Kong in the 1940s and the 1950s. For example, Chen
Zhuo Sheng, Si Ma Chang Feng, and Xu Guan San were editors of The Independent Critique《独立评论》(), an important publication of the Third Force, while Xu Dong Ping and Maria
Yen were editors of the Free Front, a Third Force publication (Guan, 2014)16.
Bai Yaoʼs autobiographical novel describes how the founders of the Union Press
perceived the situation. The novel features characters who appear to be the founders of theUnion Press. One character, who appears to be modelled after Chen Zhuo Sheng, tells thefollowing story:
The launch of the UCO and The Chinese Student Weekly happened at a time of
instability in liberal democracy. It was before the outbreak of the Korean War, and the
U.S. had sidelined or abandoned the government of Republic of China in Taiwan. At
the time of the CPCʼs fall of Hainan Island in April 1950, the U.S. had a pro-CPC policy
and Secretary of State Atchison was willing to recognise the CPC if it could govern
the country, gain the confidence of the people and fulfil its international obligations(Bai, 2016: 148).
The characters, who appear to have been modelled after Shi Cheng Zhi, state thatthey should sow an early spring to lead the American people against the communists (Bai,2016: 148).
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that they were closely associated with eachother. However, according to Chen Zheng Mao (陈正茂), a key figure in the Free Frontgroup, Xie Cheng Ping had too many enemies, did not trust his old friends, and had no new
friends, but set up two organisations, the Independent Democratic Movement (独立民主墇动) and the Youth Union for Democratic China. The former included Zhang Guo Tao (张国焘, Fang Tianʼs father), Huang Yu Ren (黄宇人), Li Wei Chen (李微尘), Sun Bao Gang (孙宝刚), and others. However, they each had their own views and eventually could not agree. The
latter was vibrant, with key figures such as Chen Zhuo Sheng, Maria Yen, Xu Dong Bing, Si
16

Lin Bo Wen states that the third force political movement that emerged with U.S. support was
unsuccessful; the only achievements can be seen in the Union Research Institute and Union
Press (Lin, 1999: 118).

39

マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

Ma Chang Feng, and Xu Guan San, who later founded the UCO. However, Xie Cheng Pingrealised that they only wanted to bor row money and subsequently terminated therelationships (Chen, 2014). Therefore, it was difficult for Chen Zhuo Sheng and his group toreceive U.S. assistance through the Free Front group.
The second explanation, as mentioned in Xi Hui Zhangʼs interview, is that Maria Yen
was introduced to James Taylor Ivy (Jimmy Ivy), the first president of the Asia Foundation,
through her fatherʼs old friend Gui Zhong Shu (桂中枢). Ivy had a good impression of Maria
Yen and admired the ideals and hard work of the young people who came together in the
UCO. In addition, as the UCO was strictly self-managed, Ivy never interfered with orcriticised the UCO budgets, plans, or annual reports (Lo and Hung, 2014: 25-30; 65-66). Ivy
served on the CFA from 1951 to 1952, the forerunner of the Asia Foundation, which aimed toprovide a direct communication channel with the people of Asian countries. It aimed to curb
the spread of communist ideas among the youth and foster a pro-European and an anticommunist consciousness in Asian countries (Cummings, 2011).
Maria Yen visited Qian Mu (钱穆), an old friend of her father Qiu Chun, at the New
Asia College (新亚书院) in 1951 and asked him to introduce her to the outstanding students.
This led to students such as Yu Ying Shi (余英时)17, who later became the first editor-in-chiefof The Chinese Student Weekly, and Xi Hui Zhang, who was studying at the Faculty of
Economics, to join the UCO. Xi Hui Zhang was involved in student activities, such as choir
and drama groups. One of the talents he discovered was Bai Yao, who was still studying at
Pui Ching Middle School (培正中学). Gu Mei (古梅), Sun Shu Yu (孫述宇), and Wang JianWu (王建武) from the New Asia College also joined the UCO.
Ivy, while at the Ford Foundation between 1953 and 1954, granted USD 200,000 to
New Asia College through Yale-in-China. With this fund, New Asia College built a new
campus on Farm Road, To Kwa Wan, Kawloon, in 1956. The relationship between the U.S.
supported New Asia College and the UCO members was also close (Lo and Hung, 2014: 54).
When Ivy oversaw the Asia Foundation from 1954 to 1959, he was closely associated with
Maria and New Asia College. This is likely why the UCO was suppor ted by the Asia
Foundation. This is consistent with Lin Yue Hengʼs assertion that the UCO received U.S.
assistance through the Asia Foundation after the Korean War. Thus, the second theory is
17

40

Also known by the pseudonym Ai Qun (艾群), he studied under Qian Mu at the New Asia
College in Hong Kong in 1950 and was one of the first graduates of the university in 1952. He
graduated from Yen Ching University. In the early 1950s, while living in Hong Kong, he was
the first (but short-lived) editor-in-chief of The Chinese Student Weekly. His publications include
Shi Xue Yu Chuan Tong 《史学与传统》(), You Ji Feng Chui Shui Shang Lin: Qian Mu Yu Xian), and Ren Wen Yu Min
Dai Zhong Guo Xue Shu 《犹记风吹水上鳞―钱穆与现代中国学术》(
Zhu 《人文与民主》(). In 1974, he was elected a member of the Academia Sinica (台湾中央研究院) in Taiwan (Lo and Hung, 2014: 54).

Walking into the Mist of: Unravelling Union Press Organizationʼs Relationship with the United States

more convincing.
In addition to Maria Yen, Chen Zhuo Sheng, and Xu Dong Bing; Xi Hui Zhang later
had direct contact with the Asia Foundation (Lo and Hung, 2014: 68). The Asia Foundation
funded all the UCOʼs publications. This included publications from The Chinese Student
Weekly, Children s Paradise, College Life, China Weekly and, URI (Lo and Hung, 2014: 25).
Lin Yue Heng, who became a key figure in the UCO, recognised that the Asia
Foundation was suppor ting the activities of the UCO and not the UCO itself. He
acknowledged that the Asia Foundationʼs financial support to the UCO was only provided to
the URI, the publication of The College Life, and the activities of The Chinese Student Weekly(essay contests, anniversary activities, literary society activities, communication activities,
and events such as summer and winter camps), and not to Union Press (Lo and Hung, 2014:
188).
However, there are some discrepancies between the two testimonies. It is possiblethat they received funding at different times. In any event, He Zhen Ya and Lin Yue Heng had
no direct contact with the Asia Foundation. Xi Hu Zhang, who later had direct contact with
the Asia Foundation, stated that he submitted financial reports to the foundation. The UCO
had a printing press and distribution network, but most of it was funded by the Asia
Foundation (Lo and Hung, 2014: 66).
In 1967, U.S. media revealed that the CIA sponsored several institutions, including the
Asia Foundation, which led to the suspension of its activities. The Asia Foundation
subsequently resumed its activities, but changed its aims from “build democratic institutions,encourage the development of democratic leaders” to the development of Asia as a whole. In
an interview, Xi Hui Zhang stated that a member of the UCO stumbled across an article
revealing the links between the Asia Foundation and the CIA. They found this offensive, as
receiving an Asia Foundation grant meant working for the intelligence agency. As a result,some of the Asia Foundation staff quit, leading the Asia Foundation to change its policy ofobtaining financial resources from Shell Oil and other sources (Lo and Hung, 2014: 67).
Interestingly, Maria Yen and Xi Hui Zhang, two key figures at the UCO who were in directcontact with the Asia Foundation, left the UCO in 1967 and moved abroad.
In the 1970s, the Asia Foundation stopped supporting The Chinese Student Weekly.
Instead, it allocated funds to establish a printing press (plant and equipment) in the hope that
the Union Press would become self-sustaining. At the time, the Union Press did not perform
well in textbook publishing in Hong Kong but performed relatively well in Malaysia.
Xi Hui Zhang recognised that the UCO was not set up to serve the U.S., but rather for
its own ideals and aspirations (Lo and Hung, 2014: 66). Lin Yue Heng also recognised that
the UCO did not follow U.S. culture but instead was a group of people with their own sharedideals and culture. The Asia Foundation was now interested in some of its activities and41

マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

proposed cooperation (Lo and Hung, 2014: 188). However, as long as it received funding
from the CIA through the Asia Foundation and U.S. Information Service, it was on the CIAʼsterms, whether intentionally or unintentionally. The CIA took advantage of the UCOʼs anticommunist ideals to collect materials on the CPC to publish and educate the younger
generation away from the Communist Party and towards the West. It cannot be attributed tomere “historical coincidence” that the initial ambitions of the founders of UCO coincidedwith what the CIA was trying to do.

Ⅲ The Launch of The Student Weekly and Chao Foon in Singapore and Malaya
1. The UCOʼs Expansion into Singapore and Malaya
How did the UCO in Hong Kong come to operate in Singapore and Malaya? He Zhen
Ya recalled that in the mid-1950s, when the CPM was still active, Leong Yew Koh (梁宇皋),through his Hong Kong contacts, found people in Hong Kong to take on cultural andpropaganda activities, which led him to He Zhan Ya. First, he went to Malaya alone, and later,
additional personnel were sent from Hong Kong to start the first edition of the student
newspaper (Lo and Hung, 2014:21–22). Leong Yew Koh was one of the founders of the
Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) and held key positions in the MCA, including Secretary
General, and was also a cabinet minister in the government of the Federation of Malaya.
According to Xi Hui Zhang, the UCO decided to establish operations in Singapore andMalaysia in 1956 (Lo and Hung, 2014: 60). However, since Chao Foon was launched in 1955,
the timing of the decision needed to be examined. Yu De Kuan (余德宽) 18, Chen Zhuo
Sheng, Maria Yen, and Xi Hui Zhang from the UCO in Hong Kong arrived in Singapore as an
introductory party, followed by Wang Jian Wu, Zhan Hai Wei, Yao Tian Ping, Gu Mei, Huang
Ya, and Li Yong Zhen. Almost all the key figures from the UCO came to Singapore andMalaya to publish The Student Weekly, Chao Foon, and Chinese textbooks and open
bookshops (Lo and Hung, 2014: 60).

18

42

Born in 1922, after graduating from Fu Ren Catholic University in Beijing (北京辅仁大学), hemoved to Hong Kong and worked as an editor of the Zhong Sheng Bao. He started the
publication of The Chinese Students Weekly in 1952. He supervised the printing of the journal inits earlier period (from 25 July 1952 to 3 December 1954, 124 issues altogether). He moved toSingapore around 1954 to develop the UPO business, where he launched The Student Weekly
and Chao Foon. Under the pen name Shen Qing (申青), he wrote editorials for The ChineseStudent Weekly and The Student Weekly. He also wrote editorials under the pseudonyms Yu Zhi
Yang (于之洋) and Su Geng Sheng (苏更生). He was the first president and first editor-in-chiefof UPO (Yao,2005: 529-532; Lo and Hung, 2014: 18）.

Walking into the Mist of: Unravelling Union Press Organizationʼs Relationship with the United States

2. Reaching out to the Youth: Camping Activities
The UPO established The Student Weekly outposts throughout Singapore and Malaya,from which talented high school students were recruited as correspondents. Additionally,
the UPO organised choirs, theatre troupes, and literary creation activities, as it did in HongKong. It also organised promotional activities to proclaim democratic ideas and maintain
Chinese culture (Lo and Hung, 2014: 60).
The UPO created camps aimed at developing young leaders (Lo and Hung, 2014: 58).
Bai Yao wrote about the camp in his autobiographical novel as follows:
The first camp was held in the Cameron Highlands in August 1956, attended bymembers of the UPO, such as Maria Yen, Xi Hui Zhang, Chen Zhuo Sheng, and Shi Cheng
Zhi; and writers such as Lu Man, Zhang Gong, Liu Bai Song, and Huang Zhi Lian (Bai, 2007:
37).
After Malayaʼs independence, the third camp was also held in the Cameron Highlands
in December 1957. The camp invited Tian Niao (田鸣恩), Xie Bing Ying (谢冰莹), Zhao Er
Xian (赵尔谦), Gui Cheng Ping (桂承平), Chen Zhuo Sheng, and Yu De Kuan to discuss new
poems published in Chao Foon. The camp proceeded as Maria Yen had envisaged, with spacefor everyone to breathe freely when talking about culture, and for everyone to weave dreams
when talking about life (Bai, 2016: 169).
In 1958, Maria Yen, Yu De Kuan, and Chen Zhuo Sheng attended the fourth living
camp in Malacca and gave speeches (Bai, 2007: 49; 2016, 169). Bai Yao described that the
speeches and talks by Maria Yen, Shi Cheng Zhi, and Xi Hui Zhang were all about the threemain principles of the UPO and sowed the seeds of free culture.
Xi Hui Zhangʼs speech included the following: Chao Foon, a pure literary magazine
promoting Malayanisation, launched by the UPO in 1955. Further he described it as aliterary clearinghouse that rejects political pollution and outlined that the Singapore andMalayan editions of The Chinse Student Weekly have roots in the region and are printed andpublished in Singapore and Malaya under the name The Student Weekly. The magazine wasaimed at the Malayanisation and set up correspondence clubs from villages to cities todevelop youth cultural activities and spread the cause of free culture. The correspondents
were all recent high school graduates or still in high school and lacked life experience and agood foundation of knowledge. However, they all shared the common mindset of sowing theseeds of free culture. No matter how limited their strength, they contributed significantly. No
matter how bad the environment was, they continue to struggle (Bai, 2016: 104).
Maria Yenʼs speech was described as follows: The concept behind running living
camps was to suppor t the correspondents and readers. They are often unreasonably
harassed by extreme leftists at school for “depriving the masses” . It is hoped that the43

マレーシア研究第 12 号（2023 年）

correspondents and readers will establish and transmit themselves firmly through intensive
interactions in the life camps (Bai, 2016: 100).
Bai hopes that the debates at the life camps will highlight the positive significance ofthe life camps and help them to further the ideals of free culture on the youth campus and in
the real world (Bai, 2016: 156).
When asked about The Student Weekly being anti-communist in the context of theCold War between East and West, Shi Cheng Zhi fired back that “it is a false proposition anda misleading term” and said “They are rightly anti-communist, anti-communist against
Chinese culture, anti-communist against free life. If Europe or the USA were to become acommunist country, they would still be rightly anti-communist, anti-Russian, anti-European,
and anti-American” (Bai, 2016: 149).
From these examples, it can be seen that they are based on the three main principles,emphasising anti-communism and spreading the seeds of freedom, which coincidentally is
the opposite of left-wing literature. Both desperately defend each otherʼs turf, rejecting
political contamination with their liberal consciousness and proving themselves to be theclean streams of literature.

Conclusion
UCO, which launched Chao Foon, was founded in Hong Kong in 1950. The founders
were young intellectuals who came to Hong Kong from mainland China, many of whom werecritical of the communist regime in mainland China. The UCO aimed to oppose thecommunist regime in mainland China and make a free world for young Chinese people,
especially in Southeast Asia. Further, the UCO aimed to make people aware of the truth
about communist rule and work with the people of Southeast Asia to oppose communism. To
reach out to all age groups, UCO launched magazines for different generations, such as
children, students, and adults.
The UCO had close ties with the U.S. Information Service and the Asia Foundation
agencies representing the interests of the U.S. government. James Taylor Ivy, the firstpresident of the Asia Foundation, provided financial aid for the publishing projects of theUnion Press. These U.S. institutions turned to the Union Press because of its high regard for
URI, which was established by the UCO to collect and organise primary sources, such as
newspaper articles on Chinese affairs. These materials provide essential information toresearchers and observers of Chinese affairs. The founders of the UCO recruited personnel
at New Asia College, which received a grant from the Ford Foundation, while James Ivy was
there.
The background to UCO coming to Malaya was due to the needs of the people in44

Walking into the Mist of: Unravelling Union Press Organizationʼs Relationship with the United States

Malaya. With the threat of the CPM lingering in Malaya, the MCAʼs Leong Yew Koh sought
people in Hong Kong to engage in cultural and propaganda activities. This led him to He
Zhen Ya from the UCO. Almost all the key figures of the UCO came to Malaya from HongKong. They published The Student Weekly and Chao Foon and expanded it to textbook
publishing and bookshop businesses. UPO set up sales outlets for The Student Weekly
throughout Malaya and organised cultural activities and camps for high school students andothers. UPO used cultural activities as a cover to “educate” Malayan youth to prevent the
spread of the CPC and CPM influence among Malayan youth.
Modernism began to emerge in Chao Foon, transforming the Chinese-language
literary scene in Singapore and Malaya, where leftist literature was strong. This led to Chao
Foon occupying an important position in Chinese-language literature in Singapore andMalaya. During Chao Foonʼs rise to such a position, it will be necessary to scrutinise whether
the political agenda of the UPO can be seen in the articles and works published in Chao
Foon.

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