令和 4 年度
Ａ Ｏ 入 試 問 題 集（医学部医学科）

公表期限：2025 年 3 月末
東北大学入試センター※ 以下の(1),(2)の場合を除き，複製，転載，転用することを禁じます。
(1)受験予定者が自主学習のために使用する場合(2)学校その他の教育機関(営利目的で設置されているものを除く。)の教職員が教育の一環として使用する場合Biologics License
would file a Biologics License Application after an Application:
生物製剤認
analysis of a larger data set revealed that EMERGE's 可申請
high dose group had met the primary endpoint; with a
22% relative slowing of progression on the CDR-SB
scale as compared with placebo. No significant benefit
was found in ENGAGE's high-dose group or in either
study's low dose group. Biogen asserted that the
EMERGE results met criteria for FDA approval (③）
a single compelling trial.

In November 2020, the FDA convened its Peripheral and convened: 召集した
Central Nervous System Drugs Advisory Committee toreview the trial data and post hoc analyses evaluating P0st hoc: 事後のpotential reasons for the discrepancy between the trials.
The committee voted decisively that the data in totality decisively: きっぱりと
did not provide sufficient evidence of efficacy andrecommended against approval.
、

In another surprising twist, the FDA then pivoted from its pivoted: 旋回した
normal regulatory pathway, which requires evidence ofclinical efficacy, and approved the drug on an accelerated
pathway in which evidence of biomarker changes biomarker: バイオマ カ
deemed "reasonably likely to predict clinical benefit" is -(病気の進行や薬剤の効果など， 生体内の生物
sufficient. ④This pathway, intended for drugs treating 学的変化を定量的に把握
serious diseases with limited treatment options, has been するための指標となる物
質）
used for drugs to treat HIV and cancer.
ー＂2021 (

出典： Rabinovici GD. New England Journal of Medicine

一 Controversy and Progress in Alzheimer’s Disease —
(From

部改変）
FDA Approval of Aducanumab, Gil D. Rabinovici, M.D., N Engl
J Med 2021; 385:771-774. Copyright © 2021 Massachusetts
Medical Society. Reprinted with permission from
Massachusetts Medical Society.一部改変）-6-organized and persistent, really beyond anything oursociety had ever seen."
It's through this lens of human agency that Barnes andother historians contemplate COVID-19's potential
scientific legacy. The pandemic, like its predecessors,
cast . light on uncomfortable truths, ranging from theimpact of societal inequities on health to waste in clinicalinequity: 不平等

trials to paltry investments in public health. Questions paltry: わずかな
loom about how to buttress labs—financially or buttress: 支える， 強化すotherwise—that were immobilized by the pandemic.

るimmobilize: 動けなくなる（From "Will COVID-19 change science? Past pandemics offer
clues" by Couzin-Frankel, Jennifer, Vol 373, Issue 6552 • pp.
264-265, Reprinted with permission from AAAS. Copyright © 2021
American Association for the Advancement of Science一部改変）- 11 -

Basic research is the bedrock of all of the applied researchthat follows, particularly·in drug development. It's ih thebasic. research stage that scientists discover molecules andpathways that have potential translational value. The
foundational science that society uses to uphold clinicalresearch could be in danger of being flawed if researchers
aren't more cognizant of and transparent about who isfunding these basic discoveries. We ask our authors andreviewers to be diligent about any competing interests—bethey financial or otherwise. Transparency is crucial not only
for preserving the integrity of the research but also inpreserving the trust of the public whose tax dollars help funda significant portion of basic science. We welcome an·open
discussion about how best to ensure more transparency inreporting conflict of interest in a way that would protect andpromote the research that advances biomedical science.

bedrock: 根底

translational: 橋渡し
的なfoundational: 麟となる
cognizant: 認識する

（Reprinted from " Confronting conflict of interest " by Nature Medicine,Nov 6, 2018. © 2018, Springer Nature America, Inc.一部改変）- 16·

(6) Nonetheless, not everyone is ready to embrace thesetools: some patients may have concerns about certain
practices contravening their religious beliefs; others are notready to engage in the effort required to maintain a regular
practice; still others have been conditioned to request a pill
for every ailment. . Moreover, these tools may not. beappropriate for some patients. For example, patients withsevere mental illness may have difficulty learning·thenecessary skills - or risk losing touch with reality when they
engage in some of these practices.

contravening: 反しているailment: 軽い病気

(7) Despite these barriers, many patients are keen to learn
more about mind-body tools. Given the available data andthe favorable side-effect profiles of these practices, we
believe that mind-body medicine should be recognized as
potential primary and secondary prevention and, where
possible, routinely incorporated into primary care. It is not
surprising that it hasn't been seen in this light, given that ourhealth care system has been predominantly built on a reactive
disease-treatment model rather than a proactive health­enhancement model. Realization of the potential cost savingsand health improvements afforded by mind-body medicine
would require insurance companies to cover these services
and an educational system to train health care professionals
in their appropriate use. Many medical schools now offermind-body medicine electives, but only a few have madeeducation in these prac�ices a required part of the curriculum.
Currently, few Americans have access to these tools in a
medical setting, and even those who do must often pay forthem out of pocket.
出典： Dossett ML, Fricchione GL, Benson H. New England一

Medicine.,
Michelle2020
L. Dossett, M.D., Ph.D.,（From A New Era for Mind-Body
Journalof Medicine( 部改変）
Gregory L. Fricchione, M.D., and Herbert Benson, M.D., N Engl J Med 2020;
382:1390-1391. Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts Medical Society. Reprinted
with permission from Massachusetts Medical Society.一部改変）- 20 -

令和 4 年度（2022 年度）東北大学
AO 入試（総合選抜型）III 期

筆記試験問題令和 4 年 2 月 12 日
志望学部／学科

試 験 時 間

ページ数

医 学 部 医 学 科

9:30〜11:30（120 分）21 ページ

注 意 事 項1． 試験開始の合図があるまで，この「問題冊子」，「解答用紙」を開いてはいけません。
2. この「問題冊子」は 21 ページあります。ページの脱落，印刷不鮮明の箇所などがあった場合には申し出てください。ホチキスは外さないでください。
3.「問題冊子」の他に，「解答用紙」，「メモ用紙」を配付します。
4．解答は，必ず黒鉛筆（シャープペンシルも可）で記入し，ボールペン・万年筆などを使用してはいけません。
5．「解答用紙」の受験記号番号欄（１枚につき１か所）には，忘れずに受験票と同じ受験記号番
号をはっきりと判読できるように記入してください。
6. 解答は，必ず「解答用紙」の指定された箇所に記入してください。
7. 特に指示がない場合は，日本語で答えてください。
8. 日本語での字数の指定がある場合は句読点，数字，アルファベット，記号も 1 字として数えてください。
9. 試験終了後は「解答用紙」を回収しますので，持ち帰ってはいけません。「問題冊子」，「メモ用紙」は持ち帰ってください。

-1-

―――このページは白紙―――-2-

―――このページは白紙―――-3-

21 以下は医師である著者の祖父に関する英文である。文を読んで質問に答えなさい。
As Grandpa’s arthritis worsened, composing email
messages of more than a few words became onerous for him.
“It’s frustrating when the fingers can’t keep up with the brain,” he’dlament. And then visitation restrictions necessitated by Covid-19
cut him off from the outside world entirely, since his deafness had
long since made phones useless to him. When the Northeast
surge abated, Grandpa’s son and I received permission to visit
him outside his facility on separate days. Lucid as ever, despite
nearing his 103rd birthday, he rendered the same plea to each ofus. Whereas he had long wished to forgo measures to prolong
life, he now sought any plausible option to hasten death.
I knew that New Jersey had legalized ①physicianassisted dying the previous year, but also that legality, availability,and propriety are three very different things. My long-standing
ambivalence about physician-assisted dying had been reinforcedby colleagues who joined me in organizing and presenting at the
National Academy of Medicine’s 2018 workshop on the topic. I
reached out to several of these experts to gauge whether
Grandpa might pursue it. Would he even meet the criteria, giventhat he was dying of old age, frailty, and more than anything else,

arthritis:関節炎

isolation and meaninglessness?
I learned that the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid
Services (CMS) had previously allowed codes for “②adult failure
to thrive” to qualify people for hospice and that in states that had
legalized physician-assisted dying less recently than New Jersey
had, those codes had been used to confer eligibility. But CMS
recently removed those codes from hospice eligibility, and in any
event, I could not find a New Jersey physician willing or
sufficiently experienced to provide this service.
I described another option to Grandpa: he could
voluntarily stop eating and drinking. He’d never considered thispossibility (which reminded me again ③how one’s family
members and clinicians contribute to inequities in end of-lifecare). The option intrigued Grandpa, and during subsequent visits
he reinforced his plan to pursue it. I insisted that he first move into
my home. I wanted to ensure the quality of his care, knowing thatmeaninglessness:-4-

onerous:わずらわ
しいabated:和らいだ
Lucid:頭脳明晰なforgo:見合わせる

legality:合法性
ambivalence:相反する感情を持つことfrailty:弱さ

空虚Centers for
Medicare andMedicaid Services(CMS) :メディケア・
メディケイドサービ
スセンター（米国の公的医療保障制度の運営主体）
voluntarily:自発的にinequities:不公平I could enroll him in my health system’s hospice program. But I
also wished to test his resolve, reasoning that his mind mightchange once his isolation ended.
For a month after he entered our home, his spirits werebrighter, his gait steadier, and his appetite heartier. He joined mywife, two daughters, and me for dinner each night, typically
preceded by a vodka martini that I had stirred for him — a dailypleasure he’d allowed himself for 80 years and had missed as a
facility resident. He’d tell stories of the Navy, his career, and his
family history and would regularly quip, “If you keep treating me
this well, I might just stick around a while longer!”But eventually he returned to his goal of (④) death. One
night, he said he was ready to stop eating and drinking the nextmorning, but when morning came, he asked for his usual coffee
and bagel. He confided that he was scared. When I asked ofwhat, he replied, “It’s like trying to roller skate. I’m scared ofstarting. Though I know that once I do, I’ll probably roll.”
A week later, he’d built up his fortitude and again asked tostop eating and drinking. I convinced him to join us for dinner andsleep on it. He agreed, devoured everything on his plate and theice cream sundae my daughters made him afterward, and shared
a bottle of red wine we’d opened for the occasion. “My last
hurrah,” he said, with a smile and fist pump more vigorous thanyou’d think an old, frail man could muster. When I entered his
room early the next morning, he was already dressed. “I’m readyto start,” he announced, almost before I could say good morning.
“But do you think I could sneak a half-cup of black coffee?”
I went through the doctorly ritual of informing him that thiswas his choice; it would bring him pleasure while prolonging his
life. He nodded. I served. He imbibed. On the third day of nothing
but six ounces of black coffee each morning, he said, “I have a
confession. While washing my face this evening I took a gulp ofwater.” The guilt and disappointment he conveyed immediately
altered ⑤my views on physician-assisted dying. For people witha consistent desire to end their life, unencumbered by mental
illness or immediate threats to their survival, the only alternative— to stop eating and drinking — is just too challenging. Hospice-5-

gait:足どり

quip:気の利いた物
言い

fortitude:不屈の精神

imbibed:飲んだunencumbered:つながりのないexperts around the country had warned me that less than 20% of
people who try to do so “succeed,” with most reversing course
because of vicious thirst.
出典：Newof Medicine
384:400-401,
2021（一部(Copyright England(c) 2021 Journal
Massachusetts
MedicalSociety. All
rights改変）
reserved一部改変）
問1.

下線部①の代替案として筆者が示したことを文中の言葉で示しなさい。

問2.

下線部②はどのような状態のことを言うのか，本文から読み取れる内容を日本語 40
字以内で示しなさい。

問3.

下線部③は具体的にどのような意味を示すか，日本語 40 字以内で説明しなさい。

問4.

空欄④に入る最も適切な単語を以下から選びなさい。
ア） waitingイ） avoidingウ） acceptingエ） hasteningオ） considering問5.

下線部⑤で示された医師による死の幇助に関する著者の考えは，祖父の言動を通じてどのように変化したと考えられるか，本文に即して日本語 150 字以内で述べなさい。

問6.

本文で示されるような終末期医療の現状や課題などについてあなたが知っていることを，わが国の現状にも触れて英単語 100 語以内で述べなさい。

-6-

22 以下の英文を読み，質問に答えなさい。
①During the COVID-19 pandemic, the concept ofheroism has been a prominent feature of media coverage. Healthcare professionals who worked ceaselessly in intensive careunits, sacrificed time with their families to travel to severely
affected areas to care for patients with COVID-19, and put
themselves in harm’s way have been acknowledged and rightly
celebrated. For example, New Yorkers had a nightly ritual ofcheering and making noise in support of health care workers andoffered public support in the form of signs, treats, and othermeasures of appreciation that referenced the heroism of thehealth care workforce. However, the pandemic has outlasted
these public demonstrations, and heroic narratives ultimately do
not serve clinicians or public health.
The concept of heroism suggests performing some
exceptional feat, such as an individual who disregards his or her
own well-being to benefit others. Heroes are glorified in art,
literature, and history, and these heroic narratives serve an
important purpose in demonstrating that individuals canaccomplish more than seems possible in response to a challengeor threat. For instance, people such as Nelson Mandela, who
faced his long imprisonment without complaint and dedicated hislife to justice, embody the heroic ideal.
The culture of medicine aligns with heroic narratives byextolling 3 traits: individual skill, willingness to sacrifice, andstoicism in the face of physical and emotional hardship. Medical
training rewards individual achievement, whether it is identifying
the correct diagnosis or performing a procedure skillfully.
Medicine also extols the heroic attribute of sacrifice, recognizing
those who go beyond already significant professional obligations.
Narratives about medicine often celebrate clinicians giving time
beyond their job requirements, as illustrated in a collection ofarticles on “the heroic work of doctors and health workers.”
Medical training demands physical endurance; even after duty
hour reforms, 80-hour work weeks and long shifts are the norm.
In some clinical settings, such as operating rooms, physicaldemands persist throughout careers. Unspoken messaging in-7-ceaselessly:絶え間なくworkforce:従事者
outlast:長く続く

extol:賞賛する
stoicism:ストイックであること。 自分を厳しく律する禁欲的・求道的な姿勢や生き方
skillfully:手際よくUnspoken:暗黙のmedical and surgical training programs can promote stoic
responses to the wrenching emotions in medicine and, at times,
can be accompanied by increased cynicism during residency
training.
These 3 heroic attributes of individualism, sacrifice, andstoic endurance can actually undermine the systemtransformation needed in health care. The individualism inherent
in the heroic narrative runs counter to the team-based problemsolving approach to health care delivery that leads to better
quality. If physicians and other clinicians are willing to makepersonal sacrifices to circumvent system shortcomings, leaders
are less likely to take necessary steps to correct broken systems.
Although systematic data are lacking in this area, it is observedthat physicians often step in to ensure seamless care on their own
time and create “workarounds” to get patients what they need in
dysfunctional microsystems. She contends that medical care in
the US relies on this strong sense of professional obligation tofunction. Similarly, if nurses are willing to work double shifts or
routinely cover extra patients, chronic understaffing, which is
known to be unsafe for patients, persists.
The stoicism that comes with being a hero is also a risk
for burnout, defined by the National Academy of Medicine asemotional exhaustion and distress stemming from work. Stoicism
can lead clinicians to underrecognize their physical and emotional
needs and to conceal perceived vulnerabilities. For example, anaccount of a physician concealing her cancer diagnosis whileleading a pandemic response, and her description of the healing
effect of sharing the experience of her own illness, highlight theimportance of changing culture to support physicians as humanbeings. Moreover, heroic actions and attitudes require an
activated mental state that can allow people to perform at a highlevel for defined periods of time. Sustaining that emotional
activation is physically, mentally, and emotionally exhausting.
Occupationally related emotional exhaustion and distress, and, in
extreme cases, depression, anxiety, and suicide, can result fromstriving to meet impossible expectations over time. Emergency
department physician Dr Lorna Breen, who died by suicide in April-8-

cynicism:冷笑

circumvent:回避する

workaround:コンピューターにおいてシス
テム上の問題が発生した際の応急措置のこと

vulnerability：弱み2020, is a recent casualty of this long-standing and deep-seatedculture. Even when these heroic expectations do not lead to tragic
or career-ending consequences, they can contribute to ②a lackof engagement and satisfaction in work that is highly prevalent
among clinicians.
It is possible that the energy physicians and otherclinicians are putting into maintaining stoicism in the face ofchallenges could be better turned in a positive direction.
Clinicians’ creativity and problem-solving skills are underutilized
resources for transforming health care. As a hypotheticalexample, consider a specialist in the community with an idea fora novel digital health approach to support patient selfmanagement for a disease she manages on a routine basis. Herdaily work includes routine overbooking of patients, frequent
absences among staff, and distracting requests to manage tasks
others could do, and she is expected to soldier through withoutcomplaint. Imagine if the patient scheduling, on-call, and staffing
systems all functioned as intended, and she was able to deliverpatient care without contingency planning and unplanned work
time. She could have the energy and focus to turn to her idea andserve patients even beyond her practice through her digital selfmanagement tool.
The National Academy of Medicine’s report on clinician
well-being provides ③an approach for reframing the culture,emphasizing humanism instead of heroism. Rather thanenvisioning medicine as a province of brilliant individuals saving
lives without a thought for their personal regard, the aim should
be to achieve a culture of teamwork that acknowledges thehuman needs—both physical and emotional—of clinicians anddoes not ask them to sacrifice their well-being on a routine basis.
Organizational solutions abound, such as information
technology–enabledcoveragesystems,
data-supported
anticipatory staffing, and team members empowered to a highlevel of function. These precepts extend to medical education,
whereby educators can rightsize learners’ workloads, teach andmodel teamwork and team culture, and, most importantly,
demonstrate support for learners and faculty experiencing the-9-deep-seated:根深いunderutilized:未活
用のhypothetical:仮説のcontingency:偶発的な

anticipatory:予想した
precept：教訓
workload:作業

stress of their studies or emotional challenges of patient care.
Moreover, it is imperative that health systems provide support forclinicians to prevent and mitigate emotional exhaustion anddistress, without stigma for seeking help or time away from work.
（Reproduced with permission from "Humanism Before Heroism in Medicine." by Sarkar, Urmimala ;Cassel, Christine, JAMA.2021;326(2):127-128. Copyright©2021 American Medical Association. All
rights reserved.一部改変）

問 1 . 下線部①が具体的に何を指すか，日本語で述べなさい。

問 2 . 医療における heroic narratives の特徴を表す英単語を 3 つ本文中より抜き出し，
なぜそれらが医療に必要なシステムの変革を阻害するのか，それぞれ日本語で簡潔に説明しなさい。

問 3 . 下線部②のような現象が生じる理由について，本文に即して日本語 150 字以内で説明しなさい

問 4 . 下線部③は具体的にどのようなことを指すか，本文に即して日本語でまとめなさい。

問 5 . この文章のタイトルにふさわしい英単語をいれなさい。
（）before Heroism in medicine- 10 -

23 以下の英文を読み，質問に答えなさい。
Biologists in Shanghai, China, have created the firstprimates cloned with a technique similar to the one used to clone
Dolly the sheep and nearly two dozen other species. The method
has failed to produce live primates until now. Researchers hope to
use this revised technique to develop populations of genetically
identical primates to provide improved animal models of humandisorders, such as cancer. The technology could also be combinedwith gene-editing tools such as CRISPR–Cas9 to create
genetically engineered primate-brain models of human disorders,
including Parkinson’s disease.
“This paper really marks the beginning of a new era forbiomedical research,” says Xiong Zhi-Qi, a neuroscientist who
studies brain disease at the Chinese Academy of Sciences Instituteof Neuroscience (ION) in Shanghai. He was not involved in thecloning project. But the achievement is also likely to raise someconcerns among scientists and the public that the technique might
be used to create cloned humans. “Technically, there is no barrier
to human cloning,” says ION director Mu-Ming Poo, who is a coauthor of the study. But ION is interested only in making cloned
non-human primates for research groups, says Poo: “We want toproduce genetically identical monkeys. That is our only purpose.”Primates have proved tricky to copy, despite many
attempts using the standard cloning technique. In that method, theDNA of a donor cell is injected into an egg that has had its own
genetic material removed. ION researchers Sun Qiang and Liu
Zhen combined several techniques developed by other groups to
optimize the procedure. One trick was to undo chemical
modifications in the DNA that occur when embryonic cells turn into
specialized cells. The researchers had more success with DNA
from fetal cells, rather than cells from live offspring.
Using fetal cells, they created 109 cloned embryos, andimplanted nearly three-quarters of them into 21 surrogatemonkeys. This resulted in six pregnancies. Two long-tailed
macaques (Macaca fascicularis) survived birth: Zhong Zhong, now
eight weeks old, and Hua Hua, six weeks. Poo says that the pairseem healthy so far. The institute is now awaiting the birth of- 11 -

primates:霊長類

genetically:遺伝的に

CRISPR–Cas9:酵
素によるDNA切断を原理とする遺伝
子改変技術
biomedical:生物医
学的なneuroscientist:神経科学者
Chinese Academyof Sciences
Institute of
Neuroscience(ION):中国科学院
神経科学研究所

optimize:最適化する
embryonic cells:
胚細胞

surrogate:代理母
macaque:マカク（サルの一属）Macacafascicularis:カニク

another six clones. Cloning specialist Shoukhrat Mitalipov of theOregon Health and Science University in Portland says that the
Chinese team should be congratulated. “I know how hard it is,”says Mitalipov, who estimates he used more than 15,000 monkey
eggs in cloning attempts in the 2000s. Although he was able toproduce stem-cell lines from cloned human and monkey embryos,
his team’s primate pregnancies never resulted in a live birth.
Cloned animals offer some significant advantages overnon-clones as models for studying human disease. In
experiments with non-cloned animals, it is difficult to knowwhether differences between the test and control groups werecaused by the treatment or genetic variation, says Terry
Sejnowski, a computational neurobiologist at the Salk Institute for
Biological Studies in La Jolla, California. “Working with cloned
animals greatly reduces the variability of the genetic background,so fewer animals are needed,” he says.
Sejnowski also says that primate brains are the bestmodel for studying human mental disorders and degenerative
diseases. The ability to clone monkeys might revive primate
studies, which have declined in most countries, says Poo.
Parkinson’s disease experiments that currently use hundreds ofmonkeys could be done with just ten clones, he says.
Neuroscientist Chang Hung-Chun, also at ION, says thatprimate-cloning technology will soon be combined with geneediting tools to study human genetic disorders in primate brains.
Gene editing is already used on developing monkey embryos, butthat leaves open the possibility that some cells are not edited,which then affects the results, says Chang.
With cloning, the donor cell can be edited before it isinjected into the egg. Within a year, Poo expects the birth ofcloned monkeys whose cells have been genetically edited tomodel circadian-rhythm disorders and Parkinson’s disease.
Spurred by the promise of primate research, the city of
Shanghai is planning major funding for an International Primate
Research Center, expected to be formally announced in the next
few months. The centre will produce clones for scientists aroundthe globe. “This will be the CERN of primate neurobiology,” Poo- 12 -

イサル

stem-cell:幹細胞

computational
neurobiologist:計算神経生物学者
variability:多様性
degenerative
diseases:神経変性疾患

circadian-rhythm:
概日リズム

CERN: 欧州合同

says. There’s already high demand from pharmaceuticalcompanies that want to use cloned monkeys to test drugs, hesays.
Although most reproductive biologists are unlikely toconsider using the technique to clone humans because of ethicalobjections, Mitalipov worries that it might be attempted in a
private clinic. China has guidelines that prohibit reproductive
cloning, but no strict laws. It also has a weak record ofenforcement of its rules on the use of stem cells for therapy.
Some other countries — notably the United States — do notprohibit reproductive cloning at all. “Only regulation can stop itnow”, says Poo. “Society has to pay more attention to this”.
出典：Nature
553:387-388,
from "First monkeys
cloned with 2018（一部改変）
technique that made Dolly the sheep" by David Cyranoski（Adapted

原子核研究機構
neurobiology:神経生物学

Springer Nature. Copyright © 2018, Springer Nature.一部改変）

問1． 本文を以下の項目に従い，指定された字数以内の日本語で簡潔に要約しなさい。
ア） 今回成し遂げられた技術の内容とこれまでの背景：１００字以内
イ） 今回成し遂げられた技術の利点：７０字以内
ウ） 今回成し遂げられた技術への懸念：５０字以内

問2.

今回成し遂げられた技術に対する自分なりの見解を日本語１５０字以内で述べなさい。

- 13 -

24 以下の英文を読み，質問に答えなさい。
(1) The modern study of sensation and perception
began in the 19th century with the emergence of experimental
psychology as a scientific discipline. The first psychologists—
Ernst Weber, Gustav Fechner, Hermann Helmholtz, andWilhelm Wundt—focused their experimental study of mental
processes on sensation, which they believed was the key tounderstanding the mind. Their findings gave rise to the fields of
psychophysics and sensory physiology.
(2) Psychophysics describes the relationship between
the physical characteristics of a stimulus and the attributes of thesensory experience. Sensory physiology examines the neuralconsequences of a stimulus—how the stimulus is transduced by
sensory receptors and processed in the brain. Some of the most
exciting advances in our understanding of perception have comefrom merging these two approaches in both human and animalstudies. For example, functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) have beenused in controlled experiments to identify regions of the humanbrain involved in the perception of pain.
(3) Early scientific studies of the mind focused not on theperception of complex qualities such as color or taste but on
phenomena that could be isolated and measured precisely: thesize, shape, amplitude, velocity, and timing of stimuli. Weberand Fechner developed simple experimental paradigms to study
how and under what conditions humans are able to distinguishbetween two stimuli of different amplitudes. They quantified theintensity of sensations in the form of mathematical laws thatallowed them to predict the relationship between stimulus
magnitude and sensory discrimination.
(4) For example, in 1834 Weber demonstrated that thesensitivity of a sensory system to differences in intensity
depends on the absolute strength of the stimuli. We easily
perceive that 1 kg is different from 2 kg, but it is difficult todistinguish 50 kg from 51 kg. Yet both sets differ by 1 kg. This
relationship is expressed in the equation now known as Weber’slaw:- 14 -

emergence:出現
discipline:専門分野

psychophysics:精神物理学

sensory physiology:
感覚生理学
attributes:性質
consequences:続いて起こる結果functional magnetic
resonance imaging:
機能的磁気共鳴画像
positron emission
tomography:陽電子
放射断層撮影amplitude:振幅
paradigms:一時代の支配的考え方を規定している科学的認識体
系や方法論

discrimination:弁別

equation:方程式

𝜟 S = K∙S
where ΔS is the minimal difference in strength between areference stimulus S and a second stimulus that can bediscriminated, and K is a constant. This is termed the justnoticeable difference or difference limen. It follows that thedifference in magnitude necessary to discriminate between areference stimulus and a second stimulus increases with thestrength of the reference stimulus.
(5) Fechner extended Weber’s law to describe therelationship between the stimulus strength (S) and the intensityof the sensation (I) experienced by a subject:
I = K log (S/S0)
where S0 is the threshold amplitude of the stimulus and K is aconstant. Although Fechner’s law was widely accepted fornearly a century after its publication in 1860, his assumption thatthe intensity of sensation could be equated with the sum of equalincrements in “just noticeable differences” turned out to beincorrect.
(6) In 1953 S. S. Stevens demonstrated that, over an
extended range of stimulation, subjective experience ofsensation intensity is best described by a power function rather
than by a logarithmic relationship. Stevens’ law states that:
I = K (S − S0)nFor some sensory experiences, such as the sense of pressure
on the hand, the relationship between the stimulus magnitude
and the perceived intensity is linear, that is, a power function
with a unity exponent (n = 1).
(7) The lowest stimulus strength a subject can detect istermed the sensory threshold. Thresholds are normallydetermined statistically by presenting a subject with a series ofstimuli of random amplitude. The percentage of times the
subject reports detecting the stimulus is plotted as a function of
stimulus amplitude, forming a relation called the psychometricfunction (Figure 1). By convention, threshold is defined as thestimulus amplitude detected in half of the trials. Thresholds canalso be determined by the method of limits, in which the subject
reports the intensity at which a progressively decreasing- 15 -

limen:認知できる最小の感覚

threshold:閾（いき）値（特定の作用因子が生物体に対しある反応を引き起こすのに必要な最小あるいは最大の値）
increments:増大
power function:冪（べき）関数（y = xn で表される関数）
logarithmic:対数のexponent:冪（べき）指数（y = xn の n のこと）

psychometricfunction:精神測定関数

stimulus is no longer detectable or an increasing stimulus isdetectable. This technique is widely used in audiology tomeasure hearing thresholds.
(8) The measurement of sensory thresholds is a usefuldiagnostic technique for determining sensory function in
individual modalities. An elevated threshold may signal anabnormality in sensory receptors (such as loss of hair cells in the
inner ear caused by aging or exposure to very loud noise),
deficits in nerve conduction properties (as in multiple sclerosis),or a lesion in sensory-processing areas of the brain. Sensory
thresholds may also be altered by emotional or psychologicalfactors related to the conditions in which stimulus detection ismeasured.

audiology:聴覚学

diagnostic:診断のmodalities: (感覚の)様相

deficits:欠損
conduction:伝導
multiple sclerosis:多発性硬化症[図の説明文]Figure 1. The psychometric function defines the mathematical
relationship between the amplitude of a stimulus and theintensity of the sensation felt by the subject.
A. The psychometric function plots the percentage of stimuli
detected by a human observer as a function of the stimulus
magnitude. Threshold is defined as the stimulus intensity
detected on 50% of the trials. Psychometric functions are also
used to measure the just noticeable difference between stimuli
that differ in intensity, frequency, or other parametric properties. parametric:要因のB. Detection and discrimination thresholds depend on thecriteria used by individual subjects in psychophysical tasks. An
ideal observer correctly detects the presence and absence ofstimuli with equal probability (curve b). An observer who is told
to respond to the slightest indication of a stimulus reports many
false positives when no stimuli occur and has low sensory
thresholds (curve a). An observer who is told to respond only
when very certain that a stimulus has occurred reports more hits
than false positives and has high sensory thresholds (curve c).
ofMcGraw
Neural
出 典 ： Principles
with permission of
Hill LLC,Sciencefrom Principles(Theof neural McGraw-Hillscience;5th ed,（RepublishedJESSELL, THOMAS M., SCHWARTZ, JAMES H., KANDEL, ERIC R., 2013; permission
Companies, Inc., New York, 2013)（一部改変）
conveyedthrough Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.一部改変）- 16 -

問1.

段落(1)-(8)は意味のまとまりによって大きく 2 つに分けることができる。意味のまとまりを持つ段落の集合をそれぞれ区別して，解答用紙の（ ）内に段落の番号を記
入しなさい。

問2.

前半のブロックを要約できる最適な見出しを下記の選択肢から選びなさい。
ア） Studies by German scientist Hermann Helmholtzイ） The beginning of psychoanalysis
ウ） Psychophysics relates the physical properties of stimuli to sensationsエ） Essentials of co-ordination of sensory and motor functionオ） Details of several methods of imaging function of human brain

問3.

後半のブロックを要約できる最適な見出しを下記の選択肢から選びなさい。
ア） The present understanding of Sturge-Weber syndromeイ） A tribute to Gustav Fechner as a professor of physics in Leipzig Universityウ） Sensory discrimination as a function of a specific neurotransmitterエ） Complete denial of S. S. Stevens equation in the modern neuroscienceオ） Psychophysical laws govern the perception of stimulus intensity- 17 -

問4.

本文と Figure 1 の A の説明文を読んで，この内容に合致した図を下記ア）〜オ）の中から選びなさい。
ア

100

100

Stimulus detection (%)

Stimulus detection (%)

イ

0

10
0
Stimulus intensity (arbitrary
units) intensity
Stimulus(arbitrary units) 10

ts) 10

ウ

エ
100

0

Stimulus intensity (arbitrary units) 10

100

Stimulus detection (%)

Stimulus detection (%)

Stimulus detection (%)

100

0

オ
Stimulus detection (%)

1000Stimulus intensity (arbitrary units) 10

Stimulus intensity (arbitrary units) 10- 18 -

0
10
10Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units) units)問5.

本文と Figure 1 の B の説明文を読んで，この内容に合致した図を下記ア）〜コ）の中から選びなさい。
ア
100

Stimulus detection (%)

c b ac b a
100

Stimulus detection (%)

a b ca b c
100

Stimulus detection (%)

Stimulus detection (%)

100

イ

0 Stimulus
10
10intensity(arbitrary
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units) units)

00 Stimulus
10
intensity(arbitrary
10
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units) units)

0

エ

ウ
ba

bc

c

0

100 100
Stimulus detection (%)

00 Stimulus
10 10
intensity(arbitrary
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units)units)

オ

bc

ab

100
100
Stimulus detection (%)
Stimulus detection (%)

a a b b c c

0 0 Stimulus
1010
intensity(arbitrary
units)
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units)- 19 -

a0 Stimulus
10
10intensity(arbitrary
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units) units)カ

Stimulus detection (%)
Stimulus detection (%)

100
100

c

Stimulus detection (%)

a

Stimulus detection (%)

Stimulus detection (%)

100 100c c b ba a

0 0 Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units)
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units)1010

ク

キ

0

100 100

0 Stimulus
10 10
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units)
intensity(arbitrary
units)

0

ab

bc

ケ

cb

ba

a

0Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units)
10 10
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units)

コa a b b c c100100cc bba

Stimulus detection (%)
Stimulus detection (%)

Stimulus detection (%)
Stimulus detection (%)

100
100

c

Stimulus detection (%)

caStimulus detection (%)

Stimulus detection (%)

Stimulus detection (%)

100 100

0 0 Stimulus intensity (arbitrary units) 10 10
Stimulus intensity (arbitrary units)- 20 -

0 0
10 10
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units)
Stimulus
intensity(arbitrary
units)a―――このページは白紙―――- 21 -