Redesigning the Physical Boundary:
The Emergence of the Glass Age of Museum
Architecture from the 1990s
潘夢斐*Mengfei PAN

1．INTRODUCTION
Contemporary museum architecture isbuildings’ exalted status. This kind ofseeing an age of glass. Both renovation

extensive glazing has become an almost

projects and new constructions have been

indispensable part of the new generation of

exploiting glass extensively, as if it is themuseum architecture.

best solution to serve the spatial functions,

By contextualizing the phenomenon ofpresent the architects’ concepts, and address

extensive glazing in museum architecture,

the institutions’ missions and social

this paper aims to discern its connections

expectations. Prominent examples include

with the museum situation and thethe Louvre Pyramid by I. M. Pei （1989）

contemporaneity and locality of Japan. It

and SANAA’s designs for The 21st Century

argues that the increasing exploitation ofMuseum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa

glass in museum architecture demonstrates（2004） and Louvre-Lens, France （2012）.

the influence of Neoliberalism on the publicThis trend of increasing use of glass byinstitutions and the architects to embrace

museum architecture deviates from thevisually appealing, technologically demanding,previous model of museums, temples andand commercial elements. It challenges theshrines, with grand staircases and formidable

pre-dominant association of glass withlook. A new physical boundary of museums,

transparency and modernity and argues for a

glass walls with their possibility to mediate

contextualized reading of glass. Previous

visual penetration and similarity with media

research in the field of architectural studies

interfaces that interact with the surrounding

focused on glass employment in all types ofand the spectators, is designed in contrast

buildings and overlooked the specificwith the older type that stresses thesituation of museums; while museum studies* Ph. D. student, ITASIA Course, Prof. YOSHIMI Shunya Laboratory, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies,
The University of Tokyo
キーワード：museum studies, museum architecture, architectural glass, museums since 1990s, museums in Japan.1

99

showed more interest in exterior and space

theories elucidating the material’s social

design and neglected the buildings’

meanings. Then it moves to the analysis ofmateriality. This research adopts an inter-glass use in museum architecture, with adisciplinary methodology including visual

focus on Japanese examples since the 1990s.

analysis of museum buildings, literatureThis paper contends that the increasing

review of policy papers, prior theories andemployment of glass in museum buildings inarchitects’ discourse, and site observations.

Japan is mainly a result of architects’ design

It starts with perspective clarifications,preference, which is made possible byoffering close-up discussions on museums astechnological development and reflects thearchitecture typology, architecture in thesocial climate celebrating Neoliberalism. The

theoretical discourse of museum studies, theextensive glazing reveals the architects’ ideal

definition of museum used in this paper, andof museums. By redesigning the physicalthe reasons for selecting the timeframe fromboundaries, the architects and their

the 1990s; followed by brief historicalcommissioners aim to establish a less elitist

accounts of architectural glass and previous

profile for the museum.

2．PRE-REQUISITES FOR DISCUSSIONS
1） Museum as architecture typology
Museums occupy an important position in（Kenchiku Sekkei Shiryo） （Architectural

the architectural world. This can be seen in

Thought Research Institute 1995） and Spacearchitecture education and design manuals

Design Series （Space Design Series Editors,

that assume “museum” as one self-

1995）, configure museums as a particularreferential type. As Igarashi Taro remarks“program”, or function of building, andon architecture education, college students

highlight issues specific to museums.

majoring in architecture usually start with

Probably because of this long held belief

designs of private houses followed by art

and design practice attempting to conform tomuseums, schools, and collective housingarchitecture typology, unconventional（2002, 228）. Design manuals, e.g. Building

projects pose challenges to architects.

Type Basics for Museums in the American

Recalling the process of proposing a design

Wiley’s Building Type Basics series

for Sendai Mediatheque, a public facility（RosenBlatt 2001） and the Japanese Data

encompassing gallery space, library andFiles of Architectural Design & Detail

information center, Ito Toyo mentioned the100

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difficulty of creating an unprecedented modelbi-lateral influence between the changing

and selecting particular techniques tomuseum and architecture spheres willaccommodate the various functions （Sendai

continue to be a focal point of discussions inMediatheque Project Team 2003, 21）. The

this paper.

2） Architecture in Museum Studies
Architecture can be seen as the largest（2006, 203-25）. Lindauer suggests museum

piece in the collection of a museum thatliteracy include scrutiny over the museums

reflects the institute’s identity. It has been an

exterior resemblance with other institutions

integral part in the discourse of museum

and visitor experience precipitated by thestudies to analyze exterior and spatialarchitecture.

designs, visitor behavior and social impact.

Architectural theories have also been

Tony Bennett and Margaret Lindauer are

increasingly borrowed to understandtwo prominent scholars who pay attention tomuseum space. Bill Hillier and Kali Tzortzi’s

museum architecture. Bennett develops his

Space Syntax: The Language of Museum

argument over museums’ disciplinary power

Space （2006） and Koike Shihoko andbased on Michel Foucault’s celebrated theory

Nakagawa Osamu’s research on the innerof Panopticon architecture （1995）. Inspired

spatial design of public art museums in Japan

by Foucault’s Discipline and Punish: The（2011a&b） are examples that try toBirth of the Prison （1977）, Bennett

comprehend museums’ inner space byascertains that museums in the nineteenth

employing Space Syntax, a set of theories for

century functioned as a governing apparatus

analyzing s pat ial conf igur at ions . Thes esimilar to asylums, clinics, and prisons, inprevious studies shed light on the possibility

which the visitors’ behavior was disciplined

to apprehend museums from the perspectivefrom above and by mutual gazes （1995;

of architecture. However a dearth of works

Crimp 1993, 44-65）. Margaret Lindauer lists

focusing on the material of museum buildings

architecture as the first check item for a

can also be identified and this paper aims to“critical museum visitor” to examine

fill this gap.

3） Definition of museum in this paper
This paper follows the definition ofwith physical space. It does not distinguishmuseums given by the International Council

museums of various types. A burgeoningof Museums （ICOM） and focuses on thoseliterature has pointed out the fluidity andRedesigning the Physical Boundary:
The Emergence of the Glass Age of Museum Architecture from the 1990s

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multi-layeredness of the concept of museum

researches, communicates and exhibits the（Hooper-Greenhill 1992, 1-2; Murata 2014,

tangible and intangible heritage of humanity

24-25）. To smooth the following discussions

and its environment for the purposes ofon architectural glass in museum buildings,

education, study and enjoyment” （2007）.

this paper adopts the ICOM’s definition ofThis definition, acknowledging the diversity

museums:of museum activity and purpose, serves well“non-profit, permanent institution（s） in theas the premise of the discussions in thisservice of society and its development, open

paper.

to the public, which acquires, conserves,

4） Reasons for the timeframe from 1990s
The timeframe of the research is targeted

economic recession and a pressing need toon the 1990s to the present for three main

re-evaluate the efficiency of government

reasons, from the perspectives of cultural

performance in the country （Kato et al.

policies, museum administration and2001, 16-17; MIC 2007）. Abiding by the IAA

architecture. As a first reason, the 1990s andAct, national museums and research

2000s has witnessed museum transformation

institutions were re-organized asunder the changing policies of governments.

Incorporated Administrative Agencies andProminent examples include Thatcher’s andgranted a new identity between public andReagan’s policies; and in the Japanese

private sectors. The reform aims at not only

context, the Act on General Rules for

improving the institutions’ administrative

Incorporated Administrative Agency

efficiency and downsizing the central（Dokuritsu gyousei hojinho; abbreviated asgovernment

IAA Act） promulgated in 2001 and the（chiisanaseifu）, but also at attracting

Designated Administrator System （Shitei

funding from outside the government （Katokanrisha seido; abbreviated as DA System）

et al. 2006, 16-17）.

were introduced in 2003.

toasmallerone

DA System also reveals a hands-off

IAA Act was introduced as a part of The

approach of the government but on a more

Basic Law on the Administrative Reform of

local level. Introduced as a part of the Local

the Central Government （Chuoshochoto

Autonomy Law （Chiho jichiho） in 2003,

kaikaku kihonho） in 2001 （E-government,

this system establishes a new administration

Japan 2011）. The central government

model of public institutions including culturalreform was born in the late 1990s climate offacilities such as cultural halls, theatres, and102

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museums. Taking a further step from the

A final reason lies in the change of1991 Usage Fee System （Riyoryoukin

museum architecture. This paper regards theseido） which allows the so called “third

1990s as the starting time of the new

sector”, or a mix of public and private

museum architecture paradigm （seefunders/administrators, to take a portion

Appendix）. These museums with extensivefrom the institutional revenues, the DA

glass exteriors and simplistic forms, such as

System allows the appointed organizations

Kirchner Museum in Davos, Switzerland

including private foundations or companies to（1992） and Kumanokodo Nakahechi

carry out a managerial role for a designatedMuseum （1998）, mark a paradigm shift ofperiod of time （Katayama 2007, 1-29）.

museum architecture. They deviate from theLargely as a response to the changing

three generations of museums articulated bypolicies, and as a second reason, museum

Isozaki Arata: the First Generation as power

administration

undergone

institution embodying nationalist ideology,

commercialization under the influence of

the Second Generation as universal space

Neoliberalism and the worldwide-celebrated

flexible and abstract, and the Third

doctrines of Thomas Krens, director of theGeneration as site specific with unique

Guggenheims between 1998 and 2008. The

characteristics （1996, 39-43）. Arguably, acommercialization scheme, fueled by public

Fourth Generation started to appear frombudget cuts, involves commoditization of

the 1990s with extensive glazing andculture and arts, branding of museums, andsimplistic form, which will be elaborated

stronger connection between museums andlater. It falls on the extension line of theregional revitalizations agendas. In Japan, theSecond and Third Generations but

oldest public museum, The Tokyo National

distinguishes itself in its visual humblenessMuseum, opened the first museum shop in

and resemblance to everyday facilities

the country in 1990 and many other（Fig. 1）.

hasmuseums have followed suit.

Redesigning the Physical Boundary:
The Emergence of the Glass Age of Museum Architecture from the 1990s

103Emergence
Time

Ideology

FeatureModel

ExampleMonumental,
with
First

Late 18th

Generation

Century

Nationalism

NeoclassicalShrine,decoration

templeThe Louvre

and grand
staircases
Abstract andSecondEarly 20th

Generation

Century

Modernismflexible,withas critique of

universal

academism

space (whitecube gallery)

Box,

Museum of

Dom-inoModern Art,

System (LeNew York

Corbusier)(1939)

Site-specific,

Third
Generation

1960s

Post-

sculptural,

Modernism

interaction

as critique of

between art

Modernism

displays andGuggenheim
Disneyland

MuseumBilbao (1997)

architecture
SimpleFourthGeneration(Glass Age)

Mid-1990s

Late Post-

geometric

Modernism,

form withdecliningextensive

Post-

glazing,

Modernismadjacent toConvenience
store,
shoppingmall

SendaiMediatheque(2001)

the street
Figure 1. Four Generations of Museum Architecture （Developed based on Arata Isozaki, 「美術館」, 『造物主義論―デミウルゴ
モルフィスム』, 東京：鹿島出版会, 1996, 39-59；a＋u, 『チャールズ・ジェンクス：象徴的建築をめざして』, Jan. 1986, 212-13.）104

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3．HISTORY AND MEANING OF ARCHITECTURAL GLASS
1） Brief history of architectural glass in the world
The historical development of architecturalbuildings such as palm houses, arcades andglass in the world can be roughly divided

railway stations; curtain wall （non-load-

into five periods: the Gothic Age （twentieth-

bearing outer membrane made of glass）

sixteenth century）, the Industrial Age

office buildings; iconic landmarks of major（mid-nineteenth century-WWI）, thecities; and serene glass buildings. In each

Modern Age （1920s-1960s）, theage, glass takes on different meanings andPostmodern Age （1960s-1980s）, and theserves the ethos of the respective times. The

Late Postmodern Age （1990s-present）. The

focus of this paper, the Fourth Generation

respective paradigms are the Gothic

museum, falls into the category of the serene

churches; shop windows and ferrovitreous

glass buildings of the Late Postmodern Age.

2） Brief history of architectural glass in Japan
Architectural glass shares a similarstyle architecture at home. Also possibly

trajectory of development with the local

because of the large openings of Japanesemuseums in Japan: they both began withtraditional houses, engawa veranda places,

importation and later interacted with thethe glass industry soon found a large market

indigenous context. The earliest glazing forin Japan. Today the prevalence of curtain

houses in Japan is perhaps for the residence

wall structures, best represented by theof Date Tsunamune （1640-1711）, the third

arrays of official buildings in Marunouchi andfeudal lord of Sendai clan, in Shinagawa,boutique stores in Ginza and Omotesando,

Tokyo. It is said that more than 400 pieces ofTokyo, reveals the contemporary popularity

flat glass were imported as windowpanes forof glass architecture in Japan （Kido andthis Japanese timber structure （Aqura

Cywinski 2013, 229-37）. Two Japanese2015）. The Meiji Era （1868-1912） unveiled

companies, Asahi Glass and Nippon Sheetthe age of bulk imports of glass to fulfill the

Glass, are among the largest glass companies

government’s ambition to build Western-in the world.

3） Meanings of architectural glass
Glass buildings have diverse social roots

connections with technology development

and implications, among which strong

and commercial experience are noteworthy.

Redesigning the Physical Boundary:
The Emergence of the Glass Age of Museum Architecture from the 1990s

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Influence from material and building

Glass architecture has also been strongly

technology has been persistent in theassociated with creation of commercial life.

development of glass architecture. Gothic

Contextualizing the industrial glass buildings

churches were sustained by a newly matured

in nineteenth-century European society,structure composed of stone frames, flying

Walter Benjamin and Wolfgang Schivelbusch

buttresses and vaults that made possible

provide illuminating interpretations of glasslarge openings for stained glass and sacredarchitecture. By examining the Parisianlight （Wigginton 1996, 14-15）. Epitomizing

arcades in Paris, Benjamin’s Passagen Werk

the Industrial Glass Building, the Crystal

found the city-like arcades incubating

Palace designed by Joseph Paxton at the first

consumer culture and modern metropolitan

Great Exhibition in London in 1851, was notlife that embody both errors and utopianjust for the industrial machines and art

dreams of the bourgeoisie （Benjamin 1999;

displays contained inside; it was also an

Buck-Morss 1990, 39）. Echoing Benjamin’s

excellent demonstration of the most updated

finding and investigating the Crystal Palacematerials, the possibility of artificial

and glass architecture of all types in therendering of daylight, and more importantly,

nineteenth century, Schivelbusch stresses

as the earliest prefabricated construction, thethat the introduction of glass into

rationality underpinning the making process

architecture and invention of artificial light（Ibid., 3-35; Hix 1974, 105-09）.

led to a re-organized sensibility of space

Technological development also prepared the（Schivelbusch 1986, 45-51; 1988, 138-54）.

way for the prevalence of curtain wall glass

The new sensibility dissolved the customaryarchitecture. Since the 1950s, with the wide

contrasts between the inside and the outside,availability of steel-and-concrete structures

light and shadow, and reality and fantasy. In

that free the walls and mass productivity ofparticular, shop windows with overflowing

flat and transparent glass, curtain walllight during night create spatial ambiguityarchitecture and skyscrapers sprung up

and illusionary affordability, instigate desirearound the world. As Yamamoto Gakuji

in the spectators, and symbolize theargues, the presence of architectural glass

beginning of consumer culture. The twoalong with concrete and steel witnessed tofeatures, connections with technologicalthe great potential of artificial rendering ofdevelopment and commercial experience, will

natural materials and continuous scientificremain as the focus in the discussions about

pursuit for modern life and space （1966,

glass employment in museum architecture.

162-3）.

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4．ARCHITECTUAL GLASS IN MUSEUMS
1） Before the 1990s
Foregrounding the previous discussions ontime, and translucent glass for its façade.

development of architectural glass, glass in

The glass surface lent the building a modern

museum architecture takes on particularappearance in stark contrast to themeanings in the museum context. Since thebrownstone townhouses in theearly nineteenth century, introducing

neighbourhood. This visual appearance

skylight from glazed ceilings has been

manifests the concept of “modernity” that

established as an integral part of art galleries

underpins the institution （Murray 2013, 40-（Suzuki 2001, 83）. Two early museums,

49）. When built, Center Pompidou designed

Kröller Müller Museum, Otterlo （1954）

by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers, with its

and Louisiana Museum of Modern Art,

superstructure composed of steel lattice,

Copenhagen （1958） show more extensive

exterior escalators, and glassy walls, looked

use of glass to incorporate picture windows

totally alien in its stony environment. The

and harmonize with their naturallarge area of glass overspreading the building

environment （Persner 1974=2014, 252-3）.

not only serves as a blank canvas to set off

More radical employment of glass however

the steel skeleton and colored parts, such as

can be seen in the Museum of Modern Art inblue for circulating air, yellow for circulating

New York （MoMA） （1939） and Centerelectricity and red for circulating people, but

Pompidou in Paris （1977） that depict thealso completes the institution’s machine-likeinstitutions’ visions to use architecture andlook and expresses its futuristic vision. Glass

glass elements to build up distinguishingassists with the two museums’ visualvisual identities. The original MoMA building

statements, one upholding modernity and one

designed by Edward Stone and Philip

looking towards the future to set themselves

Goodwin in 1939 adopted a curtain wallapart with the conventional images ofstructure, which was not yet prevalent at themuseums when they were built.

2） Emergence of the Fourth Generation Museum after the 1990s
A parade of museum architecture, arguably

after 2000. These buildings tend to restrain

the Fourth Generation, adopting extensivefrom making strong statements and show

glazing and simplistic forms, started toless visual distinction from commercial

surface in the 1990s and became fully fledgedbuilding types. This long list includes

Redesigning the Physical Boundary:
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Kirchner Museum in Davos, Switzerland

cube galleries provide neutral backgrounds

designed by Annette Gigon and Mike Guyer

for the displays, aim to create the bestin 1992, Kunsthaus Bregenz, Austria by

spectator experience with minimal

Peter Zumthor in 1997, Sendai Mediathequedistraction, and advocate rationality andby Ito Toyo in 2001, and the art museum

order. The Fourth Generation, receiving

oeuvre of SANAA.

inspiration from the spectacular Third

In the global museum scene, rather than

Generation epitomized by The Guggenheim

replacing the former three generations, theMuseum Bilbao designed by Frank Gehry

Fourth Generation is produced along withand opened in 1997, seems to return tothe other three that have not yet lost theirModernism in its form but with attempts tovalidity and appeal. The museums of thereappraise and formalize the commercial

Glass Age deviate from the tradition in theirelements. To put it in other words, thedistinguishing agenda, to be closer to daily

Second Generation was born as alife by incorporating commercially well-denunciation of the exalted palace-like First

adopted language. At first glance, their

Generation Museum while the Fourthappearance seems to bear resemblance with

inherits the capitalism-oriented Third

the Second Generation modernist box-like

Generation but with less interest inmuseums. It is however apparent that theinterrogation of Modernism and visual

Second and the Fourth were born in entirely

spectacularity. If the Third Generation looks

different contexts. The Second Generation

up to Disneyland and Postmodern

museums, e.g. the 1939 MoMA and Center

playfulness, the Fourth, or declining Post-

Pompidou, echoing the anti-institutional art

modernism, seeks references from both

movements instigated by Dadaism emerging

Modernist simplicity and everyday facilities

in the mid-1910s, decries the monumental

such as convenience stores and shopping

and palace-like First Generation museums.

malls.

Their functionalist spatial design and white-3） Relation between the Fourth Generation Museum and glass architecture
A closer inspection at glass leads to acreation of commercial life. As previously

clearer understanding of how the Fourth

discussed, museums occupy an important

Generation museum shares the features of

position in the architectural world. An

glass architecture in terms of its close

ambition to use or stimulate the invention ofrelation with technological development andnew technology and materials has often

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accompanied the design process of museums.

also ties closely with commercial space. If

Sharing the architectural manifestation of thethe nineteenth-century shop windows andCrystal Palace, MoMA, and Center Pompidou

arcades created a new space and sensation of

to exploit the most updated building andconsumption, the Fourth Generation museum

material technology at the time, recent

architecture consciously incorporates themuseum projects also show their vibrancy tolanguage of commercial space. While thestimulate

Second Generation museums correspond withindustries to develop newmaterials and building methodology.

Modernist buildings in which architectural

The most prominent example is Sendai

glass often stresses order and creates cage-Mediatheque designed by Ito Toyo andlike space and the Third celebrates early

opened in 2001. This shelf-like building,Postmodern lightheartedness with glass

composed of slabs （floors）, vertical steel

mainly playing a subsidiary role in shaping

lattice columns, and glass façades, takes one

the exterior, the Glass Age museums return

more step forward than Le Corbusier’s Dom-to visual serenity and formalize theino House System. By utilizing ship building

commercial space as an integral part oftechnology, the design not only frees themuseum experience.

walls of buildings and turns them into a

The glass space, often not for display of“skin” but also replaces the structural

art but accommodating amenities such ascolumns with seaweed-like tubes that

atriums, shops, cafes, and restaurants, quotes

accommodate staircases, elevators, and lightthe language of shop windows and arcades.

shafts （Ito 1997, 9）. The double-glazed

Evidence can be first seen in the recent

façade allowing visual penetration from the

projects at two prominent museums, theoutside completes an aquarium-like cube that

Louvre and The British Museum. With its

showcases the activities and physicalfamous skylight, Carrousel du Louvre, astructure inside and blurs the boundary

shopping mall opened in the Richelieu Wing

between the outside and the inside. Theof the Louvre in 1993, shows remarkablebuilding becomes an embodiment of thereminiscence of arcades. It provides one ofinstitution’s barrier-free image, Ito’s

the entrances to the Louvre and echoes“blurring architecture” concept, andarchitect I. M. Pei’s positive attitude towards

possibility of technology to achieve the two.

the mixture of “art, culture andIn addition to the continuous exploitationcommerce” （Sancton 1993, 59; cited byof technology similar to glass architecture in

McTavis 1998, 175）. The Great Court ofhistory, the Glass Age museum architecture

The British Museum designed by Foster andRedesigning the Physical Boundary:
The Emergence of the Glass Age of Museum Architecture from the 1990s

109Partners and opened in 2000 is anotherafter the Museum closes. The glass spacestrong example. This extended space offers aoffers a choice of consumption in addition toglazed canopy for the entrance hall andart appreciation as the conventional

shops. It resembles a railway terminal whereexperience of a museum.

visitors separate and embark on their own

The 21st Century Museum ofjourneys to different galleries. The naturally

Contemporary Art, Kanazawa （abbreviatedlit-up and glassy space, conforming to theas Kanazawa 21） designed by SANAA andtradition of mass culture consumption space,

opened in 2004 is the epitome of the Glass

expresses the two museums’ vision to

Age museum architecture. It is different

enhance their accessibility and promote afrom the former examples with its

less elitist profile by embracing low or non-democratic and empowering inner spatialart.

design. Inside its extensive and clean glazing,

Examples can be further found in Japandiscrete exhibition halls and un-ticketedwith both coherences with the two fore-

areas are allocated. Along with multiple

mentioned renovation projects andentrances connecting with the main streets

distinguishing features. In the case of theand the park, Kanazawa 21 allows choices

National Art Center, Tokyo, designed byand encourages visits. It looks both like a

Kurokawa Kisho and opened in 2007, there isspaceship floating in the old townscape ofsimilarity in its spatial design with the

Kanazawa and a convenience store withformer two examples. The gallery space isimmediate physical and visual accessibility.

set back from the undulating glass façade

While the National Art Center, Tokyoand retains a character of universality ofseparates the consumer space and gallery forwhite-cube galleries. The atrium

art appreciation, with the former allocated toaccommodates shops, cafes and restaurants

a glassy area and the latter to moreon each floor. During the day, the natural

artificially controlled boxes, Kanazawa 21

light coming in from the glass façade lends aintermingles the two. It proposes a new kindsense of temporariness to the commercial

of museum experience with intermittent

space. During night, the building glows andencountering of glass areas, non-art-display

becomes a lantern. One of its restaurants,

space, surrounding of the building, and closer

Paulbocuse, on the third floor, stays open

to everyday life.

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5．AESTHETICS AND DESIGN CONCEPTS OF ARCHITECTS AS THE MAIN REASON FOR
THE EMERGENCE OF THE GLASS AGE OF MUSEUM ARCHITECTURE
Architects, especially those heavily

More recently, especially in the case of the

exposed to media and award-winning star-

Fourth Generation museums, the fervent

chitects, are often commissioned bypassion for transparency seems to be

governmental officials or private foundations

replaced by an emphasis on nature andto build museums. The aesthetics andtemporality. Contemporary architects haveconcepts of architects play a strong role inrediscovered the ambiguity and plurality ofpromoting the Glass Age museums, which is

the meaning of architectural glass

often neglected in the discourse of（Hasegawa and Kurokawa 1977; Yagi 2001,

Neoliberalism.

42-106）. The concept of “architectural

The discussion among architects about thephenomenology” demonstrates a new kind

employment of glass can be traced back toof utilization of glass to interact with natural

the Modern Age when glass had been mainly

light and create a sense of passing of time.

associated with “transparency” -One of the best examples is the translucent

simultaneous perception of different spaces.

glass façade of Kunsthaus Bregenz, Austria

In Colin Rowe and Robert Slutzky’s

designed by Peter Zumthor. Along with thecelebrated theory, glass embodies two kinds

building’s simplistic form, it coheres withof transparency, the literal and theZumthor’s concept of phenomenology and thephenomenal, with the former existential andmaterial glass lends atmosphere andthe latter involving imagination （1963）.

ephemerality to the building （Zumthor

Based on Rowe and Slutzky’s argument,

2006）.

Cesar Pelli puts forward a more complicatedJapanese architects with their popularity

reading requiring both the eye and the mind

at home and abroad are also importantto understand both space and time, the co-designers of the Fourth Generation museums.

presence of reflections, the glass itself, theA glance at their discourse leads to an

inside, and things further behind the building

understanding of their ideal image towards（1976）. Many museums of the Second

architecture, humble and submissive, e.g.

Generation are endowed with the concept of“blurring” and “permeable” by Ito,“transparency” and incorporate glass to“weak” by Fujimoto So, and “erasing”

create diverse optical effects and spatialand “defeated” by Kuma Kengo in theorders.

early 2000s. In the case of the Glass Pavilion

Redesigning the Physical Boundary:
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111

of Toledo Museum of Art designed by“Power Generation Regional Plan Subsidy-

SANAA and opened in 2006, the low and flat

related Grants”, money collected frombuilding almost entirely covered by clear

nuclear waste recycling and treatment inclass is a solution not only paying tribute to

Aomori Prefecture. The sustainability issue

the glass making history of Toledo but also

and suitability of all-glass spaces for art

addressing the neo-classical 1912 main

display continues to be a heated topic ofbuilding of the Museum and Gehry’s 1992

debate in both the architecture and museum

Center for the Visual Arts. A similar

worlds. Pressured to shrink their budgets,

approach can be seen in SANAA’s

museums are expected to balance aesthetic

Kumanokodo Nakahechi Museum （1998）,

consideration and maintenance cost and

Kanazawa 21, and the winning proposal forassume social responsibility.

the New South Wales Art Gallery expansion,

Some architects are well literate about the

Sydney （2015）. Their signature, extensive

situation of museums （Ito et al. 2013）.

glazing, blurs the boundary between the

Rather than blindly pursuing their passion

inside and the outside; low, flat and simple

for glass, workshops with the commissioners

shape minimalizes the buildings’ presence,and museum curators lead to consensus on

creating gradational space and respect to thedesign details and employment of glass.

genius loci rather than sheer intrusions

Yamamoto Riken, designer of Yokosuka（Editorial Department of SD 1999, 102-07;

M us eum of A r t （2007）, is one of t he

GA JAPAN 2015, 168）.

prominent figures that invest time in

However, the preference of the architects

collecting voices from the curators （2003）.

is not always economical. After the GreatWhen talking about his Oita Prefectural Art

East Japan Earthquake on March 11 2011,

Museum design （2015）, Ban Shigeru alsoenergy and architectural sustainability has

expresses his concern over museums’ elitist

become an increasingly pressing issue within

image and concomitant inaccessibility forJapan and has gained attention. Towada Art

ordinary people, and financial straits

Center designed by Nishizawa Ryue, isespecially for provincial museums outside

criticized by Mae Masayuki and Dana

Tokyo （GA JAPAN 2015, 72-74）. Ban

Buntrock （2015）. It courts controversies

mentioned his particular awareness of thefor the building’s high maintenance cost

openness of pharmacy shops and electronics

partly due to the low insulation and energy

retail stores （Ibid., 72）. His proposal

performance of the extensive glazing and theincluded foldable glass doors that can turn

institution’s heavy budgetary reliance on

the Museum’s entrance hall into a semi-

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exterior plaza, and flexible spatial design that

By blurring the physical boundary between

accommodates adjustable gallery spaces andthe inside and the outside, the architects ofincome-generating amenities. The design

the Fourth Generation museums aim to

expresses his vision towards museums as aestablish a less intimidating and elitist image

part of the street, the city, and everyday life.

of museums.

6．CONCLUSIONS
To sum up, this paper investigates thesocial climate celebrating Neoliberalism. The

phenomenon of increasing exploitation ofextensive glazing of the buildings reveals theglass in museum buildings. It challenges thearchitects’ ideal of museums, as open andpredominant association of glass withaccessible. By redesigning the physicaltransparency and modernity and argues for aboundaries, the architects and theircontextualized reading of glass. It establishescommissioners aim to establish a less elitistthat the increasing employment of glass in

profile for the museum. A few questions

museum buildings from the 1990s witnesses

remain for future research regarding how

to a paradigm shift in museum architecture.

effective glass is at boosting attendance andThis is mainly a result of architects’ design

generating actual revenue and the response

preference, which is made possible byfrom the users including museum staff andtechnological development and reflects thevisitors.

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113

1

Notes: Japanese names in this paper follow the natural Japanese language with family names before the given names.

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APPENDIX Time line of major museum architecture projects exploiting glass
1989

Pyramids at the Louvre, Paris (I.M. Pei & Partners);
Tokyo Sea Life Park and Crystal View, Observation House (Taniguchi Yoshio)

1992

Kirchner Museum, Davos, Switzerland (Annette Gigon and Mike Guyer)

1996

Anpanman Museum (Furuya Nobuaki)
Kunsthaus Bregenz, Austria (Peter Zumthor);

1997

Auguste Rodin Museum, Seoul (KPF Associates);
Hiroki Oda Museum, Shiga (Ando Tadao)

1998

Kiasma - Museum of Contemporary Art in Helsinki (Steven Holl);
Kumanokodo Nakahechi Museum (SANAA)
Gallery of Horyuji Treasures, Tokyo National Museum (Taniguchi Yoshio);

1999

Midori no naka, Nemunoki Art Museum, Shizuoka (Ban Shigeru);
Ogasawara Museum (SANAA)

2000

Great Court of British Museum (Foster and Partners)

2001

Sendai Mediatheque (Ito Toyo)

2002
2004
2005
2006

Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Texas (Ando Tadao);
Pola Museum of Art (Nikken Sekkei)
Expansion of Museum of Modern Art, New York (Taniguchi Yoshio and KPF);
21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa (SANAA)
Nagasaki Prefectural Art Museum (kengo kuma and associates)
Glass Pavilion, Toledo Museum of Art, Ohio (SANAA);
Musée du quai Branly, Paris (Jean Nouvel)
New Museum, New York (SANAA);

2007

Bloch Building Addition, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City (Holl);
National Art Center, Tokyo (Kurokawa Kisho);
Yokosuka Museum of Art (Yamamoto Riken)

2008

Towada Art Center (Nishizawa Ryue)2009

New building of Nezu Museum (kengo kuma and associates)

2011

Hiroshi Senju Museum, Karuizawa (Nishizawa)

2012

Louvre-Lens, France (SANAA);
Paper and Material Institute (PAM) in Shizuoka Prefecture (Ban Shigeru)
Annex of Tokyo Metropolitan Teien Art Museum (Tokyo Metropolitan Government

2014

and Kume Sekkei Co., Ltd.);
Heisei Chishinkan Wing, Kyoto National Museum (Taniguchi Yoshio)
Mudec Museum of Cultures, Milano;

2015

Oita Prefectural Art Museum (Ban Shigeru);
SANAA chosen to design New South Wales Art Gallery expansion, Sydney116

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潘

夢斐（ぱん・めんふぇい）［生年月］1988 年 1 月［出身大学または最終学歴］シドニー大学 Master of Museum Studies; 東京大学学際情報学府アジア情報社会修士［専攻領域］ミュージアム・スタディーズ［主たる著書・論文］“East/West: Selfhood and Cultural Issues-The Paintings of Jiawei SHEN and Lindy LEE”, Allens Art Journal,
No. 2, 2012, pp.7-14, http://www.allens.com.au/art/journal/issue2.htm.
“An Assessment of the State’s Role in Governing Culture and Arts in Japan”, IOS-IASA 4th Joint Workshop& AsiaBarometer Workshop 2013-“Understanding Changing Faces of Asian Societies”, Mar. 1-2, 2013, The
University of Tokyo. http://ricas.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/aasplatform/achivements/pdf/2013_ab_14.pdf.
“Comic Pamphlets as Museum Marketing Strategy: A Case Study of Nya-eyes of The Tokyo Metropolitan
Museum of Photography”, Episteme , 11-12, Center for Applied Cultural Sciences, Korea University, 2014, pp.
257-81, http://cacs.or.kr/bbs/board.php?bo_table=3_column&wr_id=140&page=2.
［所属］東京大学大学院 学際情報学府 アジア情報社会博士課程［所属学会］全日本博物館学会

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Redesigning the Physical Boundary:
The Emergence of the Glass Age of Museum
Architecture from the 1990s
Mengfei PAN*

Contemporary museum architecture is seeing an age of glass. Both renovation projects andnew constructions have been exploiting glass extensively, as if it is the best solution to serve thespatial functions, present the architects’ concepts, and address the institutions’ missions andsocial expectations. Prominent examples include the Louvre Pyramid by I. M. Pei （1989） and
SANAA’s designs for The 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa （2004） andLouvre-Lens, France （2012）. This trend of increasing use of glass by museum architecture
deviates from the previous model of museums, temples and shrines with formidable look. A new
physical boundary of museums, glass walls that interact with the surrounding and thespectators, is designed in contrast with the older type that stresses the buildings’ exalted status.
This kind of extensive glazing has become an almost indispensable part of the new generation of
museum architecture.
By contextualizing the phenomenon of extensive glazing in museum architecture, this paper
aims to discern its connections with the museum situation and the contemporaneity and localityof Japan. It argues that the increasing exploitation of glass in museum architecture demonstrates
the influence of Neoliberalism on the public institutions and the architects to embrace visuallyappealing, technologically demanding, and commercial elements. It challenges the pre-dominantassociation of glass with transparency and modernity and argues for a contextualized reading ofglass. This research adopts an inter-disciplinary methodology including visual analysis ofmuseum buildings, literature review of policy papers, prior theories and architects’ discourse,and site observations. This paper contends that the increasing employment of glass in museum
buildings in Japan is mainly a result of architects’ design preference, which is made possible bytechnological development and reflects the social climate celebrating Neoliberalism. By
redesigning the physical boundaries, the architects and their commissioners aim to establish aless elitist profile for the museum.
Ph. D. student, ITASIA Course, Prof. YOSHIMI Shunya Laboratory, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies, The
University of Tokyo
Key Words：museum studies, museum architecture, architectural glass, museums since 1990s, museums in Japan.

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