Glycative Stress Research
Online edition : ISSN 2188-3610
Print edition : ISSN 2188-3602
Received : December 10, 2014
Accepted : January 18, 2015
Published online : June 30, 2015

Original ar ticle

Polyphenol content of various vegetables: Relationship to antiglycation activity
Yoshika Ishioka, Masayuki Yagi, Mari Ogura, Yoshikazu Yonei
Anti-Aging Medical Research Center and Glycation Stress Research Center, Graduate School of Life and Medical Sciences,
Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

Abstract

Purpose: Using various commercial vegetables in dried, powdered form, we investigated polyphenol content comparatively
and in relation to antiglycation activity as reported previously.
Method: Using the same 187 commercial vegetables studied in a previous report, we produced dried, powdered samples andmeasured their polyphenol content by the Folin-Ciocalteu ( FC) method. The results were calculated as catechin equivalents (mgcatechin Eq) using (+)-catechin as a standard substance. The relationship of the results to inhibition of fluorescent advanced
glycation end product (AGE) formation (as reported previously) was then analyzed in an in vitro glucose/human serum albumin( HSA) glycation model.
Results: In decreasing order, polyphenol content in the 187 vegetable samples (units: mg catechin Eq/mg solid content) was
highest in the following samples: Chestnut, soft layer (Castanea crenata) 0.509; chestnut, outer skin (Castanea crenata) 0.444;
water chestnut, seed coat (Trapa japonica) 0.274; lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) 0.125; spearmint (Mentha spicata) 0.124;
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) 0.115; bay leaves (Laurus nobilis) 0.096; lady’s thumb (Polygonum hydropiper) 0.890;
thyme (Thymus) 0.080; and mugwort, powder (Artemisia indica var. maximowiczii) 0.077. By vegetable type, polyphenol
content (units: mg catechin Eq/mg solid content) was as follows: Nuts (0.105), herbs (0.063), leaf vegetables (0.032), stem
vegetables (0.025), fruit vegetables (0.025), beans (0.024), grains (0.019), mushrooms (0.018), and root vegetables (0.017). By
plant taxonomic family, polyphenol content was highest in samples of Fagaceae, Lamiaceae, Polygonaceae, Asteraceae, andConvolvulaceae in that order. No significant correlations were observed between polyphenol content and antiglycation activity(50% inhibitory concentration [IC 50 ] values) in the vegetable samples.
Conclusion: Though various vegetables have substantial polyphenol content, various polyphenol-based or non‑polyphenolbased components may contribute to antiglycation effect in different vegetable species.

KEY WORDS: glycation stress, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), vegetables, polyphenols

Introduction

Glucose and other reducing sugars are an essential
nutrient for sustenance of life. However, fructose, glucose,and other sugars bind to proteins non-enzymatically invivo and alter the structure and function of proteins. Thisphenomenon is known as a glycation reaction and leads
to formation and accumulation of advanced glycation end
products (AGEs). In turn, binding of AGEs to receptors(receptors for AGEs, “RAGE”) causes degradation offunctional proteins and damage to tissues. Accumulation of
AGEs also contributes to the onset and progression of diabetic
complications, osteoporosis, and lifestyle diseases such asarteriosclerosis. In vivo glycation represents a risk factor for

Contact Address: Professor Yoshikazu Yonei, MD, PhD
Anti-Aging Medical Research Center,
Graduate School of Life and Medical Sciences, Doshisha University
1-3 Tataramiyakodani, Kyotanabe-shi, Kyoto 610-0394 Japan
Phone/Fax: +81-77- 465 - 6394 E-mail: yyonei@mail.doshisha.ac.jp
Co -authors: Ishioka Y, dmn2005@mail4.doshisha.ac.jp;
Yagi M, yagi@yonei-labo.com; Ogura M, mogura@dwc.doshisha.ac.jp

accelerated aging and is known as glycation stress, a topic
of recent interest 1) . Mitigation of glycation stress to inhibit
accumulation of AGEs is believed to play a role in preventionof lifestyle and other such diseases.
Familiar vegetables are rich in components such asvitamins and polyphenols 2 ) . “Polyphenol” is a general term
for substances found in molecules which have large multiples
of phenolic hydroxy groups. More than 5000 types exist, suchas catechin, contained in tea; rutin, contained in soba; andtannin, an astringent component of tea 3 ) . Polyphenols are acomponent of bitter flavors and, for example, pigments which
are biosynthesized to protect the body from active oxygen,
which proliferates under ultraviolet light when plants are_ 41 _

Glycative Stress Research 2015; 2 (2): 41- 51(c) Society for Glycation Stress ResearchPolyphenol content of various vegetables

exposed to light and grow. The antioxidation effect 4 - 7 ) andantiglycation effect 8-10) of polyphenols have attracted recent
attention, and polyphenols have been shown to be an effective
factor 1 1 ‑ 1 7 ) in prevention of lifestyle diseases. Previous research
has also been pursued among plants to determine whether
vegetables which may be consumed in the form of familiar
foods have previously unknown functional characteristics.
Using an in vitro, glucose/human serum albumin (HSA)
model 2 ) to measure inhibitory effect on glycation reactions,such research has shown that many vegetables containcomponents with antiglycation activity 1 8 ) . In our research,
we measured the polyphenol content of such vegetables toinvestigate its relationship to antiglycation activity.

MethodSample preparation

The samples used were the same 187 varieties ofcommercial vegetables as in a previous report 18). As reported
previously 18 ), dried powders were prepared by drying
vegetables for 20 hours, slicing into 5 mm thicknesses,
pulverizing, and sieving (approximately 120-mesh) the
material.

Measurement of polyphenols

The polyphenol content in vegetable extract solutions
was measured using the Folin-Ciocalteu (FC) method in
conjunction with the “Commercial Product Test Results for
Polyphenol-Containing Foods” produced by the National
Consumer Affairs Center of Japan (NCAC) 19, 20). Specifically,
100 µL of various dried vegetable powder solutions wasadded to 50 µL of a 2-fold dilution of FC reagent (Wako
Pure Chemical Industries; Chuo-ku, Osaka) and 500 µL of
0.4 M aqueous Na 2CO 3 to make up a total volume of 650 µL,
the material was left to stand at ambient temperature for 30
minutes, and absorbency at 660 nm was then measured. A(+)-catechin solution (Wako Pure Chemical Industries) wasused as a standard. Multiple (+)-catechin solutions wereprepared in 11 steps as 1.0, 0.5, 0.25, 0.1, 0.05, 0.025, 0.0125,
0.01, 0.00625, 0.001, and 0 mg/mL concentrations; 100 µL
of each concentration of (+)-catechin solution was added to
50 µL of the 2-fold diluted FC reagent and 500 µL of 0.4 M
aqueous Na 2CO 3 to make up a total volume of 650 µL, thematerial was left to stand at ambient temperature for 30
minutes, and absorbency at 660 nm was then measured. Using
the (+)-catechin calibration curve prepared, total polyphenol
content per solid unit of each vegetable extract solution was
calculated as a catechin equivalent (mg catechin Eq/mg solid
content). Measurement was repeated three times for eachsample.

Results
Table 1 presents the results for measurement of polyphenol
content (catechin equivalents) for the 187 vegetable samples.
In decreasing order, polyphenol content was highest inchestnut, soft layer (Castanea crenata) 0.509; chestnut, outerskin (Castanea crenata) 0.444; water chestnut, seed coat
(Trapa japonica) 0.274; lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) 0.125;
spearmint (Mentha spicata) 0.124; rosemary (Rosmarinus
officinalis) 0.115; bay leaves (Laurus nobilis) 0.096; lady’s
thumb (Polygonum hydropiper) 0.890; thyme (Thymus) 0.080;
and mugwort, powder (Artemisia indica var. maximowiczii)
0.077 ( Fig. 1 ).
Comparison of polyphenol content by vegetable category
showed that polyphenol content (units: mg catechin Eq/mg
solid content) was highest in nuts (0.105), herbs ( 0.063 ±0.038), leaf vegetables (0.032 ± 0.017), stem vegetables (0.025± 0.018), fruit vegetables (0.025 ± 0.013), beans (0.024 ±0.006), grains (0.019 ± 0.009), mushrooms (0.018 ± 0.004),
and root vegetables 0.017 ± 0.011 in that order ( Fig. 2 ).
Polyphenol content was significantly higher in nuts than in all
categories other than herbs (p < 0.05).
Fig. 3 presents polyphenol content (units: mg catechin Eq/
mg solid content) by taxonomic family for vegetable samples
classified by plant taxonomy. Polyphenol content was highest
in species of the Fagaceae (0.321 ± 0.271), Lamiaceae (0.074± 0.040), Polygonaceae (0.046 ± 0.033), Asteraceae (0.036 ±0.023), and Convolvulaceae (0.033 ± 0.002) families in thatorder. In decreasing order, polyphenol content was lowest in
species of the Cucurbitaceae (0.019 ± 0.009), Amaryllidaceae(0.017 ± 0.008), Poaceae (Gramineae (0.017 ± 0.008)),
Alliaceae (0.012 ± 0.005), and Araceae (0.010 ± 0.005)
families. Polyphenol content was also significantly higher inFagaceae than in the other 17 families and significantly higher
in Lamiaceae than in Poaceae (Gramineae) (p < 0.05).
Fig. 4 presents the relationship between polyphenol
content and antiglycation activity in vegetable samples. The
results showed that there were no significant correlations
between polyphenol content and antiglycation activity. In thefollowing 12 species, antiglycation activity was potent (50%
inhibitory concentration [IC 50 ] < 0.15 mg/mL), but polyphenol
content was low: Nalta jute (Corchorus olitorius); new ginger(Zingiber officinale); red leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa); scallion(Allium fistulosum); spinach (Spinacia oleracea); rice eggplant,
no peel (Solanum melongena); Boston lettuce (Lactuca sativa);
green perilla, leaf (Perilla frutescens); edible chrysanthemum,
petal (Chrysanthemum morifolium); ashitaba (Angelica keiskei);bell pepper (Capsicum annuum); and green leaf lettuce(Lactuca sativa). In the following 7 species, polyphenol
content was high ( ≥ 0.05 mg/mL), but antiglycation activity
was weak ( IC 50 ≥ 0.15 mg/mL): Walnut (Juglans), ostrichfern (Matteuccia struthiopteris), thyme (Thymus), sweet leaf
(Stevia rebaudiana), peppermint (Mentha x piperita), radish
sprouts (Raphanus sativus), and pistachio (Pistacia vera).

_ 42 _Glycative Stress Research

Table 1. Polyphenol content in 187 vegetable samples.
Common Name

1

Green spring onion

Ao-negi

Allium fistulosum

Leaf vegetable

Alliaceae

0.015

3

Amanaga Chili pepper

Amanaga-tougarashi

Amanaga capsicum

Fruit vegetable

Solanaceae

0.032

2
4
5
6
7
8
9

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35

AvocadoEdamame
Pumpkin

Sweet potato
Eddoe

Kidney bean
PotatoJumbo kidney bean
GingerWelsh onion
Zucchini

Broad bean

Daikon (Japanese radish)
Onion

Winter melon
Corn

Chinese yam

Chinese chive
GarlicBroccoli (Stem)

Broccoli (Flower bud)
Lotus roots
Okra

CarrotCherry tomato
TomatoRed onion
Eggplant

Great burdock
Cucumber

Bitter melon

Celery (Stem)Celery ( Leaf )36

Cabbage

38

Shiitake mushroom( Pileus)

39

37

40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53

Lily bulb

Japanese name
AbogadoEda-mame
KabochaSatsuma-imo
Sato-imo

Saya-ingen
Jaga-imo

Jumbo-ingen
ShougaShiro-negi
Zucchini

Sora-mame
DaikonTama-negi
TouganToumorokoshi
Naga-imo
Nira

Ninniku

Broccoli
Broccoli
RenkonOkura

NinjinMini-tomato
TomatoRed onion
Nasu

Gobou
Kyuri

Gouya
Serori
Serori

Kyabetsu
YurineScientific Name
Persea americana
Clycine max
Cucurbita

Lpomoea batatas

Colocasia esculenta
Phaseolus vulgaris

Solanum tuberosum
Phaseolus vulgaris
Zingiber officinale
Allium fistulosum
Cucurbita pepo
Vicia faba

Raphanus sativus
Allium cepa

Benincasa hispida
Zea mays

Dioscorea batatas
Allium tuberosum
Allium sativum

Brassica oleracea
Brassica oleracea
Nelumbo nucifera

Abelmoschus esculentus
Daucus carota

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill
Solanum lycopersicum
Allium cepa
Solanaceae

Arctium lappa

Cucumis sativus

Momordica charantia
Apium graveolens
Apium graveolens

Brassica oleracea
Lilium

Vesicaria
Fruit vegetable
Bean

Fruit vegetable

Root vegetables
Root vegetables
Fruit vegetable

Root vegetables
Fruit vegetable

Root vegetables
Leaf vegetable

Fruit vegetable
Bean

Root vegetables
Root vegetables
Fruit vegetable
Grain

Root vegetables
Leaf vegetable

Root vegetables
Fruit vegetable
Fruit vegetable

FamilyPolyphenol(mg catechin /mL)ID

Lauraceae
Fabaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Convolvulaceae
AraceaeFabaceae

Solanaceae
Fabaceae

Zingiberaceae
Alliaceae

Cucurbitaceae
Fabaceae

Vesicaria

Amaryllidaceae
Cucurbitaceae

Poaceae (Gramineae)
Dioscoreaceae

Amaryllidaceae
Amaryllidaceae
Vesicaria

Vesicaria

Root vegetables

Nelumbonaceae

Root vegetables

Apiaceae

Fruit vegetable
Fruit vegetable
Fruit vegetable

Root vegetables
Fruit vegetable

Root vegetables
Fruit vegetable
Fruit vegetable

Stem vegetables
Stem vegetables
Leaf vegetable

Root vegetables

Malvaceae

Solanaceae
Solanaceae

Amaryllidaceae
Solanaceae
Asteraceae

Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae

Vesicaria
Liliaceae

0.018
0.020
0.040
0.035
0.015
0.014
0.023
0.012
0.032
0.014
0.017
0.026
0.010
0.010
0.011
0.010
0.010
0.026
0.007
0.014
0.027
0.021
0.035
0.010
0.019
0.017
0.015
0.024
0.012
0.018
0.021
0.018
0.056
0.016
0.004

Shii-takeLentinula edodes

Mushroom

Tricholomataceae

0.020

Shiitake mushroom( The foundation)

Shii-takeLentinula edodes

Mushroom

Tricholomataceae

0.021

Hen of the woods
King oyster

Mai-take

Grifola frondosa

Mushroom

Meripilaceae

0.026

Buna-shimeji

Er ingi

Buna-shimeji

Hypsizygus marmoreus

Mushroom

Lyophyllaceae

0.015

Pea

Enoki mushroom
Bean sprout

Garlic shoots
Bell pepper
Pak choy

Mioga ginger
Asparagus

Broccoli sprouts

Broccoli super sprouts
Radish sprouts

Kinusaya

Enoki-dake

Midorimame-moyashi
Ninniku-no-me
Piman

Chingen-sai
MyougaAsuparagasu

Hatsuga-broccoli

Pleurotus eryngii
Pisum sativum

Flammulina velutipes
Vigna radiate

Allium sativum

Capsicum annuum
Brassica rapa

Zingiber mioga

Asparagus officinalis
Brassica oleracea

Super-Hatsuga-broccoli Brassica oleracea
KaiwareRaphanus sativus_ 43 _

Mushroom
Fruit vegetable
Mushroom

Leaf vegetable

Stem vegetables
Fruit vegetable
Leaf vegetable

Fruit vegetable

Stem vegetables
Leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetable

Leaf vegetable

Pleurotaceae
Fabaceae

Tricholomataceae
Fabaceae

Amaryllidaceae
Solanaceae
Vesicaria

Zingiberaceae
Liliaceae

Vesicaria
Vesicaria
Vesicaria

0.016
0.025
0.019
0.032
0.017
0.027
0.026
0.015
0.024
0.052
0.051
0.065

Polyphenol content of various vegetables

Vesicaria

FamilyPolyphenol(mg catechin /mL)

Ipomoea aquatic

Leaf vegetable

Convolvulaceae

0.032

RetasuLactuca sativa

Leaf vegetable

Asteraceae

0.011

Green leaf

Lactuca sativa

Leaf vegetable

Asteraceae

0.025

ID

Common Name

54

Water morning glory(Sprout)

Kushin-sai

Lettuce

Red leaf lettuce
Leaf lettuce

Sunny-retasu

55
56
57
58
59
60
61

Napa cabbage

Paprika ( Red color)

Paprika ( Yellow color)

Paprika ( Orange color)62

Chicory64

Radish

63
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99

100
101
102
103
104

Crown daisy
Scallion
Parsley

SpinachNalta juteMizuna (Potherb mustard)
MibunaKomatsuna(Japanese mustard spinach)
Red cabbage

Japanese nameHaku-sai
Papurika
Papurika

Papurika
Chikori

Kiku-na
RadishWakegi
PaseriHorensoMoroheiya
Mizu-na

White mushroom
Green pepper

Malabar spinach

Malabar spinach ( Leaf )Malabar spinach (Stem)

Shirona Chinese cabbage
Garden pea sprouts(Sprout)

Capsicum annuum
Capsicum annuum
Cichorium intybus

Glebionis coronaria
Raphanus sativus

Allium fistulosum

Petroselinum crispum
Spinacia oleracea

Corchorus olitorius
Brassica rapa

Fruit vegetable
Fruit vegetable
Fruit vegetable
Leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetable

Root vegetables
Leaf vegetable
Herb

Leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetable

Vesicaria

Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Vesicaria

Amaryllidaceae
Apiaceae

Chenopodiaceae
Tiliaceae Juss.
Vesicaria

0.047
0.014
0.015
0.017
0.017
0.024
0.013
0.038
0.024
0.030
0.024
0.046
0.024

Brassica rapa

Leaf vegetable

Vesicaria

0.021

Aka-kyabetu

Brassica oleracea

Leaf vegetable

Vesicaria

0.037

Mitsuba

Cryptotaenia canadensis

Leaf vegetable

Apiaceae

0.018

Oba

Japanese horseradish

Capsicum annuum

Leaf vegetable

Asteraceae

Komatsu-na

Green perilla ( Leaf )Boston lettuce

Brassica rapa

Leaf vegetable

Leaf vegetable

Ninjin-sai

Japanese parsley

Lactuca sativa

Brassica rapa

Mibu-na

Carrot greens ( Leaf )Japanese honeywort

Scientific Name

Seri

Sarada-na
WasabiWhite mushroom
Shishitou

Tsurumurasaki
Tsurumurasaki
Tsurumurasaki
Shiro-na

Daucus carota

Perilla frutescens

Oenanthe javanica
Lactuca sativab

Wasabia japonica

Agaricus bisporus

Capsicum annuum
Basella alba
Basella alba
Basella alba

Brassica rapa

Leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetable

Root vegetables
Mushroom

Fruit vegetable
Leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetable

Vesicaria

Apiaceae

Lamiaceae
Apiaceae

Asteraceae
Vesicaria

Pleurotaceae
Solanaceae

Basellaceae
Basellaceae
Basellaceae
Vesicaria

0.031

0.022
0.037
0.030
0.027
0.005
0.017
0.026
0.026
0.042
0.018
0.024

Mame-nae

Pisum sativm

Leaf vegetable

Fabaceae

0.030

Red giant elephant ear(Petiole)

En-sai (Enkushin)

Ipomoea aquatic

Leaf vegetable

Convolvulaceae

0.032

Beni-zuiki

Colocasia gigantean

Stem vegetables

Araceae

0.008

GinkgoChrysanthemum (Petal )GinnanGinkgo biloba

Nut

Ginkgoaceae

0.029

Jew's ear fungs

Shokuyo-kiku
Kikurage

Auricularia auricularMushroom

Auricularaceae

0.014

Water morning glory

Chinese yam
Horseradish
New ginger
Saltwort

Common ice plant
Wasabi leaves

Perilla (Shiso)

Giant elephant ear
Red rhubarbe

Red rhubarbe ( None peel)
Red rhubarbe ( Peel)
Shallot

Cauliflower ( Flower bud)
Cauliflower ( Stem)

Yamato-imo

Seiyou-wasabi
Shin-shouga

Wakame-okahijiki
BarafuWasabi-na
HojisoHasu-imo

Aka-rubabu
Aka-rubabu

Red-rubaubu
Esharotto

Karihurawa
Karifurawa

Chrysanthemum morifolium
Dioscorea batatas

Armoracia rusticana
Zingiber officinale
Salsola komarovii

Fruit vegetable
Root vegetables
Root vegetables
Root vegetables
Leaf vegetable

Mesembryanthemum crystallinum Leaf vegetable
Brassica juncea

Leaf vegetable

Colocasia gigantea

Stem vegetables

Perilla frutescens

Rheum rhabarbatum
Rheum rhabarbatum
Rheum rhabarbatum
Allium oschaninii

Brassica oleracea
Brassica oleracea_ 44 _

Fruit vegetable

Stem vegetables
Stem vegetables
Stem vegetables
Root vegetables
Fruit vegetable
Fruit vegetable

Asteraceae

Dioscoreaceae
Vesicaria

Zingiberaceae

Chenopodiaceae
Aizoaceae
Vesicaria

Lamiaceae
Araceae

Polygonaceae
Polygonaceae
Polygonaceae
Alliaceae
Vesicaria
Vesicaria

0.067
0.007
0.011
0.019
0.022
0.013
0.027
0.068
0.007
0.026
0.015
0.053
0.005
0.019
0.020

Glycative Stress Research

ID
105

Common Name

112
113
114
115
116

Vesicaria

0.025

TurnipKo-kabura

Brassica rapa

Root vegetables

Vesicaria

0.020

Kagahuto cucumber

Rice eggplant (None peel)
Rice eggplant (Peel)

Kintoki carrot* (Root )Kintoki carrot* (Leaf )Red bell pepper

Leaf ginger (Root)Leaf ginger (Leaf )117

Mugwort (Powder)119

Red kidney beans

118
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128

Azuki beanBlack-eyed pea
Black soybeen
SoybeenBlack sesame

White sesame

White opium poppy seeds(Seed)

138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156

Kintoki-ninjin
Kintoki-ninjin
Aka-piman
Ha-shouga
Ha-shouga
Yomogi
Azuki

Kintoki-mame
SasageKuro-mame
Daizu

Kuro-goma

Shiro-goma

Solanum melongena
Daucus carota
Daucus carota

Capsicum annuum

Zingiber officinale
Zingiber officinale
Artemisia indica
Vigna angularis

Phaseolus vulgaris
Vigna unguiculata
Glycine max
Glycine max

Sesamun indicum
Sesamun indicum

Fruit vegetable
Fruit vegetable

Root vegetables
Root vegetables
Fruit vegetable

Root vegetables
Root vegetables
Leaf vegetable
Bean
Bean
Bean
Bean
Bean
Nut
Nut

Cucurbitaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae

Solanaceae

Zingiberaceae
Zingiberaceae
Asteraceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae

Pedaliaceae
Pedaliaceae

0.011
0.013
0.023
0.066
0.008
0.023
0.020
0.023
0.017
0.077
0.027
0.026
0.029
0.023
0.019
0.033
0.017

AlmondAlmondAmygdalus communis

Nut

Rosaceae

0.009

WalnutKurumi

Juglans

Nut

Juglandaceae

0.059

Cahew nuts

Red-kerneled rice137

Bei-nasu

Solanum melongena

Fruit vegetable

Cucurbitaceae

0.017

0.012

132

136

Bei-nasu

Cucumis sativus

Fruit vegetable

Vesicaria

Papaveraceae

Peanut135

Kagahuto-kyuri

Cucumis sativus

Root vegetables

Nut

130

134

Ao-uri

Brassica rapa

Papaver somniferum

Pumpkin seeds (Seed)133

Ko-kabura

Shirokeshi-no-mi

129
131

Polyphenol(mg catechin /mL)

Fruit vegetable

Green cucumber

111

FamilyBrassica oleracea

108
110

Vesicaria

Karifurawa

Turnip ( Root)

109

Scientific Name

Cauliflower (Leaf )

106
107

Japanese name

Polished rice A

Reddish black rice
Rolled barley
Pearl barley
Pistachio

Foxtail millet

Japanese millet
Proso millet
AmaranthQuínuaPecan nuts

Lady's thumb

Polished rice B

Unpolished rice B
Rice B bran
Garbanzo
Lentil

Bay leaves

Water caltrop (Seed)

Water caltrop (Seed coat)
Butterscotch mushroom
Chestnut (Seed)

Chestnut (Outer skin)
Chestnut (Soft layer)
Chrysanthemum(Receptacle)

Kashu-nattsu
Kawanashi-kabochano-tane

Anacardium occidele

Nut

Anacardiaceae

0.021

Cucurbita sp.

Nut

Cucurbitaceae

0.019

RakkaseiArachis hypogaea

NutFabaceae

0.036

Aka-mai

Oryza sativa

Grain

Poaceae (Gramineae)

0.024

Haku-mai A
Kuro-maiOshi-mugi

Hato-mugi
Pisutachio
Awa
Hie

Kibi

Amaransasu
KinusuPecan
Tade

Haku-mai B
Gen-mai
Nuka

Garbanzo

Renzu-mame
Bay leaf
Hishi
Hishi

Nameko
Kuri
Kuri
Kuri
Shokuyo-kiku

Oryza sativa
Oryza sativa

Hordeum vulgare

Coix lacryma-jobi
Pistacia vera
Setaria italic

Echinochloa esculenta
Panicum miliaceum
Amaranthus

Chenopodium quinoa
Carya illinoinensis

Polygonum hydropiper
Oryza sativa
Oryza sativa
Oryza sativa

Cicer arietinum
Lens culinaris

Laurus nobilis

Trapa japonica
Trapa japonica

Pholiota microspore
Castanea crenata
Castanea crenata
Castanea crenata
Chrysanthemum
morifolium_ 45 _

Grain
Grain
Grain
Grain
Nut

Grain

Poaceae (Gramineae)
Poaceae (Gramineae)
Poaceae (Gramineae)
Poaceae (Gramineae)
Anacardiaceae

Poaceae (Gramineae)

Grain

Poaceae (Gramineae)

Grain

Amaranthaceae

Grain
Grain
Nut

Leaf vegetable
Grain
Grain
Grain
Bean
Bean
Herb
Nut
Nut

Mushroom
Nut
Nut
Nut
Fruit vegetable

Poaceae (Gramineae)
Chenopodiaceae
Juglandaceae

Polygonaceae

Poaceae (Gramineae)
Poaceae (Gramineae)
Poaceae (Gramineae)
Fabaceae
Fabaceae

Lauraceae
Trapaceae
Trapaceae

Strophariaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Asteraceae

0.016
0.017
0.011
0.010
0.058
0.010
0.033
0.008
0.030
0.032
0.059
0.089
0.010
0.012
0.029
0.015
0.027
0.096
0.014
0.274
0.012
0.011
0.444
0.509
0.024

Polyphenol content of various vegetables

ID

Common NameJapanese nameScientific Name

Vesicaria

FamilyPolyphenol(mg catechin/mL)

157

Pea (Pod)

Endou-mamePisum sativum

Bean

Fabaceae

0.020

159

Turnip rape

Nanohana

Brassica rapa

Fruit vegetable

Vesicaria

0.033

158
160
161
162
163

Pea (Bean)

Horikawa gobo*
Shogoin turnip*
Ashitaba

Kyoto eggplant*

Endou-mameHorikawa-gobou
Seigoin-kabura
Ashitaba

Nasubi "Kyo-shizuku"

Pisum sativum
Arctium lappa
Brassica rapa

Angelica keiskei

Solanum melongena

Bean

Root vegetables
Root vegetables
Leaf vegetable

Fruit vegetable
Leaf vegetable

Fabaceae

Asteraceae
Vesicaria
Apiaceae

Solanaceae

Athyriaceae

0.022
0.049
0.007
0.041
0.030
0.060

Ostrich fern

Kogomi

166

Manganzi Chile pepper*( Red)

Mannganji-tougarashi

Capsicum annuum

Fruit vegetable

Solanaceae

0.024

167

Manganzi Chile pepper*(Green)Manganji-tougarashi

Capsicum annuum

Fruit vegetable

Solanaceae

0.025

168

Manganzi Chile pepper*(Mix)

Manganji-tougarashi
Mix

Capsicum annuum

Fruit vegetable

Solanaceae

0.040

Capsicum annuum

Fruit vegetable

Solanaceae

0.024

Capsicum annuum

Fruit vegetable

Solanaceae

0.028

Capsicum annuum

Fruit vegetable

Solanaceae

0.029

164
165

169

Kamo eggplant*

Takagamine Chile pepper*

Kamo-nasu

Takagamine-tougarashi

170

Husimiamanaga Chile pepper* Fushimi-amanagatougarashi
(Red)

171

Husimiamanaga Chile pepper* Fushimi-amanagatougarashi(Green)

172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187

Matteuccia struthiopteris
Solanum melongena

Fruit vegetable

Solanaceae

0.019

Super Yuga tomato*Super Yuga tomato

Solanum lycopersicum

Fruit vegetable

Solanaceae

0.020

Kyo-akane tomato*

Kyo-akane tomato

Solanum lycopersicum

Fruit vegetable

Solanaceae

0.019

Renaissance tomato*
Kyo-temari tomato*
RucolaSweet basil

Common sage
Dill

Italian parsley
Chervil
Thyme

Sweet leaf

Lemon balm
Peppermint
Spearmint
Rosemary

Runessansu tomato
Kyo-temari tomato
RukkoraSweet bajiru
Seiji

Diru

Italian-pasure
Chabiru
Taimu

Sutebia

Lemon baumu
Peppermint
Spearmint
Rosemary

Solanum lycopersicum
Solanum lycopersicum
Eruca vesicaria

Ocimum basilicum
Salvia officinalis

Anethum graveolens

Petroselinum neapolitanum
Anthriscus cerefolium
Thymus sp.

Stevia rebaudiana

Melissa officinalis
Mentha x piperita
Mentha spicata

Rosmarinus officinalis

Fruit vegetable

Fruit vegetable
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb

Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Vesicaria

Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae

Lamiaceae

Asteraceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae

IC50: 50% inhibitory concentration. Polyphenol content shown as catechin equivalents. Mean of three measurements for each sample shown.
*Kyoto regional vegetable_ 46 _

0.013
0.019
0.017
0.037
0.026
0.048
0.024
0.045
0.059
0.080
0.125
0.051
0.124
0.115

Glycative Stress Research

Polyphenol (mg catechin Eq/mL)
Chestnut (Soft layer)
Chestnut (Outer skin)
Water caltrop (Seed coat)
Lemon balm (Fresh herb)
Spearmint
Rosemary (Fresh herb)

Kyoto eggplant
Amaranth
Garden pea sprouts (Sprout)
Japanese parsley
parsley
Rice B bran
Husimiamanaga Chile pepper*--Black-eyed pea

Bay leaves
Lady's thumb
Sweet leaf
Mugwort (Powder)
Perilla (Shiso)
Chrysanthemum (Petal)
Rice eggplant (Peel)
Radish sprouts
Ostrich fern
Thyme
Pecan nuts
WalnutPistachio

GinkgoHusimiamanaga Chile pepper --Broccoli (Flower bud )Boston lettuce
Wasabi leaves
Bell pepper
LentilAzuki bean
Red rhubarbe
Hen of the woods

Celery (Leaf )Red rhubarbe (Peel)Red kidney beans
Common sage
Green pepper

Peppermint
Horikawa gobo
Dill
Red leaf lettuce
Nalta juteChervil

Pak choy
Broad bean
Manganzi Chile pepper (Green)
Cauliflower ( Leaf )Leaf lettuce
Pea

Broccoli sprouts
Broccoli super sprouts

Chinese chive
Malabar spinach

Malabar spinach (Leaf)
Ashitaba
Manganzi Chile pepper (Mix)
Pumpkin
RadishRed cabbage

Italian parsley
Chrysanthemum (Receptacle)
Takagamine Chile pepper
Red-kerneled rice
Scallion
Manganzi Chile pepper*(Red)
Asparagus
Mizuna (Potherb mustard)
SpinachEggplant
Shirona Chinese cabbage
Chicory
PotatoBlack soybeen
Leaf Ginger (Root)
Kintoki carrot ( Leaf )Green perilla ( Leaf )Sweet basil
PeanutSweet potato
Okra
Black sesame
Japanese millet
Turnip rape
Water morning glory

GingerAmanaga Chili pepper
Water morning glory (Sprout)
Bean sprout
QuínuaRice eggplant (None peel)
Saltwort
Carrot greens ( Leaf )Pea ( Bean)
Bitter melon

Mibuna

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.00

Fig 1. Polyphenol content ranking of 187 vegetable samples (catechin equivalents, top 100)

_ 47 _

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

Polyphenol content of various vegetables

Polyphenol (mg catechin Eq/mg solid content)
0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

Fruit vegetable (46)
Leaf vegetable (41)
Stem vegetable (9)Root vegetable (27)
Nut (15)
Bean (12)Grain (13)Mushroom (8)Herb (14)Fig 2. Polyphenol content by vegetable category

Polyphenol content shown as catechin equivalents. Parentheses indicate number of samples included in vegetable category.
Bars indicate standard deviation. No. of sample measurements n=3.

Polyphenol (mg catechin Eq/mg solid content)
0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

Chenopodiaceae (3)Vesicaria (26)
Poaceae (Gramineae) (12)Cucurbitaceae (8)Asteraceae (12)Tricholomataceae (3)Araceae (3)Lamiaceae (9)Zingiberaceae (5)Apiaceae (11)Polygonaceae (4)Basellaceae (3)Solanaceae (25)
Alliaceae (3)Amaryllidaceae (6)Convolvulaceae (3)Fagaceae (3)Fabaceae (17)Fig 3. Polyphenol content by vegetable sample taxonomic family

Polyphenol content shown as catechin equivalents. Parentheses indicate number of samples included in vegetable family.
Bars indicate standard deviation. No. of sample measurements n = 3.

_ 48 _Glycative Stress Research

Polyphenol (mg catechin Eq/mg solid content)

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

IC50 (mg/mL)
Fig 4. Relationship between polyphenol quantity and antiglycation activity in vegetable samples

Antiglycation activity represents inhibitory activity for fluorescent AGE formation ( IC 50) in dried vegetable powder samples
in a previously reported 18) in vitro glucose/HSA reaction model. Polyphenol content shown as catechin equivalents. Regressionfunction: y = -3E-13x + 0.0338, R² = 0.0004, p > 0.05. HSA, human serum albumin; AGEs, advanced glycation end-products; IC 50,
50% inhibitory concentration.

Discussion
Many reports state that tea leaves 9, 21), herbs and spices 22-24)
herbal remedies 25), and other natural, plant-based materials
contain substantial quantities of polyphenols and havean antiglycation effect in vitro or in animal experiments.
Our results for measurement of polyphenol content in 187
vegetables showed that polyphenol content was highest innuts, herbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, fruit vegetables,and beans in that order. By plant taxonomic family,
polyphenol content was highest in samples of Fagaceae,
Lamiaceae, Polygonaceae, Asteraceae, and Convolvulaceae
in that order. However, in a previous report 18), results formeasurement of inhibitory activity for fluorescent AGE
formation in an in vitro glucose/HSA model found highantiglycation activity among herbs, leaf vegetables, andstem vegetables in that order. By taxonomic family, highantiglycation activity was observed in species of theAsteraceae, Lamiaceae, Basellaceae, and Polygonaceae
families. In all vegetable samples generally, no significant
correlations were observed between polyphenol content andantiglycation activity, but in terms of vegetable type, a highassociation between polyphenol content and antiglycation
activity was anticipated for herbs, leaf vegetables, and stem
vegetables. Likewise, by taxonomic family, a high association
was anticipated for species of the Asteraceae, Lamiaceae,
and Polygonaceae families. The Asteraceae family contains
high levels of the polyphenols luteolin and anthrocyanidin 8).
Lamiaceae species contain copious rosmarinic acid 26, 27) ,and Polygonaceae species contain copious quercetin 28) andkaempferol 29).
By individual vegetable, antiglycation activity waspotent ( IC 50 < 0.15 mg/mL) but polyphenol content low (<0.05 mg catechin Eq/mg solid content) in 12 vegetables:
Nalta jute, new ginger, red leaf lettuce, scallion, spinach,rice eggplant (no peel), Boston lettuce, green perilla, edible
chrysanthemum (petal), ashitaba, bell pepper, and green
leaf lettuce. Polyphenol content was also extremely low (<0.0125 mg catechin Eq/mg solid content) but antiglycation
activity slightly weaker ( 0.15 mg/mL ≤ IC 50 < 0.5 mg/mL) than that of aminoguanidine in four vegetables: Green
cucumber (Cucumis sativus), great burdock (Arctium lappa),
lettuce (Lactuca sativa), and red giant elephant ear (petiole,
Colocasia gigantea). In these 16 vegetables, components other_ 49 _

Polyphenol content of various vegetables

than polyphenols are believed to contribute to antiglycation
effect. Polyphenol content was high ( ≥ 0.05 mg catechin
Eq/mg solid content) but antiglycation activity weak ( IC 50≥ 0.15 mg/mL) in seven vegetables: Walnut, ostrich fern,
thyme, sweetleaf, peppermint, radish sprouts, and pistachio.
Polyphenols in these samples may contain components which
inhibit antiglycation activity.
There are numerous reports on research concerning
vegetables. Results for measurement of hydroxyl radical
antioxidant capacity (H-ORAC) in 23 different Japanesevegetables showed a mean estimated H-ORAC value of 594.3µmol trolox-equivalent (TE/100 g) 30). Consumption of 350 gof these vegetables per day would result in consumption of
2,080 µmol TE/day of hydrophilic antioxidants.
Results for measurement of polyphenol content, lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation and 1,1-diphenyl-2picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical reduction in 30 different
Vietnamese vegetables by FC method showed that antioxidant
activity was high in vegetables with high polyphenol content 31).
The mean daily intake of polyphenols by Vietnameseindividuals was found to be 595 mg catechin Eq, with thehighest contribution, 45%, from water spinach (Ipomoea
aquatica), green vegetable.
Research measuring polyphenol content, α-glucosidase
inhibitory activity and antioxidant activity by FC method in
extracts from 28 different Vietnamese vegetables showed
a positive correlation between this activity and polyphenol
content 32). In particular, four species possessed α-glucosidase
inhibitory activity and antioxidant activity equivalent to or
better than that of guava leaf extract: Syzygium zeylanicum,
Cleistocalyx operculatus, Horsfieldia amygdalina, and Careya
aroborea.
Our research and these reports 31,32) show that the FC
method used for polyphenol measurement produces a highcorrelation (r = 0.96) with total phenolic OH number andis an analytical method allowing evaluation of the total
phenolic OH number in various polyphenol compounds 33).
Measurement sensitivity is comparatively higher than in othermeasurement methods. Though reactivity to compounds withdiffering chemical structures differs to some extent, the FC
method tends to produce high values in compounds with anodiphenol structure.
On this basis, we believe that a commitment to consuming
a target amount of 350 g/day of various vegetables, regarded
as a preferable figure for required daily vegetable intake, may
provide substantial antioxidant effect 30) and antiglycation
activity 18) and may also go beyond inhibition of aging to playa role in preventing the onset and progression of lifestylerelated diseases.

Conclusion

Though vegetables contain substantial quantities ofpolyphenols, it may be the case that various components,
polyphenolic or non-polyphenolic, contribute to antiglycation
effect in different vegetable species. By vegetable type,
we found a high association between polyphenol quantityand antiglycation activity in herbs, leaf vegetables, andstem vegetables. By taxonomic family, we found a similar
association in species of the Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, andPolygonaceae families. A contribution by non-polyphenolic
substances was suggested in nalta jute, new ginger, red leaf
lettuce, scallion, spinach, rice eggplant (no peel), Boston
lettuce, green perilla, edible chrysanthemum (petal), ashitaba,bell pepper, green leaf lettuce, green cucumber, great burdock,lettuce, and red giant elephant ear (petiole). We believe that
this information is useful for creating dietary regimens tocounter glycation stress.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Japanese Council for
Science, Technology and Innovation (CSTI), Cross-ministerial
Strategic Innovation Promotion Program (SIP Project ID
14533567) and JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 26350917.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors state that performance of this study entailed
no issues representing a conflict of interest.

_ 50 _Glycative Stress Research

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