8“Tribe” or “Chiefdom”?
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This paper is focused on the Ainu and the conventional understanding of them as foragers in Northeast
Asia, examining the factors and processes that led to the formation of their pre-state society. While the Ainu
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Ainu society never established a large-scale complex society such as a “chiefdom” or “kingdom”. These
characteristics of Ainu society, however, were not necessarily shaped solely by internal conditions. Rather,
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conditions can also be seen in various indigenous societies, not only around the high latitudes from
Northeast Asia to North America, but also in the low latitudes, including Oceania and Africa. Additionally,
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present examples of social development resulting from relationships with outside worlds and are instructive
when considering the processes of state formation and the formation of civilization.

Este artículo se centra en la cultura Ainu y la comprensión convencional de ellos como una comunidad
de recolectores en el noreste de Asia, examinando los factores y procesos que conducen a la formaciónde sus sociedades preestatales. Si bien los Ainu eran fundamentalmente una sociedad dedicada a la caza,recolección y pesca, también se llevó a cabo la agricultura extensiva de forma parcial. La sociedad Ainu
nunca estableció una sociedad compleja a gran escala como una "jefatura" o un "reino". Sin embargo, estas
características de la sociedad Ainu no fueron necesariamente determinadas únicamente por las condiciones
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formación de la sociedad Ainu, en particular la economía de mercado y el poder político central de Japón.
Este artículo examina los mecanismos y procesos resultantes de la relación con la economía y la política
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subsistencia únicamente en la búsqueda de alimento. De igual manera se pueden observar condiciones
similares en varias sociedades indígenas, no solo en las latitudes altas desde el noreste de Asia hasta

81

América del Norte, sino también en las latitudes bajas, incluidas Oceanía y África. Además, en algunas
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Estos casos de estudio muestran ejemplos de desarrollo social que surgen como resultado de las relaciones
con el mundo exterior y son un ejemplo didáctico al considerar los procesos de formación del estado y laformación de la civilización.

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1. A Point of Dispute in Ainu Studies
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82

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groupLVDVSDWLDOO\DQGVRFLDOO\VWUDWL¿HGFRQWLQXXP

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2. Ainu Social Structure%HIRUHH[DPLQLQJWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ$LQXVRFLHW\ODUJHUXQLWWKDQWKHULYHUJURXSLQGDLO\OLIH
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83

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Figure 8.2.
Territory and resource management in Ainu society.

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Figure 8.3.
Diagram representing a river valley as the territory of a river group and it ecological zones.

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Figure 8.4.
Ainu subsistence activities and resource management of wide-ranging land.

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Figure 8.5.
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revolt.

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5HEHOOLRQ $' 7
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society led by multiple VǀGDLVKǀZKLFKZDVLQÀXHQWLDO
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Note2ULJLQDOLQIRUPDWLRQIURP .DLKR 86

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WKLVDSSURDFKH[SORUHVFDXVHVWKURXJKDQH[DPLQDWLRQ

RI6KDNXVKDLQ¶VUHYROWZHUHGHSLFWHGLQR൶FLDO-DSDQHVH

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4. Socio-Organizational Level of the Ainu

DEOHWREXLOGDUHODWLYHO\FRPSOH[UDQNHGVRFLHW\GXHWRWKH

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DVDSUHFRQGLWLRQKHLQGLFDWHGWKDWWKHVHVRFLHWLHVZHUHWZRUHEHOOLRQVEHIRUHWKH0LGGOH(GRSHULRG$OWHUQDWLQJEDVHGRQHTXDORUVLPLODUHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQV,Q

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 9LHZVRQ(QYLURQPHQWDO3RVVLELOLVP

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RI VRFLDO RUJDQL]DWLRQ DQG VWUXFWXUH ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV:DWDQDEHS 

Figure 8.6.
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87

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prestige goods called ikor :DWDQDEHSS± 

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otona or ottena 

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obtain necessities for daily life by concentrating solely on

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Similarly, Watanabe proposed ecological capacity as a

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RUFRPSOH[LW\RI$LQXVRFLHW\VLPLODUWRWKHFDVHRIWKH

EDVHGVROHO\RQWKHLQÀXHQFHRIFRORQLDOLVPLIWKH\GLG

1RUWKZHVW&RDVW1DWLYH$PHULFDQV :DWDQDEHSS

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LQRWKHUDUHDV,QWKHWURSLFDO]RQHQRIRUDJHUVEXLOWD

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6DVDNL7H]XND ,QSDUWLFXODUDUFKDHRORJLFDO

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DOVREHHQLQWURGXFHGWKURXJKWUDGHZLWKWKHRXWVLGH

5. Conclusion
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7KHUHIRUHLQRUGHUWRSURFXUHYDULRXVLWHPVIRUWKHLU

VRFLHW\DVDUHVXOWRIVRFLRSROLWLFDOVXUSOXVEDVHGRQULFKGDLO\QHHGVWKH\KDGWRSURGXFHDQGH[FKDQJHFRPPRGLWLHVHFRORJLFDOFRQGLWLRQVLQFOXGLQJDTXDWLFUHVRXUFHVDQGWUDGH

IRUWUDGHZLWKRXWVLGHVRFLHWLHVVXFKDVPDLQODQG-DSDQDQG

DFWLYLWLHVZLWKRXWVLGHVRFLHWLHV1HYHUWKHOHVVLWUHPDLQVWKH&KLQHVHG\QDVWLHV 6DVDNL ,QRWKHUZRUGV$LQX

XQFOHDUZK\WKH$LQXDIWHUWKH/DWH(GRSHULRGUHYHUWHG

VRFLHW\QHHGHGRQO\WRFRQFHQWUDWHRQKXQWLQJDQG¿VKLQJEDFNWRWKHWULEDOOHYHOLQRUGHUWRSURFXUHWUDGHFRPPRGLWLHV$VDUHVXOWWKH\,QWKLVSDSHUWKHDXWKRUDSSURDFKHVWKLVSUREOHPEDVHGZHUHDEOHWRDFTXLUHQRWRQO\GDLO\QHFHVVLWLHVLQFOXGLQJRQUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKWKHRXWVLGHZRUOG5HODWLRQVKLSVLURQWRROVEXWDOVRQRQHVVHQWLDOOX[XU\LWHPVVXFKDVULWXDOZLWKRXWVLGHVRFLHWLHVSURGXFHGWKHSRWHQWLDOWRIRUPDHTXLSPHQWLQFOXGLQJULFHZLQHWREDFFRDQGODFTXHUZDUHKLHUDUFKLFDOVRFLHW\IRUWKH$LQXXQWLOWKH0LGGOH(GR

7KHDLPRI:DWDQDEH¶VUHVHDUFKKRZHYHUZDVWR¿QDOO\SHULRG,QDGGLWLRQLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRQRWHWKDWWKHSRWHQW

H[SODLQ WKDW IRUDJHUV RQ WKH 1RUWK 3DFLILF FRDVW KDGecological conditions for Ainu subsistence did not face

VX൶FLHQWVRFLRHFRORJLFDOIDFWRUVWRHVWDEOLVKDUDQNHGDQ\GUDVWLFFKDQJHEHWZHHQWKH0LGGOHDQGWKH/DWH(GR

VRFLHW\,WFDQEHVXJJHVWHGIURPWKHVHVWXGLHVWKDWWKH

periodUHODWLYHO\FRPSOH[UDQNHGVRFLHWLHVRQWKH1RUWKZHVW

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Iron technology among the Saru Ainu of Hokkaido,

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of North American Indians, Vol. 4), SS± 

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