TYPOLOGIES OF THE SEXUAL OFFENDER
only in the case of a prepubescent victim .
Pedophiles and homosexual offenders responded
more to male children than did heterosexual
offenders . Beyond this, there appeared to be little todifferentiate between the offender who attacks
young pubescent victims and the offender whochooses only mature adult victims .

TYPOLOGIES OF OFFENDERS WHO
ABUSE CHILDRENBAXTER, D .J ., MARSHALL, W.L ., BARBAREE, H .E .,DAVIDSON, P.R., & MALCOLM, P.B . (1984) . DEVIANTSEXUAL BEHAVIOR : DIFFERENTIATING SEX OFFENDERSBY CRIMINAL AND PERSONAL HISTORY, PSYCHOMETRIC
MEASURES, AND SEXUAL RESPONSE . CRIMINAL JUSTICEBEECH, A.R . (1998) . A PSYCHOMETRIC TYPOLOGY OF

AND BEHAVIOR, 11 (4), 477-501 .

CHILD

ABUSERS .

OFFENDER

The authors examined criminal records, personal
history, social-sexual competence, and physiological responses to erotic stimuli in incarcerated
pedophiles, ephebophiles, and rapists . There weresignificant differences among groups in criminaland personal background . In particular, pedophiles
tended to be older, more poorly educated, more
likely to be unmarried, and less frequently involvedin nonsexual crime . Social and social-sexual inadequacies were common to all groups, as reflected inunder-assertiveness, low self-esteem and negative
attitudes . The data provided a degree of support forthe popular view of the pedophile as a sexualdeviant . Pedophiles were somewhat older thanother subjects, were more likely to be repetitive sexual offenders, with less nonsexual criminal involvement than rapists or ephebophiles . They also weremore likely to exhibit deviant sexual arousal, in
asmuch as they responded much more to children
than non-pedophilic subjects . However, thepedophiles did not so much show an erotic preference for children as show a failure to either inhibit
responding to children or to show a clear erotic
preference for adults . Non-pedophilic subjects
showed an attenuated response to children relative
to adults whereas pedophiles did not . Although thefindings of the present study were consistent withearlier reports that many pedophiles are married
and have children of their own, they conflict withthose reports indicating that pedophiles tended to
exhibit strong sexual preferences for children . The
authors suggested that this may be a result of therather small sample from which the present data
were obtained . Overall, choice of victim was clearly
related only to sexual response patterns, and then

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF

THERAPY

AND

COMPARATIVECRIMINOLOGY 43 (4) 319-339 .

A psychometric battery of measures, assessing a
range of problem areas, was completed by 140 convicted untreated child abusers . Measures were
adjusted for social desirability . Cluster analysis of
the data identified men on the basis of deviance(levels of pro-offending attitudes and social inadequacy) and denial (self-reported levels of offending
behaviors) . Examination of offense histories foundthat high-deviancy men, compared to low-deviancy
men, were more likely to have been convicted of aprevious sexual offense ; to have committed offenses
against boys, or both boys and girls ; to have committed extrafamilial, or both extra-and-intrafamilial, offenses ; and to have had many victims . A
method of identifying deviancy, which showedstrong cross-validation, also was derived . Although
low-deviancy men were much more likely to beincest offenders than were high-deviancy men, nearly
40% of high-deviancy men were found to be intrafamilial offenders, suggesting that identifying deviancy
level may be a useful adjunct to any risk assessment .
BICKLEY, J .A ., BEECH,

A .R . (2002) . AN INVESTIGA-

TION OF THE WARD AND HUDSON PATHWAYS MODEL
OF THE SEXUAL OFFENSE PROCESS WITH CHILD ABUSERS .
JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE,

17

(4),

372-393 .

This article discussed a study wherein the authorssought to evaluate the Ward and Hudson pathways
model for classifying child abusers . Eighty-sevenchild abusers participated in the study . The participants ranged in age from 21 to 75 . The majority of228

vance to explanation and prediction . The article
concluded that although a number of approaches
have been adopted in order to reduce the heterogeneity of child molesters, none of the systems todate had adequately met the criteria outlined above .
Definitional limitations, sampling differences, lowbase rates of convictions for sexual offences, andsocially desirable responding greatly limit the reliability, validity, and coverage of many of the current
classification systems . Furthermore, the statisticallysignificant differences found between the groups bear
little relationship to the clinical relevance of such distinctions . The suggested profile for group membership is found only in a small percentage of offenders,
and there is often extensive overlap between thesegroups. Consequently, no one standardized method
is universally applied in the classification of childmolesters, and therefore, comparison between thevarious studies remains problematic .

the participants (62%) had offended outside thefamily, 15% had offended inside the family, and
23% had offended both inside and outside the family. Of the participants, 36% had offended against
boys, 33% against girls, and 31% had offended
against both genders . Fifty-three percent of thesample had a previous conviction for a sexual
offense. All participants attended The Lucy FaithfulFoundation residential assessment and treatment
program for sexual offenders (Wolvercote Unit),
based in the United Kingdom . The participants
were classified as belonging to one of the four pathway groups identified by Ward and Hudson's selfregulation model of sexual offense process . The
model distinguishes between offenders who haveapproach or avoidant goals and between their usesof active or passive strategies . The article stated thatthe profile of the "preferential" child molester isconsistent with Ward and Hudson's description ofan approach pathway. In contrast, the "situational"
offender is consistent with Ward and Hudson's
description of an avoidant pathway . The authors
concluded that the study was able to demonstratethat the self-regulation model (Ward and Hudson)
could be reliably employed in the classification ofchild molesters, with interrater agreement found in
more than 80% of the sample. Furthermore, differences across the two group distinctions (i .e .,avoidant vs . approach, active vs . passive) in boththe psychometric and offense demographic data
provided objective support for the validity of theframework . The article also discussed the treatment
implications of the self-regulation model .

DANNI, K.A . & HAMPE, G.D . (2002) . AN ANALYSIS OF
PREDICTORS OF CHILD SEX OFFENDER TYPES USING PRESENTENCE INVESTIGATION REPORTS . INTERNATIONALJOURNAL OF OFFENDER THERAPY AND COMPARATIVECRIMINOLOGY, 44 (4), 490-504 .

The purpose of this study was to differentiate three
types of child sexual offenders - pedophiles,
ephebophiles, and incest offenders . The sample consisted of 168 convicted sex offenders . The data forthe study was gathered from pre-sentence investigation reports used by the court for sentencing proceedings. Using multiple discriminate analyses, eight independent variables were found to significantly
discriminate between the three types of sex offenders
almost 90% of the time . These variables were : sexual
victimization as a child, pre-pubertal victim, seduction motive, age-appropriate relationships, stress,
own child as victim, social facade, and anger . The
authors hypothesized that (1) Pedophiles are more
likely to have experienced sexual victimization as achild, to prefer pre-pubertal sex partners, and to be
motivated to seduce their victims more than nonpedophiles; (2) Ephebophiles are more likely to haveexperienced external stress than non-ephebophiles ;and (3) Incest offenders are more likely to have ahigher level of perceived entitlement than non-incest
offenders. All three hypotheses were accepted . The
child sex offenders most difficult to correctly classify
were the pedophiles (84 .06%) . The authors attrib-

BicKLEY, J., BEECH, A.R . (2001) . CLASSIFYING CHILD
ABUSERS : ITS RELEVANCE TO THEORY AND CLINICALPRACTICE . JOURNAL OF OFFENDER THERAPY AND
COMPARATIVE CRIMINOLOGY, 45 (1), 51-69 .

This article aimed to critically review some of theclassification approaches that have been adopted in
an attempt to provide a reliable and valid classification system for child molesters and to consider
the impact that such systems have had on the structuring of interventions to meet the differing needsof this client group . Classification systems wereviewed in terms of their reliability of criteria, consistency and ease of usage, pertinence to a large
number of individuals, valid distinction between
types, relevance to treatment, and theoretical rele-

22 9

uted this phenomenon to the fact that pedophiles'
victims are typically young and are not always able
to effectively verbalize or convey the things that happen to them; pedophiles are characterized as trying toplease the victims by using forms of seduction (i.e .,gifts) . In addition, according to the authors, the primary characteristic of pedophiha is the offender'sown childhood sexual victimization . The unwillingness to disclose this information makes it less likely apedophile will be discovered . The authors purported
that it is for these reasons this manipulative behavior
is harder to detect . Ephebophiles were correctly classified in 92 .86% if the cases . Incest offenders wereclassified correctly in 100% of the cases .
KNIGHT, R .A., & PRENTKY, R.A . (1990) . CLASSIFYINGSEXUAL OFFENDERS : THE DEVELOPMENT AND CORROBORATION OF TAXONOMIC M ODELS . I N W L . MARSHALL(EDS .) .

HANDBOOK OF SEXUAL ASSAULT: ISSUES,

THEORIES, AND TREATMENT OF THE OFFENDER, 3,23-

S2 . NEW YORK: PLENUM PRESS.

KNIGHT, R .A .,CARTER, D .L ., . & PRENTKY,

R.A.

(1989) . A SYSTEM FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHILD
MOLESTERS : RELIABILITY AND APPLICATION . JOURNAL
OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE, 4 (1) 3-22 .

The authors began this article by outlining the benefits of establishing adequate typologies to moderate clinical and administrative decisions and forproviding guidance in studying the etiology of sexual abuse . The article then presented the criteria forthis typology (Massachusetts Treatment Center :Child Molester Typology, version 3 [MTC :CM3])and reported data on its interrater reliability . The
sample consisted of 177 child molesters . The study
indicated that the major decisions in MTC :CM3
have reasonable reliability and reported that thestructural changes introduced into the system havealso shown substantial concurrent validity, and its
components appear to tap stable traits with distinguishable developmental roots . In an appendix tothe article, the authors outlined Inclusionary andExclusionary Criteria .

This article provided a detailed description of how
the methodology for generating and testing schemesin deviant populations could be applied to the studyof sex offenders . Based on research conducted by theauthors during the 1980s at the Massachusetts
Treatment Center, the article discussed how theauthors employed both deductive-rational andinductive-empirical research strategies simultaneously to determine whether reliable and valid typologies could be created for rapists and child molesters .
The authors concluded that their application of aprogrammatic approach to typology construction
and validation has produced taxonomic systems forboth child molesters and rapists . The taxonomic system for child molesters has already demonstrated
reasonable reliability and consistent ties to distinctive
developmental antecedents . In addition, the preliminary results of a 25 year recidivism study of childmolesters conducted by the authors indicated that
aspects of the model have important prognostic
implications . The authors argued that the data presented on the child molester typology strongly support the subdivision of these offenders and indicatethat considerable explanatory power will be sacrificed if child molesters are considered a homogeneous group .

LAws,

D .R .,

GREENBAUM,

HANSON,

R .K .,OSBORN,C .A.,&

PE. (2000) . CLASSIFICATION OF CHILD

MOLESTERS BY PLETHYSMOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT OFSEXUAL AROUSAL AND A SELF-REPORT MEASURE OF SEXUAL

PREFERENCE .

JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONALVIOLENCE, 15 (12), 1297-1312 .

This study examined the extent to which the use ofmultiple measures of pedophilic interest improvedon the diagnostic accuracy of any single measure .
One hundred and twenty-four males voluntarily
consented to participate in an outpatient evaluationand treatment program for child molesters . Of
these, 56% were referred from the Florida
Department of Corrections, 31% were referredfrom private practitioners, mental health clinics, orother professionals (i .e ., attorneys), and 13% wereself-reported . All participants admitted to either asexual attraction to children or to some inappropriate sexual activity with a child . The average age ofthe participants was 36 .08 yrs (range=18-74) .
Eighty-seven percent were Caucasian, 8% were
AfricanAmerican, and 5% were Hispanic . About
26% were married or common-law, 28% were separated or divorced, and 46% had never married .
Socioeconomic status based on annual income
showed that 14% were middle class, 20% were230

lower middle class, and 66% were lower class .
Fifty-two men did not participate in the research dueto the exclusion of both bisexual child molesters andthose who did not complete all three measures . In
addition to the exclusion criteria, the attrition rate
for the outpatient treatment project was quite high .
The remaining 72 child molesters completed a selfreport card-sort measure of sexual interest, as well as
direct monitoring of penile response through penile
plethysmograph (PPG) when presented with erotic
slides or audio material . The reliability of all measures was high (alpha .91- .96) . All three measures ofpedophilic interest (i .e ., card sort, PPG slides, PPG
audio) significantly differentiated boy-object (n=20)
and girl-object child molesters (n=52) . The card-sortmeasure displayed the greatest classification accuracy
and was the only measure to significantly improveaccuracy, once the other two modalities were considered . Consideration of all three modalities proved
classification accuracy (91 .7%) greater than any
single measure .
LIN, J . M ., MAXWELL, S .

GAUTHIER, C ., BOER, D . (2001) .
REPLICATION OF THE MASSACHUSETTS TREATMENTCENTER CHILD MOLESTER TYPOLOGY IN A CANADIANLOOMAN, J .,SAMPLE . JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE, 16(8), 753-767 .

One hundred and nine child molesters who wereassessed or treated at the Regional Treatment
Centre (Ontario) were classified according to the
MTC child molester typology . Interrater reliabilities
were obtained for 20 participants and ranged from.90 to .40, which were comparable to thoseobtained in the MTC sample . Groups were compared on a number of meaningful variables, such as
number of victims and sexual deviance . Results
illustrated that it is possible to apply the MTC childmolester typology in a population outside the
MTC . Offenders were classified into all subgroups
with an acceptable level of reliability, with the
exception of the sadistic types . However, this exception may be due to the low number of offenders
who fell into these subgroups rather than difficulties with the classification system . The authors recommended that future research will have to utilizea larger sample in order to address this concern .
Differences were found between groups on thephallometric assessments, with the high fixationlow social competence group having highest levelsof deviance on the slide assessment for Axis I .
Interestingly, the average deviance indices for all
four levels of Axis I indicated at least a failure todifferentiate appropriation from inappropriate
stimuli in terms of sexual responding . However, thehigh fixation-low social competence group was the
only group that demonstrated a clear sexual preference for children. The high fixation-low social competence group was also distinguished by their preferences for male victims and their higher levels of
self-reported childhood sexual abuse . On Axis II,
the low contact-high injury offenders displayed
more deviant arousal on the female's sexual violence assessment than other groups . These offenders
were also more intrusive in their offending andwere more likely to use physical force . Althoughmost Axis II groupings were equally likely tochoose victims of both genders, the exploitative
group had a clear preference for female victims .
Differences were not found for groups when rates
of sexual and violent recidivism were examined,
although it was found that sadistic offenders

R., & BARCLAY, A. M .

(2000). THE PROPORTIONS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SEX
OFFENDERS AND THE DEGREE OF DIFFICULTY IN TREATING THEM: A COMPARISON OF PERCEPTIONS BY CLINICIANS IN TAIWAN AND IN MICHIGAN . INTERNATIONALJOURNAL OF OFFENDER THERAPY AND COMPARATIVECRIMINOLOGY, 44 (2), 222-231 .

This study compared the perceptions of clinicians in
Taiwan and in Michigan concerning the types of sex
offenders they were serving and the difficulties
involved in treating these sex offenders . The Grothtypology of sex offenders was used as the baseline
typology. Results show significant difference in proportions of rapists and child molesters between
Taiwan and Michigan, but no significant differences were found in other types . The rankings byclinicians of the degree of difficulty in treating different types of sex offenders were identical in bothareas, although the clinical experiences of clinicians
between the two areas were different . The results
showed that the proportion of child molesters
among overall sex offenders is higher in Michigan
compared to that in Taiwan . The authors noted thatcognitive-behavioral and relapse prevention treatment are the two prevalent therapies in North
America, but whether such therapies are effective in
Taiwan is still unknown .

23 1

committed a great number of violent offenses . With
regard to the implications for treatment, the findings of this study are consistent with expectations
based on descriptions of the categories . However,the phallometric data suggest additional treatment
implications than can be derived from the MTC
typology alone . For example, preferential childmolesters (i .e ., those in high fixation and high contact categories) were more likely to exhibit deviant
arousal, to have greater numbers of victims, and tocause little physical harm . They were also more likely
to commit new sexual offenses, although this difference was not significant . Given that deviant sexual
arousal is one of the best predictors of sexual recidivism, these individuals presented as being higher risk
and having higher treatment needs . Low contacthigh injury offenders also had a greater number ofvictims and were more likely to display deviant
arousal. They were more likely to target strangers,
were more intrusive in their offending, and weremore likely to cause serious physical harm to their
victims. With regard to implications for risk assessment, sadistic offenders had a greater number of violent offenses, indicating that these offenders may beat higher risk for violent nonsexual offenses . Also,
low social competence offenders were more likely to
re-offend in a nonsexual, nonviolent manner.

the etiology of sexual offending is the observationthat only 21 .7% of the total sample said that theyrecalled having deviant sexual fantasies prior totheir first actual offense .
PRENTKY, R .A ., KNIGHT, R .A ., LEE,
CHILD

MOLESTERS . JOURNAL

MOLESTATION :A.F. (1997) .

RESEARCH

ISSUES .

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE RESEARCH REPORT(JUNE) . U.S . DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE.

Section one of this article discussed the frequency ofchild sexual abuse, characteristics of the offender,
and the factors that lead to sexual deviancy . Section
two included classification models for typing anddiagnosing child molesters and describes treatment
approaches and strategies for community-based
maintenance and control . Section three talked
about re-offense risk as it relates to criminal justicedecisions and discusses predictors of sexual recidivism . To illustrate the variability of recidivism
among child molesters, section four presented thefindings of a 25-year follow-up study of 115
released offenders . Finally, some of the shortcomings of current approaches to reduce child molester
re-offense risk are touched upon, and an argument
was made for post-release treatment and aftercare
programs . The authors formulated a number ofconclusions that all indicate that there is no single"profile" that accurately describes or accounts for
all child molesters. They concluded that sexual
focus in child molesters has two independent
dimension : intensity of pedophilic interest andexclusivity of the sexual preference for children ; incontrast to popular belief, most victims of childabuse do not go on to become child molesters ; a history of impulsive, antisocial behavior is a well-documented risk factor for certain predatory, extrafamilial child molesters and offenders who have thisbackground and who began their offending careersin adolescence have also evidenced higher degrees
of nonsexual targets ; early childhood experiences,such as high turnover in primary caregivers may
interfere with the development of viable, age-appropriate adult relationships, making it more likelythat children are selected as sexual targets; physiological arousal to children often accompanies a sexual interest in them . Phallometric assessment of sexual arousal in response to depictions of children candifferentiate child molesters from non-molesters,same-sex molesters from opposite-sex molesters,

MARSHALL, W L., BARBAREE, H .E ., & ECCLES, A .
(1991) . EARLY ONSET AND DEVIANT SEXUALITY IN
CHILDSEXUALOF INTERPERSONALVIOLENCE, 6 (3), 323-336 .

One hundred and twenty-nine outpatient childmolesters (91 nonfamilial and 38 father/daughter
offenders) were assessed and interviewed regarding
various aspects of their deviant sexuality . Of thetotal sample, 29% reported having deviant fantasies prior to age 20 . This was most pronounced(41 .1 %) among those who molested the extrafamilial boys . Fourteen percent of the nonfamilial
offenders against boys, 11 .8% of the nonfamilial
offenders against girls, and 7.9% of the incest
offenders had one or more paraphilia in addition totheir index offense . Only three participants in the
total sample reported more than two additional
paraphilias . These results support the research thata substantial proportion of adult sex offenders
develop their deviant behaviors during adolescence .
Of particular interest for conditioning theories of232and extrafamilial molesters from incest molesters ;studies support the reliability and validity of
MTC :CM3 classification system ; recidivism rates
across studies are confounded by differences inlegal guidelines and statutes among states, length of
exposure time (i .e ., time in the community, where
the opportunity exists to re-offend), offender characteristics, treatment-related variables (including
differential attrition rates, amount of treatment,
and integrity of treatment program), and amountand quality of post-treatment supervision ; a 25-year
follow-up study of 111 extrafamilial child molesters
included extensive data from criminal justicerecords and rationally derived composites of variables . The study demonstrated an ability to discriminate among offenders who committed sexual
crimes involving physical contact with a victim,
non-sexual crimes involving physical contact with a
victim, and non-sexual crimes in which no physicalcontact with a victim occurred . The results also
indicated that the authors were able to predict reoffense probabilities with reasonable accuracy . If
these results can be replicated in studies of otheroffenders, use of a scale based on archival records
may represent an easy, cost-effective, and reliable
substitute for intrusive and time-consuming physiological assessment . It was also noted that cognitivebehavior therapy and, when appropriate, antidepressant and antiandrogen medication has reduced
recidivism among child molesters .
SCHWARTZ,

B .K . (1995) .

TYPOLOGIES OF SEX

CHARACTERISTICS

OFFENDERS . IN

B.

This was an exploratory investigation, the purposeof which was to compare sexually repressed andnon-repressed child abuse offenders on therapy
progress and on a battery of personality andresearch instruments. From information obtainedon psychosexual histories, 68 child molesters werecategorized as repressed, non-repressed or
exploitive . Results indicated that a significantly
larger portion of therapy failures were offenders
who were sexually repressed . There were also significant differences between repressed and nonrepressed offenders on some of the special researchscales of the MMPI, the Burt Rape Myth Scales,
some of the Multiphasic Sexual Inventory Scales
and the Mosher's Sex Guilt Scale . Differences onthese measures were consistent with the characteristics of intrafamilial child molesters reported in theclinical and research literature . The results of thisinvestigation were, however, quite speculative dueto the small sample size of the repressed group . It
was also conceivable that differences in treatment
effectiveness between repressed and non-repressedgroups may be attributed to differences in social
skills rather than to sexual repression .
SIMON, L .MJ., SALES, B., KASKNIAK, A., & KAHN,
M. (1992) . CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILD MOLESTERS :IMPLICATIONS FORDICHOTOMY.

RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC .

This chapter described epidemiology and demographic statistics on sex offender characteristics andtypologies . Characteristics reviewed include : factors
related to age, race/ethnic origin, cognitive skills,
lifestyle,maritalstatus/sexuality,
mentalillness/alcoholism and personality disorders, sexual
abuse, and parental relationships . Typologies
reviewed include : Groth's, the FBI's, Knight andPrentky's, and Meiselman's .
L. (1993) . CHARACTERISTICS OF SEXUALLY
CHILD

MOLESTERS .

OFINTERPERSONALThis study attempted to empirically validate the fixated-regressed typology. The sample consisted of
136 consecutive cases of convicted child molesters
tried in Pima County, Arizona, over a two-year
period (1984-1985) for whom case history, MMPI,
pre-sentence reports, and police report data werecollected prior to sentencing . Application of the criteria defining fixated versus regressed status yieldeda unimodal and continuous distribution of childmolesters rather than the bimodal distribution predicted by Groth's theory. This raised questions concerning the clinical utility of describing individual
offenders dichotomously or of using such descriptions to make legal or therapeutic decisions . It suggested that Groth's dichotomy is unable to accountfor all child sexual abuses and recommends using amodification of Groth's approach that would
involve using his criteria along a continuum andrejecting the dichotomous assumption . Further, theAND

SCHWARTZ(ED .) . THE SEX OFFENDER : CORRECTIONS, TREAT-REPRESSEDJOURNALFIXATED-REGRESSEDVIOLENCE, 7 (2), 211-225 .

MENT AND LEGAL PRACTICE, 3 . NEW JERSEY: CIVICSIMKINS,THE

JOURNAL OF

INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE, 8 (1), 3-17 .

23 3

This article explored the causes of cleric sexual misconduct with adult women . Birchard found thatthree main issues in cleric misconduct were boundary ambiguity, institutional inattentiveness (bothvariables ranked equally high on the list of causes),and personal needs . Other variables found to havean impact were societal and outside factors .
Limitations of the study included the issue of gender bias, subjective methodology, the researcher's
insider knowledge, and methodological issues surrounding the surveying instrument.

results suggested that these offenders also engaged
in general criminal and antisocial behavior . It indicated that these criminal tendencies may be causally
related to child molestation but are typicallyignored by theories like Groth's that focus exclusively on psychological and psychosexual development . The study also found that the prevalence ofalcohol and drug abuse among child molesters was
similar to the alcohol and drug abuse that prevails
in other types of criminal offenders . Finally, contrary to Groth's theory, the results suggested theexistence of at least three different age groups ofchild molesters (not two) . The presence of these age
clusters, however, suggested that situational opportunities, such as marital discord and availability of ayoung, potential victim, may interact with a "stable"tendency of an individual with a past history ofantisocial acts to increase the likelihood of child sexual abuse . Thus, molesters of different age groups
may differ in terms of a predisposition to molest as
well as the opportunity to do so .

BREWSTER,

DUCT: THE AFFAIR EVERYONE REMEMBERS . PASTORALPSYCHOLOGY, 44 (6), 353-362 .

This article provided a very brief overview of theissues surrounding clergy sexual misconduct . The
perpetrator was discussed in the context of being
personality disordered or committing an act ofboundary violation in response to a crisis in theirlives . Those who have personality disorders wereconcerned about attaining power while those who
act out of desperation feel a great deal of remorse
after the act . The effect on the adult victims involved
with the cleric may vary. Some women may walkaway from the relationship feeling exploited whileothers may feel that they were genuinely cared for .
The author posited that the congregation requires
intervention after the misconduct is known because it
will affect congregational life . It is important thatthose who are dissatisfied have a chance to voice
their opinion in order for healing to begin .

CHARACTERISTICS OF
CLERGY OFFENDERSBENSON,A.B . (1996) . CLERGY SEXUAL MISCON-

G.L . (1994) . SEXUAL BEHAVIOR BY MALE

CLERGY WITH ADULT FEMALE COUNSELEES : SYSTEMATIC
AND SITUATIONAL THEMES . SEXUAL ADDICTION ~7
COMPULSIVITY, 1 (2), 103-118 .

Through analysis of structured interviews with fiveProtestant clerics and four Roman Catholic clerics,
Benson attempted to understand the situational
themes present in cases of clergy sexual misconduct .
All of the clerics had engaged in several sexual relationships with adult women . The following systemic themes appeared in the narratives : chronic
and pervasive lack of intimacy ; abused, abandoned,or exploited by a parent ; and grandiose care taking
in which the cleric described "taking care" of others as a crucial aspect of their identity . The situational themes included poor control of sexual
impulse, recent significant narcissistic injury, andchronic pervasive feelings of shame .

CAMARGO, R.J . (1997) . FACTOR, CLUSTER, AND DISCRIMINANT ANALYSES OF DATA ON SEXUALLY ACTIVE
CLERGY: THE MOLESTERS OF YOUTH IDENTIFIED .
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY, 15(2),5-24 .

This retrospective study grew out of a larger study
examining the factors related to sexual object
choice and molestation . The author evaluated therecords of 1,322 male cleric sex offenders in a residential treatment center and divided the populationaccording to offense type . It was postulated that thecleric child molesters would display factor scores,
which would differentiate them from other offenders . It was found that the combination of passivity(with the absence of overt hostility), test-taking

BIRCHARD, T . (2000) . CLERGY SEXUAL MISCONDUCT :FREQUENCY AND CAUSATION . SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP
THERAPY, 15 (2), 127-139 .

2 34

Profiles of the abused women included the "Advice
Seeker, Fragile Lover, Overly Affectionate
Parishioner," and those with personality disorders(histrionic & borderline) or a history of sexual
abuse . The repercussions for these women included
the normal feelings associated with sexual victimization as well as the threat of being vilified andostracized by the parish . This in turn tainted their
feelings for the clergy, church, and God . The policies enacted by the Evangelical Lutheran Church
and the Disciples of Christ include placing anemphasis on investigating all allegations of misconduct in the hopes of discouraging false claims andreducing the secrecy concerning sexual misconduct
in the Church .

styles that present the self as being free of major
symptoms, low anxiety and high relative gregariousness, and Diocesan priest status made the group
distinctive . It was also hypothesized that theseoffenders could be statistically identified throughscores on the MMPI and WAIS, which was also
confirmed in this study and was concurrent withpast research . The author also examined whether
significant cluster groups could be establishedthrough factor analysis of MMPI scores . Elevation
on MMPI scales 2, 4, 7, and 8 was found to be acluster of small significance .
FLAKENHAIN, M.A., ET AL . (1999) . CLUSTER ANALYSIS
OF CHILD SEXUAL OFFENDERS :A VALIDATION WITH

ROMAN CATHOLIC PRIESTS AND BROTHERS SEXUAL
ADDICTION & COMPULSIVITY, 6, 317-336 .

HAYWOOD, TW, KRAVITZ, H.M., GROSSMAN, L.S .,WASYLIW,

This study tested 97 Roman Catholic priests with
the MMPI-2 in order to replicate clusters found inprevious sex offender research, but through utilization of a more restrictive sample of sex offenders .
This was proven to be true as four clusters were
found to be significant : sexually and emotionally
underdeveloped, significantly psychiatrically disturbed, undefended characterological, and defended
characterological . These clusters were validated
through use of the MCMI-II and NEO-PI-R . The
authors contend that their findings illustrate thatthese subgroups have stability and meaningfulness
since they were replicated on a restricted population .

&HARDY,

D .W (1996) .

AMONG CLERIC AND NON-CLERIC ALLEGED SEX OFFENDERS . CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, 20 (6), 527-536 .

The authors postulated that cleric offenders would
differ from non-cleric offenders and a normal control group in reported sexual functioning as measured by the Derogatis Sexual Functioning Inventory(DSFI). Their sample consisted of 30 Roman
Catholic child molesters, 39 non-cleric child molesters, and 38 normal control subjects . The findingsof this study suggested that cleric offenders weremore likely to report fewer victims, had offenses
directed towards older male victims, and displayed
fewer paraphilias than non-cleric offenders . The
data also illustrated that cleric offenders appeared
to experience less psychological disturbance thannon-cleric offenders and they had lower scores on
the DSFI when compared to the entire sample . The
authors suggested that the low DSFI scores may be
a result of their training and socialization in theseminary. It is also suggested that differences on the
DSFI may be attributed to the issue that the offenders in the sample admitted to having committed an
offense . While they found no difference between
admitters versus deniers in the cleric and non-clericsamples, it is a consideration for future research to
examine the effect of cognitive distortions on selfreported sexual functioning .

FRANCIS, P.C . & TURNER, N .R . (1995) . SEXUAL MISCONDUCT WITHIN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH : WHO ARE
THE PERPETRATORS AND THOSE THEY VICTIMIZE?
COUNSELING & VALUES,

O .E .,PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SEXUAL FUNCTIONING

39 (3), 218-228 .

This article reviewed the problem of clergy misconduct and examined the characteristics of the priests,
women who get involved with members of theclergy, the repercussions, and the steps being taken
by two churches (Evangelical Lutheran Church andthe Disciples of Christ) to rectify the situation .
Characteristics of those clerics involved in misconduct included "the naive" (those who fail to establish boundaries and have a desire to not be set apartfrom others), those with serious personality disorders (narcissism), and those with sexual addictions .

2 35

order to be nurtured by the authoritative figure andthus will do anything in order to attain this . Thesefeelings are transferred onto the authority figure,possibly assuming the role of a parent . In the author's
attempt to apply what is known about sexual addiction to the clergy several characteristics emerged .
Sexually addicted clergy were likely to engage in thefollowing : ordination used as a way of reducing theshame experienced as a result of their addiction, codependency and enabling, denial, withdrawal, blackouts, rigidity, blaming, reaction formation, loss of
personal values, the maintenance of the myth that
there is a perfect person out there who will understand and nurture them, anger, and entitlement.

HAYWOOD, T.W., KRAVITZ, H .M ., WASYLIW, O .E .,GOLDBERG, J., & CAVANAUGH, J.L . (1996) . CYCLE OF
ABUSE AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY IN CLERIC AND NONCLERIC MOLESTERS OF CHILDREN ANDADOLESCENTS .

CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, 20 (12), 1233-1243 .

A sample including 45 non-cleric admitted childmolesters, 40 non-cleric normal control subjects, 24
cleric admitted child molesters, and 48 cleric normal control subjects were evaluated for childhood
sexual abuse and present psychopathology . The
first hypothesis was confirmed that childhood sexual abuse was linked with becoming a child molester in adulthood . However, contrary to the expectations of the authors, there was no difference
between cleric and non-cleric offenders . Non-clericoffenders reported more, psychopathology thancleric offenders as measured by the MMPI-1 .
Psychopathology, lower education, non-cleric status, and history of childhood sexual abuse wereshown to be strong variables in the prediction ofsexual offending in adulthood . The authors suggested that these results be interpreted with caution
because the cleric offenders and cleric normal control samples were not similar. The offender group
was comprised of celibate priests while the control
group was comprised of Protestant ministers, who
are allowed to marry. Limitations of the study
included the reliance upon self-reports, which
inhibited data collection regarding detailed
accounts of childhood sexual abuse . The use of the
MMPI to assess psychopathology may haveaffected results because previous research (Loftus &Camargo, 1993) has illustrated that the MMPI may
not be sensitive enough to detect the psychologicalaspects of offending in clerics .

LANGEVIN, R., CURNOE, S ., & BAIN,

J. (2000) . A

STUDY OF CLERICS WHO COMMIT SEXUAL OFFENSES :ARE THEY DIFFERENT FROM OTHER SEX OFFENDERS?

CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, 24 (4), 535-545 .

This article compared 24 cleric offenders with 24
non-cleric sex offenders for differences on the basisof sexual history and preference, substance abuse,mental illness and personality, history of crime andviolence, neuropsychological impairments, andendocrine abnormalities . The offenders werematched according to offense type, age, education,and marital status and then compared to a control
sample of 2,125 sex offenders matched only
according to offense type . The findings suggested
that cleric sex offenders did not significantly differ
from the matched non-cleric sex offenders . Whilethe cleric offenders were similar to the matchedgroup, 70 .8% of the clerics were sexually deviant
and were characterized as being homosexual
pedophiles with courtship disorder . Cleric offenders
were older at the time of the first reported offense
and better educated than the non-cleric offenders .
Few participants in the cleric and non-cleric groups
had been sexually abused as children . None of theclergy participants were diagnosed with antisocial
personality disorder, but some displayed signs of substance abuse . The authors concluded that the sameassessment techniques (most notably phallometrictesting) used for the general population of sex
offenders should be utilized for cleric offenders .
Limitations of the study included the fact that theparticipants were older than sex offenders in generaland they were not matched on the basis of religion .

LAASER, M .R . (1991) . SEXUAL ADDICTION AND THE
CLERGY. PASTORAL PSYCHOLOGY, 39 (4), 213-235 .

Laaser discussed the role of sexual addiction inclergy misconduct . He asserted that sexual addiction and the role of pastor interact in such a way as
to form the new identity of sexually addicted clergy .
Rape and child molestation are discussed in termsof "authority rape," in which the individual inpower initiates the activity and the victim is unable
to resist because they regard their victimizer as
being powerful and knowledgeable . Laaser claimed
that the victim wants to be a part of that power in

2 36

MCGLONE, G .J . (2001) . SEXUALLY OFFENDING ANDCATHOLIC PRIESTS :NON-OFFENDING
ROMAN
CHARACTERIZATION AND ANALYSIS . DISSERTATIONABSTRACTS INTERNATIONAL, 62 (1-B), PP. 557.

linked to clergy offenders included shyness, loneliness, and passivity. Clerics have also displayed elevated MMPI scores in the areas of depression,authority concerns, and addiction problems .
Rorschach results indicated a greater affect constriction than normal . The author called for further
research to better understand the etiology of abuse .

This study utilized archival data on 158 sexually
offending Roman Catholic priests (pedophiles andephebophiles) and compared them to a matchedgroup of non-offending clerics . Comparison of
MCMI-II and Rorschach scores illustrated that the
majority of pedophiles had more dependent andschizoid features than the ephebophile group . The
ephebophiles showed differences on the following
Rorschach variables : human representation variable, reflections, texture, responses, the number of
responses, and Lambda . The MCMI-II data did notillustrate any higher than normal levels of narcissism or levels of dependency.

PLANTE, T.G ., MANUEL, G ., & BRYANT, C . (1996) .
PERSONALITY AND COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING AMONGHOSPITALIZED SEXUAL OFFENDING ROMAN CATHOLICPRIESTS . PASTORAL PSYCHOLOGY, 45 (2), 129-139 .
This study sought to understand the personality andcognitive characteristics of sexually abusive clerics ina sample of 160 Roman Catholic priests (80 sexual
abusers and 80 controls) . Researchers administered
the MMPI-2 (to evaluate defensive coping styles onscales L, K, 0-H, and R), WAIS-R, and HalsteadReitan measurements . Overcontrolled hostility was
found to be the only variable that differentiated thesex offenders from the control group . The cognitive
measures did not differentiate the two groups ; theauthors found that the sexually abusive clergy
tended to have higher verbal IQ scores than the control group . While this finding showed slight significance, it was nullified when age was accounted for asa variable . It is postulated that those priests who sexually offend may in fact be acting out their chronically overcontrolled anger and aggression . The
authors warned that while these results show promise, the study was hindered by a number of methodological flaws . The control group was comprised
only of hospitalized clergy as opposed to a normalgroup . The researchers only used the selected personality and cognitive measures, data was not collected from patient's history, details of the offense
were not disclosed, and the significant differences
found may not have shown clinical significance.

PLANTE, T.G . (1996) . CATHOLIC PRIESTS WHO SEXUALLY ABUSE MINORS : WHY DO WE HEAR SO MUCH YETKNOW SO LITTLE? PASTORAL PSYCHOLOGY, 44 (5),305-310 .
This article provided a brief overview of the literature regarding clergy offenders and their victims .
The author pointed out that while there werenumerous literatures devoted to sexual abuse ingeneral, there were very few pertaining to clergy
abuse . Plante posits that one reason why much is
unknown about the topic is because it is a contradiction . Society regards priests as being holy andGod-like, not predatory and abusive . In establishing
personality profiles of those individuals called tothe clergy, the article cited the MMPI data gatheredby Dunn (1999) that found that they were perfectionistic, worrisome, introversive, socially inept,
isolated, and withdrawn . Barry & Bordin (1967)
found that they came from homes where the motherwas perceived as being dominant and guilt wasoften used as a tool of discipline . Keddy, et al .
(1990) found that priests displayed more defensiveness in their MMPI scores . Plante then went on to
articulate that it was not until the mid-1980's thatthese cases garnered public attention, but the true
extent of the crisis is unknown. The literature also
illustrated that most Catholic priests believed to bepedophiles are in fact ephebophiles who have apreference for boys. A review of the literature
showed that personality variables found to be

RUZICKA, M .F. (1997) . PREDICTOR VARIABLES OF
CLERGY PEDOPHILES . PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORTS, 80,
589-590 .
Data was collected from 10 convicted cleric offenders in order to isolate variables, which may serve as
screening tools . The variables evaluated in the pilot
included familial traits, past sexual experience as a
victim, etc. The sample consisted of five Catholic

2 37priests, two Catholic religious brothers, a Baptist, a
Methodist, and a Protestant minister . Findings illustrated that the subjects were well educated, of average to above average intelligence, and had a limited
history of substance abuse . Eight out of the 10 perpetrators reported having a prior psychiatric history
and one had a criminal record . Three of the subjects
asserted that they were heterosexual while the restof the sample identified themselves as homosexualor bisexual . Every subject in the sample had morethan one victim (age range from six to 18 years old)
and the duration of the abuse ranged from five
weeks to five years . Eight out of the 10 perpetrators
reported a preference for boys .

these individuals . Appeals for the suspension of
judgment are utilized when the individual expects
the behavior to result in a negative emotional
response. The authors found that the majority ofthe priests' disclaimers were credentialing in which
they utilized the explanation of divine approval .
This strategy gives the priest a sense of power andprovides a basis for the abuse to be concealed .
Accounts are retrospective interpretations publicly
offered to explain the behavior and may be divided
into excuses and justifications . Excuses are designed
to mitigate the individual's responsibility while justifications are meant to normalize the behavior .
Justifications consist of denial of injury, denial of
victim, condemnation of condemners, appeal toloyalties, sad tale, and self-fulfillment . In evaluating
the clergy narratives the authors found that almost
every example involved denial of injury accounts .
This is done in a variety of ways including the claimthat the sex was consensual . The work of the clergy
is emphasized in order to assert that it should not becompromised by a behavioral lapse . The abuse may
be minimized and isolated in order to legitimize
acceptable and unacceptable traits of sexuality .
Excuses consist of four types: accident accounts,
defeasibility accounts, biological drive accounts,
and scapegoating accounts . The authors found that
accident accounts were usually articulated by
Church officials and serve to assert that the individual could not control environmental variables, thus
mitigating responsibility. Scapegoating accounts
were utilized by Church officials to shift responsibility for the behavior to the actions of anotherindividual. This is evident in officials' asserting thatvarious interest groups were utilizing the scandal
for their own political agenda . Defeasibility was
also utilized in order to explain impaired mental
capacity as a result of mental disorder, intoxication/addiction, or psychological duress . This excuse
is utilized most often at the individual priest's level
while Church officials use the other two strategies .
The authors concluded that narratives should beinterpreted as a sequence rather than individual
events. These narratives must also be evaluatedthrough their social context as well .

THOMSON, J .G ., MAROLLA, J .A., & BROMLEY, D.G .

(1998) . DISCLAIMERS AND ACCOUNTS IN CASES OFCATHOLIC PRIESTS ACCUSED OF P EDOPHILIA . IN A.
SHUPE (ED .) . WOLVES WITHIN THE FOLD : RELIGIOUS
LEADERSHIP AND ABUSES OF POWER (PP.

175-189) .

NEW BRUNSWICK, NJ : RUTGERS UNIVERSITY PRESS .

This chapter examined the narratives priests used toinitiate sexual abuse of children and how they
explained their actions . The narratives were gathered from four books and 257 press reports .
Narratives are divided into two sections, disclaimers and accounts . Disclaimers are prospective
interpretations, which are developed in the victimperpetrator relationship and are concealed . The
authors asserted that, "Disclaimers are offered tocushion an anticipated reaction when some behavior is about to be discovered ." Five types of disclaimers exist. Hedging disclaimers are used when
the individual is considering a line of behavior but
they are willing to consider alternatives .
Credentialing occurs when a person is committed toa behavior they know will be discrediting and thus
they offer evidence to legitimize the action . Sin
license is similar to credentialing but the individual
tries to depict the situation in a manner where general rules of conduct may be suspended . Cognitive
disclaimers are utilized when an individual believes
that a situation is not likely to be viewed in a similar manner by others and they need to reassure238