日常生活でペットからうつる
人と動物の共通感染症

日常生活において、身近なペットからうつる人と動物の共通感染症について、病気の知識や予防の方法などを広く普及する。

《主催》人と動物の共通感染症研究会《司会／座長》「日常生活でペットからうつる人と動物の共通感染症」

センター長）

岡部 信彦氏（国 立 感 染 症 研 究 所 感 染 症 情 報 セ ン タ ー《演者》

丸山 総一氏（日本大学 生物資源科学部 教授）「猫からうつる病気：猫ひっかき病」「犬由来細菌感染症（ブルセラ症とカプノサイトファーガ症）」

今岡 浩一氏（国立感染症研究所 獣医科学部 第一室長）「オウム病を知る ー鳥と安心して暮らすためにー」

福士 秀人氏（岐阜大学 応用生物科学部 教授）「わが国における動物由来感染症対策」

補佐）

森 田 剛 史 氏（ 厚 生 労 働 省 健 康 局 結 核 感 染 症 課 課 長

Workshop I

ワークショップ Ⅰ“Zoonoses: Diseases that Transfer between Pets and Humans in
Daily Life”
The aim of this workshop is to disseminate knowledge and prevention of zoonoses that be transmitted from petanimals in daily life.
Organizer: Society for Zoonoses Research
MC / Chairperson:“Zoonosis: Diseases that Transfer Between Pets and Humans in Daily Life”
Nobuhiko OKABE, MD, PhD, Director,
Infectious Diseases Surveillance Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
Speakers:“Cat-Scratch Disease”
Soichi MARUYAMA, DVM, PhD, Professor, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University“Bacterial Infection from Dogs and Cats – Brucellosis and Capnocytophaga canimorsus infection –”Koichi IMAOKA, DVM, PhD, Laboratory Chief, Laboratory of Reservoir Control of Zoonoses, Department
of Veterinary Science, National Institute of Infectious Diseases“What is ‘Psittacosis’? – Worry-free Living with Companion Birds –”Hideto FUKUSHI, DVM, PhD, Professor, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University“Countermeasures in Japan for Preventing Zoonoses”
Takeshi MORITA, DVM, Deputy Director, Tuberculosis and Infectious Disease Division, Health Service
Bureau, Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 2012

23

《主催者および座長メッセージ

ORGANIZER & CHAIR MESSAGE》

日常生活でペットからうつる人と動物の共通感染症
Zoonosis: Diseases that Transfer Between Pets and Humans in Daily Life
国立感染症研究所感染症情報センター センター長・岡部 信彦

Nobuhiko OKABE, MD, PhD, Director,
Infectious Diseases Surveillance Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases

人にとって動物は、畜産動物として、ペットとして、のみならず、一般の人々でも野生動物や珍獣との接触をそれぞれ必要な、大切なものです。また野生動物は我々容易にし、思いがけない感染症との遭遇の可能性を増加と住みわけが必要ですが、自然の中で「生」を感じさせさせています。動物を飼うときには、動物を正しく知るてくれるものであり、地球は人だけのものではないこと必要があり、また両者の間にはある程度のバリアも必要を思い知らされてくれます。動物園などで、子どもたちです。人の健康も守り、動物の健康も守らなくてはいけをわくわくさせてくれるものもあり、科学研究上重要なないからです。

役割を果たしてくれるものもあります。

日本は諸外国に比べて動物からうつる感染症の少ないことにペットは、日常生活の中でことに子どもたちに国ですが、このワークショップでは、全体の日本の状況、「生命」を教えてくれるものであり、人々の気持ちを和ま

ネコ、鳥、ヤギやヒツジなどからの感染症についてそれせてくれるものでもあります。しかし動物は生き物であぞれの専門家から話を伺うことにしました。ペットやる以上、感染症の原因となる微生物（細菌・ウイルス・動物が人々にとって危険なもの、ということではなく、寄生虫など）を持っており、無菌動物は特殊な状況でし「正しい動物とのつき合いと人の健康」を理解することがかあり得ません。その微生物は、人にとって健康上の影

このワークショップの目的です。

響のあるものが少なからずあります。またペットブームといわれるものは、従来から良く知られているペット物のことを考えることが出来ます。

Animals, whether they be farm animals (livestock) orcompanion animals (pets) are important and necessary to thelives of humans. And, although wild animals - by definition- are separated from our daily lives, they help us understandsomething of the meaning of life and nature. They remind
us that this planet is not ours alone. Zoo animals also
provide exciting experiences for children and opportunities
for scientific research.

increases the chances of exposure to unexpected infectious
diseases. So it is necessary to be properly informed,
understand how to keep our animals and be aware that acertain distance or barrier between humans and animals is
required. This is not only so that we can protect our own
health but also so we can protect the health of animals.

The pets in our everyday lives teach children the importanceof life as well as providing a special comfort to a great many
people. Yet, we must be ever mindful that animals are livingorganisms that also carry microorganisms such as bacteria,
viruses, parasites which are capable of causing infectious
diseases. (Germ-free animals exist only under unique
circumstances). So the chances that these microorganisms
may affect human health at some point are more than likely.
With the recent boom in the pet business people can now
acquire any kind of animal, from traditional pets to wild
and/or rare species. Contact with wild animals in particular24

動物は人のことを考えることは出来ませんが、人は動

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

Zoonosis is not common in Japan compared to many othercountries. However, in this workshop we will learn from
specialists working in different fields about the generalsituation Japan faces regarding infectious diseases carried,
respectively, by, cats, birds, goats, sheep and other animals.
The purpose of the workshop is not to raise an alarm thatpets and animals pose a risk to our health, but to understandthe importance of keeping the correct “relationship between
animals and people to protect human health”.
We should also remember that animals cannot think about
how they to relate to us but we can think about how we torelate to them.

猫からうつる病気：猫ひっかき病
Cat-Scratch Disease
日本大学 生物資源科学部 教授・丸山 総一

Soichi MARUYAMA, DVM, PhD, Professor,
College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University

現在，わが国では，約 1,000 万頭（2010 年現在）もの猫から人に CSD を感染させる上で，重要な役割を果たし猫が一般の家庭で飼育されています。多くの猫は室内で飼ています。猫はノミの糞便中に排泄された菌を，グルー

育されており，人と身近に接触する機会も多いことから，ミングの際に歯牙や爪に付着・汚染させます。これらの猫と楽しく，また，快適な生活を過ごすためには，その生猫が，人を引っかくと傷口から菌が侵入して感染します。

態や習性はもちろんのこと，病気，特に人と動物に共通の私たちが全国の動物病院に来院した猫 690 頭について調

感染症に対する正しい認識を持つことが重要です。

査したところ，その 7.2% が Bartonella 属菌を保菌して猫 ひ っ か き 病 は， そ の 英 名（Cat-scratch disease；

いることが明らかになりました。地域別の猫の感染率は，CSD）が示すように，主に猫の掻傷や咬傷により感染

寒冷な地域より温暖な地域の猫，また，飼育（生息）密します。その病原体は，猫の赤血球内に寄生している度が高い都市部の猫で高い傾向がみられました。猫ノミ

Bartonella henselae という細菌ですが，猫には何の症状

は温暖・湿潤な所で繁殖することから，猫の感染状況は，も現しません。CSD は，子供やネコノミが多数寄生した

猫ノミ等の分布や感染猫と接触する機会の多寡と関係し子猫を飼育している人に多発します。猫に引っかかれてているといえます。

3 ～ 10 日目に，傷口に虫さされに似た病変が形成され，CSD の予防には，性格のおとなしい猫を飼うこと，定丘疹から化膿や潰瘍にまで発展する場合もあります。さ期的な爪切り，猫（特に子猫）との接触後の手指の洗浄，らに，1，2 週間後にリンパ節が腫脹し，数週間から数ヶ猫による外傷の消毒，ネコノミの駆除等の一般的な衛生

月続くこともあります。発熱，倦怠，食欲不振などもみ対策で対応します。

られます。猫ノミは，猫と猫の間で本菌を伝播させたり，Cat-scratch disease (CSD) is a worldwide zoonosis caused
by cat scratch or bite. The causative agent is a bacterium,
Bartonella henselae which infects in the erythrocytes ofcats, but the cats don’t show any clinical signs. CSD ismore frequently observed in children and young adults
under 20 years of age who own a young cat (< 1 year ofage, especially if this cat is infested with fleas). CSD ischaracterized by a benign regional lymphadenopathy.
Three to 10 days after receiving a cat scratch or a bite, apapule and then a pustule develop at the inoculation site.
Regional lymphadenopathy develops 1 to 2 weeks after
the inoculation and can persist for a few weeks to several
months. Low-grade fever, malaise, and / or anorexia areoften observed.

We investigated the prevalence of bartonella infection
among 690 pet cats derived from six Japanese cities.
Bartonella species were isolated from 7.2% of all the catsexamined. High prevalence of the infection was foundin cats from the southern part of Japan and with flea
infestation. Warm and humid climates and flea infestation
are strongly associated with the prevalence of cat infection,
supporting arthropod vector involvement in the transmission
between cats.
For prevention of CSD, it is recommended that only gentle
cats be selected as companion animals and that cat owners
wash their hands after handling pets and clean any bites, orscratches promptly with soap and water. Flea control in catsis also important for the prevention of CSD.

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201225

犬由来細菌感染症（ブルセラ症とカプノサイトファーガ症）
Bacterial Infection from Dogs and Cats – Brucellosis and Capnocytophaga
canimorsus infection国立感染症研究所 獣医科学部 第一室長・今岡 浩一

Koichi IMAOKA, DVM, PhD, Laboratory Chief,
Laboratory of Reservoir Control of Zoonoses, Department of Veterinary Science, National Institute of Infectious Diseases

26

イヌブルセラ症は Brucella canis によるイヌとヒトとのカプノサイトファーガ・カニモルサス感染症はイヌ・人獣共通感染症です。B. canis はアメリカでイヌ流産の原

ネコの口腔内常在菌である Capnocytophaga canimorsus

因菌として、1966 年に LE Charmichael により発見されによる感染症で、イヌ・ネコ咬・掻傷により感染しまました。日本では、1971 年の輸入ビーグル犬によると思す。我々の調査ではイヌの 74％、ネコの 57％が口腔内われる繁殖施設内集団発生が最初の報告です。血清学的に保菌していました。世界でも 250 例ほどと、まれです

調査では、現在でも国内の 3-5％ほどのイヌが感染歴を持が、死亡率は約 30％におよびます。国内でも 2002 年以

ち、時折、繁殖施設で集団発生が認められます。イヌは降、29 例の報告があり、そのうち 8 名が死亡していま

流産時の汚物や、尿、乳汁などを介して感染します。オ

す。ただし、これら報告は敗血症や髄膜炎といった重症

スは精巣上体炎、メスは死・流産を起こすことがありま例です。そのため軽症者を含めた実感染者数は、もっとす。イヌブルセラ症は家畜伝染病予防法の対象外なので、多いと思われます。いわゆる免疫学的弱者は易感染者で治療を行うことも可能ですが、細胞内寄生菌のため、長すが、健常者でも感染・発症します。ただ、患者の年齢期間にわたる抗生物質の投与が必要で、治療は困難です。

は 40 才代以上に多く、男女比は 3：1 と男性が多くなっ日本では 1999 年以降 10 例と、ヒトの感染患者もまれにています。病気のことを理解し、イヌ・ネコとのつきあ報告されています。ただ、B. canis のヒトでの病原性は、い方に気をつけていれば、必ずしも恐れるものではあり

他の家畜ブルセラ菌よりも弱く、感染しても発症しない、ませんが、認知度はまだまだ低く、今後の高齢化社会でまたは気づかない事も多いと考えられています。

は気をつけなければならない感染症の一つです。

Brucella canis infection is a kind of zoonoses between dogs
and human. In 1966 B. canis was found to be a causative
pathogen in dog miscarriages by L.E. Carmichael. In
such cases, the female dogs abort dead pups between 4560 days of gestation without any other clinical signs. The
dogs become infected through aborted materials, vaginal
discharges, seminal secretions, urine or mother's milk. In
Japan, outbreaks were observed at laboratory dog facilities
in the 1970’s. At the time, the canine brucellosis spread to
not only laboratory dog but also to pet dogs. In more recent
years, outbreaks at kennels have sometimes been observed.
Because canine brucellosis is not a notifiable disease underJapan’s Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control Law,
the actual number of infected dogs is unclear. Recent seropositivity of anti-B. canis Abs are estimated at 3-5% in pet
dogs. B. canis is an intracellular bacterium so it is necessary
to use antibiotics for a long period. Even after a great dealof time and effort it is quite difficult to cure the infected
dogs. In the case of humans, 10 patients infected with B.
canis have been reported in Japan since 1999. Because thepathogenicity of B. canis to humans is lower than those of
the other Brucella strains, it is considered that humans do
not usually develop clinical symptoms.

Capnocytophaga canimorsus, an intraoral indigenous
bacterium of dogs and cats, can infect a human via a dog/
cat bite or scratch. Our own investigations have revealed
that 74% of dogs and 57% of cats have C. canimorsus in
their oral cavity. C. canimorsus is known as a causative
agent of serious systemic infection, i.e., sepsis, meningitis,
septic shock, DIC and sometimes death. The first case of
C. canimorsus infection was reported in 1976. Since then,around 250 cases have been reported world-wide and its
mortality rate is approximately 30%. In Japan, 29 cases
have been reported since 2002, and 8 of those resulted indeath. All those patients showed severe symptoms so it issuspected that there must be many more unreported cases
when the illness is only slight. More than 90% of patients
have been over 40 years old and around 75% male whichsuggest that age and gender are key infection risk factors.

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

It is widely recognized that the aging society will advancein Japan, meaning that greater attention will be needed inorder to avoid zoonoses derived from pet animals.

オウム病を知る−鳥と安心して暮らすために−
What is ‘Psittacosis’? – Worry-free Living with Companion Birds 岐阜大学 応用生物科学部 教授・福士 秀人

Hideto FUKUSHI, DVM, PhD, Professor,
Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University

オウム病はオウム・インコ類やハトなどの鳥類が持っ私たちのこれまでの調査では，健康診断として調べらているクラミジアと呼ばれる微生物がヒトに感染するこれた鳥の数パーセントからクラミジアが検出されました．

とによって起きる病気です．オウム病と診断した医師は以前は 5% くらいでしたが，近年は減少しています．ク

ただちに届け出ることが義務となっています．日本では

ラミジアが検出された鳥種をみると，オカメインコやセ1999 年以降，年間 20 例くらいが届け出られていますが，

キセイインコなど家庭でよく飼われている鳥でした．検

近年は減少傾向にあります．オウム病を防ぐには感染源出率という観点では，検体数が少ないのですが，ヨウムとなる鳥を発見し，治療することが必要です．クラミジなどの大型鳥種で高い検出率でした．

アを持っている鳥は一見健康のまま病原体であるクラミ

クラミジアの検出は遺伝子検査により行われます．材

ジアを糞便中に排出します．これが感染源となります．

料は新鮮な糞便です．クラミジアが検出された場合は獣

沈鬱や緑色便をだすなど症状を示す鳥の場合には大量の医師の指導により治療を行います．鳥種により抗生物質

病原体が糞便中に含まれるようになるので，飼い主が感の投与方法が異なることはいうまでもありません．ヒト

染するリスクはかなり高くなります．しかしながら，クでも同様に抗生物質により治療されます．適切な対応がラミジアは細菌の一種です．適切な抗生物質により治療なされれば，治癒します．

することができます．

オウム病を防ぐには鳥の健康管理を適切に行なうことが大切です．

Psittacosis is a zoonotic disease caused by transmission ofChlamydia psittaci bacteria from birds to human beings.
In Japan, a doctor who diagnoses psittacosis has a duty toreport the case to the government by the law. Since 1999,
about 20 cases have been reported annually, although thenumber of official reports has been decreasing in theseyears. Prevention of psittacosis starts from detection of
infected birds and treatment. Infected birds will excretechlamydia into their feces without any clinical symptoms.
Coming into contact with this fecal material can be thesource of psittacosis in humans. If a bird shows symptoms
including depression and greenish droppings, large amountsof chlamydia may become present in the feces and the riskof infection becomes higher. However, as chlamydia isa kind of bacteria, chlamydial infection can be treated by
antibiotics.

We detected chlamydia in a small percentage of samples.
Compared to our previous investigations, which showed a
detection rate of approx. 5%, in recent years the detection
rates have showed a decreasing tendency. Birds detectedwith chlamydia include cockatiels and budgerigars which
are popular pet birds in Japan. Higher detection wasobserved in large psittacine birds including the African grey.
Chlamydia is detected by the examination of fresh feces
by DNA diagnosis using PCR (polymerase chain reaction).
Birds infected by chlamydia should be treated with
antibiotics by a veterinarian and antibiotic inoculation
should be chosen according to the species of bird. Human
psittacosis can also be treated by antibiotics.
Psittacosis is a curable disease if appropriate treatment isadministered but it is essential to prevent psittacosis throughthe examination and ordinary health care of companion
birds.

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201227

我が国における動物由来感染症対策Countermeasures in Japan for Preventing Zoonoses
厚生労働省 健康局結核感染症課 課長補佐・森田 剛史

Takeshi MORITA, DVM, Deputy Director,
Tuberculosis and Infectious Disease Division, Health Service Bureau, Ministry of Health, Laborand Welfare「動物由来感染症」という語は、動物から人に感染する病気の総称として用いている。
近年、世界では、従来知られていなかった新しい感染者を診断した場合の届出や汚染物品の消毒、感染源 とな症が見つかっているが、それらの多くは動物由来感染症

る動物等への対応等の必要な措置が講じられるとともに、であると言われている。

必要に応じて、ガイドラインやＱ＆Ａを作成し、動物由こうした動物由来感染症に対応するため、厚生労働省
では、「感染症の予防及び感染症の患者に対する医療に関する法律」（感染症法）や「狂犬病予防法」などに基づいた施策を講じている。

来感染症の対応に役立てている。
さらに、調査研究等により、最新の知見の収集等を行い、必要な対策が講じられるようにしている。
一方、動物由来感染症の予防のためには、個人の対応

具体的には、狂犬病予防法に関しては、主要な感染も重要である。各個人が感染症についての正しい知識を源となる犬について、登録とワクチン接種を義務づけ、得て、日頃から動物との接し方に注意していただきたい。

万一の国内侵入時のまん延防止を図るとともに、有事に厚生労働省では、ホームページやポスター、ハンドブッ

おける円滑な対応に資するよう、対応ガイドラインの作

クなどを通じて動物由来感染症に関する情報発信をして成などを行っている。

いるので、参考にしていただきたい。

The term “zoonosis” is used as a generic name for any
disease that is transmitted to humans by animals. In recent
years around the world outbreaks of new infectious zoonotic
diseases have been reported, most of which are considered
as non-existent in the past. To combat these animal-derived
infectious diseases, Japan’s Ministry of Health, Labour andWelfare has been carrying out various counter-measures
based on legislation such as the Law Concerning Preventionof Infectious Diseases and Medical Care for Patients ofInfections (the Infectious Diseases Control Law), and the
Rabies Prevention Law.

question-and-answer sheets and other guidelines fortackling zoonoses are also prepared. In addition, researchand investigations are also conducted to collect the latest
knowledge so that all necessary measures can be developed.

The Rabies Prevention Law, in particular, makes it
mandatory for dogs (the main infection source for rabies) tobe registered and vaccinated to prevent potential epidemic
in the event that an unexpected virus enters Japan. The
legislation also includes guidelines to efficiently carryout countermeasure operations during emergencies. The
Infectious Diseases Control Law categorizes diseases
referred to the infectivity of the agents and the severity ofthe diseases due to countermeasures such as notification ofa diagnosed patient, how to sterilize contaminated materials
and how to handle the infected animals. As required,

28

また、感染症法に関しては、病原体の感染力や病気の重症度などを踏まえて類型化し、その類型に応じて、患

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

On the other hand it is also important that people on
an individual basis take appropriate action to prevent
zoonotic diseases. I would like everybody, especially thoseencountering animals on a regular basis, to have accurate
information about infectious diseases and take more care.
I therefore encourage everybody to refer to the website,
posters and booklets about zoonoses as published by the
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare.

WS1-Record

WS1- 記録集

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 2012

29

《主催者および座長メッセージ

ORGANIZER & CHAIR MESSAGE》

日常生活でペットからうつる人と動物の共通感染症
Zoonosis: Diseases that Transfer Between Pets and Humans in Daily Life
国立感染症研究所感染症情報センター センター長・岡部 信彦

Nobuhiko OKABE, MD, PhD, Director,
Infectious Diseases Surveillance Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases

Hello, everybody. Thank you very much for making

their own doctor groups, so there are very few points

the effort to attend this meeting in spite of the snowyof contact between the two groups. We wanted toweather. I came here from Tokyo by Shinkansen, anddiscuss the issue by bringing doctors and veterinarians

the train was delayed for a long time due to the snow.

together. That is how this study group began.

Today, several speakers will be giving talks on the

For the present project, we selected the theme ofsubject of “Zoonoses: Diseases that transfer between

zoonoses. I am sure those of you who are here at thispets and humans in daily life.” We have a study

meeting have a rough grasp of this subject already,group on zoonoses and that group has been helping

as pets are naturally subject to a number of diseases.

out with this project. When talking about diseases

The general contents of our study meeting have been

affecting people and animals, the term “zoonosis”

outlined in a pamphlet, entitled “Handbook of Infectious(plural “zoonoses”) has been widely used in English

Diseases of Animal Origin 2012”. In here, the sentenceover the years. We thought that this term was difficult“rules should be followed even among intimate friends”

for Japanese people to understand, and when theappears. What this means is that because animals can’t

term is written in Japanese, the characters don’t haveunderstand people, the onus is on people to understanda very good feel, so we named our study group “Hitoanimals well and care about them. Also, it is better toto Dobutsu no Kyotsu Kansensho Kenkyukai” (Study

prevent diseases spreading from animals to humans inGroup on Infectious Diseases Common to Humans andthe first place than be forced to treat them after they

Animals).

have already spread to humans. That is the main driftof the study meeting.

I am originally a pediatrician so I am actually a doctor
who specializes in medicine for people. Indeed, doctors

On page 26, in the first of the Workshop I abstracts, I

who work in the animal field such as veterinarians canhave written that “animals can’t think about how they

discuss common themes such as the human diseases

relate to us, but we can think about how to relate tothat also infect animals, although this is something that

them.” This is my key concept.

happens rather rarely in practice. Accordingly, we haveheld discussions with veterinarians on the keyword of

I have asked four researchers to give talks today.

animal diseases that infect humans, and tried to findI myself am Nobuhiko Okabe from the Infectious

some points in common between the two.

Diseases Surveillance Center of the National Institute of
Infectious Diseases, and I will be serving as moderator

30

Up to now, such meetings or discussions betweenof this workshop. Within Japan’s Ministry of Health,doctors and veterinarians have been held only rarely.

Labour and Welfare - the administrative agency in

Mostly veterinarians only talk about this issue withincharge of human health matters - there is a section that

their own veterinarian circles, while doctors do so indeals with infectious diseases called the ‘Tuberculosis

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

and Infectious Disease Control Division’. Groups ofveterinary technical officers and specialists are at workin the division. These groups are working on diseases
that spread from people to animals, animal diseases,
and they issue official warnings about these diseases,
etc. Several leading experts in various fields from thesegroups are also with us today.
The first talk is entitled “Cat-Scratch Disease”. The
lecturer is Professor Soichi Maruyama of the College of
Bioresource Sciences at Nihon University. The second
talk is entitled “Bacterial infection from Dogs and Cats –Brucellosis and Capnocytophaga canimorsus infection”.
These names may be rather unfamiliar to you but they
are infectious diseases which we all need to be vigilant
about. The lecturer is Professor Koichi Imaoka, Chiefof the Laboratory of Reservoir Control of Zoonoses atthe Department of Veterinary Science of the National
Institute of Infectious Diseases. The third talk, on thesubject of “What is Psittacosis? – Worry-free living with
Companion Birds”, will be given by Professor Hideto
Fukushi of Gifu University. And lastly, under the title of“Countermeasures in Japan for Preventing Zoonoses”,
Dr. Takeshi Morita of the Tuberculosis and Infectious
Disease Division at the Health Service Bureau of the
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare will speak
about how administrative cautions are issued. It seems
that we have ample time, so if you have any questions,
not limited to the subjects of the talks but also on
general issues related to animal-derived infectious
diseases, please feel free to ask, and we will attempt toanswer them to the best of our knowledge, although if
the question falls outside our areas of specialty, we may
not always be able to provide a clear answer. So thatsums up how this section has been constructed. Pleasejoin in as much as you can.
Now, I would like to introduce the first speaker,
Professor Soichi Maruyama. Looking at his talk title, thekeyword is “cat” and the title is “Cat-Scratch Disease”.
Professor Maruyama, please begin.

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201231

猫からうつる病気：猫ひっかき病
Cat-Scratch Disease
日本大学 生物資源科学部 教授・丸山 総一

Soichi MARUYAMA, DVM, PhD, Professor,
College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University

Hello, everybody. I am Soichi Maruyama of Nihonas pets in Japan. This tells us that many people are pet

University. Today I am going to talk about cat-scratch

owners. Actually, I am one of these people as I am a dog

disease (CSD) as a representative example of diseases

owner. When we look at the figures for the number offrom cats.

pets being kept per pet-owning household, it turns outthat an average of 1.29 dogs and 1.7 cats are kept per

To begin, as Dr. Okabe introduced earlier, I will try tohousehold. So, from the data, it is clear that many of the

explain in simple terms about zoonoses, or zoonotic

households keep more than one animal as pet.

infections. As my slide shows, a zoonosis is an infectious
disease or an infection that can be transferred between

This is a dog that my family and I take care of. The way

human beings and other vertebrates under natural

we treat pets in Japan is different to the old days. In

conditions. Sometimes, zoonoses are spread fromtreating them as members of the family, we have muchhumans to other animals but, in many cases, they arecloser contact with our pets. In this picture, we hug andspread from animals to humans. As was introduced

stroke our dog every day and in general maintain a very

earlier, the technical term for diseases maintained inclose distance. But sometimes disease-causing agentsnature by humans and other animals is ‘zoonosis’.

carried by cats or dogs infect people accidentally. Givensuch circumstances, when we keep pets, we need toAmong the 1,709 pathogens that infect humans, almost

know more not only about the biology of the animals

half of them are zoonotic infections. Moreover, among

themselves, but also about the diseases they carry.

156 emerging infectious diseases listed as having

So today, I would like to talk to you about CSD as an

begun to spread since 1970 (a number which is now

example of a disease that is often transmitted from cats

a little higher), 73% have been found to be zoonotic

to humans.

infections. So, I think it is fair to say that we are
surrounded by a great many infectious diseases from

CSD was first reported over half a century ago in 1950

animals.

in France. The first case in Japan was reported three
years after that, in 1953. However, it took a long time

We share our living environment with a variety of

to isolate the disease-causing agent from the patients. It

animals. These include the livestock that provide thewas finally identified in 1992. So I think we can countmeat we eat every day. Also, in Japan in recent years,

CSD as an emerging infection.

wild animals have been intruding more frequently than
before into human residential areas. Cats and dogs are

Unfortunately we do not have precise data on how

extremely popular as pets, and there are also many

many people have contracted CSD. The number ofpeople who keep reptiles as pets.

cases is taken from an article according to which there
were approximately 22,000 cases in the United States

32

According to the data in 2009, approximately

in 1992, and the number increased to approximately

12,320,000 dogs and 10,020,000 cats are being kept

40,000 cases by 1997. The status of CSD in other

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

countries is totally unknown.

the fat cells under the skin.

This is a questionnaire survey that was given toThis picture shows an early lesion. Here is an injury thatJapanese physicians in order to try to ascertain what

was caused by a cat scratch. This picture also shows

types of zoonosis they had found among their patients.

where a claw mark on the arm has caused an injury

The respondents included internists and surgeons here

resembling that of an insect bite but which doesn’in Kobe. According to the results, the most commont heal. This picture shows a symptom developed by azoonosis found by physicians both in Fukuoka and in

student who is a graduate of my college. She comes

Kobe was CSD. They also reported high rates of otherfrom Kobe, and while she was taking an instructiondiseases, such as psittacosis, which will be discussed

course at a private veterinary clinic in Kobe during herlater today, but the research indicates that CSD is thesummer vacation, she was scratched by a tomcat thatmost common zoonosis in terms of the number of cases

had been brought to the clinic for spaying. According

discovered. However, there is no legal requirement

to the student, she developed the symptom shown here,

to report CSD infections in Japan, so there are

and then her lymph nodes became swollen. Soon after

unfortunately no national statistics.

the lesion occurs, such symptoms can appear. Later,
she developed a fever and her lymph nodes swelled

The agent of CSD is the bacterium, Bartonella henselae.

to the size of eggs, as shown in the slide. The lymph

The bacterium can propagate in artificial medium,

nodes close to the wound site caused by a scratch or

and Bartonella henselae is a very small bacterium

bite become swollen like this. After that, the woundthat can exist inside the red blood cells of cats. I will

becomes red if it is rubbed and I have heard that it can

explain later why bacteria in cats’ red blood cells

be very painful.

can be transmitted to humans through cat bites andscratches. These bacteria require several weeks toThis next picture shows lymph nodes in the inguinal

form a colony. A colony in this sense means that thearea hugely swollen. This is a CT image, and you canbacteria have propagated in an artificial medium tosee how the nodes have swollen. Next, looking at thisthe point where they form a clump large enough to bepatient’s feet, you will notice a lot of fleabites. Thisvisible. Usually, in the case of coliform bacteria suchis because the patient was bitten many times by theas E. coli or Salmonella, a colony can be grown in an

fleas infesting his pet kitten. He was bitten and thenartificial medium within a single day. But in the case of

scratched himself many times. Then, the inguinal lymph

Bartonella, the agent of CSD, the process takes several

nodes became swollen. When he went for a medical

weeks. This bacterium will not grow into colonies

examination he was found to have been infected with

unless we cultivate it for a very long period of time.

CSD. This is an example of a flea-borne CSD case andthe case is uncommon.

As for the symptoms, when an immunologically healthy
individual is infected with CSD-causing bacteria, aHere is a case in which neuroretinitis has developed.

papule will appear at the site of infection resembling

If a person touches the fur of a cat with CSD-causing

an insect bite, (I will show you a picture of this later),bacteria and then rubs his or her eye with the sameor else the patient will develop a fever. Next, they

hand, the bacteria can transfer to the eye. Neuroretinitis

will develop a general malaise, and then the nearby

or conjunctivitis may then develop.

lymph nodes will become swollen. Many CSD-infectedindividuals exhibit these symptoms, but between 5

When immunosuppressed individuals are infected

and 10% of them also go on to develop additionalwith Bartonella henselae, they can develop bacillary

symptoms such as an eye symptom known as Parinaud’angiomatosis, a condition that may resemble Kaposi’s oculoglandular syndrome, encephalitis, and/ors sarcoma, on the skin. In this picture, you can see aerythema nodosum (EN), which is an inflammation oflesion that has developed on a finger. Such lesions can

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201233

mimic a granuloma. They may also develop, not onlywith the dog without being discouraged. From this, iton the skin, but within the liver or spleen where they

seems natural that boys would have a higher frequency

can produce serious symptoms. Occasionally, otherof being scratched or bitten by cats. In the case of adult

symptoms such as a lung abscess or endocarditis canwomen, when the family has a cat, it is often the motheralso appear.

or elder sister who takes care of the animal, meaningthat women tend to have a higher frequency of close

As you might expect from the name of this disease,contact with cats.

cats are the main source of CSD infections. When we
performed examinations on 63 CSD patients, we found

When we checked the age distribution from thethat the infections were cat-related in 58 cases(92.1%),.

antibody prevalence rate, we examined 25 maleCases involving kittens were particularly common.

patients and 23 female patients clinically diagnosed as

As was mentioned earlier, there are rare examples inhaving CSD, regardless of whether or not antibodies

which dogs are also carriers of the infectious agent.

were present. The results showed that an greaternumber of women were carrying antibodies to theActually, these results were taken from researchdisease. I have found similar results when I observeon antibody prevalence rates. In this research, we

students at my own college. As may be expected, when

examined for the presence of antibodies in the blood,cats are present, the female students get closest towhich provides an indication of whether or not anthem, stroking them or patting them on the head andindividual has been infected with a given disease insaying “how cute!” From this, we can say that women

the past. Firstly, we roughly divided the subjects into

generally have a higher ratio of involvement with cats

those who had been in contact with cats and thosethan men do.

who had not. As a result, we ascertained that 17.4%of the subjects who had been in contact with cats had

This slide shows the causes of CSD. All of these cases

antibodies to Bartonella henselae while, among those

involved cats. Looking at the data, as you might expect,

who had no contact, 7.9% had antibodies. Among those

we find that 44.8% of the patients developed their CSD

who were unsure whether or not they had had contact,

symptoms as a result of being scratched. Surprisingly,

the corresponding ratio was 4.8%. From this, we canonly a few of them developed their symptoms due tosay that having contact with cats is an important factor.

bite wounds. Interestingly, 41.4% developed symptoms
after merely touching a cat and only 5.2% developed

On this occasion, we checked the age distribution of

their symptoms due to fleabites. These cases all

patients with CSD and discovered that among children

involved cats so we can say that bites, scratches or

up to nine years old, the majority of such patients areother close contact with cats are among the causes ofboys, while among teenagers and adults up to their

CSD development.

forties, the majority are female. However, this does
not necessarily mean that there is any difference inThis graph shows how CSD develops on a month-by-

sensitivity to the infection between males and females.

month basis. The number of patients increases up to

It may simply reflect the frequency and intensity witha peak in September and October. Surprisingly, fromwhich people come into contact with cats. For example,

February until around April, May and June there areyoung boys who live with a cat at home may be more

fewer cases. I think this may be related in some way to

inclined than young girls to grab their pet suddenly,

the flea-hatching season. Possibly, when the hot season

which scares the cat and may lead it to scratch or bite

arrives, more fleas hatch and jump onto cats. Thisin response. In my own home, my children often playcauses the number of CSD-infected cats to increase, andwith the dog, and since the animal ranks the children

this in turn is linked to the increase in month-by-monthat the bottom of the social hierarchy, they often get

CSD development.

barked at or bitten. Still, the children continue to play34

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

This is the mode of transmission of CSD. Consider

However, the carrier ratios increased as we moved tothat this cat has the bacteria Bartonella henselae in its

regions further south. This is the result of a survey byblood. A flea sucks blood from this cat, and later jumps

veterinarians in Sanda City, Hyogo. Here, the carrier

onto another cat, where it again sucks blood and also

ratio was very low. As a tendency, the carrier ratios

deposits feces. The bacteria in the blood are mixed in

become progressively higher in regions further south.

with the feces, which sticks to the cat’s skin or fur. We

Also, cats in urban areas tend to have unexpectedly

know from watching cats that they groom themselves

high carrier ratios.

frequently. While the second cat is grooming, it takes
bacteria into its mouth as well as onto its claws. If thisThis is because in the more southern parts of Japan,

cat later bites or scratches a person, the bacteria cancats are infested with fleas all year round. Also, in

infect that person. Alternatively, when a person hugs aurban areas, since the density of cats is high, free-

cat that has CSD bacteria on the surface of its body, theroaming cats have more opportunities to meet otherbacteria can infect the person by passing through ancats, making it more likely they will pick up fleas orexisting small wound, etc.

become infected with bacteria in the course of fights
with infected animals, etc.

Cats are a reservoir of CSD infection. On this occasion,
we researched the percentage of cats that actually host

We have also made a comparative study of different

CSD bacteria. We also made separate tabulations formethods of keeping cats and their rates of flea

the percentages of infected male and female cats, andinfestation. Compared with cats that are kept indoors,

we found little difference between them. In our survey,

those that is kept outside have almost double the ratio

the CSD carrier ratio was 7.7% for male cats and 7.1%

of flea infestation. When we examined the prevalence

for female cats. Moreover, the age-classified CSD carrierof CSD bacteria antibodies, we again found that theratio rose progressively from the age of less than one

ratio of animals testing positive for antibodies is about

year and peaked at between two and three years old.

double in the case of cats that are kept outside.

For cats over three years old, the carrier ratio declined
significantly to 3.4%. Accordingly, we can say that a

In other words, cats that are kept outside and arehigh percentage of cats from kittens up to three years

infested with fleas also have a very high CSD bacteriaof age carry CSD bacteria.

carrier ratio. These animals form an important reservoirof CSD infection.

Next, what is the CSD situation among newborn kittens?
As was mentioned in the earlier keynote speech, areNow, when a cat is infected with CSD bacteria, whatthese bacteria transmitted from mothers to theirkind of symptoms do they display? Actually, catskittens? In order to research that issue, we conductedshow very few if any symptoms at all. Cats that carry

tests on the blood of newborn kittens. However, wethe bacteria develop relapsing bacteremia, which

did not find even any positive result among the 88means that bacteria are present in the blood only

animals we examined. From this result, we ascertainedintermittently. They appear for perhaps a year or more,that vertical transmission does not happen, or in otherthen disappear for a time, and then appear again,

words, CSD bacteria are not passed from mothers toand so on. This data shows the results of research

their kittens.

conducted at my laboratory. The red sections indicate
where CSD bacteria are present in the blood. If weThis time, we researched the regionally classified CSD

follow the same cat over a period of time, you can see

bacteria carrier ratios among cats in regions throughout

the bacteria appear here and again here, disappear

Japan from north to south, from Hokkaido to Okinawa.

here, and reappear here. You can see from this that

Our results show that in the northern region, no

the bacteria repeatedly appear and disappear from thebacteria were detected at all in Hokkaido and Miyagi.

cat’s body. This is why even infected cats hardly ever

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201235

show clinical symptoms, and it also helps explain why

carrying Bartonella henselae, which are sources of

it is difficult to discover whether an individual cat is a

infection. However, antibiotics such as erythromycin

carrier of CSD bacteria or not.

or doxycycline, etc., can be effective when given to
an immunocompromised person or an AIDS patient. I

As I said before, in recent years there have been

suppose that if you visit a physician for CSD you areoccasional cases of CSD involving dogs. The British

likely to be prescribed an antibiotic almost all the time.

Medical Association’s journal ‘The Lancet’ published

But in the case of CSD, such drugs have almost noa report by a Japanese researcher from Yamaguchi

effect. We have to wait for the infection to clear up by

University about bartonellosis transmission from dogs,

itself.

and our own group has also come across such a case.
Lastly, I would like to talk a little about CSD prevention
A c c o r d i n g l y, w e i nve s t i g a t e d h o w m a ny d o g smeasures. The first thing you can do is to choose

are actually carriers of CSD bacteria. We tookgentle-natured cats as your pets. This can be rather

blood samples from dogs with the cooperation ofdifficult, but in situations where you have a choice of

the Veterinary Association of Kobe City and themany individual animals, if you choose a cat that isgovernment of Saitama City. In Kobe, our examination

too energetic, you will have a bigger chance of beingof blood samples from 206 dogs did not reveal thescratched by that cat when it grows up. So pleasepresence of any CSD bacteria at all. However, DNAbe sure to consult with the cat breeder or provider

from this bacterium was detected in a blood sample inregarding that point, and choose a gentle animal.

one case. In Saitama, we found ten cases in which dogs
were carrying CSD bacteria and three cases in which

Next, clip the cat’s claws periodically. As a cat’s claws

dogs carried both Bartonella henselae and Bartonella

lengthen, they grow into a hook shape. So if theyclarridgeiae. From this result, we can surmise that dogs

penetrate into the skin they can cut deeply. Also, if you

do not carry CSD bacteria permanently, but they may

are scratched, thoroughly apply an antiseptic agent todo so intermittently.

the wound. The antiseptic you keep at home is OK for
this purpose. But even if the injury is minor, be sure to

The method of diagnosing whether or not a cat isclean it thoroughly. And if the wound is deep, you mustcarrying CSD bacteria or not is to take a blood sample,

visit a physician for treatment.

examine the blood serum using the fluorescentantibody method, and ascertain whether the result is

Avoid excessive contact with cats such as kissing andpositive or not. This bright one is positive. The most

sleeping together. Also, and this is a very basic thing,important thing when bitten or scratched by a cat is tobut always wash your hands after touching a cat. And

check whether there is an injury. To isolate the bacteria

gargle your throat. It is quite difficult to carry out theseis not impossible, but is very difficult because, as I said

instructions. I doubt whether even I could follow themearlier, the bacteria takes several weeks to grow into

all the time, but at least I wouldn’t let my dog sleep

a colony. Also, physicians already use antibiotics foron my bed. Also, as I mentioned earlier, if your handtreatment of patients, which makes it rather difficult tobecomes contaminated with CSD bacteria and then you

isolate the bacteria. Another diagnostic method is thetouch your eye, you might develop conjunctivitis or

PCR method, which provides a way of detecting DNA

neuroretinitis, so please wash your hands thoroughly.

from a blood or lymph node samples.
The transmission of CSD from cat to cat often

36

How do we treat patients who are infected with CSD?

involves fleas. In rare cases, fleas are also involved

In many cases, antibiotics are used. But in general,in transmitting CSD to people. So be sure to conduct

antibiotics have very little effect when used onflea countermeasures properly. Nowadays there are a

CSD in immunologically healthy people or for catsvariety of flea expellants available, such as insecticide-

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

impregnated cat collars, liquid medicines and injections,so make use of these to get rid of fleas completely.
Also, immune suppressed people should avoid keeping
animals. This is not only because of the risk of CSD but
because, generally speaking, such people’s physicalresistance tends to be weak so they can be easily
infected even by mild disease-causing agents. Suchindividuals can guard against getting diseases byrefraining from keeping animals.
Even so, as Dr. Okabe mentioned at the beginning,
I think that the positive effects of keeping pets athome are highly significant. Pets can help refresh
our spirits and they provide children with emotional
education. However, the animals themselves don’t
understand that kind of thing. So it is important to gain
an understanding of how to handle animals, including
the aspect of keeping them while also staying aware ofpotential diseases.
Finally, I would like to close my talk with the sentiment,“Let’s enjoy your life with pets with appropriatemanners.” Thank you very much for your attention.

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 2012

37

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2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 2012

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りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

オウム病を知る−鳥と安心して暮らすために−
What is ‘Psittacosis’? – Worry-free Living with Companion Birds 岐阜大学 応用生物科学部 教授・福士 秀人

Hideto FUKUSHI, DVM, PhD, Professor,
Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University

Hello, I am Hideto Fukushi of Gifu University.

talk about this subject now.

So far today we have been hearing about mammals.

First of all, the only zoonotic disease that people canHowever I would now like to talk to you about a diseasecatch from birds is psittacosis, and so I am going tocalled ‘psittacosis’, or ‘parrot disease’, which infects

talk about birds and this one particular zoonosis. Later,

many kinds of birds.

I would like to sum up the current situation regarding
psittacosis, which is the main subject of today’s talk,

Earlier on, we heard that, as a matter of historicalincluding introducing a simple method of curing thisfact, people have been keeping dogs for somewhere

disease.

between 10,000 and 20,000 years, and cats for about
12,000 years. Both of these animals have been human

But before that, let’s look at the broader subject of birds

companions for a very long time. We don’t know withand people. This is an international conference, but I

any degree of accuracy how long people have been

hope you’ll forgive me if I talk about Japanese history

keeping birds, and I will be talking a bit more about thisin the Heian, Kamakura and Muromachi periods.

later on. Moving on to parrots and true parrots, when

Speaking of the Heian Period, the historical drama

we see them in a zoo some of them are kept roostingseries “Taira no Kiyomori” is currently running on TV.

alone while others are kept several to a cage. However,Within this drama we see both dogs and cats appearing,in the wild these birds live in groups.

but what about birds? During that time period, many
people probably enjoyed the beauty of birdsong. Indeed

Actually, parrots are extremely intelligent birds.

we have ancient ‘waka’ poems that speak of birdsong.

Capable of speech and extremely active psychologically,

So from this evidence we do know that Japanese people

they tend to live very well in groups. When people

have associated with birds since ancient times.

come along and abduct them from the wild and thenkeep them alone, I would like you all to understandDuring the Edo Period we know that people admired

what this means to the birds themselves. In situations

the brilliance of the plumage of birds such as white-

where they are kept alone, the most important things

eyes and enjoyed hand-training java sparrows.

for these birds are their owners. The birds seek theirown psychological security through interaction withIn the Meiji and Taisho Eras, birds from many countries

their owners, so it is very important for owners to takearound the world were brought into Japan. Some

care of their birds in a responsible manner until the end

were capable of talking or singing, such as the variousof their lives.

species of parrot including the cockatiel, the rosy-faced
lovebird, the African gray parrot, etc.

In order to realize this, it is essential to maintain the56

birds’ health, and for this reason it is important to be

The Meiji Era was also the active period of the novelist

aware of what kinds of diseases affect these birds. I will

Natsume Soseki, who wrote an essay about his pet Javaりぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

sparrow. He complained in that essay that he wanted

junior high school student.

to keep a Java sparrow, so he sent his houseboy out tobuy a birdcage, but the boy took a long time to makeThe students at the school were sketching a bantam

the purchase. It seems that finch species such as thein art class, and the call was to request me to certify

Java sparrow were well appreciated in old times, butthat this bantam was not infected with avian influenza.

these days a lot of people prefer to keep parrots or true

So I performed an antibody test and a fecal PCR test

parrots.

and certified that the tests were negative. I’m sure thechildren all did their very best in drawing the bantam.

People often start by keeping something like abudgerigar. Budgerigars are extremely cute, but they

Apart from these viral infections, there are bacterial

are rather small and childish. When people want

infections such as tuberculosis and salmonellosis.

something they can interact with a bit more deeply,

I have made a table showing these infections. For

they may go in for a cockatiel. Cockatiels live forexample, salmonellosis, which I mentioned earlier, isseveral decades and they can speak well. But if people

quite commonly found in reptiles I believe. Actually

still become less and less satisfied as time goes by, they

birds can also become sick from salmonella infections.

may opt for a large parrot or true parrot species.

The bacteria can also be present in bird feces, which
can be a problem. And of course, there is psittacosis,

Looking at the data from the ministry of thewhich I will talk about in more detail later. Also, as was

Environment on pet bird sales, Japanese domestic

mentioned before, in many cases infected animals don’production is about 84,500 individual birds, whilet exhibit symptoms, but when people are infected it cananother 115,000 individuals are imported, making a

be a serious problem.

total of about 199,000 birds.
Earlier I mentioned bird tuberculosis. In humans, thisAs I remember, back when I was a child attending

disease is usually caused by a mycobacterium called

elementary school, there was a shop selling small birds

Mycobacterium tuberculosis. However, there are alsoin our neighborhood. My father happened to be a

atypical tuberculosis bacteria so it is necessary to taketeacher at this elementary school, and at the school wecare. There are also many types of ectoparasites, which

kept Bengalese finches as well as canaries. But people’s

can cause problems if people come into contact withfamiliarity with birds has changed so much that today’them.

s children probably have no idea whether canaries singor what they sound like.

In addition, although it is not shown here, some people
also have allergies to birds, which are not the same as

As you can see, the number of individual birds sold has

infections. I am sure some of you have allergies to dog

declined, but in the case of many species, the seillingor cat hair. In the same way, some people are allergic

price for an individual bird has become very expensive.

to the hair or shed skin of birds so if they come into
contact with these things they may develop a sudden

Moving on to the subject of zoonotic diseases that

anaphylaxis, which can be life threatening.

can be transmitted between birds and people, today I
would like to talk about psittacosis, a zoonosis that is

Now, I think it is time to talk a little about my main

hosted and spread by various species of birds. Theresubject today, psittacosis, or parrot fever. Psittacosis is

is a disease spread by wild birds called ‘West Nileactually an old disease. By the end of the 19th century afever’ which has now become infamous. And then we

Swiss surgeon had already described a disease thought

absolutely cannot ignore avian influenza now thatto be psittacosis. After that, in the early years of theconcern about ‘bird flu’ is extremely high. Last year,

20th century, there was a major boom in parrots andI received a sudden phone call on the subject from atrue parrots within Europe. A succession of extremely

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201257

beautiful species was imported from Australia andIf an infection becomes established, the early symptoms

owning such a bird became a fashionable pastime.

are similar to those of influenza, but even if theTrends of one kind or another appear at any age insufferer is treated for influenza, they will probably behistory. But as a result of the popularization of parrots

treated with a macrolide antibiotic, which is effective

and true parrots, there were many cases of psittacosis

against C. psittaci, and so they will recover properly.

infection, and this created the momentum for a sudden

Unfortunately, however, if β -Lactam antibiotics such

advance in research into the disease.

as penicillin derivatives are used, the treatment will
have no effect and the infection will worsen which can

In the case of Japan, during the 1930s and 40s, there

lead to serious problems.

were cases of people becoming infected from true
parrots they had purchased while traveling abroad. But

Up until the 1970s, there were many instances in

the first case of a psittacosis infection in Japan was notwhich people were unable to obtain proper treatment

reported until 1957.

and went on to develop systemic infection, which was
fatal in some cases. The reports from that time include

As I have drawn in the picture below, psittacosis isa number of case examples. Earlier in the workshop, thean infectious disease caused by a bacterial species

subject of skinship came up and in these reports there

called Chlamydophila psittaci, which is present in

is one example concerning skinship. Two particularbird droppings. Usually the infection is not apparent

bird lovers were fond of talking about birds with eachin birds or, in other words, they host and excrete

other. I don’t think there were any bird cafés in thethe bacteria without exhibiting any symptoms of the

1970s, but one of the bird lovers agreed to take care ofdisease themselves. Also, as Imaoka-sensei reported,

the other’s bird while that person was away traveling.

infected birds excrete the bacteria intermittently andThen, when that bird became sick, the first bird lover

not continuously. But because birds excrete the bacteria

slept close to the bird. As a result the bird lover became

from time to time, it can be transferred from parent

sick with psittacosis and eventually died of the disease.

birds to their offspring, and also to people who breathein the dust of dried bird feces. People tend to risk thisBearing that example in mind, I would urge bird

mostly when cleaning birdcages, etc.

owners to maintain an appropriate distance from theirbirds. Now let us look at what kind of microorganism

The ratio of psittacosis infections is comparatively highC. psittaci is, which is the cause of this disease. This

among women in their 30s and 40s, but this seems tophotograph was taken through an electron microscope.

be a reflection of the fact that women in this age group

I borrowed it from Professor Matsumoto who taught

are more likely to be taking care of pet birds. Whileme about Chlamydophila. Here you can see some smallchildren and fathers often want to purchase and keep

particles inside a large cell. These are Chlamydophila

these birds, at the end of the day, looking after thempsittaci.

tends to become part of the housework performed bymothers, so they have an increased chance of becoming

If you only see this photograph it is difficult to realize

infected.

the size, so I will show you some other things alongside
to allow you to compare the size. Some things we have

The problem here is that bird droppings start off wet

been talking about, for example, gram-negative bacteria,but, as time passes, they dry out and eventually crumble

are here on the left side. Actually, the objects listed on

into dust. During this time, any C. psittaci bacteria

the left are all seen through an optical microscope.

present in the droppings remain viable, which means

58

that they have the potential to cause an infection. So if‘Gambian trypanosomiasis’ is a form of chronic sleeping

a person breathes in this dust, it is possible that they

sickness, which is transmitted to humans in Africa bywill develop an infection.

the tsetse fly. This is the amoeba that causes amebic

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

dysentery, this is Borrelia, and this is Treponema. And

by binary fission. Antibiotics take effect for the first

here is the anthrax bacillus. This is E. coli, and this heretime at this point.

is Staphylococcus, which was introduced earlier.
Accordingly, since antibiotics do not take effect
When the images of the smallest objects on the rightunless they enter cells, you can understand that theside are expanded, we can see the smallest details canmost effective antibiotics are those that feature highbe made out through an optical microscope. C. psittacitransitivity inside cells. For this reason the number ofis here. Here is Vaccinia, which is a little smaller than C.

usable antibiotics is limited.

psittaci. Vaccinia is the virus that was used to eradicate
smallpox. Last year was a fantastic year in which theActually, the zoonit ic infect ions caused bycattle disease known as ‘rinderpest’ became the second

Chlamydophila bacteria are not limited to psittacosis.

disease ever to be eradicated. Like smallpox, it was

Around the world, between 20 and 30 cases of

eliminated by means of a vaccine and an eradication

conjunctive inflammation caused by Chlamydophila

plan. These influenza viruses measure about 100 tofrom cats have been reported. Also, Chlamydophila

200 nanometers in length, roughly two-thirds of thecan cause miscarriages. In a case that occurred inlength of a C. psittaci bacterium. So it is a very small

France, Chlamydophila abortus was isolated from avirus.

pregnant woman who miscarried while on a sheep
farm where sheep had also miscarried, so the case was

Next, this is the human papillomavirus and thesuspected of being a zoonitic infection. Pigs also carrypoliomyelitis virus. The group on the right side consists

Chlamydophila bacteria and this is considered to have aof extremely small microorganisms that are best viewed

possible relation to zoonotic infections.

through an electron microscope that uses a beam ofelectrons rather than ordinary light. A little different to

Incidentally, koalas also carry Chlamydophila. This

the other pathogens introduced so far, C. psittaci can’is a major problem for koalas because when they aret be propagated in an artificial medium such as agar.

infected they become blind. They are also unable to

It requires something called a cultivated cell. So, frombreed because Chlamydophila affects the urinary andthe standpoint of living matter, it is very close to being

genital organs. Once after I attended a conference ona virus. This very small particle goes into cells where

Chlamydophila in Europe, sitting in the airplane on

it replicates, and when it does so it takes two forms.

the way back to Japan, an elderly lady sitting next to

One is an elementary body, rather like a spore, whichme asked me “what is your work?” I answered, “I amis indicated in red. This is very tiny, but it is extremely

researching about Chlamydophila.” So she said to me,

resistant to external environmental conditions. For“that is an important disease for koalas too, so pleaseexample, it can survive for about one month at low

work hard on your research.” In fact, since koalas live

temperatures.

in trees if they lose their sight they find it impossible tomove from tree to tree. They then become unable to eat

When in the elementary body form, C. psittaci does notwhich is a very serious problem.

replicate, so unless people breathe in these elementary
bodies, there is no problem. But on the other hand, if

These bacteria are called Chlamydophila pecorum

elementary bodies infect a person, even if an antibiotic

and they usually live in cattle and sheep. It is not clear

is administered, it will not be effective. Most antibiotics

how or whether these bacteria are involved in disease

take effect at the time of cell division so they only

so investigating their role has become a task for

affect the C. psittaci in reticulate body form, which isresearchers.

indicated in green. This is the form in which C. psittaci
undergoes cell division. At this time the bacteria’s

I will talk now about Chlamydophila infections in birds.

metabolism becomes extremely active and it multiplies

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201259

These birds are ‘galahs’ and, in their natural state, they

Somebody asked me, “For a diagnosis of melancholy,

live pleasantly in groups such as this. I think it is wrong

the patient must tell the doctor that they don’t feelto catch such birds and abduct them from the wild. But

well. How can you know a bird is feeling melancholy?”

I suppose it is only natural that so many people want

So I simply answered, “I’m a vet, so I know” At whichto keep them once they see how cute they look. In aeverybody laughed. I’m sure that if you keep a bird,

book I translated there is a sentence that reads, “Please

you will know if it has respiratory symptoms, etc.

think about how many birds have disappeared from the

However, symptoms do differ depending on the kind ofnatural world so that you can keep one bird.”

bird. In Amazon parrots, scarlet macaws, etc., nervous
symptoms tend to appear.

Chlamydophila bacteria have been identified as being
carried by 145 species of birds comprising 18 orders.

Next, of the birds that display symptoms of

The causative agent of psittacosis is C. psittaci, but

conjunctivitis, cockatiels and budgerigars are perhaps

birds also carry C. abortus. And although this has yet

the ones we are most familiar with. However, someto be publically announced, a survey of birds in Ghana

other types of birds have comparatively low resistance,found that they were carrying C. abortus and not C.

such as pigeons. I will talk a bit about pigeons towards

psittaci, and there may be some other varieties out

the end, but at present, Chlamydophila infections havethere in the natural world.

been largely cleaned up among captive birds. Butamong wild birds, which nobody can take care of, they

These bacteria can be found in all kinds of birds

have become a major problem.

around the world. As I mentioned earlier, the year
before last I had a chance to visit Ghana where I foundIn humans, the incubation period for psittacosis is

Chlamydophila present in their wild birds. This means

between one to two weeks. Okabe-sensei talked aboutthat it has spread worldwide. In almost all cases, such

this earlier. Large-scale outbreaks of psittacosis haveinfections are subclinical. However, if symptoms do

occurred in bird rearing facilities in some prefecturesappear the infected animals lose their vitality andaround Japan. When we checked the amount of time

become unable to eat food. In the case of birds thefrom the day that people were exposed to the pathogenfeathers tend to stand erect. The animals become

until pathogenesis, amazingly it matched the theoreticalprogressively thinner and eventually sustain liver

incubation period closely. This has been announced indamage.

a paper, which I recommend you to read.

However, in the case of birds, even when they do

In one zoo there was a case in which psittacosis was

become thin they do not look so different because of allsuspected but it was later established that this was not

the feathers they have.

the case because the incubation time did not match. In
preparing to attend this conference I discovered several

The pathogenic factors include stress. For example, if

things. There was a Q&A concerning psittacosis, which

the owner of a bird suddenly brings home a different

included the question, “I bought a bird yesterday andbird and the owner focuses their attention too much

today I have a fever. Could this be psittacosis?” And theon the new bird, the first bird may worry about “whatanswer was, “From the psittacosis incubation period,

will happen to me?” which may lead it to develop

this is impossible.” I was glad to see this Q&A. And I

symptoms.

think it is very good that people connect birds withpsittacosis.

This bird has a downcast attitude and also has diarrhea.

60

Take a good look and you will see it appears scruffy.

When a person develops psittacosis, the first symptoms

When I made a presentation overseas and used theto appear are fever and cough. Then the respiratory

case of this bird, I described it as being melancholy.

tract is affected and, without prompt treatment,

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

the patient will eventually develop meningitis. The

widely reported disease. Mass outbreaks of the diseasefrequency with which community-acquired pneumonia

were reported in both 2001 and 2002. At that timedevelops is not as high. But in the case that atypicalthere were a huge number of cases. But ever since thepneumonia, or where the origin is unknown, psittacosis

Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare began to issue

should be included as a possible factor in the

instructions on how to prevent the disease, the number

differentiation.

of cases has slowed to a trickle. At the moment there
are less than 20 cases, and if this trend continues theActually, in the case of the large-scale outbreak I spoke

number of reported cases will be even fewer.

about earlier, one of the patients infected at a zoo wasdiagnosed in Osaka. The zoo itself was in Shimane,

Looking at the sources of infection, we find that thewhich is quite a long way from Osaka. When people

most common sources are - as one might expect -become infected in places where animals are exhibited,parrots, true parrots and pigeons, as well as, in somethe problem is that they take their infection home withcases, birds other than parrots and true parrots where

them. So patients can be scattered across the nation.

the species are rather hard to identify. At one zoo

And once that happens, unless there is horizontal

where an elk was having a miscarriage and required

cooperation, it is very hard to establish that a large-

emergency surgery the vet involved failed to wear the

scale outbreak has occurred.

usual gloves or mask. In that unavoidable situation thevet became infected. Such cases are unusual but they

I have a long-time acquaintance named Dr. Kishimoto.

occasionally occur.

After he gave a lecture about psittacosis, a medical
doctor visited him and consulted him on a case. “I have

There is no legal requirement to undertake surveys ofa patient with a fever that remains persistently high andpet birds for Chlamydophila infection. Our laboratory

doesn’t return to normal. I questioned the patient incarries out a variety of health examinations in response

detail and learned that he had visited a certain animal

to requests from animal hospitals. In performing

place. What do you think?” I heard that following

these examinations our primary purpose is student

the consultation the doctor changed the drug he was

education. We give training on how to accept samples

administering and that the patient’s fever subsided atfrom outside, examine them, and return the results ofonce.

the examination. I explain this to outside people, obtain
their understanding, and then take sample specimens.

As for transmission of the disease in and through birds,

The veterinarian in charge of the case should makebecause psittacosis is a subclinical infection in birds they

the final diagnosis. Our examination results are merely

excrete the pathogen without exhibiting any symptoms.

reference materials. On the understanding that these

When people breathe in particles of excrement

examination results can also play a useful role infrom infected birds they can develop influenza-likethe eradication of psittacosis, I report them at study

symptoms. In severe cases, psittacosis can be fatal

conferences such as this one.

in humans. However, since the 1980s the numberof deaths in Japan due to this disease has probably

This is from 2006, when 668 specimens were obtained,

been zero. This is because doctors of respiratory tract

most of which were taken during medical examinations.

medicine have made a very conscious effort to educate

Since then, we have examined facilities where birds are

their profession. So in most cases doctors can make a

exhibited and also birds in the wild.

proper diagnosis, which has eliminated deaths due tothis infection.

Now, I will try to explain how these examinations arecarried out. For obtaining samples, we have the stools

Of the diseases classified under the Infectious Diseases

and liquid obtained by wiping the rectum. In mostLaw, at present psittacosis ranks as the fourth mostsituations, to capture a bird and insert a cotton swab

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201261

into the anus would be stressful for the bird, so it isowners and breeders. But unfortunately it is a very

better to obtain a fresh stool. I ask people who wish thedifficult carry out disease control for outdoor-living

laboratory to perform an examination to send as freshbirds. In one example from our own university, a groupa stool as possible because it is not possible to obtainunder Professor Ishiguro carried out research into

DNA from a hard stool.

domestic pigeons in Gifu Prefecture. This side shows
the situation in Gifu, and this side shows the nationwide

From the sample, we extract DNA using a kit, andsituation. The results of this research indicated thatthen we use PCR technology. There are several ways

the positivity ratio for C. psittaci in wild pigeons isof employing PCR, and at present, as long there

about 80% in Hokkaido, about 60% in Tokyo, andare at least several hundred bases, the DNA can beapproximately 23% nationwide. As you can see, thesedetected. The base sequence can be read to determine

rates are much higher than those found in captive bredwhich species of Chlamydophila is present. As forbirds.

the positivity ratio, until 2005 this was averaging
approximately 5%. Then it fell steeply, reaching 1.3% in

However, the problem is that the monthly-classified

2006, 2.1% in 2007 and 0.6% in 2008, before rising topositivity ratios are totally different. For example, in

4% in 2009. The average for the four years from 2006

September and October, C. psittaci is found in very highto 2009 was approx. 1.6%, representing a significant

ratios among examined pigeons. But in December, April

decline from the previous period. I believe this was theand June, when the same pigeon groups are examined,

result of the effects of various daily activities and of

the bacterium cannot be detected. So the timing ofheightened awareness among bird sellers.

the surveys is the key issue. Also, depending on thebird group, almost all the pigeons test positive, as

On a bird type classification, the positivity ratio isshown here. There are numerous problems concerninghigh for cockatiels, but this is because the incidence

pigeons. They not only carry the pathogen that causesof examinations is extremely high in the case of thesepsittacosis but they are also infected by fungal diseases

birds. For the other types, the results are widelyand various other pathogens and harmed by fecal

scattered. These days, cockatiels, budgerigars and rosy-material.

faced lovebirds are mostly domestically bred in Japan.
On the other hand, the birds listed on this slide areNow, let us look at treatment. These are rainbow

mostly imported. At present, the direct import of wild

lorikeets (Trichoglossus haematodus), which are very

birds is prohibited so presumably the birds imported

beautiful birds. When a large-scale disease outbreak

are only those species allowed into the country andoccurs among such birds, how should we treat them?

are captive bred in breeding facilities in the country of

They only drink juice, basically sucking on the juice ofexport. Even from these birds, Chlamydophila psittaci ismature fruit.

detected.
So we have to get them into a situation where they will
It is possible to identify what strain of C. psittaci thesedrink the juice we provide, and we mix the drug into

bacteria are. Although there is a standard strain, eventhat juice. However, when they are in a group, the more

in Japan they exhibit considerable genetic variation.

dominant members drink a lot and the bullied lower

There are not only one or two strains in circulation

ranking birds can’t drink at all. As a result, some of the

but a variety of genetically distinct types that are often

birds will receive an excessive dose while others will

present in the same host.

not receive any drug dose at all. And if those bullied
birds are removed from the group the disease occurs

62

Up to this point we have only been dealing with captive

again in this leftover group. So it is very difficult tobred birds so disease control is comparatively easy.

treat birds in groups. Also, birds such as lorikeets

All that is needed is to improve the awareness of bird

are highly intelligent. We can’t say exactly how high,

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

although they are not as intelligent as humans, ofobserved at the facility where the large-scale breakout

course. Treatment is particularly difficult in the case ofoccurred. This followed the proper administration ofhighly intelligent birds so we need to pay attention to

drugs and follow-up monitoring over the course of three

this point.

years. But despite this, according to veterinarians whopractice this treatment, sometimes there is a recurrence

On this occasion, we used a drug called Doxycycline.

of disease because of the failure of drugs to work. So it

As I mentioned just now, the feeding habits, meaningis necessary to carry out follow-up examinations fromwhat and how the birds eat, differs drastically from one

time to time even when drugs have been administered,individual to another. In the case of many bird species,

and if the disease recurs, drugs must be administered

we give the drug mixed into water for a period of 45

again.

days. However it tastes very bitter - as you will know if
you have ever tasted it. So the birds don’t want to drink

Finally, as a rather unorthodox summary, in order for

it which can be a big problem. Also, tetracycline grouppeople to live amicably with birds, I want to emphasize

drugs break down easily when exposed to light. So if

that it is important to provide the birds with everyday

they are mixed with water and exposed to sunlight they

health management. I expect that bird owners probably

probably won’t remain effective half a day later. So thistell their birds, “I’m going out now,” or “I’m home.”

is another problem.

Depending on the birds’ behavior or reaction, such as
how they eat, etc., the owners should be able to monitor

In the case of water birds drugs are administered intheir general health condition.

capsule form. When an examination turns up a positive
result we put a capsule inside a fish and feed the fish to

As has been pointed out many times it is important forthe bird. But birds can detect the presence of capsules

owners to have a moderate degree of contact with theirwith a high degree of accuracy so it can be very difficult

birds. Also, when you feel there is something wrong

to administer the drugs. For instance we sometimes

with your bird, contact a veterinarian immediately. The

notice that, after a bird has taken a capsule, theyawareness of veterinarians has been improving thanks

manage to bring it up and drop it from their beak.

to a variety of activities. In the case of psittacosis,
veterinarians also have to cooperate with doctors. I

Apart from this, a variety of drugs are used. In addition

would ask veterinarians who suspect a bird they haveto Doxycycline, we use Oxytetracycline, Azithromycin

examined of carrying psittacosis to tell the owner toand Clarithromycin type antibiotics. But one problem

consult a doctor because there is a possibility that thewith these drugs is the side effects. In the caseowner may have become infected from their bird. I

of humans, we can check the liver function while

would also like to ask patients that contract psittacosis

administering the drug to judge whether the result is

to have their birds examined by a veterinarian. In

good or bad. But with birds it is very difficult to draw

dealing with this disease, we should cooperate tactfully

a blood sample. Budgerigars, for example, only weighwith people in various fields.

between 10 and 20 grams. If several drops of bloodare drawn from such a bird it may faint from anemia.

Sometimes birds look as if they are having this kind

Even taking two drops is difficult, which means trouble.

of discussion too. I hope to realize a situation inConcerning this treatment, I consulted with Drs. Sanada

which birds and people can live together without any

and Nakano, who are involved in this clinical, and we

problems, and I’d like to end by asking bird owners for

prepared the slides.

their cooperation toward this objective.

Although the question remains as to whether birds are

Thank you very much for your kind attention.

really cured or not by antibiotic therapy, we can at least
say that no fresh discharges of the bacteria have been

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201263

鳥の販売数オウム病を知る(平成14年)

ー鳥と安心して暮らすためにー

国内生産84,500羽

輸入数115,000羽

合計

199,000羽

福士秀人
岐阜大学応用生物科学部獣医微生物学研究室
環境省 ペット動物流販売実態調査報告書（平成15年3月）【Slide1】【Slide5】

今日の内容¥ 鳥と私たち¥ 鳥と人獣共通感染症¥ オウム病¥ まとめ¥ 鳥と私たち¥ 鳥と人獣共通感染症¥ オウム病¥ まとめ【Slide2】【Slide6】

鳥類が伝播に関与する人獣共通感染症¥ 鳥と私たち¥ 鳥と人獣共通感染症¥ オウム病¥ まとめ

オウム病
ウエストナイル熱鳥インフルエンザ
結核，サルモネラ症など【Slide7】【Slide3】

平安ー鎌倉ー室町

日本人と鳥オウムインコ類に関係するズーノーシス

姿や鳴き声の美しさ
江戸
羽色の鮮やかさや手乗り

後
徳
大
寺
左
大
臣
︵
八
十
一
番
︶
﹃
千
載
集
﹄
夏

明治ー大正ー昭和

ほ
と
と
た ぎ
だ す
有
明 鳴
の き
つ
月 る
ぞ 方
残 を
れ
る 眺
む
れ
ば

おしゃべりや歌声
平成【Slide4】64

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

疾病

病原体

伝播様式

サルモネラ症

Salmonella

時として他の経路

オウム病

Chlamydophila
psittaci

エルシニア症

Yersinia
pseudotubaculosis
Y. enterocolitica

結核

Mycobacterium
spp.

外部寄生虫侵襲

接触

通常は経口

通常は吸入

時として他の経路

通常経口

通常経口

時として他の経路

不顕性，掻痒
および貧血【Slide8】

トリの症状

不顕性（見掛け上健康）から急性の全身感
染

不顕性から急性全身感
染

ヒトの症状

多様、しばしば胃腸症状時として発熱不顕性から重篤な呼吸器疾
患

死に至ることもある。

不顕性から急性

消化器症状

局所から全身局所から呼吸器や消化器系

掻痒と皮膚病変

掻痒と皮膚病変クラミジアの生活環
EBが細胞に感染¥ 鳥と私たち¥ 鳥と人獣共通感染症¥ オウム病¥ まとめ

食作用により細胞内に取り込まれる

小胞内でRBに変換後分裂増殖し、封入体形成(感染性消失)EBは環境中で感染性を保つRBからEBに再び変換し、感染性が出現基本小体細胞が溶解し、EBおよび残りのRBが
放出される

EB
RB

中間体

増殖環

基本小体：外部環境で長期間生残
網様体：細胞質内のみ・抗生物質感受性【Slide9】【Slide13】

オウム病とは？

クラミジアによる人獣共通感染症

20世紀初頭にヨーロッパで流行
日本では1957年に初発例（輸入例はそれ以前）

鳥が排泄したクラミジアに人が感染し発症

感染環

脳炎
髄膜炎
上部気道炎

水平伝播

乾燥した糞・排泄物による埃塵の吸引

不顕性感染
ストレス等により発症

オウム病

気管支炎
肺炎
心筋炎
肝臓の腫大
脾臓の腫大
多臓器障害
DIC

【Slide14】【Slide10】

オウム病の病原体
クラミジア

クラミジア感染症

クラミジア感染細胞電子顕微鏡写真
原図 松本明博士【Slide11】【Slide15】

病原体の大きさ【Slide12】

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201265

オウム病（鳥クラミジア感染症）
宿主：18目145種の鳥類, ヒト
原因菌： Chlamydophila psittaci

オウム病の現況(Chlamydophila abortus)
分布：世界中のあらゆる鳥種
症状：不顕性感染
元気・食欲不振，羽毛逆立，削痩，緑白色下痢便
発症要因：ストレス，混合感染など【Slide20】【Slide16】

各種鳥類の症状
比較的良く見られる症状
呼吸器症状，鼻漏，下痢，多尿，沈鬱
神経症状があるとされている鳥種
アマゾンオウム，コンゴウインコ

1999年から2010年における届け出数
60
54

45

44
40
35

30

結膜炎

オカメインコ，セキセイインコ

29
23

15

比較的抵抗性
ハト

34

22

21

18
9

0

13

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

【Slide21】【Slide17】

オウム病（人）11

IDWR, 感染症研究所

1999年から2007年における届け出に記載された感染源
オウム・インコ類

潜伏期間は1〜2週間
急激な高熱と咳嗽で発症
軽症の気道感染から、肺炎や髄膜炎までの多様な病態
市中肺炎における頻度はさほど高くはないが、中等症までの非定型肺炎と原因菌不明の重症肺炎では、必ず鑑別

35
16
7
25

ハト

インコ類

5 16

鳥種不明

オウム・インコ類以外の鳥

143

ヘラジカ
不明

に入れる必要がある。

【Slide18】

http://idsc.nih.go.jp/disease/psittacosis/idwr200719/【Slide22】

鳥類のクラミジア保有状況【Slide19】66

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

【Slide23】

鳥種別クラミジア陽性数

我が国の愛玩鳥における鳥クラミジア症

鳥種

主に

2006年4月から2010年3月までにクラミジア検査依頼のあった検体

検査数
209

3

コザクラインコ25

1

セキセイインコ

国内繁殖・生産
小型鳥

61

ヨウム

• 愛玩鳥販売業者（2業者，668検体）

1

5

2

テンジクバタン

3

1

ハツハナインコ2

1

ギニアエボシドリ

3

ソデシロインコ• 上記以外，野鳥など（699検体）

1

12

ショウジョウインコ• 鳥類展示施設（7施設，219検体）

2

18

キガシラアオハシインコ• 動物病院（18病院，285検体）

陽性数

オカメインコ2

コガネメキシコインコ

1

2

パナマボウシインコ

1

2

アヒル

1

35

上記以外の鳥種

1

1421

鳥種不明

【Slide24】

1

10

71

3

【Slide28】

鳥種別クラミジア陽性数

クラミジアの検出方法

鳥種

1．採材

主に
国内繁殖・生産小型鳥・鳥の糞便またはクロアカスワブを採取

検査数
209

3

コザクラインコ25

1

セキセイインコ

61

ヨウム

2．DNA抽出18

キガシラアオハシインコ

12

ショウジョウインコ

・DNA抽出キットを用いてDNAを抽出

52

ハツハナインコ2

1

2
2

パナマボウシインコ

2

アヒル

35

上記以外の鳥種・一部サンプルに関しては塩基配列確認した

1
1

3

コガネメキシコインコ

4．塩基配列解析

1

3

ソデシロインコ・Nested PCR法またはReal-time PCR法

2

テンジクバタンギニアエボシドリ

3．PCR法による検査

陽性数

オカメインコ

1421

鳥種不明

71

主に海外から1輸入される大型鳥

1
1
1
1

10

3

【Slide29】【Slide25】

系統樹

年別クラミジア陽性率＊NJ法で作成

H9P1̲鳥種不明
遺伝子型A; X56980, 6BC̲標準株

検査数（羽）

陽性数（羽）

陽性率（％）

2006年

988

13

1.3

2007年

328

7

2.1

2008年

353

2

0.6

2009年

202

8

4.0

合計

1871

30

1.6

H06907cockatiel̲オカメインコ
H06418Long-billed Corella̲テンジクバタン
AB284058, Mat116̲日本分離株
H05cockatiel̲オカメインコ
遺伝子型E/B; AY762613, WS/RT/E30
遺伝子型B; AF269265, CP3
遺伝子型C; L25436, Avian type C
遺伝子型D; AF269266, NJ1
0.1295遺伝子型F; AF269259, VS225

0.1【Slide26】【Slide30】

鳥種別クラミジア陽性数
鳥種
オカメインコ

セキセイインコ

コザクラインコヨウム

キガシラアオハシインコ
ショウジョウインコ

検査数
209

61
25
18
12

5

3
2
1
1
1
2

テンジクバタン

3

1

ハツハナインコ2

1

ギニアエボシドリ
ソデシロインコ

コガネメキシコインコ
パナマボウシインコ
アヒル

上記以外の鳥種
鳥種不明【Slide27】

3
2
2
2

35

1421

71

野外の鳥：ドバトの調査例

陽性数

1
1
1
1
1

10

3

県

岐阜県における月別検出率

検出率

北海道

28/35

80%

東京

14/23

61%

神奈川

1/4

25%

岐阜

41/290

14%

愛知

10/81

12%

大阪

11/29

38%

広島

1/1

100%

合計

106/463

23%

2003年

2004年
合計

9月

11月

12月

4月

6月

11/16

11/11

19/1870/50

0/26

41/290

69%

100%

10%

0

0

14.1%

23%から検出（Tanaka et al. 2005)【Slide31】

JVMS 67: 951-953, 2005

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201267

鳥と仲良く暮らすために鳥の日頃の健康管理

オウム病クラミジア感染症の治療

鳥との適度な接触

おかしいと思ったら獣医師にすぐに相談

獣医師と医師の相互協力【Slide32】【Slide36】

オウム病の ドキシサイクリンによる 治療方法
適応鳥種

投与期間

投与経路

全鳥種

45-60日

飲水

オウム類

45-60日食餌

ヒインコ

45-60日

食餌45-60日食餌

ゴシキセイガイインコ

45-60日

ネクター

水鳥類

45日

食餌

水鳥類

45日

経口

小型コンコ・
カナリア【Slide33】
オウムインコ類におけるオウム病の治療方法例
薬剤

投与期間

投与経路

ドキシサイクリン45日

オキシテトラサイクリン

5〜14日

餌，飲水

アジスロマイシン

30日

経口

クラリスロマイシン

30日

経口

ミノマイシン30日

経口，飲水

クロルテトラサイクリン

45日

飲水，餌

備考

飲水，経口， ヨウム，ボウシインコ，コンゴウインコ，バタン類
餌で嘔吐
ヨウム，ボウシインコ，コンゴウインコ，バタン類
で嘔吐
肝機能、腎機能に問題がある場合は使わない

ヨウム，ボウシインコ，コンゴウインコ，バタン類
で嘔吐【Slide34】

まとめ【Slide35】68

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

我が国における動物由来感染症対策Countermeasures in Japan for Preventing Zoonoses
厚生労働省 健康局結核感染症課 課長補佐・森田 剛史

Takeshi MORITA, DVM, Deputy Director,
Tuberculosis and Infectious Disease Division, Health Service Bureau, Ministry of Health, Laborand Welfare(Slide 1)

On the other hand, the Infectious Diseases Control Law

Hello, everybody. I am Takeshi Morita.

came into effect in April 1999. At the beginning, themeasures for animals was to prohibit the importation of

I am the final presenter in this symposium. The theme

monkeys. But since that time, whenever zoonoses have

I have been given to talk about is “Countermeasures

become a problem, the list of prohibited animals has

in Japan for Preventing Zoonoses”. There are two

been expanded to include such species as the prairie

main domestic laws that govern such matters, namely

dog, the masked palm civet cat, various bats, the Natalthe Infectious Diseases Control Law and the Rabies

multimammate mouse, etc..

Prevention Law. I intend to center my talk on these twolaws.

In 2003 the responsibilities of veterinarians and animal
traders, the notification system for the importation of(Slide 2)

animals were introduced by revising the law. With thisFirstly, I would like to talk about “infectious diseases

revision mammals and birds which are not the subjectof animal origin”. We use the term “zoonoses” as theof animal quarantines are required the notification

name of our study group. These two descriptive names

in case of the animal importation. Moreover, in thisshare the same meaning, but because the Ministry ofrevision additional measures were put in place to deal

Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) sees things from awith animals that were sources of infection.

viewpoint of protecting human health, it prefers talking
about “infectious diseases of animal origin”. So I want to(Slide 4)

start by confirming that these two terms have the same

Now, let me talk about rabies. The Japanese word formeaning.

rabies is “kyokenbyo”, which contains the character for“dog”.

(Slide 3)
This figure shows details that the process of(Slide 5)

countermeasures in Japan for preventing zoonoses has

However it is a well-known fact that all mammals candeveloped. In 1950, the Rabies Prevention Law camebe infected by the rabies virus. Usually, an animal

into effect. The aim of the law is to prevent the infection

develops the disease after receiving a rabid animal biteof rabies in humans. The countermeasures of the law

through the saliva. The disease develops in humans inwere aimed mainly at dogs. Then in 1999, a number ofmany cases following a comparatively long incubation

species was added to the list of animals, cats, raccoon,

period of one to two months, while dogs exhibit afoxes, etc., subject to quarantine provisions under theslightly shorter incubation period of between three andlaw. In 2004, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry andeight weeks. Also, once the symptoms have appeared,

Fisheries (MAFF) strengthened animal quarantine by

it is virtually impossible to save the infected person

revising the quarantine methods under ministerial

and animal. However, when humans are infected,

regulation.

although there is some risk of the infection spreading

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201269

from one person to another, such cases are very rare in

the Animal Quarantine Service of the MAFF. This

practice. And when a rabid animal bites a person, thesystem is designed to ensure that only animals notdevelopment of the disease can be prevented by meansat risk of carrying rabies are imported into Japan.

of a timely vaccination.

However, if a case of rabies does occur in Japan, itis the responsibility of the local authorities to deal

(Slide 6)

with it. The local authority can take a series of quite

Let us look at the situation with regards to rabies in

powerful measures such as ordering the isolation orJapan. In 1949-50, there were comparatively large

confinement of animals that are infected or suspected

outbreaks of rabies in both humans and dogs. Inof being infected by rabies. These are some of the

response to this increased number of cases the Rabies

countermeasures taken when rabies occurs in Japan.

Prevention Law was enacted in 1950. This contained
strengthened measures to eradicate rabies in dogs and,(Slide 8)

as a result, no cases of rabies have been confirmed inThis slide shows the rabies situation around the world.

Japan since 1957.

Japan is colored in blue because there haven’t been
any cases of rabies occurring here since 1957. But

However, there have been cases of people who haveworldwide, rabies occurs in almost all countries, andbeen infected by rabies overseas and developed

there have been quite a lot of cases of people becoming

symptoms after returning to Japan. Such cases occurred

infected, especially in such countries as China, thein 1970 and in 2006.

Philippines and India. As the current international
distribution of commodities including animals is so(Slide 7)

active, we should be aware that there is always a risk ofNow, let us look at the measures taken based onrabies entering Japan at any time.

the Rabies Prevention Law and how these measures
are implemented. MHLW has responsibilities for(Slide 9)

management of the Rabies Prevention Law and local

As for preventing rabies from spreading, control ofgovernments (prefectural and municipal level) carry out

animals is important. In Asia, dogs are considered tothe actual measures to prevent infections in domestic

be the most important animal. If wild animals thatanimals. Under the law, dog owners are required toseldom come into contact with humans are infected

register their dogs with the local authority and towith rabies, the risk of people becoming infected isensure that their animals receive a rabies vaccination,comparatively small. But in the case that animals suchand required to put tabs on their dog. The prefectural

as dogs, which live at close quarters with people, there

authority carries out dog control activities. Theseis a considerable risk to people. Therefore dog owners

activities include capturing and impounding strayare obliged by law to ensure that their animals receive adogs and returning them to their owners if the owners

rabies vaccination injection. In this way, the authorities

are identified, or, if the owners cannot be found,

hope to prevent rabies outbreaks from occurring attransferring them to an animal welfare organization if

all or at least prevent them from developing into an

they are suitable for re-homing, etc. It is the prefecturalepidemic if the disease does re-enter the country.

authority that destroys those dogs whose owners
cannot be found and that are deemed unsuitable for(Slide 10)transfer.

This brings us on to border control measures. How are
the applicable laws and regulations applied to rabies?

Rabies controls are also implemented when dogs,

70cats and various other animals are imported into

In the previously mentioned Rabies Prevention Law,

Japan. The animals are only allowed into the country

provision is made for conducting inspection concerning

after a period of quarantine which is carried out by

these animals. Approximately 7,200 dogs andりぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

approximately 1,800 cats were imported into Japan insurrounding area with soapy water, have the wound2010.

inspected at a clinic or hospital and obtain treatment
if required. Also, the Quarantine Stations can provide

Moreover, under the Law Concerning the Prevention

consultation in such cases, so please come forward andof Infectious Diseases and Medical Care for Patients

get a consultation upon your return to Japan.

of Infection (Infectious Diseases Control Law), batsmonkeys and some other species of animals are(Slide 14)

prohibited from being imported.

Secondly, this is for dog owners. In the context of rabies
prevention, dogs are important. We request owners toImporters of mammals other than animals which are

ensure that their dogs receive a rabies vaccination andnot the subject of animal quarantines are requiredthat they register their dogs. We have to appeal to dog

to submit a health certificate that the animals being

owners continuously to do these things.

imported are not infected with rabies. According tothese records, approximately 450,000 mammals were(Slide 15)

imported into Japan in 2010. However, many of these

So let me talk next about the broader subject ofwere rodents, a class of animals that is not at high risk

preventing infectious diseases. We commonly refer toof contracting rabies.

the Infectious Disease Control Law by this, its simplified
name.

(Slide 11)
The MHLW has produced guidelines in order to mount(Slide 16)

an effective response in the event that rabies does

The purpose of this law is to prevent the occurrence ofoccur. These guidelines were drawn up in 2001. They

infectious diseases and from spreading them. Regarding

give a detailed outline of the steps required to movethe measures employed to realize this aim, thefrom suspicion to definite diagnosis in the event thatgovernment carries out the tasks written here. Firstly,

an animal or person is suspected of being infected by

the national government lays down the basic policy

rabies. We are now conducting research to formulate

and the prefectural authorities draw up their own

more advanced guidelines that will explain, for example,

prevention plans based on this policy and implement

how to conduct an epidemiological investigation inmeasures accordingly.

cases where an owned dog in Japan is diagnosed withrabies.

So, how do we obtain a picture of the overall infectious
disease occurrence situation? Medical doctors and(Slide 12)veterinarians report cases of infectious diseases,

This is a poster that we produced. In it, you can see

which allow the authorities to grasp the situation andpart of an image of an old record. As the poster shows,make official announcements if required. What sort ofrabies definitely used to exist in Japan and some people

response do the authorities make to the information

were infected. We should not forget that. We need tothey receive? For example, if necessary, the authorities

keep in mind that there might be an outbreak at any

may ask patients to restrict their work or recommend

time, even after so many years.

hospitalization. Also, they carry out research in order
to ascertain the actual cause of the infection. If the(Slide 13)

source of the infection is identified then they will take

This is what the MHLW says on its website aboutcountermeasures against it. What is required may differ

preventing rabies. Firstly, as rabies occasionally infects

according to the type of disease, so the measures to be

Japanese travelers abroad, it tells Japanese travelingtaken need be decided accordingly. I will explain more

overseas not to touch animals without reason. If

about this.

you are bitten by a dog, etc., wash the wound and2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201271

Regarding the provision of appropriate medical carefor patients, in the case of diseases such as Ebola

In practice, once the information is placed in thehemorrhagic fever (EHF), the patients are treatedcomputer system at the local authority it can be viewed

at a special hospital. Furthermore, animal importvirtually instantaneously at the MHLW. Then theregulations are enforced.

situation of the occurrence of the infectious diseases
obtained in this way is shared with the public and with

(Slide 17)

medical care institutions.

The system carried out under the Infectious Disease
Control Law consists of the measures listed here.

(Slide 19)
As for the animal import measures, I have already

The main diseases are categorized into Category I tomentioned that there are import prohibitions andV infectious diseases and “Pandemic influenza andimport notification obligations based on the Infectious

relevant infections”. This circle shows the measures that

Diseases Control Law. Among the import prohibitions,can be taken for each disease type under the law.

there are two patterns. The first pattern is not allowed
without obtaining special permission of the MHLW and

Rabies, which I talked about earlier, and parrot disease

the MAFF. The second pattern is allowed in compliance(psittacosis) are both classified as Category IV infectious

with certain conditions, such as if the animal, which isdiseases. Let us see what countermeasures can be taken

limited to the monkey in the designated area, is placed

against these diseases under the law. We can sterilize

in quarantine. The import notification obligations are

the goods that may be sources of the infection as well

aimed at mammals and birds. The notification of theas the places contaminated by the disease agents. But

animal importation is submitted together with theunlike EHF, these are not diseases that are transmitted

health certificate. This notification system has become

from human-to-human. So restricting patients froma preventative measure against infectious diseases.

working or recommending hospitalization cannot be
enforced.

(Slide 20)
In implementing measures against infectious diseases

On the other hand, in the case of serious diseasesof animal origin it is important for to cooperate withthat can be transmitted from human-to-human, suchthe organizations concerned, for example, the MAFF,

as Ebola, you can see many circles indicating what

the Ministry of the Environment (MOE), the Ministrymeasures can be taken according to the law. There areof Economy, Trade and Industry, and the Ministry of

a number of fairly strong measures that can be taken,

Finance for animal importation matters. If an infectious

including not only restricting patients from work or

disease outbreak occurs domestically, our Ministry

recommending their hospitalization, but also restricting

takes steps to coordinate and cooperate with local

their entering buildings or using public transport.

authorities, and at concerned ministries such as the
MAFF and the MOE, and we also cooperate with the(Slide 18)

relevant medical associations, and relevant veterinary

This figure shows how to grasp the occurrence of

associations if needed.

infectious diseases. I talked about the classification of72

infectious diseases in the previous slide. All cases ofThis slide shows the flow of cooperation using the real

Category I to IV infectious diseases have to be reported.

example of avian influenza. There is a committee called

What this means is that the doctors who diagnose

the Liaison Committee Among Ministries and Agencies.

patients with these diseases are required to report each

So when an actual outbreak of highly pathogenic avian

case to the health center. In turn, the health center

influenza occurs the ministries concerned gather at thereports the information to the local authority and from

Cabinet Secretariat, share information, and decide on

there it is passed on to the MHLW.

the countermeasures policy.

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

-If you are keeping a bird indoors, be sure to ventilate(Slide 21)

the room sufficiently.

In order to take appropriate measures against-As for wild animals, you should always assume that

infectious diseases it is necessary to gather scientificwild animals carry agents of infectious diseases so weknowledge. So our Ministry is promoting research into

should not touch them if at all possible.

such diseases by MHLW Grants.

-As for rabies, people are requested to respond byfollowing the law.

This example takes infectious diseases of animal origin
as its theme. A wide variety of studies are conducted(Slide 25)

and the scientific knowledge of infectious diseases of

There are many kinds of infectious diseases of animal

animal origin (such as capnocytophaga) is developed

origin and it is rather difficult to get a full grasp ofon the results of such research.

them. For further information, there is a website under
the National Institute of Infectious Diseases Infectious(Slide 22)

Disease Surveillance Center. This contains a variety of

Guidelines are also developed as one of the results

information on infectious diseases of animal origin. Itof the research. Regarding individual diseases wemay seem very academic but it will give you an idea of

have developed guidelines on rabies, West Nile fever,what the diseases are.

chikungunya fever and so on. Other guidelines shown
here are guidelines for zoonitic diseases for use in(Slide 26, 27)

facilities that exhibit animals (such as zoos) and there

For people traveling overseas, we produce leaflets likeare hygiene management guidelines for securing thethis middle one which is available within departure

hygiene of assistance dogs also.

lounges. While abroad, even if you think a certain
animal is really cute, and want to buy it, you will not(Slide 23)

be allowed to bring it back home. These pamphlets

Moreover, we introduce information about theseand posters have also been made to help people avoid

and other cases in the style of a Q&A form about

unexpected infection of infectious diseases of animal

rabies, West Nile fever, capnocytophaga, tick-borne

origin.

encephalitis, etc. In the Q&A we explain what kindof disease it is, how it is diagnosed, how it can be(Slide 28)

prevented, etc.

Today I have tried to give you a rough explanation
about the measures against(Slide 24)

infectious diseases of animal origin that the MHLWThe handbook is produced for the general public anddeals with, and the research and information services

introduces general points that people should pay

we are involved in.

attention regarding infectious diseases of animal origin.
Thank you very much for your attention.
They are written here: -Wash your hands after touching an animal and wash
your hands after touching the sand in a sandpit, or thesoil in a park, or when gardening.
-Keep your contact with animals within reasonablebounds.
-Keep your surroundings clean. And since animal waste
may contain agents of infectious diseases, dispose of it
quickly.

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