Tea Landscapesof Asia
A Thematic Study
October 2021

EDITED BY

Regina Durighello/Rebecca Currie/
Mónica Luengo
SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR

Mónica Luengo

Tea Landscapesof Asia
A Thematic Study
October 2021

EDITED BY

Regina Durighello/Rebecca Currie/
Mónica Luengo
SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR

Mónica Luengo

International Council on Monuments and Sites
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94220 Charenton-le-Pont
France© ICOMOS, 2021

This publication is licensed under the Creative Commons license “Attribution +Noncommercial + ShareAlike”.
ISBN: 978-2-918086-41-3
Cover : Imagen&Producto
Layout: ATP, S.L.

Acknowledgements

In preparing this thematic study on the Tea Landscapes of Asia,
ICOMOS would like to acknowledge the support and contributionof ICOMOS China, and in particular Dr. SONG Xinchao,
President of ICOMOS China for leading the project,
and XIE Li, programme specialist and project coordinator;
particular thanks are extended to Regina Durighello, Director of
the ICOMOS Advisory and Monitoring Unit, for her guidance, toRebecca Currie from the ICOMOS Advisory and Monitoring Unit,
for her contribution, to Mónica Luengo, ICOMOS expert,
and to all the authors for their significant work.

IndexIntroduction
Regina Durighello and Mónica Luengo

1

1.

Introductory Overview of the History of Global Tea Production
Wataru Ono

72.

Overview of the Asian Tea Culture Landscape
Han Feng

18

3.

Tea Landscapes in East Asia
3.1.
-

3.2.
3.3.
4.

4.2.
-

78

96
118
137
157

175

213

India
Indian tea landscapesPriyaleen SinghA Study of Assam and Darjeeling
Aditi Chatterji
Sri Lanka
Tea landscapes in Sri Lanka
Jane Lennon

232

270

303

Tea landscapes in South East Asia
5.1.
-

5.2.
6.

30

Tea Landscapes in the Indian Subcontinent
4.1.
-

5.

China
Overview of Chinese Tea Culture LandscapeZou Yiqing
The Cultural Landscape of Pu'er Tea Forest of Jingmai Mountainin Yunnan Province
Chen Yaohua
The Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain in Ya’an of Sichuan Province
Zou Yiqing
Cultural Landscape of Tea Plantations in Wuyi Mountains
Wang Chaoyi
Cultural Landscape of West Lake Longjing Tea Plantation
Wang Chaoyi
Cultural landscape of tea gardens in Anhua, Hunan Province
Wang Chaoyi
Japan
Japan: Uji-cha Tea Cultural Landscape
Shigeatsu Shimizu, Kazuhiro Uesugi, Keita Yamaguchi
Korea
The Tea Landscape of Hwagaegok Valley in Korea
Je-Hun Ryu, Gil-Sik Hwang, Jae-Hoon Cheong

Vietnam
Cultural Landscape of Thai Nguyen Tea
Expert Group from Cultural Heritage Department of Vietnam &Department of Culture, Sports and Tourism of Thai Nguyen province
Myanmar
Background history of tea cultivation in Myanmar
Kalaya Lu

Conclusions
Mónica Luengo

324

343
360

TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE S

1

Tea Landscapes
Introduction
Regina Durighello
Mónica Luengo

1. Heritage of agricultural landscapes
In the framework of its work as Advisory Body to the World Heritage Convention, ICOMOS
undertakes thematic studies that are a synthesis of current research and knowledge on a
specific theme and could be used by States Parties as a basis for comparative ana lysis whennominating a property to the World Heritage List. Thematic studies have been devoted tomultiple themes, especially those heritage typologies that are poorly represented on the World
Heritage List. However, regarding agricultural landscapes, there is still a lack of thematicstudies that can help to assist in their identification, recognition, preservation and management.
Thematic studies regarding specifically agricultural heritage have been dedicated only tovineyards (2004), although some others, like those referring to the heritage of water in the
Middle East and the Maghreb (2015 and 2017), are closely linked to the subject. There aresome other works and studies, frequently carried out in collaboration with UNESCO and theWorld Heritage Centre, resulting from cooperation and expert meetings, such as the riceterraces in Asia (1995) or agropastoralism (2012), but if we consider the wide variety ofagricultural landscapes and the huge and rich heritage they mean for humanity, there is still along way to go. Exploring the processes that have shaped agropastoral landscapes and theirresulting characteristics, and assessing their heritage significance and potential for World
Heritage Listing, would contribute decisively towards the implementation of the Global Stra tegy
for a more balanced World Heritage List, which would be truly representative of diversity ofagricultural heritage and landscapes.
The inscription of agropastoral cultural landscapes would not only contribute towards achievinga more balanced and representative World Heritage List, but would also draw the attention of
the international community to the importance of agriculture and of its tangible and intangible
legacy for humankind, being one of the main productive activities and the basis of livelih oodfor human communities in the past and in the future. Recognition of this heritage, generated byagricultural practices throughout history, in the UNESCO framework would signify a step
forward (Castillo & Martínez, 2014). The ICOMOS report The World Heritage List: Filling in theGaps (ICOMOS, 2005) highlighted that an under-represented category consists of agriculturallandscapes reflecting human endeavours to cultivate and process staple or other economic
crops, and the traditional techniques for production, together with vernacular architecture andTEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE S

2settlements that are also associated with them. In the 15 years since the Filling the Gaps report
was issued, a number of agricultural landscapes have been inscribed on the World Heritage
List, but there is clearly still room for more.
Furthermore, traditional agricultural landscapes are at the crossroads of the main four strategiclines of UNESCO - Biodiversity, the World Heritage Convention, Intangible Heritage andCultural Diversity - but even on the occasions when they represent a perfect example of biocultural diversity, they are still not recognized in this international framework. Even so“agricultural and agro-pastoral landscapes are very present in the World Heritage List as living
cultural landscapes, but also as relict landscapes or as representations of this important historyof humanity in rock art sites, for example” (Rössler & Tournoux, 2013). Most of the inscribed
cultural landscapes refer to these agropastoral activities, as the cultural devel opment of
humanity is closely linked to them, having shaped our landscapes since prehistoric times. But,
paradoxically, we do not yet have in-depth studies on the various types of traditional agriculturallandscapes: these studies are much needed in order to determine parameters for assessing
their potential outstanding significance and to map those exhibiting such potential.
There is a lack of research on agricultural landscapes, even though they have increasingly
become a matter of concern in the last decade, being the leitmotif of different initiatives since2010, when the heritage of agriculture was chosen as the theme for that year’s International
Heritage Day. In 2017, ICOMOS adopted the Principles Concerning Rural Landscapes as
Heritage, where these types of landscapes are defined as “a vital component of the heritageof humanity. They are also one of the most common types of continuing cultural landscapes.
There is a great diversity of rural landscapes around the world that represent cultures andcultural traditions. They provide multiple economic and social benefits, multifunctionality,
cultural support and ecosystem services for human societies”. The document also includes
the potential opportunities and benefits that rural landscapes can bring in terms of a place’s
sustainability and provides principles and criteria for the protection and promotion of heritage
related to rural landscapes (Scazzosi, 2018). The Principles also aim to support scientificidentification, description, comparison and evaluation during studies for site candidature on
the World Heritage List.
Currently, 170 cultural landscapes are inscribed on the World Heritage List, with 42 of themunder category 2a) (“organically evolved landscapes”). This is striking, considering that two thirds of the global territory is covered by some kind of agro-pastoral activity, be it agriculture,
livestock grazing or forestry. Agro-pastoral activities can be found in all of the 42 mentioned
landscapes, in a more complex or simple way, and especially define 27 of them. Nearly halfof these (10) are vineyards, but we can also find rice terraces, tobacco or agave cultivation,and other Mediterranean associations with olive trees, fruit tre es and viticulture. Many otherlandscapes resulting from operations of farming and processing related to other crops – forinstance olives, wheat, corn, cotton, potatoes and fruit trees – are totally under-represented
or not even included in the List, even though the associated activities have shaped distinctive
landscapes while modifying the natural environment. Studying how and to what extent thesechanges have taken place can help bring into light potential sites eligible for future

TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE S

3nominations and would form a robust basis for future assessment of the parameters andpotential of the resulting landscapes.
Extensive industrialized monoculture has ended many of the traditional polyculture and mosaic
patterns that maintained a rich biodiversity and adapted wisely to their environment. On thecontrary, traditional monoculture is based on respect for ecological and sustainable balance
and is always supported by associated crops and even a sensitive forestry, as is frequently thecase for rice paddies, for example. These monocultural landscapes are generally the mostvisually impressive, due to their scale. They are “devoted to a single operation, and the structure
they impose upon the territory in terms of a single variable result in large expanses of land thatare spectacularly homogenous… all are outstanding examples of social, economic or religious
needs that have evolved over time in response to and in conjunction with the naturalenvironment. In this respect, they are repositories of the technical and scientific knowledge ofpast generations which hold the key that will allow us to face future threats, including climatechange” (Luengo, 2013).

2. Tea landscapes
Tea landscapes are among the most spectacular landscapes devoted to a single crop, but theheritage of tea has not yet been given a relevant importance as heritage or as comprisingvaluable cultural landscapes in local and international policy documents. The specific activities
of tea cultivation and processing have shaped distinctive organically evolved landscapes thatare the result of generations of communities interacting with nature. Even though tea production
is one of the major resources of many Asian countries and also has a major religious andtraditional aspect, no studies have been developed yet on the specificities of the heritage andcultural significance of tea landscapes. Mapping and studying landscapes shaped by thecultivation and processing of tea are a long-due obligation, especially in the Asian region, where
tea crops cover huge surfaces, with characteristic lines of tea bushes combing the hills or tea
trees growing under the canopy formed by taller trees, making up valuable landscapes andplaces of significance. In addition, while, as mentioned above, many of the cultural landscapes
inscribed on the List illustrate the production and processing of crops for brewing beverages
that have become popular worldwide (wine, coffee, tequila), and though tea is one of the threemajor beverages of the world, with all that that implies in cultural terms, there are still noinscriptions of this heritage on the List (Wijetunga and Sung, 2018).
Tea (Camellia sinensis) is the most-consumed manufactured drink in the world. Discovered inapproximately 2700 BC, it is one of the world’s oldest beverages, and today it is available for
consumption in six main varieties that are based on the oxidization and fermentation techniqueapplied (Chan, 2015). It is recognised by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), and its contributions to health, culture and socioeconomic development are still
as relevant today. Tea is currently grown in more than 35 countries and supports over 13 million
people, including smallholder farmers and their households, who depend on the tea sector for
their livelihoods (FAO). It is celebrated by the FAO through its annual International Tea Day

TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE S

4(http://www.fao.org/international-tea-day/en/), held on 21st May, and still represents a vital rolein rural development, poverty reduction and food security.
deservesaspecific

FAO

It is an outstanding crop that

Intergovernmental

Group

on

Tea

(http://www.fao.org/economic/est/est-commodities/tea/tea-meetings/en/). Four tea-producing
sites in Asia (in China, Japan and Korea) have been recognised as Globally Important
Agricultural Heritage Systems (http://www.fao.org/giahs/en/).
Since it was first cultivated in China around the 3rd millennium BC as a medicinal beverageobtained by boiling fresh leaves in water, tea cultivation spread quickly over China and becamea daily drink. It was soon linked with poetry, calligraphy, painting, philosophy and tea drinking
rituals, and an intense trade led to important cultural routes such as the tea -horse routes thatconnected China with other countries. From China, cultivation spread over other Asian
countries, and then, much more recently, around the 17th century, it arrived in Europe and wasexported in huge quantities by the Portuguese, Dutch and British. During the 19th and 20th
centuries, there was a substantial expansion in tea cultivation around the world. By the end of
the 20th century, tea cultivation had spread to some 40 countries in Africa, Asia and SouthAmerica, and around the Black and Caspian Sea, limited to the areas in the world where there
is a hot, moist climate, a minimum annual precipitation of 1,250mm, preferably acidic soils,
ideally 0.5-10 degree slopes, and elevations up to 2,000 metres (Chang, 2015). Today, tea
growing is a major global industry. The four biggest tea-producing countries are China, India,
Sri Lanka and Kenya, and these countries represent 75% of global production.
The tea landscapes in Asia are paradigmatic examples of cultural landscapes, embedded withmultiple intangible values, and reflecting generations and generations of human activity. They
are a demonstration of human ingenuity adapting to the varied geographical and social
conditions of tea cultivation. Tea has become a source of religious practices, associated with
Buddhism and Taoism, and is the basis of hundreds of traditional rituals, some as important as
the tea ceremony. Tea is associated with a significant cultural heritage linked to a major
economic sector and is the basis for the survival and well-being of millions of people. Tea
landscapes represent a resource for human development and for the richness of biocultural
diversity born around the tea bush. It has promoted intercultural dialogue through commerce
and trade, migrations and the blend of different ethnic groups, and can be the foundation forsustainable development and the response to current challenges such as climate change.

3. Tea landscapes thematic study
With the aim of providing support for possible nominations to the World Heritage List, achievinga more balanced representation of agricultural cultural landscapes on the List, and highlighting
the potential of tea landscapes in Asia to contribute to the List, this study explores the theme ofagricultural landscapes related to tea cultivation and processing and outlines preliminary
elements for establishing comparative parameters.

TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE S

5In a first stage, a standard plan was set, proposing sub-regional geographic divisions (China,
Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Myanmar, India and Sri Lanka) that would be covered by an article inthe study. Depending on their importance from a heritage perspective, some sub-regions were
subdivided into several intermediate zones. The first difficulty was identifying experts for all the
sub-regions, be they ICOMOS members or not, since, as mentioned above, there is a notorious
lack of research on the subject from a landscape point of view. Once identified, a simple format
and standard plan was sent to the experts. This format or standard plan included sections on
the general characteristics; the main tea landscapes and their general geographical andecological data; the historical context; the description, planting traditions and types of t ea trees;
harvesting and tea processing; social and cultural systems; associated communities andsettlements; links to trade, trade routes and economic opportunities; intangible associations;landscape surveys, photographs and archaeological surveys; archive documents; risks andchallenges; authenticity and integrity issues; legal protection; state of conservation;
management issues, etc. A short bibliography was also required. The purpose of requ esting
all of this information was to identify those landscapes that had been shaped distinctively bytea cultivation, and perhaps also by processing, drinking ceremonies and trade, as a reflectionof various specific cultural, social and economic forces, especially those that have persisted
over time. The aim was also to assess how some of these landscapes might have the potential
to justify consideration for inscription on the World Heritage List.
The responses received from consulted experts have clearly shown the challenges ofundertaking a multidisciplinary study on the topic as required for cultural landscapes studies,
and, equally, the need for involving different specializations (economic, botanical, etc.); it has
also highlighted the lack of adequate documentation of these landscapes. All the experts
contacted put in an enormous effort and we have to congratulate them all. The editing process
has required an intense exercise of communication and exchanges with the consulted experts ,in search of a standardization or homogenization that would facilitate the possible comparative
analysis. This study includes texts on specific tea landscapes from China, Japan, Korea, India,
Sri Lanka, Vietnam and Myanmar: it is not meant to be exhaustive and cou ld be seen as thefirst contribution of this kind on the exploration of this complex theme. The result reflects thecurrent state of the research on tea landscapes in each country. Each text has captured thenational essence, as each tea landscape described is a combination of natural and material
elements together with the culture to which it is associated.
Tea landscapes vary widely from one tea-producing region to another. Each is different fromthe other, reflecting the very diverse ways of life, beliefs and cultures, past and present, of allthese rural sites. They keep alive the memory of the history of successive generations offarmers, represent different social organizations, and explain ways of understanding the land
and the relationship between humankind and nature. Each cup of tea contains the essence ofa terroir where the Camellia sinensis is cultivated, with its own special characteristics due to its
soil, climate, altitude, latitude and so on. Those specific features, together with the traditional
plucking style, the processing and the ways of drinking, provide for a distinctive flavour and asign of identity; the result of a specific tea landscape (Luengo, 2019).

TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE S

6The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, in Annex
3 (Guidelines for the inscription of specific types of properties on the World Heritage List),
Paragraph 7, state that cultural landscapes should be selected on the basis of both their
Outstanding Universal Value and their representativity in terms of a clearly defined geo -cultural
region, and also for their capacity to illustrate the essential and distinct cultural elements ofsuch regions. Tea landscapes are indeed representative of the Asian region, and are areflection of the interaction between humans and their environment, keeping alive the memo ry
of successive generations of tea farmers.

Bibliography
Castillo Ruiz, J. and Martínez Yáñez, C., “The Agrarian Heritage: definition, characterization and degreeof representation on the UNESCO framework”, Boletín de la Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles, nº 66-2014, pp. 457-461.
Chang, K., World tea production and trade. Current and future development. FAO, 2015.
FAO, Discussion Paper. Distinction between GIAHS and UNESCO’S cultural landscape category(GIAHS/STSC/15/3 add. 1), 2015, www.fao.org/3/a-bp925e.pdf.
ICOMOS, The World Heritage List: Filling the Gaps – An Action Plan for the Future, Paris.
ICOMOS,ICOMOS-IFLA
Principles
Concerning
Rural
LandscapesasHeritage.
https://www.icomos.org/images/DOCUMENTS/Charters/GA2017_6-3-1_RuralLandscapesPrinciples_
EN_adopted-15122017.pdf, 2017.
Luengo, A., “World Heritage agricultural landscapes”, Agricultural Landscapes, World Heritage, n. 69,
October 2013, pp. 10-14.
Luengo, M., “Cultural and Heritage Values of the Asian Tea Landscapes in an international framework”,
Boschiero, P, Latini, L. and Paolillo, M., (eds), The Tea Gardens of Dazhangshan , Fondazione Benetton
Studi Ricerche, pp. 185-199.
Rössler, M. and Tournoux, M-N., “Focus on agricultural and agro-pastoral landscapes”, AgriculturalLandscapes, World Heritage, n. 69, October 2013, p. 15.
Scazzosi, L., “Rural Landcapes as heritage: reasons for and implications of Principles Concerning Rural
Landscapes as Heritage ICOMOS- IFLA 2017” Built heritage 2, 2018, pp. 39-52.
UNESCO, Asian Rice Culture and Its Terraced Landscapes. Report on the Regional Thematic Study
Meeting. Manila (Philippines), 28 March to 4 April 1995. http://whc.unesco.org/en/events/1111/ .
UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, 2019, Paris.
UNESCO, World Heritage, 69. October 2013, monographic issue: Agricultural Landscapes.
Wijetunga, C.S., and Sung, J.S., 2018. “Valuing the Cultural Landscapes Past and Present: Tea
Plantations in Sri Lanka”, Ramsay, J. and Taylor, K. (eds), 21st Century Challenges Facing CulturalLandscapes, Routledge, 2018, pp.668-683.

T E A C U LTU R A L LA N D S C A PE S

7Introductory Overview
of the History of Global
Tea Production
Wataru Ono

1. Major tea-producing areas in the world
Tea is enjoyed around the world, and different countries or regions have different cultures
or styles of tea drinking. However, as far as cultural landscapes of tea are concerned, it is
the place or land of tea cultivation that is pertinent. Tea cultivation is relatively
geographically limited on the earth. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization's(FAO) database (FAOSTAT), out of the top 20 countries that produce tea (in 2017), 11
countries are in Asia, eight are in Africa, and one is in Latin America.
China is the top tea producer (2.46 million tonnes), followed by India (including Assam andDarjeeling regions) (1.33 million tonnes). These two Asian countries are the only countries that
produce over one millions tonnes of tea per year. Kenya ranks third, producing 440,000 tonnes.
Asian countries fill the fourth to eleventh positions: Sri Lanka (also known as Ceylon in the tea
industry), Vietnam, Turkey, Indonesia (including Java and Sumatra Islands), Myanmar, Iran,Japan and Bangladesh. Argentina produces 81,000 tonnes, ranking 12th, as the only country
included among the top 20 tea producing countries that is located in the Americas (and theWestern Hemisphere). Thailand produces 59,000 tonnes, ranking 13th. Uganda produces
50,000 tonnes, ranking 14th. The 15th to 18th positions are taken up by African countries:
Malawi, Tanzania, Mozambique and Rwanda. Nepal and Taiwan complete the list.
In summary, tea is mainly grown in two regions, East and South East Asia, centering around
China, and East Africa, centering around Kenya, followed by a few countries outside theseregions: Iran and Turkey in West Asia and Argentina in Latin America.
This geological distribution suggests that tea drinkers outside these regions may not befamiliar with the landscapes of tea cultivation. For that matter, tea drinkers in one teaproducing place may not be familiar with the landscapes of tea cultivation in another place.

2. History of tea cultivation on a global scale
As far as the history of tea cultural landscapes is concerned, neither the origins of wild tea
nor the history of the spread and diversification of tea-drinking cultures are so important as
the moment when people started the cultivation of tea.

T E A C U LTU R A L LA N D S C A PE S

8From this perspective, the history of tea cultivation can be boiled down to the following
four stages:
In the beginning, tea was only grown in China; this continued
for thousands of years up to the 8 th century CE
In the initial stage (China), tea cultivation started in China thousands of years before thecommon era, and China continued to be the only place that tea was grown for thousand ofyears up to the 8 th century.
Spread of tea cultivation from China to East Asia in the 8 th century,
but not beyond for one thousand years
In the second stage (tea cultivation spread from China to East Asia), Buddhist monks
introduced tea seeds, as well as the habit of tea drinking as a kind of medicine, to Japan in
the 8 th century and tea cultivation spread in the subsequent centuries to a few countries in
East Asia, including Korea, to which tea cultivation was introduced in the 9th century. But,
the tea cultivation continued to be limited in East Asia for more or less one thousand years
up to the 19 th century.

Image 1. Pruned tea bushes near Kyoto, Japan.Source: M. Luengo.

Spread of tea cultivation from East Asia to the Indian subcontinent, South-East Asia,
West Asia and East Africa in the 19 th and 20 th centuries
In the third stage, in the 19th century, tea spread from a few countries in East Asia to several
countries in the Indian subcontinent, South-East Asia, West Asia, and East Africa. Teadrinking had been unknown in Europe until tea was mentioned in travel accounts of 16thcentury Europeans who visited the East, such as Venetian geographer Giovanni Battista

T E A C U LTU R A L LA N D S C A PE S

9

Ramusio, Jesuit priests such as Gaspar da Cruz and Luís Fróis (Portuguese) as well as
Matteo Ricci and Giovanni Botero (Italian), Dutch navigator Jan Huyghen van Linschoten,
and Portuguese sailor João Rodrigues. Afterwards tea was brought to Europe for the firsttime in history in 1610 by Dutch traders, followed by British traders in 1637. In the subsequentcenturies, tea-drinking became popular in Europe, increasing demand for tea from the Eastand resulting in trade competition. In some important historical events, tea even triggered, orplayed an important role in, war. It was not until the 19 th century that European countries
succeeded in cultivating tea in their colonies in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Vietnam and othercountries. European colonization brought tea cultivation to East Africa, too, such as in Malawi
and Kenya. Turkey and Iran in West Asia also started tea cultivation.
To the Western Hemisphere in the 20 th century
In the fourth stage, in the 20th century, tea cultivation found its way to the Western
Hemisphere, mainly Argentina.

3. History of tea cultivation at the regional level (excerpts)
Many books have been written about tea and are readily available in the market for those
who are interested in a more detailed history of tea cultivation in different countries andregions. In the past seven years, new books providing succinct information about the historyof tea cultivation, introduction to different tea cultures, and graphic presentation of teaproducing areas in different countries and regions have been published. Among others, thefollowing three books have been particularly informative:· Kelvin et al. Tea: History, Terroirs, Varieties., (first published 2009 by Éditions de l’Homme,)
second ed., Firefly Books, New York, 2014.
· Smith, Krisi. World Atlas of Tea: from the leaf to the cup, the world’s teas explored and enjoyed,
Mitchell Beazley, London, 2016;

and· Gaylard, Linda. The Tea Book. Dorling Kindersley Limited, London, 2015.
The following are excerpts from these new books, and W. H. Ukers’ classic andencyclopedic 1935 book All About Tea, about the history of tea cultivation in different
countries and regions, with a focus on when tea cultivation began:

East Asia
China“In 2004, scientists excavating at the foot of Tianluo Hill in the north of Zhejiang Province
discovered ancient tea-plant fossils with marks indicating cultivation.… Previously, theT E A C U LTU R A L LA N D S C A PE S

10earliest recorded example of tea, which was also found in China, dated back to 3,000
BC. These remarkable new findings place the new date for the origin of tea cultivation
at nearly 9,000 years ago.
“The earliest written record of tea is from China and dates back to 600 BC. The first
known book about brewing and serving tea, written by the Chinese poet Lu Yu, followed
shortly after.”(World Atlas of Tea).
“China is where tea was born. Chinese legends that speak of its discovery are so ancient
it would be easy to believe that tea has always existed there. But if tea has been known
in China since time immemorial, it has not always existed in its current form. Indeed,different ways of growing and drinking it have evolved over time and according tochanging customs.
“Among the Chinese legends that recount the discovery of tea, the oldest dates from2737 BCE.
“Taking this legend into account, it is possible to say that tea has been used in the
Chinese pharmacopoeia for over 4,500 years. According to Lu Yu, author of the firstwork devoted to tea, it was in the time of the Zhou dynasty (1121-256 BCE) that tea
became a popular drink. Until then tea had been used med icinally or as a food, mixed
into soup or with other foods. It was not until the Han dynasty (206 BCE -220 CE) thattea was considered a beverage in its own right.
“Chinese feudal society was at its peak in the prosperous days of the Tang dynasty (618907). During this era, the art of tea was developing along with the arts of painting,calligraphy and poetry….
“During the Tang Dynasty, tea was not prepared in the same way it is today. At that time,
tea was compressed into bricks that were then softened so th ey could be crumbled witha mortar and pestle. The resulting powder was mixed with salt water and sometimes withginger, onion, orange zest and rice before being boiled ….
“During the Song dynasty (960-1279), important changes occurred in the way tea wasmanufactured and consumed: it was the age of powdered tea. The dried leaves were groundwith a millstone to obtain a fine powder that was then beaten in a bowl with a bamboo whip
until “jade foam” appeared. The Japanese, who were introduced to tea during this period by
Buddhist monks, still use this process during the chanoyu, the tea ceremony….
“The end of the 13 th century was marked in China by the invasion of Mongol hordes,
which slowed down the spread of tea. It was not until the cultural renaissance of the
Ming dynasty (1368-1644), almost a century later, that tea culture was reborn. It was at
this time that tea began to be prepared as we do it today….

T E A C U LTU R A L LA N D S C A PE S

11

“The Qing dynasty (1644-1914) was another important period in the history of tea in
China. Indeed, several prestigious teas were named during the Qing dynasty . The
famous Bi Luo Chun and Long Jing were named by the Emperor Qianlong. ”(Tea. History, Terroirs, Varieties).

Image 2: Old Village of Nuogang. Pu’er. Jingmai, China. Source: M. Luengo.

Japan“Tea was first brought to Japan around 805 CE by Japanese monks returning from China.
However, it was only in the 12 th century that the tea plant began to thrive in the Uji areaof the Kyoto prefecture.”(The Tea Book).
“Japan was one of the earliest countries to cultivate tea ….
“Tea was first cultivated in Japan in the 8 th century in the grounds of Buddhist temples,
nestled in the foothills of the Uji mountains. After visiting China, where Camelia sinensis
was a native species and already popular as a beverage, Buddhist scholars were
impressed with the medicinal qualities of green tea and so took tea seeds back home to
Japan. The earliest mention of tea in Japanese literature dates to AD 815… .
“In the 12 th century, the Zen Buddhist monk Eisai wrote a treatise called Kissa Yojoki(How to Stay Healthy Drinking Tea) about the medicinal benefits of drinking tea, as aresult of which plantations began to spring up in Kyoto to produce tea for spiritual andhealth purposes.”(World Atlas of Tea).
“Tea was introduced to Japan in the eighth century by monks who had spent time in
China studying Buddhism. At the time, tea was already a popular beverage in China,
and the monks used it as a stimulant to stay awake during their long hours of mediation.
History records the monks Saisho as being the first to have brought the custom back toJapan, so we have reason to believe that Japan’s interest in tea was roused at this time.

T E A C U LTU R A L LA N D S C A PE S

12

However, because of the strained relations between China and Japan, it was not unt il
the end of 12 th century that Japan could truly be considered as having a tea culture .
“In 1191, the monk Eisai (1141-1215), founder of the Rinzai sect of Zen Buddhism,
brought a few tea plant seeds back from a pilgrimage to China …. Eisai spread the ideathat tea should be consumed for tis medicinal properties. We are also indebted to him
for the first Japanese book on tea, published in 1211. In addition to seeds, he also
introduced the Japanese to the tea preparation method that was used in China at thetime, under the Song dynasty (960-1279). The tea leaves were ground to a fine powder(matcha) before being steeped….
“Later, Japanese grand tea masters appeared on the scene. In the 16 th century, one ofthem, Sen no Rikyu, codified the tea ceremony (chanoyu)… in 1738, Soen Nagatani
created a method of leaf dehydration using steam. Thanks to this method, which bringsout the fresh aroma of the leaves, he was able to create a green tea that was very
different from Chinese green teas and which quickly became quite popular.”(Tea. History, Terroirs, Varieties).
Korea“Tea seeds were brought to Korea from China in 828 CE and planted on Mount Jiri inSouth Gyeongsang province, giving birth to a thriving tea culture.”(The Tea Book).

Indian Subcontinent
India“Tea cultivation began in earnest in India in the 19 th century to supply the British with
their own source of their favourite beverage.”(The Tea Book).
“The true beginning of the history of tea cultivation in India can be attributed in part to Major
Robert Bruce. In 1823, as an employee of the East India Company, he discovered wild tea
plants growing in the state of Assam, close to the border with Myanmar (former Burma)….
“Even before Bruce’s discovery, several attempts had been made to grow tea plants in
India. As early as the beginning of the 19 th century, C.J. Gordon had brought backapproximately 80,000 Camellia sinensis var. sinensis seeds from China, which heintroduced in Darjeeling, Kumaon, Assam and southern India, long before th e tea plantdiscovered in Assam was recognized as a variety of Camellia sinensis. However, thisfirst attempt to grow tea failed due to a lack of experience….
“The British decided to send spies to China to try to discover the secrets of growing tea.
Botanist Robert Fortune, disguised as a tea merchant, managed to gain access to theT E A C U LTU R A L LA N D S C A PE S

13

gardens and pick up enough clues to understand the mysterious process that produced
China’s famous black tea and the important phenomenon involved: oxidation. In 1848, hereturned with 20,000 plants, essential information regarding the processing of the leaves
and a Chinese labor force of about 80 workers, who were to prove invaluable to the creationof new plantations. It was at this point that the cultivation of tea in India really got under way.”(Tea. History, Terroirs, Varieties).
Sri Lanka“Originally a coffee-growing nation, Sri Lanka switched to tea production in 1869, whena devastating blight infested the majority of its coffee plantations .”(The Tea Book).
“Much as in India, tea was first introduced to Sri Lanka during its time under British rulein the 19 th century … Originally, the land was cleared in order for coffee plantations tobe set up, but these plantations were quickly converted to tea estates after the coffe eplants suffered a crippling crop disease …
“Loolecondera, the first tea estate in Sri Lanka, was established in 1867 by James Taylor,
who saw an opportunity to supply tea to the United Kingdom.”(World Atlas of Tea).
“Although Sri Lanka is now one of the world’s major tea exporters, and the appellation“Ceylon Tea” is still in use, its tea industry is relatively young. Before 1860, not a single
tea plant grew on the island. It was entirely covered with coffee plantations, which
represented the country’s primary economic resource.
“The establishment of the first tea gardens on the island is attributed to a young Scot,
James Taylor, who worked for a large coffee grower. Taylor managed to obtain a few
tea tea-plant seeds from the Royal Botanical Gardens of Peradeniya, with which to try
to create a first plantation. Throughout the 1860s, he experimented with different growing
and leaf-processing methods on a few acres of the Loolecondera Estate, which werereferred to as Field No. 7. This garden, in Kandy, is considered the pioneer of tea
growing in Sri Lanka.”(Tea. History, Terroirs, Varieties).

South-East Asia
Vietnam“The indigenous wild tea tree, or “shan”, has been growing in Vietnam for at least 1,000
years. However, it was only in the 1820s that tea plantations were established by French
immigrants.”(The Tea Book).

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14

“Although green tea has been enjoyed for many centuries in Vietnam, after first being
introduced by the neighbouring Chinese, it wasn’t until the 1800s that commercial tea
cultivation was established in the country, by the French colonialists who settled t here.”(World Atlas of Tea).
Indonesia“The Dutch first planted var. sinensis seeds in Indonesia in 1684. However, this variety
failed to flourish, and in the mid-1800s, they found that var. assamica was more suited
to Indonesia’s tropical climate. In the late 19 th century, the first batch of black tea wasshipped to Europe.”(The Tea Book).
“For many years it was thought tea could not be grown and manufactured successfully
except in China and Japan, so it was a long time after the Portuguese navigators ha dshown the way to the Indies and the Far East that the Dutch and the English were
inspired to try it in their Indian possessions.
“The German naturalist and doctor of medicine, Andreas Cleyer, first thought of growing
tea in Java… In 1684, he brought tea seeds from Japan, from which he successfully
grew several tea bushes… The conquest of Java by the tea plant was started with tea
from Japan, followed by plants from China; but it was not until Assam tea seed wasbrought from British India, in 1878, that the victory was complete.”(All About Tea).
Taiwan“In the 1800s, when the black tea industry was booming in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka),Indonesia and India, a British businessman named John Dodd decided to make Taiwan
his base for creating a unique brand of tea for the island to export. … Prior to the 19 th
century, the people of Taiwan had been drinking and growing tea for a hundred years,
since some of the plants had been brought from mainland China’s Fujian Province.”(World Atlas of Tea).
“China is not the only country that influenced the development of the Taiwanese tea
industry, as various peoples have sought to control the territory, due to its ideal strategic
position for exporting goods to Europe. The Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and English all
occupied the island at various points during the 16 th and 17 th centuries. The Dutch, who
occupied Taiwan from 1624 to 1662, were the first to develop the tea trade in this territory .
“In 1662, under the Qing dynasty, Admiral Zheng Cheng Gong reconquered the territo ry,
and it was annexed to China in 1683. Following unification, a wave of Chinese
immigration into Taiwan completely changed the territory’s culture. The new immigrants,
most of whom came from Fujian Province, especially the area around Anxi and the Wuyi

T E A C U LTU R A L LA N D S C A PE S

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Mountains, brought with them tea seeds and plants, as well as their expertise in tea
growing, which was still unknown in Taiwan.”(Tea. History, Terroirs, Varieties).
Thailand“Bringing var. sinensis cuttings from Taiwan, the Chinese began to cultivate tea in
Thailand in the 1960s.”(The Tea Book).
“Tea was introduced to Thailand by the Chinese, both through centuries of trade and by
Chinese settlers in northern Thailand. The knowledge, skills and techniques developedin mainland China and, later, on the island of Taiwan were used to establish the
production of oolong and green teas in Thailand. The same ancient tea trees grow in theforests in the mountains of northern Thailand that grow in northern Vietnam, spanning avast area from Assam in India to Yunnan in China.”(World Atlas of Tea).

West Asia
Iran“Tea production was first introduced to Iran by Prince Mohammad Mirza, who served as
Iran’s ambassador to India. In the 1890s he smuggled Indian tea saplings out of India
and then planted them in his home town of Lahijan.… Tea has been enjoyed widely in
Iran since ancient trade routes brought goods from China to the West .… Iran built its
first tea factory in the 1930s and the industry has since grown .”(World of Tea Atlas).
Turkey“Tea is grown in the picturesque province of Rize in northeast Turkey, an area locatedbetween the Pontic mountains and the Black Sea….
“The Rize province is quite rural and was an economically poor area before tea was firstplanted there in the 1940s….
“Japanese tea plants were first planted in Turkey in the late 1800s, but cultivation did
not take off on a large scale at the time. … It was not until the 1930s that three importantfactors combined to really kickstart Turkey’s tea production.”(World Atlas of Tea).

AfricaMalawi“The first tea in Africa was planted in Malawi in the late 1800s.”(World Atlas of Tea).

T E A C U LTU R A L LA N D S C A PE S

16

“One of the first African countries to market its tea production, Mawali is still one of the
major African growers… The first plantations were established in 1878 and gradually
spread to the regions of Malanje and Thyolo.”(Tea. History, Terroirs, Varieties).

Image 3: Tea landscape in Kericho, Kenya. Source: Ahero dala.

Kenya“Tea was first introduced to Kenya in 1903, and its commercial product ion began in 1924.”(The Tea Book).
“Tea was first introduced to Kenya in the early 1900s when seeds from India wereplanted in the Highlands by the British brothers, the Caines.”(World Atlas of Tea).

The Americas (Western Hemisphere)
United States of America“In the 1880s, the US government began to experiment with tea growing in the states ofGeorgia and South Carolina. These farms failed within the first few decades ….
“Since then, a number of farms around the country have been planting tea with posit ive

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results. One in particular, the Charleston Tea Plantation in South Carolina is wellestablished.”(The Tea Book).
Argentina“Argentina is the only nation from this region (South America) to produce tea on a largecommercial scale.… Yerba mate, a plant similar to tea, had already been cultivated andconsumed in Argentina for hundreds of years before tea was introduced to the country
from the Soviet Union in the 1920s.”(World Atlas of Tea).

Bibliography
Cheadle,L. and Kilby, N. The Tea Book. All Things Tea. Sterling Epicure, New York, 2015.
Gascoyne, K. et al. Tea: History, Terroirs, Varieties (first published 2009 by Éditions de l’Homme,)
3rd ed., Firefly Books, New York, 2018.
Gaylard, L. The Tea Book. Dorling Kindersley Limited, London, 2015.
Hohenegger, B. Liquid Jade: The Story of Tea from East to West. St. Martin’s Press, New York,2006.
Matsuzaki, Y. Nempyo Cha no Sekaishi [A Chronological Table of World History of Tea].
Yasakashobo, Tokyo, 2012.
Smith, K. World Atlas of Tea: from the leaf to the cup, the world’s teas explored and enjoyed,
Mitchell Beazley, London, 2016.
Tsunoyama, S. Cha no Sekaishi [World History of Tea]. Chukoron-Shinsha, Inc., Tokyo, 1980.
Ukers, W.H. All About Tea, The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Company, New York, 1935.

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

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Overview of the Asian Tea
Culture Landscape
Han Feng, Professor,
Department of Landscape Architecture
Tongji University, Shanghai, China

From an economic perspective, the discovery of tea by humans began in the economic era ofprimitive collection. Later, in the middle and late Neolithic period, humans gradually identified tea
with medicinal functions from various edible plants and herbs. After entering the threshold ofcivilization, the planting of tea trees began immediately following agricultural production. In thefollowing thousands of years, as a part of the feudal farming economy, it played an important rolein promoting social and economic development.
Tea is an important material and culture carrier that has participated in the East-West cultural
exchange and interacted with the nomadic civilization in the hinterland of Eurasia, the European
Mediterranean marine civilization, and the colonial trade of the modern Western world. China was
the first country in the world to discover tea, grow tea and drink tea. It is also the birthplace of tea
culture in the world (Chen, 2011, 2013; Chen and Yao, 2019; Gascoyne, 2018; Smit,h 2016; Ukers,
1935). Archaeological remains testify that China had already started planting tea trees 6,000 years
ago (Chen and Yang, 2012; Chen, 1984). About 3000 BC, Shennong, or the Divine Farmer,
discovered the detoxification properties of tea. In 1000 BC, the tea of the Zhou dynasty was used
as a royal tribute. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties (220-581), tea was spread
rapidly through the practice of Taoism and Buddhism. As of the Tang dynasty (7th century), almost
all the people in China were drinking tea, and the world’s first treatise on tea, The Classic of Tea,by tea saint Lu Yu, was published (Zhou and Yao, 2004; 2019). In the 9th century, tea wasintroduced to Japan and the Korean Peninsula from China. After the Tang dynasty, Chinese tea
began to spread to Asia and the rest of the world through the Silk Road, the Ancient Tea-Horse
Road, and the Tea Road of Ten Thousand Miles along with trade and cultural activities. In the 19th
century, Indian cultivation broke the monopoly of China and started large-scale tea production andbusiness worldwide (Guo, 2002; Zhou and Yao, 2019).

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

1.

19

Overview of the geographical distributionof tea areas in the world and Asia

Tea trees are native to southern China, northern Myanmar and Vietnam. Nowadays, thegeographical distribution of global cultivated tea areas spreads across 64 countries on fivecontinents, including 22 tea-producing countries and regions in Asia, 21 in Africa, 12 in theAmericas, 5 in Europe, and 4 in Oceania. In terms of climate, tea cultivation is mainly distributed intropical, subtropical and warm temperature regions, with the northernmost boundary being
Ukraine’s Transkars and the Pathian region at 49 degrees north latitude, and the southernmost
being the Natal of South Africa at 28 degrees south latitude. Among them, tea planting is mostconcentrated between 6 and 32 degrees north latitude, with this area producing the largest output(Zhou and Yao, 2019).
Among the five continents of the world, Asia has the largest tea planting area. The tea planting areain Asia accounts for about 90% of the world’s total, and its production accounts for about 84% of theworld’s total. China has the largest tea plantation area and tea production output in the world. The
other 21 tea producing countries in Asia are India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Japan, Turkey, Bangladesh,Iran, Myanmar, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Malaysia, Cambodia, Nepal, Georgia, Azerbaijan, thePhilippines, South Korea, North Korea, Afghanistan and Pakistan (Zhou and Yao, 2019).
There is no doubt that Asia has a remarkable heritage among the world's tea landscapes, and thetea landscape system in Asia has made outstanding contributions to the world's agricultu ral
economy and cultural system.

Map 1. Tea producing countries. Source: Ratetea.

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

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2. Natural ecological conditions
for tea planting
The widely distributed tea areas in Asia are based on an understanding of the natural attributes oftea trees in various countries, and the result of continuous introduction, cultivation and selection ofdifferent types of tea seedlings to suit local climatic conditions and consumption habits. The
different biological habits of tea trees and tea planting and cultivation methods have formed a richand vivid tea cultural landscape in various countries, and have commonalities and differences
between various regions and types.
Tea trees in Asia are distributed in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions, and the
optimum temperature for growth is from 20 to 29 degrees Celsius. Water is critical for tea planting.
The micro-environment suitable for tea planting generally comprises slopes near valleys, rivers andlakes. Such terrain is conducive to the evaporation of water vapour to form clouds. Cloudy slopesof a certain altitude or abundant rain brought by the ocean monsoon provide the water needed forthe lush growth of tea trees. The annual rainfall in tea areas is generally above 1,000 mm, and tea
areas are distributed from low altitude areas to altitudes of 2,500 m and even higher (Chen, 1984,
Chen and Yang, 2013).
Tea trees enjoy cool to warm temperatures and high humidity and light is the primary condition for
their survival. Therefore, it is preferred to cultivate tea on slopes facing the sun. Southern slopesthat face the sun receive a large amount of solar radiation, while tea planted on shaded mountainslopes and slope valleys tastes bitter (Lu, 2019). However, tea plantations must avoid strong
sunlight. The covered tea plantations in Japan and the plantations in the plains of Assam in India
protect tea trees from high temperatures and strong light and create “shady forests” where they
can grow. The environment is in line with the tea tree’s characteristic of enjoying diffused light(Chen, 1984).
Tea planting requires well-drained hillside slopes, with terrain slopes between 5 and 20 degrees,and preferably not more than 25 degrees. For the growth of tea trees, soil with fully weatheredrocks is the best, followed by gravel soil with stones. Suitable soils are red soil, yellow brown soil,brown soil, yellow brown earth, and other fertile, deep and weakly acidic sandy soils, which havegood aeration, water permeability or water storage performance, and an appropriate pH value of
4.5 to 6.5 (Chen, 1984).
Following changes in the natural environment, such as temperature, humidity, and altitude, tea trees
have evolved into an arboreous type, a small arboreous type, and a shrub type. The arboreous typeis a relatively primitive type of tea tree, with tall plants, and is distributed in close proximity to natural

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

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areas with similar natural conditions to those where tea originated. The small arboreous type is anevolutionary type, with taller plants and stronger stress resistance than arboreous types. The shrub
type is an evolutionary type, with low plants, no obvious branches, and a wide variety of species.

3. Different types and characteristics
of asian tea landscape
The Asian tea landscape is a typical organically-evolving and associative cultural landscape. It
records and displays the process from the discovery and use of wild tea trees to domesticationand production in Asian countries over the past 6,000 years. The cultural landscape reflects tearelated ecological civilization achievements, tea landscape morpholog ies and tea culture, whichhave been created through Asian tea production and life practices. The natural environment,
ecological conditions and the types of tea trees grown show a rich diversity of landscape ecology.
At the same time, there are differences in the structure and functionality of tea plantation
operations due to the main body of tea planting and cultivation, the social and economic
organization of tea plantations, and tea plantation management system s. The tea landscape also
encompasses the philosophy, aesthetics, religion, medical wisdom, technology and folk traditions
associated with the tea of Asian countries, so that Asian tea landscapes have a certain ecologicalsimilarity and obvious regional culture.
From the perspective of the domestication of wild tea trees and the evolution of social and economic
production organizations, tea landscapes can be roughly divided into ancient tea forest plantation s,
traditional agricultural tea plantations and modern agricultural tea plantations. Many famous ancienttea forests and traditional agricultural tea plantations with a long history are often temple tea
plantations or tribute tea plantations (for royal use), and some have ruins and have become relict
tea landscapes (Chen, 1984; Zhou and Yao, 1991).

3.1 Ancient tea forest plantation
Wild tea trees are mostly distributed in southwest China, northern Myanmar and Vietnam. The term
“ancient tea forest” refers to the artificial domestication and cultivation of wild ancient tea trees.
Arboreous-type ancient tea trees are tall, of high quality and with low yield. They are distributed innatural areas with similar natural conditions to those where tea trees originated and grow inrelatively primitive natural forests.
Jingmai, on the banks of the Lancang River in southwest China, has the world’s largest, bestpreserved, and longest history of tea forest cultivation. Jingmai ancient tea became a tribute tea in

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

22

the 15th century. The ancient tea forest of Jingmai Mountain has a subtropical mountain monsoon
climate with an average elevation of 1,400 metres. The artificial domestication of wild ancient tea
trees has a 1,300-year history and is known as the “World Museum of Tea Trees”. The larger tea
trees here are up to 12 metres tall and are between 100 and 300 years old (Tong et al., 2015; Chen
and Zhang, 2015). The historic tea forest is surrounded by traditional villages, and is reclaimed ina limited form among the forests. The surrounding forests are preserved to prevent wind and insects,
and serve as the boundary of the village. Tea tree planting simulates and utilizes the forest’s
ecological environment, makes use of forest reclamation and under-forest planting techniques, andleads to the cutting of some trees and shrubs in natural forests while retaining certain shade trees.
Tea trees are planted under forests, showing the three-dimensional structure of the plantcommunity, that is the large arboreous upper layer, the arboreous and shrub layer (tea trees’ main
distribution layer), and the lower herb layer. Local residents make rational use of land at different
altitudes. The vertical landscape, from high to low elevation, comprises sacred mountains, forests,
historic tea forests, villages, farmlands and rivers, and is an outstanding example of traditional
human settlements and land use (Chen and Zhang, 2015).

3.2 Traditional agricultural tea plantations
Before tea spread to India for large-scale production planting in the 19th century, most of the tea
plantations in countries with a long history of growing tea were traditional tea plantations, whichwere closely related to the countries’ traditional agricultural economy and social settlements. The
landscape of traditional agricultural tea plantations fully reflects the characteristics of feudal
agricultural economy and traditional ecological wisdom. In Chinese history, many famous
mountains in tea areas were called "Tea Mountain" (Chen and Yao, 2019).
Unlike the ancient domesticated forest tea landscape, the traditional agricultural tea landscapebasically comprises shrubs about 1 metre high to facilitate picking. Small families are often usedas production units, so the tea plants’ spatial distribution is closely related to village settlements,
usually within walking distance from the village. They are distributed in the cracks of rocks suitable
for tea tree growth, on the slopes of river valleys, or in cloudy mountains according to local
conditions. The complex and steep terrains are transformed into small platforms with stones, andare irregularly embedded in the natural ecosystems of forests, rocks and rivers to form a newlandscape ecosystem. Tea trees are sparsely distributed in natural mountains and waters, so thateach tea tree has sufficient growth space and a superior growth environment. The rich biodiversity
prevents the spread of pests and diseases.
In traditional agricultural tea plantations, intercropping between tea trees and crops is very common.
The intercropping of tea plantations can increase the coverage of the topsoil, effectively maintain

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

23water and soil, and improve the matured soil. It can also increase the land utilization rate of tea
plantations and the economic benefits for farmers. Near villages, especially near houses, crops
such as soybeans, mung beans, corn and konjac are often interplanted with tea trees to form abeautiful rural landscape. Tea tree and forest tree intercropping planting techniques have also been
widely used. Deciduous trees such as the fir, masson pine, sweet-scented osmanthus, locust tree,
persimmon, chestnut and others are planted in and around tea plantations to maintain the species
diversity of tea plantations, improve the natural ecological environment of tea plantations, andprovide proper shade for tea trees. In Japan, Ohishita-chaen tea plantations, in which tea bushes
are shaded by reed and straw screens to produce tea leaves for Matcha, appeared in the Uji area,
giving birth to the powdered tea unique to Japan characterized by a vivid deep green colour andrich flavour.
The Mengding Mountain Tea Plantation and the Wuyi Mountain Tea Plantation in China, and the
traditional tea plantations in the Hwagaegok Valley, South Korea, and in Wazuka, Japan, are all
representative of this type of tea plantation landscape.

Image 1. Choui Fong tea plantation in Chiang Rai province, Northern Thailand.

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

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3.3 Modern agricultural tea plantations
In order to select the natural environment and ecological conditions suitable for the growth of tea
trees, traditional agricultural tea plantations are often scattered in the natural landscape due to the ir
mountainous location, and are usually small in size, low in yield and unsuitable for modern
operations and large-scale commercial production. After the successful introduction of Chinese tea
to India in the middle of the 19th century, Japan and India began large-scale mechanizedproduction and continued to expand the planting of modern agricultural tea plantations to
supplement the insufficient output of traditional tea plantations.
Modern agricultural tea plantations form large-scale terraced tea landscapes. Tea plantations areusually built on clean and well-drained hillsides. The tea trees are picked and trimmed to a heightof about 1 metre. They are arranged in a regular pattern along the contour terraces, presenting aspectacular tea plantation terrace landscape. However, the relationship between tea farmers,
villages, tea plantations and nature is not as close as in traditional agricultural tea plantations.
Reflected in the tea landscape, the ecological landscape is relatively artificial and simplistic, and it
is not closely related to traditional village settlements and tea farmers’ cultural custo ms and beliefs,
lacking traditional agricultural and folk customs. The related tea factory facilities and new
settlements have formed a new cultural exchange system and social structure, which is a form of
tea industry based on mechanized production.
Tea forest intercropping planting techniques and other traditional tea growing techniques have been
passed down and developed in large-scale modern agricultural tea plantations. The plains of Assam
State in northeast India are one of the most important tea producing areas in the world, with largescale commercial tea farms. Tea trees are planted at intervals of 1 to 1.5 metres, and tall and shadytrees are regularly planted between tea trees to protect them from high temperatures and strong light.
Sri Lanka has cut down tropical rain forests to ensure sufficient sunlight for tea trees, and has
established drainage systems to reduce soil erosion and ensure the good drainage of tea plantations.

3.4 Temple tea plantations and tea gardens
In Asia, especially northeast Asia, tea is closely related to religion and famous mountains.
During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern dynasties of China (220-589), the habit of drinking
tea spread quickly, with Taoist priests taking elixirs, meditating and cultivating immortality, andBuddhist monks sitting in meditation to refresh their minds and offering tea to Buddha (HCCEB ,2008). Most of China’s famous mountains are religious mountains and are also famous “teamountains”, renowned for producing good tea. Temple tea plantations are generally attached toreligious buildings and established in suitable mountain areas within the scope of the temple for its

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

25

own use. The landscape of temples and tea plantations includes temple complexes, tea plantations,cliff inscriptions, archways, famous springs, historic trees and famous trees. China’s Mengding
Mountain is famous for its Zen tea culture and the tribute tea system is closely integrated into thetemple and tea garden cultural landscape; the sacred Taoist Wudang Mountain has famous Taoist
temples and tea landscapes (Guo, 2002).
From the 8th to the 9th century CE, Chinese tea and culture spread to the Korean Peninsula andJapan due to Buddhist exchanges. The Ssanggyesa Temple and the Hwaeomsa Temple in Jirisan
Mountain in South Korea, and the Butsuryu-ji Temple and the Kosanji Temple in Japan, are all
famous Buddhist temples, where tea trees from ancient China are grown in temple tea gardens(Zhou and Yao, 2019). Arya Tea Estate in Darjeeling, India, was founded by Buddhist monks in
1885. The estate grew different kinds of tea from China and maintained the houses where themonks lived (Zhou and Yao, 2019).

3.5 Tribute tea landscapes
Tribute tea refers to the precious tea that was historically offered to the emperor by courtiers, andit was an important part of ancient royal life. Chinese tribute tea began in the Zhou dynasty, 3,000
years ago. Many famous “tea mountains” and temple tea plantations were designated as tributetea producers, such as the historic tea forest of Mount Jingmai, Mount Qingcheng (inscribed on theWorld Heritage List), and Mount Lushan. There are also similar types of tea plantations in Japanese
history. In the Edo period (1600-1868), Matcha of Uji was a special product by appointment to the
Tokugawa Shogunate in Edo (present-day Tokyo), the imperial household in Kyoto, and feudallords throughout Japan.
China formed a tribute tea system in the Tang dynasty (7th century) and tribute tea became a formof taxation. The government often set up royal tea plantations, tribute tea houses and tea making
houses in the tribute tea area to supervise the quality of tea production and facilitate the formulationand promotion of tea standards. Tribute tea house ruins, memorabilia and cliff inscription s havebecome an important historical part of the tribute tea landscape.

4. Associative cultureof Asian tea landscapes
Tea was first eaten and cultivated 6,000 years ago, and its medicinal value was discovered 5,000
years ago. It was only determined that it has the identity of both a traditional Chinese medicine andbeverage 2,000 years ago, and it has become a global beverage with worldwide popularity today.

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

26

The high correlation between tea and its associative culture is the internal driving force that truly
promotes the global tea industry. The Asian tea landscape is an associative cultural landscapehighly related to philosophy, religion, art, medicine, technology and folk beliefs.

4.1 Tea is an important carrier of Chinese medicine culture
Shennong, the divine ancestor of agriculture and medicine in China, is said to have “tasted hundredsof herbs” and learned about the medicinal effects of tea 5,000 years ago. Since then, tea and medicine
have been mixed, complemented and separated. In Chinese classics, “Chinese medicine” has always
been called “Materia Medica”, and tea is a kind of Materia Medica. In the Western Han dynasty (206
BCE-25 AD), there was a clear record of the medicinal use of tea. Tea was used as medicine andother medicines were mixed into tea. The “originator of tea therapy”, Chen Zangqi (387-757) in theTang dynasty, said that “tea is the medicine for all diseases.” There are more than 500 records onthe medical use of tea in China, of which 10 are from the Tang dynasty (618-907), 14 from the Songdynasty (960-1279), 4 from the Yuan dynasty (1206-1368), 22 from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
and 23 from the Qing dynasty (Zhou and Yao, 2019).
The medicinal effect of tea has made it popular. The tea tree is regarded as a god, and it has
become the object of primitive religion worship in southwest China, northern Myanmar and otherplaces. In addition, the different production processes of tea affect its medicinal characteristics, sothat different tea producing areas, such as black tea, green tea, Pu’er tea, etc., have distinct
cultures associated with tea landscape characteristics.

4.2 Tea landscapes are the carriers of Confucianism,
Buddhism and Taoism culture in East Asia
Tea ceremonies and tea ethics contain the essence of mainstream Asian Confucianism,
Buddhism and Taoism. The tea landscape is a material carrier, important component and practicespace of the three religions. China is the birthplace of tea culture. The Korean Peninsula andJapan brought back tea and tea culture after visiting China for the first time in the heyday of theTang dynasty, and were deeply influenced by Chinese Confucianism and Buddhism (Chen, 1984).
Japan and South Korea have now developed their own unique tea ceremony. In the long historyoftea, tea landscapes and traditional Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism have become

inextricably intertwined.
The origins of tea, in the 3rd century, were associated with traditional Chinese Taoism,
Confucianism and Buddhism, which gave birth to the spiritual and cultural uses of tea. Confucianism
associated tea with the characteristics of “diligence and thrift” and “simplicity”. Compared with wine,
tea has a neutral and peaceful nature, which is in line with the Confucian aesthetics of “neutralization”,

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thus opening the Confucian tradition of “probity integrity with tea”. Taoist priests pursued immortality
and regarded tea as an elixir that could offer longevity. They believed that drinking tea could lighten
the body and they could evolve into immortals, so they planted tea in famous mountains and temples
to stay healthy. Buddhism believes in “Tea and Zen in common”, and the nature of tea is interlinked
with Buddhism (HCCEB, 2002). Monks plant tea trees in Buddhist temples, harvest tea leaves tonarrate and teach Buddhism, drink tea to drive away fatigue and sit in meditation, and use tea to giveto Buddha in rituals to maintain peace of mind.

Image 2. Japanese Tea Ceremony. Mizuno Toshikata (1886-1980).

4.3

The tea landscape is strongly associated with literature,
calligraphy and painting

The tea landscape in Asia is strongly related to poetry, literature and painting, and has developed
into a refined and systematic spiritual cultural aesthetic system. China, Japan and South Korea all
have tea poems, tea paintings and tea literary works, among which China has the most. Accordi ng
to the New Tea Classic, 6,097 tea poems were written in the Tang and Song dynasties (Liu, 2015).
They integrated tea, humans and scenery, vividly recording the history, natural environment,
planting methods and landscape characteristics of tea plantations in various places, as well as the

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

28

taste, aesthetics and emotions of tea. They not only discussed tea planting and tea making
techniques, and the use and the pleasure of tea drinking, but also promoted tea drinking to thelevel of philosophy, aesthetics and art. They are important historical narrative documents of tea
landscapes and important achievements of tea culture. Literature, poetry, painting and art form aprecious historical heritage, providing valuable historical evidence for understanding the cul turalconnotations and significance of the Asian tea landscape.

4.4

Tea landscapes are the carriers of traditional culture
and ecological wisdom

The tea culture landscape in Asia has remained intact in various historical periods and is rich anddiverse. Planting and production in different geographical locations and ecological conditions intropical, subtropical and warm temperate zones intensively reflect the ecological wisdom, cultural
traditions, management techniques and customs and beliefs of various cultural groups in the
discovery, cognition, development and utilization of tea. Many cultural groups believe in “teaancestors”. Based on different social organizations and management systems in northeast Asia,
southeast Asia, south Asia and west Asia, tea landscapes include accumulated planting, breeding,protection, processing and comprehensive utilization techniques. These form an important
intangible culture and are technological achievements of Asian tea landscapes.

ASIA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

29

Selective Bibliography

Chen, Chuan, A General History of Tea [茶叶通史] Chinese. Beijing: China Agriculture Press, 1984.
Chen, Zongmao and Yang Yajun (eds.), Dictionary of Chinese Tea [中国茶叶词典] Chinese. Shanghai Culture
Press, 2013.
Chen, Zongmao and Yang Yajun (eds.), The Classics of Chinese Tea [中国茶经] Chinese. Shanghai Culture
Press, 2011.
Chen, Yaohua and Zhang, Ou, “World Heritage Perspective on Ancient Tea Forests of the Jingmai Mountain in
Pu’er, Yunnan”, Yunnan [J]．Tropical Geography，2015,35 (4): 541-548．
Guo, Mengliang, History of Chinese Tea [中国茶史] Chinese. Shanxi: Ancient Books Publishing House, 2002.
Gascoyne, Kelvin et al., Tea: History, Terroirs, Varieties (first published 2009 by Éditions de l’Homme) 3rd ed.,New York: Firefly Books, 2018.
History of Chinese Civilization Editorial Board (HCCEB), History of Tea Drinking, Beijing: Encyclopedia of China
Publishing House, 2008.
Liu, Feng. ed. New Book of Tea [新茶经]. Beijing: Central Literature Publishing House, 2015.
[Tang Dynasty] Lu, Yu (author), The Classic of Tea [茶经] Chinese. Wang Jianrong (compiled). Nanjing: Jiangsu
Phoenix Science and Technology Publishing House, 2019.
Tong, Jia-yin; Lu,Li-ping; Ma, Yu-qing; Lv, Cai-you, “The Investigation and Analysis of the Current Situation ofAncient Tea Resources in Jingmai of Yunnan”. Journal of Anhui Agri.Sci. 2015, 43 (5): 208 -210.
Smith, K., World Atlas of Tea: from the leaf to the cup, the world’s teas explored and enjoyed. London: Mitchell
Beazley, 2016.
Ukers, W.H., All About Tea. New York: The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Company, 1935.
Yao, Guokun, Jiang, Yufa and Chen, Peizhen, Tea Culture Sites in China[中国茶文化遗迹] Chinese. Shanghai
Culture Press, 2004.
Zhou, Guofu and Yao, Guokun (ed.), The Chinese Tea Culture [中国茶文化] Chinese. Shanghai Culture Press,
1991.
Zhou, Guofu and Yao, Guokun (ed.), A Compendium of Global Tea Culture [世界茶文化大全], Beijing: China
Agricultural Press, 2019.

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30Acknowledgements

ICOMOS would like to acknowledge the contribution to the Chinese section of this thematic
study of:Dr. SONG Xinchao, president of ICOMOS CHINA, for leading the project (setting up theexpert working group and compiling the Chinese report).
XIE Li, program specialist of ICOMOS CHINA, project coordinator and editor of theChinese report.
Chinese National Tea Museum, for its contribution to the content related to the historic
evolution of Chinese tea culture, tea breeding, cultivation and processing in China,
foreign trade and cultural exchanges of Chinese tea.
Buddhist Masters the late Mr. CHEN Dehua and Ms. Dunhua, for their contribution to thecontent related to tea and religious cultures.
FU Jing, Deputy Director of the Institute of Architectural History of China Architecture
Design Group, for leading the case studies on Longjing tea plantations, Mount Wuyi,
Hunan Anhua, and the China-Mongolia-Russia Grand tea route.
Advisory committee experts (for their review of the first and second drafts):
Dr. CHEN Liang, Chief Scientist, researcher, Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy ofAgricultural Sciences;
Professor YU Yue, Chief Researcher, Jiangxi Provincial Academy of Social Sciences;
Dr. SHEN Dongmei, Researcher, Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social
Sciences;
WANG Jianrong, President and senior researcher of Hangzhou Dongjia Heritage
Technology Co., Ltd;CHEN Shuqian, Secretary General and senior researcher of Sichuan Provincial Tea
Association.
Provincial and local cultural heritage administrations (for their local support of field studies):
Fujian Provincial Cultural Heritage Bureau;
Hunan Provincial Cultural Heritage Bureau;
Sichuan Provincial Cultural Heritage Bureau and Mount Mengding Cultural Relics Bureau;
Zhejiang Provincial Cultural Heritage Bureau and Hangzhou West Lake Longjing Scenic
Area Management Office;Yunnan Provincial Cultural Heritage Bureau and Administration for the Conservation ofAncient Tea Forest of Pu’er Jingmai Mountain.

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31Overview of Chinese Tea
Culture LandscapeZou Yiqing
Beijing Guowenyu Cultural Heritage Protection
Center Co., Ltd.

1. Geo-ecological information
1.1 Origins and evolution of the tea plantTea is among the world’s beverage plants with the longest history of human consumption andis an important commodity in international trade. The tea plant (Camellia sinensis (L.) O.
Kunzte), which is widely grown around the world today, belongs to the Theaceae family, is of
the genus Camellia, and belongs to Sect. Thea (L.) Dyer. Tea plants comprise several species
and varieties, as well as cross-breeds from mixing these varieties.
The origins of the tea plant are much more ancient than human civilization. The academic
community widely believes that southwest China was the centre of distribution and the place oforigin of Camellia.11The area that spans from the intersection between Yunnan, Guangxi andGuizhou down to the north of Southeast Asia was less affected by the Quaternary Glaciation
period, and thus became one of the world’s safe havens for plants of the Neogene (Tertiary)
period, which included the ancestors of the tea plant. Various species of the ancestors of thetea plant were able to continuously evolve in this area. Due to the variety of geographical andclimatic conditions in which they were situated, the morphological structures, physiologicalcharacteristics and material metabolisms of tea plants local to each area gradually adapted totheir new environments. As a result, a variety of modern tea plants and species related toCamellia are observable today.

1 Modern

crop science regards specific crop related species, that is, the region with the most geneaccumulation in this group, as the diversity centre of the species to which the crop belongs, and it is often
the domestication and origin centre of the species.

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32Modern tea plants, naturally distributed in tropical mountain monsoon rain forests and midmountain moist evergreen broad-leaved forests, take the form of arboreous or small trees thatenjoy high temperatures and high humidity or cool temperatures and high humidity, and areresistant to acidity and shade. However, modern tea plants that are naturally distributed fromthe northern subtropics to warm temperate climates have developed cold and drought
resistance, and the plants have evolved to become more shrub-like with smaller leaves. The
tea plants naturally distributed from the southern to mid-subtropics have morphological andphysiological characteristics in between. The accumulated genetic diversity of these tea plants
through the long geological time scale and their excellent potential for human c onsumption
became the material basis for the origin of China’s colourful cultivated tea trees, which havespread in modern times throughout vast areas of Eurasia, Africa and South America, whereclimates are suited to growing tea trees.

Image 1. Distribution Map of Wild Tea Plants in China by Province.
Source: Gu Yiyun, Zhang Xuechun.

According to the theoretical deductions and investigations of scholars from many countries inmodern times, the view that southwestern China and its adjacent areas are the origin of theworld’s tea trees has been widely accepted. A large number of tea plants can be observed inplaces such as southwest China, including cultivated tea trees and their wild relatives. This showsthat the evolution of tea trees is indeed a complex process based on the diversity of tea plants,
intertwining the domestication and use of tea by different people and the exchange of tea culture

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33among different people. Cultivated tea originated from wild tea plants. The evolution of cultivatedtea trees in China is mainly manifested in the morphological change from large-arboreous tree
forms to smaller arboreous forms and shrub forms. During this process, artificial breeding, naturaland artificial hybridization, and natural selection under different geographical and climaticconditions produced extremely rich genotypes in cultivated tea trees, and the mutations are very
complicated. Their morphological characteristics, physiological characteristics, quality andadaptability as beverage crops are very different. Like many crops, many traits of cultivated tea
trees that have deviated from those of their wild ancestors cannot be reversed.

1.2 Spread and distribution of tea plants in China
During the natural spread of the tea plant from the centre of its geographical origin tosurrounding areas, owing to the obstacles of mountains and rivers and the changes in climaticconditions, four paths of propagation were formed. The tea plant has formed a series of different
species along four propagation paths, and some of them have become the basis fordomestication and cultivation by humans.

1

RED, MEKONG AND NU RIVER SYSTEMS

Tea plants spread along the Red River, Mekong River and Nu River (also known as the Salween
River) along the Hengduan Mountains that run from north to south. Tea plants are widelydistributed in the central and western mountainous areas of Yunnan Province, China, south of
24°N and 800–2,500 m above sea level. The average annual temperature in this area is 18–
24oC, with the lowest temperatures never going below 0 oC . The average length of the frostfree period is over 300 days, annual precipitation is 1,500–2,000 mm, the soil is mainly lateritic
red soil and red soil, and the native dominant vegetation is south subtropical evergreen broadleaved forests. Originally, there were tropical monsoon forests growing at extremely low
altitudes, while moss dwarf forests were distributed at extremely high altitudes. The long-light,
high-humidity, and high-cumulative-temperature environmental conditions at low latitudes andhigh altitudes allowed various tea groups to fully reproduce at different altitudes. It is the region
with the largest number of large wild tea plants and the largest tree sizes in China. The
inhabitants of this area, including people from the Blang and the Dai ethnicities, have a long
history of tea growing and consumption. The tea trees they traditionally cultivate are mainly
used for Pu’er tea, Dali tea 2 and natural hybrids of Pu’er tea. These tea trees are arboreous,with large leaves, and fat, hairy buds. The Chinese World Heritage Tentative List site “AncientTea Plantations of Jingmai Mountain in Pu’er”, China’s agricultural cultural heritage site

2 Some crop scientists believe that Dali tea is a wild-type tea tree, while Pu’er tea is a cultivated tea treewith a long history and extensive cultivation the distribution area of which completely overlaps with Dalitea (only the altitude is different). Pu’er tea is thought to have evolved naturally from Dali tea and isgenerally considered to be a variant of tea.

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34“Mengku Ancient Tea Forest” at Lincang, and the Qing Dynasty Tribute Tea on Xishuangbanna
Mengla County’s six major tea mountains are all located in this area.

2

XIJIANG AND HONGSHUI RIVER SYSTEMS

These river systems extend east and southeast along the Xijiang and Hongshui Rivers, with
one branch spreading along the Xijiang River to Guangxi, southern Guangdong and Vietnam
at 23°N. This area is south of the Tropic of Cancer, where altitudes are below 550 m, annual
average temperatures are 20-26 oC , the extreme minimum temperature is above 0 oC , annual
precipitation is 1,800–2,000 mm, and the soil is mainly lateritic red soil and red soil. The area
consists of tropical monsoon rainforests and tropical rainforests. This area is also the mostsuitable ecological area for tea trees. It is frost-free the whole year and the trees can grow here
all year round. The tea trees are mostly arboreous, with large leaves and hairy buds. They haveweak cold resistance and poor adaptability. The native cultivated tea trees are mainly cultivatedtypes of tea species or hybrids, such as Bai Mao Tea and Pu’er Tea. Guangxi Cangwu Liubao
Black Tea is also in this area.
The other branch runs along the Hongshui River deep into the Nanling Mountains, and includes
Guangxi, northern Guangdong, the southern part of Hunan on the northern side of the Nanling
Mountains and southern Jiangxi. The altitude of this area is 300–1,000 m, with annual averagetemperatures of 18-22 oC . The extreme minimum temperature can reach below 0 oC , annual
precipitation is 1,200–1,800 mm, the soil is mainly red soil, and it belongs to the south
subtropical evergreen monsoon rain forest area. Cultivated tea trees have spread from
Guangdong to the eastern coast and north to the hills of southern Fujian. The cultivated tea
trees in this area are mostly small arboreous tea trees with occasional shrub-type tea trees.
The leaves are large or medium sized, and the buds are hairy. These tea trees have strong
cold and drought resistance, as well as strong adaptability. Teas such as Guangdong Chaozhou
Phoenix Shancong and Fujian Anxi Tieguanyin all grow in this area.

3

NORTHEAST SLOPE OF YUNNAN-GUIZHOU PLATEAU

Spreading along the Jinsha and Yangtze River systems to the northeast slope of the YunnanGuizhou Plateau, the tea-tree clusters are formed of Zhaotong on the northeast Yunnan Plateau,
and Zunyi in the Loushan Mountains of Guizhou and the southern part of the SichuanChongqing Basin. This area has a subtropical monsoon climate, with high altitudes, a complex
terrain, large climatic differences, annual average temperatures of 17 °C in the Sichuan Basinand of 14-15 °C in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, and with extreme minimum temperatures
between -8 and -5 oC. Altitudes are 700–3,000 m, annual precipitation is 1,000–1,300 mm, andthe soil includes red soil, yellow soil and purple soil. The native tea trees traditionally plantedin this area are cultivated small trees or arboreous tree types with occasional shrub-type tea
trees. Guizhou Meitan Central Experimental Tea Farm is located in this area.

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35The introduction and domestication of tea by humans expanded the cultivation area of the
Sichuan-Chongqing Basin, with one branch heading northwards to the tea plantation areas ofHanzhong and the Ankang Basin south of the Qinling Mountains, and the other branchextending along the Daba, Funiu and Tongbai Mountains to the Dabie Mountains. This is thenorthernmost tea tree growing zone in China and is located to the south of the Qinling
Mountains and east of the Daba Mountains at 32-35°N, with altitudes below 200 m. It has anorth subtropical and warm temperate monsoon climate, with annual average temperatures of
13-16 oC . Extreme minimum temperatures can reach -15 oC , with 240 frost-free days andannual rainfall below 1,000 mm. The soil is mainly yellow brown, yellow cinnamon and purple.
The vegetation is dominated by coniferous and broad-leaved forests, with occasional mixed
evergreen broad-leaved forests. This area is a sub-suitable ecological area for tea trees. The
tea-producing areas have a scattered distribution. Because of the high latitude, tea trees here
evolved into shrubs with medium-small leaf types, slender buds and leaves, and strong cold
resistance. Hanzhong of Shaanxi, Enshi Yulu in Hubei, and Maojian in Xinyang, Henan, arelocated in this area.

4

YANGTZE RIVER SYSTEM

Extending from the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau along the Yangtze River system, entering thewestern Hubei platform and spreading downstream to Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Zhejiang,
Jiangsu and other provinces, this area south of the Yangtze River is located at 26-30°N, withaltitudes mostly below 800 m, annual average temperatures of 16-19 oC , and extreme
temperatures that can reach below -5 oC . The frost-free period is about 300 days long, and annual
rainfall is 1,200–1,500 mm. Red soil and yellow soil are the main soil types, and the area belongs
to the mid-subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest area. This area is also suitable for tea trees.
The traditionally cultivated tea trees in this area are classified as C. sinensis. Most of these aresmall arboreous types, with occasional shrub types. There are many morphological variations,with large or medium-sized leaves, and buds that have many hairs and some that have fewer.
The tea trees have strong cold and drought resistance and strong adaptability. The northern bankregion of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River has a latitude of 30-32°N, withaltitudes mostly below 300 m, annual average temperatures of 15-18 °C, a 220-250-day frostfree period, extreme low temperatures that can reach between -8 and -10 °C, and annual
precipitation between 900–1,200 mm. The soil here includes red soil, red yellow soil and yellow
brown soil. The area belongs to the transition zone from the mid-subtropical evergreen broadleaf
forest region to the warm temperate deciduous broadleaf and coniferous mixed forest region. This
area is a suitable ecological area for tea trees and forms the northern edge of tea tree distribution.
The traditionally cultivated tea trees in this area are classified as tea (C. sinensis). They are shrubtype small leaf teas. The tea trees here have strong cold and drought resistance, strong
adaptability, and can survive low temperatures. This area is home to the most famous teas in thehistory of China, such as Sichuan Mengshan Tea, Zhejiang West Lake Longjing, Jiangsu Guzhi

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36

Purple Bamboo Shoot Tea, Anhui Huangshan Maofeng, Jiangxi Lushan Cloud Tea, Hunan Anhua
Black Tea, Fujian Wuyi Mountain Rock Tea and so on.

Image 2: Map of Tea Tree Spread and Distribution. Source: Gu Yiyun and Zhang Xuechun.

1.3

China’s tea producing areas

China’s tea producing areas are vast and the ecological conditions are complex. With the longterm natural selection and artificial introduction and domestication of tea trees, the distributionof the flora shows two characteristics: the first is that wild relatives are basically confined totheir original natural distribution areas due to their strong genetic conservation and are
distributed around the five provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Guangdong;
the second is that cultivars have continued to spread to ex situ areas with the expansion of
artificial introduction, which has led to them covering all areas suitable for tea cultivation. This
area is to the north of the Qinling Mountains and Huaihe River. Due to the cold and dry climate
and slightly alkaline soil, it is not suitable for tea tree survival. Therefore, historically, thenorthern boundary of Chinese tea tree growth has not crossed 34°N, which is basicallyconsistent with the northern subtropical line.
At present, China’s tea tree growing areas range from Hainan Island at 18°48’N to Shandongat 36°04’N, and from Nyingchi in Tibet at 94°15’E to Taiwan at 121°45’E, spanning tropical,

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37subtropical and warm temperate zones. The history of tea introduction in Taiwan dates fromthe Jiaqing years of the Qing dynasty. The variety of tea here is Wuyi tea from Fujian. 3
Immigrants from the mainland first planted tea in Taipei and the hilly belts along the upper
reaches and tributaries of the Tamsui River, and later expanded to mountainous areas such as
Ali Mountain and Sun Moon Lake in the centre of the island. Shandong Province’s “Southern
Tea Grown in the North” began in 1959 with Rizhao as an experimental county, and theexperiment was successful in 1966. In the 1960s, Tibet successfully planted tea in Yigong
Township, Bomi County, Nyingchi Prefecture. As of now, tea gardens in China are distributed
over 21 provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities) across the country. The economic
planting areas of tea trees are mainly concentrated across a territory of nearly 2.6 million square
kilometres at 98°E and 32°S. The provinces with the largest planting areas are Guizhou,
Yunnan, Sichuan, Hubei and Fujian; the provinces with the largest yields are Fujian, Yunnan,
Sichuan and Zhejiang.
The division of China’s tea producing areas into four major tea areas - Southwest, South
China, Jiangnan (south of the Yangtze) and Jiangbei (north of the Yangtze) - takes into
account administrative divisions, geographical locations and tea tree varieties. The
Southwest tea area is the oldest tea area in China and includes Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan,
Chongqing and southeast Tibet. Resources for cultivating tea trees are rich here. The south
is dominated by arboreous large leaf species, and the north by shrub-type medium and smallleaf species. The South China tea area is located in the south of China , to the east of thegeographical origin and differentiation centre of Camellia plants, and includes Guangdong,
Guangxi, Fujian, Taiwan and Hainan. It is the most suitable area for growing tea trees in
China. Resources for cultivating tea are extremely rich. The tea trees here are mainlyarboreous large leaf species, but there are also semi-arboreous types and shrub types. The
Jiangnan Tea Area is located in the hilly areas south of the Yangtze River and north of the
Nanling Mountains, and includes Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, southern Anhui, southern Jiangsu
and southern Hubei. It is the main tea producing area in China. Tea trees are mainly shrub type but also semi-arboreous type, with medium and small leaf species mostly used. The
Jiangbei production area is located south of the Qinling Mountains, north of the Yangtze Riverand east of the Daba Mountains to the coast, and includes Henan, Shaanxi, Longnan, Gansu
and Shandong, as well as northern Anhui, northern Jiangsu and northern Hubei. The tea
trees are mainly shrub-type small and medium leaf species.

3 Lien Heng: General History of Taiwan, Journal of Agriculture, vol. 27.

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38Image 3. Distribution of Traditional Chinese Tea Production Areas .
Source: Zhang Yimei and Li Pengpeng.

2. History
2.1 Archaeological evidence of the earliest tea cultivation
In 2011, more than 10 plant roots from the Neolithic period were unearthed during the fifth
excavation of the Tianluoshan site in Yuyao City, Zhejiang Province. The theanine content in
the plant roots was close to that found in the main roots of modern tea trees, confirming thatthe roots found were indeed those of tea trees. This indicates that people living in the Zhejiang
area 6,000 years ago were already artificially cultivating tea trees.

2.2 The history and scope of tea planting
According to The Classic of Tea (761) written by Lu Yu of the Tang dynasty, “Tea is a drink thatoriginated from the Shennong family (about 3000 BC), and first tasted by Lu Zhougong (about1000 BC).” According to The Records of Ba, which is volume one in The Chronicles of Huayang(348-354) by Chang Qu of the Eastern Jin dynasty, by the Battle of Muye between King Wu of
Zhou and King Zhou of Shang (1046 BC), the state of Bashu was already using tea as a

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39commodity of tribute. The Book of Rites (1st century BC) compiled by the Western Han dynasty,
records the use of tea as a sacrificial offering. The tea unearthed from the tomb of Emperor
Jing of Han (153-126 BC) proves that the royal family living in Shaanxi in the Western Han
dynasty had formed a habit of drinking tea. In 59 BC, Wang Bao’s Children’s Covenant recorded“the cooking of tea and full preparation of tea implements” and “buying tea in Wuyang,”
indicating that tea was a relatively common commodity in Sichuan Province at that time. From
this, it can be seen that as early as the Han dynasty, the State of Bashu and the Yangtze River
Basin region already had a certain scale of tea planting and trading. Tea had different functions,serving as a medicine, beverage and sacrificial offering, and was gradually integrated into thedaily lives of Chinese people.
According to literature records, before the Tang dynasty (618-907), tea cultivation in China wasmainly concentrated in the southwest and the Yangtze River Basin, but was also being
cultivated by the southeast coast. After the mid-Tang dynasty (8th century), China’s tea
plantations developed rapidly. Chapter eight (Growing Regions) in The Classic of Tea recorded
the tea production of eight dao and 43 zhou (administrative divisions in ancient China),
indicating that tea production in the Tang dynasty was well developed and the custom of tea
drinking was prevalent. In the Song dynasty (960-1279), due to the cooling of the climate andterritorial changes, the centre of tea production shifted towards the southeast.4 Tea-producing
areas of the Song dynasty were distributed between 15 regions and 98 zhou. During the Yuan
dynasty (1271-1368), the distribution of tea producing areas changed little. The main tea
production areas were Jiangxi Xingzhong Shu Province and Huguang Xingzhong Shu Province,
which includes present-day Hunan, Hubei, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Chongqing,
Sichuan, Yunnan and other places. In the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), tea was produced in 96
prefectures in 13 provinces, with planting areas increasing but otherwise not changing
significantly compared to the Song and Yuan dynasties. Starting from the Ming dynasty, tea
production in China developed from solely green tea to fermented tea, white tea, yellow tea andso on. In the Qing dynasty (1616-1911), due to the stimulation of internal and external demand,
the range of tea planting expanded, and the area of production and output increased sharply,
with 144 prefectures planting tea. Tea varieties including black and oolong teas were further
researched and developed, forming cultivation and production areas centred around certain
teas, for example: Jiangxi’s Wuyuan and Dexing, Zhejiang’s Hangzhou and Shaoxing, andJiangsu’s Suzhou and Taihu formed green tea production centres; Anhui’s Qimen and Jingde,
and Jiangxi’s Wuning, Xiushui and Fuliang formed black tea production centres; Fujian’s Anxi,
Jian’ou, Chongan and other counties formed oolong tea production centres; Hubei’s Chibi and
Xianning, Hunan’s Anhua, Linxiang, Yueyang and other counties formed brick tea (fermentedtea) production centres; Sichuan’s Ya’an Tianquan, Mingshan, Yingjing, Dayi, Anxian, Pingwu,

4 Zhu Zizhen, A Preliminary Study of Tea History, 67.

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40

Shifang and Wenchuan formed border tea (fermented tea) production centres; and Yunnan’s
Pu’er, Simao, Banna and Lincang formed Pu’er tea (fermented tea) production centres.
Since the 1930s, China has explored the modern industrial transformation of the traditional tea
industry. The Central Experimental Tea Plantation was established in Xiangshan, Meitan
County, Guizhou in 1939. It is the largest and most concentrated thousand-acre mountain tea
cultivation garden in western contemporary China, and is one of China’s modern tea researchand planting promotion centres. Wu Juenong, Zhang Tianfu, Zhuang Wanfang and other tea
research experts carried out tea improvement experiments in Wuyi Mountain, Fujian Province,
establishing the first tea research institute, The Tea Research Institute of the Trade
Commission of the Central Ministry of Finance, in 1942. Since the 1950s, some agriculturalcolleges have established degrees in tea research, systematically training scientific andtechnological talents in the tea industry, and have set up professional tea research institutes in
Beijing, Hangzhou, Kunming and other places. After the founding of the People ’s Republic ofChina, the country’s tea industry developed rapidly. As of 2012, there were 153 tea-producing
cities (including those in Taiwan), a record high. In 2018, the area of tea plantations in China’s
18 major tea-producing provinces and cities reached 2.93 million hectares, with an extraction
area of about 2.47 million hectares. National tea output reached 2.61 million tonnes, withdomestic sales of 1.91 million tonnes and exports of 365,000 tonnes. General production values
for the whole industry exceeded 600 billion yuan.

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41

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42Images 4-8. Distribution of Tea Planting Areas Through the Ages.5 Source: Li Pengpeng.

5 Documents cited in the delimitation of tea production areas in various dynasties: For the Tang dynasty,

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43

3. Scale of landscape features
Tea planting is not suited to all of the land in the aforementioned tea producing areas in China.
As a plant, the tea tree has its own environmental adaptability. In tea producing regions, suitablesites for tea gardens still need to be carefully selected. In addition to the natural environmental
conditions in which tea trees grow, which limit the locations and size of tea plantations, different
tea plantation methods and their historical changes also affect the scale of tea culture
landscapes. According to the main body of cultivation and planting of tea gardens in Chinese
history, the economic organization and management systems of tea gardens can be roughly
divided into three categories: temple tea gardens, tribute tea gardens and tea farmers(plantation owners).

1

TEMPLE TEA GARDENS

Some famous Buddhist temples and Taoist temples in China occupy large areas ofmountainous and pastoral forests, and generally run their own tea gardens; “The rest haveplaces for tea cultivation, half go to the monks, and half go to the common people 6”. The tea
produced could be used for personal use, rituals, hospitality, gifts, or sold for profit. Famous
teas are produced in tea gardens like Jingshan Temple in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province,
Guoqing Temple in Tiantai County, Zhejiang Province, Yongxing Temple in Mengding Mountain,
Ya’an City, Sichuan Province, the Taoist Temple on Qingcheng Mountain in Sichuan Province,
and the Taoist Temple in Wudang Mountain in Hubei Province. Tea gardens like these are
distributed in mountainous areas near temples, where monks and priests plant tea trees tomake tea part of their religious practice. This practice is similar to the history of Western
Christian monastic priests who ran vineyards to make wine. The welfare of this type of tea
garden is closely related to the monks of the temple, where the tea gardens grow or aredeserted along with the rise and fall of the temple. The size of the tea garden is limited by thearea of the temple’s production land and the number of monks, with areas ranging from a dozen
acres to hundreds of acres. The rise and fall of such tea gardens has often been affected byreligious policies, social stability and economic development throughout the dynasties. SomeLu Yu’s The Classic of Tea, Wu Juenong’s Review of The Classic of Tea, (Tang) Fan Chao’s Manshu,
and Han Xu’s Study of the Historical Changes of China’s Tea Planting Areas have been cited. For theSong dynasty, Zhu Chong’s Production and Operation of Tea in the Northern Song Dynasty and Han Xu’s
Study of the Historical Changes of China’s Tea Planting Areas have been cited and Bozhou and Dali
Weichu Houses have been added. For the Yuan dynasty, a mix of Song and Ming dynasty sources havebeen taken, and further confirmed with History of the Yuan – Food, Xia Tao’s History of Chinese Tea, andWang Sitong’s Planting and Distribution of Economic Crops in the Yuan Dynasty. For the Ming dynasty,(Ming) Huang Yizheng’s Shiwu Zuzhu, (Qing) Tan Qian’s Sailin Miscellaneous Group, Chen Zongmao’s
Review of the Classic of Tea, and Han Xu’s Study of the Historical Changes of China’s Tea Planting Areas
have been cited, and records have been modified for Shandong and Yunnan. For the Qing dynasty, Chen
Zongmao’s China Tea Classic and Han Xu’s Study of the Historical Changes of China’s Tea Planting
Areas have been cited and records have been modified for Shandong and Yunnan.
6 Jiang Heng, Yun Liaoshan, Humanities copy vol. 4, 27.

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temple tea gardens that were famous in the past have already been abandoned, such as
Wudang Mountain Road Tea Garden and Huangshan Songluo Tea, but some have had thefortune of being preserved and have become important historical relics of such tea gardens as
witnesses to the important contributions of Buddhism and Taoism to Chinese tea culture.

2

TRIBUTE TEA GARDENS

From the 8th century to the 14th century, during the Tang, Song and Yuan dynasties, there
were tribute tea gardens and tea production sites. In the third year of the Tang dynasty’s Dali
(768), Changzhou Yixing began paying tribute with Purple Bamboo Tea, and a tea house waslater set up. In the 17th year of Tang Zhenyuan (801), Huzhou established the Tribute Tea
House in Guzhushan, which was directly managed by officials. Guzhu Mountain covers an areaof about two square kilometres and produced 18,400 jin (about 11,040 kg) of tea annually. In
801, 30 east corridor rooms were built for the Tribute Tea House.7 In its prime, there were “morethan 1,000 craftsmen and 30,000 service workers”. In the Northern Song dynasty, the Beiyuan
Tribute Tea House was built on the east and west sides of Jian’an and Jianxi in Fujian Province.
It stretched for eight kilometres and was made up of 25 tea gardens, with as many as 30
locations used for tribute tea production; “In its heyday, for every 40 hues, there was in excessof 47,100 leaves.” Jian’an Tribute Tea Garden was still dominant in the Yuan dynasty, but its
size had decreased when compared to that of the Song dynasty. A new imperial tea garden
was opened in Siquxi, Wuyi Mountain, Fujian Province, where 360 kg of tribute tea was paideach year. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, tea was mainly relied on for tea tribute. Except for
the establishment of 500 tea households in Fujian Jianning during the Ming dynasty to
specialize in collecting tea, there were basically no official gardens 8 in other places and notribute tea gardens were set up in the Qing dynasty. Therefore, this type of tea plantation was
only around for a short time, and the area it makes up of tea producing areas in the country is
also very low. Tribute tea gardens were core production areas for famous teas at that time, withareas ranging from a few to dozens of square kilometres, with clear tea garden managementboundaries. As a government-run forbidden garden, only gardeners were permitted in thegarden, and tea could not be picked for personal use. Therefore, the size of settlements there
ought to have been small or even non-existent, and even the cultivation of other crops might
have been controlled. With the changes in the tribute tea system, tribute tea gardens were
gradually classified as private, and settlements in the tea gardens developed accordingly, but
the core tea plantation areas have continued to be maintained.

7 Hu Yaofei, Between Tributes – Tea and Politics in the Tang Dynasty, 18-20
8 Guo Mengliang, “The Tribute Tea System in the Ming Dynasty and Its Social Impact: The Second Studyof Tea Laws in the Ming Dynasty”, [Journal of Zhengzhou University], 1990, No. 3.

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TEA FARM PLANTATIONS

Ancient China was a country founded on agriculture. Therefore, the best farmland was used to
grow food crops, with tea cultivation serving as more of a secondary undertaking. Farmers
generally chose to plant tea trees in hilly mountains or around houses rather than on land thatwas suitable for farming, forming a complex economic model of agricultural production.
Because of China’s tradition of heavy agriculture and suppression of business, for a long time
agricultural production was based on families, with each family maintaining their own tea garden
and engaging in processing and sales. When an entire village relied on tea as an importantsource of income, tea gardens such as Xiamei Village, Wuyi Mountain, Fujian, Jingmai Village
in Jingmai Mountain, and Mangjing Village in Yunnan were formed into a contiguous garden ofa certain size, covering an area from hundreds to thousands of hectares. As more and more
villages and towns produced tea and their distribution became more concentrated, the main tea
producing areas in the region were formed, such as Yiwu Town and Xiangming Township,
Mengla County, Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan, and Mingshan District and Yucheng
District in Ya’an City, Sichuan. Therefore, tea plantations where tea farmers are the main
planters have continued to grow in size along with the development of the regional tea industry.
The continuous increase of the distribution area and planting area of tea production areas in
China mainly depends on the development of such tea gardens. Of course, there are also
plantation owners or landowners who have strong economic strength, and tea gardens thathave been developed by modern tea companies, but they all rely on hired farmers or workers
for daily management. Therefore, the characteristics of the landscape and form of tea culture
as well as the scale development rules of planting have been relatively consistent, so they fall
into one category.

4. Distribution and characteristicsof the landscapeThe distribution and characteristics of the tea cultural landscape are determined by the natural
attributes of the tea tree, the growing environment, and the economic method of tea plantation,
which is also in line with the core concept of cultural landscapes as “products of man andnature”. The widely distributed tea producing areas formed in China are based on the Chinese
people’s understanding of the natural attributes of tea trees and are the result of adapting tolocal climate conditions and drinking consumption habits through the continuous introduction,cultivation and selection of different types of tea seedlings. Because of the different tea garden
planting methods, the Chinese tea culture landscape has both commonalities and subtle
differences in various regions and types.
Tang Lu Yu’s The Classic of Tea gives an extremely accurate summary of the planting
conditions suitable for tea trees. The soil conditions should be thus: “broken stones should be

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on top, gravelly soil should be in the centre and sandy soil should be at the bottom.” Regarding
the ideal plantation environment, he stated: “the quality of the tea depends more on the naturalenvironment than the farmer; the cliffside should be sunny and the forest should be shaded.”He also believed that “tea in shaded valleys cannot be picked. Drinking it will result in upset
digestion.” This will be analysed below with examples.

4.1 Spatial distribution
Generally speaking, the Chinese tea culture landscape is spatially distributed in the southern region
from the Qinling-Huaihe River to the East China Sea and the South China Sea. There are tea
plantations from the Hengduan Mountains in the west to the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and thecentral mountainous areas, and up to the coastal hilly areas, where the altitude of the tea plantations
drops from 2,500 m to about 100 m. Rainfall is generally above 1,000 mm, and the optimum
temperature for tea tree growth is 20-25 oC. Following changes in the natural environment, tea
plants have evolved into arboreous types, semi-arboreous types and shrub types.
Tea trees like humid and warm climates, and are fond of ultraviolet rays, traits summarized by
the Chinese proverb: “Good tea is produced in the high, misty mountains.” “High” refers to boththe absolute altitude and relative altitude. For example, the West Lake Longjing Tea Garden in
Zhejiang Province is at about 100 m above sea level, which is very low compared to tea areasin Western China. However, the Longjing Tea Garden is located on a relatively high gentle hill.
Slopes near rivers and lakes are generally chosen as micro-environments suitable for tea
cultivation. Such terrain is conducive to the evaporation of water vapour to form clouds. For
example, the major tea mountains in Yunnan are distributed on both sides of the Mekong River;
Dongting Mountain by Taihu Lake, Junshan Mountain by Dongting Lake and Lushan Mountainby Poyang Lake are all historically famous tea producing areas in China. The mountainous areafrom Pingwu to Ya’an on the western edge of the Sichuan Basin is also a main tea-producing
area, represented by Mengshan Mountain, and, due to the special geographical environment,
has rainy and foggy climatic conditions.

4.2 The tea planting and growing environment
The traditional method of plantation in Chinese tea gardens “is similar to melon cultivation,” andtea seeds are collected for sowing. The growth environment of the tea garden follows theprinciple of “the natural environment being more important than the gardener”. Tea trees shouldbe planted far apart from each other to ensure that the tea garden has good ventilation
conditions and to effectively reduce pests and diseases. Arboreous tea trees are about 3-8 mhigh, and the crown can reach 2-3 m. Therefore, the optimal distance between trees is 3-4 m.
Shrub tea trees are generally less than 1 m in height, with a crown of 30-60 cm, and a planting
distance of a few dozen centimetres. Generally, tea trees are planted in a line along thecontours of the land. Light is a primary condition in the survival of tea trees. The sunny side of

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slopes and the southern slopes facing the sun that receive a large amount of solar radiation are
preferred, while tea grown on shady hillsides and valleys tends to taste bitter. The terrain slope
should be between 5 and 20 degrees, and preferably not more than 25 degrees. The ability of
the land to retain water, soil and fertilizer is suited to the growth of tea trees, as is what is known
as “yangya” (sunny cliffs). The Classic of Tea summarizes it thus: “broken stones should be on
top, gravelly soil should be in the centre”. Tea garden soil is generally sandy loam with gooddrainage, with an organic matter content of 1% to 2%, good air ventilation, good water
permeability or storage, and an ideal pH value of 4.5-6.5.
Traditional tea gardens are planted or preserved with arboreous trees that can create shade,creating a “shaded forest” environment, which is consistent with the characteristic of tea trees
being fond of diffused light. In southern central Yunnan, in places such as Xishuangbanna,
Pu’er, Lincang and other prefectures and cities, ancient tea forests with large areas andcomplete natural “planting beneath forest” methods have also been preserved. From a
distance, the tea gardens appear to be forests, but when approaching the gardens, the tea
trees emerge. They are a living sample of the unique tea cultivation methods of southwestern
China. Central to eastern China is mainly home to shrub-type tea gardens with low plants,
and the trees used for shading are sparser. Japan’s “covered tea gardens” are also based on
this characteristic of tea trees: due to the lack of the ecological conditions of “planting beneathforests”, they artificially reform the tea garden preservation methods created by the tea
growing environment.
Through comparative research, it is known that the structure of the biological community of tea
forests or tea gardens that have undergone artificial intervention and maintenance is different
from that of “natural forests”. In the native natural forests, in the natural distribution areas of tea
trees, the plant community is complex, the canopy layer is scattered, there are many vine plants,
undergrowth shrubs and herbaceous communities being developed, and the tea group plants
rarely form dominant communities. In addition, in native natural fores ts, there are many young
trees under the canopy that are the same as the species that make up the canopy. In ancienttea forests, due to high-intensity artificial management measures, other tree species, shrubs,
and even herbaceous plants under the canopy were removed or kept to a low-density state.
After selective thinning, the distribution density of the canopy trees became sparser, leavingroom for tea tree growth and ensuring them a certain amount of sunlight. Tea farmers select orretain plants that are not prone to insects and that emit aromatic substances to optimize theecological environment of tea plantations. After artificial domestication and cultivation, theshape of the tea tree also becomes different from that of wild tea and tea grown in the wild. Tea
farmers prune the branches of the tea tree to increase the yield of tea buds, and “dwarf” thetrunk for easy picking. Tea can be harvested in small quantities after three years, and the trees
reach their full production period after five to six years. Their maturity period is 20 to 30 years.
The output of trees over 100 years old is lower.

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With the modernization of the Chinese tea industry in the middle of the 20th century, especiallyafter 1950, dense planting, fast-growing and no-till cultivation methods gradually appeared invarious places. The shape of tea plants evolved to a low type, with a high planting density andfast-growing early maturity to increase yield. This is called a “terraced tea garden,” which issimilar to the tea garden landscapes developed by Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Kenya and othercountries in modern times. Terraced tea gardens are either planted in lower altitude areas
outside historical tea plantations, or are newly opened directly on woodland. Mengding
Mountain in Sichuan, Jingmai Mountain in Yunnan, and Wuyi Mountain in Fujian all have new
terraced tea gardens on the outskirts of historical tea gardens to form a tea garden landscapeincorporating the traditional and the modern. The landscape characteristics of the different
stages of the continuous evolution of the Chinese tea culture landscape can be observed.

Image 9. Hekai Ancient Tea Forest in Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan .

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Image 10. Ancient Tea Forest at Jingmai Mountain, Pu’er, Yunnan (Source: Zou Yiqing).

Image 11. Longwu Tea Plantation and Strip Tea Plantation at West Lake, Zhejiang(Source: Chen Liang).

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Image 12. Jingmai Mountain Terraced Tea Garden, Yunnan (Source: Peng Rong).

Image 13. Royal Tea Garden at Ganlu Temple, Mengding Mountain, Ya’an, Sichuan .

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Image 14. Terraced Tea Garden at Yongxing Temple, Mengding Mountain (Source: Zou Yiqing).

Image 15. Dahongpao Tea Garden at Wuyi Mountain, Fujian (Source: Internet).

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Image 16. Terraced Tea Plantation at Wuyishan (Source: Chen Yaohua).

4.3 Spatial features of the tea plantation landscape
Above, the general rules of Chinese tea plantation landscapes resulting from natural factors
such as natural environment and tea strains have been analysed. The spatial features ofvarious tea plantation landscapes will be analysed from the perspective of cultivation andorganizing models in the following sections.

1

TEMPLE-OWNED TEA PLANTATIONS

Tea plantations owned by Buddhist and/or Taoist temples usually surround the religious
architecture complex and are cultivated by monks in favourable mountainous areas within thetemple property. These tea plantations usually enjoy great fame, though they are humble insize. The temple architecture complex itself constitutes a prominent component of tea
plantations, while other cultural elements including inscriptions on cliffs, memorial archways,
renowned springs and ancient trees are also presented as contributions to tea culture by monks
and other religious followers with proper literary accomplishment. There is a Chinese sayingthat “Where there are sacred mountains, there are Buddhist/Taoist temples”. On sacred
mountains where many temples are built, such as Mengding Mountain in Sichuan Province,
small sized tea plantations will be built along the paths and surrounding the temples. This
category of tea plantation demonstrates the spatial feature of small sized tea plantations

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53surrounding the temple architecture complex in the centre, where tea related cultural relics canbe found in the temples and tea plantations, a showcase of profound history and humanity.

Image 17. Tea Plantation of Jingshan Temple, Yuhang, Zhejiang. Source: Pictures online.
2

TRIBUTE TEA PLANTATIONSThe history of tribute tea plantations was quite short, and only relics of them have beenpreserved to date. Representative plantations include the Northern Garden Imperial Tea
Production Site and the Guzhu Tribute Tea Garden Relics and Cliffs, listed in the 6th batch ofMajor Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at National Level. The Northern Garden Imperial
Tea Production Site is located in Beiqian Village, Dongfeng Township, Jianou City, occupying
an area of approximately 20,000 square metres. The excavation in 1995 unearthed a hugeamount of porcelain pieces and relics of the imperial well (Dragon Well), bricks, the wall base,the stylobate, the retaining wall base, the courtyard, paths, the dooryard, ditches, the pool,earthenware drainage pipes, the brick kitchen and pits, within an area of over 600 square
metres onsite. Inscriptions on the cliffs of Linlong Mountain in Beiqian Village provide evidence
that the 600-square-metre area was the centre of the Northern Garden Imperial Tea Plantationin the Song dynasty. The Guzhu Tribute Tea Garden Relics and Cliffs are located on Guzhu
Mountain, Guzhu Village, Shuikou Township, Changxing County, Zhejiang Province. The relics
include the site of the Tribute Tea Garden (together with Jixiang Temple) behind the Tiger HeadRock of Guzhu Mountain, three inscriptions dating back to the Tang and Song dynasties foundon cliffs above Bawang Pond in Xuanjiu Valley, three inscriptions dating back to the Tangdynasty found on cliffs nicknamed the Crow Nest in Zhuoshe Valley, and one inscription datingback to the Tang dynasty found on the cliffs of Xigu Mountain. Based on the findings above, it
can be concluded that such tribute tea plantations usually have officially managed, large s cale

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tea production agencies, and that the inscriptions on nearby cliffs both reflect the great fame ofsuch tribute tea plantations on the one hand, while recording the anecdotes of officials who
supervised tea production and scholars who went sightseeing and had tea drinking experienceson the other. These relics, inscriptions on cliffs and tea plantations together mirror the historyof tribute tea plantations in China.

3

FARMERS’ TEA PLANTATIONSUsually, farmers’ tea plantations are closely related to their settlement as far as spatial layout
is concerned. Tea plantations are generally located on slopes with water and heat conditions
favourable for tea growth, within walking distance of villages. Where the villages are built
halfway up the hills, tea plantations will scatter around the villages. Such spatial layout
connections between tea plantations and villages are typically common for villages relying on
tea cultivation in Yunnan, Hunan, Guizhou and Guangxi provinces in China. However, in
relation to the long history of self-sufficient rural economy in China, tea as a cash crop cannot
completely replace other crops such as grains and vegetables and trees for wood, so thesevillages often utilize land to its best value and develop diverse land use models subject tovarious crop growth requirements.
Within such settlements, there are usually tea production facilities of various sizes. Manual tea
processing workshops are fairly small in size and may directly use tea farmers’ residences, forinstance, courtyards or an indoor flat area. There are also tea plants or gardens with larger
sizes invested in by tea dealers, of which the Russian tea-dealer-invested tea plant inYangloudong, Xianning City, Hubei Province, is an example in modern history. For tea
plantations located in areas where the tea collecting and distributing business takes place, there
are tea trading facilities in the settlement as well. The Yushan Ancient Tea Trading Houses in
Zhejiang and Yiwu Township, along the Tea-Horse Route in Yunnan and respectively listed in
the 6th and 7th batch of Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at National Level, are two
examples. The Yushan Ancient Tea Trading House at the foot of Chachang Mountain, Matang
Village, Yushan Township, Panan County, was established in the Song dynasty and then rebuilt
in the 47th year of the reign of Emperor Qianlong in the Qing dynasty (1781). The Tea Trading
House mainly consists of a temple, an administration office and tea factory, occupying an areaof 2,940 square metres and a floor area of 1,502 square metres. Yiwu Township of Mengla
County, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, was an important hub for the collecting andprocessing of tribute Pu’er tea in the Qing dynasty, and was also one of the core Pu’er
production areas in Yunnan. A number of tea trading houses (for tea processing and dealing),
integrating both business and dwelling functions, extend along the ancient routes, and there isalso a square where ancient horse caravans used to gather.
Additionally, some minority ethnic groups (the Blang people, for example) living in southwest
and southern China still maintain their primitive worship, and altars for the worship of the Tea
Ancestor, the Sacred Trees of the Tea Spirit and relics related to ancestor worship can be found55

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in their tea plantations, whichreflect the influence

of

tea

culture on the tea plantation
landscape.

Thus,

such

tea

plantations are more than fields
with tea trees, but countrysidelandscapes,

combiningplantations,

other

tea

agriculture

crops and settlements. Apartfrom dwelling buildings, thereareproduction

facilities(orfunctions) for tea processing,religious

buildings

orrelicsrelated to tea culture, and places
and facilities for tea trading.

Image 18. Land Use Models in
Mangjing Village, Jingmai
Mountain, Yunnan.
Source: Zhao Junxiong.

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4.4 Tea cultivation and tea strains
In the beginning, people planted tea by transplanting wild tea saplings and sowing seeds thatwere collected. Later, relatively closed, concentrated “strain groups” came into being, alongwith the expansion of cultivation areas and generations of multiple strains. Most tea strainscultivated in China’s history fall into this category, for instance the broad-leaf tea of Jingmai
Mountain in Yunnan, Longjing in Zhejiang and Taiping Houkui in Anhui. These tea strains have
fixed cultivation areas and corresponding tea varieties; for example, Longjing green tea in
Zhejiang, Ganlu tea of Mengding Mountain in Sichuan, Pu’er tea in Yunnan and Oolong tea inFujian are all made from local tea strains.
Selections of tea strains based on local strains were first practiced in Wuyi Mountain in Fujian
and Fenghuang Mountain in Chaozhou City, Guangdong, during the Ming and Qing dynasties;
Dahongpao (Great Red Robe), Rougui and Fenghuang Dancong are such selected strains. In
1780, the people of Anxi, Fujian, attempted propagation using cuttings from selected tea plants
and cultivated the Tieguanyin (Iron Goddess) tea strain, a successful start to vegetative
propagation. Other vegetative tea strains, including Fuding white tea and Fujian-shuixian, were
cultivated and are still being planted today. After the 1950s, thanks to the development of newtechnology, a great batch of new strains were gradually cultivated by strain selection based on
single plants and hybridization from local tea strains. By the end of 2017, 134 tea strainscultivated in 16 provinces, including Zhejiang, Fujian, Anhui, Guangdong and Yunnan, had beenverified at national level.

4.5 Tea picking
Due to the vast distribution of tea production areas in China, sharp differences in climate andecological conditions and large numbers of tea strains and tea varieties, tea picking habits vary.
Tea picking falls into different categories based on the criteria of: (a) picking model, such as
handpicking or machine picking; (b) which parts of the plants are picked, such as tip-and-bud
picking, all-buds-but-tip picking or selected tip-and-bud picking; and (c) tenderness of tea leaf,
such as tender bud (only bud or bud with one fresh leaf) picking, medium-tender leaf (bud with
two to three fresh leaves) picking, fully-developed leaf picking, fresh twig (bud with four to fiveleaves) picking or matured twig cutting. Tea picking seasons are classified based on the growth
periods of tea buds, namely spring, summer, autumn and winter (for the warmer Southern China
tea production area).
Traditional tea picking requirements are fairly strict in China. According to The Classic of Tea,
“Tea picking should be done between the second and the forth lunar month (approximately
March to May),” and it is believed that tea picked in the period of early to late April, between
Clear and Bright and Grain Rain (two of China’s twenty-four solar terms) is the best quality tea,a theory that is particularly true for green tea. The tender tea leaves for making tribute tea for

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the imperial court were strictly required to be picked before Clear and Bright Festival (Qingming),
and, even today, the tea before Clear and Bright Festival is still highly praised as precious in
the market. That said, autumn is also a good season for tea picking. Generally speaking, thetea picked in summer when there is strong sunlight, high temperatures and heavy rain is lower
in quality than spring tea, and its flavour is light and bitter.
It is recorded that the picking should be done on early dewy mornings, with 4am to 7am being
the best period of time. As far as the weather is concerned, there is a saying that “tea picking
should be done when it is sunny other than rainy or cloudy,” because wet tea leaves go badeasily and rainy or cloudy days do not allow timely processing of freshly picked tea leaves. The
tenderness and evenness of fresh tea leaves determine the rating of tea quality. Tenderness
varies depending on whether the tea leaves are picked with only tender buds, bud with one leaf,
bud with two leaves, bud with three leaves or even with as many as five leaves. As recorded in
The Classic of Tea, “Tea buds grow on top of the plants, and there may be three to five leaves
growing surrounding the buds, and those leaves growing upright should be picked”.

5. The social and cultural system
Tea is more than a drink; it represents a culture. Tea suits both refined and popular tastes sowell that it is a common drink nationwide in China and has become an essential part of
traditional Chinese culture. Tea culture presents itself in so many ways that it can beappreciated along the whole chain connecting tea cultivation, processing, trading,transportation, consumption and drinking. China’s long history of tea planting and drinking, itsvast tea production areas as well as its diverse tea strains and varieties contribute to thediversity and local features of Chinese tea culture. As a “slightly addictive hobby ,” not only doestea drinking form an indispensable part of Chinese life, which is echoed by the saying “onecannot survive each single day without food and tea,” but has also gained popularity across theworld. Importantly, tea has become a significant source of China’s finance and a commodity ininternational trades.

5.1 Tea related regulations and administration
Tea consumption grew tremendously after tea drinking developed into a habit in Chinesesociety, and tea became an important object of taxation at national level. Tax offices were set
up in tea production areas nationwide to collect tea tax in the 3rd year of the Jianzhong era by
Dezong of the Tang dynasty (782), and “Tea Administration” and “Tea Regulations” henceforth
became significant national economic measures. During the 9th year of the Dahe era of
Wenzong of the Tang dynasty (835), the policy of imposing tax on tea changed into government
monopoly of tea sales. Tea related regulations were increasingly strict, and the earliest

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regulation on tea in China’s history, the Tea Decrees, was compiled in the 2nd year of theDazhong Xiangfu era by Zhenzong of the Song dynasty (1009). Later, tea drinking developed
into a custom for nomadic tribes in western China, and this, coupled with the fact that thejurisdiction of central governments during the Song and Ming dynasties did not produce quality
horses, meant that trading tea for horses became a strategic policy of states. In the 7th year of
the Xining era of Shenzong of the Song dynasty (1074), the government monopolized tea sales
in the Chuanshan administrative area (present day Sichuan Province) and conducted tea-horse
trading businesses with tribes living in northwest China. During the Ming dynasty, the official
tea authority implemented tea-horse trading regulations and traded tea for horses at borders
with western nomadic tribes, and these regulations worked together with horse affair s
administration and border control policies. The vast territory accrued during the Qing dynasty
meant that there was no longer a necessity for horse trading after the reign of Kangxi (mid-17th
century); however, the reliance on tea by nomadic tribes made border control through tea
trading a significant central government policy towards ethnic groups in border areas. After the
Chinese Communist Revolution (in 1949), the National Committee for Ethnic Affairs set up the
Border Tea Trading Office, which was responsible for supplying tea to minority ethnic groups
in bordering areas. Today, the National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China subsidies over 100
million yuan each year for supplying nomadic areas with quality tea at lower prices. Anhua dark
tea from Hunan, Ya’an Tibet tea from Sichuan and Pu’er tea from Yunnan are all favo ured by
the people in nomadic areas.
The site of the Administration Office for Tea-Horse Trading Affairs is now preserved in
Mingshan District, Ya’an City, Sichuan Province. The Office was first set up in the 7 th year of
the Xisong era by Shenzong of the Song dynasty (1072), and the preserved site dates backto the 27th year of the Daoguang era of the Qing dynasty (1849). At the site stood thedesignated government agency that had managed tea related affairs ever since the Songdynasty, and the current relics include the main hall and wing-rooms on both sides, occupying
an area of 1,300 square metres. The Administration Office for Tea-Horse Trading Affairs tookcharge of Mingshan tea collection from two counties, namely Mingshan and Baizhang, andthen of the tea-horse trading businesses. At its prime, the Office “transported Mingshan tea
with 200,000 pack horses” (each pack weighing 50 kg), accounting for over half of the totaltea destined for the government. The Official Border-Trading Tea Storehouse located in
Tianquan County, Ya’an City, Sichuan Province, was the official administration agency incharge of the collection of Ya’an-produced tea for border trading and its sale to the Tibetan
area in the mid-late Qing dynasty. Occupying an area of 1,500 square metres, the facility was
first built during the Kangxi era of the Qing dynasty, and incorporated a traditional Chinese
courtyard house with three yards, comprising five principal rooms, five wing-rooms,
courtyards and open space.

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5.2 The tribute tea system
Tribute tea was one of the precious specialties paid by local authorities to the imperial court inancient China, and was an essential part of imperial court life. Tribute tea existed throughout
Chinese history, from the Western Zhou dynasty to the Qing dynasty. As recorded by a scholar,“Tribute tea can better demonstrate one’s loyalty to the emperor”. Tribute tea as a form oftaxation reflects the establishment of the political monarch-subject relationship, and is a cultural
phenomenon in specific historical stages. Among existing literature, the earliest record withexact figures of tribute tea is found in Herbal Collection (Ben Cao Yan Yi) in the 6th year of theZhenghe era of the Northern Song dynasty (1116): “During the reign of Yuandi in Eastern Jin
dynasty, 1,000 jin (800 kg) of tribute tea leaves and 300 jin (240 kg) of tribute tea buds were
paid to the imperial court”.
Starting from the Tang dynasty, tribute tea was not only an exclusive drink for the imperialfamily, but became a tax in kind imposed by the central government on local jurisdictions,involving more tribute regions and tea varieties with greater randomness. The Tang dynasty
witnessed the final establishment of China’s tribute tea system, which was carried on throughlater dynasties until its termination in the Qing dynasty. The tribute tea system was implemented
through two mechanisms in the Tang dynasty, namely quota-based tribute obligations for theregions producing quality tea and authorities managing tribute tea affairs in core areas ofrenowned tea production. The Song dynasty followed suit in its tribute tea system. During theSong dynasty, the Northern Garden Imperial Tea Production Site produced larger amounts oftea, and made great progress in tea processing technology, packing and storage. During theYuan dynasty, imperial tea plantations continued to operate in Wuyi Mountain, Fujian Province.
During the Ming dynasty, 44 county level jurisdictions in five provinces (South Zhili, Jiangxi,
Huguang, Zhejiang and Fujian) paid tribute tea to the imperial court. During the Qing dynasty,
the Tribute Tea Plantations no longer existed; however, 13 provinces with tea production
capacity across the nation paid tribute tea to the imperial court, with more tea varieties andoptimized tribute tea policies. According to the policies, local officials in tea production areas
would be responsible for the collection of tribute tea; for instance, the provincial governor in
Guizhou would supervise the collection of Cloud mist tea produced in Guiding (a sub-jurisdictionof Guizhou), and the county governor would carry out the detailed work. For example, in relation
to Pu’er, in the first year of the Qianlong era of the Qing dynasty (1736 ), a grass-roots governing
official and tea bureau were set up in Simao, a renowned Pu’er production area, and branchesof the tea bureau were set up in Six Top Tea Mountains (present day Mengla County,
Xishuangbanna, Yunnan) to manage tea taxation and collection.
As a national economic policy, the influence of the tribute tea system was not confined only toimperial court life, but was also reflected socio-economically. To cater to the tastes of the imperial
court, generations of local officials spared no effort to cultivate new tea strains and improve tea
processing technology, gradually creating a tribute tea system integrating both universal Chinese

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cultural characteristics and local features. While the tribute tea system posed a huge burden totea farmers and tea production areas, it promoted the development of the tea economy and the
expansion of tea production areas, creating a batch of renowned tea varieties and tea production
areas in China that still exist today. In the meantime, tea culture in the imperial courts evolved
regularly and drove the trend, leaving a profound influence on civilian tea culture.

5.3 The cultural phenomenon of the tea ancestor
For almost all of the renowned tea production areas with a long history across China, there are
historical figures and legendary tales pertaining to the introduction, cultivation and strain
selection of tea, for instance: Lizhen Wu and Zen Master Ganlu from Mengding Mountain in
Sichuan; Zen Master Faqin from Jingshan Temple in Zhejiang (Tang dynasty); Pa’aileng, theTea Ancestor of the Blang ethnic group in Yunnan; and Geliang Zhu, the Tea Ancestor insouthern Yunnan. The legends, and even worship, of tea ancestors form a cultural phenomenon
reflecting the cultivation and planting of tea in China. These legends, whether verifiable or not,can be regarded as an inverted image of tea introduction in specific areas and show the respect
and admiration by local people for those who first introduced tea to their areas. Ho wever, there
is still a chance that such legends were only created to gain more fame for local tea brands inthe fierce competitions between various tea varieties. Doubtlessly, attractive legends
concerning tea cultivation, and celebrity charms from real or even fabled historical figures, didenhance the historical value and market reaction of renowned tea production areas. The same
story can be found in Japan, too: the monks who introduced tea seeds and tea culture from
China into Japan, namely Zuicheng, Konghai and Rongxi, and Nagatani Soen, who invented
Sencha (a tea processing method) in Japan, are all commemorated by way of memorial tea
gardens, worship in temples and at Shinto shrines, and other ritual activities. This illustrates
that the tea ancestor as a cultural phenomenon is not a case unique to China, and that thephenomenon is popular in countries with a long history of tea cultivation and with cultural
traditions of worshipping ancestors.

5.4 Tea processing techniques
Tea processing has a long history in China, and has witnessed complicated reforms andevolved in many ways. For instance, tea evolved from raw leaves (to be directly boiled and thendrunk) to cake tea and loose tea; the varieties of tea increased to six types (namely green tea,
dark tea, white tea, yellow tea, black tea and oolong tea) instead of only green tea at the
beginning; and tea processing underwent a development from manual methods to mechanicalmethods. The quality characteristics of each tea variety are influenced not only by the qualityof tea strains and fresh tea leaves, but also by the processing conditions and methods.
Tea processing techniques started to form during the Three Kingdoms period, when the tea
leaves were dried by sunlight or heat and then made into cakes. In the Tang dynasty, theC H I N A T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S C A P E

61techniques of green tea steaming-fixation and cake making were gradually optimized, andsteaming-fixation green tea balls and loose tea came into being in the Song dynasty. Tea balls
and tea cakes were only used for tribute tea for the imperial court in the Yuan dynasty. In the 24thyear of the Hongwu era of the Ming dynasty (1391), the imperial court decree abandoned the tea
balls, and loose tea subsequently prevailed, which drove the rapid development of pan-friedfixation green tea techniques, a common green tea processing method today. The Joy of Tea(Cha Jie), written in the Ming dynasty, introduced the essential techniques of the whole procedureof stirring-fixation green tea processing, including fixation, cooling, rolling and baking, anillustration of the fairly high standards of stirring-fixation in the Ming dynasty. The most importantreforms in the development of tea processing in ancient China were only finalized after having
evolved throughout four dynasties, namely Tang, Song, Yuan and Ming. In the process of green
tea making, farmers found that the quality of tea varied according to different processing
conditions, so they developed various tea processing techniques and finally created the six tea
varieties, namely green tea, dark tea, white tea, yellow tea, black tea and oolong tea. Flower tea
can be obtained after further processing of the six tea varieties.

Appendix 1. Chinese Tea Varieties
Items

Processing Techniques

Occurrence

Representatives

Green
Tea

Non-fermented, with different
fixation and drying methods
including steaming, stir-frying,heating and drying

Tang dynasty
to Ming
dynasty

Maofeng of Yellow Mountain in
Anhui, West Lake Longjing in
Zhejiang, Biluochun of Taihu
Lake in Jiangsu, Yulu of Enshi
in Hubei, Ganlu of Mengding
Mountain in Sichuan

Dark
Tea

Has a special flavour naturally
formed during the lengthytransportation of compact green
tea for border trading purposes

Ming dynasty

Border-trading tea in Sichuan,
Dark tea of Anhua in Hunan,
Dark tea in Hubei, Dark tea of
Liubu in Guangxi, Pu’er in
YunnanWhite
TeaSlightly fermented, with only
withering and drying
procedures, and a more natural
flavour

Ming dynasty
to Qing
dynasty

White tea of Fuding in Fujian

Yellow
Tea

Gradually formed by adding“yellowing” procedure to green
tea processing

Ming dynasty
to Qing
dynasty

Yellow bud of Huoshan in
Anhui, Yellow bud of Mengding
Mountain in Sichuan

Black
Tea

Fully-fermented; tea farmers in
Fujian acquired thefermentation techniques of
black tea in various tea
processing practices, including
the sunlight drying of white tea(withering), rolling of green tea(reddening), and fermentationof dark tea (darkening)

Qing dynasty
to the Republicof China

Black tea in Fujian，Keemun
Black tea in Anhui, Black tea in
YunnanC H I N A T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S C A P E

62OolongTea

Semi-fermented, firstly createdin Fujian, with its processing
procedures recorded in About
Tea written in the Qing dynasty,
and an appearance of green
leaves with red edge

Qing dynasty

Tie Guan Yin of Anxi in Fujian,Rock tea of Wuyi Mountain in
Fujian, Oolong tea in Taiwan,
Fenghuang Dancong in
Guangdong

FlowerTea

Scented by blending tea withfragrant flowers such as
jasmine, rose, plum blossom,
lotus, gardenia, elecampane
and orange blossom

Dates back toearly Songdynasty, andmatured in
Ming dynasty

Jasmine tea and Rose Blacktea of Fuzhou in Fujian

5.5 History of tea
Tea was mostly used as a herb or ingredient before the Han dynasty (1st century BC). Since
the Tang dynasty (7th century), it has been integrated into the daily life of the Chinese people,
who have not only selected tea products carefully, but have also paid special attention to themethods of tea drinking. “Boiling tea” and “frying tea” were the main ways of tea drinking in theTang dynasty. The Classic of Tea written by Lu Yu, the earliest and most complete classic ofChinese tea culture, promoted tea drinking to an art. It is said that “the art of tea drinking was
so flourishing that the imperial princes and court ministers were all tea drinkers ,” thus Lu Yu
was hailed as the “sage of tea” by later generations. The Four Devices in The Classic of Tea
records the tools for making tea, drinking tea, and tasting tea. According to The Four Devices,“tea cannot be made without even one of the twenty-four vessels.” A good many tea vessels
from the Tang dynasty have been unearthed in various places, and tea vessels seen inpaintings and murals are similar to those recorded in The Classic of Tea, including bottles,
stoves, tea mills, tea pans, tea kettles, tea pots, tea spoons, tea bowls and saucers, etc. Various
tea-ware worked together in the process of brewing tea to form the methods of tea frying andtea tasting. Imperial tea-ware was made of precious materials, including gold, silver andcoloured glaze. Scholars often used porcelain, with Xing Kiln white porcelain and Yue Kiln
celadon more common.
In the Song dynasty, tea was divided into pieces (also known as tea cakes) and loose tea (leaftea, also known as grass tea), which were ground before drinking. The popular "tea contest" in
the Song dynasty brought attention to tea-making techniques and the transformation of tea
derived from the tea-making process, using thick black glaze tea cups, such as the Fujian Kiln
tea cup, to keep the tea warm and set off its colour. In general, grass tea and tea powder were
mostly contained in vessels of white porcelain, celadon, white porcelain (shadow celadon), andeven silverware, stoneware and other tea cups. The Great View of Tea, written by Emperor
Huizong of the Song dynasty, is the only emperor's monograph on tea in China. Since the Songdynasty, tea drinking has been combined with literature, painting, music, flower ceremonies
and incense ceremonies, and it has become a fashionable activity with scholars. Due toC H I N A T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S C A P E

63Mongolian rule in the Yuan dynasty, tea drinking culture was less predominant; this time canbe characterised as a transition period. At this time, the tea brewing method was popular in thesouth, while the north was still at the stage of powdered tea drinking.
In the early Ming dynasty, the tea system evolved to the drinking of loose tea from the habit ofdrinking powdered tea. Due to the fall in popularity of powdered tea, the tea whisking method
also gradually disappeared. Japan, on the other hand, has retained the steamed green tea
method of the Tang dynasty and the powdered tea method of the Song dynasty, learned from
China, in a more complete way. The tea used in this way was originally called “rolling tea” andthen “matcha” in the 20th century. The tea culture in the Ming dynasty entered a new realm,
and the method of frying green tea became the main way of tea making. Loose tea is stripshaped, so people in the Ming dynasty used teapots to contain the tea, brewing it with boilingwater and infusing it into a tea cup before finally drinking. This basic combination of pots andcups is still used today. The teapot became the most important item in the tea making method.
Yixing purple clay teapots or red clay teapots in Jiangsu province were strongly recommended
in the Ming dynasty. In order to present the colour of the tea, white porcelain and blue and white
porcelain tea cups were widely used. This custom influenced Japan. The purple clay pot carried
by Zen Master Yinyuan when travelling to Japan in 1654, in the late Ming and early Qing
dynasties, was treasured in the Huang Po Temple of Kyoto. The purple clay pot was said to bemade by Shi Dabin, a craftsman of the Ming dynasty. People in the Ming dynasty attached great
importance to tea tasting, especially in the Wuzhong area to the south of the Yangtze River,where famous tea and renowned springs harmonized with each other. In the Ming dynasty, theliterati and scholars took possession of the tea house as a necessity. At that time, independent
tea houses appeared.
The mountains and springs, the beautiful artistic conception of the tea tasting space and elegant
furnishings show that during the Ming dynasty, people attached great importance to theconstruction of the tea tasting environment. Practices of tea drinking in the Qing dynasty wereroughly the same as those in the Ming dynasty, and tea species and utensils were not very
different from those used in the Ming dynasty. During the reigns of Emperors Kangxi,
Yongzheng and Qianlong, which saw the heyday of the Qing dynasty, the official kiln of
Jingdezhen made breakthroughs in firing, glazing, and decoration techniques, thus tea-warefrom the Qing dynasty achieved the artistic peak. The preferences of the three emperors for tea
also promoted refined tea-ware and the prosperity of tea drinking in the Qing dynasty, especially
Emperor Qianlong, who left in the archives photographic evidence of the specific constructionof the tea house and of tea-ware making. He was deeply influenced by the act of tea drinking
by ancient people and scholars, and was elegant and respectful, indicating that the imperialfamily was also affected by folk tea culture. In the Qing dynasty, tea-ware with porcelain enamel
and purple clay enamel were developed, as well as tea-ware with different colours such asglaze, jade, agate, lacquer-ware and carved lacquer. Tea-ware of simple and elegant literati
style in Jiangnan (the region south of the Yangtze River) was also popular. In order to satisfy

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64

the overseas market during the Ming and Qing dynasties, there were many innovations inpainting themes, paints, techniques and shapes.
The prosperity of the social economy led to the transmission of tea drinking. During the Songdynasty, tea drinking gradually spread from the upper class of society to the ordinary people.
Folk tea drinking culture flourished, with many tea houses appearing along the roadside s,which became important places for city life. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, a national
Chinese tea culture began to emerge, and the market tea culture became the mainstream.
With different climates, customs and public sentiments, different regional tea cultures
gradually formed, such as Kung Fu tea in southern Fujian and Guangdong ; sour tea, roasted
tea and Sandao tea in Yunnan; butter tea in the Tibetan area; milk tea in northern Mongolianand Manchu; and sanpaotai in Gansu. Tea culture also combined with folk arts. For example,
tea picking music and opera appeared in Fujian, Jiangxi and other major tea -producing
provinces. From the beginning, Chinese tea culture was closely related to Confucianism,
Buddhism and Taoism. The Taoist monks in their religious activities, and the literati in theirartistic creations and tea parties, were not only drinking tea to quench their thirst, but also for
spiritual clarity and pleasure. Tea tasting reflects traditional Chinese aesthetics andphilosophical spirit. It is an important carrier of traditional Chinese culture and an“ambassador” for cultural transmission.

5.6 Tea and religions
The close relationship between tea and Chinese religions can be compared with that between
wine and Christianity. In China, the development and transmission of tea culture also has its
roots deep in the history of Buddhism and Taoism.

1 TEA AND TAOISM

Being the indigenous religion of China, Taoism has influenced the history, culture and traditionsof the Chinese nation profoundly, and its connection with tea is deep and long-standing. Indeed,
the involvement of tea in Chinese cultural life should firstly be attributed to Taoism. The
elaboration of “Tao” by Laozi and Zhuangzi corresponds with the origin of tea, namely “thedesign of nature.” When Zhang Daoling founded his Taoist temple at Mount Minghe in Sichuan
Province in the first year of Han’an (142 AD), the 4th era name of Emperor Shun of Han, heplanted tea trees all around the temple wherever possible. It can be drawn from here that
Taoism came into being in the Han dynasty in Sichuan, and so did the tradition of drinking tea.
In Shenyiji (Stories of Gods and Freaks), which was compiled at the turn of the Wei and Jin
dynasties (3rd century), it is noted that “Yu Hong went into the mountain to pick tea. There heencountered a Taoist monk, who told him that great tea can be found in this mountain and canbe given as gifts.” This record shows that Taoists did not only possess knowledge regarding
tea at an early stage, but also planted and produced some of the ancient breeds of tea in China.

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65Apart from this, they also related tea with their spiritual life of pursuing eternity. During theNorthern and Southern dynasties (420-589), people were seeking ways to achieve immortalityand divinity, and those who believed in Taoism hoped to acquire the method of immortality fromnature. This is where tea and Taoism combined initially. Tao Hongjing, the Taoist thinker andmedical scientist in the Southern dynasty (5th century), wrote in Mingyi bielu (Supplementary
Records of Famous Physicians) that “drinking tea has the effect of alleviating one’s body andreplacing their bones.” Taoists advocated a quiet, inactive and natural way to reach d ivinity,
and the characteristics of tea happened to be helpful in their practice of Taoism. Lu Tong, the“Tea Immortal” of the Tang dynasty, who was also called by his art name Yuchuanzi, once
wrote that he “wishe[d] to ride on this sweet breeze and go to Penglai Island,” indicating his
willingness to ascend to heaven and achieve divinity with the assistance of tea.
Taoism continued to flourish in the Tang and Song dynasties and the dynasties thereafter, witha multitude of temples being established and “tea monks” (monks who specialized in serving
tea to visitors) appointed. People enjoyed discussing subjects in Taoism while drinking tea, andtea gardens were opened up to cultivate famous tea. “Taoist tea” was mostly produced andconsumed by temples in various places, serving primarily to monks for their divinity aims, while
sharing of tea came second. There were three benefits of having “Taoist tea”: treating diseases,
keeping in good health, and cultivating one's nature, all in accordance with the ultimate pursuitof Taoism, which is to eventually become an immortal through practice. The culture of “Taoisttea” was established by Taoism, and the long-standing and deeply-interwoven relationshipbetween the two lasts still today.

2

TEA AND BUDDHISM

The prevailing trend of drinking tea in the Tang dynasty was closely related to monks in the
Buddhist temples. In Feng Yan’s Fengshi Jianwenji (Records Seen and Heard by Scholar Feng),
it is already mentioned that tea-drinking in the north emerged from the Buddhist temples.
Originally, monks had to drink tea in their meditation, as tea could keep them awake, help themwith digestion and control their sexual desires, and this was how tea and Zen were initiallycombined. After many years, drinking tea gradually became the “family tradition” for monks,
and eventually “Chan Cha Yi Wei” (meaning that Zen and the tea ceremony are the same),
which was popular among both monks and laymen, took shape. Manifestations of “ Chan Cha
Yi Wei” include the planting of tea trees, the making and drinking of tea, and the holding of tea
ceremonies at temples by monks. However, only through the communication and integration of
tea and Zen on the level of ideological connotation can “Chan Cha Yi Wei” in a real sense beobtained. Zen is the product of Indian Buddhism in China, and it advocates “seeing people’s
minds rightly and enlightening the real nature of the mind” via meditation and the practice of
Buddhism. It is believed that, instead of existing beyond the living world, all forms of initialapproaches to become a believer of Buddhism and to Buddha-nature can be found in daily life.
In the Southern School of Zen, insight is attached with more significance. When people are

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66

drinking tea, their minds are calm and their senses of taste, touch and smell are all being
deployed so as to taste the tea and the flavour beyond that, which corresponds to the emphasisof inner experience in Zen thought. For Buddhist monks, drinking tea helps them to purify theirminds and become noble people.
Buddhist Master Nanquan once said, “the ordinary mind is the way” and this nature of Zen
is intimately tied up with the spirit of the tea ceremony. Sen no Rikyu, master of theJapanese “way of tea,” also pointed out that “the basis of tea is naught but boiling waterand making tea,” implying that the essence of the tea ceremony is to perceive thephilosophy of life from the trivialities and the ordinary life of the everyday. To practice
Buddhism by planting tea trees embodies the special feature of Chinese Zen, which is toattach equal importance to both agriculture and production, both body and mind. Based onpractice, tea-making also serves to offer, give and bring benefit to as many people aspossible, and to stay in good health so as to practice Buddhism and achieve enlightenment.
Buddhist temples have incorporated tea into their daily routines , and regulations regarding
tea have also been formulated. Varieties of tea affairs in temples from the Tang dynasty to
the Yuan dynasty, when boiling and presenting tea were prevalent, are documented in detailin Chanmen Guishi (Rules and Regulations for the Zen Buddhism) by Baizhang Huaihai,
Master of the Tang dynasty, in Chanyuan Qinggui (Rules in Zen Temples) by Zongze,
Master of the Song dynasty, and in Chixiu Baizhang Qinggui (Rules and Regulations for
the Zen Buddhism Revised under Imperial Order) by Dehui, Master from Dongyang of theYuan dynasty. All aspects of practices in Buddhist temples are covered in these records,
ranging from worshipping, confessing, providing offerings, conducting funerals and offeringsacrifices, to tea ceremonies for appointing and dismissing abbots and for the generalpublic, daily tea affairs and daily tea rituals. Visiting monks from Japan across different
dynasties served as bridges to spread tea culture to Japan as well. Among them, MasterYosai, pioneer of the Japanese “way of tea,” brought not only the laws and rules of Buddhist
temples to Japan, but also tea seeds, which were presented to Monk Myoe and planted by
the latter on Togaosan and then transplanted to Uji. This was the origin of what is known
as Uji tea today.

6. Related communities and associations
Through the above analysis of the development and contents of Chinese tea culture, it can beconcluded that it is the Buddhist and Taoist religious communities and tea farmers that have
had an important impact on the formation and development of Chinese tea culture.

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67

6.1 Religious community
Because of the close relationship between Chinese tea and Buddhism and Taoism, the tea
gardens affiliated with temples and opened by monks and Taoists are the origin of many famous
historical tea gardens in China. As the Chinese saying goes, “famous temples have produced
famous tea since ancient times”. Most temples and palaces were located in the prime locationsof mountains and rivers, and the magnificent mountain environment was especially suitable fortea growing. After tea tasting became indispensable for the monks in their practice, when thetemple was built, tea was grown at the same time. Each temple has its own characteristics ofgrowing, picking and making tea, and also fits the practice rituals of its sect. The main religious
groups are Tiantai and Zen of Buddhism, and Zhengyi and Quanzhen of Taoism.
Famous kinds of Buddhist tea from ancient times to today include: “Mengding Ganlu” inMengding Mountain Ganlu Temple; “Jingshan Tea” in Yuhang Jingshan Temple, Zhejiang
Province; “Huangshan Maofeng tea (Yellow Mountain fuzz tip)” in Songgu Temple, Diaoqiao
Temple and Yungu Temple in Huangshan Mountain, Anhui Province; “Songluo tea” in Songluo
Temple in the city of Huizhou, Anhui Province; “Biluochun tea (Spring Spiral)” in Dongting
Temple in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province; “Longjing tea” in Longjing Temple in Hangzhou, Zhejiang
Province; and “Red Robe Tea” in Tianxin Yongle Temple in Wuxin Mountain, Fujian Province.
Taoist tea is found in many geomantic treasure lands of Taoism, and in many spiritual
mountains and blessings of Taoism, the most famous of which are “Taoist Tea” in Qingcheng
Mountain, Sichuan Province, selected by Taoist ancestral master Zhang Tianshi; “Taihe tea” in
Wudang Mountain, the birthplace of “Taoist Tea”; 9 and “Chongtao tea” in Mount Tai, Shandong
Province. There is no doubt that monks’ travelling and preaching spread the tea culture ofmonasteries to other areas and affected the secular society with which they intersected.

6.2 Tea-producing areas
The main and most important tea growing groups in China are tea farmers and gardeners in
tea producing areas. According to ethnic groups, these can be divided into Han, Brown, Dai,Hani, Wa, Tujia and others. Tea farmers of Han nationality are distributed in the tea areas southof the Yangtze, north of the Yangtze, south China and the southwest, while the ethnic minorities
are mainly distributed in Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi and other provinces in southwest China
and in Hunan and Hubei provinces in regions south of the Yangtze River. The introduction andcultivation of tea is generally considered to have many origins. At first, tea plantation scales
were small and the growing areas were relatively sporadic. The formation of settlements wasmore affected by farming, hunting, gathering and the production methods of other crops. With
the development of the tea industry, agricultural settlements with tea growing as the main
method of crop production might have formed in the Tang dynasty in Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi,

9 Taishan Taoist Tea is not a kind of tea, but is made of local wild green flower buds.

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68Fujian, Sichuan, Yunnan and other places. The development of the tea industry might also have
led to suitable areas for tea growing opening up as tea gardens. With the migration andsettlement of immigrants who had mastered tea growing and cultivation techniques, more andmore tea garden settlements were built and developed. In terms of the social organization
structure of tea villages, Han villages were generally connected by consanguinity or geography,
while other ethnic groups were mostly composed of branches and tribes. These tea-growing
communities contributed not only to the world’s rich indigenous tea-growing communities; inaddition, their culture combined with the national culture to form a tea culture with different
regional characteristics that reflected tea growing, production, trade and drinking, enriching theconnotation of Chinese tea culture.

7. Links to trade, trade routes and economic
development opportunities
7.1 Tea trade and routes
Areas suitable for the cultivation of tea depend on natural attributes. Following the rise inpopularity of tea, the large and continuous demand for tea in non-tea producing areas promoted
the formation of trade routes from tea producing areas to tea consumption markets. These traderoutes were not only distributed in China, but even involved shipping routes over the ocean,
forming a global tea trade route.
China's domestic tea trade is mainly conducted in the southern provinces such as Zhejiang,
Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Fujian, and transported through the south sea, official
trains and the Grand Canal to northern China, where tea is not produced, including ancient
China’s political and cultural centres, such as Chang’an (now Xi’an) in the Sui and Tangdynasties; Liang (now Kaifeng) in the Northern Song dynasty; and Beijing in the Yuan, Mingand Qing dynasties, etc.
The demand for tea by ethnic groups in the pastoral areas of western China is no less than thatin the north. Since the Tang dynasty (the 7th century), there have been records of tea“originating from the Central Plains and flowing out of the continent. Af ter the ethnic minorities
in the border areas began to drink tea, they traded horses for tea with envoys and merchants.”
Between the Song and Qing dynasties (the 11th century to the early 20th century), tea wastraded and transported to Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia and otherplaces by humans or animals from the tea-producing regions of southwest China such as
Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou and so on, driven by the national policy of the “Tea-Horse Trade” or“Governing the Borders with Tea”. In the Ming dynasty, due to the insufficient supply of Sichuantea, even "Hu Cha" - that is, tea from Hunan and Hubei - was collected for the tea-horse trade.
Chinese scholars have named the route the Tea-Horse Ancient Road, a land transportation

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69

network covering eight provinces and cities in western China that promoted political, economic
and cultural exchanges between the central government and the border regions.
Tea was introduced into the Western Regions and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau through the "SilkRoad" and the "Tea-Horse Road", and spread to Western Asia and the Arab region. According to
the documents, tea was probably introduced into Central Asia, Persia and India via Khotan, andto India and Persia via Tibet. With the rise of the Mongolian Yuan Empire, tea spread further into
Central and Western Asia. From the 14th century to the early 17th century, Chinese tea was
spread by land to varying degrees in Central Asia, Persia, northwest India and the Arab region.
From eastern China, Chinese tea was introduced to Japan in the 8th century by monks such
as Zuicheng and Konghai, and to the Korean Peninsula in the 9th century by envoys of Silla.
In the 10th century, the Northern Song dynasty established shipping companies in
Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Mingzhou and Hangzhou on the east coast to manage foreign trade.
Tea was among the goods exported to South Asia. In the 12th century, Fujian tea wasexported to South Asia in large quantities. Zheng He, a navigator in the Ming dynasty, madeseven voyages to the western seas (1405-1433), bringing Chinese tea and tea culture to thecountries of South Asia, the east coast of Africa and the Red Sea. During the Age of Sail,which began in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Europe began to learn about Chinese
tea. In the 17th century, the maritime transport that connected Eurasia developed rapidly.
Commercial ships from Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands and Britain sailed to the Far East ona regular basis, returning to the sea after being stocked with tea, and berthing at ports along
the way. This route became a new way for tea to spread around the world so that people in
the Middle East, Northwest Africa and Europe could drink tea from China on a daily basis. As
the Ming and Qing dynasties implemented stricter sea embargo policies, tea trade only t ook
place in Guangzhou before the First Opium War (1839). The tea from Fujian and Jiangxi
Provinces was transported overland to Guangzhou before it was shipped abroad. After theFirst Opium War ended (1842), the trade ports of Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai
enabled tea from Fujian, Jiangxi, Anhui, Zhejiang and Hunan provinces to be exported directly
by sea. After the Second Opium War ended (1860), the opening of new ports such as Hankou
and Danshui in Hubei and Taiwan, respectively, led to the two provinces and others also
exporting tea to Europe and the United States.
While the western Europeans reached China by sea, the Russians were crossing Siberia andadvancing to northern China. In the mid-17th century, the Russians arrived in Heilongjiang.
After the Treaty of Nebuchu was signed in 1689, Russia gained some privileges in trade with
China, and the tea trade was the core of Sino-Russian trade. Originally, tea from Fujian, Jiangxi
and other provinces passed through Henan, Shanxi, Hebei and all the way to the Mongolian
grasslands, finally reaching Kaktu on the Sino-Russian border, before being transported by
Russian merchants to Moscow and St Petersburg. In 1860, the newly opened Hankou Port
allowed Russian merchants to directly purchase and process tea, and to trade with each otherin Kulun, Zhangjiakou, Kashgar and other places. In the mid-19th century, with Russia's

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70demand for brick tea, the export volume of tea from Hubei and Hunan surpassed that of Fujian.
Tea from Hunan and Hubei was shipped to Shanghai and to Vladivostok via the Yangtze River,and then transported to Moscow by rail (the Siberian railway opened in 1904).

Image 19. Trade Routes of Chinese Tea. Source: Zhang Yimei.

Image 20. “Cha/Tea” Distribution around the Globe. Source: www.wals.info

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71

7.2 Global tea growing
If the formation and development of tea trade routes reflect the path of Chinese tea culture, as
shown in the figure above, the pronunciation of “tea” in global language s is directly related tothe tea trade routes. The global tea cultivation map reflects the influence of tea as an economic
attribute of commodities, especially after tea became a popular beverage worldwide in the 18th
century. Like the two sides of a coin, tea as a drinking plant has a mutually reinforcing
relationship between its cultural and economic attributes.
In 805, Zuicheng, a Chan Master, introduced tea seeds to Hezi, Japan, making Japan the first
country to grow Chinese tea. After centuries of cultivation, some tea gardens with certain
foundations and scales sprung up in the city of Uji, Shizuoka and other places in Japan. In the1860s, Japanese tea entered onto the global stage, and was exported to Britain, the United Statesand Europe. In the early 20th century, it competed with Chinese green tea and gained an absoluteadvantage in the American market. Tea cultivation in Indonesia began in 1684 when the Dutch
introduced Japanese tea seeds and successfully grew them. In the 1920s, the Dutch establisheda tea planting and processing base in Indonesia and developed it into an industry at the end of
the 19th century, mainly for export. From the early 19th century, in order to reduce the Sino-British
trade deficit caused by a large number of imported teas, Britain tried to develop the tea industry
outside of China, giving priority to the British colonies at that time. From 1834 to 1848, tea seeds
and seedlings from Fujian, Zhejiang and Anhui in China were brought back to Britain several
times. Furthermore, Fujian tea workers were invited and successfully grew tea in the foothills of
the Himalayas. Assam became a well-known tea producing region in India. In 1841, tea
plantations were established in Darjeeling and it became a famous producing area of high-quality
black tea. In 1841, Britain introduced tea trees from China to Sri Lanka, and tea plantations weredeveloped in the 1870s. After 1880, due to China's domestic troubles and foreign invasion, tea
production and trade plummeted. The rise of Indian tea ended China's monopoly in the world tea
market. As Britain gradually withdrew from the Indian peninsula, the focus of the development ofBritish tea plantations shifted to East Africa, and tea plantations were set up along the surroundingarea of Lake Victoria. By the first half of the 20th century, Kenya had gradually developed into an
important global tea producer. All of the above countries are important global tea exporters.
Tea gardens were also introduced and opened in other countries. From 826 to 840, Jin Dalian,an envoy of Silla, introduced Chinese tea seeds around the Huayan Temple at the foot of Zhi
Yi Mountain. In 1812, Chinese tea was introduced to Brazil, which was the start of tea growi ng
in South America. In 1893, Russia introduced Chinese tea to the Caucasus, opening the firsttea garden of the Russian Empire. In 1924, Turkey introduced tea tree seeds from Russia andplanted them in Rizespor, southeast of the Black Sea. In the early 20th century, Persian consuls
in India smuggled 3,000 Assam tea trees into Iran to be planted in the Rashidiya region of the
Caspian Sea. In the 1960s and 1980s, Chinese tea was introduced to Guinea, Mali, Morocco,
Algeria and Pakistan. Tea is now grown in more than 50 countries.

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72

Image 21. Distribution of Major Tea Growing Countries. Source: Zhang Yimei.

8. Links to other cultural landscapesand their regions / countries
In the mountainous counties of the southern provinces of China, patches of tea plantations,mainly planted by tea farmers, are found near rivers and lakes or on hillsides susceptible towarm and humid air. All tea growing areas are the most suitable (or relatively suitable) sites fortea group plants, selected by local people based on their accumulated experience over theyears. In this process, tea farmers were constantly introducing, selecting, cultivating andmaintaining tea types with better quality under the growth conditions. In order to make the bestuse of the contents contained in tea, tea growers and tea workers constantly improved the tea making process and the techniques, tools and processing mechanisms of tea making, andpersistently pursued the ultimate display of the nature of tea as a plant and the characteristics
of each tea through highly creative labour. This long term process of development fully reflects
the interaction between man and nature: man understands the proper growing conditions of tea
and creates a more suitable environment for its growth. At the same time, man also changes
the character of tea, making it more suitable for people's drinking habits.
In addition, the process of tea culture evolution is not confined to a small space within a closed
loop. In fact, tea farmers learned from each other actively, exchanging techniques andexperiences and introducing varieties. Several large migrations in China's history brought
people who had mastered the art of tea growing to other regions, which promoted thedevelopment of the tea industry on a larger scale and in more places. The national policy oftreating tea as an important tax, strategic material and export commodity has further stimulated
the development of tea growing areas, production and varieties. Senior officials in feudal China,monks, and even royal nobles with high cultural literacy, guided and contributed to theestablishment of Chinese tea standards, tea-drinking art and aesthetics from the perspective

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73of consumption appreciation through the tribute tea system, religious rituals, cultural collections
and other means. From tea producing areas to consumption markets, via tea trade andtransportation routes throughout China, tea consumers of different occupations, regions andclasses were closely linked together. They had a common understanding of tea culture,developed the habit of drinking tea, and became lovers of drinking tea.
It is precisely because of the large number of consumers that the tea growing scope has been
continuously expanded. Plus, the development of tea culture has promoted the continuous
enrichment of tea categories, which was the internal reason for the formation of China's tea
culture landscape. On the material level, the Chinese tea culture landscape heritage formed by
the continuous evolution process is characterized by the rich and complete elements of thecultural landscape. Every link of the tea industry, such as tea growing, making, selling anddrinking, has corresponding manifestations that are not limited only to the tea growing
landscape. Because of the wide range of tea growing in China, the specific differences in
geographical environment, natural conditions, tea tree species and conservation requirements
make the tea growing landscape in China present different regional characteri stics. The typesof human activity areas adjacent to tea gardens also differ, due to different tea growing
economic methods. There are agricultural settlements, religious buildings, officially managed
Gong tea gardens, etc., in addition to tea plantations, tea houses, tea rooms and other cultural
relics closely related to events, activities and beliefs in history, which are all important vehicles
of poetry, calligraphy, oral history, etc., related to Chinese tea culture. Venues, buildings andeven official management institutions (relics) for tea trading are found near the roads at the
Chinese borders. These seemingly loose material elements all follow the regular distribution of
the tea industry chain and connect the tea consumption market through tea trade andtransportation routes; that is, along the way, towns of different sizes are distributed, especiallyin northern and western China, where no tea is produced. Furthermore, grain, salt, metal, cottonand other essential living supplies that may be in short supply in the tea-producing areas areimported from other places, thus making those areas closely related to each other.
As the earliest country where tea was cultivated, and the birthplace of tea culture in the world,
tea has not only been integrated into the daily life of Chinese people, but has also become an
integral part and important manifestation of traditional Chinese culture. The core producing
areas of important historical teas in China have been highly valued and protected by the country
and its people, which is an important cultural heritage that continues today. At present, there
are dozens of tea cultural landscapes in China with the status of Protected Historical andCultural Site and Agricultural Heritage. They form a representative and typical cultural heritageof China's abundant tea producing areas, tea tree types and tea categories, the authenticity
and integrity of which are well preserved. Case studies of important Chinese tea culture
landscapes will be presented in subsequent articles.

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74Appendix 2：Heritage Sites of Important Tea Cultural Landscapes

Types of Tea Plantations

Types of
Tea
Plantations

Tea Producing
Regions
Jiangbei Tea
Area

Main Tea Producing Areas

Provinces

CitiesShandong

RizhaoVarieties of Tea

Current Status ofProtection

Place Names

green tea
China National
green tea- Jade

Enshi

Leaf Tea

Important Agricultural
Heritage，Nationallevel Intangible Cultural
Heritage

Hubei

China National
Important Agricultural
Xianning

Chibi Yangloudong

dark tea/brick tea

Heritage，Nationallevel Intangible Cultural
Heritage
National-level

YiyangAnhua

dark tea/brick tea

Intangible Cultural
Heritage

Hu’nanYueyangdark tea/brick tea

Linxiang

dark tea/brick tea

Yueyang

XiushuiJiujiang

black tea, green
tea

WuningJiangnan Tea
Area

Jiangxi

Jingdezhen

FuliangNational-level

Tea-

Wuyuangreen tea

Dexinggreen tea

Qimen

Keemun black tea

Shangrao

Heritage

farmers’
Plantations

Intangible Cultural

National-level
Intangible Cultural
Heritage

Huangshan

National-level

Anhui
Taipinghu

Taiping Monkey

Xuancheng

Jingdegreen tea

SuzhouTaihu

green tea

Intangible Cultural
Heritage

Jiangsu

Tea Plantation of
Shaoxing

Six Mausoleums ofgreen tea

Song Dynasty

Zhejiang

Yu Shan Mountain
JinhuaAncient Tea-

Major National-levelgreen teamaking Houses
Tibet

Nyingchiand Cultural Site

Yigong Village,

dark tea-Tibetan

Bomi County

tea

PingwuMianyangAnzhouSouthwestern
Tea Area

Aba

Wenchuan

Deyang

ShifangChengtu

Dayi

Ya'an

MingshanSichuanProtected Historicalgreen tea, dark
tea-border-tea

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Tianquan
Yingjing

green tea, dark
tea-border-tea

The Central
Experimental Tea
Zunyi

Farm in Xiangshan
Mountain, Meitan

Guizhou75

National-level
Intangible Cultural
Heritage
Provincial-green tea, blacklevel Protectedtea

Historical and Cultural
Site

CountyChina National
GuiyangHuaxigreen tea

Important Agricultural
Heritage
China National

The Ancient Tea
Lincang

Forest in Mengku

Pu'er tea, Yunnan

Town, Shuangjiang

red tea

CountyImportant Agricultural
Heritage，Nationallevel Intangible Cultural
Heritage
Major National-level
Protected Historicaland Cultural Site，

The Ancient Tea

YunnanPu'er

Forest in Jingmai
Mountain, Lancang

Globally Important
Pu'er tea

CountyAgricultural Heritage，Provinciallevel Intangible
Cultural Heritage，World Heritage
Tentative List

The Six Tea
Xishuangbanna

Mountains in

Major National-Level
Yunnan red tea

Mengla County

Protected Historicaland Cultural Site
China National

jasmine tea, rose

Fuzhoutea, black tea

Important Agricultural
Heritage，Nationallevel Intangible Cultural
Heritage

Lapsang
Wuyi Mountain
Nanping

Souchong，Yan

Mixed Heritage

Cha (rock tea)
Jian’ou

oolong tea

FujianChina National
Important Agricultural
NingdeFudingwhite tea

Heritage，Nationallevel intangible cultural
heritage

South China

China National

Tea Area
QuanzhouAnxi

Tie Guanyin Tea(Tat-Kuan-Yin Tea)

Important Agricultural
Heritage，Nationallevel Intangible Cultural
Heritage
National-level

Guangxi

WuzhouLiupaoLiu Pao Tea

Intangible Cultural
Heritage

Guangdong

ChaozhouTaipeiTaiwanFenghuang
MountainFenghuang

China National

Dancong (phoenix

Important Agricultural

single cluster)

HeritageFreshwater riverbasin

NantouRiyuetan Pool

Jiayi

Ali Mountainoolong tea

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Mengding
Mountain Yongxing
SichuanYa’an

TempleMengding
Mountain Ganlu

Provincial-levelgreen tea-Ganlu,
yellow tea- yellowbud tea

TempleAnhui

Huangshan

Huangshan

Songgu Temple,

Maofeng tea

Diaoqiao Temple,(Yellow Mountain

Yungu Temple

fuzz tip)

TempleJiangsuSuzhouDongting Temple

Jingshan Temple

Temple Tea Plantations

Protected Historicaland Cultural site
Major National-level
Protected Historicaland Cultural Site

Huangshan

Xiuning Songluo

76

National-level
Intangible Cultural
Heritage

Songluo tea
Biluochun tea(Spring Spiral)

National-level
Intangible Cultural
Heritage

Jingshan tea
China National

Zhejiang

Important AgriculturalHangzhou
Longjing Temple

Longjing tea

Heritage，Nationallevel Intangible Cultural
Heritage

Wuyi Mountain
FujianNanping

Tianxin Yongle

National-level
Red Robe Tea

Zen Temple
Qingcheng
SichuanChengduMountain
Quanzhen Taoist
TempleHubei

ShiyanShandong

Taian

Zhejiang

HuzhouImperial Tribute Tea
Plantations
FujianNanping

Wudang Mountain
Yuxu Palace
Mount Tai Taoist
TempleIntangible Cultural
Heritage

QingchenMountain Taoist
tea
Taihe tea
Chongtao tea

Mixed World Heritage
property
Cultural World Heritage
property
Mixed Heritage
Major National-level

Guzhu Mountain

Tang Dynasty

Tribute Tea Yard

tribute tea

Jian’ou North

Song and Yuan

Major National-level

Imperial Tea

Dynasties tributeProtected Historical

Gardentea

and Cultural Site

Wuyi Mountain
Siquxi Imperial Tea
GardenYuan Dynasty
tribute tea

Protected Historicaland Cultural Site

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77Bibliography
Books
Chen, Chuan, A General History of Tea [茶叶通史] Chinese. Beijing: China Agriculture Press, 1984.
Chen Ciyu, The Development of the Tea Industry in Modern China, Beijing: China Renmin University
Press, 2013.
Chen Zongmao and Yang Yajun (chief editors), Dictionary of Chinese Tea, Shanghai: Shanghai Culture
Press, 2013.
Editorial Committee of Chinese Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Records of Chinese Plants （the1st of 50 Volumes）, Beijing: Science Press, 2004.
Hu Yaofei, Between Tribute and Grant-Tea and Politics of Tang Dynasty, Chengdu: Sichuan People’s
Publishing House, 2019.
Liao Baoxiu, The History of Tea Ware and Tea Culture, Beijing: Imperial Palace Publishing House, 2017.
[Tang Dynasty] Lu Yu (author), Wang Jianrong (compiled), The Classic of Tea, Nanjing: Jiangsu Phoenix
Science and Technology Publishing House, 2019.
Sharma, V.S. and Gunasekare, M.T.K., editors. Global Tea Science: Current Status and Future Needs.
Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 2018.
Victor H. Mair, Erling Hoh, The True History of Tea, Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company, 2018.
Wan Xiufeng, Liu Baojian, Wanghui, Fuchao, A Study on the Tribute Tea in the Qing Dynasty, Beijing:
Imperial Palace Publishing House, 2014.
Xu Zhongyue,The Rise of Modern China: 1600--2000（the 6th edition ）, Beijing: Hina Book, 2013.
Yao Guokun, Jiang Yufa, Chen Peizhen, Tea Culture Sites in China, Shanghai: Shanghai Culture Press,
2004.
Yu Fulian, Ancient Chinese Tea Bushes, Kunming: Yunnan Science and Technology Press, 2016.

PapersHan Xu, A Study on Changes in Tea Planting Regions in the History of China, Master’s Thesis of Zhejiang
University, 2013.
Ming Tianlu, A Revision of Camellia Sect.Thea, Plant Diversity, the 14th Volume, 1992.
Min Tianlu and Zhang Wenju, The Evolution and Distribution of Genus Camellia, Plant Diversity, the 18th
Volume, 1996.
Min Tianlu, A Systematic Synopsis of the Genus Camellia, Plant Diversity, the 21th Volume, 1999.
Meegahakumbura, Muditha K., M.C. Wambulwa, MM Li, et al. Domestication origin and breeding historyof the Tea plant (Camellia sinensis) in China and India based on nuclear microsatellites and cpDNA
sequence data. frontiers in Plant Science. 2018: doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.02270.
Sun Hua, Series of a Study on the Heritage of Chinese Tea Industry: Preface, 2017.
Wei Zhijing, The Study of the Monopoly System of Tea in Ming Dynasty, Ph. D Dissertation of China
University of Political Science and Law, 2007.
Zhang Wenju, Rong Jun, Wei Chaoling, Gao Lianming, Chen Jiakuan. Domestication Origin and Spreadof Cultivated Tea Plants. Biodiversity Science. the 4th Issue, 2018.

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78

Cultural Landscape of
Pu'er Tea Forest of
Jingmai Mountain in
Yunnan Province
Chen Yaohua
Professor of College of Urban andEnvironmental Sciences, Peking University

1. The introductionof the tea-planting region
1.1

The geographic information

Yunnan province, which sits in the southwest corner of China and borders Myanmar, Laos andVietnam, is the main production area of Pu’er tea on both a national and global scale. The total
area of the province is 394,000 square kilometres. Diandong Plateau and Dianzhong Plateau
are located in its east, which are parts of Yungui Plateau. In the west, it connects with the
Tibetan Plateau and is filled with mountains and valleys. The climate of the region belongs to
the subtropical and tropical monsoon climate. This vast land covers six major water systems Yangtze River, Pearl River, Yuanjiang River, Lancang River, Nujiang River and DayingjiangRiver - which contribute to a rich biodiversity. The unique landform, especially the Tibetan
Plateau and Hengduan Mountains, block the cold air coming from the northwest and increase
precipitation. Therefore, a large number of plants survived the multiple glaciers of the
Quaternary period, including the ancestor of the tea tree - Chinese Magnolia in an early phase.

Map 1. The
location of Jingmai
Mountain Ancient
Tea Forest in
China. Source:
Peking University.

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1.2

79

The history

Manufactured from Shaiqingmao tea, which was made of Yunnan large-leaf tea species,
traditional Yunnan Pu’er tea had been sold to Tibet and other places since the time of theTang dynasty. The historical document The Record of Pu’er Tea (by Ruan Fu in the Qing
dynasty) mentions that “the Tibetans drank Pu’er tea from the Tang dynasty”. From the Ming
dynasty to the mid-Qing dynasty, the production of Yunnan Pu’er tea reached its prime. The
Six Inner-River Tea Hills - Youle, Yibang, Gedeng, Manzhuang, Mangzhi and Mansa (Yiwu) in the north bank of Lancang River, as well as the Six Outer-River Tea Hills - Nannuo Mountain,
Mengsong, Bada, Jingmai Mountain, Jinghongmengsong and Fohai (Menghai) - in the southbank of Lancang River were the most famous tea hills then and yielded over 100,000 loads
of dry tea annually. In the Yongzheng period in the Qing dynasty, the first-picked tea from theancient six tea hills was selected as tribute tea. The Jingua tea from Yibang in the Guangxu
period of the Qing dynasty is still preserved in the China Tea Museum.

Map 2. The location of Jingmai Mountain Ancient Tea Forest in Pu’er City.
Source: Peking University.

1.3

The scale of the landscapeThe distribution of Pu’er tea is concentrated in four main production areas in the southwest Yunnan
Province, which are Pu’er City, Xishuangbanna, Lincang and Baoshan. The tea plantation in Pu’er
City reaches 2,120 ha, yielding over 110,000 tonnes of tea annually. Meanwhile, the tea plantationin Xishuangbanna covers 33,000 ha, within which the ancient tea plantation is 8,600 ha, yielding
over 20,000 tonnes of dried raw tea annually. In addition, there are 43,000 ha of ancient tea
plantation in Lincang, which yields over 35,000 tonnes of tea annually, and 39,000 ha in Baoshan,yielding 30,000 tonnes of raw tea in total and processing 17,000 tonnes.

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1.4

80

The distribution and features of the tea plantation landscapePu’er City was once a vital distribution centre on the Ancient Tea Horse Road. The ancienttea grove is concentrated on Jingmai Mountain in Lancang County, where the ancient tea
grove practice of underwood planting is preserved well. The Blang and the Dai people locatedtheir settlements among the ancient tea groves for generations.
The tea plantation is mainly distributed in the Six Inner-River Tea Hills - Youle, Yibang, Gedeng,Manzhuang, Mangzhi and Mansa (Yiwu) - as well as the Six Outer-River Tea Hills - Nannuo
Mountain, Mengsong, Bada, Jinghongmengsong and Fohai (Menghai) - all of which are locatedalongside the Lancang River. There are only a few traditional villages among the tea groves.
The tea plantations in Lincang are mostly located in the warm, moist and mist y mountainous
forests on both sides of the Lancang River. This area was the origin of Mengku large-leaf tea
and is famous as “the hometown of Dianhong Tea”. Representative plantations include theplantation in Xiaowan Town of Fengqing County and Bingdao (literal meaning: “ice island”)
Ancient Tea Plantation in Mengku Town of Shuangjiang County. The main distribution isconcentrated in Yaoguan, Jiufang, Wanxing, Longling, etc.

Map 3: The locationof Jingmai Mountain
Ancient Tea Forest in
Lancang Lahu Ethnic
County. Source:
Peking University.

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1.5

81

The social and cultural system

In the tea plantation area, most settlers believe in Buddhism and Animism. Some areas
believe in a special god as their “Tea Father”. For example, the Blang people in Jingmai
Mountain of Pu’er City worship their ancestor Pa’aileng, who was the first to discover tea, as
their Tea Father. On the contrary, people in Xishuangbanna worship Kongming as their Tea
Father. This kind of belief has a profound impact on inhabitants’ spiritual culture , as well ason the protection and inheritance of the tea hills.

Image 1. The Spiritual Platform for Tea Father Ritual Ceremony. Source: Li Jianfeng.

1.6

The relevant communities and settlements

As of 2018, there are 48,295,000 inhabitants living in Yunnan and a large number of ethnic
groups living inside the tea plantation area, including the Dai, Blang, Wa, Lahu, Hani, Yi, Yao,

Image 2. The Tea Picking Blang Girl. Source: Chen Yaohua.

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82Miao, and Lisu, etc. All the nationalities together have created a prosperous and characterist ic
tea plantation culture which contains production culture, life culture and spiritual culture.

1.7

The connection with trade, trading route and economic development

The Ancient Tea Horse Road was a trading route where horse-riding groups exchanged tea
for horses and medicinal materials throughout Chinese history. The route gradually rose in
the Tang and Song dynasties and thrived in the Ming and Qing dynasties. There were mainly
five traditional tea routes relevant to Pu’er tea that emanated from Pu’er County.

1.8 The relationship with surrounding landscapesand the region where it is located
The tea plantation landscape is closely related to the following surrounding landscapes andelements:1)

its surrounding forest and river landscape. Both sides of the Lancang River are the origin
and key production area of Pu’er tea. As large-leaf tea prefers mild temperatures andhigh humidity, the tea plantations are mostly located in the highly-forested, high altitude
and misty hillside.

2)

cultural elements, including traditional settlements, temples, customs and so on.

3)

the history and development of Yunnan. The particular location of Yunnan, which issurrounded by Southeast Asia, South Asia and the Tibetan Plateau, resulted in theemergence and development of the Ancient Tea Horse Road. Throughout history, theauthorities’ frontier policy, which facilitated the development of the border area, also
promoted economic, cultural and social development in Yunnan. Some special polic ies,
such as tea tributes, promoted the popularity and the market demand of Pu’er tea.

2.

The important tea plantation –the ancient tea forest in Jingmai Mountain

2.1

The location and scale

Jingmai Mountain ancient tea forest is located in Lancang County, Pu’er City, Yunnan
Province. The area is praised as “the origin of the tea around the world” by the International
Tea Committee and has become the largest plantation, manufacturing and trade centre of
Pu’er tea in China. The area proposed on China’s Tentative List as the “Ancient Tea
Plantations of Jingmai Mountain in Pu'er” covers 17,704.50 ha, and includes three wellpreserved ancient tea groves, each of an area of 1,231 ha, and nine traditional ethnic villages.

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83

Map 4: The Map of a Proposed Boundary of the Property and Buffer Zone of Jingmai Mountain
Ancient Tea Forest. Source: Peking University.

2.2 Natural conditions
Jingmai Mountain belongs to the south branch of Lincang Grand Snow Mountain, Nushan
Mountain Range, Hengduan Mountain System, and the average altitude is 1,400 metres.
Within the stratum, a Lancang Group metamorphic rock series, dating from the
Mesoproterozoic Erathem, was found. The soil in this area belongs to the category ofLatosolic red soil with a pH value of 4.5-5.5, and the content of rapid available phosphorus
and available boron is 0.5 mg/kg, which together create a favourable mild habitat for Pu’ertea. The climate of the area is subtropical mountainous monsoon climate, with an annual
average temperature of 18.4°C and annual precipitation of 1,689.7 mm. The rainy season isfrom May to October and the precipitation during the season accounts for 89.5% of the wholeyear. The region has a distinctive hot rainy season and dry season, which benefits theformation of tea polyphenol, amino acids and chlorophyll, but impedes the formation ofcellulase. Thus, the tea leaves are able to stay fresh and tender for a longer time. According
to the Udvardy (1975) biogeographic system, Jingmai Mountain is located in the Palaearctic

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84Realm, Chinese subtropical forest. The biocenosis belongs to subtropical and temperate rain
forests or woodlands.

Image 3. The Cloud of Jingmai Mountain. Source: Dao Yongping.

2.3

History

In 864, Fan Chuo, who was an ambassador of the Tang dynasty, recorded the wide-spreadcultivation of Pu’er tea in the 7 th century AD along the Lancang River, where Jingmai Mountainis located, in his book Manshu. The historical document Lancang County Record, on the other
hand, recorded that when the ancestors of the Blang people migrated to this place, they
discovered the wild Pu’er tea tree and the history of tea plantation. The symbol of the tea leaf
appeared on a broken stele from a temple, dating back to 1015. Therefore, the emergenceof the Jingmai Mountain tea grove had already taken place over a thousand years ago, and,in the early phase, was mostly used for food and medication. Benefiting from the developmentof the Ancient Tea Horse Road, the tea trade market appeared in Jingmai Mountain in the
12th century. Later, in 1406, Jingmai Mountain ancient tea was selected as a tribute, which
led to the expansion of the cultivation. In the Qing dynasty, the scale of the tea plantations
reached its peak and tea culture thrived accordingly. After the establishment of the People's
Republic of China, a small part of the ancient tea grove was transformed into a modern highyield plantation while other major parts remain the same.

2.4

The main features of the landscapeAfter the ancestors of Jingmai Mountain chose the place as their residence, they opened up
tea plantations inside the forest by planting tea bushes under the trees, and then placed theirC H I N A T E A C U LT U R A L L A N D S C A P E

85settlements among the tea groves. Thus, the Jingmai Mountain tea groves were deeply
hidden inside the forests and presented as a typical ‘forest-tea grove-village’ landscapes. The
tea groves are distributed in the hillsides between altitudes of 1,250 to 1,550 metres and witha density of 1,000 per ha. The heights of the bushes are 2-5 metres, the base girths are 0.120.30 metres and crown diameters are 2-6 metres. The bigger tea bushes have a height ofalmost 12 metres, a base girth of 1.8 metres and a crown diameter of 12 metres. Most of thetea bushes are younger than 100 years old, while only 9.8% are between 100-150 years and
0.7% 150 years old or older. The oldest tea bush is over 300 years old. In the meantime, thelocal residents have properly arranged the lands of different altitudes, and their efforts haveresulted in Jingmai Mountain presenting a vertical landscape starting with the divine mountainand divine forest at the top and descending to the forest, ancient tea grove and traditional
village followed by the modern plantation, dry land, paddy field and the river at the bottom.

Image 4. The Tea Forest of Jingmai Mountain. Source: Chen Yaohua.

2.5

The cultivation tradition

The tea bushes inside the ancient tea grove have experienced the succession process. The
traditional tea planting method used is mainly seeding with a dibble. The ripe and full fruits
are collected in October and seeded in the grove right after in November. From June to Julyof the following year, when the rain comes, the tea bushes are ready for transplantation. The
pits for transplantation must be dug along the hillside with a depth of 20-30 centimetres andintervals of 2 metres, into each of which one tea bush can be transplanted. When the bushes
reach a height of 50-60 centimetres, the terminal buds must be removed to encourage thegrowth of lateral branches. The local residents mixed the tea bushes with other trees

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86according to their competitive or dependent relationship. Tea bushes are cultivated without
fertilizer and pesticide. Nutrition is provided by the natural fallen leaves and herb layer while
protection from disease is provided by the biodiversity of the community. 125 families, 489
categories and 943 species of flora, 16 ornamental insects, 21 economic insects, 187
terrestrial vertebrate animals, 22 mammals and 134 birds have been recorded in the ancienttea grove, which together contribute to a natural, steady and efficient eco-system.

Image 5. The Typical Landscape of Jingmai Mountain Tea Forest - Dapingzhang
Ancient Tea Grove. Source: Chen Yaohua.

2.6

The species of the tea trees and the cultivation techniques

Pu’er tea in Yunnan belongs to the large-leaf tea tree species in Yunnan. As the raw tea andprocessed tea have different manufacturing processes and flavours, neither of them can beclassified into the traditional six categories of tea. Therefore, the National Standards of China
GB/T 22111-2008 Geographic Iconic Product Pu’er Tea names it “Pu’er Tea”.
The Jingmai Mountain ancient tea grove adopts unique cultivation techniques such as
interwood and underwood planting:
1)

Interwood planting: the ancestors of Jingmai Mountain residents reclaimed pieces ofland inside the forest and controlled the area of the tea plantations around the village.
The fringe forests were maintained to protect the ancient tea plantation from strong
winds and pests, as well as to form the boundaries of the village. The trees inside theforests were strictly protected.

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87Image 6. The Tree – Shrub - Herb Stereostructure of Jingmai Mountain Tea Forest.
Source: Tan Jianguo.

2)

Underwood planting: the ancestors of Jingmai Mountain residents simulated and utilized
the eco-environment of the forest to cultivate the tea bushes by removing some of thenatural bushes in the forests while keeping the trees for shading. The ancient grove
presents different layers: an upper-middle-lower community stereo-structure with a treelayer – shrub layer (where tea bushes grow) – and a herb layer.

2.7

The picking and processing

Tea leaf picking can be separated into three periods annually: spring, summer and autumn.
The method used is hand picking and the elements picked are the top bud and the two leaves
below. Pu’er tea can be divided into “raw tea” and “processed tea” with different
manufacturing processes and different flavours. The fresh leaves are collected, withered,dehydrated, rolled and sun-dried to become Shaiqingmao tea. The tea is steamed at a hightemperature and then placed in a mould to shape. After being dried and compressed into a
disc, brick or pile, it becomes “raw tea”. However, if the Shaiqingmao tea is piled andfermented, it becomes “processed loose tea”. After steaming, compressing and shaping, theloose tea becomes “processed compressed tea”.

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88Image 7. The Tea Spiritual Tree in the Ancient Tea Grove. Source: Tan Jianguo.

2.8 The social structure and cultural system
Within the area included on China’s Tentative List, there are two ethnic groups: the Blang andthe Dai. The ancestors of the Blang people migrated from modern Ruili in Yunnan and from
Wa State in Myanmar. Before 1950, the tribes were ruled by leaders, religious leaders andappointed local governors. The villages are the subdivisions of the tribes, each of which has
a leader, vice leader and religious leaders. After the establishment of the People's Republicof China, the villagers began to conduct self-governance, but leaders, religious leaders andnoble elders still assist the village management. The two groups believe in Animism, Southern
Theravada Buddhism and unique Tea Father worship. The residents have created a specificethnic Jingmai Mountain tea culture, which is the foundation of the ecological and cultural
relationship between the Jingmai Mountain residents and nature, and the basis of how theylearn about, protect and utilize nature in a harmonious way.

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89Image 8. Wengji Blang Ethnic Village and Its Surrounding Tea Grove. Source: Chen Yaohua.

2.9

The relevant communities and settlements

The area included on China’s Tentative List has 5,208 residents. Traditional dwellings takeup 1/3 of all the buildings in the village. Four Dai villages are distributed on the north side of
the northern Baixiang Mountain, while five Blang villages are located on the west side ofsouthern Mangjing Mountain. Each village has 200-700 villagers. The locations of the villages
share one principle that the settlements must be close to the divine mountain and the tea
plantation, but they also have their own distinct features such as the “elephant shape” of theBlang villages. All the villages centre on the ‘village heart’ and display a centripetal layout.

Image 9. Nuogang Dai Ethnic Village and Its Surrounding Tea Groves. Source: Wang Wengui.

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2.10

90

The connection with trade and trading route

The Pu’er area was the historical distribution centre on the Ancient Tea Horse Road. Jingmai
Mountain was located at the interval of the south and southwest routes of the Ancient Tea
Horse Road, which was rather convenient for transport to Menghai and Xishuangbanna inthe south and to Lancang. Connecting Lancang, Menglian and Ximen and their trade markets,
the southwest routes of the Ancient Tea Horse Road had the closest relationship with Jingmai
Mountain tea plantation and made it famous. As a trade route which exported Pu’er tea to
Myanmar, a section of the ancient route is still preserved well.

3.

The archive and relevant research

3.1

The archive

The local government has organized relevant investigations into forestry, ecology, flora, fauna,architecture, landscape, history and archaeology, etc. The governments of Pu’er City and
Lancang County have organized photography competitions on the ancient tea grove on
Jingmai Mountain. The team that worked on the Tentative List entry of the “Ancient Tea
Plantations of Jingmai Mountain in Pu'er” have also provided a huge number of photos ofJingmai Mountain ancient tea grove.
Important files include: Jingmai Mountain Ancient Tea Grove World Heritage Application,
Jingmai Mountain Ancient Tea Grove Protection and Management Plan, The National
Protected Cultural Heritage – the Protection Plan of Jingmai Mountain Ancient Tea Grove andJingmai Mountain Village Plan.
Protection Institute: The Bureau of Jingmai Mountain Ancient Tea Grove Management.
Contact details: pejmsgclbhgli@163.com

3.2

The relevant research

The ancient tea grove arose and prospered between the 12th and 20th century. The ancestorsof the Dai and Blang people learnt how to process and store tea leaves. Finally, Pu’er tea
was chosen as a tribute and was transported through the trade market and the Ancient Tea
Horse Road to other places domestically and around the world.
After 2000, Pu’er tea expanded its market share because of its health care effects. Therefore ,the protection of the ancient tea grove has since been valued more.
In the 1970s, modern tea plantations were cultivated in the forest or on dry land near theancient tea grove, aiming to develop a high-yield variety of the tea tree. However, in recent
years, the local government has started to gradually transfer the modern plantation from the

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91

ancient ecological grove as they discovered the harmful effect that the modern plantation has
had on the local forest environment and the plant diseases and insect pests it has brought tothe ancient tea grove.
Many scholars have conducted research and protection projects concerning the ancient tea
grove and have published a series of books and articles about Pu’er Jingmai Mountainancient tea grove, the Blang culture and intangible culture heritage. For example, the Cultural
Bureau of Lancang County has published a report on Jingmai Mangjing cultural resource,and Su Guowen has published more than 10 articles and many books, such as Mangjing
Blang People and Tea.

4.

The current threat against and solution
to the tea plantation landscapeThreats faced by Jingmai Mountain mostly come from the expansion and evolution of the
traditional villages. A minority of threats is caused by the few tourists who visit the tea grove
and leave their impact on the tea trees. The ancient tea grove area is not only a hub forinternal transportation, but has also been affected by increasing regional transportation. In
the meantime, tourist numbers have grown continually and uncontrolled entry by tourists has
become a potential threat to the ecology. In addition, the ancient tea grove has a steady ecosystem which has a high disease and pest resistance. However, the modern tea plantation
nearby may have brought disease and pests to the ancient tree grove. There fore, an ecomodification to the modern tea plantation is in progress. Natural disasters such as drought,
low temperatures and fire also have an impact on the ancient tea grove and can cause thenatural death of some precious trees inside the grove. Last but not least, the settlements
inside Jingmai Mountain have not changed in number, but their scale has continuously
expanded in recent years. The demand by residents for construction of new living houses
and renovation of old houses has increased, and the modern construction materials andinfrastructure have changed the landscape of the traditional village.
Traditional customs in Jingmai Mountain area have been well maintained. The young
generation still pay respect to Buddha, the Tea Father and the village heart, and in 2006, the“tea spiritual tree” was restored. Moreover, the “Tea Father” ritual ceremony has been held
again in the last couple of years.

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92Image 10. The Spiritual Dance. Source: Tan Chun.

After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, Jingmai Village and Mangjing
Village successively instated self-governance under the socialist system in which religion
and government were separated but religion and noble elders still played important roles
in village management.
The ways of the cultivation and manufacture of the ancient tea grove have been passed down
well. In addition, modern machinery equipment has largely increased the ability of tea
manufacturing. In order to guarantee the quality and the brand of the Jingmai Mountain Pu’ertea, the villagers have founded over 20 “Tea Cooperatives” and have made protection rules
about the ancient tea grove, strictly separating it from other tea trees. The ancient tea grove
has been carefully maintained by the villagers and the traditional architecture is renovatedevery 30 years.

5.

Protection and management

The three tree groves inside Jingmai Mountain, and the nine Blang and Dai ethnic villages
among the groves, have been well preserved, as have the related elements such as tea
culture and historical culture. In addition, there are plenty of well-preserved cultural relics
such as Manghong Octagonal Pagoda, the Site of the Tea Spiritual Platform in Ai’leng
Mountain and the Tomb of the Seventh Princess, etc.

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93The protection plan of the Jingmai Mountain ancient tea grove abides by laws and regulations
such as The Cultural Relics Protection Law of People's Republic of China, The Forest Law
of People's Republic of China, The Urban and Rural Planning Law of People's Republic ofChina, etc. In 2013, the government of Lancang County issued The Jingmai Mountain Ancient
Tea Grove Protection and Management Regulations. Other important files consist of The
National Protected Cultural Heritage – the Protection Plan of Jingmai Mountain Ancient Tea
Grove and Jingmai Mountain Village Plan, Jingmai Mountain Village Plan, Jingmai Mountain
Tourism Plan, and The Environment Protection Plan of Lancang County, etc.
Jingmai Mountain ancient tea grove was originally protected by local village rules andpractices, which included setting a forest defence circle around the grove in which the cutting
down of trees was prohibited; banning the application of any fertilizer and pesticide in the tea
grove; conducting weed control once a year according to environmental change; and setting
up a “Spiritual Tea Tree” in every tea grove.
The Blang and Dai people made a series of local rules to protect the ancient tea grove until
1949. After the foundation of the People's Republic of China, local villagers improved anddetailed the management regulations for the aspects of protecting tea culture and the
management and use of the resource of ancient tea. The local government also issued aseries of rules and regulations to guide the behaviour of the local residents.
Systemic and regulated supervision is being carried out for the protection, the monitoring of
impacts and the management of the heritage area. The supervision is based on The
Guidance of Practicing World Heritage Convention, The Management of Supervision on
World Heritages in China, and The Chinese Cultural Relics Protection Code, etc. It aims toenforce the protection and management of the heritage by establishing a monitoring platform,
regulating the monitoring system, assuring the operational mechanism and standardizing themonitor index.

6.

Conclusion

6.1

The introduction of the tea plantation landscape

The Jingmai ancient tea forest is located in the Lancang Lahu Ethnic County in Pu’er City,
Yunnan Province, in the southwest corner of China. In the 7th century, the ancestors of theBlang people migrated to the place and found the wild tea tree. They started to cultivate tea
trees on a large scale in the forest and established their settlements among the tea groves.
After generations, the place developed into a unique tea-forest symbiosis eco-system, with awell-preserved traditional village landscape and a rich tea-making and tea-drinking ethnic
culture. It has become a model of an agricultural cultural landscape in the development of

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94human civilization where humans and the environment have developed together in harmonyand sustainably.

6.2

Current research

Limited by the lack of local historical materials, the date of the Dai people’s arrival in Jingmai
Mountain has not been ascertained. However, ethnic tales and cultural relics such as the
Tomb of the Seventh Princess can be another kind of evidence to show that this took place
at approximately the same time as the migration of the Blang people to the place.

6.3

The differences from other tea plantation landscapesCompared with other famous tea plantations around the world, Jingmai Mountain ancient tea
plantation is an ancient, wise, ecological, human, dynamic landscape, which is particularly
featured in its long cultivation history, special tea planting ecology and harmonious
relationship between humans and the local environment.

6.4

The prominent landscape features

Interwood and underwood planting are two profound features of the tea grove landscape.
The plantations are settled inside the forest. By controlling certain proportions of the forests
and tea groves and selectively keeping trees and bushes inside the grove, the residents areable to balance sunshine and nutrition between trees, bushes and grasses to take advantageof the forests’ biodiversity and effectively defend the tea trees from disease and pests.
Therefore, the quality of the tea leaves can be improved and the dynamic and high-quality
ancient tea grove could be sustained forever.

6.5

Weaknesses and current situation

The expansion of the settlements may have impacted the landscape and ecology of theancient tea grove. The growing villages do not change the landscape of the ancient tea
plantation but decrease the authenticity of the village layout and traditional architecture which
are important elements of the heritage. So far, all the plans that have been applied to thevillages have been developed in order to guide and direct the construction and renovation of
the village landscape.

6.6

Protection and management

In 2009, Lancang Lahu Ethnic County People’s Congress debated and approved Lancang
Lahu Ethnic County People's Congress Standing Committee’s Decision about Protect ing
Jingmai Mangjing Ancient Villages. In 2017, The National Protected Cultural Heritage – theC H I N A T E A C U LT U R A L L A N D S C A P E

95

Protection Plan of Jingmai Mountain Ancient Tea Grove was approved and implemented. Asof 2019, 15 villages located in the area included on China’s Tentative List and in its
surrounding area have finished the planning. The scale, layout, landscape and management
measures of the village have been clearly stipulated.
Jingmai Mountain ancient tea grove has a good potential for World Heritage and a relatively
intact, authentic and elastic ecology and culture. In 2012, the ancient Pu’er tea grove in
Yunnan, China, and its tea culture system were praised as global agricultural cultural heritage.
In 2013, Jingmai Mountain ancient tea grove was listed as National Protected Cultural
Heritage. Nuogan, Wengji and Mangjing Villages were recorded in the second batch of theChinese Traditional Village List. In 2017, Jingmai Mountain was approved to be part of“Yunnan Lancang National Forest Park”. It is clear that Jingmai Mountain ancient tea grove
has been well protected by national law and regulations.

References
Chen Hongwei, Zhang Jun (ed). The Culture of Pu’er Tea. Kunming: Yunnan Education Publishing
House, 2006.
Chen Zonghai, The Chronicle of Pu’er County, 1901.
Fan Chuo. Zhao Lvfu (ed), The Annotation of the Chronicles of Yunnan. Beijing: China Social Sciences
Press, 1985.
Gao Dasheng, The World of Tea in China. Hoikusha Publishers, 1994.
Harler, C.R., The Cultivation and Marketing of Tea. London: Oxford University Press, 1964.
Lancang Lahu Ethnic County Government, The Place Name Record of Lancang Lahu Ethnic County in
Yunnan Province. (Internal Archive), 1985.
Mair, V and Hoh, E., The True History of Tea. Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company, 2018.
[Tang Dynasty] Lu, Yu (author), The Classic of Tea. [茶经] Chinese. Wang Jianrong (compiled). Nanjing:
Jiangsu Phoenix Science and Technology Publishing House, 2019.
Ruan Fu, Biography of Pu’er tea. 1825.
Su Guowen. Mangjing Blang Ethnic Group and Tea. Beijing: The Ethnic Publishing House, 2009.
Walsh, J. M., Tea: its History and Mystery. Philadelphia: Henry T.Coates & Co.,1892.

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96

The Tea Plantation of
Mengding Mountain in
Ya’an of Sichuan
Province
Zou Yiqing
The Third Institute of CHCC

1. The overview of the tea plantation
landscape1.1

The geographic environment and the scale

The tea plantation of Mengding Mountain is located on the north-western side of the Meng
Mountain in the Mingshan District of Ya’an City in Sichuan Province, somewhere between
30º01’-30º06’N and 103º00’-103º06’E. The Meng Mountain is situated in a basinperipheral area where the western edge of the Sichuan Basin and the transitional zone
from the Chengdu Plain to the Tibetan Plateau meet, which is affected by the continental
monsoon climate and the warm and humid airflow from the south-east, resulting in anannual average rainfall over 1,800 mm and a relative humidity of 82%. That is exactly
how the proverb “rain pours from the sky and falls upon the center of the Meng Mountainin western Sichuan” came into being. The region possesses an annual averagetemperature of 15.4°C, with the highest temperatures reaching 35.2°C. The annual
average frost-free period of this region lasts for 298 days whilst the annual averagesunshine adds up to 1,018 hours. Sandstones are widely distributed over the low hills in
the territory, together with sandy loam or gritty clay that contain many organic matters,such as yellow soil and red soil. The topsoil is deep and thick with a soft constitution andabundant nutrients, making the draining process much easier.
The Meng Mountain is high in the north and low in the south, with an altitude of 620-1,456 m.
It stretches from the north-east to the south-west with a length of approximately 10 km, awidth of about 4 km and a total occupation area of around 50.8 km2. The mountain has five

CHINA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

97

peaks of which Shangqing Peak is the highest, which is why it is named the top of Meng
Mountain (also known as Mengding).

Image 1. The Region Map of the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain. Source: Zhang Xuechun.

The core district of the tea plantation of Mengding Mountain occupies 6.72 km2 (100,000 ha),of which the historical tea plantations, located in the areas situated at an altitude of 8001,400 m, occupy 2,000 hectares (30,000 mu). There are five Buddhism temple sites on
Mengding Mountain, namely Yongxing Temple, Qianfo Temple, Zhiju Temple, Tiangai
Temple and Jingju Nunnery, occupying approximately 31,100 km 2 altogether. There are 12
cultural relics and historical sites of different categories, including five rock-sculpturing
statues sites, two stone archways sites, two ancient houses sites, an ancient spring site, aRoyal Tea Garden site and a heavenly ladder with an ancient path.

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1.2

98

The historical development and the planting traditionsof the tea plantation landscape

The Bashu area (also known as the Sichuan-Chongqi area) is one of the places in China
where the manual planting of tea trees first started. The opening of the tea plantation of
Mengding Mountain can be dated back to as early as the Han dynasty.1
As early as the Western Han period (202 BC-8 AD), manual tea planting had already started
at the five peaks of Mengding. Tang Lu Yu revealed the following information in his Classicof Tea for the first time: “Wrong methods lead to sparse trees. Melon planting techniques canbe used for a harvest after three years”.2 Li Laizhang from the Qing Dynasty mentioned in his
Social Customs of Lianyang the following message: “One technique of tea planting is to pickthe tea stems with the size of a chicken egg, cut them to a length of three feet, sharpen the
tip or attach the iron nails before hammering them into the ground …” This ancient way of tea
planting has been passed down to the present day at Mengding Mountain.

Image 2. The
Chronicles of
Mingshan – the Map ofMengding Mountain
Tea.
Source: Publicity
Department of Ya'an
Municipal Committeeof Sichuan Province.

Wang, Xiangzhi [Song dynasty], the Notes of the Land: “In Western Han, some monk came from thesurface of the mountain, and planted tea over the Meng Mountain. Suddenly one day, he vanished into
the hidden pool and became a rock statue later on. Therefore, the tea on the top of the Meng Mountain
was the accomplishment of a master, whose rock statue is still addressed as the Master of Sweet Dews
even to the present day.”
1

2

Meaning that if the transplantation of tea seedling is not properly conducted, the tea trees do notflourish. If the technique of melon planting is adopted for the planting of tea seedlings, then the leaves
can be harvested after three years.

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99

Starting from the Han dynasty all the way to the present day, the tea plantations on
Mengding Mountain have mostly been taken care of by monks from the temples, whilst thehistorical tea plantations and temples are mostly distributed on the hills on the southernside where the altitude is between 1,000 m and 1,400 m. On the mountain, there are aroundfive to six sites where temples of different sizes remain to the present day, together withsome other historical relics such as cliff-carvings, stone inscriptions and stone archways,
etc. At the very beginning, tea plantations were developed near temples, whilst the Royal
Tea Garden of Ganlu Temple is the tea plantation with the longest history, one that has
existed since ancient times. In many tea plantations of different temples, many old tea treesthat are at least 100 years old are kept. The planting of tea at Mengding Mountain is semiarboreal with shrubby leaflets, and traditional bunch planting is the main method used,whilst the density of planting is properly arranged according to the general routine offollowing the contour line. Numerous tall and big arboreous plants are maintained in the tea
plantations, showcasing the same environment of tea planting as that which Lu Yu
mentioned in his Classic of Tea, namely: “Wild growing tea exceeds the garden plantingsort”. A large area of woodland is kept in the periphery of the tea plantations, creating alandscape pattern of zonal distributions of tea plantations and forests in terraces. The
Chinese traditional technique of interplanting tea trees and woods is adopted at thehistorical tea plantations of Mengding Mountain. Legumes, deciduous trees, evergreen
arboreous plants and small trees are the main sorts of trees used for the interplanting,whilst the tea trees provide shade in the summer and maintain warmth in winter.
As the modern tea industry is becoming more and more prevalent, a new terraced tea
plantation has been opened in the woodland between the historical tea plantations at
Mengding Mountain. In addition, other new terraced tea plantations have been opened inneighbouring areas at a lower altitude and a shorter distance from the foot of the mountain
where some villages have been established. In those places, bush tea with lower and shorter
stems and larger density of planting grows. In some of the tea plantations, the technique of“three cultivations and four fertilizations” has been implemented and grass is planted at thewall of the terraces to protect the soil, prevent soil erosion and provide a habitat for living
creatures. After the tea leaves are harvested, the grass is mowed, covered and buried under
the rows in the tea plantations. Interplanting that is conducted between the rows of unsealed
tea plantations and young tea plantations makes it possible for fresh compost to be produced
within one year’s time, preventing the evaporation of surface soil nutrients and soil erosion
and allowing the planted compost to be used as feed and fertilizer at the same time.

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100

Image 3. The Newly-Opened Terraced Tea Plantation. Source: Publicity Department of Ya'an
Municipal Committee of Sichuan Province.

Judging from the distribution of the temples, historical relics, historical tea plantations andnew tea plantations, the general routine of the formation and development of the tea
plantation landscape of Mengding Mountain can be seen clearly.

1.3

The categories of tea trees and the techniques of planting

The technique adopted for the direct seeding at the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain issexual reproduction for expansion and conservation. Mengding Mountain is one of “the besttreasuries of tea trees planting” in Sichuan Province and even in the entire country, where
there are 220 breeds of tea trees that are manually selected, cultivated and planted. Amongthem, there are Mingshan Pekoe 131, Mingshan Early 311, Mingshan Super Early -Bud 213,
Meng Mountain No.9, Meng Mountain No.11, Meng Mountain No.16, Meng Mountain No.23,
etc., which are the key breeds of tea trees at the national level and provincial level for propertea planting at Meng Mountain. Most of the seeds in other tea plantations in Sichuan are
introduced from Mengding Mountain, which is considered as the origin place of “Sichuan Tea”.
After the 1990s, the technique of single node cutting for rapid cultivation of excellent tea
seedlings was gradually developed and prevailed at Maohe Village in Mingshan District,
Ya’an, and is the main technique used in modern terraced tea plantations.

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The traditional Chinese technique of intercropping tea trees with forest trees is mainly usedin the tea plantation of Mengding Mountain. Forest trees are planted in the tea plantations, orin its surroundings, allowing a variety of species to be maintained and the natural ecologicalenvironment of the tea plantations to be improved. The tall evergreen trees are planted
outside the tea plantations every 10 metres, whilst the middle-sized evergreen trees growevery 5 metres. Inside the tea plantations, trees are planted based on a triangle or quincunx
shape within a diameter of 15-20 metres whilst the shading rate stays lower than 30%,
causing no complications to the growth of tea trees. Trees with deep roots, broad crowns andsparse leaves, and which are deciduous in winter and possess few pests, often turn out tobe the best choices. Examples include China firs, masson pines, osmanthus trees andChinese pagoda trees, etc.
The technique of intercropping tea trees with agricultural products is usually conducted in tea
plantations aged two years old. The agricultural products include beans, mung beans, corn
and konjac, etc. The technique of intercropping helps to increase topsoil coverage, effectively
maintain the water and soil, and improve and ripen the soil so that the land utilization andoutput efficiency of young tea plantations can be enhanced.

1.4

Harvesting and processing of tea leaves3

The main breeds planted at the tea plantation of Mengding Mountain are for the productionof green tea. Therefore, the best tea harvesting time is during the season of spring, especiallyaround Tomb Sweeping day, though harvesting in summer and autumn is possible as well.
“Tender picking”, namely single bud or one bud with one leaf, is a technique used uponadvanced and famous tea breeds, whilst “proper picking”, namely one bud with two or threeleaves, is a technique used upon general green tea.
Historical and famous tea kinds at Mengding Mountain include Mengding Stone-Flower Tea(from the Tang dynasty), Mengding Sweet Dew Tea (from the Song dynasty), “Green Leaves
with Long Spring” Tea and “Ever-Spring Silver Leaves” Tea, amongst others. Stone-Flower
Tea is considered as the pioneer of tea produced at Mengding Mountain, and requires
extremely strict producing techniques, including removing tenderness with steam, mashing

Ya’an City, where Mengding Mountain is located, is the main producing area of border-sale tea. The
harvesting of border-sale tea requires “a ripe harvesting”, meaning four and five leaves on one bud andthree and four leaves on flush. Chinese dark tea originated from border-sales back in the Ming dynasty,
and when green tea is compressed because of long-distance transportation, it naturally transforms into
a new category of tea. The main border-sale tea sold to Tibetan areas from Ya’an is dark tea, which isone of the main categories of Chinese tea culture. Since Mengding Mountain is a historically famous
tea producing area with a relatively low production rate, the tea leaves produced from the Tea Plantationof Mengding Mountain are not prepared for border-sale. Therefore, no reports of border-tea production
will be presented in this text.
3

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the toasted leaves with stone mortars and shaping the tea into a pancake shape withcompression. In the period of the Ming and Qing dynasties, the steaming step was replacedby frying, the mashing step was replaced by kneading, and the shaping step was replacedby scattering. Through the techniques of manual frying and kneading, carried out three times,
plus rubbing, roasting and drying, the appearance as well as the inner quality of tea from
Mengding Mountain is tremendously changed, so that the tea is equipped with the featuresof “being sweet and fresh, yellow yet green-colored, giving out lingering scent from the cupthat does not disperse after a long while”. In 2013, the craftmanship of traditional tea making
at Mengding Mountain was listed as an intangible cultural heritage of China, the harvesting
and manufacturing of the traditional tea possessing strict and clear requirements.

Image 4. The General Map of the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain.
Source: Zhang Xuechun.

Social structure and cultural system
The tea plantation of Mengding Mountain belongs to the category of temple tea plantations,so that the opening of the tea plantations, the breeding, cultivating and planting of the tea
trees, and the harvesting and producing of tea leaves are all much related to monks andreligion-related people. Wu Lizhen, who was said to be the pioneer of tea at Mengding
Mountain, could have possibly been a Taoist. From the Tang dynasty onwards, Buddhism
started to become the prevailing and dominating religion at Mengding Mountain. Therefore,at Yongxing Temple in the Tang dynasty, Buddhist monks and Taoist masters were devoted
to the planting of tea trees and the practicing of tea craftmanship, creating a “Zen Tea Culture

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of the Meng Mountain”. Taoism gradually turned to Qingcheng Mountain which is located notso far away from its original place. There used to be 36 temples at Mengding Mountain;
currently, the ancient temples that still exist include Yongxing Temple, Qianfo Temple, Zhiju
Temple, Tiangai Temple and Jingju Nunnery.

Image 5. The Ancient Tea
Tree at Zhiju Temple.
Source: Zou Yiqing.

From the Tang dynasty to the end of the Qing dynasty, all Mengding Mountain Tea waspresented to the imperial court. Different requirements were set in the harvesting gardensand over time in accordance with the different usages of the tea. In 1186, namely the 13 thyear of the Chunxi Emperor in the Southern Song dynasty, Wu Lizhen, the pioneer of tea
cultivation at Mengding Mountain, was made “The Master of Sweet Dew”. Subsequently, thetea trees, entitled the “Mengding Seven”, were enclosed with stone fences at Ganlu Temple
and given the name of the Royal Tea Garden. The Royal Tea Garden was in the charge ofthe monks at Ganlu Temple, who were engaged in tea picking, tea kneading and tea
manufacturing, etc.

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Image 6. The Royal Tea Garden of Mengding Mountain. Source: Chen Yongheng.

Image 7. The Ancient Tea Tree of Ganlu Temple. Source: Chen Yongheng.

Later, Qianmo Temple took over the responsibility of tea planting; Jingju Temple was
assigned the mission of tea harvesting; Zhiju Temple took care of tea manufacturing; andTiangai Temple was in charge of tea evaluating. The harvesting and the manufacturing of tea
leaves that were supposed to be served as sacrifices or presented to the imperial family weretaken care of by the monks at the temples as a way of showing their respect. The close

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combination of the Zen tea culture of Mengding Mountain and the system of tribute tea has
become a significant feature of the tea culture in that region.

Image 8. The Grand Hall of Ganlu Temple at Mengding Mountain. Source: Zou Yiqing.

The Mingshan District in Ya’an, where Mengding Mountain is located, used to be the maintea manufacturing region for the tea-horse trade in both the Song and Ming dynasties. The
national policies of tea-horse trade and tea-border administration had also directly propelled
the social development of the introduction of “Mingshan Tea” and the expansion of the tea
manufacturing district in Sichuan. The route from Sichuan to Tibet, with Ya’an as the starting
point, was the main path of the Ancient Tea-Horse Road. A series of official administrative
institutes were established in Ya’an, including official warehouses and the Tea-Horse Bureau,
whilst porters were the main transporters of tea on the section between Ya’an and Kang
District. Therefore, the tea culture of Ya’an in Sichuan also includes the culture of the Ancient
Tea-Horse Road, which represents the cultural communication and integration between thecentral plain and the borderland as well as between the Han Chinese and the Tibetans.
As a famous tea producing region with a long history in Sichuan Province, Mengding
Mountain has also generated many folk tea cultures with local Sichuanese characteristics.
For example, the tea craftsmanship performance of “The 18 Styles of Dragons” and the tea
drinking method entitled “The 12 Tastes of Heavenly Wind” have been hailed as the “twosuper-talents of tea craftmanship” of Meng Mountain. As many as 2,000 poems, lyrics andCHINA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

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songs have been created to eulogize Mengding Mountain Tea, topping the list of such teapraising works in China. The tea couplet of “Water from Yangtze River, and the Tea above
the Meng Mountain of flavor” was the earliest couplet that was circulated for the longest timein Chinese tea history, showing that a tea culture of Mengding Mountain with strong literary
and artistic features had been formed.

1.6

Related communities and settlements

In the Sui-Tang period, Mengding Mountain Tea spread to the western region of Sichuan with
Mingshan as its centre. Among them, the tea regions of Mingshan were mostly distributed on
Mengding Mountain and Zonggang Mountain, with villages and towns located alongside thefoot of those mountains, whilst tea plantations mainly occupied the slopes. Thanks to thesystem of tea business as well as the tea-horse trade, the Mingshan tea industry continued
to be developed in the Song dynasty. In the Yuan dynasty, the ethnic policies implemented
in the country had a tremendous influence on the production of Mingshan tea leaves, whilst
in the Ming and Qing dynasties, the policy of “border administration with tea” continuously
propelled the development of the Mingshan tea industry. The political situation in the early
period of the Republic of China was so turbulent that the production of tea leaves continuously
decreased until the Sichuan government was unified, at which point the circumstances of tea
production finally recovered a little. In 1935, 10 out of 13 towns in Mingshan District weredevoted to tea production, while 4,889 households were devoted to tea planting, composing
15.2% of the total number of peasant households. In 1949, the area of tea plantation reached451.2 hectares, and the reforming and opening policy that was introduced in the 1980s madeit possible for the tea plantations in Mingshan District to be gradually developed to the present
scale of over 22,333 hectares.
In 2008, Meng Mountain Tea became a product of Geographical Indication. The protection
area of the original territory ranges from 29°58’N-30°16N to 103°02’E-103°23’E, covering a
total occupation of 614.27 km 2, including the entire region of the Mingshan District in Ya’an,
Houyan Village of Bifeng Cliff Town in Yucheng District, Longxi Village in Longxi County, andMengquan Village. The products of the protected territory are generally called “MengMountain Tea” (Mengshan Tea), and include the Yellow-Bud Tea of Mengding Mountain,
Stone-Flower Tea, Sweet-Dew Tea, the Maofeng of Meng Mountain, the Spring-Dew of Meng
Mountain, the Roasted Green Tea of Meng Mountain, and Steamed-Tender Green Tea, as
well as a series of flower teas produced out of Mengshan Tea, etc.
The regions mentioned above refer to 31 villages, including Meng Mountain Village, Mingya
Village, Jinhua Village of Mengding Mountain in Mingshan District, and Guankou Village ofMengyang Town and Xugou Village in Chengdong County, together with 18 villages, including

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Houyan Village, Hongpai Village, Mingyang Village of Bifeng Cliff County in Yucheng District ,as well as Mengquan Village and Yongxing Village of Beijiao County. These villages andtowns are all agricultural settlements of the Han people, who are devoted to the production
and planting of tea.

1.7

The connection with trade and trade routes

Mengding Mountain Tea was a tribute tea from the Tang dynasty all the way to the Qing dynasty.
Ya’an, where Meng Mountain is located, is an important tea producing area in Sichuan, being
situated at an intersectional area of Han Chinese and Tibetans. The central government had
put forward a series of policies, including “tea-horse trade”, “system of tea business” and“system of sales”, for generations, constantly promoting the policy of “border administration
with tea”. In 1074, namely the 7th year of Emperor Xining, Li Qi was appointed by the Emperor

Image 9. Map of Tea Transportation Trade Route in Ya’an of Sichuan.

to enter Sichuan so as to arrange “tea-horse political business”, which resulted in theestablishment of the Tea-Horse Bureau in the Mingshan District of Ya’an, and eight horsepurchase sites (Mingshan, Yazhou, Baizhang, Yingjing, Lushan, Lizhou, Lingguan and
Diaomen), as well as the horse selection sites of Qingfeng and Xihe, were built one after theother. In the Ming dynasty, the Tea-Horse Bureau existed in several states, including Qin,
Tao, He, Ya, Zidiaomeng (currently known as Tianquan), Li (currently known as Hanyuan)
and Ya (currently known as Yucheng) to Dokham and Ü-Tsang, with a total route of tea

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108transportation of around 5 km. In the Qing dynasty, that national policy was continued. In
Tianquan County in Ya’an, official warehouses of Sichuan Tea were established to provide
supplies to the Tibetan area. Even in the present day, Ya’an is still an important
manufacturing base for China’s “border-sale tea”.
The tea trade transportation routes starting from the tea area of Ya’an mainly include thefollowing. For tribute tea and tea being traded in the north-west and north, the tea istransported from Ya’an to Chengdu all the way northwards to Shaanxi and Beijing. The tea
transported to the Tibetan area either goes from Ya’an to Wen County in Gansu before
heading north-west to Qinghai, or to Songpan before reaching Qinghai. These two routes
were also the main directions taken by the tea-horse trade in the Song and Ming dynasties.
The main line that connects Sichuan and Tibet starts from Ya’an and arrives at Kangding
before reaching Litang, Batang and eventually Chamdo and Lhasa. The route that starts from
Ya’an and heads northwards to Garzê before reaching Chamdo and Lhasa is usually thetransportation line for private trade.

2. Archival records and researches
2.1

Archival records

The local governments have conducted long-term and professional administrative work on
the research and protection of the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain, and have createda related archival database. The database includes historical documents, administrative files,
research outcomes, cultural relic sites, agricultural cultural heritage, tourism administration,
pictures and maps, etc. The archaeological, architectural and tea knowledge-related
investigations of the cultural relics and ancient tea trees of the Tea Plantation of Mengding
Mountain have all been properly conducted, and the files are completely maintained. The
Cultural and Tourism Bureau, the Agricultural and Rural Affairs Bureau and related
institutions are in charge of the collection and the arrangement of the Tea Plantation of
Mengding Mountain’s database, and a concrete list of contents has also been created. Apartfrom some published books and dissertations, the majority of the documents cannot be
acquired directly from the internet.

2.2

Related research

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT STAGE OF TEA PLANTATIONSThe history of tea planting at Mengding Mountain can be dated back to as early as theWestern Han dynasty, but little knowledge is available for a clear understanding of theCHINA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

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planting circumstances of the tea plantations back then. Ever since Mengding Mountain Tea
became a tribute tea in the middle of the Tang dynasty, tea planting in that area has beenwell-developed. Therefore, it is considered that the flourishing period of the tea plantation
started in the 9th century and continues to the present date.

Image 10. The Ganlu Spring at Mengding Mountain. Source: Chen Yongheng.

THE EVOLUTIONAL PROCESS OF THE LANDSCAPE

As a religious tea plantation, the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain has kept an authentic
and complete set of tea plantations, temples and related historical relics in the central heritage
area. Under the influence of the politics, economy and society of modern times, the tea
farmers and tea companies that have moved in have opened up terraced tea plantations withmodern features, and have developed some local sttlements. 22 villages have been formedin Mengshan Mountain County and Mengyang County and in the region of the Tea Plantationof Mengding Mountain. Tourism services and business facilities have also been added to thecontemporary Mengding Mountain, which, in 2005, was assessed as an AAAA-level tourism
site. Currently, the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain is also being developed so as tobecome a cultural and tourism zone.

2.3

Main achievements of research

Most of the research outcomes regarding Mengding Mountain address aspects including tea
culture, tea branding, the tea industry, tea history and cultural tourism. So far, systemicCHINA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

110cultural landscape research regarding the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain has not yet
been conducted, whilst analyses and research on the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountainfrom the angle of cultural landscape heritage have not yet been well developed.

3. The threat that the tea plantation
landscape faces
As a famous tourism zone, Mengding Mountain has faced tremendous stress from tourism
development. Due to the insufficient research carried out on the cultural landscape of the Tea
Plantation of Mengding Mountain, construction of facilities for the tourism zone has somehow
influenced the authenticity and the integrity of the heritage, especially as the ecologicalenvironment on which the Tea Plantation depends has undergone tremendous change. As
the surrounding woods that have been maintained throughout history are filled up withconstruction, roads and facilities, many issues emerge, such as the pollution, noise andvibrations from increased traffic, litter produced by the tourists, and issues resulting fromsewage, close-distance sightseeing activities in tea plantations, and the tea farmers’unauthorized planting of tea, changing the traditional land utilization from having “forests/tea
plantations/temples” as key elements, as well as putting nature under intensive pressure due
to manual transformation and causing the landscape features of the Tea Plantation of
Mengding Mountain to undergo changes.

Image 11. The Modern Sightseeing Tea Plantation in Mingshan District .

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Although the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain is still in the charge of temples and tea
farmers, the population of monks dealing with tea planting and manufacturing has reduced
whilst the number of tea peasants has increased and occupies a large proportion at the sametime as modern terraced tea plantations that are operated by modern tea companies arebeing opened in the area. Furthermore, the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain, as a
tourism zone, has to accommodate increasing numbers of tourism service staff, facilities andtourists, which have all changed the historical position that Mengding Mountain has always
maintained as a religious sacred site and a production site of tribute tea. More importantly,
all of these phenomena are caused by societal changes that can hardly be reversible.
In the present day, the traditions of the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain are confronted
with many challenges. Since the system of tribute tea was abolished, the system of tea
planting and manufacturing, which used to be the main mission of the temples, is ending as
well. In addition, as the tribute tea system no longer exists, the reputation of Mengding
Mountain Tea has also been affected. In the period between the establishment of the
Republic of China and the Cultural Revolution, the instability experienced by the groups ofmonks and the tea farmers almost caused the decline and even the collapse of traditional tea
manufacturing craftsmanship. Since the tea manufactured by the modern machinery
craftsmanship adopted nowadays is still no match for that manufactured by traditional tea
making craftsmanship, the experience of tea drinking on the Mengding Mountain fails to becomparable with those glorious moments of the old days. In addition, Mengding MountainTea has a low market share in the highly competitive Chinese tea market, and some productspresented to the public are even fabricated or manufactured with low-quality ingredients. Thishas had a severe influence upon the brand of Mengding Mountain Tea and those tendencies
could possibly lead to the decline of the tea culture of Mengding Mountain as well.

4. The protection of landscape and thecurrent situation of management
A protection system of multiple aspects has been established for the Tea Plantation of
Mengding Mountain, encompassing culture, agriculture, tourism, urban development andbusiness. In 2003, the Tea Association of Mingshan County registered Mengding MountainTea as a trademark, and, in 2008, the standard titled Production of Geographic Indication –Mengshan Tea was issued by the country. In 2012, “Mengding Mountain Tea” acquired thetitle of China Famous Trade Mark, becoming the first trademark relating to tea andGeographic Indication in Sichuan Province. The important cultural relics at the Tea Plantationof Mengding Mountain have also respectively acquired the status of being either nationally,

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provincially or municipally protected cultural heritage. In 2016, the Protection Measures of
the Ancient Tea Trees at Mengding Mountain was published and the Mengding Mountain
Ancient Tea Tree Protection Association was established, which is in charge of different
administrative working procedures regarding fishing expeditions, brand registrations of the

Image 12. The Stone Archways and Screens of Mengding Mountain. Source: Chen Yongheng.

resources of the ancient tea trees of Mengding Mountain tea district, and the arrangement ofprotection signs and open utilization, etc. In 2017, the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain
was listed as an important agricultural heritage in China, and The Systemic Protection andDevelopment Planning of Tea Culture of Mengding Mountain in Sichuan was compiled andpresented at the same time.
The protection of the traditions of the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain includes several
aspects, such as the protection and maintenance of cultural relic sites of different levels; therestoration of traditional tea manufacturing craftsmanship; the selection, planting andcultivation of varieties of tea trees; and the sorting and discovering of tea cultures. Mengding
Mountain Tea, as a famous tea brand, and the research carried out on the tea cultures ofMengding Mountain have directly propelled the development of the local tea industry.
Therefore, the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain is fully equipped with the fundamental
conditions for sustainable development.
So far, the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain has not yet been regarded as “heritage oftea culture landscape” for comprehensive protection and utilization. Therefore, different

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districts are formed in a relatively segmental way. For example, the cultural relic sites, thetourism zone, and the tea plantations and villages possess different ways of utilization anddevelopment regulations. As a result, the natural characteristics of the Tea Plantation of
Mengding Mountain are not thoroughly maintained and the historical connection kept throughtangible relics has been changed by the newly-opened roads and tourism services andfacilities. In addition, the direct correspondent relationship between the sorting and thediscovering of tea culture, as well as the protection of tangible manifestations of the tea
culture landscape, is still quite unclear.

5. Conclusion
5.1

Summary

The Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain is the most famous relic site of tea culture that has
the longest proven history of tea planting in China, an activity that has lasted even to the presentday. The south-western region of China is the geographic origin of tea trees, whilst the area’s
natural conditions, such as the special climate and geographical features of Ya’an, are very
suitable for the growing and the planting of tea trees. Meanwhile, the flourishing Sichuan Basin,
as well as the civilization of the Sichuan-Chongqing region, has also provided excellent
economic and cultural foundations for the development of tea culture. After the 9th century, thenational policy and system that made Mengding Mountain Tea a tribute tea, and Ya’an a bordersale tea manufacturing district, strengthened and enhanced the development of tea industry in
the region, which not only guaranteed the extension and succession of the Tea Plantation of
Mengding Mountain but also established the historical position of Mengding Mountain as the“source of tea” that introduced tea breeds to other regions of Sichuan. Furthermore, religious
people were the first to plant tea at Mengding Mountain, which not only showcases the influencethat both Buddhism and Taoism have had upon the tea culture of China, but also distinguishes
its traditions of tea culture from that of tea plantations of other categories. The key elements of
the Tea Plantation landscape include the religious temples that are in charge of tea planting,manufacturing and tea tributes as well as the tea plantations which are also full of historicalhuman cultural relics at Mengding Mountain, such as ancient tea trees, ancient springs, theheavenly ladder with the ancient path, etc. The tea plantation also has very typical features,such as Chinese temples, which are well maintained and intact.

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Image 13. The List of Tribute Tea in Sichuan during the Qing Dynasty. Source: Publicity
Department of Ya'an Municipal Committee of Sichuan Province.

5.2

Current state of research

The currently existing documents and research mainly concern the history of tea plantations,the system of tribute tea, the techniques of tea planting and the craftsmanship of tea
manufacturing. Research regarding the tangible manifestations of the tea culture landscape,as well as the characteristics and evolutionary regulations and causes of the humanecological environment on which it depends, is still quite insufficient. Since the historical
documents are relatively deficient, it is not possible to acquire information regarding theplanting range, scale, pattern and methods of tea plantations in different times.

5.3

Differences from other tea plantation
landscape zones of a lower level

Ya’an is an important tea producing region in Sichuan in the south-west of China. In the districts
and counties subordinated to Ya’an City, such as Yucheng District, Yingjing County and
Tianquan County, historical tea plantations still remain that can be dated back to the Ming or
Qing dynasties, or even to the Song dynasty. Although information about the opening andplanting of these tea plantations can be acquired from documents, information on the planting
range, location, scale, methods and landscape conservation has not yet been researched. In
the process of the modernization of the tea industry in contemporary times, some renovations
have been conducted upon the historical tea plantations. The Tea Plantation of Mengding
Mountain is the only tea plantation that still keeps most of the cultural relics of different
categories that reflect the history of tea planting, manufacturing and tribute. Furthermore, theCHINA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

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craftmanship of the manufacturing of Mengding Mountain Tea is said to have the longest history,
create the best flavour and provide the most categories of tea leaves.

5.4

The outstanding landscape features

The Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain has a long history of tea planting and manufacturing.
The excellent natural geographic environment perfectly fits the environmental conditions forthe planting of tea trees. When the religious groups opened and maintained the area, aspecial Zen tea culture was created, while the policy of tribute tea and border-sale tea also

Image 14. The Range of the Original Area of “the Meng Mountain Tea”. Source: Zhang Xuechun.

guaranteed the continuous development of the tea industry. In addition, the seeds of the tea
tree varieties in Ya’an and the neighbouring areas are mostly introduced from Mengding
Mountain. The development of the society, economy and culture reflected in the Tea
Plantation of Mengding Mountain, together with the tea culture landscape relics located in thearea, show its importance as a heritage site of exceptional value.

5.5 The issue of protection administration and measures
So far, systemic investigations and research on the tea plantation landscapes in lower le vel
regions have not yet been conducted. Therefore, the research foundation of the culturallandscape heritage is relatively weak. Meanwhile, some developments, such as the
production of modern tea plantations and the cultural tourism of tea plantations, are very likely

CHINA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE116

to cast an irreversible influence upon the remaining historical tea plantations and landscapecharacteristics. As a AAAA-level tourism zone, the development orientation and the stress ofthe tourism development of the Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain can all impact on themaintenance, authenticity and integrity of the cultural landscape.

Image 15: The Region Map of the Core District of “Mengding Mountain Tea Culture System of
Mingshan in Sichuan”. Source: Application Letter of Agricultural Heritage.

The Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain possesses a protection identity of multiple aspects.
The historical relics, which encompass cultural relic protection sites of all levels, are in the
charge of the local administrative department of cultural relics and protected by the Cultural
Relics Protection Law of the People's Republic of China. As a provincial-level landscape
tourism site, Mengding Mountain is in the charge of the department of constructions andprotected by the Regulations on Scenic and Historic Areas. The Tea Plantation of Mengding
Mountain is the core district of the “Mengding Mountain Tea Culture System of Mingshan in
Sichuan” of Chinese Agricultural Cultural Heritage, and is thus protected by the related laws
and regulations of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Bureau. The tourism zone of Mengding
Mountain is operated by a tourism company, so that a relatively complete administrative
system, institutes and staff are all available. The supervision and control of construction in
Mengding Mountain is conducted through the strengthened coordination and collaboration
work that is performed between different departments.

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5.6

117

Suggestions and prospects

The research and operation of the administration of the cultural landscape heritage should
be strengthened in the future, and development goals should be properly made and theintensity monitored under the guidance of the conclusions drawn from evaluation reports of
the heritage environment. The coordination and cooperation work between different
departments should be strengthened so as to meet the standards of the authenticity andintegrity of heritage protection.
The Tea Plantation of Mengding Mountain is likely the heritage site with the strongest
authenticity and integrity in comparison with other existing temple tea plantations in China,
due to the protection of multiple aspects. It is well accepted and highly spoken of in the tea
market, which has guaranteed its succession and continuity. The heritage assets haveabundant key and rich representative elements and typical features. Further researchshould investigate the potential Outstanding Universal Value, which might be justified undercriteria (iii), (iv) and (vi).

References
Chen, Chuan, A General History of Tea [ 茶叶通史] Chinese. Beijing: China Agriculture Press, 1984.
Chen Shuqian, Dou Cunfang, Guo Lei (compiled), The Oral History of Tea Culture of Mengding
Mountain, China Agriculture Press, 2019.
Compilation Committee of Chronicles of Mingshan Tea Industry, Chronicles of Mingshan Tea Industry,
Local Chronicles Press, 2017.
GB/T 18665-2008, Product of Geographic Indication – Mengshan Tea, Standardization Administrationof China, 2008.
Mu Jihong (ed.), Tea of the Meng Mountain, Beijing: Beijing Publishing House, 2004.
The Application Letter of Mengding Mountain Tea Culture System of Mingshan in Sichuan, 2017.
Yang Shaohuai, Sichuan Tea and Tea-Horse Ancient Path, Bashu Press, 2017.
Yang Zhong (ed.), The Tea Culture of Mengding Mountain. Chinese Literature and History Press, 2005.
Zhu Jifa, Another Commentary upon the Authenticity of Wu Lizhen, the Pioneer of Tea, Agricultural
Archaeology, 2nd Issue of 2018.

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Cultural Landscape of
Tea Plantations in Wuyi
Mountains
Wang Chaoyi
Working Group of China Architecture Design &Research Group

1. Overview
Located in mountainous areas near the south-eastern coast of China, the tea plantations in
the Wuyi Mountains are widely believed to be the home of Chinese oolong tea and Chinese
black tea.
Shaped by the combined forces of geological structuring, water erosion, weathering erosion
and gravitational collapse, the Wuyi Mountains boast spectacular sceneries and uniquemountain terrains, giving the area a special status among China's famous mountains. The
Wuyi Scenic Area features typical Danxia landforms, with the red cliffs flanking the Ninebend Creek and the lush forestry together making up an impressive sight. The area is also
known for its distinctive cultural landscape because of its unique geographical environment,
diverse forest ecosystems, varieties of high-quality tea trees, tea villages which arethemselves steeped in historical and cultural heritage, and a dynamic tea industry datingback to ancient times

1.1

Geographical information

Wuyishan City is located in the north-west of Fujian Province, China, at the southern foot of
the northern section of the Wuyi Mountains. The city spans from 117°37’22” to 118°19’44” inthe east longitude and from 27°27‘31” to 28°04’49” in the north latitude. It measures about
70 kilometres from east to west and 72.5 kilometres from north to south, covering a total
area of 2,798 square kilometres.
The Wuyi Mountains feature a typical mountainous and hilly terrain. The eastern, westernand northern areas are steep and hilly, with lots of mountains, peaks, gorges and streams.
The central and southern areas comprise flat and low lands, with river valleys, canyons,streams and basins. Seen from above, the whole terrain looks like a horseshoe opening

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119

towards the south. A total of 38 mountain peaks are found with an elevation of over 1,000
metres above sea level. Rivers and streams crisscross the entire region, with eight of the
major ones flowing over an area of 2,124.33 square kilometres.

Image 1. Location of the Wuyi Mountains tea producing area in China. Source: Working group of
the China Architecture Design & Research Group.

A total of 39 types of bedrock are known to exist in the Wuyi Mountains, including acid rocks,
neutral rocks, sandy rocks and argillaceous rocks. Soil types found in the area include redsoil, yellow soil, mountain meadow soil and purple soil, which have distinctive vertical
distribution features. Red soil is mainly found in areas with an altitude of 160-800 metresabove sea level, yellow-red soil at 800-1,900 metres, and mountain meadow soil at 1,9002,158 metres.
Wuyishan City is characterized by a humid subtropical monsoon climate, with four distinct
seasons and plentiful rainfall. The average annual temperature stands at 18°C, the averageannual relative humidity at 78%, and the average annual rainfall at 1,916.4 mm. 255 days ayear are generally frost-free. The local vegetation carries typical features of the midsubtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest, and the forest coverage rate reaches up to
95.3%. The Wuyi Mountains have the world's best preserved and most comprehensive,
typical and largest mid-subtropical native forest ecosystem in the same latitude zone. The
area is home to diverse species and resources, with 3,728 plant species already identified.

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History

The earliest written records of tea production in the Wuyi Mountains date back to 806-820,
in the Tang dynasty. Tea making emerged as an industry in the Song dynasty in 960-1279,
a time when tea whisking (Dian Cha) and matcha (Tea Ceremony) also began to appear as
a form of tea art. In the year of 1302, during the Yuan dynasty, a royal tea roasting office
was set up at the Nine-bend Creek in the Wuyi Mountains, and Wuyi tea was officiallynamed as a tribute tea for the royal court until 1557 in the Ming dynasty when thedesignation was abolished. In the middle of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), the form of Wuyi
tea changed from tea cakes to loose tea, and then to stir-dried tea. Local Buddhist andTaoist monks also began to cultivate tea trees in their temples. Black tea did not appear until
the late Ming dynasty, with Tongmu village and Xingcun village becoming centres of
production. Tea production flourished in the Qing dynasty (1636-1912). Tea trade by sea tothe west and by land to the north became especially prosperous, with Xiamei village, which
is located near the river port, serving as the central point of all trade activities. Tea
plantations soon started to expand in scale afterwards. By the year 1717 in the Qing dynasty,
tea farmers had invented new methods to make oolong tea. After the end of the Qing
dynasty, tea plantations and tea trade continued to develop until the 1930s, followed by along period of sluggish growth until the 1980s. Things have started to change since then.
The scale of tea plantation in the Wuyi Mountains has more or less stabilized since 2012.

Image 2. Distribution of producing areas by the tea variety in Wuyishan City (2008) ©
Source: Wuyishan Tea Industry Bureau.

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Landscape size

Tea plantations in the Wuyi Mountains are mainly located on the hilly slopes in Xingcun
village, Wuyi Street village, Xingtian village and within the Wuyishan Nature Reserve.
In 1978, the area of tea plantations under cultivation in Wuyishan City stood at 1,640
hectares. By 2007, the number had surged to 7,698 hectares. Based on different varieties ofoolong tea, Red Robe (Da Hong Pao) took up 28% of the total cultivation area; Cinnamon(Rou Gui) 21%; Narcissus (Shui Xian) 42%; and Odd Species (Qi Zhong) 9%. By 2015, thearea under cultivation had grown to 9,867 hectares.

1.4

Distribution features

Differentiated by their different processing methods, teas grown in the Wuyi Mountains
include oolong tea, which grows in 92.4% of the tea plantations; black tea, which grows in
5.9% of all plantations; and green tea, which grows in 1.7% of plantations. Areas ofproduction are divided between the Wuyi rock tea (a type of oolong tea) producing area andthe Lapsang Souchong (a type of black tea) producing area. Since the Wuyi Mountain
Range features mountainous and hilly terrain, tea trees are generally planted on the hilly
slopes around local villages.
The main producing areas of Wuyi rock tea are the towns and villages surrounding the
Wuyishan Scenic Area. The Hilltop Ecological Tea Plantation, which is the largest producing
area, is located in the north-west of Wuyishan City, on the southern slope of the Wuyi
Mountain Range, and in the extension areas of Wuyishan Nature Reserve; other producing
areas are located on the low hills in the south-east of Wuyishan City.
The Lapsang Souchong producing areas are mainly found within the Wuyishan National
Nature Reserve, which is rich in forest resources. Jiangdun village, Miaowan village andMosu village, which are natural village settlements located near Tongmu village, altogether
boast an area of about 660 acres of land under tea cultivation. Tea trees there usually growat altitude of 700-1,200 metres above sea level, either at the foot of hills or in the canyons.
Tea trees that are native to the Wuyi Mountains are called Wuyi vegetable tea (Caicha), a
small- and medium-leaf variety produced after years of natural hybridization and artificial
selection. Over 280 varieties are now known to have existed and more than 70 varieties are
now under protection and are available for cultivation. Starting from the 1980s, the practiceof clonal propagation has been popularized, with Red Robe, Cinnamon, Narcissus and Odd
Species dominating the market. Tea leaves are generally harvested once a year.

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Image 3. Locations of tea plantations in Wuyishan Scenic Area. Source: Working group of the
China Architecture Design & Research Group.

1.5

Social and cultural systems

The Wuyi Mountains have a long tradition of organizing tea competitions, dating back to theSong dynasty (960-1279). Wuyi Tea had been designated as a tribute tea for the imperial
court for almost 200 years, starting from the establishment of a royal tea roasting office in1302 in the Yuan dynasty all the way to 1557 in the Ming dynasty when the entire tea tribute
system was abolished. In the royal tea plantation, at the time of the tribute tea system, aspecial official was appointed to oversee the whole production and 180 kilograms of tea
were required to be submitted each year. During this period, an official sacrificial ritual heldat the royal tea plantation was held to call to the mountains for blessings in the form of abetter tea yield.

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Image 4. People drinking tea at a tea competition held at Tianxin Village. Source: Working groupof the China Architecture Design & Research Group.

In terms of the forms of organisation of tea production, given that Wuyi rock tea requires
sophisticated processing methods and takes up a lengthy processing time, traditional smalland medium-scale tea farms dominate the production scene. Tea farmers either harvest
fresh tea leaves themselves for sale, or rent their own farms to others, who then hire moreskilled workers to complete the whole production process. As of 2007, a total of 305 tea
farms, 769 family-owned tea workshops and only three large companies were known tohave registered in the Wuyi Mountains.
In 1942, the Tea Research Institute of the Trade Commission under the Ministry of
Finance, which was later renamed in 1989 as the Tea Science Research Institute inWuyishan City, was established in the Wuyi Mountains. It was China's first national tea
research institute, with Mr Tianfu Zhang and Mr Juenong Wu, among others, serving
successively as its first directors. The institute has undertaken many important projects
since then to improve tea varieties, make and test tea-making machines, set up
cooperation networks, and carry out tea ingredient analysis. A group of tea researchers
have been mentored over the years, laying the foundation for the contemporary
development of the tea industry in the Wuyi Mountains.
From 1949 to 1984, the tea market in the Wuyi Mountains was subjected to a unified
purchase policy by the state. It has been fully liberalized since 1985.

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Image 5. View of a tea plantation at Wusandi, a natural village in Wuyi Mounta ins. Source:
Working group of the China Architecture Design & Research Group .

1.6

Local communities and settlements

After 1391, in the Ming dynasty, Buddhist and Taoist temples in the Wuyi Mountains started
to dabble in tea cultivation, production and tea tasting. The mutual visits between monks ofdifferent temples promoted technical exchanges of tea-making over long distances of tea
producing areas and gave birth to new tea-making techniques. The contributions made by
Buddhist and Taoist monks, tea farmers and tea merchants in the Wuyi Mountains haveadded to the technological and cultural value of Wuyi tea.
In 2016, according to the statistics, Wuyishan City was home to 240,000 inhabitants, among
which 160,000 worked in the agricultural field and, specifically, 80,000 were directly
engaged in the tea industry. Of the 115 administrative villages in the area, 96 were involvedin tea cultivation. In 2007, according to the statistics, the cultivated land area of WuyishanCity was 20,613 hectares and the forest land area stood at 212,133 hectares.

1.7

Tea trade, trade routes and economic development opportunities

In the early 17th century, with the opening of the China-Mongolia-Russia tea road, Shanxi
merchants started to transport Wuyi tea up to Mongolia and Russia. The Wuyi Mountains

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soon became the starting point of the tea route, and Xiamei village served as a major
marketplace. Starting in 1607, the Dutch East India Company began purchasing Wuyi tea inlarge quantities, which was then resold to various parts of Europe by way of the island of
Java. By 1640, Wuyi tea had made its way to the United Kingdom, contributing to theformation of the sea tea trade route. The outbreak of the Taiping Rebellion around the year
1853, however, blocked the Shanxi merchants’ overland route to Fujian, putting the tea
trade to a halt. The merchants responded by moving the supply of black tea to Yangloudong
in Hubei province, and the Wuyi Tea overland trade subsequently went into decline. After
1842, when the Qing government was forced to open commercial ports to foreigners, Wuyi
tea was transported along the Minjiang River to the sea, and then sold to European andSouth Asian countries. Chishi
villagereplaced

Xiameitobecome a booming tea market
from 1821 to 1861, until itwent into decline in 1958.
From the 1900s to the 1930s,
Wuyi rock tea reached its
peak of prosperity and wassold widely within China andacross the world. People fromdifferent areas were drawn to
the

tea

trade

and

formedregional gangs. The Southern
FujianGang,(Teoswa)

Chaoshan

Gang

and

Guangzhou Gang were very
influential at the time, with theSouthern Fujian Gang being
the biggest of all. Even to thisday, a lot of inhabitants in the
Wuyi mountains still identify
themselves as descendants of
those

early

immigrants

originally coming from Jiangxi,
South Fujian and Chaoshan
along the tea trade route.
Image 6. Tea farmers in Wuyishan Scenic Area.
Source: Working group of the China Architecture
Design & Research Group.

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Connection with surrounding landscapes and theregion/country where it is located

The landscapes of tea plantations in the Wuyi mountains are closely linked with thesurrounding natural cultural environment.
The Wuyi Mountains area is a mixed UNESCO World Heritage property, inscribed for its
natural environment and for its culture. It is also designated as a National Nature Reserve
and National Scenic Area, famous for its typical Danxia landform features. With many
excellent natural wonders, the area also enjoys a special status among China’s famous
mountains. The rare natural landscape of the mountains and rivers and rich and diverse
biological systems provide a premium fertile ground for tea trees to live and thrive.

2. Typical tea plantation landscapes
Wuyishan Scenic Area is the main producing area and a chief source of supply of Wuyi rocktea. It boasts the most typical tea plantation landscape.

2.
2.1

Location and scale

Located in the southern suburbs of Wuyishan City, Wuyishan Scenic Area is right at the centreof the main Wuyi rock tea producing area. Composing a total area of 70 km², tea trees and tea
plantations are scattered over an area of around 134.9 km²

Image 7. View of a hilltop tea plantation in Wuyishan Scenic Area. Source: Working group of the
China Architecture Design & Research Group.

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Main features of the landscapeWuyishan Scenic Area has the longest history of tea planting in the Wuyi mountains and has
the most abundant tea tree varieties. The high peaks in the north-west part of the Wuyi
Mountains block cold currents coming from the north, making the rock tea producing area
warm without obvious seasonal changes. The overall horseshoe-shaped terrain opens to thesouth, with streams and creeks flowing around peaks and hills, forming a uniquemicroclimate. Shrouded by clouds and mist all year round, the air in the Wuyi Mountains isextremely humid. Tea plantations are usually located on low hills below 500 metres above
sea level, and at the bottom of rocky valleys. Tea farmers make the best use of rock dents,
rock crevices and stone gaps to grow tea trees by laying stone terraces around them so thetea bushes look like "potted tea gardens." The fact that the trees are distributed sparselymeans that they can enjoy sufficient growth space and absorb the best nutrients from thenatural environment, and are free from the onset of diseases and pests. The plentiful rainfall
year-round has made the valley soil rich in organic matter. With the peaks serving as ascreen blocking out direct sunlight, the areas surrounding these peaks are exposed to shortsunlight and sufficient scattered light, while being free from frost, wind damage and insect
damage, and enjoy a special microclimate with a suitable temperature and humidity. All ofthese provide ideal conditions for tea trees to grow and provide good ecological conditions
for high-quality teas.

Image 8. View of a tea plantation at Wusandi, a natural village in Wuyi Mountains .
Source: Working group of the China Architecture Design & Research Group.

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Planting traditions

Tea trees are propagated from seeds, by layering or by cutting. Early planting practice wasdominated by natural propagation methods of seeding, which were gradually replaced byclonal propagation in the 1950s. The best time to plant tea seedlings is from mid-January tolate March. After they are transplanted to the field, great care must be taken to monitor thesoil quality and ensure that the field is occasionally ploughed, new soil, as well as basefertilizer and new fertilizers if necessary, is added, and the bushes are properly sheared.

2.4

Tea tree varieties and cultivation methods

Tea tree varieties growing in Wuyishan Scenic Area include Cinnamon, Red Robe, Gold
Turtle, Iron Monk and White Comb. Other producing areas feature different varieties. For
example, Huiyuankeng village mainly produces Narcissus and White Comb, while
Niulankeng village is famous for Cinnamon.
Given that tea plantations located on hilly slopes are prone to soil and water loss, stones areoften used to build terraces around tea bushes.
Starting in 1953, some tea plantations took up collar pruning to propagate tea trees,
something totally new at the time. Laocong Tea Plantation still has trees that are not collar
pruned and therefore tea produced there has a very different taste.

2.5

Tea harvesting and processing

Wuyi rock tea is generally harvested once a year, between the Grain Rain and the Start ofSummer according to the Chinese lunar calendar (roughly the end of April to mid-May
according to the Gregorian calendar). For Wuyi rock tea, only a few top leaves and flushes
are picked, either by hand or by machine.
Of all the tea varieties in China, Wuyi rock tea is known for its processing methods and highdegree of sophistication. Tea leaves are processed either by hand or by machine. Handprocessing includes up to 20 steps (harvesting, tossing, sun-drying, lay leafing, stir drying,rolling, secondary stir drying, secondary rolling, primary roasting, winnowing, sun fixing,
sorting, secondary roasting, steam drying, cloth rolling, re-drying, packaging, piling,
screening and blending). As each step can affect the quality of the final product, close
cooperation between members of the entire tea-processing team is a must.
Machine processing is simpler by comparison.

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Social structure and cultural systems

In Tianxin village, most households own a tea farm and have family-owned factories, where
they hire workers to help with tea production. In the village, supporting services are readily
available with easy access to tea-making workshops, tea shops, packaging shops andlogistics services.
The Wuyi Mountains are also known for the cultural practice of the Mountain Call, which
originated in the Tang dynasty and was performed to pray for blessings on the tea harvest.
When the royal tea plantation was built at the Nine-bend Creek in the Wuyi Mountains in the
Yuan dynasty, a platform was set up behind the plantation for this specific purpose. For
almost 200 years, spanning the Yuan and Ming dynasties, the Mountain Call became an
important official sacrificial ritual. Every year in spring, on Jingzhe (the day in the lunar
calendar when dormant insects are awakened by the warming weather), local officials would
lead tea farm workers to the platform. After cattle, pigs, sheep and wine were offered as
sacrifices, incense sticks were lit up and a special script was read out loud, followed byrounds of drum beating and firecracker burning. Led by the host of the ritual, the ceremony
would culminate in the participants shouting out the words "please let the tea sprout!" Inrecent years, a couple of tea companies have tried to hold similar ceremonies to honour thishistorical tradition.
Given the scarce production volume of Wuyi rock tea, over the years, tea makers have built
a cultural tradition to learn from and compare notes with each other. Since 2000, eachadministrative village has held competitions in order to select the best quality tea each year.

Image 9. Tea farmers in Wuyishan Scenic Area. Source: Working group of the
China Architecture Design & Research Group.

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Local communities and settlements

Tea farmers in the Wuyishan Scenic Area mainly live in Tianxin village, a place that once
boomed with the rise of tea production and trade. There are currently 14 villager groups
made up of 1,488 villagers. Out of a total of 510 households, 450 operate some form of tea
business.
Most of the local residents can trace their family roots to the early migrants from Yanshan
Mountain in Shangrao county from the neighbouring Jiangxi Province in the late Ming andearly Qing dynasties. Most speak southern Min dialects. They have inherited a richexperience and wisdom from their ancestors in making tea, and managing and looking after
tea plantations.
In 2007, the village had an area of 4.78 km2 of tea plantations, among which 0.67 km2 wereused to produce Red Robe, 1.5 for Cinnamon, 2.58 for Narcissus, and 0.04 for Odd Species.
Tianxin village is particularly known for its rock tea, with a total of 43 tea processing
factories and 107 workshops registered. The annual production of dry rock tea has reached692.1 tonnes, with an output value worth 47.82 million RMB.

2.8

Links with tea trade and trade routes

Throughout history, the high quality of rock tea has drawn a lot of tea merchants from
Chaoshan and Zhangquan (Zhangzhou and Quanzhou), who come to buy tea farms, set up
tea factories, and hire professionals to oversee daily operations. Tea leaves harvested in the
Wuyishan Scenic Area are transported by porters using bamboo baskets. After they areprocessed at tea factories and packaged at the marketplace, the leaves are either sold tocities in the Chaoshan area, where rock tea is a favourite drink, or shipped by sea by way of
Guangzhou to reach other markets.

3. Documentations and records
1
2
3
3.1 Archived records

Since 2003, multiple surveys have been carried out on the cultural landscape of tea
plantations in the Wuyi mountains; both the Wuyishan Tea Plantations Census Report,
which was completed in 2008, and the Wuyishan Tea Plantations Census Report, which
was carried out by the Fujian Provicial Forestry Survey and Design Institute in November
2019, recorded in detail the distribution of tea plantations in each village and the varieties oftea trees growing in the area. Both reports are now kept at the Wuyishan Tea Industry

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Bureau. Wuyishan City has also collected related image records, including the publishedphoto collection entitled The Flavor of Rock Tea - A Special Edition by Photographer Wu
Guangming. Documents of this nature are now going through a systematic thorough review,
with those published before the year 2003 now kept at the Wuyishan City Archives Bureau
and those after 2003 at the Wuyishan City Tea Bureau.
The archaeological report on the Gothenburg shipwreck, which found that it carried
Wuyishan tea leaves on board, is now in the keeping of the Gothenburg Foundation. Amongothers, archaeological reports related to the Yulinting Kiln Site of the Song dynasty and on
the ruins of Chengcun village of the Han dynasty are kept at the Wuyishan City Cultural
Relics and Cultural Heritage Management Office.

3.2 Related research
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

The Wuyishan tea plantations emerged in the Tang dynasty (618-907), flourished in theSong dynasty (960-1279), continued their prosperity over the Yuan and Ming dynasties(1271-1644), achieved breakthrough development in the Qing dynasty (636-1912) andcontinue to thrive even to this day.

EVOLUTION OF THE LANDSCAPE

While keeping with traditional land use methods and respecting traditional wisdom, thelandscape of tea plantations in the Wuyi Mountains continues to evolve.
After 1953, many tea plantations began to adopt collar pruning methods. Newly built
plantations also took up layering to propagate tea trees. Such practice has put a slight dent
in the production of vegetable tea (Caicha) varieties in the Wuyi Mountains.

MAIN RESEARCH FINDINGS

Books such as The Classic of Tea in Wuyi Mountains and Wuyi Tea Records (forthcoming)
have adopted a cultural landscape research angle. Research on the Wuyi Mountains has
generated more solid and substantive findings compared with research efforts made onother tea producing areas.

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4. Threats facing tea plantations and statusquo of tea plantation landscapeAs with other traditional agricultural landscapes, the landscape of tea plantations in the Wuyi
Mountains is also facing threats brought by socio-economic development, changes in
production and lifestyle, and modern management interventions. That being the case, theviability of the tea plantation landscape has been generally maintained well.
Although faced with the pressures of new development, population growth, construction anddevelopment needs, in compliance with traditional governance methods and wisdom, thearea has taken advantage of different management regulations to rein in the amount of land
used for construction and transportation purposes, so as to guarantee the stability of the tea
plantations’ ecosystem.
In the Wuyi Mountains, tea competitions were held as early as the Song dynasty (960-1279)
to select the best tasting tea. Since 1999, local villages have begun to revive this age-old
cultural practice by holding tea competitions on a regular basis. Such events have received
strong governmental policy support, which will go a long way to help people hone their rocktea-making skills and to foster more tea technicians.
Many traditional family-held workshops have scaled up their production to bring about
increased productivity. Young people who originally left home for job opportunities
elsewhere have eventually come back to work in the tea business. Local people are now
paying more attention to the branding of tea products while, at the same time, more people
are setting up their personal distribution channels.
Since the middle of the 20th century, people in the Wuyi Mountains have been trying out theuse of machines to help with tea making. Early attempts included the use of bamboo andwooden dryers and wooden rollers. In the mid-to-late 1980s, tea processing became evenmore simplified and mechanized, with harvesting machines, green-tea-making machines,
leaf laying machines, rollers, dryers and sorting machines adopted as major tools, which
greatly improved overall productivity.
Due to a shortage of labour, a few remote mountain areas have to use extensive
management methods, which are actually ultimately beneficial for maintaining theplantations’ ecological diversity. In contrast, a small number of plantations have been
excessively cultivated. Since 2012, with better satellite image monitoring techniques, newly
opened plantations have been reforested to better preserve the local ecology. Areas thatshow signs of soil erosion and landslide hazards are being protected and closely monitored.
Some housing areas and tea factories have been built up in tea plantations in an effort toimprove local people’s living standards and production efficiency, yet the rate ofdevelopment must be properly controlled to maintain the harmony of the overall landscape.

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5. State of protection and managementof tea plantation landscapeThe tea plantation landscape in the Wuyi Mountains is protected on multiple fronts bylegislation and proper planning and through traditional methods. Great efforts have been
made to preserve the original local natural and cultural characteristics, with a view tomaintaining a balanced tea plantation ecosystem.
All administrative legislation is made in line with the Wuyi Rock Tea National Standard (GB /T18745-2006).

Image 10. View ofa tea plantation in
Wuyishan Scenic
Area. Source:
Working group of
the China
Architecture
Design & ResearchGroup.

Overall planning efforts include the formulation of the Third Master Plan of Wuyishan
National Scenic Area (Main Scenic Area), which was developed in 2010, the Wuyishan City
Master Plan from 2016 to 2030 (2016), the Implementation Guidance to Speed up theUpgrading of Tea Industry (2016) and the Specific Plan for Tea Industry Development in theThirteenth Five-Year Plan, which was passed in Wuyishan City in 2016.
The management and protection of the tea plantations landscape is jointly supervised by the
Wuyishan City Forestry Bureau, Land and Resources Bureau, Natural Resources Bureau
and Tea Industry Bureau. Stringent control measures have been put in place to curb any
type of illegal cultivation activity. Each township has set up its own tea plantation station,
staffed by either full-time or part-time employees to carry out routine management. Since
2012, the Wuyishan city government has adopted an outright ban on the opening of new tea
plantations. Plantations that are found in breach of this ban have to be reforested orreconverted to the original state.
In addition, traditional management schemes still play an active role. Each village has
formulated its own regulations to manage tea plantations and a public code of conduct.

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Matters related to tea plantations are handled in a way that ensures villagers can work inclose consultation with village committee members. As is characteristic of a traditionalsociety, tea tree planting and processing techniques are still passed down from generation
to generation in the Wuyi Mountains, and production and marketing networks are built andmaintained through interpersonal relationships, all of which have given strong support to thesustainable development of tea plantations.

6. Conclusion
6.1 Summary
The landscape of tea plantations in the Wuyi Mountains is of great cultural value. Tea
plantations are located in places with unique Danxia geological landforms, a diverse
ecosystem and a long history of tea trade by land and by sea. They are in the centre of anarea that has influenced the world's tea drinking culture and led the way in tea processing
methods, and which has not stopped producing high-quality tea since ancient times.

6.2 Review of the researchPrevious scholars, researchers and research institutions have left precious records andmade important research findings on tea plantations in the Wuyi Mountains. With the help of
these records and documents, more research can be expected in order to yield more finegrained analysis of tea plantation cultural landscapes.

6.3 Differences from other tea plantations landscapes
The unique geographical features in the Wuyi Mountains have brought together the best
tea-making talents in China. The rich traditions and marketing networks in the Wuyi
Mountains will continue to consolidate the area’s leading position in south-east China.

6.4 Distinctive landscape features
The landscape in the Wuyishan Scenic Area has created a special microclimate. The tea
plantations help to maintain a diverse ecosystem in which local flora and fauna coexist inharmony, underscoring its value as a UNESCO World Heritage property.

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Image 11. View of a tea plantation in Wuyishan Scenic Area. Source: Working group of the
China Architecture Design & Research Group.

6.5 Protection management challenges and responses
Tea plantations located within the Wuyishan Scenic Area often face pressure from the risingnumber of tourists. Tea plantations that are located on slopes require close attention inorder to ensure water and soil protection.
Multiple monitoring and protection mechanisms must be put in place to detect and control
adverse factors in time, and effective interventions must be taken to nip problems in the bud
without threatening the preservation, authenticity and integrity of the landscape.
Current conservation and management measures have effectively put the scale of tea
plantations and infrastructure in check. Future efforts should continue to strengthen theprotection of the ecological diversity of tea plantations that are located outside the Wuyishan
Scenic Area.

6.6 Recommendations and prospects
Efforts must be made to push forward ecological protection and the building of ecologicaltea plantations and to improve the techniques of tea farmers.
While remaining in keeping with traditions, technological innovations are also essential.
Public tea industry technology centres must be fully supported in order to provide long-term
support to the industry. The market should play a bigger role in determining tea prices.

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Tea plantations in Wuyishan National Scenic Area represent one of the best attributes of thearea’s landscape and efforts should be made to include them as such within the UNESCOWorld Heritage property and its proposed extension, and improve legislation for theirprotection, considering their potential value, authenticity, integrity and their ecological andcultural resilience.

References

Chen Chuan. A General History of Tea [茶叶通史] Chinese. Beijing: China Agriculture Press, 1984.
Chen, Zongmao and Yang Yayun (eds.). The Classics of Chinese Tea [ 中 国 茶 经 ] Chinese.
Shanghai:,Shanghai Culture Press, 2011.
Huang, Xiangen. Tea Tales in Wuyi Mountains. Edited by Pan, Jingchao. Fujiang, 2009.
Lin, Fuquan. Production, Processing and Marketing of Tea in Wuyi Mountains.
Luo, Shengcai. A Classification of Wuyi Rock Tea. Beijing: Science Press, 2007.
Wu, Yin. Tea Origin and Geography in Wuyi Mountains. Edited by Zhong, Jiaping Guangzhou, 2019.
Wu, Juenong. Review of Tea Classics. Edited by Fan, Suncao. Beijing: China Agriculture Press, 2005.
Wuyishan City Municipal Records & Archives Office, Records of Wuyishan City, 1994.
Xiao, Tianxi. The Classic of Tea in Wuyi Mountains. Beijing: Science Press. 2008.
Yao, Yueming. Selected Papers on Wuyi Rock Tea.
Ye, Qitong. Rock Tea: The Best in Wuyi Mountains. Beijing: China Agriculture Press, 2008.
Zou, Xinqiu. Lapsang Souchong Black Tea in Wuyi Mountains. Beijing: China Agriculture Press, 2006.

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Cultural Landscape ofWest Lake Longjing Tea
Plantation
Wang Chaoyi
Working Group of China Architecture Design &Research Group

1. Overview
The region of West Lake Longjing Tea is situated in the delta of the Yangtze River, near to
Hangzhou, which has long been a metropolis. Along with the economic and politicalimportance of neighbouring Hangzhou, the region has special geological features owing to
nearby West Lake as well as enjoying prestigious fame as a tea cultivation land. In the region,
the sustainable tea industry rests on the interactions that have taken place between the locals
and nature over a long period. From plantation to processing, the tea industry has been
evolving there throughout the past thousand years, with the involvement of diverse elements
including, but not limited to, tea trees, bush plots, villages, temples, paths and roads, irrigation
systems and farmlands.

Image 1. The
location of
Longjing Tea
region. China
Architecture
Design &Research Group.

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1.1 The geological structure of the landscape
As mentioned above, the region of West Lake Longjing Tea is located in the delta of the
Yangtze River, specifically, down to the southern bank of Qiantang River, a branch of the
Yangtze River, and adjacent to West Lake. The region spans between 30°04′N-30°20′N and
119°59′E-120°09′E.
The region of West Lake Longjing Tea features a subtropical monsoon climate of the Northern
Hemisphere, with mild, humid and misty weather due to the monsoon. Abundant springs andstreams, that rise in the west range adjacent to West Lake, cleave through rocks and run
down towards the plains, circulating around tea plantations before flowing into the Qiantang
River. Much of the region’s native vegetation consists of evergreen broad-leaf taxa, or a
mixture of evergreen broad-leaf taxa and deciduous broad-leaf taxa, mingled with Pinus
massoniana forest and bamboo forest. The soil of the tea plantations comprises white sandy
earth, with brown and bright-red clay content and dark brown clay content.

1.2 The history of the landscapeThe cultural course of West Lake Longjing Tea followed the dissemination of Buddhism inChina over a long period, as well as Chinese historical events resulting from economic andpolitical development in the period from 266-316 to 960-1279 (the post-Jin dynasty to theSong dynasty according to Chinese chronology). These historical events also combined with
continuing political-geographical migrations towards south-eastern China throughout history.
Originating at local Buddhist sites surrounding Hangzhou, Lingyin Temple and Tianzhu
Temple during 618-907 (the Tang dynasty in Chinese chronology), Longjing Tea was selected
as a cherished tribute to the emperors in 960-1127 (in the early Song dynasty), and soonafterwards tea plantations spread from their original location at Buddhist sites further down
towards the south-western ridge - Lion Mountain, as it is locally called.
Between 1271 and 1368 (known as the Yuan dynasty in Chinese chronology), tea producedin the Longjing area became popular. Loose tea which was sold at local markets started to
thrive by the mid-Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Longjing Tea won fame and its position at the
top of high-quality teas when it was highly appreciated by the Emperor Qian long of the Qing
dynasty, who was in power between 1736 and 1795 and praised Longjing Tea in his poems
after inspecting the tea plantations and having seen the whole procedure of the processingof the tea.
In the late 19th century and the early 20 th century, the local tea merchants in Hangzhou started
to own tea plantations and run the businesses systematically from growing to selling. Several
local brands like Lion, Dragon, Cloud, Tiger and Plum were built up one after another. The
industry grew over time and developed into a remarkable chain of tea production. By the
1960s-1980s, the tea plantations had largely expanded.

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Image 2. Distribution of Longjing Tea region. Source: China Architecture Design & Research Group.

1.3 The size of the landscapeThis study focuses on the region of West Lake Longjing Tea, which covers approximately 168
square kilometres of the plantation area.
The first tier of the Tea Cultivation Cultural Landscape is composed of traditionally dominanttea plantations, occupying 459.2 hectares of land, and featuring a typical local landscape, withall the elements that demonstrate the characteristics of the West Lake Longjing Tea region;
thus, the data in this investigation were sourced from the first tier of the cultural landscape.
Apart from West Lake, Longjing Tea is also produced in other two areas - Qiantang andYuezhou - which share a similar climate and soil characteristics to West Lake, as well as thetea processing techniques. Longjing Tea plantations and production spread to these twoareas, expanding Longjing Tea production and enriching the areas’ local varieties. On
account of this, investigations into these two areas were incorporated into this study.

1.4 The distribution and characteristics of the landscape
The landscape design of the Tea Cultivation Cultural Landscape demonstrates that the locals
have made great efforts to maintain tea plantations throughout generations, giving
consideration to keeping diverse species in the environment and sensitively developing theland. The landscape comprises elements including bushes, rivers, tea gardens, villages,
paths and roads. The investigation evaluated the landscape from three different angles, i.e.
the overall structure, the distribution of tea gardens and garden styles, and tea plantations.

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1)

140

Overall structure: The villages are dispersed in the flattish hills of the Tea Cultivation
Cultural Landscape, and tea processing factories are interspersed with residential
houses throughout each village. Paths and tracks extend between villages, linking theheritage of each village and connecting them to outside cities. In addition, there are many
footbridges in each tea garden, which form a fundamental structure of each tea garden.

2)

Distribution of tea gardens and garden styles: Tea gardens are spread out among
villages and along brooks and cascades. Most of the gardens sit on gentle slopes andface the sun, making the most use of the local terrain. The gardens line up one after
another or are interlaced with bushes and woods. Interestingly, these gardens arepatchily located in the region due to land ownership issues, the time required for land
reclamation and the tea crop growing season. Some gardens resting on steep slopes are
buttressed by rocks. When upgrading decrepit tea gardens, old tea trees are not simply
pulled out and discarded, but some are kept as a hub, forming tea tree clusters. The
garden then features orderly tea tree plots dotted with tea tree clusters.

3)

Tea plantations: West Lake Longjing Tea varieties are composed of traditional sexuallypropagated Longjing tea and vegetatively-propagated Longjing tea No.43. All theharvests rely on traditional hand-picking, and all farming events like planting, weedingand harvesting follow the seasons.

Image 3. Distribution of
Tea Gardens. Source:
Committee of Resort
Management ofHangzhou.

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1.5 The society and its culture
West Lake Longjing Tea, as the best of the high-quality Chinese teas and an outstanding
green tea, has been recognized as a cultural symbol representing bountiful tastiness andthe spiritual life. Specifically, in its early stages, Longjing Tea was closely attached to
Buddhism, and flourished owing to the economic and political development of the city ofHangzhou. The tea was immensely praised in poems, lyrics and literature in every Chinese
dynasty era. The tea’s production and its trade with other parts of China largely rely on
Hangzhou’s business environment and tea house culture. In addition, various culturalelements like temples, inscriptions, tea houses and museums together play a part in the tea
cultural conservation landscape.
As a specialty of the area, the production of West Lake Longjing Tea has encouraged local
farmers’ craft businesses and fostered the area’s commercial environment for further
development.
In late March or early April every year, it is time to celebrate the newly-harvested West Lake
Longjing Tea coming into season, which is locally called Tea Day Commencement. To celebrate
Tea Day Commencement, several events are carried out by the locals, such as games involving
frying tea, tests about farming proverbs, and the ceremony of tasting Longjing Tea.

1.6 The related communities and groups
The tea cultural conservation landscape has been promoted by those who heavily engage
with cultural and commercial tea events, such as tea farmers, Buddhist monks, scholars
and merchants.
There are many temples in the region of West Lake Longjing Tea. The community of Buddhist
monks has carried forward the techniques of processing Longjing tea from the early stages tothe present-day, and has also added cultural elements.
Outside the temples, the main community in the region is composed of many small andmedium sized villages where the locals subside on the tea business, and populations vary
between 300 and 900. In the first tier of the Tea Cultivation Cultural Landscape, there are ninevillages in which 2,700 households live (there were 215 households before 1949). Among theresidents, 5,000 people are farmers. Five villages in particular represent the typical tea culture;
noticeably, one village is sited in a plateau of the region, and the other four are situated in theplain and adjacent to tea plantations, and all of the houses in each village line up with themain roads.
Besides the villager community, the city residents in Hangzhou are also part of the West Lake
Longjing Tea culture business. It is said that half of Hangzhou residents are tea lovers, andtea houses as hotspots for entertainment were widespread between 960 and 1279 (the Songdynasty in Chinese chronology).

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1.7 The relationships between the region and trade, route of tradeas well as opportunities of economic development
The sustainable development of the region of West Lake Longjing Tea relies on the economic
position of Hangzhou in China, as well as the city’s financial contribution.
Between 1368 and 1644 (the Ming dynasty in Chinese chronology), Longjing Tea was aprime product given as tribute to the emperors in China, and was kept to a limited amount of
production. It is worthwhile noting that Hangzhou became a transportation crossroads of thelower reaches of the Yangtze after 610 when the Grand Canal was opened fortransportation,commercial

andatmosphere

thecity’sflourished.

The city was built up as a capital cityin two Chinese dynasties - the WuYue
dynasty in the 10 th century and thepost-Song dynasty in the 12 th century- which made Hangzhou a politicalcentre. Both economic and politicalfeatures brought a large number ofconspicuous consumers to Hangzhou.
Between 1636 and 1912 (the Qing
dynasty, which is well-known as thelast dynasty in China), the business of
Longjing Tea matured and was welldeveloped, allowing an international

Source 4. Tea Gardens in Longjing Village.
Source: China Architecture Design & Research Group.

trade in Longjing Tea products toemerge. Businessmen from neighbouring Anhui province travelled to the Longjing Tea region
to purchase tea, which initiated interstate trade. In the early 20th century, which wasapproaching the end of the Qing dynasty, capitalists from Hangzhou started to acquire tea
plantations in the Longjing region, to possess and operate the business supply chain. Tea
plantations were largely expanded, which accelerated the trade in tea. Between 1911 and
1931, the annual production of Longjing Tea increased by 15 times compared to that prior to1911, and the tea was traded with Hong Kong, Macau and Singapore.

1.8 The connection with its neighbourhood and withthe region where it is located
The region of West Lake Longjing Tea is tightly knit with its surroundings, in terms of bothnature and culture relations, and in particular the neighbourhood of West Lake.
The region of Longjing Tea is adjacent to West Lake, which is a prestigious national resort

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and a World Heritage property. It enjoys a unique and distinguishing natural environment andhistorical figure in cultural stories. There are many springs with high quality water, such as
Hupao Spring and Longjing Spring to name but two, and the water loosens the tea leaves toform an ambrosial drink. The woods and bushes release natural phytochemicals as insect
repellents, favouring the growth of tea trees. In the past, logs from Pinus massoniana trees
were used as fuel to heat up the woks in which tea leaves were fried. Temples like Lingyin,
Baopudao and Jingci have been associated with the history and culture related to tea. Scenic
overlooks from tea plantations sitting in the plateau provide views of much of West Lake andthe city of Hangzhou. As for the climate, the seasons in the region are shaped by the Pacific
Ocean monsoon due to its location in the Qiantang River estuary.

Source 5. Overview from Longjing Tea Gardens. Photo: China Architecture Design & Research Group.

2. The landscape of four notable tea gardens
The tea region of West Lake Longjing Tea is composed of several subregions which differ
from each other in terms of terrain, soil texture, tea varieties and tea processing. Five local
brands have been created in the past, namely, Lion, Dragon, Tiger, Cloud and Plum. In thisstudy, four tea gardens were selected to be investigated, as those gardens represent theregion’s characteristics, and the measures of evaluation are based on the fundamental
structure, location and style, and the plantation.

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2.1 The location and the size

Tea garden

Location

Size

1

Lion Garden

Longjing village

10 hectares

2

Cloud Garden

Lingyin village

6.7 hectares

3

Crane Garden

Manjuelong village

16.7 hectares

4

Early Spring Garden

Wongjiashan village

13.3 hectares

Image 6. The diagram of the landscape of Lion Ridge. Source: China Architecture Design & Research Group.

2.2 The characteristics of each garden
The characteristics of each tea garden feature three aspects, including the fundamental
structure, location and style, and the plantation. Specifically, the fundamental structure isconsidered to include geological attributes, the slope and the orientation; location and styleconsists of the surroundings, such as the relationships between the garden and the terrain
and between the garden and the community, as well as unique landscapes resulting from landownership issues, the time needed for land reclamation and the tea crop growing season; andthe tea plantation involves varieties, planting methods and techniques, and plantation history.

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three
aspects
index

Lion
GardenCloud
GardenCrane
GardenEarly
Spring
Gardenfundamental structure
geologicalattributes

slope

location and styleorientation

surroundings

145

tea plantation

overall
impression

varieties &planting
techniques

Plantation
historyotherfacilities

Mountainouson the northwest side,plain on thesouth-east
side, waterfrom the highland down tothe plain, it
looks like abell shape.
Misty rather
than windy.

Mostly ona slope of
more than
30° withgooddrainage.

Southeast
facing.

Closely-set
on the steep
slopes on
the westside ofLongjing
village, at alarge scale.

terracepatchedLongjing
variety
growing ina clusterin a large
space.

Since
the earlySongdynasty(960–1127).

reservoir,
pavilion

Mountainouson the southwest side,plain on thenorth-east
side, opens
towards West
Lake andlooks a bell
shape.

Mostly ona slopebetween
15-20°,
with someon a slopeof morethan 30°.

Eastandnortheast
facing.

Patchily-set
on the sharp
steep slope
behindCloud
temple, at asmall scale.

terrace& slope,patchedLongjing
variety
growing ina clusterin a large
space.

Since
the
Tang
dynastywhen itwascalledCloud
Tea(618907)

reservoir,
pavilion

Adjacent toWest Lake,withundulating
hills mingledwith brooks
and cascades.

Mostly ona slopebetween
5-15°,
with someon a slopeof morethan 20°.

Southeast
facing.

Far awayfrom thevillage,closelypacked on
the sunnyand gentle
slopes ofthe hills.

terrace& slopeLongjing
variety
growing ina clusterin a small
space.

Sincethebeginning of
the Ming
dynasty(13681644)

reservoir,
sunshade

Mountainouson the southwest side withgentle slopes
and thin soil
layers.

Mostly ona slopebetween
10-20°,
with someon a slopeof morethan 30°.

Southeastandsouthfacing.

Nearby thevillage,closely-set
on sunnyslopes fromhalf way up
the hill to
the top of
the hill.

gentleundulating
terrace

Longjing
No. 43growing in
regularly
plantedplots,
mostly theearlyseasonshooting
variety，
often
undergoingdrought.

Since
the lateMingdynasty(15061521)

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Image 7. Tea Gardens in Lion Ridge Village. Source: China Architecture Design & Research Group.

2.3 Traditional plantations
The traditional plantations of West Lake Longjing Tea follow the life cycle of the tea trees, andprotect the environment.
Traditionally, the seed harvest takes place after the first frost in the first year, and the seeds
are stored in cellars. Farmers start ploughing the sun-facing lands deeply down to 30 cm inthe spring of the second year, and flatten the soil after ploughing, growing the healthy seeds
in the soil with a space of 1.2 to 1.5 m between lines. The rest of the farming operations
include using burned straw as a fertilizer, and weeding in the late spring and early summer ofevery year. In the fourth spring, the tea trees mature and are ready for harvest. Like manyother tree crops, after maturing, tea trees need regular pruning for a better yield.
Tea plantations in the region have a natural ecological diversity, so many indigenous plants
remain in the region. In addition, vegetables, melons and fruit trees are grown around the tea
plantations. All of these farming operations ensure the retention of soil and water in the region
and the nurturing of the tea trees in the plantations. In the past twenty years, other facilities
like reservoirs and sunshades have been installed in many tea gardens.

2.4 The varieties and cultivation techniques
The tea varieties comprise the sexually-propagated Longjing variety and vegetativelypropagated tea. The Longjing variety is a traditional sexually-propagated tea, which
underwent natural selection and a breeding programme over a long time before becoming a

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well-founded local variety. The Longjing variety has medium and small sized leaves, and theshapes vary from long and narrow to round, oval and oblanceolate. Regarding thevegetatively-propagated tea, it was selected through a breeding programme and named
Longjing No.43. This variety is an early season variety, with shooting taking place 10 to 15
days earlier than the habitual Longjing variety, and with a reliable yield and good aroma.
Cultivation techniques: after the spring harvest, the tea tree canopy needs fine pruning andusually four types are applied, i.e. heavy pruning, re-pruning, branch-pruning and top-pruning.
Other farming operations mainly focus on ploughing and weeding. Some tea plantations adopt
turfing to maintain water in the field, and some use canola seed pomace to fertilize the land inlate autumn.

Image 8. Tea Gardens in Plum Village. Source: China Architecture Design & Research Group.

2.5 The harvest and process
Nowadays, the West Lake Longjing Tea harvest has been modified from traditional
techniques.
In the past, the tea harvest was carried out three or four times every year. In the present day,the harvest only takes place in spring. Only new shooting leaves are picked, and the leaves
must be tender and moist, with one leaf-bud, one leaf-bud accompanied with one leaf or one
leaf-bud accompanied with two leaves usually being picked. The procedure of the West Lake

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Longjing Tea processing includes picking, piling, withering, pan-firing, sorting and sieving forstoring. After processing, the new tea leaves become dry tea leaves, and appear bright andclean, uniform, straight and flat. Woks for pan-firing the tea leaves have evolved with time: inthe early stages, the woks were different from those used in the later period, and only one
wok was used, up to the use of seven woks in the 1920s. Since the 1960s, electric woks havebeen used to fry tea leaves, which has increased production; one wok can produce one
kilogram of fried tea leaves.

2.6 The communities and the local culture
The family business model has been the main model in the region from the past to thepresent day in terms of tea plantations and tea processing. Every harvest season, often two
seasonal workers are hired to pick tea for every 0.07 hectares. Tea trading companies
purchase and sell tea products. Tea associations propose the products’ grading and pricing.
The China Tea Academy and other research institutes provide technology to support them.
Other public affairs are regulated by local rules and agreements. Privately-owned tea
plantations appeared around the 1900s. Few people owned land before 1952, and the owners
hired workers to carry out the tea production. After 1952, every farmer was allocated 0.05
hectares of tea plantation. Competitions between villages in the region enhanced Longjing
Tea products. Noticeably, tea houses and tea shops line up the main streets and roads ineach village, and the Cloud Temple is rich in tea culture, while Longjing village contains many
inscriptions of poems and lyrics praising tea and telling tea stories.

2.7 The communities and residential sites
Four typical tea gardens belong to four different villages: Longjing, Lingyin, Manjuelong and
Wongjia, respectively. All the details relating to location, scale and history are listed in thetable below.

Village

Village scale

Buildings
related to tea
cultureAbout the community

Lion

Longjing

Located on the westside of West Lake, witha population of 800.

Two
dragonwells, 18 tea
trees,
fortunate court

The Wu, the Jiang, the Lin andthe Yang are the dominantfamilies. There are 53 hectaresof gardens.

Cloud

Lingyin

Located at the foothill of
Langya and 5 km awayfrom Longjing village.

Buddhist
Temple

The temple was built between
907-960.

Manjuelong

Located at the foothill of
Wongjia, with apopulation of 752.

Tiger spring

The village was named after atemple which was built in 939.
Osmanthus trees have beenplanted since the Ming dynasty,
from around the 1400s.

GardenCrane

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Early
SpringWongjia

Located on the south
side of Nangao ridge ata height of 176 m above
sea level and with apopulation of 900.

Extra dragon
well

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The Wong is the dominantfamily that emigrated fromneighbouring Fujian. There are
66.7 hectares of tea gardensand osmanthus trees.

Image 9. Tea Gardens in Cloud Village. Source: China Architecture Design & Research Group.

2.8 The relations with trade and the route of trade
As a specialty of the region, tea products have been strongly associated with farmers’ craftbusinesses and Hangzhou’s trade throughout a long history.
The development of West Lake Longjing Tea has rested on consumption by the locals andinvestment of Hangzhou’s merchants in the industry. There are many tracks and roads in thevillages, which facilitate the connection with Hangzhou. After the Qing dynasty (around thelate 1900s), capitalists from Hangzhou purchased lands in Longjing village and establishedtea plantations and delivered tea products to sell both inside and outside Hangzhou.

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3. The records from archives
and related research
3.1 The archival records
Since 2005, several surveys have been conducted in the West Lake Longjing Tea region
concerning plantations and tree varieties, and all records have been kept as videos. In
addition, archaeological investigations of cultural relics and heritage were carried out in theregion, in particular concerning Longjing temple, the eight scenes inscribed by the Emperor
Qianlong, and the historical monuments related to historic figures such as the famous
calligrapher Dong Qichang. The local committee in charge of the resort’s management
provided a detailed map and satellite data. All the documents and data have beensystematically filed.
All the files are saved in Hangzhou Municipal Archive Museum.

Image 10. Part view in Tea
Gardens of Lion Ridge
Village. Source: China
Architecture Design &Research Group.

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3.2 The related studies
THE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH HISTORY

The emergence of West Lake Longjing Tea started between 618 and 1279. Many records
describe Longjing tea as a temple tea. It flourished during the Ming and Qing dynasties, sincethe 1300s, and numerous documents originate from this period. After the 1900s, the region
rapidly developed, and chronological records increased over this period and are available forinspection. In the 21st century, it was considered that the region should be protected for thesake of ensuring its sustainable development and protecting its environment, resulting in aseries of insightful schemes for the region’s long-term future.
THE COURSE OF THE REGION’S EVOLUTION

The region continues to evolve, and its development has been conducted in a way that
respects traditional tea plantation techniques.
1)

Production expansion: In 1911, tea gardens were scattered in the region. The gardens
were enlarged and expanded between 1920 and 1930, and between 1960 and 1980,
both in terms of location and plantation size (i.e. the gardens expanded from the hills tothe plains and the trees were planted more densely).

2)

Production standardization: Traditionally, tea tree plantations were run without pruning
management, and trees grew naturally, reaching heights of nearly two metres, or stood atless than one metre in height. Since the 1980s, pruning techniques have been applied,and some plantations have introduced irrigation systems and shading techniques.

3)

Production evolution: The production of crops and vegetables has reduced, and tea crops
are providing greater contributions to the local economy. Leisure tourism and hospitality
have been developed along with the tea industry.

THE ACHIEVEMENT OF THE RESEARCH

Published books about Longjing Tea mainly focus on agriculture, tea products and tea warelike tea pots, such as Tea Evaluation, Chinese Tea Cannon and West Lake Longjing Tea. It
seems that there are few studies into Longjing Tea culture and plantations, and research israther lacking on the aspects of the tea cultural conservation landscape of West Lake
Longjing Tea.

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Image 11.
Tea
Gardens in
Wongjia
Village.
Source:China
Architecture
Design &Research
Group.

4. The threats facing the landscapeand its current situation
The tea cultural conservation landscape of West Lake Longjing Tea is confronted by several
risks caused by economic development, lifestyle changes and modern plantation
management. However, the region has been generally kept in a good condition and has goodprospects for the future.
The local communities have applied traditional techniques while sensitively incorporating
modern management and facilities into the plantations, resulting in their substantial
development to meet the needs of the growing population as well as the requirements ofeconomic development.
The local communities provide training courses to farmers to meet the challenge of using newtechnology in the tea process, such as the replacement of manually pan-firing tea by tea panfiring machines.
Family businesses in the tea industry have been changing over time. More local young people
have begun to return to the tea industry. Tea vendors have re-emerged and have enrichedbrand-based marketing strategies for the sale of tea products.

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Modern technologies are balanced with traditional techniques. For example, organic fertilizers
enhance tea yield and quality, digital machines increase productivity, and modern facilities
such as frost prevention fans, digital irrigation, nutrition monitors and pest alarms together
advance plantation management and reduce costs.
Generally, the West Lake Longjing Tea industry still follows a family business model, whileseasonal workers are available to hire in the harvest season, which is coordinated by thecommunities.
Some tea plantations have lower yielding tea trees, and it takes time to return to an ecologicalbalance.
In dry and hot summers, reservoirs are essential to prevent water deficiency in the trees.
Environmentally-friendly pest management is applied to repel pests. To reduce chemical
residue, such as from pesticides and herbicides, organic fertilizer should be allocated to thefamily businesses. To preserve the local varieties, government subsidies are provided tothose who grow traditional local varieties.
In recent years, the population of villagers in the region has not fluctuated. Since 2000, many
villages have refurbished their houses to improve living conditions, while keeping the
traditional architectural style.

Image 12. Overview of Yangmei Ridge Village (Bayberry Ridge Village).
Source: China Architecture Design & Research Group.

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5. The protection and current managementin the region
The protection of the West Lake Longjing Tea region is based on laws, regulations andtraditional customs. The region preserves the indigenous culture and native species in theenvironment, maintaining the whole ecological system. Specific laws include Regulations ofProtection for Hangzhou West Lake Longjing Tea Region, issued in June 2001, and Schemesof Longjing Tea Region Management on Geographical Identification Protection , implementedin October 2001. All the regulations and schemes have ensured the effective management of
the region.
As for the protection of the region, there is another law called Regulations of Hangzhou West
Lake Longjing Tea Region’s Designation that protects the heritage in the region.
In addition, traditional techniques still play a role in the management of the region. Local
committees and village leaders are responsible for village affairs, communication with farmers,
and coordination of businesses in the villages.
All of these methods, that is, the combination of modern management and technologies withtraditional cultures and techniques, together ensure the sustainable development of the region.

Image 13. Tea Gardens in Bayberry Ridge Village. Source: China Architecture
Design & Research Group.

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6. Conclusion
6.1 SummaryWest Lake offers the conditions for
producing high quality tea, while thecity of Hangzhou provides financial
assistance to the tea industry, and the
locals, throughout generations, havemade their best efforts to maintain theenvironment. Altogether, these havegiven long-term advantages to theregion and ensured its outstanding
position in the world.

6.2 The current situation
Due to the prestige of the region,
numerous records are available forresearch, which would be beneficial
for further studies.
Image 14. Tea Gardens in Nine Ripple Village.
Source: China Architecture Design & Research Group.

6.3 The difference with other landscapes
The West Lake Longjing Tea region is distinct due to its unique location and its celebrated
culture. Longjing tea has a special flat shape resulting from its particular tea processing
techniques. The industry leads the development of the region’s neighbouring tea industries.

6.4 The distinctive characteristics of the region
The geological features, the water/hydrological system and the monsoon climate are thedistinctive characteristics of the region.

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6.5 The issues in management and the solutions
One of the issues is the shortage of skilled workers who have knowledge of traditional tea
frying techniques. Another issue relates to residential buildings and the conflict between theneed for refurbishing and the need to maintain traditional architectural styles.
Constructive suggestions and multifaceted protection systems are applied, ensuring theregion’s sustainability.

6.6 The suggestions and the visions
The description and education of the region should be systematically established.
The four typical tea gardens should be conserved in ecologically authentic and genuine
conditions, and protected by national laws.

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Cultural Landscape of
Tea Gardens in Anhua,
Hunan Province
Wang Chaoyi
Working Group of China Architecture
Design & Research Institute1.

Overview

Anhua is located to the south of Dongting Lake in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River andof the Zijiang River, in the Hunan Province of China. It is the birthplace of Meishan culture.
Within the mountainous territory, there are gullies and ravines, and its vertical clima te is obvious.
Tea gardens in Anhua have been transporting dark tea to border nomadic areas for hundredsof years, and have so far retained a complete industrial chain of tea gardens, villages, tea roads
and tea factories. Tea gardens in Anhua embody the traditions of the villages along the ZijiangRiver in terms of human settlements and mountain ecological environmental protection, as wellas the ecological wisdom of tea gardens, such as wild tea domestication, tea planting and dark
tea production technology, water resources management and inter-cropping agricultural
farming systems.

1.1

Geographic information

Anhua County is located at 110°43′07″-111°58′51″ east longitude and 27°58′54″- 28°38′37″
north latitude. It is 123.67 kilometres long from east to west, and 73.46 kilometres from north tosouth, with a total area of 4,950 square kilometres. It has a subtropical monsoon climate with
distinct seasons, abundant rainfall and a short freezing period. The growth period of the tea
trees takes place over 7 months. With the annual average temperature of 16.2ºC, the countyhas 279 frost-free days, 1,376 hours of sunshine and 1,680 mm of annual precipitation per year.
The total length of the rivers in the territory is 2,242 kilometres, and the water area accounts for
98% of the total area.

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158Image 1. Location Map of Tea Production Area in Anhua. Source: Working group of the
China Institute of Architectural Design.

The mountains in Anhua are contiguous, with scattered hills, hillsides and flat lands. The
mountains are strongly cut by many V-shaped valleys and the relative height is high. Mountainarea accounts for 82% of the total area, with obvious mountain climate characteristics. The
forest cover of the whole county is over 76%, and the vegetation belongs to the middle
subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest zone. The vegetation types include mixed forests ofChinese fir, including Pinus massoniana and Cunninghamia lanceolata, and Camellia oleifera
and crops. The natural ecological environment is rich and diverse.
Anhua moraine is a remnant from the global ice age 600 million years ago, and accounts for
85% of the global moraine total. Moraine, slate shale and igneous rock have weathered toform acidic and weakly acidic rotten rock soil, which is rich in trace elements and suitable fortea tree growth.

1.2

Historical evolution

The earliest historical record of Anhua tea comes from the Tang dynasty (618-907), and islimited to local production and marketing. When Anhua County was established in 1072 in theSong dynasty, tea trees "grew on the banks of cliffs and rivers, and grew on their own without
people’s interference". In the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), tea trees were converted from wild toartificial cultivation, and most residents took planting tea as their profession. After 1595, in the

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159Ming dynasty, Anhua dark tea took the place of Sichuan tea and occupied the market in thenorthwest border areas. Subsequently, it sold well in the northwest, until the 1990s. At that
period, tea towns along the Zijiang River began to prosper. In the Qing dynasty (1636-1912),with the development of the Sino-Mongolian-Russian tea road, Anhua tea was sold to Mongolia
and Russia. The tea market in Anhua was very prosperous, and a number of tea gardens
appeared. During the Tongzhi period of the Qing dynasty (1862-1874), Anhua Qianliang tea
was created. Tea gardens in Anhua continued to produce tea during the Republic of China.
From 1950 to 1990, Anhua tea production reduced, but tea gardens gradually resumed theirprior scale of production after 2000.

Image 2. Distribution Map of Tea Gardens of Anhua.
Source: Anhua County Cultural Relics Institute.

1.3

Landscape scale

The distribution of tea gardens in Anhua covers the Zijiang River Basin and Yishui River
Basin, including 15 villages and towns. The area of tea gardens fluctuates under the
influence of market demand. In the 20th century, there were three large -scale expansionsof tea gardens in 1959, 1967 and 1973. According to the statistics of Anhua County, thearea of tea gardens in Anhua was 156,000 mu (10,400 ha) in 1982. In the 1990s, some tea
gardens were abandoned. In 2000, the area of tea gardens in Anhua fell to 3,333 ha, but
subsequently grew to around 6,666 ha in 2007, 14,000 ha in 2013, 18,666 ha in 2015 andto 23,333 ha by the end of 2018.

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Landscape distribution and characteristics

Most of the tea gardens in Anhua are distributed in the hillside area, with an altitude of 250-800
metres. The tea gardens conform to the trend of natural terrain, and the tea trees are planted
along contour lines. Tea farmers have long formed cultivation and management techniques tomaintain the ecological quality of the tea gardens, and have highly praised the ecological tea
garden models of "small tea gardens" and "tea planted among woods, and woods within tea
gardens". Around the tea gardens, hilltops, hillsides and eroded ditches, the original vegetation
environment and ecology should be preserved as much as possible, and protective forests
should be widely planted to maintain ecological diversity. The Anhua Yuntai big-leaf tea is a
representative of the Anhua tea species complex that has been mixed for breeding. It was
popularized in Hunan’s tea area between the 1950s and 1970s. About 70%-80% of Anhua has
been planted with Yuntai big-leaf tea. In 1957, Zhuyeqi variety was bred from large leaf teas in
Yuntai Mountain in Anhua by the Hunan Tea Institute. More than 3,333 ha of Zhuyeqi has beenplanted in Anhua County. When picking tea leaves, the tea stalks along with leaves are pickedusing a tool called a Chazhaizi. Afterwards, dark-raw tea is made and then transported to thetea farms for refining and processing.

Image 3.
Tea Gardens of Anhua.
Source: Zhou Deshu.

1.5Social and cultural systems

There are many mountains and few fields in Anhua. Tea has been the staple since ancient
times. Tea-producing villages in the mountainous areas of Anhua, such as Da'an village andMeishan village, have maintained the traditional social structure and tea garden management
model and have continuously produced tea since ancient times. During the tea picking season,tea merchants purchase the raw tea picked and made by tea farmers in the village. Raw tea istransported to the bazaar on the bank of the Zijiang River via the ancient road, processed andC H I N A T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S C A P E

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packaged, and then transported to the tea distributing city by water from the wharf. Traditionaltea market towns such as Huangshaping, Tangjiaguan and Baozhiyuan have developed
complex labour markets, business cooperation chains and social structures. Cultural relics suchas tea markets, tea kiosks, native banks, guild halls and wharves have been retained. Anhuais also home to 37 stelae, engraved with warning regulations that regulated the tea market
during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Qianliang Tea work songs were produced to accompany
the processing of Qianliang Tea.
Anhua dark tea is a kind of tea suitable for industrial processing. Tea production has developed
from traditional manual manufacturing by tea farmers to manual matching with machines, andthen to all the process being conducted by machines. Anhua Tea Factory and Baishaxi Tea
Factory are both modern tea factories developed from traditional tea shops. Anhua Tea Factory
maintains a large number of tea scientific research samples, original documents and archives,and early factories and equipment. Since 1950, the number of tea plantations operated byenterprises has gradually increased.
In the past ten years, Anhua has held a festival to celebrate the opening of Anhua dark tea
gardens every spring, and an Anhua dark tea cultural festival every three years. The local
custom of drinking ground tea is maintained. When tasting Anhua dark tea, usually rough andatmospheric tea sets are chosen.

Image 4. Early Architecture of Anhua Tea Plantation. Source: Working group of the China
Institute of Architectural Design.

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162

Relevant communities and settlements

From ancient times to the present day, tea farmers, tea merchants, scholars, officials and othergroups have jointly built and maintained the cultural landscape of the tea gardens of Anhua.
In 2017, Anhua County had a resident population of 913,800, including 282,800 in urban areas
and 631,000 in rural areas. Residents include 26 ethnic groups such as the Han, Tujia, Miao
and Mongolian groups, with Han people accounting for more than 95%.
The Anhua dark tea industry has always been the pillar industry of Anhua, accounting for 21%of the county's total economy in 2018, with about 350,000 people engaged in the tea industry.
According to labour force monitoring data, the proportion of the outflow population has shown
an upward trend in recent years. In 2017, 217,700 people went outside the county to work, andnearly half of the workers outside the province were employed in the Pearl River Delta region.

Image 5. Da'an Villagers' Residence. Source:
Working group of the China Institute ofArchitectural Design.

1.7

Image 6. High Mountain Tea Gardens in Yuntai
Mountain. Source: Working group of the China
Institute of Architectural Design.

Links with trade, trade routes and economic
development opportunities

In 1089, in the Northern Song dynasty, the government set up a trading market in Anhua topurchase Anhua tea in order to exchange it for horses in the northwest. From then on,commercial distribution centres began to appear on both sides of the Zijiang River. Before 1595,
in the Ming dynasty, Anhua tea was sold privately by tea merchants because of its large quantity
and low price compared with official tea from Sichuan and Hanzhong. After Anhua dark tea waslisted as an official tea in 1595, it gradually sold well in Shanxi, Shaanxi and Gansu and became
the largest commodity on the Ancient Tea-Horse Route. Tea merchants from Shaanxi, Shanxi,
Gansu, Jiangxi, Hubei, Guangdong, Hunan and other places set up tea shops to purchase,process, transport and sell tea along the Zijiang River every year, gradually forming many
ancient tea markets such as Mapeishi, Huangshaping, Tangjiaguan, Jiangnan, Xiaoyan andC H I N A T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S C A P E

163Baozhiyuan. From 1644 to 1950, Anhua dark-raw tea was transported to Jingyang, Shaanxi,
where it was processed into Fuzhuan Tea.
In the 17th century, the China-Mongolia-Russia tea route was opened up. After the merchantsbought raw tea and refined it, the dark tea was transported to the northwest market, and theblack tea was sold to Hankou and then transported north to Mongolia and Russia. After 1852,
in the Qing dynasty, trade routes were blocked due to the Taiping Rebellion, which affected thenorthwest tea trade. After 1874, the war subsided and trade resumed slowly.

1.8

Connections with surrounding landscapesand its region/country

The landscape of the tea gardens of Anhua is closely connected with its surrounding naturaland cultural environment.
Anhua County is an integral part of the forested areas in the famous mountains and great lakes
region in central Hunan. It is bordered by Xuefeng Mountain in the west and Dongting Lake inthe east. There are 72 peaks over 1,000 metres above sea level in the territory. The water flows
over 120 kilometres. The forest coverage of the county is 76.17%. Xuefeng Lake National
Wetland Park, Zhexi National Forest Park, Hongyan Nature Reserve, Liubuxi National Nature
Reserve and many other ecologically sound nature landscape protection areas are located in
Anhua County.
The tea garden villages are located in the remote and high mountains. Tea merchants and tea
farmers of past dynasties built and maintained the ancient road from the tea gardens to the towns.
Along the road, there were corridor bridges to protect against wind and rain, and tea kiosks
allowing pedestrians travelling along the road to take a rest, and even providing free tea. During
the Ming and Qing dynasties, there were over 240 corridor bridges and over 200 tea kiosks.

2.

Famous and important landscapeof tea gardens

Climate conditions such as sunshine, rainfall and temperature in Anhua are similar in all tea
gardens. The differences among tea gardens are reflected in the distribution of streams, thevegetation status and the soil structure in the region. Da'an village is a typical representative ofthe tea gardens of Anhua. The environmental characteristics are typical of its geographicallocation with three parallel rivers, mountains and frequent low clouds and fog. It once produced
Qujiangbaopian Tea (with tea-leaves pressed into the shape of coin-sized slices), a tribute tea
in the Ming dynasty. It testifies to the traditional production and lifestyle of the tea industry fromancient times onwards.

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Image 7. Distribution Map of Tea Gardens in Da'an Village. Source: Working group of the
China Institute of Architectural Design.

2.1

Location and scale

Da'an village in Qujiang Town, Anhua County, is located in a mountainous area and includes
two groups: Huangcha District and Da'an District. Residential buildings and tea gardens arescattered due to the terrain. The total area under tea cultivation is over 133 ha.

2.2

Main features of the landscapeDa'an village retains a complete system of villages, tea gardens, ancient roads, bridges andother elements, showing the typical growth environment and planting and processing
procedures of Anhua dark tea, as well as the dwelling culture and tea production culture of
Anhua village.
Gantianjie Tea Garden is located in Huangcha District and was cultivated extensively during
the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1912). Tea gardens are located on both sides of the ancientroad along the Huangchaxi stone arch bridge to the tea mountain. In the 1980s, the tea industry
was sluggish and the tea garden was deserted. The local villagers planted fruits and trees in
the ancient tea gardens at the foot and on the mountainside of Gantianjie, forming a landscapeof tea trees interplanted with other trees. The Fengshuping Tea Garden on the mountain top
covered about 8 ha, and the Matibianhuangshan Tea Garden and the mixed tea garden in which

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tea trees were interplanted with fruit trees covered about 15.5 ha. Daping Tea Garden is locatedon the hillside from the top of the back mountain of Laowu Courtyard to the eastern part ofDa'an District, with distribution conforming to the natural terrain. There is a piece of a SteleEngraved with Warning Regulations of the Tea Mountain dating from 1785, during the Qing
dynasty, in the tea garden.

2.3

Planting tradition

Anhua tea trees are shrub-sized plants. In the past, large wild tea trees were cut down andburned; after three years, the plant ash was piled on the root until it sprouted again to form what
was called a transitional tea tree. The tea fruits produced by the transitional tea trees werecollected, and the plants were directly seeded, subsequently forming cultivated tea trees. The
direct seeding method is to drill large holes, sow a handful of tea fruits in each hole and spreadthem inside the holes, then cover the holes with soil, mark them with bamboo plates, and leave
two to three strong seedlings in each hole after the tea seedlings are unearthed. The tea garden
is a clump-planted tea garden, basically arranged in rows with a row spacing of 1.7-3 metresand clump spacing of 0.3-1.7 metres.

Image 8. Tea Gardens of Tangxi. Source: Zhou Deshu.

Another method is seedling raising and transplanting: tea fruits are furrow sowed in front of andbehind the house, and when the height of tea seedlings is 0.3 metres, approximately two years
later, the better seedlings are transplanted. Four or five years after transplanting, the leaves ofthe seedlings can be picked, and spring tea is picked only once in the first two years. Afterseven or eight years, the branches are luxuriant and tea can be picked in large quantities.
Shrub-type tea trees gradually age and die after some decades.

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166

Species and cultivation techniques of tea trees

The tea trees in Anhua result from a mix of the Anhua tea species complex.
In the cultivation of tea gardens, there is generally no special fertilizer management, but deep
cultivation of the tea garden, commonly known as digging subsoil, can inhibit weeds, increaseorganic matter and change the aeration state and structure of soil. Farmers in the Houxiang
area, where Da'an village is located, only renew the very old tea gardens using deep pruning.
The quality of the tea trees that are not pruned will improve after several years. Food and othercrops, mainly corn, sweet potatoes and oranges, are widely interplanted in tea gardens.

Image 9. High Mountain Tea Gardens in Yuntai Mountain. Source: Working group of
the China Institute of Architectural Design.

2.5

Picking and tea processing

Tea is usually picked once or twice a year: the first tea is after 5 May, and the summer tea ispicked after 7 July. Picking is carried out when the leaves of the new shoots spread and the tea
branches are "green on top and red on the bottom". The tea stalks along with leaves are pickedusing a tool named a Chazhaizi.
Anhua tea is mainly made of dark tea. The manufacturing technology of dark tea originated in
Anhua in the late 15th century. It was improved by referring to the manufacturing method of
Sichuan dark tea, and a unique process was formed. The tea is fragrant with pine and smoke,which meets the dietary needs of nomadic people in northwest China. The series of dark tea
products made from dark-raw tea includes loose Xiangjian tea packed in baskets, and Qianliang
tea, Fuzhuan tea and dark brick tea, which are convenient to transport. After screening, picking,stacking and other processing techniques are implemented, Qianliang tea is processed bysteaming, basket packing, pressing and sun drying, among other techniques. The tea is

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packaged with locally sourced bamboo chips and Polygonum leaf, which is suitable for long distance transportation by camels and horses.

2.6

Social structure and cultural system

Before the Tang dynasty (618-907), some people
planted tea trees in Da'an Village to make tea.
The produced Baopian Tea was transported to
Shenwan and Xiawan on the Zijiang River byancient road and then down the Zijiang Riveroutside the mountain. The tea was sold to
Jiangling, Xiangyang in Hubei Province and even
Chang 'an, and was called Qujiangbaopian Tea.
Maowenxi's Tea Spectrum in 935 is the earliest
written record of Qujiangbaopian Tea.
From the Song dynasty (960-1279) onwards, thepeople of Da'an Village in Qujiang have made a

Image 10. Warehouse of Qianliang Tea in Anhua Tea
Plantation. Source: Working group of the China Instituteof Architectural Design.

living by planting and making tea. In ancient
times, villagers transported dark-raw tea or black tea to Shenwan (back and forth on the sameday) on the Zijiang River via the stone-board ancient road to exchange it for rice mainly comingfrom the outside world. Nowadays, Da'an village still maintains a simple village social structure,and the skill of making dark tea is passed down from generation to generation.

2.7

Relevant communities and settlements

Da'an village is a stable residence of the Xia and Shu ethnic groups. According to the genealogyof the Shu people and on-site investigations, the village was built around 1550 in the Ming
dynasty, about 470 years ago. Local residents keep the custom of drinking ground tea and darkraw tea, and generally do not drink Qianliang Tea. The 15th day of the 7th lunar month is an
important festival for families to worship their ancestors.
Most of the residential buildings were built between the 1920s and the 1980s, distributed overthe intermountain basin with an altitude of 180-190 metres, or in three to five patches, orscattered around the basin and on both sides of the creek. There are 73 wooden buildings inDa'an District, Zhongguping and Laowu Courtyard. A family burial area is located on the top of
the tea mountain, while other cultural relics include Qiling Bridge, Qiling Tea Kiosk Site and theancient well in the village.

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168

Links with trade and trade routes

Tea leaves from Da'an Village tea garden are transported to the ancient tea market on the bankof Zijiang River via Xin'an-xu Ancient Road. Stone slab roads, stone bridges, stone stelae,
wharves, and so on, still exist along the road.
Xin'an-xu Ancient Road is the main road linking Xinhua, Anhua and Xupu counties. People from
Xinhua, Anhua and other places go ashore to Xiawan by the Zijiang River and reach Xupu
County along the Xin'an-xu Ancient Road (from Zhongguping in Xiawan-Huangchaxi District,they cross Laowu Courtyard, via the Daping Ancient Tea Garden in Da'an Distinct, and go
southwest through Lianaopo Ancient Tea Garden, Lianli Village, Dachang Village and Yanjia
Village to the Xupu area). The existing ancient road has a total length of 5,000 metres. There
are two sections of well-preserved stone-board road, amounting to about 1,800 metres. The
stone-board road is about 1-1.2 metres wide. The height difference between the two stone steps
is not more than 30 centimetres. Tea farmers carry their loads up the steps, and mules, horses
and camels carrying goods come and go.

3.

Records and research

3.1

Records

Since 2000, the tea gardens of Anhua have conducted many investigations on the tea culture
landscape. The investigation results include the List of Anhua Dark Tea Cultural Heritage inAnhua County and The Declaration of Hunan Anhua Dark Tea Cultural System, an Important
Agricultural Cultural Heritage in China. Anhua has conducted extensive archaeologicalinvestigations into traditional villages, ancient roads and tea markets. The ancient tea trade
town, Mapeishi, has an archaeological plan. Satellite image data are updated year by year, andall kinds of image records and documents are systematically collated.
The above data files are kept in the Anhua County Cultural Relics Institute.

3.2.

Relevant research

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT STAGE

The tea gardens of Anhua started in the Tang and Song dynasties (618-1279), flourished in the
Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1912), and continue to this day. They developed rapidly fromthe end of the 20th century to the beginning of the 21st century.

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LANDSCAPE EVOLUTIO N PROCESS

Based on the premise of inheriting the traditional way of land use and respecting traditional
wisdom, the landscape of the tea gardens of Anhua continues to evolve. After 1950, all new tea
gardens were planted in lines, sparse tea gardens were planted with more tea trees, and theoriginal hillside tea gardens were gradually transformed into terraced fields.

MAIN RESEARCH RESULTS

The Declaration of Hunan Anhua Dark Tea Cultural System, an Important Agricultural Cultural
Heritage in China, compiled in 2019, comprehensively includes the research carried out on thecultural landscape of the tea gardens of Anhua, with detailed research results on history,
planting methods and trade. There are sufficient data on the social structure and cultural system,
but research from the perspective of the cultural landscape is not systematic.

Image 11. High Mountain Tea Garden in Yuntai Mountain. Source: Working group of the
China Institute of Architectural Design.

4. Threats and development statusof the landscape of tea gardens
The landscape of the tea gardens of Anhua faces threats that other traditional agriculturallandscapes face, such as social and economic development, changes in production and lifestyle,and intervention of modern management. However, the overall landscape of the tea gardens
has been well maintained and continued.

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170Facing the pressures of new development and the demands of population growth andconstruction development, Anhua has used multi-level management measures to control
the scale of land available for construction, keeping the tea garden ecosystem relatively
stable.
Dongshi Township, Anhua County, has maintained the ancient papermaking technique andtraditional bamboo strip manufacturing handed down from generation to generation for
packaging Anhua dark tea. However, due to high labour costs, workshops for ancientpapermaking techniques have been greatly reduced.
On the basis of the traditional family production model, the large-scale production model of tea
factories has developed slowly. Tea farmers and tea factories sell tea over the internet. Large
modern tea factories adopt standardized management methods and employ craftsmen to
produce Qianliang Tea using traditional production methods, thus ensuring the quality of thetea and the inheritance of production techniques.
In recent years, Anhua has promoted the green-planting of ecological tea gardens, using
rapeseed cakes, cow dung and other organic fertilizers to promote the recycling of resources
and form a complete ecological circulation chain.
Tea gardens in Anhua County are scattered, mostly in remote mountainous areas. Due to thelimited labour force, some tea gardens have adopted extensive management, which isobjectively beneficial for the ecological restoration of tea gardens. A small number of areas
have over-developed the tea gardens. In some of the newly-developed tea gardens, the tea
trees grow poorly, and a certain period of time will be needed to restore ecological diversity.
In recent years, the scale of tea gardens has expanded and tea enterprises have been put into
production at a faster speed. The development of production technology in enterprises isuneven. There are some phenomena of disorderly competition and unreasonable price system s.
There are many infrastructure construction projects in Anhua. Tourism development projects
not only bring income to the local area, but also change the living environment of the villages
to a certain extent.

5. Current protection and managementof the landscape of tea gardens
The protection of the tea garden landscape of Anhua is guaranteed by multiple systems of laws,
plans and traditional methods. The tea area preserves the original natural and cultural featuresof the area and maintains a balanced tea garden ecosystem.
At the level of laws and regulations, Yiyang City has formulated the Yiyang City Anhua Dark
Tea Cultural Heritage Protection Regulations combining the Cultural Relics Protection Law of
the People's Republic of China, the Intangible Cultural Heritage Law of the People's Republic

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Image 12.
Tangxi Tea
Garden.
Source:Working groupof the China
Institute ofArchitectural
Design.

of China and other laws and regulations with practice, and has implemented effective overalllandscape control and management since January 2018.
The protection at the planning level includes: The System Protection and Development Plan of
Anhua Dark Tea Culture (2019-2028), The Opinions on Comprehensively Promoting the Quality
Improvement and Upgrading of the Tea Industry (2013), Yiyang City Tea Industry "13th fiveyear" Development Plan (2016-2020), Anhua County Tea Industry "13th five-year"
Development Plan (2016-2020), The Opinions on Expanding and Strengthening the Tea
Industry from Anhua County People's Government of the Communist Party of China , anddetailed implementation rules.
Units that cooperate with the implementation of the overall landscape management regulations
include: the Anhua County Tea Tourism Industry Development Service Centre, the Agricultural
and Rural Bureau, the Bureau of Culture, Tourism, Radio, Film and Sports, the Tea Industry,
and the Cultural Relics Bureau, etc. At the grass-roots level of the tea village, village committees
coordinate village affairs to maintain the traditional consensus on ecological governance.

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In addition, the traditional management system still plays an active role. Since ancient times,
tea has been the main industry of Anhua County. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, in orderto ban private selling, fake tea and fake silver, and to guarantee the quality of the tea and fairtrade, the government and the people jointly formulated strict rules and regulations and village
rules and regulations, which are updated every few years. Stelae engraved with warnings ofpunishment, to inform the public, and stelae engraved with punishment regulations for criminals
are set up in tea markets and public places. The county has found a total of 37 stelae engravedwith warnings of punishment and stelae engraved with punishment regulations about tea, suchas the Stele Engraved with Warnings of Punishment about Tea in Xiaoyan Baozhiyuan in the
8th Year of Yongzheng, the Stele Engraved with Warnings of Punishment about Tea Seedlings
in Gaomaer Xi in the 17th Year of Daoguang, and the Stele Engraved with Warnings ofPunishment in Dongshi. In 1837, the Stele Engraved with Warnings of Punishment about Tea
Seedlings in Gaomaer Xi recorded that "tea seedlings are not allowed to be mixed, nor are they
allowed to be dug and stolen outside. Planters can dig only in their own garden. In case of
violation, the penalty is the same for everyone." This is the earliest written record of tea garden
management in Anhua.
The tea village continues to maintain traditional close social ties. The planting and maintenancemethods of tea gardens have been handed down from generation to generation . A relatively
stable production and marketing network has been established between tea farmers andenterprises. All of these have strengthened the resilience of the traditional system and haveplayed a positive role in jointly maintaining the ecology of tea gardens and cooperative
production. Some tea gardens abandoned in the 1970s resumed production around 2000.

6. Conclusion
6.1

Overview

Anhua tea gardens are located in an area of rare moraine rock concentration. Clouds formed by thegeographical environment of high mountains and rivers provide sufficient diffused light for tea trees
to grow. Anhua region has a long history of tea industry, and has long relied on the Ancient TeaHorse Route (Cha Ma Gu Dao) and the Tea Route of Ten Thousand Miles (Wan Li Cha Dao) to
provide tea to border areas. The tea gardens of Anhua have been transporting dark tea to nomadic
border areas for hundreds of years, and have so far retained a complete industrial chain of tea
gardens, villages, tea roads and tea factories. Anhua tea gardens embody the traditions of thevillages along the Zijiang River in terms of human settlements and mountain ecologicalenvironmental protection, as well as the ecological wisdom of tea gardens such as wild tea
domestication, tea planting and dark tea production technology, water resource management andintercropping agricultural farming systems, forming an outstanding cultural landscape of tea gardens.

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173

Research status

Abundant literature on the tea gardens of Anhua is available, which provides a basis for acomprehensive landscape analysis.

6.3

Difference from landscapes of other tea gardens

Compared with the producing areas around Anhua County, Anhua tea garden s have raregeological characteristics of moraine rock, and the soil type is very suitable for the growth oftea trees.

6.4

Outstanding landscape features

The landscapes of the tea gardens in Da'an Village represent an environment suitable for thegrowth of tea trees, and the stable ecological and social system of traditional tea gardens. The
elements are complete and well preserved. As a whole, the harmonious relationship between
the village, tea garden and natural environment is embodied in the tea garden culturallandscape and the vitality of the tea industry from ancient times to the present day, and has
good potential to apply for World Heritage.

Image 13. Tea Gardens in Da'an Village. Source: Working group of the China Instituteof Architectural Design.

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174

The problems of protection and management
and countermeasures

In the face of demands from infrastructure renovation, renovation of old houses, population
growth and the development of culture and tourism, urban planning has strictly controlled thelandscape. Multiple monitoring and protection mechanisms can promptly detect and control
adverse impacts and make effective interventions at the embryonic stage, without threatening
the preservation, authenticity and integrity of the landscape.
The population of the traditional villages has a decreasing trend. Ancient roads, bridges, tea
kiosks and other sites around tea gardens are located in remote places and are damaged tovarying degrees by natural disasters such as mountain torrents, landslides, insects and ants.
Existing protection and management measures have effectively controlled the scale of tea
gardens and infrastructure and can continue to strengthen the research and protection of theecological diversity.

6.6

Suggestions and prospects

It is suggested that ecological tea gardens should be encouraged, while the promotion oftechnological innovation on the basis of maintaining tradition is continued. The Anhua tea
market environment should be further standardised and sustainable development promoted.
As a whole, the tea gardens of Da'an village are representative. Tea gardens of Anhua havegood potential to apply for World Heritage, as they respect integrity, authenticity, ecology andcultural flexibility, and are effectively protected by national laws and regulations.

References
Agriculture Bureau of Anhua County, The Record of Anhua Tea, 1990.
Anhua County People's Government. The Declaration of Hunan Anhua Dark Tea Cultural System, an
Important Agricultural Cultural Heritage in China, 2019.
Archives Bureau of Anhua County, Hunan Province. Collection of Tea Industry Archives in Anhua
County 1508-1948, 2017.
Chen, Chuan, A General History of Tea [茶叶通史] Chinese. Beijing: China Agriculture Press, 1984.
Chen, Zongmao and Yang Yajun(eds.), The Classics of Chinese Tea [中国茶经] Chinese. Shanghai:
Shanghai Culture Press, 2011.
Peng Xianze, Anhua Dark Brick Tea. Changsha: Anhua Tea Company, 1950.
Report of Hunan Tea Management Office, 1939.
Ukers, W.H., All About Tea, The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Company, New York, 1935.
Wu Juenong, A Review of the Book of Tea, Beijing: Fan Suncao, 2005.
Wu Xiangan, Anhua Dark Tea. Changsha: Hunan Science and Technology Press, 2008.
Wu Yin, The Geographical Knowledge of the Origin of Tea, Anhua. Guangzhou, Liushangjin, 2019.
Xu Fanggan, A Brief Introduction to the History of Tea Monopoly in the Past Dynasties, 1941.

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Japan: Uji-cha Tea
Cultural Landscape
Shigeatsu Shimizu,
Kyoto Institute of Technology
Kazuhiro Uesugi, Kyoto Prefectural University
Keita Yamaguchi, Kyoto University

1.

General characteristics

1.1

General geographical/ecological/geological data

Japanese tea is characterised by the use of steaming in its processing
method, a technique which boasts the oldest history among the
production methods of “non-fermented” (non-oxidised) tea, i.e. green
tea. There are three representative varieties of Japanese tea: Matcha,
Sencha and Gyokuro.
Matcha is powdered tea that is cultivated in shaded tea plantations(Ohishita-chaen). Sencha is tea for brewing that is cultivated in open-air
tea plantations (Roji-chaen) and processed using the Uji method (green
Sencha processing method). Gyokuro (lit. “gem drops”) is high quality tea
for brewing that is cultivated in shaded tea plantations (Ohishita-chaen)and processed using the Uji method. Each of these varieties has its own
unique production and processing method. They are often produced inneighbouring areas and their landscapes are mutually related. In terms of
the quantity of production, Sencha occupies the largest percentage andthose of Matcha and Gyokuro are limited; however, all of these tea types
play an important role in the tea culture of Japan.
Tea is produced widely in Japan, specifically on the main island of
Honshu, the island of Shikoku and the island of Kyushu of theJapanese archipelago, which extends over a long distance northsouth (Image 2). The major commercial production areas are the Kinki

Image 1. Matcha,
Sencha and Gyokuro.
Source: authors.

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region, centring around Kyoto prefecture; the Kanto region, including Saitama prefecture; theChubu region, including Shizuoka and Aichi prefectures; and the Kyushu region, including
Kagoshima, Miyazaki and Fukuoka prefectures.

Image 2. Japanese Archipelago and Tea Producing Areas. Source: authors.

Many of these tea-producing areas are located in temperate and humid places where theannual average temperature is in the range of 14 to 16 o C and the annual precipitation exceeds
1,300 mm. Generally speaking, places with a great difference between daytime and night-timetemperatures are considered to be suitable for tea production, and therefore many tea
plantations are located on plateaus or in mountainous areas.
The Japanese tea tree is categorised under the Chinese group. It was introduced from China
and led to diverse varieties native to Japan as a result of natural crossbreeding. From thesenative varieties, “Yabukita”, which occupies 75% of the tea production area today, was selectedin Shizuoka in the early 20 th century; in Uji, Kyoto, varieties specifically appropriate for Matcha
and Gyokuro were selected in the early 20 th century, such as “Asahi”, “Samidori” and “Goko”.
Since then, many varieties have been created from these parent varieties.

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With regard to soil condition, physical characteristics particularly related to good water drainage
are considered important. Therefore, tea plantations are sited preferentially on sandy soils in
the lowlands and on sloped terrains in mountainous areas. In order to complement these soil
environments, organic materials, such as manure, are added to enhance the water-retaining
capacity. In terms of chemical characteristics, tea trees favour strongly acidic soil andnecessitate the use of nitrogenous fertilisers. Therefore, soil management measures are taken
to make a sustainable provision of nitrogen by adjusting acidity to some extent and addingorganic fertilisers such as rapeseed oil cake and fish cake.

1.2

Historical context: timespan during which the tea
landscapes have been in active production and their
persistence over time

Tea production was initially introduced to Japan from China by the early 9 th century. However,tea production as we see it today originates from the latter half of the 12 th century, when the
new tea-making style of Song dynasty China was introduced to Japan. After the introduction of
the Song style, particular tea cultivation and production methods were invented in the Uji area
and Yamashiro region, the southern part of Kyoto prefecture. Therefore, the history of tea
production in Japan is considered to have started in the middle ages.
Tea cultivation in the Uji area can be traced back to the middle of the 14 th century based on
written records. By the middle of the 15 th century, tea from Uji came to receive the protection of
the imperial families and the Ashikaga Shogunate families based in Kyoto, and became the top
tea brand in Japan by the name of “Uji-cha” (lit. “Uji tea”). In the 16th century appeared Chanoyu,
or the way of enjoying tea with a meal that comes with it and appreciating tea implements
according to a certain protocol; in the latter half of the 16 th century, the tea master Sen no Rikyu
established Wabicha, a type of Chanoyu.
Around the same period, Ohishita-chaen tea plantations, in which tea bushes were shaded byreed and straw screens for producing tea leaves for Matcha, appeared in the Uji area, instigating
the emergence of the powdered tea unique to Japan, characterised by a vivid deep green colour
and rich flavour (Image 3). At that time, powdered tea that was produced by the shaded tea
cultivation method could only be enjoyed by limited groups of people such as aristocrats,
samurais, Buddhist monks and powerful merchants. The Edo Shogunate permitted only Uji-go,
the town of Uji centring on Nakauji, to cultivate tea leaves for powdered tea, and it was not until
the Meiji Restoration in 1868 that its cultivation spread to other places outside Uji-go.

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Image 3. Traditional Ohishita-chaen (Shaded Tea Plantations). Source: authors.

In the middle of the 17 th century, the practice of steeping rolled tea leaves in hot water anddrinking the extract was introduced by Ingen, the Buddhist monk who opened the Mampuku-ji
Temple in Uji. As a result, the custom of drinking Sencha spread among ordinary people. Tea
leaves for Sencha were produced in the open air without covers and were processed by firingin an iron pot. In the 18 th century, tea farmers surrounding Yuyadani, an area neighbouring Ujigo, invented the Uji method (also known as the green Sencha processing method) of rollingsteamed tea sprouts over a fireplace to dry them, giving birth to Sencha, unique to Japan andcharacterised by a green colour, excellent taste and rich flavour (Image 4). This production
method had spread throughout Japan by the latter half of the 19 th century and formed the basisof Sencha production today.

Image 4. Traditional Rolling Process
in the Uji method. Source: authors.

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In the first half of the 19th century, the shaded cultivation and the Uji method were combined in
Uji, resulting in rolled tea leaves of supreme quality, i.e. Gyokuro. Since no such restriction as
was placed on the tea leaves for powdered tea was imposed on the shaded tea plantations for
Gyokuro, they spread from Uji-go to the neighbouring areas of Kyoto and, after the Meiji
Restoration in 1868, further to Aichi prefecture, Fukuoka prefecture, and so forth.
After Japan opened itself to the world in the middle of the 19 th century, tea became a major
export product, resulting in the great expansion of tea production areas in different places inJapan. As export increased, landscapes other than tea plantations themselves evolved
significantly in association with tea production, such as the formation of tea merchants’ towns
at advantageous places for water transportation.
Tea production had been manual work up to this period, depending on manual plucking androlling of tea leaves. In the latter half of the 19 th century, Japan’s industrial structure changed
its direction towards heavy industry, which made it difficult to secure the necessary labour fortea production. At the same time, both the plucking and processing of tea leaves weremechanised in order to increase production. As a result, open-air tea plantations changed
from the stock-by-stock cultivation style to the style of planting tea bushes in rows. Tea
factories also changed, adapting to mechanisation. Furthermore, simultaneously with therationalisation of production through mechanisation, small tea plantations were grouped
together to achieve economies of scale, cooperative tea processing factories were built, andfrost-proof fans were installed.

1.3

Scale, distribution and characteristic of tea landscapes,
including overview of type of plants and methods ofcultivation and harvesting, spatial characteristics

The types of green tea that represent Japanese tea are Matcha, Sencha and Gyokuro. All ofthese are “non-fermented”, i.e. green tea, and are characterised by the use of steaming in the tea
production process. In particular, Matcha is produced by a unique tea processing method, which,building upon a method that had been used in China up to the Song dynasty (960-1276), went
through unique developments in Japan. In China, the tea production method changed after thatand the use of steam in tea processing has only continued limitedly. Therefore, tea that is
produced through the steaming process in Japan can be said to be highly unique in the global
context. Different varieties of Japanese tea have unique characteristics in terms of cultivation
method, harvesting method, tea plantation form and tea processing method, respectively.

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Matcha and Gyokuro are cultivated in shaded tea plantations, which is a form of tea plantation
unique to Japan. Tea sprouts, the flavour of which is enhanced and bitterness reduced bycovering tea bushes with reed screens, straw screens or cheesecloth to block direct sunlight,
are manually plucked. Originally, shaded tea plantations were established only in Uji-go, andlater spread to other areas after the 19 th century. Today, other than in Kyoto prefecture, they
can be seen in Aichi prefecture and Fukuoka prefecture, for instance. Matcha is made bypulverising steamed tea leaves that are dried without rolling, called Tencha, into a fine powder.
Hot water is poured onto the powder in a bowl and whisked for drinking. Gyokuro is made byroll-drying steamed tea leaves. It is steeped in hot water and the extract is drunk, as is the casewith Sencha.
Sencha is cultivated in open-air tea plantations without screens. This type of tea field is widely
seen globally. Many tea plantations in the tea-producing regions of Japan are open-air
plantations. In open-air tea plantations, not only Sencha is cultivated but also Kabusecha(directly covered tea in open-air plantations), which is produced by directly covering the tea
bushes with sun screening sheets. The open-air tea plantations of the Yamashiro region in thesouthern part of Kyoto, which produce high quality tea, were mostly located in the valley or at
the mountain foot, areas characterised by limited sunlight and good ventilation. However, as
tea plantations expanded after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, they came to be developed also
on the slopes of mountains in their original landforms or in large-scale spaces developed on
gently-sloped terrains. Tea leaves for Sencha are steamed and roll-dried in the same mannerthat tea leaves for Gyokuro are processed.
Different varieties of the tea tree that are the most suitable for Tencha (Matcha before
pulverisation), Sencha and Gyokuro, respectively, are selected and used. For Sencha, 75%of the total area where it is produced uses “Yabukita”, which was selected from the native
varieties of Shizuoka prefecture. Other varieties that are cultivated in Shizuoka prefecture,etc., are either selections from the native varieties of the region or hybrids of these varietiesand “Yabukita”. On the other hand, for Tencha and Gyokuro, varieties that were selected fromthe native varieties of Uji, such as “Asahi”, “Samidori” and “Goko”, and their “child” varieties,
are used.
Tea trees were traditionally bred from seedlings, but after the Second World War, propagation
by grafting became a common practice. Tea leaves can be harvested from newly planted
seedlings after about 4 years, and they become adult trees after 6 to 7 years.
Plucking of tea leaves is carried out once a year, around May, for Tencha and Gyokuro;

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and several times between April and July, up to a maximum of four times including theautumn months, for Sencha. Once, tea leaves were completely hand-picked; today, manytea farmers use tea-plucking machines, except for some shaded tea plantations thatcultivate Tencha and Gyokuro.
The scale of tea plantations varies from place to place. In the tea production areas of Uji,relatively small-scale tea plantations are distributed over a wide area. Shaded tea plantations
are particularly small and their average commercial area is about 0.8 ha (Uji city), while open air tea plantations are relatively large and their average commercial area is about 2 ha (Wazuka
town). Places that produce large amounts of tea, such as Shizuoka prefecture and Kagoshima
prefecture, develop large-scale open-air tea plantations and promote the rationalisation of
production through mechanisation of tea leaf plucking.

1.4

Social and cultural systems

Already by the early 16th century, tea drinking had become part of the general culture of ordinary
people in Japan, as is shown in the Japanese phrase “Nichijo Sahanji” (日常茶飯事) (lit. “event
like everyday tea and meal”, meaning “business as usual”). Chanoyu (the tea ceremony) wasborn as a result and was systematised in the 16th century, providing social gathering opportunities
to the samurai class and also to rich merchants. Around the 18th century, tea spread among theliterati, who used Sencha, and its use was systemised to become Senchado (lit. “way of brewingtea”), which flourished and spread among tradesmen and artisans. After the Meiji Restoration in
1868, it became possible for ordinary people, too, to enjoy Matcha, which is produced at shaded
tea plantations. Chanoyu and Senchado have taken root in Japanese society as an art and culture
related to general aspects of daily life. Tea occupies a solid position in Japanese culture today.
For ordinary people, it was once usual to drink tea by firing tea leaves in an iron pot in the
Chinese style, as was introduced from China in the 17 th century. When the Uji method ofprocessing Sencha was invented in the 18 th century, green tea drinking spread throughout
Japan and became common among ordinary people. Since then, tea drinking has taken rootas part of daily life and culture.

1.5

Associated communities and settlements

Communities and settlements associated with tea production can be divided into thesettlements of producers, including tea farmers, and the tea merchant towns that finish, process,J A P A N T E A C U L T U R A L L A N D S C A PE

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sell and distribute tea products. Producer communities are formed near tea plantations and, inmany cases, houses of devoted tea farmers stand side by side with those of farmers who also
cultivate other agricultural products or engage in forestry. Tea merchant towns are, in manycases, formed at places convenient for tea distribution, particularly where shipment both byland and by water is possible. They usually take shape as remote towns along main routes.
The traditional cultures of Chanoyu and Senchado, which are both based on tea, have givenrise to many schools and are widely spread. They can be considered to be part of thecommunities that are profoundly associated with the tea production of Japan.

1.6

Links to trade, trade routes and economic opportunities

Tea is processed by tea farmers into Aracha (lit. “unfinished tea”) of Tencha, Sencha andGyokuro, and then collected and finished by tea merchants who sell and distribute the finishedproducts. Before the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Matcha produced by the shaded cultivation
method was exclusively dealt in by privileged tea merchants called Chashi, who traded directlywith the imperial court, the Shogunate and feudal lords. After the Meiji Restoration, Matcha
came to be traded widely by general tea merchants.
Sencha successfully found a market in Edo (present-day Tokyo) when the Uji method of tea
processing was invented in the Yuyadani area in the 18th century and its commercial market
expanded beyond the surrounding area of production throughout Japan.
As Japan opened itself to the world in the latter half of the 19 th century, Sencha, in particular,
became an important export item, and was exported from the ports of Yokohama, Nagasaki
and Kobe to the USA and other parts of the world. As a result, tea plantations spread throughout
Japan, but in the post-war period (after 1945), domestic consumption became dominant.
Matcha, Sencha and Gyokuro are mainly used for drinking. Recently, new uses have also been
emerging, including the use of Matcha as an ingredient of sweets. The popularity of Matcha
and products using Matcha as an ingredient is also growing internationally.

1.7

How the landscapes relate to others and to their overall
regional/national context

Tea production is often the major local industry for major tea production regions. Its visuallandscapes play a symbolic role in supporting the local brand as agricultural landscapes
representing the region.

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Landscapes of tea production comprise not only tea plantations, but also many other elements.
For example, since rice straw is necessary for tea cultivation regardless of the tea varieties
concerned, tea plantations are invariably accompanied by rice paddies in the surrounding area.
Since at shaded tea plantations, the rice straw is laid on reed screens that are placed onbamboo frames, it is also necessary for reed-growing wetlands to be located nearby. In addition,
because a large amount of fertiliser was traditionally used, proximity to an urban area as asource of human manure was a prerequisite condition for the location of plantations. The
distribution of tea mainly depended upon boats; therefore, it was also essential that there wasa river nearby. These diverse elements are interrelated in the development of landscapes oftea production.
Throughout Japan, landscapes of tea production are profoundly associated with daily life andculture. In the past, tea plantations were modestly seated at a corner of farmland, the foot of
the mountain, or a residence. Landscapes of tea plantations were part of daily life.
Tea-drinking culture ranges from day-to-day tea drinking to Chanoyu and Senchado, and isrooted deeply in the daily life and spiritual world of Japanese people. Landscapes of tea
production that physically support that culture can be said to be of essential value as they
support the foundation of Japanese culture.

2.

Known tea landscapes and importanttea landscapes

2.1

Location and size

The most important tea-producing area for understanding Japanese tea is the Yamashiro region in
the southern part of Kyoto prefecture, centring around Uji city, which boasts one of the longest
histories of tea production in Japan and still produces high quality tea known as “Uji-cha” (Image 5).
The three most representative categories representing Japanese tea are Matcha, Sencha andGyokuro. All of them originate from the Yamashiro region, which continues to actively produce
tea today. Not only is this region important as the origin of Japanese tea, but also for its
landscapes that fully illustrate the historical developments of Japanese tea to the present day.

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Image 5. Tea Plantations and Tea Producing Areas in the Yamashiro region. Source: authors.

In this region, the Ujigawa River and the Kizugawa River flow from the east mountain range,
Tanakami and Kasagi to the Kyoto basin in the west. The characteristic locations of tea
plantations are broadly categorised into two types: sloped terrains in the mountain area andflatlands on the banks of the aforementioned rivers.
Tea plantations on the river banks take advantage of the sandy soil, while those on themountain slopes make use of varied climatic conditions that are determined by a combinationof altitude and ventilation.

2.2

Key characteristics of each landscape

Image 6 is a schematic figure of the landscapes of tea production that can be seen in the
Yamashiro region.

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Image 6. Whole image of Tea Landscapes in Yamashiro Region. Source: authors.

The development of Japanese tea originates from Uji-cha, and the techniques that are essential
to the present production of Japanese tea, such as shaded cultivation (Ohishita-chaen) and theUji method (green Sencha processing method), were invented in the Yuyadani area and spreadthroughout Japan.
The Yamashiro region produces Tencha (tea leaves for Matcha before pulverisation), Sencha
and Gyokuro. The tea plantations that cultivate them are divided into two: shaded tea
plantations and open-air tea plantations. By the side of these tea plantations, there are tea
farmers’ settlements where Aracha (lit. “unfinished tea”) is made. Tea leaves are gathered intea merchant towns for final processing.
Shaded tea plantations produce either Tencha or Gyokuro. Bamboo shelves or wooden shelves
are set up at the tea plantations before tea leaf plucking starts, and reed screens and straw areplaced on them to shade the tea bushes. It is a unique cultivation method that has been provento have been practiced as early as the latter half of the 16th century, according to the description
by the Portuguese missionary João Rodrigues in his Historia da Igreja do Japao. In recent years,
improved cheesecloth has also been used on the shading shelves to achieve the same shading
effect as reed and straw. However, tea of the highest quality is still produced today at traditional

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shaded tea plantations. Representative shaded tea plantations are seen on plateaus in
Shirakawa in Uji city, Inooka in Kyotanabe city and on river banks in Kozuya in Joyo city and in
Kozuya, Nojiri and Iwata in Yawata city (Images 7 and 8).

Image 7. Ohishita-chaen (Shaded Tea
Image 8. Ohishita-chaen (Shaded Tea Plantation
Plantation) in Shirakawa, Uji City. Source: authors.
in Kozuya, Joyo City. Source: authors.

The rice straw used for coverage previously came from the rice harvested in the surrounding
rice paddies. The reed used was the reed naturally growing in the rivers and lakes nearby orin Lake Biwa to the east of Kyoto. Likewise, the bamboo and wood used for the shelves camefrom local bamboo and trees. In recent years, the use of local materials has been decreasing
due to environmental changes and technical innovation. Nevertheless, it is still possible toperceive landscapes that illustrate linkages between tea plantations and the surrounding
livelihood spaces.
Open-air tea plantations are related to Sencha. Up to the Edo period (1600-1868), shaded tea
cultivation had only been permitted for communities centring around Uji (Uji-go) as an exclusive
prerogative. In other areas, since shaded tea cultivation was not possible, open-air tea cultivation
spread. Traditionally, tea had been cultivated mainly in valleys in the mountain area where there
was good ventilation and frequent fog development. Since the modern period, tea plantations have
expanded to other areas under the influence of various circumstances such as the increase in tea
production for export to other countries, the promotion of the tea industry as part of post-war
reconstruction, and the modernisation of tea plantations with the introduction of large agricultural
machines. These historical developments are illustrated by Yuyadani and Okuyamada in Ujitawara
town; Harayama, Kamatsuka, Ishidera, Erihara and Yufune in Wazuka town; and Tayama, Takao,
Dosembo and Imayama in Minami-Yamashiro village (Images 9, 10 and 11).

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Image 9. Roji-chaen (Open Air Tea Plantation)
at a Valley in Yuyadani, Ujitawara Town.
Source: authors.

Image 10. Tea Plantation on a
Sloped Terrain in Kamatsuka,
Wazuka Town. Source: authors.

Image 11. Tea plantation on a sloped terrain
in Ishidera, Wazuka Town. Source: authors.

Image 12. Tea factory of farmer’s house in
Yufune, Wazuka Town. Source: authors.

In order for tea leaves cultivated at tea plantations to become Uji-cha, they need to go throughtwo manufacturing processes: Aracha (lit. “unfinished tea”) and Shiagecha (lit. “finished tea”),
as explained later. Aracha processing is carried out by tea farmers; therefore, their settlements
are dotted with “tea factories” to process Aracha, forming unique landscapes different fromordinary agricultural settlements. Tea factories built over 50 years ago are wooden buildings
with a series of openings on the wall to let in the sunlight and a steam-venting structure called
Koshiyane on top of the roof (Image 12).
Today, as machines are becoming larger, it is not unusual for large factories to be built outside
the settlements. Even so, tea factories around 100 years old still remain within the settlements.
Even in large factories, the basic functions of the machines that operate inside them have notchanged from those used in factories some 100 years old.
Tea merchant towns developed at Nakauji in Uji city, which was the central settlement at thebirthplace of shaded tea plantations; Yuyadani in Ujitawara town, which is said to have been

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the place where the Uji method (green Sencha processing method) was invented; Gonokuchi
in Ujitawara town, an important point for transportation; and Kamikoma in Kizugawa city.
Yuyadani was formed because Uji-cha had newly found a market in Edo (present-day Tokyo),and is characterised by distinctive landscapes of a series of merchants’ and farmers’ houses inthe deep valley. Located at a place where a main road between Kyoto and Nara intersects with
the Ujigawa River, Nakauji has been the core area of Matcha production since the 16 th century,in which old houses of privileged tea merchants called Chashi, who presided over tea business,
as well as tea farmers’ houses are found (Image 13).
At Gonokuchi, a tea merchant town was establishedon the original basic structure of a castle town in the
Warring States period (15th to 16th centuries).
Kamikoma had for many years been prosperous asa node of transportation both by land and by water,and saw an increase in tea merchant shops as tea
production in the upper valley of the Kizugawa River
increased as part of the expansion of Sencha
exports after the last days of the Tokugawa
Shogunate (in the mid-19th century).

2.3

Image 13. Townscape and Tea
Merchant’s House in Nakauji, Uji City.

Planting traditions

Nowadays tea trees are usually re-planted every 20 to 30 years. Two methods are used forthe propagation of tea trees: by using seedlings that are developed from seeds, and by
grafting, which is an asexual propagation. For the production of Uji-cha, local native varietiesthat were naturally bred in the region used to be cultivated from seedlings. In the 20 th century,
specific varieties that were selected from native varieties gradually came to be preferentiallyused. As a result, it has become common practice to plant tea trees by grafting these varieties
in asexual propagation.

2.4

Type of tea trees planted and techniques of tea cultivation

Tea trees of native varieties vary significantly in their characteristics and therefore it is difficult
to ensure a stable production of tea of the same quality. Because of this, in the 20 th century,
specific varieties based on native varieties came to be preferentially used, particularly for tea
trees cultivated at shaded tea plantations (for Tencha and Gyokuro). At present, while the

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“Yabukita” variety occupies 75% of tea production at the national level, it is characteristic of Ujicha producing areas that specific local varieties are cultivated in large quantities, such as“Goko”, “Uji Midori”, “Uji Hikari” and “Samidori”.
Not much is known about the genetic characteristics of native varieties or specific local varieties
of Uji-cha, nor about their genetic relationships with other tea varieties. Recently, DNA analysis
has shown that specific local varieties of Uji-cha, such as “Goko”, “Uji Midori” and “Samidori”,
belong to a genetically different group from “Yabukita”, and that many of the native varietiesthat exist in different places in Japan belong to the group consisting of the native varieties andother specific varieties of Uji-cha (Image 14). These results scientifically prove the uniquenessof the local specific varieties of Uji-cha and the historical developments of the dissemination of
the native varieties of Uji-cha throughout Japan.

Image 14. Comparison of Genealogical Trees of Japanese Tea. Source: authors.

Furthermore, in the case of Uji-cha, it is not the variety of tea tree that is decisively important,because it is characteristic of Uji-cha that tea of high quality is produced by blending tea leaves
that vary in character. Therefore, many tea plantations cultivate several varieties instead of asingle variety.

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Cultivation of many different varieties can effectively differentiate plucking periods. If only one
variety is cultivated, the plucking period is concentrated in one specific period, which not only
makes it difficult to secure the necessary labour, but also makes optimal tea leaf processing
impossible as a result of exceeding the capacity of tea factories in Uji-cha producing areas,
where traditional small-scale tea factories handle tea leaves. Despite the historical change fromthe general use of native varieties to the preferential use of specific varieties, there has been
no change in cultivating tea trees that have diverse characteristics.

2.5

Harvesting and tea processing

The harvesting of high-quality tea is done only once a year, around May. In most cases, tea
leaves are hand-picked. Only the youngest two or three leaves per stalk are harvested. Hand picking requires a lot of labour, and was traditionally carried out by female workers. Each tea
farmer had a more or less fixed channel to contact female workers, who may have come fromneighbouring settlements or remote places. On the other hand, tea for ordinary drinking isharvested twice or three times a year with machines.
Tea processing is divided into Aracha and Shiagecha. Essentially, Aracha is processed in thesettlements of tea-producing farmers while Shiagecha is processed in tea merchant towns. This
commonly applies to Tencha, Gyokuro and Sencha. Coordination between tea-producing
farmers and tea merchants is important for the production of Uji-cha (Table 1).

Table 1. Cultivation and Processing Methods of Uji-cha. Source: authors.

In the case of Tencha, Aracha processing involves steaming and drying. Japanese tea mainly
uses steaming to stop enzymatic oxidation. Steamed tea leaves are dried to form Aracha ofTencha. Tea factories that carry out this processing are equipped with a machine that cansteam and dry tea leaves continually, consisting of a steamer, a blower and a furnace. Before
mechanisation, drying had been done manually on charcoal fire-heated Japanese paper. Bricktea-drying furnaces were invented in the early 20 th century and it became possible to produce
Aracha of Tencha of much higher quality. Aracha of Tencha, processed at tea factories of tea

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farmers, is transported to tea merchants, who cut tea leaves uniformly, sort them using air,finish-dry them, and sort them again using static electricity and then by colour. Sorting requires
strict and meticulous work and, before mechanisation, was carried out by eye and by hand by
many experienced female workers.
Up to this stage, the processing is separated by tea plantation and by tea variety. At the final stageof processing, the blending of tea leaves is carried out in order to ensure a stable and consistentquality and price of the Matcha, Sencha and Gyokuro of Uji-cha throughout the year. Individual tea
blenders develop their own characteristics. They assess the look, taste and smell of individual
groups of tea leaves as well as the colours of brewed tea and leaves. Tea leaves that have a certain
grade or distinctive characteristics are then selected and blended to make finished Tencha. If theTencha is then ground with a millstone, this forms Matcha (lit. “powdered tea”).
In the case of Gyokuro and Sencha, the tea leaves are processed through steaming and rolling.
This technique of hand rolling was invented in the Yuyadani area in the 18th century and has
spread by the name of “Uji method” throughout Japan. Later, in Saitama prefecture, the handrolling process was mechanised by combining a steamer and rough rolling, rolling, middle
rolling and fine rolling machines, and today machine-rolled tea is produced. Nevertheless, theYamashiro region and other major tea-producing areas continue using hand-rolling techniques.
Aracha is transferred to the finishing tea factories of tea merchants to complete the tea
processing. There, after they are sorted by colour, tea leaves are fired for desiccation. The
finished tea leaves are subjected to assessment in terms of look, taste, smell and brewed -teacolour, and then a decision is taken regarding the blending ratio.

2.6

Social structures and cultural systems

Social structures in relation to Uji-cha that need mentioning are the relationships between teaproducing farmers and tea merchants.
The production of Uji-cha is characterised by division of labour between tea-producing farmers,
who cultivate tea leaves and process Aracha, and tea merchants, who finish the tea processing.
Traditionally, there were two types of business relationships: direct trade between tea merchants
and tea-producing farmers, and indirect trade through brokers. Farmers who trade a large
percentage of their tea leaves directly with tea merchants have different business administration
strategies from those who are highly dependent on brokers. Direct trade guarantees sales but
increases dependency on tea merchants. On the other hand, brokers make fair judgements basedJ A P A N T E A C U L T U R A L L A N D S C A PE

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on quality but deduct commission fees. From the point of view of tea merchants, direct tradeenables them to make requests to tea-producing farmers to supply the varieties, quality andquantity of Aracha desired. But, since tea leaves are products that are highly dependent on natural
conditions, access to wide-ranging supply chains through brokers is also necessary in order toensure the procurement of the amount of Aracha required. These two trade channels playcomplementary roles and are combined very well in the trading system of Uji-cha.
Brokerage, which used to be done by individual brokers, is now taken care of by agricultural
cooperatives. Direct trade continues to be carried out between tea merchants and teaproducing farmers still today.
In terms of cultural systems, it should be mentioned that it is tea produced in Uji that is used for
Chanoyu, which is widely known as a unique cultural activity of Japan. Chanoyu developed at
the end of the 16th century under the auspices of the ruling class, which resulted in theprotection of Uji-cha, too. Later, the protection of the ruling class was lost and its privileged teaproducing method spread to other areas, putting an end to the exclusive status of the Uji region.
Nevertheless, Uji has maintained tea production through continuous efforts to improve varieties
and mechanise tea-processing techniques.

2.7

Associated communities and settlements

Communities and settlements associated with Uji-cha production comprise tea-producing
farmers at the aforementioned tea plantations, and tea merchant towns that carry out thefinishing process and distribute the final products. In addition, during the tea-plucking season,“tea pluckers” are gathered from neighbouring settlements or remote areas.

2.8

Links to trade and trade routes

Tea leaves are gathered from tea-producing farmers and finished by tea merchants. As
mentioned above, several tea merchant towns have formed. These tea merchants are thestarting point of the tea trade.
Historically, in the Edo period (1600-1868), Matcha from Uji was a special product byappointment to the Tokugawa Shogunate in Edo (present-day Tokyo), the imperial household
in Kyoto, and feudal lords throughout Japan, which supported the culture of tea ceremony inJapan. When the tea leaves were carried over to the Shogunate, great importance was attachedand missions carrying Uji-cha were treated like processions of feudal lords.

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After Japan opened itself to the global market in the middle of the 19th century, tea became amajor export item and production for export increased in the Uji region. From the Uji region, tea
was transported down the Kizugawa River and the Ujigawa River to Osaka Bay and then Kobe
Port, from which tea was exported to the world.

3.

Existing documentation

3.1

Landscape surveys

Landscape surveys of Uji-cha producing areas have been carried out by municipal governments fortheir individual territories and by the government of Kyoto prefecture for the entire area. The
municipal government of Uji city carried out a cultural landscape survey with a focus on nature,
history, life and livelihood on the occasion of the selection of the area as an Important CulturalLandscape by the national government. The results were published in a report with the preservation
plan for the Important Cultural Landscape (https://www.city.uji.kyoto.jp/0000011397.html).
The major areas of tea production landscapes at Wazuka town, Minami Yamashiro village,
Yawata city, Joyo city, Kyotanabe city and Ujitawara town are registered as landscape
properties of Kyoto prefecture. Among them, Wazuka town and Minami Yamashiro village arealso designated as cultural landscapes of Kyoto prefecture. These registrations and selections
were made in consideration of the outcomes of landscape surveys that were carried out for theentire tea production area by the Committee for Research and Study of Uji-cha CulturalLandscape, which was set up by the government of Kyoto prefecture. Their results have been
compiled into reports, available on the website of Kyoto prefecture(http://www.pref.kyoto.jp/nosei/1331098394335.html), as part of the overall efforts towards thenomination of the Uji-cha heritage place on to the World Heritage List.

3.2

Photographs and photographic surveys

There remain many old photos relating to Uji-cha production, which were taken in different
periods since the end of the 19 th century, including paper prints, albums, photo collections andpicture postcards. Particularly, many photos remain that depict shaded tea plantations in Uji
city; those in the storage of Uji City Historical Museum have been inventoried(http://www.city.uji.kyoto.jp/category/3-11-8-5-0.html). Old videos on the production of Uji-cha
were recorded and are archived in the Museum of Kyoto. Videos on the whole process of the

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production of Uji-cha and on the traditional hand-rolling tea processing technique are made andposted on a website (http://www.ujicha.or.jp/).
Aerialphotosofthetarget

area

have

been

taken

in

different

periods(http://mapps.gsi.go.jp/maplibSearch.do#1) and, in addition, a great number of photos weretaken in the aforementioned landscape surveys and compiled in the database.

3.3

Archaeological surveys

The Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties requires that, when a development act istaken within an area known to contain Buried Cultural Properties, archaeological excavations
should be carried out at the expense of the project undertaker. A great number ofarchaeological surveys are conducted throughout Japan. Within the area of the landscapesof Uji-cha production, Nakauji, which is the central town of Uji city, and Shirakawa, whic h isa major tea production area, are the areas known to contain Buried Cultural Properties datingback to the Heian period (794-1192), where archaeological surveys have been conductedmany times and their results compiled into reports. Surveys have identified urban
infrastructure from before the tea industry thrived, archaeological sites of Buddhist temples
and aristocrats’ residences, local features that formed the basis of the subsequent history of
the tea industry, and archaeological remains related to the tea industry such as those of thelevee built when engineering work was carried out on the Ujigawa River at the end of themedieval period in relation to the location of tea plantations . As a result, the multi-layered
history of the place has been archaeologically clarified. Besides Uji city, there are other areas
known to contain Buried Cultural Properties, such as Inooka of Kyotanabe city, andarchaeological surveys have been carried out several times.

3.4

Inventories including recent mapping and databases

As part of the aforementioned landscape surveys by Kyoto prefecture and municipal
governments, tea plantations, tea farmers’ houses, tea factories, tea merchants’ houses andso forth have been mapped and a compilation of their database(http://www.pref.kyoto.jp/nosei/1331098394335.html).

is underway

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195

Archive documents, written sources, early maps
and plans, etc.

Historical materials related to Uji-cha production are stored in many places, including Uji City
Historical Museum and Kyoto Prefecture Yamashiro Local Museum ; therefore, the locationsof these materials are clearly known, and their inventorying and codification are done one by

Image 15. Drawing of Tea Production. (Early 20th century, in the storage of the Chamber of Kyoto
Prefecture Tea Public Interest Incorporated Association).

one. Documents related to production include the History of Uji City, which relates to
production in the Uji region; the Document of the Hori Family in Uji (in the storage of the
National Museum of Japanese History), which contains information about Uji-cha productionin the medieval period (12th-16th centuries); the Document of the Family of Kambayashi
Shunsho and the Document of the Family of Kambayashi Sannyu, which gives factual
descriptions of tea blenders in Uji in the early modern period; the Document of the Fujikawa
Family (in the storage of Uji City Historical Museum), which relates to production in the
Shirakawa region; the Document of the Family of Nagatani Sannojo (Nagatani Family), which
discusses the tea producer based in Yuyadani who was involved in the invention of the Uji
method; the Document of the Family of Nagatani Ihachiro; and the Document of the Familyof Shiomi Hiroshi (Shiomi Family), who was a tea merchant in Gonokuchi. Their inventorying
and codification are also underway.
Old maps of different regions and different periods remain, including the drawing of Uji-go, thetownship of Uji (in the storage of Uji City Historical Museum), which dates back to around the18th century. Drawings specifically related to production and distribution are, for instance, theScroll of Tea Jars (in the storage of the National Library), which depicts a mission carrying Ujicha to the Edo Shogunate in the Edo period (1600-1868); the Pictorial Explanation of Uji-cha
Production from the Beginning to the End (1861, in the storage of the National Institute ofJapanese Literature); and the Drawing of Tea Production (early 20th century, in the storage of
the Chamber of Kyoto Prefecture Tea Public Interest Incorporated Association). There remains

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an abundance of historical material that visually illustrates what the past landscapes looked likeand how production and distribution were carried out.

3.6

Conclusion, including consideration of appropriate
documentation for undertaking comparative studies

As far as landscapes of Uji-cha production are concerned, a basic study has been completed,including surveys of the existing landscapes, photos, mapping and a database. Theirsummaries are available on the internet. Inventorying and codification of historical materials
such as written records, old maps, old drawings and old photos are underway, and theirsummaries have been compiled in the reports of landscape surveys by Kyoto prefecture andUji city. The outcomes of the above have been made available as a whole on the website of
Kyoto prefecture introducing its efforts towards World Heritage nomination. Informationnecessary for comparative studies can be obtained from this website.

4.

State of historic and technical knowledge
concerning tea landscapes studies

4.1

Definition of the period or periods during which
the tea landscapes flourishedThe period during which the landscapes of Uji-cha production flourished can be defined as
the period from the mid-14th century, when tea introduced from Song dynasty China to Japan
was accepted in the Uji area and tea production started, up to the present day. Matcha, which
was produced in Uji, had become the most popular kind in Japan by the mid-15th century; thiswas followed by the initiation of shaded cultivation that led to Japan’s unique Matcha, which
continues to this day. In the 18 th century, the Uji method of processing tea leaves wasinvented, giving rise to Japan’s unique Sencha and resulting in the expansion of tea
plantations. In the early 19 th century, shaded cultivation and the Uji method were combined
to create Gyokuro, which led to the expansion of shaded tea plantations. Since then, thelandscapes of Uji-cha production have continued to be representative tea production areasof Japan.

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197

Have the landscapes evolved and, if so, how?

Landscapes of Uji-cha production have evolved continuously along with innovations anddevelopments in Uji-cha production. The first innovation was the invention of the shaded
cultivation of Matcha around the 16th century. This cultivation method of shading the entire tea
plantation with reed and straw brought about unique tea field landscapes in Uji. Tea blenders
in Uji, who exclusively processed and sold Uji-cha, built their houses in the urban area of Uji,forming unique townscapes.
In the 18th century, the Uji method was invented for processing Sencha. At places such as
Yuyadani of Ujitawara town, settlements of Sencha-producing tea farmers and tea merchants
were formed. Open-air tea plantations expanded to the mountain areas, resulting in thedevelopment of tea plantations on the sloped terrains that did not change the original landformsof the mountains.
In the early 19th century, shaded cultivation was combined with the Uji method in Uji, prompting
the emergence of Gyokuro. As a result, shaded tea plantations that had only been permitted
for privileged tea merchants in Uji spread to other areas along the Kizugawa River such as Joyo
city, Yawata city and Kyotanabe city.
In the latter half of the 19 th century, tea became a major export item and tea plantations
came to be developed widely in the mountain area too, such as Minami Yamashiro village.
At the same time, a tea merchant town was formed at Kamikoma, which was a node oftransportation.
In the 20 th century, in response to increasing production, the mechanisation of tea leaf
plucking and of tea processing progressed. In the process of rationalisation of production,
various ingenious endeavours were made, such as concentration of tea plantations,modification of tea plantations to become compatible with machine plucking, cooperative
operation of tea processing factories, installation of frost-proof fans, and use of cheeseclothat shaded tea plantations.

4.3

State of current research on history of landscapes, plants,
planting methods, harvesting and processing methods,social structures and cultural systems

Kyoto Prefecture Tea Industry Institute has been studying livelihood-related aspects andecological aspects of Uji-cha production on a continual basis. An enormous amount of research

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by individual scholars has been accumulated with regard to the production, distribution andconsumption of tea, associated social structures and cultural systems, and history.
With regard to landscapes of tea production, Kyoto prefecture has been conducting researchin preparation of a potential World Heritage nomination related to Uji-cha. The overall landscapecharacters of the target areas have been identified (refer to 3.1), among which the central urban
area and shaded tea plantations of Uji city have been selected and protected by the national
government as an Important Cultural Landscape. In preparation of the selection, landscapecharacters were examined (ibid).

5.

Threats to tea landscapes

5.1

Pressure from new development

In general, pressure from new development is decreasing due to depopulation and the ageingof society. Changes in the landscape are due to small-scale developments in the suburban
area, where control measures based on city planning are not sufficiently strong, andenvironmentally or visually inappropriate land uses such as outdoor stock yards. In addition, in
recent years, the construction of photovoltaic power generation facilities has raised concerns
from landscape perspectives, although the threat is not so serious in hilly areas where openair tea plantations lie.
In Uji, Yawata and Joyo cities, where tea merchant towns and shaded tea plantations arelocated, landscapes are partially affected by urban sprawls or the construction of buildings of
non-traditional styles and large scales. Nevertheless, the historic centre of Uji city and thesurrounding tea plantations have been selected by the national government as an Important
Cultural Landscape and are protected accordingly in order to restrict or minimize the negative
impacts on the landscape, through the enforcement of development control measures andcompliance with guidelines for historic building conservation and townscape development.
When historic buildings are repaired or restored for conservation purposes, care is taken to
maintain their originality, as is the case with the rehabilitation work on the tea merchant houseof Nakamura Tokichi.
In Yawata and Joyo cities, urbanisation is tightly controlled in tea-producing areas, whereas
areas constituting their middle-ground views are not unaffected by the construction of an
expressway and large-scale buildings. An issue to be addressed in the future is how to enhance

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the balance between development and the value of the cultural landscapes of Uji-cha tea
through control measures under the city planning act and the landscape act.
Near Gonokuchi of Ujitawara town, where a tea merchant town exists, an expressway ( ShinMeishin Expressway) and the Ujitawara interchange (IC) are planned to open in 2024. Since
new access roads and other structures are expected to be constructed along with them, it willbe essential that these developments are conducted in harmony with the value of the culturallandscapes of Uji-cha tea.

5.2

Abandonment of traditional cultural practices

The high quality of Uji-cha has been maintained as traditional techniques that have beenacquired over a long history have been passed down from generation to generation. In
particular, hand-plucked Tencha and Gyokuro have been cultivated at shaded tea plantations
that have more than 400 years of history and are symbolic of Uji-cha, known for its high quality.
However, owing to a reduction in domestic demand for the highest quality tea, the ageing ofproducers and the necessary workload, the number of hand-plucked shaded tea plantations isdecreasing, resulting in concerned anticipation of their decline and eventual disappearance.
At shaded tea plantations, as tea production facilities are modernised, black cheesecloth isgenerally used to cover tea plantations; however, there are still some tea plantations that use
traditional reed and straw screens and conventional cheesecloth, and where tea leaves areplucked by hand from natural-style plantations.
Despite the modernisation of tea processing, the traditional hand-rolling tea processing
techniques of Uji-cha (designated by Kyoto prefecture as an intangible folk cultural property)
have been passed down. These hand tea processing techniques are also referred to as themodel for mechanisation.

5.3

Changes in social structures

The number of tea farmers’ households in the Yamashiro region decreased almost by half
between 2003 and 2014, from 1,633 households to 858, according to the statistics of Kyoto
prefecture. It is a significant reduction. At present, the percentage of aged people, who are 60
years old or older, is as high as approximately 60%. The ageing population, and the shortageof successors, make it difficult to maintain tea plantations, resulting in the appearance ofabandoned tea plantations. As experienced, skilled tea leaf pluckers become old, it becomesJ A P A N T E A C U L T U R A L L A N D S C A PE

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more and more difficult year by year to find the necessary number of workers for tea leaf picking,which is a seasonal activity with irregular work hours. A shortage of human resources for tea
production in the future is an issue.
The area of land under tea cultivation in the Yamashiro region and the output of Aracha
have not changed much in the past ten years. Although the number of tea farmers isdecreasing, individual tea plantations have expanded; as a result, the total area of tea
plantations is maintained. When considering the specific subcategories of Aracha
production in Kyoto prefecture, it is observed that the output of Sencha decreased by morethan 40%, from 1,001 tons in 2004 to 576 tons in 2014, while Tencha doubled from 541
tons in 2004 to 1,078 tons in 2014. The low demand for Sencha has led to tea variety
conversions, and the growing demand from the food processing industry for items such as
Matcha sweets has caused a big change.
The average price (average of all the categories including Sencha, Kabusecha, Gyokuro andTencha) of Uji-cha (first leaves) decreased by about 13% from 2003 to 2013 as the customof steeping tea leaves in hot water and drinking the extract has become less frequent among
consumers, and domestic economic downturn has pushed down the demand for quality tea
as gifts.
While the conventional market of quality green tea is in a downward trend, as shown by thedecreasing number of shops specialised in tea and the low demand for tea as gifts, new stylesof quality green tea consumption are emerging, as shown by the increasing number ofJapanese tea cafes in large cities and other places.
Furthermore, in recent years, international companies such as Haagen-Dazs, Starbucks and
KitKat have started to use Matcha, which has attracted international interest as tea you can eat.
Japanese tea, and specifically Matcha, are gaining popularity outside Japan.

5.4

Impact of modern techniques of tea cultivation,
processing and management

Tea cultivation by traditional cultivation methods characterised by covering plantations andhand plucking is highly labour intensive, and it is not easy to expand its size or enhance its
efficiency. With regard to screens at shaded tea plantations, for which reed and rice straw wereused traditionally, many have been replaced with black cheesecloth screens, which can provide
shading and insulation similar to traditional screens, in order to rationalise production.

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The reduced use of reed and straw screens reflects changes in relation to the places of theirproduction, though local rice straw continues to be used still today. With regard to reeds, Lake
Ogura, which used to be the major source, was lost due to land reclamation in the mid-20th
century. Today, reeds are obtained from the reed fields at Omi-Hachiman city near Lake Biwa,
located in the upper reaches of the Ujigawa River, which are protected as an Important CulturalLandscape. The exact place where reeds are harvested has changed, but locally produced
reeds are still used.
Using black cheesecloth greatly contributes towards the continuation and transmission of tea
production to future generations; however, it results in a slight decline of the quality of tea
and significant visual impacts. Therefore, Kyoto prefecture is currently trying to develop a
new cheesecloth with characteristics close to those of traditional screens in order to improve
the tea quality.
Since frost in the spring sprouting season can cause tremendous damage to tea production,
frost-proof fans have been installed as a measure to prevent frost damage by controlling thetemperature of the air. This is essential and unique equipment that represents the process ofthe organic evolution of Japanese tea production. This equipment might appear to be anintervention on the traditional land use of tea plantations that are compatible with the naturalenvironment, but it is actually used to complement it, and as a preventive measure to mitigate
the damage of severe frost that occurs irregularly. Measures should also be taken to mitigate
the visual impact, such as harmonising the colour of the supporting posts of the fans, most ofwhich are currently made of concrete, with the surrounding environment. On the other hand,
there are tea plantations where no fans are installed, such as those which are old or where frost
hardly occurs due to landforms and microclimatic conditions. Measures to protect these tea
plantations are to be explored.
As a result of the mechanisation of tea leaf plucking in the latter half of the 20th century, it became
easy to expand the size of plantations; slopes in mountainous areas were newly developed into
tea plantations, which created the distinctive landscape of mountains covered by tea bushes with
farmhouses at the foot of the mountain. Tea plantations located on the slopes or steeply-sloped
terrains present beautiful landscapes to the eye, but their mechanisation and expansion is difficult,and it is also difficult to enhance the efficiency of the work.
Tea processing was completely manual up to the middle of the Meiji period (1868-1912) andwas then mechanised in the Showa period (1926-1989). However, this mechanisation was
based on traditional hand-rolling techniques.

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202

Lack of maintenanceWith the exception of Uji city, wooden buildings that were formerly used as tea factories but
went out of use as a result of the modernisation of tea processing and the shortage and ageingof workers have been left in a deteriorated condition or dismantled without much preservation
or utilisation. The situation is quite the same with regard to the preservation and utilisation oftea merchants’ houses.

5.6

Inappropriate or only partially appropriate reuses

There are no particular inappropriate reuses.

5.7

Specific threats (modern/industrial large-scale cultivation,
climate change, tea plants diseases and parasites;
partial abandonment of tea plantations, change of species
or plant die-off, etc.)

Large-scale cultivation of tea plantations was promoted in different regions through the largescale tea field development projects that started in the 1960s and 1970s. As a result, tea
plantations that were divided in an orderly manner suitable for cooperative cultivation spread.
However, because of geological constraints, the degree of conversion to large-scale cultivation
is not so dominant in the Yamashiro region compared to other tea-producing regions in Japan.

5.8

Changes to integral buildings and related settlements

Nakauji of Uji city, the urban area that has played a central role in the long history of Matcha
production, has some privileged tea merchants’ residences and many tea merchants’ shops andtea farmers’ houses, constituting a tea industry town where both the processing and sale of tea
are conducted. Some tea merchants’ and farmers’ houses have a tea factory within their precinct.
In the process of the modernisation of tea processing, the number of factories in operation isdecreasing. Besides Nakauji, other tea merchant towns developed at the nodes of transportation
by land and by water, such as Kamikoma in Kizu city and Gonokuchi in Ujitawara town. While thestyle of tea distribution has changed, these towns still retain their original townscapes. In addition,
throughout the entire Uji-cha producing region, there still remain unique landscapes ofsettlements dotted with tea factories together with tea plantations. In particular, Yufune of Wazuka
town retains a group of traditional private houses accompanied by tea factories.

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6.

Protection

6.1

Legal protection

203

6.1.1 THE LAW FOR THE PROTECTION OF CULTURALPROPERTIES (PROTECTION OF CULTURALLANDSCAPES)

Multi-layered protection is provided for Important Cultural Landscapes that have been selectedby the national government, based on the following three-tiered legal system: (i) notificationand management of important constituent elements in the statutory preservation plan for thecultural landscape under the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties; (ii) notification andrecommendations concerning the height, design and colour of buildings and other structuresand development acts through statutory landscape plans, landscape ordinances and landscapedevelopment standards under the Landscape Act; and (iii) conservation of agricultural land andnatural environment (notification and permission) under individual laws such as the Act
Concerning Establishment of Agricultural Promotion Areas, the Forest Act and the Natural
Parks Act. The Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties requires anyone intending toconduct an act that alters the existing state of an Important Cultural Landscape or affects its
conservation to submit prior notification to the Commissioner of the Agency for Cultural Affairs,
which provides necessary instructions, advice and recommendations. In the Uji-cha producing
area, the “Cultural Landscape of Uji” (an area of 228.5 ha) was designated in 2009 as an
Important Cultural Landscape.
6.1.2

LANDSCAPE ACT (ENFORCEMENT OF LANDSCAPE
PLANS AND LANDSCAPE DISTRICTS)

Under the Landscape Act, buildings and other structures within the landscape planning area
determined by a landscape administrative organisation are controlled through the requirementof prior notification and the subsequent issuance of recommendations. The mayor may issue
an order for corrective measures, when needed, with regard to form, colour, design, etc., ofbuildings and other structures. Furthermore, within Landscape Districts or Quasi-LandscapeDistricts, in the framework of the city planning, legally binding measures can be taken bymunicipal governments to control the form, size, height, etc., of buildings.
6.1.3

CITY PLANNING ACT (DEVELOPMENT CONTROL)

Within the Urbanisation Control Area under the City Planning Act, development acts that stimulate
urbanisation are restricted in principle. New construction and remodelling of buildings and otherstructures require the submission and approval of the application for building confirmation.

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204

AGRICULTURAL LAND ACT AND ACT CONCERNINGESTABLISHMENT OF AGRICULTURAL PROMOTION
AREAS (PROTECTION OF AGRICULTURAL LAND)The Agricultural Land Act requires prior permission when agricultural land is changed to otherland uses, with the aim of securing good agricultural land and promoting planned land use.
When agricultural land is converted to other land uses, prior permission from the governor of
Kyoto prefecture is required. In particular, with regard to agricultural land within the Land for
Agricultural Use designated by the municipal governments in their Agricultural Promotion Area
Development Plans, the policy is not to permit land use conversion in principle.

6.2

Planning or other forms of formal protection

6.2.1 KYOTO PREFECTURAL ORDINANCE FOR THE
PROTECTION OF CULTURAL PROPERTIES

Cultural landscapes that are deemed important by Kyoto prefecture are selected as prefectural
cultural landscapes, which is a category of prefectural property. Necessary measures forpreservation and utilisation are taken for the prefectural cultural landscape. In the Uji-cha
producing area, “Tea Field Landscapes of Uji-cha in Wazuka Town” (an area of about 96 ha)
and “Landscapes of Uji-cha Production in Minami Yamashiro Village – Tea Fields SprawlingOver the Mountain Bodies and Farmhouses at the Foot of the Mountain” were selected in 2008
and 2015, respectively.
6.2.2 KYOTO PREFECTURE LANDSCAPE HERITAGE
REGISTRATION SYSTEM

Kyoto prefecture registers important landscape resources in consideration of the deliberationof the Kyoto Prefecture Landscape Council, and, by sharing their values and disseminating
information, promotes actions to enhance the attractiveness of the locality, develop local
landscapes, and build local communities. So far, tea plantations sprawling over the mountains
in Wazuka town and Minami Yamashiro village; riverbank tea plantations around Kozuya in
Yawata and Joyo city, where high-quality Tencha is produced; landscapes of shaded tea
plantations and settlements on the plateau of Inooka in Kyotanabe city; and tea plantation
landscapes at Yuyadani of Ujitawara town, among others, have been registered.
6.2.3

TEA INDUSTRY PROMOTION PLAN

In 2015, Kyoto prefecture developed the Kyoto Prefecture Tea Industry Promotion Plan withthe aim of sustaining production at the tea plantations that spread over the mountains in the
Yamashiro region, and maintaining the practice of hand-plucking tea leaves at shaded tea

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plantations as a livelihood. The prefecture has also translated the plan into an action plan ofconcrete measures and is taking steps to promote the tea industry.

6.3

Traditional protection

Kyoto prefecture has been conducting research to identify better tea varieties by crossing
parent trees selected from the native seedling nurseries centring on the Yamashiro region. Still
today, excellent tea trees are stored as a “genetic resource stockpile” at the Kyoto Prefecture
Tea Industry Institute.

7.

Conservation and managementof tea landscapes

7.1

Conservation of natural and cultural features(1) CONSERVATION OF T EA FIELDS

Most of the tea fields in the Yamashiro region are designated as Land for Agricultural Use in
the Agricultural Promotion Area Development Plan. Because the policy is not to permit land use
conversion in principle, these agricultural lands are to be conserved and maintained as
agricultural lands.
(2) CONSERVATION OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Among the Uji-cha producing areas, a part of Uji city (about 228.5 ha) was selected by thenational government as an Important Cultural Landscape in 2009; particularly important tea
fields and buildings, such as tea merchants’ houses and tea factories, which reflect the different
stages of the tea industry from tea cultivation to processing and sales, have been identified asimportant landscape constituent elements. For these elements, the policy is to minimise
interventions to exterior repair and to avoid to the extent possible interventions within the area
visible from the public space, such as roads, without excluding the enlargement of the existingbuildings, etc. For alterations to the existing state, prior notification is required. Efforts are being
made to integrate traditional methods into repair and visual harmonisation works and to support
such actions.
In the Uji-cha producing areas other than Shirawara of Uji city, research is underway inpreparation of the selection by the national government as an Important Cultural Landscape.

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206

Management of overall landscapes, including
traditional management

For the conservation of landscapes of tea-producing areas, it is essential to sustain the
production of tea as a livelihood and pass on traditional production techniques from generation
to generation. In 2015, Kyoto prefecture developed the Kyoto Prefecture Tea Industry
Promotion Plan, with the aim of sustaining production at the tea plantations covering themountains in the Yamashiro region, and maintaining the practice of hand-plucking tea leaves
at shaded tea plantations as a livelihood. This plan includes measures to establish amechanism to maintain tea plantations in cooperation and coordination with producers and tostrengthen the branding power of hand-picked tea.
Furthermore, the Chamber of Kyoto Prefecture Tea Public Interest Incorporated Association
carries out activities to deepen consumers’ understanding of Uji-cha culture, conserve traditional
techniques associated with Uji-cha, improve the quality of Uji-cha, raise awareness about Uji-cha,and provide assistance for the promotion of Uji-cha. In addition, the Kyoto Prefecture Tea Industry
Research Institute, which studies both traditional and new production techniques, the Kyoto
Prefecture Tea Cooperative and the Kyoto Prefecture Tea Production Council also work topromote the tea industry and provide assistance to people working in the tea industry.
In 2013, Kyoto prefecture, relevant municipalities and tea industry groups set up a regional
coordination committee and held discussions on the preparation of a comprehensive
management plan for the conservation of the cultural landscapes of Uji-cha production.
In the same year, university scholars carrying out research related to Uji-cha, stakeholders of
the tea industry, businesses, non-profit organisations and others gathered to create a platform,
which has been undertaking actions based on strategies for maintaining and utilising thelandscapes of Uji-cha production.

7.3

Sustainable development including strengthening
resilience of traditional systems

Because Uji-cha has an established status as a high-quality brand, traditional production
systems such as shaded cultivation and hand-plucking were economically viable, andlandscapes of Uji-cha production have thereby been passed down from generation to
generation. However, in order to address present issues such as the low price of tea and theshortage of human resources, more aggressive measures to promote the livelihood would beneeded. It should be noted that tea plantations that have excellent landscapes are, more often

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than not, inefficient in terms of production; therefore, demerits in efficiency need to berecompensed by benefitting from other areas, such as making use of landscapes for branding
and tourism promotion.
In 2015, the Uji-cha producing areas of the Yamashiro region were registered under the
Agency for Cultural Affairs’ Japan Heritage programme as “A Historical Walk Through 800
Years of Japanese Tea”. The areas have been attracting more and more tourists from abroad
and within Japan, who are moved by the tea field landscapes and the taste of Uji-cha theysavour on site. Measures to sustain and renew the dynamic functions of this heritage should
be explored, including the possibility of repurposing buildings and facilities related to tea
production that have gone out of their original use for the promotion of the tea industry,including tourism.

8.

Conclusion

8.1

An overview of the profile of these tea landscapes

Japanese tea is characterised by unique green teas - Matcha (lit. “powdered tea”), Sencha(lit. “tea for brewing”) and Gyokuro (lit. “gem drop, high quality tea for brewing”) - which are
created by original production techniques, such as shaded tea plantations and the Ujiprocessing method, that were invented in the Yamashiro region, in the south of Kyoto
prefecture, founded on the tea production method of Song dynasty China. In Japan today,
tea is widely produced at relatively temperate areas on the Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu
islands of the Japanese archipelago, which is elongated north-south, but these tea-producing
areas invariably use the tea production method that originated in the Yamashiro region andspread from there throughout Japan. Tea produced in the Yamashiro region is called “Ujicha”. Landscapes of Uji-cha production can be regarded as representative of the landscapesof tea production in Japan.
The production method of Uji-cha has a long history of approximately 700 years, and gave
rise to shaded tea plantations on river banks and hilly terrains, where tea leaves for Matcha
and Gyokuro are cultivated, and open-air tea plantations characteristically unfolding oversloped mountain sides, where Sencha is cultivated. Distinctive landscapes have also beendeveloped, consisting, among others, of settlements with tea farmers’ houses and tea
factories where Aracha (lit. “rough tea”) is processed, and tea merchant towns in locations

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convenient for water transportation where Shiagecha (lit. “finished tea”) is processed andblended. These processes have been passed down to the present day, while evolving
historically with repeated innovations.
This region, through the production of Matcha, Sencha and Gyokuro, supports the tea-drinking
cultures of Chanoyu (tea ceremony) and Senchado, respectively. In addition, the production of
Sencha has turned the practices of making tea with a teapot and imbibing tea into a common
culture rooted in daily life, which has been a great contribution to the development of the green
tea drinking culture of Japanese people from all walks of life.

8.2

Whether the lack of documentation and research hinders
full analysis of the tea landscapesHistorical materials related to the landscapes of Uji-cha production, such as documents anddrawings that date from the 12th century, remain in good condition. Their inventorying andcontent analysis are underway. Comprehensive landscape research has been carried out by
Kyoto prefecture and others. As a result, sufficient research data to allow for comparative
analysis have already been obtained.

8.3

The distinctiveness of these tea landscapes in relation
to other sub-regions

Japanese tea falls under a sub-group of Chinese tea, but its production method is differentiatedfrom other “non-fermented” (non-oxidised) teas, i.e. green teas, of the Chinese tea group. It is
still processed by a steaming method that has the longest history in Chinese tea. With regard
to tea-drinking methods, the drinking of powdered tea leaves, a culture that has been disrupted
and lost in China, has survived in Japan as Matcha.
At the same time, historical methods of green tea production and drinking have also been
passed down from generation to generation in a multi-layered manner, undergoing uniquedevelopments through technical innovations.
Landscapes of Uji-cha production represent the tea-producing areas of Japan, comprisingcharacteristic shaded tea plantations and open-air tea plantations that correspond to uniquemethods of production and drinking, as well as tea merchant houses and settlements of tea
farmers’ houses that have tea factories. They have potential Outstanding Universal Value as a
type of landscape or an example of land use that illustrates significant stages in the history of

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the tradition and innovation of green tea production and has contributed to the development ofa tea-drinking culture for people from all walks of life.

8.4

Which landscape might be said to best reflect theparticular characteristics of this region and which, if any,might have the potential to demonstrate OUV, either on
their own or in a series?

The particular characteristics of the landscapes of tea production in Japan are best reflected in
the landscapes of Uji-cha production. The developments of Japanese tea originate from Ujicha. Techniques that are essential to Japanese tea today, such as shaded cultivation and theUji method, spread from Uji throughout Japan. Uji-cha tea landscapes thus include the mainelements present in the history and tradition of Japanese tea production and trade, that can beseen in the fields, small factories, merchants’ houses and settlements. The land use has been
maintained and they may be considered as evolving cultural landscapes that represent a
testimony of a cultural heritage linked to tea. The present landscapes of Uji-cha production
include all elements necessary to bear testimony to the history of tradition and innovation, as
well as the diversity, of tea production, such as land uses and facilities related to cultivation,
processing and distribution of tea. These constituent elements have survived to this day,maintaining mutual relations.

8.5

What are the main vulnerabilities of the tea landscapesof this sub-region?

Landscapes of Uji-cha production are vulnerable to changes in the traditional methods ofcultivating, harvesting and processing tea leaves, changes in social structure, and development
pressures.
Changes in the traditional methods of cultivating, harvesting and processing tea leaves haveoccurred since the 20th century in order to enhance production efficiency, by mechanising theharvesting and processing of tea leaves, concentrating tea plantations, expanding the size ofindividual tea plantations, and changing the landform to decrease steep slopes. Changes in social
structure include the ageing of tea farmers, shortage of successors, low demand for Sencha
consumption, and the decreasing price of tea. Development pressures are in a decreasing trend
in the context of the declining population of Japan, but the new construction of an expressway
and small-scale developments could cause landscape changes, which is a matter of concern.

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210

How are these impacting on conservation, authenticity
and integrity?

The cultivating and processing methods of Uji-cha have been mechanised and rationalised
without losing the essential value of the traditional methods. Traditional methods have also
survived in some areas and Matcha, Sencha and Gyokuro are all produced using traditional
techniques in those places. Therefore, careful preservation and management are needed in
the future. The impact of changes in the social structure is not small, but efforts have been
made to conserve landscapes by mobilising legal control measures for landscapes, ensuring
management and promoting tea production as a livelihood. To address development
pressures, legal control measures are planned to be taken, with a view to controlling
landscapes appropriately.

8.7

How effective is current protection and management and inwhat ways might these be improved?

Current protection and management are based on the laws and ordinances of the national
government and local governments, which provide protection of cultural landscapes as acultural property, landscape conservation, development control, and protection and promotionof agricultural land. Moreover, necessary actions for management purposes are being
promoted through the Kyoto Prefecture Tea Industry Promotion Plan, the concept of “Kyoto,
Ancient Capital City of Tea”, and also as part of the efforts to develop a management plan in
preparation of a potential future nomination to the World Heritage List. Despite these measures,
cultural landscape protection and landscape conservation do not yet cover all of the important
constituent elements of the totality of the landscapes of Uji-cha production. Therefore, a policy
has been taken to address these elements one by one, once specific conditions are in place,and to proceed with the selection of an Important Cultural Landscape and the subsequentpreparation of Landscape Plans in accordance with the Landscape Act.

8.8

Possible recommendations for the future

Measures for landscape protection and for the promotion of tea production are currently
implemented in parallel. However, an overarching plan will be needed to handle both of themin a holistic manner, and measures to promote management actions also need to be continued.
It is recommended that branding and tourism promotion that make use of the landscapes be
pursued. In addition, it is necessary to take actions to address changes in the social structure

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such as ageing, shortage of successors, low demand for tea consumption, and the low price oftea. New consumption styles and new demand for high-grade green tea, such as the use of
Matcha as an ingredient of sweets, have appeared recently, opening possibilities of finding newmarkets in addition to keeping and expanding conventional ones.

8.9

Views on the studied landscape potential
to demonstrate Outstanding Universal Value, including
integrity and authenticity, as well as ecological andcultural resilience, and an adequate stateof conservation

Landscapes of Uji-cha production are representative landscapes of tea production in Japan,
which include the main elements necessary to express their value and have maintained
their mutual relationships. They have evolved out of necessity over time, while the essenceof traditional methods is passed down from generation to generation and can still be seen
vividly as integral part of the way that tea is produced, processed and distributed today.
They are considered as cultural properties and the abundant historical materials evidencing
the value of the production techniques and their transition may serve as the basis to justify
their authenticity.
With tea production continuing still today, ecological resilience is maintained; culturalresilience of the individual elements is ensured through the designation of the landscapes asa cultural property.
Therefore, Uji-cha tea landscapes could deserve an in-depth study of their potential
Outstanding Universal Value.

Selective bibliography
Japanese Tea
Kato, Tokusaburo, Nihon Cha Boeki Gaikan (Outline on the Tea Trade of Japan), Chagyo Kumiai Chuo
Kaigisho, Tokyo, 1935.
Konishi, Shigeki, Nihon Cha no Miryoku wo Motomete (Pursuing the Value of Japanese Tea), Taiga
Shobo, Tokyo, 2005.
Oishi, Sadao, Nihon Chagyo Hattatsu Shi (History of the Development of Tea Industry in Japan),J A P A N T E A C U L T U R A L L A N D S C A PE

212

Nosangyoson Bunka Kyokai, Tokyo, 1983.
Nosangyoson Bunka Kyokai, Cha Daihyakka (Tea Encyclopedia), Nosangyoson Bunka Kyokai, Tokyo,
2008.
Teramoto, Masuhide, Senzenki Nihon Chagyo Shi Kenkyu (Study on a History of Japanese Tea
Industry in Pre-war Period), Yuhikaku, Tokyo, 1999.

Uji-cha Tea
Adachi, Hisakichi, Kyotofu Chagyo Shi (A History of Tea Industry in Kyoto Prefecture), Kyotofu Chagyo
Kumiai Rengo Kaigisho, Uji, 1934.
Horii, Nobuo, Uji-cha wo Katari Tsugu (Handing down the Story of Uji-cha Tea), Earth Work, Kyoto, 2006.
Kyotofu Chagyo Hyakunen Shi Hensan Iinkai, Kyotofu Chagyo Hyakunen Shi (History of a Hundred
Years of Tea Industry in Kyoto Prefecture), Kyotofu Chagyo Kaigisho, Kyoto, Uji, 1994.
Ujishi Rekishi Shiryokan, Uji-cha: Meishoe kara Seichae e (Pictures of Uji-cha: from Famous Places to
Tea Processing), Ujishi Rekishi Shiryokan, Uji, 1985.
Yamashiro Chagyo Kumiai, Yamashiro Chagyo Shi (A History of Tea Industry in Yamashiro Region),
Yamashiro Chagyo Kumiai, Uji, 1984.
Yoshimura, Toru, Uji-cha no Bunka Shi (Cultural History of Uji-cha Tea), Ujishi Rekishi Shiryokan, Uji,
1993.

Local History and Research of Uji-cha Area
Hayashiya, Tatsusaburo and Kenjiro, Fujioka, Uji Shishi (History of Uji City), 6 vols., Uji City, Uji, 19731981.
Ishii, Kanji, and Reiko Hayashi, Kinsei Kindai no Minamiyamashiro (Minamiyamashiro in the Edo Period
and the Modern Period), Tokyo University Press, Tokyo, 1998.
Joyo Shishi Hensan Iinkai, Joyo Shishi (History of Joyo City), 4 vols., Joyo City, Joyo, 1979-2002.
Minamiyamashiro Sonshi Hensan Iinkai, Minamiyamashiro Sonshi (History of Minamiyamashiro Village),
3 vols., Minamiyamashiro Village, Minamiyamashiro, 2002-2006.
Ujitawara Cho Kyoiku Iinkai, Ujitawara Choshi (History of Ujitawara Town), 2 vols., Ujitawara Town,
Ujitawara, 1980.
Ujitawara Cho Kyoiku Iinkai, Ujitawara Cho Chashi Chosa Hokokusho (Report on the Survey of theHistory of Tea in Ujitawara Town), Educational Board of Ujitawara Town, Ujitawara, 2014.
Uji Shi Rekishi Shiryokan, Ryoku Cha no Jidai: Uji, Oubaku no Kinsei Shi (Age of Green Tea: History of
Uji and Oubaku in the Edo Period), Uji Shi Rekishi Shiryokan, Uji, 1999.
Uji Shi Kyoiku Iinkai, Uji Shi Bunkazai Sogo Haaku Chosa Hokokusho I Uji, Shirakawa Chiku (Report on
the General Survey of Cultural Heritage in Uji and Shirakawa of Uji City), Uji Shi Kyoiku Iinkai, Uji, 2011.

Brochures and Web Sites in English
Brochure of Japan Heritage (Designated Story No. 9), Agency for Cultural Affairs,
http://www.bunka.go.jp/seisaku/bunkazai/nihon_isan/pdf/nihon_isan_pamphlet_english.pdf .
Uji-cha Tea Cultural Landscape; Aiming for World Cultural Heritage Status, http://ujicha.kyoto/en/
We Love Ujicha, http://www.kyocha.or.jp/we-love-ujicha/ .

VideosArt of Uji Tea (English), Chamber of Kyoto Prefecture Tea Industries, http://www.ujicha.or.jp/
Uji-cha Temomi Seicha Hou (Traditional Hand-rolling Tea Processing Techniques of Uji-cha), Chamberof Kyoto Prefecture Tea Industries, http://www.ujicha.or.jp/ .

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The Tea Landscape of
Hwagaegok Valley in
Korea
Je-Hun Ryu, Endowed-Chair Professor, Korea
National University of Cultural Heritage
Gil-Sik Hwang, Director, Myeongso Agricultural
Heritage Center in Korea
Jae-Hoon Cheong, Researcher, Myeongso
Agricultural Heritage Center in Korea

1. General characteristics
Hadong-gun County is located on the western edge of South Gyeongsang Province, which liesin the southern region of the Korean Peninsula. It is surrounded by Jirisan Nation al Park to thenorth, the Seomjingang River to the west, and the South Sea to the south. Hadong-gun County
has an area of 675.5 square km, with a total population of approximately 50,000, and produces
the second highest amount of tea in Korea after Boseong-gun County, South Jeolla Province.
In 2005, Boseong-gun County became Korea’s largest area of tea cultivation (571.3 ha) andproducer of the largest amount of tea production (996 tonnes), while Hadong-gun County has
474 ha under tea production and produces 264 tonnes. However, tea cultivation in Boseonggun County can be traced back only to the period of Japanese colonialism (1910-1954), while
in Hadong-gun County it started in the period of the Silla Kingdom (57 BC-935 AD). Hadonggun comprises thirteen lower administrative divisions: one eup (town) and twelve myeon(townships). In terms of tea production, Hwagae-myeon, in the northwest part of Hadong-gun,is today the most prominent among these lower administrative divisions, with an area of tea
cultivation amounting to 597.8 ha (Map 1). Today, this accounts for 87.8% of the annual tea
production in the county.
Hwagae-myeon Township is located in a valley surrounded by Jirisan Mountain and consists
mainly of a mountainous topography ranging in elevation from 100 m to 1,000 m above sea
level. Henceforth, the natural name is “Hwagaegok Valley”, although from time to time this will
be used alongside the administrative name, “Hwagae-myeon”. The Seomjingang River flows
along the southwest border of Hwagae-myeon, while the Hwagaecheon Stream flows from thenorth through the centre to merge into the Seomjingang River in the south (Map 1). The total
area of Hwagae-myeon is 13,437 ha and there are a variety of land uses, including fields (274
ha: 2.0%), paddies (345 ha: 2.6%), forested land (12,194 ha: 90.8%), and others (534 ha: 4.0%).

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In 2015, 84.2% of households were engaged in tea cultivation, which amounts to 801 out of 951
households. This is 40.9% of the total number of households engaged in tea cultivation in thewhole of Hadong-gun County. Tea in Hwagae-myeon, Hadong’s largest tea producer, is
produced by a group of small, individual
households rather than in plantations, and thesale and distribution of tea products is alsodone individually. By contrast, tea in Boseonggun, Korea’s largest tea producer, is grown andprocessed by a small number of agribusinesscompanies that were originally created by
Japanese colonialists.
Hwagae-myeon still maintains a traditional
system and process of tea production. Indeed,
it is Korea’s foremost tea-producing region andleads the development of the nation's tea
industry and tea culture. The tea fields, createdon mountain slopes suitable for native tea
Map 1. Location and Topography of
Hwagaegok Valley. Source: Yu, 2007.

varieties, are surrounded by Jirisan Mountain to
the south and the Hwagaecheon Stream to thenorth. Hwagae-myeon marks the northern boundary of tea cultivation in Korea. Geographically,
this area displays certain adverse conditions for tea cultivation, which local residents haveovercome by locating the tea fields on the slopes. This enables the forest to block the cold
winds while the moisture naturally arising from the Hwagaecheon Stream maintains optimal
humidity and temperature. In other words, the Hwagaecheon Stream forms a microclimate
environment that is suitable for planting and growing tea trees. This is why tea cultivation in
Hwagae-myeon has been able to persist for over a thousand years despite challenging
geographical and climatic conditions.

2. Key characteristics of tea cultivation
landscapeTea cultivation is conducted across the entire Hadong-gun region, but what is unique about the
Hwagae-myeon tea fields is their location on steep slopes of 30 degrees or more. On these
sloping fields, tea trees have adapted to the natural environment by nestling and naturalising,with little human intervention over a long period of time. Traditional tea fields are distributed
mainly along mountain slopes at an altitude of 100-400 m above sea level along the
Hwagaecheon Stream (Image 1).

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Image 1. Location of Traditional Tea Fields in the Hwagaegok Valley.
Source: Hadong-gun County Office.

Most of them are concentrated at altitudes between 300 metres and 400 metres, but some arefound as high as 800 metres. As such, the local residents refer to them as “wild” or “traditional”
tea fields (Map 2, 3).
Traditional tea fields usually form small
units in four different locations: between
rock cracks; under forest trees; nearstreams; and on forest boundaries. All ofthese locations are on slopes between
streams and forests that local residents
consider suitable for overcoming climaticand geographical limitations. Despite
such a locational pattern, traditional tea
field landscapes are continuous in form
because fields are not individually divided
by stone walls or fences.

Map 2. Distribution of Wild Tea Fields (196070). Source: Yu, 2007.

KOREA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE216

Map 3. The Distribution of Traditional Tea Fields (1990). Source: Yu, 2007.

With regard to the landscape, the traditional tea fields in Hwagae-myeon, in addition toneighbouring townships in Hadong-gun County, differ from those in China and Japan. This isbecause the tea trees carpet the rocky slopes with lush vegetation by forming a colony together
with other trees, crops and plants. Landscape diversity is also evident in seasonal changes inthe scenery. In addition to tea trees, local residents cultivate other crops in traditional tea fields,
which in turn contribute to enhancing the biodiversity of the cultivation system. Tea trees formcolonies between the rocks and other kinds of vegetation on the slopes. Thus, the whole area
under tea cultivation provides a habitat for a wide variety of vegetation, including arboreous
plants, shrubs and forest shelter, in harmony and with a distinctive beauty. Unlike terraced or
flatland tea fields, the fields do not appear in a regular linear pattern due to being dispersed

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irregularly along the slopes. To further illustrate this, the area features a wild landscape , withcolonies of tea trees interspersed with adjoining forest, large and small rocks and relatively
larger shrubs.
In harmony with the vegetation (the arboreous, shrub and ground vegetation) and the rocks on
the slopes, traditional tea fields create a distinctive scenery that intermingles with thesurrounding mountains. Some large colonies of tea trees have formed in lines along the ridges,
but many small colonies are also distributed sparsely on the slopes. Between the colonies aremany large and small rocks, and arboreous plants that are bigger than the tea trees. On theborderline zones where the Hwagaecheon Stream and the tea fields meet, the first type ofcolony is formed on the slopes in the upper valley, where flooding of the tea trees is unlikely(Image 2).

Image 2. Traditional Tea Fields on the Mountain Slopes. Source: Hadong -gun County Office.

These zones also create a distinctive scenic view, with the rocks along the river intermingling
with the seasonal mist. The second type of colony is the traditional tea fields that have formed
between the autogenous arboreous plants (or fruit trees) and crevices in the rocks (Image 3).

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Image 3. Traditional Tea Fields between the Rocks. Source: Hadong-gun County Office.

They make up a landscape which looks untouched by humans and is similar to mountainous
landscapes depending on the number of arboreous plants, tree shape and rock size and shape.
The third type of colony is found sparsely in borderline zones between the forests and the fields
where the trees cannot grow on the steep slopes (Image 4). Forest vegetation, rather than tea
trees, is predominant in these zones where tea fields are formed in a triangular shape.

Image 4. Traditional Tea Trees below the Forest. Source: Hadong -gun County Office.

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2.1

219

Planting traditions

In traditional tea fields, various kinds of fruit trees (chestnut trees, apricot trees, etc.) and forest
products are usually planted along with tea trees (Image 5). Unlike the terraced fields of China,
Japan and Boseong-gun County in Korea, in Hwagae-myeon, deciduous trees, such as
persimmon, chestnut and bamboo, are planted and grown together with these tea trees. Sucha mixed cultivation of trees is of great benefit for maintaining the livelihoods of local residents.
It also contributes to controlling sunlight and maintaining the composition and fertility of the soil.
This method produces tea leaves with diverse tastes, even in a single field. Maple sap, bracken,
fatsia and Japanese apricot also grow in the tea fields and in the nearby forests.

Image 5. Traditional Tea Fields in the Forest. Source: Hadong-gun County Office.

Management of the traditional tea fields on the slopes was not an easy task for local residents.
One major difficulty lay in field management due to the need of a workforce two or three times
larger than that required for fields on level ground, because tea trees grow in the crevices of
the rocks on the slopes and form atypical colonies in connection with adjacent forests. T he local
residents, however, effectively developed a combination of methods to manage the tea fields ,with the result that tea trees are selectively naturalized according to zones with natural
conditions favourable to their growth, such as climate and soil. Such management is conductedaccording to a four-step process: first, tea fields are created by utilizing the geographical andecological characteristics of the area and minimizing artificial land clearance; second, tea trees
are propagated by seed on the land rather than propagation by tea tree cuttings; third,
pesticides and chemical fertilizers are avoided throughout the tea tree cultivation process; fourth,maintenance, harvesting and processing are performed by hand rather than being mechanized.

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2.2 Tea tree types cultivated and tea cultivation techniques
In general, native tea trees in the Hwagaegok Valley originate from indigenous tea trees thatgrew near temples such as Ssanggye-sa Temple and Chilbul-sa Temple. While they are closely
related to Chinese species with small leaves, they have adapted to local conditions over a long
period of time. Although Chinese species have oval leaves, those in the Hwagaegok Valley
have leaves with a variety of shapes. This is because the tea trees have evolved genetic ally
over time into different species through this process of adaptation to the local environment.
Depending on the propagation method, native tea trees can be classified into two species types:
the first type is one that has been sowed through seedling propagation (Type 1). This has a“tap-rooted” characteristic by which the root grows deep down into the soil and improves thenutrient uptake of the tree. It is strongly resistant to hazardous natural conditions such as
drought, frost and blight. The second type has been seeded by vegetative propagation (Type2). It is horizontally-rooted, which is a characteristic whereby tea tree roots grow horizontally tothe surface. Type 1 is the dominant native species in the area and has enabled local residents
to overcome natural limitations and develop the current tea production method. The Institute ofHadong Green Tea has recently verified that the native tea trees are of a different species tothe native varieties of China and Japan.

2.3

Harvesting and tea processing

The first harvest of tea leaves, called Ujeon, is normally carried out during a special day
known as Gogwu (穀雨), or Grain Rain (20th April). However, due to the effects of climatechange, the Ujeon harvest season is becoming earlier in the year, and is now over by lateMarch. The later the harvest is completed, the more the quality of the tea leaves degrades.
This is due to excessive sunlight causing the fostering of certain substances that make thetea taste bitter. During the harvest season, the collection of tea leaves on cloudy or rainy days
is prohibited. The collection of tea leaves around noon on a sunny day is not allowed, eithe r.
This is because the tannin components produced at this time activate a bitter taste. The best
time to collect high-quality tea leaves is at dawn or in the morning when the sunlight is not
too excessive.
The residents of Hwagae-myeon have long maintained the traditional method of processing tea
which features roasting the tea leaves in a cast-iron cauldron. This may seem reminiscent of
the Chinese method at first glance; however, a closer inspection reveals it to be very different.
After being roasted, the tea leaves are rubbed against a straw mat before being put back into
the cast-iron cauldron for another rubbing. This combination of roasting and rubbing is repeatedseveral times. As traditional tea fields are dispersed all over the mountain slopes, the harvest
time of the tea leaves varies depending on the location. Variation in the harvest time, in turn,gives the tea leaves different characteristics. In order to ensure that tea leaves with differentKOREA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

221

characteristics embody the same taste and aroma, the local residents had to develop a tea
processing method in which tea-roasting is repeated several times.
Hand-roasted tea, sujedeokeum-cha, is a traditional variety with a pleasant smell and tastethat is made by roasting tea leaves in a cauldron. The term, deokeum, derives from thenominal conjugation form of the Korean verb deok-da, meaning to roast without adding
additional water. The sujedeokeum-cha recipe, therefore, features “roasting by hand”, whichis said to have been a traditional Korean method. Specifically, this method is recorded in the
Dongsasong (1837), a historical document written by a Buddhist monk named Choeui (1786 1866). The document contains information about tea tree types as well as their locations, inaddition to the history and qualities of the tea products made from them. Choeui, a Zen(meditation) master, is well-known for leading the revival of Korean tea culture. Moreover, thetraditional tea recipe in Hwagae-myeon can be found even in historical records from the Three
Kingdoms period (4th to 7th century).

2.4 Social structures and cultural systems
Traditional tea made in the Hwagaegok Valley was highly praised and enjoyed by renowned
Buddhist priests and Confucian scholars. Even during the time when tea cultivation was in
decline, monks at Ssanggye-sa, such as Zen master Choeui, and Confucian scholars relishedthe local tea together while improvising poems about drinking tea. Since the late 1970s, tea
culture in Korea has been rapidly reviving after a long decline. Buddhist society was the leading
force in the movement to revive tea culture. Monks not only practised Zen Buddhism, but also
revived the tea fields that had been deserted and uncultivated since the early 20th century.
Furthermore, they were enthusiastic about transmitting their method of cultivating tea fields andprocessing tea leaves to local residents.
Traditional tea culture, which is still alive among local residents, can also be found in theirmarriage customs. When two families agree upon the marriage of their children to each other,
they exchange tea seeds within a lucky pouch, or bok-jumeoni in Korean. The bok-jumeoni is asmall traditional Korean pouch to be dearly kept, and the seeds within it symbolize chastity
between the couple. The seeds are meant to promise the couple a constant marriage just likethe tea tree that grows with vertical roots. This tea tree is also called the silhwa-sangbong-su(fruit reunion tree) or moja-sangbong-su (mother-and-son reunion tree). This is because it bears
fruit when it blooms, and then retains it until the next bloom which comes one year later. Sucha characteristic thus symbolizes the love between parents and children. Likewise, the tea tree
has its cultural roots in the area not only as a means of survival but also as a local custom
among residents.
Hadong-gun, including Hwagye-myeon, has served as the heart of tea culture and is recognized
as the home of tea cultivation. Various kinds of folk songs, tales and poems originated here andhave been passed down through the generations to the present day. Since the period of theKOREA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

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Silla Kingdom (57 BC-935 AD), many songs and poems expressing the moment of enjoying tea
have been composed and passed down to the present in the Hwagaegok Valley. These include
poems by two great Buddhist masters: Seosan (1520-1604) and Buhyu (1543-1615). The
former improvised a poem while enjoying tea after he built a hermitage named Naeeunjeok-am,
and the latter composed a poem to express his joy after planting tea in the forest around Chilbulsa Temple while devoting himself to Buddhist doctrines and practices. Folktales, which describe
tea as a folk medicine and a tribute to the king, have also been passed down orally.

2.5

Associated communities and settlements

Buddhist culture once flourished in present-day Hwagae-myeon, which corresponds to the
Hwagaecheon Stream Valley. It is in this area that temples played such an important role in the
spread of Buddhism that they are recognized as part of what is known as “Jirisan Mountain
Buddhism”. The temples and their monks on Jirisan Mountain spearheaded tea production in
the surrounding land while spreading traditional cultivation and processing methods nationwide
up until the modern period. Traditional tea fields are still found in abundance around thesetemples, including at Ssanggye-sa and Chilbul-sa Temples. The monks and the local residents
have been working together to cultivate the tea fields and process tea leaves into tea materials
while sharing traditional techniques and knowledge.
Until the middle of the Joseon dynasty (17th century), Buddhism maintained its power in the
Hwagaegok Valley along with the production of tea. A Confucian scholar, Ji -baek Kim (15741637), wrote in his travelogues that “Chilbul-sa Temple beyond Samshin-dong Village provides
the most beautiful scenery among 370 temples on Jirisan Mountain.” Based on these records,
it is assumed that a great number of monks must have been accommodated at these numerous
temples (Map 4). In a folktale, it is even said: “A person took off his straw shoes and visited thetemples across the area, and then he returned to where he had taken off his straw shoes andfound them to have already gone rotten”. All in all, these facts suggest that the tea fields had
expanded up until the mid-Joseon dynasty alongside the prosperity of Buddhist culture.

KOREA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE223

Map 4. The Distribution of Buddhist Temples before 1632. Source: Yu, 2007.

In the early Joseon dynasty (1392-1550), the tea fields in the Hwagaegok Valley expanded inline with Buddhist temples. The only temples that remain today from this time are Ssanggye -sa
Temple and Chilbul-sa Temple. The revival of tea cultivation in the modern era also began
mainly around these two temples. Before the modern era, temples alone cultivated tea fields
with local residents participating only partially in temple tea cultivation. The knowledge and skillsof tea production accumulated in the temples over a long period of time, and these have beentransmitted to local residents. In other words, the cooperation between the monks and local
residents ensured that unique tea production methods were developed, maintained, and thenpassed on to their descendants.

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2.6

224

Links to trade and trade routes

The residents of the Hwagaegok Valley sold tea products by visiting households and markets,
including temporary markets such as the Jaeksal-jang Market. Jaeksal-jang was alone in
opening periodically during the barley harvest season. With their abundant tea production,
Hwagae-myeon residents went to Agyang-myeon or Hadong-eup, and even as far as Namhaegun or Busan-si, in order to sell their tea products. Since tea leaves are light in weight, theparticipants in Jaeksal-jang Market were mostly women who went across the Seomjingang
River and over Jirisan Mountain to sell their tea products. This method of selling tea products
lasted over a long period, and meant that the producer was simultaneously the distributor. Tea
leaves were usually exchanged for rice or barley, but sometimes for other items such as redbeans, silk, and so on.
Currently, tea leaves are sold at Hwagae-jang Market, which is located at the entrance to
Hwagaegok Valley, at the crossroads of the land and waterborne routes along the valley of the
Seomjingang River. This used to be one of the largest traditional markets in Korea, but thetradition of Jaeksal-jang has not been maintained. It is not known when the market opened forthe first time, but it is thought to have originated at the nodal point, Hwagae-naruteo Pier. The
pier is believed to have served as the centre of trade along and across the Seomjingang River,which activated trade and traders. Hwagae-jang had been open as a five-day market since King
Yeongjo's reign (1770), and was so thriving that it was regarded as among the seven largest
markets in the country until the end of Japanese rule (1945). Today, the market remains a
famous tourist spot that attracts thousands of visitors every year.

3. Existing documentation
In terms of tea history and culture, present-day Hwagae-myeon is the most noteworthy of all
Korean tea-producing regions. During the Goryeo (918-1392) and Joseon (1392-1910)
dynasties, it was recognized as the area in which the first tea tree plantation was located andwith the largest area under tea tree cultivation in the country. Historica l records affirming
Hwagae-myeon as not only the origin of tea tree production but also an excellent producer
can be found in documents such as the Samguk-sagi, Dongguk-isangguk-jib and Dongdasong.
It is said that Zen master Choeui (1786-1866; the author of Dongdasong and Dasinjeon andConfucian scholar Kim Jeong-hee (1786-1856) both agreed that tea from the Hwagaegok
Valley was of the best quality; they wrote on the topic when exchanging letters and tea
products at the time. Jeong Yak-yong (1762-1836), another scholar from the realist school ofConfucianism, also praised the flavour of traditional tea from the Hwagaegok Valley while
acknowledging that he used such tea to concentrate on his writing while in exile in present
Gangjin-gun County.

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Other historical documents which add support to the claim that present-day Hwagae-myeon
was historically highly renowned for its tea production include the following:(1)

During the Unified Silla Kingdom (676-935), Samguk-Sagi (Silla-bongi Vol. 10: King
Heungdeok, beginning of Ch. 17) records the following: "Kim Dae-ryeom, the envoy toTang China, came back with tea seeds which the king ordered to be planted near Jirisan
Mountain. Tea has been present in the country since the day of Queen Seondeok, the 27th
monarch, from when tea began to be prevalent in the country".

(2) During the Goryeo dynasty (918-1392), Yi Gyubo (1168-1241) reported in the Donggukisangguk-jib: "To talk about the tea harvest in the Hwagaegok Valley, the local government
encourages both the old and the young to harvest it. They harvest the tea leaves by theskin of their teeth and carry them over to the capital in loads". This record implies that
Hwagaegok Valley was a leading tea-producing area in the country at that time, and thequality of the tea product was excellent enough to be supplied to the royal court.
(3) During the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910):•

Ha Yeon, a scholar-official in the early Joseon dynasty, who served as the governor of
Gyeongsang Province, presented tea products from the Hwagaegok Valley to Minister
Min Eui-saeng, who was going on a private trip to China. At that time, he said: "I haveheard that Hwagaegok Valley has some excellent tea. It is as refreshing as the tea from
Yangseon Mountain in China, and the value of its aroma is akin to precious metal andgems. I send it to you from my heart as a supplement for your trip" .

•Choeui, a Zen master in the late Joseon dynasty, praised the excellence of Hwagae tea
in his panegyric titled Dongdasong: "In the Hwagaegok Valley near Jirisan Mountain,
tea trees grow well enough to cover an area as wide as 40 to 50 ri” (one ri corresponds
roughly to 15-20 kilometres).

4. State of historical and technical knowledge
concerning tea landscapes studies
The first tea tree of the thousand-year history of Korean tea culture was planted in the
Hwagaegok Valley in 828 on the order of the king. It was near Ssanggye-sa Temple that thetea seed brought from China was sowed. Following this, Buddhist temples in the surroundingarea followed suit by cultivating tea fields. With an influx of farmers who brought more land into
cultivation by slashing and burning the forests, villagers later joined the monks in the productionof tea. Furthermore, at the entrance to Ssangye-sa Temple, “Cha Sibaeji”, or the First Tea Field,
and “Choego Chanamu”, or the Oldest Tea Tree, vividly testify that Korea's history of tea
cultivation began here (Image 6).

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226

Image 6. The Oldest Tea
Tree in Korea. Source:
Hadong-gun County Office.

In the 1960s, monks from Ssanggye-sa Temple led the revival of tea cultivation in the
Hwagaegok Valley, starting from the “Cha Sibaeji”, which is still owned and managed by the
temple. It is now used as a tea-harvest experience centre for visitors every year during theHadong Wild Tea Cultural Festival.
Tea production in the Hwagaegok Valley, however, continued to decline during the Joseon
dynasty (1392-1910), which, to the detriment of Buddhism, adopted Confucianism as the national
ideology. Along with the retreat of Buddhism, heavy taxes and frequent wars caused a decline intea production. In the late Joseon dynasty, villages that were once dependent upon the temples
gradually became more independent as paddy-rice and dry-field farming expanded into thefoothills of Jirisan Mountain. Because the residents of these villages valued the food crops, suchas paddies, higher than tea trees, there was a decrease in arable land for tea cultivation.
Traditional tea produced in the Hwagaegok Valley was sent as a tribute to the king until the late
Joseon dynasty in the early 1700s. In the Hwagaegok Valley, where there were more temples
than villages, the temples took over the control of tea production from the local residents.
During Japanese colonization (1910-1945), individuals who had lost land settled around Jirisan
Mountain. They cleared the forest and turned tea fields into agricultural land where they could
plant and grow paddies, dry crops and fruit trees, such as persimmon and chestnut. However,during this time of reclamation, they also tried to maintain tea tree colony areas as much as
possible. Reclamation was restricted to minimal areas for planting and growing other crops inareas of old tea cultivation in order to preserve some of the tea trees. Such a process ofreclamation has contributed a great deal to the extent of traditional tea fields that survive today.
It was not until the 1960s, after the Korean War, that tea cultivation in Hwagae-myeon began tobe revived. As society stabilized, people from outside the area settled and began to engage inthe cultivation of tea trees. In the past, tea was produced mainly to meet the demand forreligious use in temples at the national level, but now there was also a popular demand in themarkets. During the 1960s and 1970s, however, tea cultivation in the area was carried out by
several farming households that owned traditional tea fields. These tea fields were scatteredsparsely and did not form large colonies in comparison with today's landscape.

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5. Threats to the tea landscapes
Urbanization accompanied by industrialization since the 1960s, along with increasing
productivity, has caused rapid social change in Hwagae-myeon. Urbanization alone has driven
younger generations out of rural areas and to the cities, and the total population of Hadong-gun
has consequently decreased, from 60,848 in 1999 to 50,840 in 2015. Hadong-gun, moreover,
was classified as an aging society in 1999, and subsequently as a super-aging society in 2003.
The ratio of over-65s in the population has gradually increased by 2-4%, and now this cohort
accounts for 28% of the total Hadong-gun population. In particular, Hwagae-myeon has
maintained its traditional manual method of tea production, but the fall in the labour force posesa challenge to labour procurement for the management of the tea fields.
The aging local population and shrinking labour force are the main causes of the reduction in
tea field area and production. There were 2,016 households involved in tea production in 2012,
but this dropped within a year to 1,956. Tea fields on flat land have been created in locations
near streams and the Seomjingang River (Image 7).

Image 7. Modern Tea Fields on the Flatland near the Stream. Source: Hadong-gun County Office.

Traditional tea fields on the slopes, in contrast, are becoming increasingly deserted, mainly due
to the difficulties in maintenance. On these fields, other cash crops more profitable than tea
trees are also often planted. However, due to the aging agricultural population and a reductionin tea consumption, tea production has been experiencing a steady decline in terms of the area
under cultivation, households and income. The traditional agricultural tea production system,
moreover, is facing a direct risk of losing its labour force, and indiscriminate development
threatens the landscape's scenic value.

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6. Protection
In 2015, traditional tea cultivation in Hwagae-myeon was recognized for its heritage value asa traditional agro-system and listed as a Korean Important Agricultural Heritage System(KIAHS). In 2017, two years later, it was finally listed as a Globally Important Agricultural
Heritage System (GIAHS) under the name "Traditional Tea Agrosystem in Hadong". This
recent achievement for its protective status as globally as well as nationally important
agricultural heritage provides the legal and institutional foundation for planning andimplementing more effective protection.
On 25 May 1981, Hanguk Dainhoe (The Korean Tea Culture Association) installed amonument in commemoration of Sir Kim Dae-ryeom, who first brought the tea seed from
China to Korea during the Unified Silla Kingdom period. The monument was located on thespecific site that is said to be the place of the first tea seed plantation. The date on which themonument was erected was also designated the "Day of Tea". After the event, from 1985 to
2003, research into wild tea trees located across the country was carried out by two major
institutions: the Korea Record Institution and the Korean Tea Association. In July 2008, these
institutions officially recognized Hwagae-myeon as the place where tea cultivation first began
in the country. The Office of South Gyeongssang Province then designated it as
Gyeongsangnam-do Monument No. 61. In addition to the first tea field, the existence of theoldest tea tree is living evidence which testifies to the long history of tea cultivation. The oldest
tea tree, the age of which is estimated to be 1,000 years old, still stands alive in a village
called Jeongguem-ri in Hwagae-myeon. Furthermore, according to research by both the
Korean Tea Association and the Korean Tea Culture Research Association, the tree is thelargest in the country, with a height of 4.15 m, a distance of up to 3 m between two branches,
and a girth of 48 m. It is designated as Gyeongsangnam-do Monument No. 264.
Hand-roasted tea, or sujedeokum-cha, is a kind of traditional tea that has a pleasant smell
and taste, and is made by roasting tea leaves in a cauldron. The recipe features roasting byhand, which can be said to be the traditional Korean method that is recorded in the historical
record Dongdasong, written by the Zen master Choeui (1786-1866). The roasting procedure
goes as follows: first, place the leaves that have been collected during the day on a straw
mat; second, remove the large leaves that are too old to be roasted, and stem and crumb theleaves that remain; third, put an adequate amount into a heated cauldron and roast themwithout burning. The traditional procedure of tea-making can also be found in historical
records from the Three Kingdoms Period (4th to 7th century). With the acknowledgment ofsuch historical value, in 2016, the roasting procedure was designated as National Intangible
Cultural Property No. 130.

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7. Conservation and managementof tea landscapes
In 2012, Hadong-gun County Office made an agreement with both individual and household tea
producers for mutual cooperation in the preservation of agricultural heritage. Upon theagreement, an action plan for the conservation of tea landscapes with agricultural heritage value
was drawn up, along with an initiative to increase awareness among producers of the value ofagricultural heritage. The first initiative undertaken was the maintenance and management of
200 ha of “wild” tea fields in Hwagae-myeon. While warning about the threat of ecologicaldamage from tourism, the County Office strongly promotes various eco-friendly measures totackle climate change and make a green resort city. Such an ambitious effort enabled the area
to be proudly awarded the Korea Environmental Award under the ecological culture category.
Currently, due to the aging population in the area, it is becoming more and more difficult tomaintain and pass down traditional tea cultivation culture to the next generation. One way ofresolving this problem is to increase local awareness of the heritage value of traditional tea
cultivation. To this end, an action plan has been drawn up to increase awareness in societ y of
traditional tea cultivation and to promote the transmission of traditional tea -related culture. For
the benefit of local residents, who will play a central role in such transmission, the action plan
includes educational programmes on agricultural skills and the vitalization of tea culture to raise
local awareness of its agricultural heritage values. Furthermore, the action plan aims to foster
local experts as present and future agents in the dissemination of the heritage values that are
inherent in traditional tea cultivation and processing.

8. Conclusion
Since the tea seed from China was first planted in 828, Hwagaegok Valley has beenrecognized as the location of the first tea tree cultivation and the largest traditional cultivation
area in the country. Today, residents of the valley still maintain the traditional tea production
process and system largely as it was practised in the past. Moreover, the residents of thevalley have maintained the traditional method of processing tea, which has been passed downover many generations and features roasting tea leaves in a cast-iron cauldron. Although thismethod may seem similar to the Chinese method at first glance, on closer inspection , it isvery different. The valley is also Korea’s prominent tea-producing area and, as such, leads
the development of the national tea industry and tea culture as a whole. Geographically,
although the area displays some adverse conditions for tea cultivation, the local residents
have been able to overcome them by locating tea fields on slopes and maintaining the
traditional method of tea cultivation. Native tea trees in the valley have descended fromindigenous tea plants that grew near the temples. While Chinese species have oval leaves,KOREA TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

230

the leaves of the tree specimens found in the valley boast a variety of shapes. This indicatesthat the tea trees have genetically evolved into a different species through a long process o fadaptation to the local environment.
Tea culture in Korea has revived rapidly since the 1970s, following a long decline which began
in the 19th century. The Buddhist community was the leading force in the movement to revive
the culture of tea cultivation. Knowledge and skills relating to tea production had accumulated
in the temples over generations, and these were transmitted to local residents. The tea
landscapes in the Hwagaegok Valley differ from those found in China and Japan. Here, tea
trees, together with other trees, crops and plants, form a colony of lush vegetation carpeting therocky slopes. Unlike the terraced fields of China, Japan and Boseong-gun County in Korea,
deciduous trees, such as persimmon and chestnut and bamboo, are planted and grown together
with the tea trees. Therefore, it is argued that the authenticity and integrity of the tea landscapein the Hwagaegok Valley have largely been maintained to the present day, through a recent
revival after the long decline mentioned above. In conclusion, therefore, the long pedigree andhistory of the tea landscape in the valley is the result of an evolutionary process that could havethe potential to satisfy the Outstanding Universal Value criteria for World Heritage. The tea
landscapes of Hwagaegok Valley, in particular, could satisfy the criterion under Article 2 (v) to:“be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement or land-use which isrepresentative of a culture (or cultures), especially when it has become vulnerable under the
impact of irreversible change”. Further study should confirm the above.
In 2015, traditional tea cultivation in the Hwagaegok Valley was recognized for its heritage value
as a traditional agro-system and was listed as a Korean Important Agricultural Heritage System(KIAHS). In 2017, two years later, it was finally listed as a Globally Important Agricultural
Heritage System (GIAHS) under the title “Traditional Tea Agrosystem in Hadong” . These recent
achievements in protective status as a “globally as well as nationally important agricultural
heritage” provide the legal and institutional foundation for more effective protection to beplanned and implemented. Furthermore, the traditional tea-making procedure featuring theroasting method was designated in 2016 as National Intangible Cultural Property No. 130.
Currently, due to the aging population in the valley, it is becoming more and more difficult tomaintain and pass down traditional tea cultivation techniques to the next generation. Increasing
local awareness of the heritage value of traditional tea cultivation is one way of resolving thisthreat. To this end, an action plan has been drawn up to encourage more community
involvement in traditional tea cultivation and to promote the transmission of traditional tearelated culture.

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Selected bibliography
Hadong County, Traditional Tea Agrosystem in Hadong: GIAHS PROPOSAL, 2017 (in English).
Jeong-Lan Yu, The Making of Local Identity in the Hwagae Valley, Master’s Thesis, Korea National
University of Education, 2007 (in Korean).
Jeong-Pil Yi, A Study on the Role of Buddhism in the Development of Korean Tea Culture, Master’s Thesis,
Wonkwang University, 2010 (in Korean).
Jeong-Wun Kim, et al., “The Current Status of Tea Cultivation in Korea”, Journal of Korean Tea Society,Vol. 2, 1996, pp. 209-216 (in Korean).Ji-Ho Lee, “A Geographical Study of the Korean Tea Industry,”
Geography and Education, Vol. 7, 1977, pp. 1-18 (in Korean).
Ji-Ho Lee, “A Geographical Study of the Korean Tea Industry”, Geography and Education, Vol. 7, 1977,
pp. 1-18 (in Korean).
Korean Cultural Heritage Administration (Munhwajae-cheong), Making Tea (Jeda), Daejeon-si City, 2016
(in Korean).
Youngsik Park, “A Study on Goryeo Tea Production Areas and the Production of Tributary Tea” , Journalof Korean Tea Society, Vol. 23, 2017, pp. 12-21 (in Korean).

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Indian Tea
Landscapes
Dr Priyaleen Singh, Landscape andConservation Architect
Ridhima Bajaj, Conservation Architect

1.

General characteristics
General geographical/ecological/geological data

Tea is an evergreen plant that mainly grows in tropical and subtropical climates. The ideal
temperatures for the production and growing of tea are between 21°C and 29°C, with 150250 cm of rainfall. Tea cultivation also needs fertile, well drained land in the form of hill slopes;
as one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of tea in the world, almost all of India’scommercially managed tea plantations are located in the highlands and on hill slopes wherethese ecological conditions prevail. Growers rely on ample precipitatio n to develop the plants'
foliage that is ultimately plucked for tea. Conversely, growers also require dry periods toharvest the leaves. Generally, the plants thrive in a range of humidity between 70-90%.
Other factors that influence tea cultivation are the presence of hills, mountain ranges, majorbodies of water, and major weather phenomena. Hills can provide protection for a tea garden
in an otherwise unfavourable environment - either protecting tea plants from harsh winds orgiving them favourable sun exposure. Temperature decreases as elevation/altitude
increases, so a mountain site that might otherwise be too warm has the potential to be suitable
for tea. As noted above, moisture is important in tea cultivation, and tea gardens inmountainous locations can benefit from the fog that regularly settles in the valleys. Oceans
and other major bodies of water have a moderating effect on the local climate , meaning thattemperatures get neither as hot in the summer nor as cold in the winter as nearby inland
locations. Therefore, places at higher latitudes near an ocean might be able to grow tea, while
an inland location at the same latitude might not. Finally, the major weather phenomena
affecting tea cultivation are the monsoons, which bring rains that provide the moisture needed
for lush tea plant growth, but are also associated with the necessary dry periods when thetea leaves can be harvested and during which the plants can rest. Though the major portion

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233of tea production in India is concentrated in some specific regions, it is scattered in different
states. In India, the three significant geographical locations for tea cultivation are the east
region (Assam, Darjeeling, Dooars and Terai), the north region (Kangra), and the southern
region (Anamallais, Nilgiri, Wayanad, Karnataka, Munnar-Hiah Ranaes and Travacore). The
rainfall in all these areas is seasonal but heavy, and is over 78 cm annually. Most of the rain
falls in the period from May to November, and is adequate for the growth of tea v egetation
during the entire year.
North-east India is typified by a monsoonal climate coupled with high humidity and warm
temperatures in most parts of the year. Traditionally, tea grows well in the hot -humid regionof north-east India due to plentiful rainfall and sunshine. In terms of temperatu res, tea plants
are more tolerant of high temperatures than they are of cold. While they might be able towithstand frost, they typically do not produce well if they face any substantial period below
freezing point (0ºC or 32ºF).
In India, tea is grown in a wide range of climatic variables, at latitudes from 8°12'N in Nagercoil
in Tamil Nadu to 32°13' in Kangra in Himachal Pradesh, and at altitudes ranging from nearsea level in Assam to 2,414 m (7,920 feet) above mean sea level (MSL) in Korakundha in the
Nilgiris in south India. In north-east India, tea is planted in the Brahmaputra and Barak Valleys
of Assam, the plains of Dooars and Terai, and the Darjeeling hills in north Bengal. In
Brahmaputra Valley, it is planted in plain lands at elevations ranging from 50 to 120 m above
MSL. The valley represents a tecto-sedimentary province developed during the quaternary
period of alluviation, between the organic belts of Himalayan foothills in the north and theShillong massif in the south. It is formed at stepped sequences of three or four geomorphic
substances, each having a steep slope near the mountain front, which merges gradually into
flat lands towards the river.
The plains of north Bengal were also similarly formed by alluviation in the quaternary period.
Tea is planted in a long and narrow tract at elevations ranging from 80 to 300 m above MSL,
in well-weathered, deep, acidic soil. In the Brahmaputra Valley, plantations are mostly on
medium texture, sandy loam soil, and heavy soil of silty loam to silty clay loam structure. Soils
of Dooars are mostly loamy in texture, and coarse and sandy.
In the Barak Valley, tea is cultivated largely on hillocks (teelahs) and on flat land adjoining
hillocks and bheels. In the mountainous area of Darjeeling, tea plantations are located atelevations ranging from 600 to 2,000 m above MSL. Darjeeling tea soil is chocolate brownloam formed in situ. It is shallow and underlaid by stones and big rocks. Th e average annual
rainfall in the tea areas of the north-east is between 2,000 to 4,000 mm, but in a few pockets
it may exceed 5,000 mm.
The tea soils of south India extend along the Western Ghats, which run in a north to south
direction, parallel and close to the west coast of the peninsula. The six major tea districts of
the Nilgiris, Anamallais, central and south Travancore, Wayanad, and the High Range vary

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in elevation from 300 to 2,500 m above MSL. Regarding their geological origin, the soils aremainly derived from gneissic rocks and contain a lot of mica. The soils have undergone
considerable weathering as is evident from their low calcium content. The soils of Anamallais,
central and south Travancore and the High Range are open in texture, with coarse and finesand factors comprising 62-67% of the soil. The soils of Nilgiris and Wayanad are of a clay
loam type, with the clay fraction prepondering. The presence of high organic matter in thesoils of Nilgiris offset the disadvantages of clay to a certain extent. All the soils are distinctly
acidic and are of poor chemical quality, but the organic matter helps in building structure andmicrobial activity.

Historical context
There is no substantial documentation of the history of tea drinking in the Indian subcontinent
for the pre-colonial period, although it is known that the tea plant was a wild plant in India thatwas brewed by local inhabitants of different regions. The practice of Ayurveda adopted along-standing tradition of herbal teas. Consumption of tea in India was first documented in
the Sanskrit epic, the Ramayana (750-500 BC). The next records of tea consumption appear
during the first century AD, with stories of the Buddhist monks Bodhidharma and Gan Lu, andtheir involvement with tea. Tea appears to be indigenous to eastern and northern India, where
it was cultivated and consumed for thousands of years. Commercial production of tea in India
began after the conquest of large areas by the British East India Company, at which point
large tracts of land were converted for mass tea production. The widespread popularity of tea
as a recreational drink began in earnest in the 1920s, after a successful advertising campaign
by the Tea Board and several mass promotion drives by the government at the time, using
railway stations as a base.
Records from pre-colonial times describe tea cultivation as either a medicinal plant grown at
a small household scale, or a wild plant. It is also believed that the first recorded reference totea in India was in the ancient epic of the Ramayana, when Hanuman was sent to the
Himalayas to retrieve the stimulant Sanjeevani tea plant for medicinal use. According to a
popular legend, tea was discovered by the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung, roughly around2737 BC, when a few leaves were blown from a nearby tree into his pot of boiling water,changing the colour. After taking a sip of the brew, to the emperor's pleasant surprise, no t
only did the leaves improve the taste of the water, but the drink seemed to have a stimulating
effect on the body. Another legend tells us how Prince Dharma was touched by divine grace
and went out to preach the teachings of Buddha in China. In order to make himself worthy ofsuch a graceful mission, Dharma took an oath never to sleep during the nine years of his
journey. However, at the end of the third year, he was overcome by drowsiness and wasabout to fall asleep, when, incidentally, he plucked a few leaves from a wild tea plant andbegan to chew them. Instantly, the stimulating qualities of tea had their effect . Dharma felt

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235much more alert and henceforth attributed the strength he found to stay awake during the six
remaining years of his apostolic mission to these leaves. Yet another Indian tale tells the story
as to why tea is supposedly a creation of Lord Buddha himself: during a pilgrimage to China,
Lord Buddha was said to have taken a vow to meditate without rest for nine years , but, aftersometime, he dozed off. Upon awakening, he was said to have torn off his eyelids and thrownthem to the ground out of frustration. Supposedly, the eyelids took root and germinated intoplants that sprouted leaves with an eyelid shape. He then chewed the leaves an d his fatigue
vanished. The plant, of course, was said to be the first tea plant, which he carried with him to
China. However, it is important to note that there is no evidence that Buddha ever went toChina. The extent of the popularity of tea in Ancient India is unknown, and the origin of tea
cultivation in India is somewhat ambiguous. It is known that tea was a wild plant in India which
was brewed by local inhabitants of different regions. Irrespective of whether these legends
have any basis in fact or not, tea has played a significant role in Asian culture for centuries
as a staple beverage and a curative. Hence, it is not surprising that the theories of its origin
are often religious or royal in nature.
In 1821, Mr Robert Bruce, who visited the country on a mercantile exploration, first discovered
the plant growing wild in Upper Assam. A few specimens were forwarded to theSuperintendent of the Botanical Garden, Calcutta. In 1832, Lord William Bentinck, the thenGovernor General, appointed a committee to promote the cultivation of the plant. Chinese
varieties of tea were first introduced into India by the British, in an attempt to break the
Chinese monopoly on tea. The British using Chinese seeds, in addition to Chinese planting
and cultivating techniques, launched a tea industry by offering land in Assam to any European
who agreed to cultivate tea for export. Initially, a few seeds were brought in from China but it
was found that the tea plant was indigenous in Assam. In 1835, the first tea garden was
opened in Lakhimpur, and in 1838 the first chests of tea were sent to England.
By 1910, there were 730 gardens, which provided employment to 846 Europeans and
409,000 natives. In 1911, India's largest tea research centre, managed by the Tea Research
Association, was started in Jorhat, Assam, and since then has made significant contributions
towards the tea trade.
In 1849, Dr Jameson conducted a feasibility survey of the valley of Kangra in Himachal Pradesh
and found it suitable for tea cultivation. He brought Chinese tea plants from the nurseries at
Almora and Dehradun and planted them in government-owned gardens at Kangra, Nagrota andBhawama. The plants grew well, which encouraged the government to go ahead and establish
the tea industry in the Kangra Valley. Tea in Kangra, which thrived and grew from the time ofits introduction in the mid-19th century, fell off the map following a devastating earthquake which
struck the region in 1905. That disaster, which totally disrupted the industry, resulted in an
exodus of the British from the area, leaving behind the ethnic marginal growers. Having neverfully recovered from that catastrophe, the industry today is confined to approximately 2,500
hectares of smallholdings run by a handful of planters.

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The Nilgiris, in south India, with its dense evergreen tropical rain forest, was originally asummer retreat for Europeans. Tea was planted on an experimental farm in the Ketti Valleyin 1853, but the first full-scale efforts to plant tea in the Nilgiris took place on Thiashola andDunsandle Estates in 1859. Tea plantations in Munnar were established in the 1870s by A.H.
Sharp, a European, at the A.H. Sharp Parvathy estate (now known as the Silent Valley
Estate). In 1895, Finlay, a European company, entered the scene and acquired approximately
33 tea estates in Munnar. In 1897, the Kennan Devan Hills Produce Company was formed to
manage Finlay's estates. The Tata Group, an Indian corporate giant, entered into acollaborative venture with Finlay in 1964, leading to the formation of the Tata-Finlay group.
In April 2005, tea plantations under the Tata Group were transferred to a new company called
Kanan Devan Hills Produce Co, Pvt Ltd, which today manages 16 estates spread over about
8,600 hectares of land.

Scale of landscapes
On the basis of the ownership pattern, tea estates can be broadly classified under thefollowing headings:
1.

Small holdings, which are owned by proprietors and may extend from one acre (0.40 ha)
to twenty-five acres (10.12 ha);2.

Small gardens, which are owned by a single proprietor or partnership firm, and have a
tea area of less than 200 hectares. This heading may be further subdivided into;(i)Estates where tea is cultivated and the green leaf is taken to a nearby
factory for processing,(ii)

Estates where both the cultivation and the processing of tea is undertaken
onsite;3.

Estates owned by limited liability companies, which may again be further subdivided into
Public Limited and Private Limited Companies;

4.

Estates owned by large companies; and5.

Estates owned by government undertakings and co-operatives.

Traditionally, tea plantations in India are large holdings, but in recent years , small-scale tea
cultivation has gained momentum, and at present there are approximately 200,000 small tea
growers, accounting for 24% of the production.

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Distribution and Characteristic of Tea Landscapes, Including Overview of Type of Plants
and Methods of Cultivation and Harvesting, Spatial Characteristics

Map 1. Map showing the Main Sites of Tea Cultivation in the Sub-region of India. Source: Ridhima
Bajaj based on the data of the Tea Association of India.

North-eastern India
North-eastern India is more or less a triangular area mainly located in Assam and West Bengal.
It extends from 23°N to 28°N in latitude and from 88°E to 96°E in longitude. This is the mostimportant tea-producing region of India, accounting for about three quarters of the tea produced,
and for approximately the same percentage of the area used for tea production in India. Tea
plantations here are small in number but fairly large in size (generally more than 200 hectares).

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Assam
The state of Assam is one of most important tea-producing regions of the world. Assammanufactures high-end graded tea, which contributes to around 17% of global tea production,
and annually produces more than 50% of India’s total tea. Large-scale monoculture tea
plantations (also called estates or gardens) generally supply commercial cultivation. In contrast,
local-scale smallholder production is traditionally used to supplement subsistence agriculture.
The Brahmaputra Valley, extending from Sadiya to Goalpara, comprises the main teaproducing belt. It accounts for 44% of India’s tea, using 40% of the country’s tea area. With asummer temperature of 30°C and a winter temperature never falling below 10°C, frost-freeweather throughout the year and 300-400 cm annual rainfall extended over 9 months, the area
provides ideal climatic conditions for tea cultivation. Tea estates are located on raised grounds(up to 450 m) so that annual inundations and stagnant water encountered during the rainyseason do not harm the crops. There are 676 tea estates, located mainly in the districts of
Dibrugarh, Lakhimpur, Sibsagar, Darrang, Kamrup, Nagaon and Goalpara.
Surma Valley is the second important tea-producing area in Assam. This valley, lying in
Cachar district, produces about 5% of the country’s tea, using 9% of the country’s teaproducing land. Here, the tea gardens are scattered over small mounds called teelas orbheels, or well-drained flats along the river and its tributaries. Annual rainfall is 300-400 cm,
and no month is completely dry.
West Bengal
West Bengal is the second largest tea-producing area in India, contributing over 22% of India’s
tea from approximately one quarter of the country’s total tea-cultivating land. In 2002-2003,
West Bengal produced 180,000 tonnes of tea, from 103,000 hectares of land. The tea of West
Bengal is produced in the three northern districts of Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Coochbehar.
These districts are contiguous to the main tea-producing belt of Assam. Tea-producing areasof West Bengal are divided into two geographical regions, the first including the Duars in Koch
Bihar and Jalpaiguri districts, and the second comprising the Darjeeling district.
The Duars in Koch Bihar and Jalpaiguri districts is a 16 km wide strip at the foot of theHimalayas. Here, tea is cultivated on slightly elevated areas where suitable slopes for proper
drainage are available. Tea estates are found up to a height of 900-1,200 m in altitude.
The Darjeeling district is well-known all over the world for its most exquisite aromatic tea. In
Darjeeling, tea is the main crop in the region and is grown over a vast area of hilly land at various
altitudes, covering 17,542 hectares divided into 87 estates. The annual rainfall of 300 cm,
moderate temperature, and fertile soils give a special flavour to tea, although yields are quite low
and generally below 15 quintals/hectare. Tea estates are found within 900-1,800 m elevation,
beyond which the temperature is low and does not support tea cultivation.

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Image 1. Tea Plantations en route to Darjeeling, North East Region. Source:
Priyaleen Singh.

South India
In south India, tea is produced in the Nilgiri, Cardamom, Palni and Anaimalai hills in Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Karnataka estates, extending from 9°N to 14°N in latitude. This region accounts for
25% of tea production, and about 24% of India’s tea-growing area. Tea gardens are mostly
located on the hill slopes of the Western Ghats between 300 and 1,800 m in altitude. The tea
estates are rather large in number but small in size. Temperatures are uniformly high andannual rainfall exceeds 400 cm. There is no fear of frost in south India, and weather conditions
are quite congenial. Therefore, the productivity is higher, generally 15-25 quintals/hectare,although the quality of tea is inferior. Nevertheless, some south Indian teas have a goodcombination of taste and flavour. In south India, Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of tea,accounting for about 16% of the total tea production of India from just 11% of the tea-growing
land. Tamil Nadu has the distinction of giving a high yield of over 25 quintals/hectare incomparison with 18.5 quintals/hectare for India as a whole. Nilgiri and Anaimalai produce 46 %and 33% of Tamil Nadu’s tea respectively. Kerala is another important producer of tea in south
India, accounting for 8.45% of the total tea production of India. Kottayam, Kollam andThiruvananthapuram are the main tea-producing districts. Some tea is produced in the Hassan
and Chikmaglur districts of Karnataka.

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Image 2. Terrace Slopes of Munnar Tea Gardens, South Region. Source: Shalin Ronald.

North-west India
Kangra, in north India, cultivates both black tea and green tea. Black tea constitutes around 90
percent of tea production here and is cultivated in individual tea gardens as opposed to tea
estates. As of May 2015, there are 5,900 tea gardens in the area, covering about 2,312 hectaresof land between Shahpur, Palampur, Baijnath and Jogindernagar.
Tea gardens are set up on cleared hill slopes on which shade trees have been planted inadvance. Seeds are sown in the germination beds and the saplings transplanted to the garden.
Fifty years ago, tea plants were raised from tea seeds. Each plantation grew its own seedbearers in tea trees, which grew to a height of approximately 25 cm. Today, young plants areraised from the cuttings obtained from a strong and rich bush. They are carefully tended in
special nursery beds until they are 12-15 months old, and then planted in the tea gardens.
Trees are often planted geometrically and widely-spaced between the tea plants, in order toprotect them from intense heat and light, particularly on the plains of Assam, where thesunshine is most intense. This, again, ensures uniform shade and ease in mechanized
operations. Common shade trees are Erythrina, Gliricidia and Silver Oak. Tea bushes areplanted 1 metre to 1.5 metres apart to follow the natural contours of the landscape. Sometimes
they are grown on specially prepared terraces to help irrigation and to prevent erosion. The
garden is regularly hoed and weeded so that the tea bush can grow without any hindrance. Useof manures and fertilizers is a common practice in the gardens. Oil cakes and green manures
are widely used. Pruning of the plant is an essential part of tea cultivation, as it helps to maintainI N D I A T E A C UL T U R AL L A N D S C A P E

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the proper shape of the tea bush to a height and diameter of about 1 metre. The aim of pruning
is to have plenty of new shoots bearing soft leaves and to facilitate the plucking of leaves fromthe ground by female labourers. Regular 2 to 3 year pruning cycles encourage the supply ofshoots, known as the 'flush', which are plucked every seven to ten days, depending on where
the tea is cultivated.
There are two main ways of producing tea in India, namely CTC (crush, tear and curl) production
and orthodox production. The tea produced with the CTC method is mostly used in tea bags.
These methods vary due to their manufacturing differences: orthodox teas are manufactured
with the help of an orthodox roller during the process of rolling, while a CTC machine/Rotervan
is used in rolling processes in manufacturing CTC teas.
The orthodox production method consists of five stages, namely withering, rolling, fermentation,
drying and finally sorting. While both methods have their uniqueness, the quality of tea depends
on factors such as rainfall, soil, wind and the method of plucking tea leaves. The freshly-pickedgreen leaves are spread out to dry on ventilated trays. During this process, approximately 30 %of leaves’ moisture is extracted, making them soft and pliable for further processing. The leaves
are then rolled by applying mechanical pressure to break up the cells and extract the cell sap.
After 30 minutes, the leaves, still damp from the sap, are sieved to separate the finer leaves.
These are spread out immediately for fermentation, while the remaining coarse leaves are rolled
for a further 30 minutes under higher pressure. If necessary, this process is repeated several
times. A short rolling time produces larger leaf grades, while longer rolling breaks the leaves up
more, resulting in smaller grades. During the rolling process, the cell sap runs out and reacts
with oxygen, thus triggering the fermentation process. At the same time, the essential oils
responsible for the aroma are released. After rolling, the tea is spread out in layers
approximately 10 cm high for one to three hours in a cool, damp atmosphere to finish off thefermentation process. During this process, the substances contained in the cell sap oxidise . In
this production phase, the green leaf gradually turns to a copper colour. The colour and typicalodour tell the person supervising the process how far the fermentation has progressed. Various
chemical reactions cause the leaf to heat up during fermentation. It is critical for the quality ofthe tea that the fermentation process is interrupted at its peak, when the temperature is at its
highest. Next, the tea is dried with hot air at a temperature of approximately 85 - 88ºC in order
to interrupt the oxidation process. The residual moisture is thereby extracted from the leaves,the extracted sap dries on the leaf, and the copper-colour leaf turns dark brown to black. Finally,
the dried tea is sieved to separate the different leaf grades. The orthodox prod uction method
provides teas of all leaf grades: leaf, broken, Fanning and Dust. Leaf grades only refer to theleaf size, however, and are not necessarily an indication of the quality of the tea.

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Image 3. Processing Unit in the Tea State of Darjeeling, North East Region. Source: Rohit Jigyasu.

Fine tea is invariably prepared via the CTC method. The name of this method, “cut, tear, curl”,
sums up its three stages. The rollers used are based on those used in flour mills and consist ofa series of cutting edges that have to be kept sharp. These were introduced in the late 1950s
and 1960s. Cutting and tearing gives a higher concentration of tea by volume.
Orthodox rolled tea has less processing as the leaf is not cut as much and makes a weaker tea.
The CTC process takes 25-40 minutes and after that the marl, as it is now called, is allowed tocool so that the oxidisation process can continue. Temperature is crucial, for if it exceeds 35ºC
the marl will be spoilt. Subsequently, cold air is blown onto the marl while it moves along a
conveyer belt. Marl used to be left on the floor in heaps to oxidise, but this made it difficult tocheck the speed of oxidisation. There is no machine that can tell when fermentation has
finished. It is left to the skill and experience of the manager and their staff to halt the process
at the right time before drying, which can take place after 45 minutes to 2.5 hours. The dryers
are used to arrest the oxidisation process. In the dryers, hot air blows through the marl and thechaff is separated from it by suction. It is then run through rollers that are covered in plastic,
which creates static electricity, attracting finer dust particles. The cleaned dried tea is sifted bysize into different containers. Tea dust itself is wrongly assumed to be of very poor quality, but
it can be better than others as it dissolves faster in hot water and is much more concentrated ,thereby giving many more cups of tea per leaf than ordinary tea.
Until the 1960s, the orthodox tea method dominated India's tea production, and, until the 1980s,
a significant share of tea (32%) was produced using this method.
The pattern and types of production of tea are directly linked to market demand and thedifferent sale practices of each region. The market demand sometimes force s producers tochange the nature of production and mode of manufacturing tea. The nature of production

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243mainly ranges from chemical to organic forms, and the type of tea shifts from orthodox tea to
CTC. The consistent demand for organic tea from Germany, for instance, forced someproducers in the south to maintain organic cultivation. The high demand for Darjeeling tea
from European countries forced producers to stick to orthodox production in some of the
Darjeeling plantations.

Image 4. Production of Orthodox and CTC Tea Plantations in India. Source: author.

Social and cultural systems
The tea industry exerts a major influence on the life of the people associated with it. Tea
landscapes play a pivotal role in livelihood security at various levels. Tea is a labour intensive
crop and requires an abundant supply of cheap and skilled labour, especially at the time ofplucking the tea leaves. This is a tedious process that requires skilled manipulation of fingers
for plucking two leaves and a bud at a time, and needs a large labour force. Over 10 million
people derive their livelihood from tea cultivation and harvesting. Most tea workers have worked
in the tea industry for more than three generations; it has become their way of life, with manyof them settling down within tea estates.
The tea industry is one of the largest employers of women among organised industries of India,
with women constituting over 50 percent of the total workforce. Though increase in women
workers from 2001 to 2005 has been marginal, they still constitute the majority of workers in
the tea industry in India. Female workers are paid less than men and do not receive any
benefits. Since there are no crèches, women often bring their children into the fields , where
the latter help pluck, weed and hoe, and do nursery work. The labourers live in dilapidated
houses in squalid “coolie lines”. When they retire, they are turned out of the estates. Those whohave saved some money often buy land nearby, but those who do not have the money to buy
land are pushed into absolute destitution. Lately, the recession has led many tea gardens toI N D I A T E A C UL T U R AL L A N D S C A P E

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close down, rendering hundreds of workers, who are not efficient in any other trade, without
any job. In the context of the closure of tea gardens and crisis in tea industry, a number ofstudies have pointed out the issues and challenges of workers in the tea industry, and address
gender-based issues. Recruitment for workers in the tea plantations outside Assam began in
the late 19th century. They were recruited from tribal groups such as the Sanhals, Mundas,
Oraons, Kharias, Gonds, Khonds, Kisang and Nagesias. As information about these ethnic
groups is not available, thorough research on their migration, settlement and role as tea
plantation workers should be undertaken.
The tea industry in India includes both small and large growers and government plantations.
Small tea growers in India are economically and socially vulnerable as they are mostly marginal
farmers from tribal communities. Many of them do not possess rights over the land theycultivate. Though the quantity of tea produced by small tea growers has increased over time,
the profit they accrue is very marginal. The reasons for this are several, chief among them being
the low price-realisation owing to inefficient and incompetent production structures, and theinability of small tea growers to access national and international markets directly.
The Tea Festival is held in the district of Jorhat in the north-eastern state of Assam in India.
Jorhat is well-known for its extensive tea gardens, and is the nerve centre of the tea industry.
Jorhat hosts the world famous Tocklai Experimental Centre, where research work is carried out
to find new varieties of tea and also on the curative effects of green tea. The island of Majuli,
the largest island on the Brahmaputra, and the Nambar Forest Reserve can be visited from
Jorhat. In Majuli, there are numerous monasteries and the Nambar Forest Reserve is famous
for its regenerating hot spring. The celebrations of the Tea Festival in Jorhat include visiting tea
gardens, playing golf, safaris into the jungles, tasting delicious food, shopping and cultural
entertainment. The adventure sports on offer include angling and white water river rafting. Thisis a very contemporary festival and while traditional ceremonies and celebrations around tea
would have existed, there is no record of them. More ground research is required on this aspect.
Chai (“tea” in Hindi) is engrained in each and every household of India. It is commonly sold bysmall-scale vendors all across the country as a brew of Indian black tea with a unique blend of
spices, typically including cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, cloves, cardamom and pepper, although
the recipe varies region to region. Chai is consumed morning and afternoon by many Indianfamilies, and is customarily the first thing offered to house guests. So prevalent is the serviceof Chai throughout India that hawkers/vendors, known as Chaiwallahs, can be found at justabout every corner.

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Image 5. Tea Planters’ Club (19th century), Darjeeling, North East Region.
Source: Priyaleen Singh.

Links to trade, trade routes and economic opportunities
Historically, India has played a dominant role in the global tea trade. The Tea Horse Road was
a network of caravan paths winding through the mountains, from Sichuan and Yunnan
provinces in south-west China, along the eastern foothills of the Hengduan Mountains (a centreof tea production in China), then across the Hengduan mountain range and deep canyons ofseveral major rivers, before finally reaching India, south of the Himalayas. The road also served
as a significant corridor for migration and was a bridge for international, cultural and economic
exchange between China and India. In the seventh century, when powdered tea became
fashionable in China, caravans carried tea along this route from Yunnan, one of the first teaproducing regions, to Bengal via Burma.
Although the 1600s and early 1700s saw the East India Company primarily focused on the tradeof textiles, by the mid-18th century the Company’s trading patterns began to change. One of
the reasons for this change was the growing desire for Chinese tea in Europe. This was apotentially massive market for the Company, but they were held back by the fact that the
Chinese only traded their tea for silver. As Britain was on the gold standard at the time, andhad to import silver from continental Europe, the whole tea trade was financially unviable.

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In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the East India Company periodicallyexperimented with the establishment of tea cultivation in India. However, the incentive topromote tea production was offset by the profitability of the Company’s monopoly in the tradeof Chinese tea. With the loss of this monopoly in 1835, a concerted effort was made by theCompany to promote the establishment of tea plantations and profit thr ough the leasing out ofland and the taxing of the tea produced upon it. In 1840, the Assam Company was establishedby London merchants who took a pre-eminent role in the early development of the Indian tea
industry and took up the majority of leases and experimental tea gardens in Assam prior to theabolition of the East India Company in 1858.
In 1881, the Tea Association of India was established to market tea drinking. Tea consumption
expanded in Indian urban and industrial settings in the early twentieth century, and was wellestablished in India post-independence in 1947. By the 1960s, an Indian mass market for tea
had been established, and today India is the number one consumer of tea in the world, and oneof the world’s largest producers.

2.

Known tea landscapes and importanttea landscapes

In India, the three significant geographical locations for tea cultivation are:
1. East Region (Assam, Darjeeling, Dooars and Terai);
2. North Region (Kangra);
3. South Region (Anamallais, Nilgiri, Wayanad, Karnataka, Munnar–Hiah Ranaes, andTravacore).

2.1 Location and Size
i. East Region (Assam, Darjeeling, Dooars and Terai)
Total area

Production

Elevation

Rainfallunder tea
production
ASSAM

312,210 ha

507 million kg

45-60 mts

2,500-3,000 mm

DARJEELING

17,820 ha

9.8 million kg

90-1,750 mts

3,000-3,300 mm

DOOARS AND TERAI

97,280 ha

216 million kg

90-1,750 mts

3,000-3,500 mm

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ii. North Region (Kangra Belt)

Total

area

under

tea

Production

Elevation

Rainfall

0.8 million kg

700-1,000 mts

2,300-2,500 mm

production
KANGRA BELT

2,348 haiii. South Region (Nilgiri, Anamallais, Wayanad, Karnataka, Munnar- Hiah Ranaes andTravancore)
Total area

Production

Elevation

Rainfallunder tea
production
NILGIRI

66,175 ha

135 million kg

1,000-2,634 mts

1,000-1,500 mm

ANAMALLAIS

12,625 ha

30 million kg

900-1,600 mts

3,000-3,800 mm

WAYANAD

5,470 ha

16 million kg

850-1,400 mts

2,000-2,500 mm

KARNATAKA

2,140 ha

6 million kg

750-1,000 mts

2,000-3,500 mm

MUNNAR

13,000 ha

27 million kg

950-2,600 mts

1,300-7,000 mm

TRAVANCORE

14,000 ha

20 million kg

750-1,350 mts

2,000-6,000 mm

2.2

Key characteristics of each landscape

2.2.1. EAST REGION (ASSAM, DARJEELING, DOOARS AND TERAI)

Assam is a land through which the mighty Brahmaputra winds its majestic course. The state
consists of the northern Brahmaputra Valley, the middle Karbi and Cachar hills, and thesouthern Barak Valley. It experiences heavy rainfall between March and September, with very
high humidity in the summer months. Assam is the single largest tea-growing region in theworld. The low altitude, rich loamy soil conditions, ample rainfall, and a unique climate help it
to produce some of the finest orthodox leaf teas, which allows orthodox Assam Teas to qualify
as a Geographical Indication.1

1 A Geographical Indication (GI) is a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin andpossess qualities or a reputation due to that origin. In order to function as a GI, a sign must identify aproduct as originating in a given place. In addition, the qualities, characteristics or reputation of the productshould be essentially due to the place of origin. Since the qualities depend on the geographical place of
production, there is a clear link between the product and its original place of production.

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The ecosystem of the Darjeeling hill areas comprises the mighty Kanchanjunga range and the
Tista, Great Rangit, Mahananda, Murti and Jaldhakaas as the important river and tributaries in
the region. The altitude, the soil and the intermittent cloud and sunshine all seem to work
together to give Darjeeling tea its distinctive taste. Darjeeling tea has also been registered asa Geographical Indication in India and is protected internationally. To this day, the Chinese
variety of tea is planted in Darjeeling. It has been discovered that, when this tea variety isplanted anywhere else in the world, the Darjeeling taste cannot be reproduced. Te a gardens
are situated at high elevations on steep slopes, which provide ideal drainage for the generous
rainfall the district receives.
Lying in the Himalayan foothills, the Dooars have great natural beauty with wildlife-rich tropicalforests, innumerable hill streams cutting across the green carpet of tea gardens, with undulating
plains and low hills rising up from the rivers. The name Dooars is derived from 'doors' as theregion is the gateway to the north-east of India and Bhutan. Dooars is also the gateway to thehill station of Darjeeling and the Sikkim region and is famous for its tea gardens, planted by the
British. There are innumerable streams and rivers flowing through these fertile plains from themountains of Bhutan.

2.2.2. NORTH REGION (KANGR A BELT)In Himachal Pradesh, tea is grown in the Mandi and Kangra districts. Kangra Valley’s tea regionis the smallest in the whole of India. Although considered superior to the tea produced in otherparts of India, Kangra tea today is all but lost on the map. The valley, blessed by the twin
advantages of a temperature range of 13-35°C during the cropping season from March to
October and an annual precipitation of 250-230 cm of well-distributed rainfall, makes it the ideal
tea cultivation area. The term “Kangra Tea” has been registered as a Geographical Indication
since 2005 under the Himachal Pradesh Patent Information Centre, Shimla.

2.2.3.

SOUTH

REGION(NILGIRI,ANAMALLAIS,WAYANAD,KARNATAKA, MUNNAR- HIAH RANAES AND TRAVANCORE)

Nilgiri Tea, one of India's most distinctive teas, was named after the Nilgiris or Blue Mountains
where it is grown, and now accounts for about 10% of the total tea production of India. Nilgiri
Orthodox tea was recently registered as a Geographical Indication in India.
Spanning an area of 389 square km of picturesque hills, ranging from 900 to 1,600 metres inheight, the Anamallais are wedged between Tamil Nadu and Kerala. With over 12,000 hectaresof tea-producing land, it occupies an important place in the planting map of south India. The
Tea Research Foundation, the second largest tea research institute managed by UPASI (United
Planters Association of Southern India), is situated in the Anamallais.
The evergreen forests of the Wayanad-Nilgiris range in Kerala and Tamil Nadu mark thetransition zone between the northern and the southern eco-regions of the Western Ghats.

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Located at a distance of about 76 km from the sea shore of Calicut, the area is full of tea
plantations, forests and wildlife. The Wayanad hills are contiguous to the Mudumalai Wildlife
Sanctuary and National Park in Tamil Nadu and the Bandhipur National Park in Karnataka.
Nestled in the Baba Budan hills of the Sahyadris range, Chikmagalur, around which most of thetea in Karnataka grows, is a calm, scenic landscape with a salubrious climate.
Munnar, the commercial centre of some of the highest tea growing estates in the world, is set
at an altitude of 2,000 metres in Idukki district. Unending expanses of tea plantations sit amidst
pristine valleys, mountains and waterfalls, with exotic species of flora and fauna in its wildsanctuaries and forests and the aroma of spice scented cool air.

2.3 Planting Traditions
Healthy, vigorously-growing and high-yielding bushes are selected to prepare tea saplings.
Generally, manure is applied to each selected bush up to 5 years before taking the cuttings, in
April-May and August-September. Semi hard-wood cuttings are prepared with one leaf and aninternode with a slanting cut at the bottom. Holes are made in the soil: the cuttings are inserted
and the surrounding soil is pressed firmly to avoid airspace, following which the plants arewatered. Small polythene tents may be provided, which maintain high humidity and regulate
the temperature inside. It may take 10-12 weeks for cuttings to root. After 90 days, when all the
cuttings have rooted, the polythene tent may be removed gradually over a period of 10 -15 days.
After the tent is removed, the cuttings are sorted and staked. The hardening of 4-6 months old
cuttings is achieved by removing shade and extending the time of sun exposure gradually overa period of 4-6 weeks, starting from a few hours to daily sun exposure.
The young tea plants are reared in nurseries, and when sufficiently mature, they are transplanted
to the fields and planted about 1-1.5 metres apart. The soil is well-hoed and kept completely freefrom weeds. The shrubs are pruned to counteract the tendency to shoot upwards. They begin toyield in the third year and attain their maximum produce in the seventh year.
Plantation and cultivation of tea is managed by government stakeholders ; in recent times, thepattern and the method of the plantation adopted in each region is more or less similar, following
the same methods and processes to yield a good quality product.

2.4

Type of Tea Trees Planted and Techniques of Tea Cultivation

While some Darjeeling tea gardens cultivate the native Indian tea bush variety (Camelliasinensis assamica), much of the tea cultivated in this region is the Chinese variety (Camelliasinensis sinensis) that has acclimatized to the region. Many Darjeeling tea bushes are China India hybrids, which can be found nowhere else in the world. The China bush variety of Camelliasinensis sinensis cultivated in Darjeeling produces small, delicate leaves compared to its India
bush cousin Camellia sinensis assamica, from which Assam tea is produced. It takes aboutI N D I A T E A C UL T U R AL L A N D S C A P E

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twice as much China bush tea leaf to equal the same weight of India bush tea leaf. This is
another reason why Darjeeling produces such a small fraction of the annual tea yield in India.
An important part of tea cultivation is the art of pruning. Collar pruning is the severest form ofpruning, requiring cutting the bole of the bush near or at the ground level. The main objective
is to provide a new frame for the plant by removing old and unproductive branches affected bydiseases and pests, particularly in situations where uprooting of unproductive bushes is notpossible. In heavy pruning, which is a variant of collar pruning, the bole is cut at 15 to 45 cm
above the ground for frame renewal. Medium pruning is often carried out to reduce the heightof the bushes so that they do not exceed 80 cm. Continuous picking of shoots on the top of abush gradually increases the height of the bushes, as well as causing congestion at the top
with weak and twiggy branches. To bring back the plants to a productive level, stimulate newwood, and renew maintenance foliage, medium pruning becomes necessary.
In north-east India, this operation is ideally carried out between the end of December and theend of January. Top or light pruning is the standard method of recurring pruning. The main
objective of this pruning is to renew the leaf bearing branches, as well as cleaning out the bush.
Top pruning is usually applied 2 to 3 cm above the last prune, leaving a considerable amountof foliage on the plants. When lung pruning is applied, all leaves below the plucking level areleft and the peripheral branches are not cut. These branches function as lungs, ensuring that asufficient amount of actively synthesising foliage is left on the bush to enable optimal growth ofthe plants. Skiffing is the lightest form of pruning and is essentially the levelling of the foliage,
either by giving a cut in the green stem in the lighter forms of skiffing, or into the red wood in
harder forms of skiffing. The object of skiffing is not only to generate an early start to crop
production, but also to achieve more of the high quality first flush and total crop. Skiffing helps
to thicken the pruning wood and improve the general health of the bushes. Immediately after
pruning, the plants enter a phase of unrestricted growth; if this unrestricted growth is allowed,
most of the shoots will mature as branches. To prevent this, the new growth has to be controlled
so that a uniform plucking table is formed. Tipping is therefore an operation aimed at forming alevel and flat plucking surface.

2.5

Harvesting and Tea Processing

Plucking or picking denotes the harvesting of the tea crop. It requires skill and attention since
only some of the most delicate, young and ripe tea leaves with part of the stem and bud (ortips) are to be taken from the bush. Plucking of young shoots, the two leaves and buds, as acomplex art, consumes about 15% of the total cost of tea production. Much of the quantity andquality of harvested crop depends on the standard of plucking. These leaves, together with thestem and tips, are called “flush”. This is the basis of tea production. Flush with just a couple ofleaves is called sorted or “golden”. Usually flush has three, four and sometimes five leaves.
Every 20 kg of green leaves gives 1 kg of dry tea.

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251Assam’s tea plucking and producing season runs from March to November. The Assam tea
leaves are generally harvested twice during a season; the harvests are known as “first flush”
and “second flush”. The first flush is picked during the early spring harvest in March andproduces Assam’s more delicate teas. The second flush in mid-summer produces the “tippy”
teas considered to be the most distinctive of the Assam teas.
Because the winter weather is severe across the Darjeeling region, its tea bushes are dormant
for many months of the year. Depending on the tea garden location, harvest season runs fromFebruary to November and yields several seasonal flushes along the way. Each flush
represents the new growth in the tea bush and reflects the seasonal effects on the leaf as theleaves mature. The first flush is the picking of the brand new two leaves and a bud in the earliest
spring growth of the plant in February and March. These early leaves are usually more delicate
and tender and therefore more light, floral, fresh and astringent in flavour. The second flush ispicked in May and yields larger, more mature leaves with a purplish hue and silver tips or leaf
buds. These leaves are known for their full-bodied and fruity flavour. The “monsoon flush” from
June to October yields large leaves that brew into a stronger colour and bolder flavour that isless nuanced than the previous flushes. The “autumnal flush” happens in October andNovember and yields a rich copper-coloured liquor that can be described as full and smooth inflavour. No matter which flush it comes from, each batch of fresh leaf will be different from one
day, one garden and one season to the next.
In contrast, Nilgiri’s monsoon seasons, with distinct wet and dry periods, define the growing andplucking schedules for the tea. The tropical climate allows for year-round plucking andproduction, although the best Nilgiri teas are those harvested between November and March.
The tea is grown among cypress and eucalyptus trees as well as a myriad of spices, which all
influence the tea’s fragrant taste. It is a high-yielding crop compared to that of Darjeeling.
The processing of tea involves two methods that are described above.

Image 6. Women working in the Tea Plantations, North East Region. Source: Niladari Gupta.

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252

Social Structures and Cultural Systems

In the first half of the 19th century, in the clearings of the lands now occupied by the Assam tea
plantations, the local people were reluctant to take employment as they enjoyed an existence
and an economy that were almost self-sufficient. Consequently, the labourers were recruitedfrom various cultural, linguistic and ethnic heritages from surrounding states such as Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra. A good majority of the tribes and castes that
migrated from these different parts of the country some generations ago have now become fully
settled and live in the rent-free quarters provided by the tea garden authorities. Most of theworkers in the tea industry continue to be from tribes from east, south-east and central India:
the Mundas, Oraons, Gonds, Tantis, Kols and Kumhars. Some of them have embraced
Christianity in the course of their initial contact with the European tea planters.
The Plantation Labour Act 1951(PLA), which regulates the wages of tea garden workers, their
duty hours, and the amenities that the management is supposed to provide (such as housing,
drinking water, education, health care, child care facilities like crèches, accident cover andprotective equipment), is not very effective; amenities, where provided, are of very poor quality.2
In plantations in the south, the situation is no different. Earlier plantations operated as semiautonomous socio-economic systems that were largely separate from the wider economic andcultural contexts in which they operated. This isolation afforded tea workers some protection
from direct, daily exposure to stigma and discrimination on the basis of caste, still prevalent inparts of the region. Plantation workers, after years of struggle, were even provided with certain
welfare measures such as housing and healthcare. Such privileges were not enjoyed by otherinformal sector workers, and access to these rights gave tea workers a sense of worth within
the plantation system. However, of late, with the withdrawal of the welfare measures theypreviously enjoyed, tea plantation workers have faced increasingly unhygienic work
environments, and have now joined the ranks of the massive workforce powering India’s
unorganised and informal sectors. Their outcast social status has combined with their identities
as manual labourers, also known as Tamil coolies, to perpetuate their economic
underdevelopment and social marginality. Although the government has undertaken manyreforms to address marginalised populations, tea plantation workers continue to be one of themost stigmatised and marginalised communities in India.
The economic crisis has also pushed many tea workers to seek employment outside theplantations, forcing them to re-engage with the caste hierarchy from which their ancestors
attempted to escape.

2 www.actionaid.org-india-what-we-do-assam-rights-tea-garden-workers-assam

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253

Associated Communities and Settlements

In the first half of the 19th century, in the clearings of the lands now occupied by the Assam tea
plantations, the local peoples were reluctant to take employment as they enjoyed an economy
which was almost self-sufficient. Consequently, the labourers were recruited from various
cultural, linguistic and ethnic heritages from places such as Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, M. P.,
Andhra, Madras, etc. A good majority of the tribes and castes who migrated from these different
parts of the country some generations ago have now become fully settled and live in the rentfree quarters provided by the tea-garden authorities. During the British regime, the constructionof railway and motorable roads, and the opening of tea gardens in Assam, opened new avenuesof employment, which led a large number of people to migrate to Assam from other parts ofIndia, Nepal and Bangladesh. These new migrants disturbed the original ethnic structure ofsettlements. The tea garden labourers, belonging to tribes such as the Munda, Ho, Santhal,
Savara, Oraon and Gond settled in the Doomni, Menaka and Nagrijuli tea estate areas in thenorth of the Pagladiya-Morapagladiya drainage complex. In the case of the Mancotta tea
plantation in Dibrugarh, Assam, the total labour population is composed of 32 different tribe andcaste groups and 383 families. 53% of the households and 50.4% of the population belong to
the Savara tribe, and many of them have been settled in this garden for the last three
generations. The post-independence period witnessed a remarkable change in the
demographic as well as settlement structure of this area. Just after independence, there was alarge-scale migration of minority Bengali Hindus from East Pakistan (present Bangladesh).
The communities associated with tea industry in north-east India are the Mundas and Madesias,
originally from the Jharkhand and Bihar regions. These communities have been associated withtea estates since the early 1900s. About two million labourers are dependent on Assam’s tea
industry, and almost all of them are the descendants of those who were brought to Assam aslabourers by the East India Company. The Santhals, Kurukh (Oraon), Gonds, Kharia, Bhumij
and Saora are the other communities associated with tea plantation.
Several settlements have been impacted in various ways over time due to changes in tea
production formats or the development of towns, which have had an impact on tea production.
One such example is Tihu town in Assam; the growth and development of this town is connectedwith British commercial enterprises through the development of the railway and roads. The
British constructed the Tihu-Doomni road, which was known as “Chahabar Ali”, from Tihu to
Doomni Tea Estate. This road was used for exporting tea and rice from the Tihu-Baska area to
Kolkata. After independence, Tihu became the gateway for the south-western part of the region(i.e. the old Kamrup district), connecting with other towns and service centres of Assam. All theroads and railway transportation facilities play a major role in attracting people to settle in thegreater Tihu area. The growth of Nalbari demonstrates a similar pattern to most of thecommercial and trade centre towns in Assam. The main phases in the town’s founding andgrowth are the British period (1841-1947) and the independence period. During the first phase,I N D I A T E A C UL T U R AL L A N D S C A P E

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not much change occurred in terms of functional morphology, and growth took place under the
influence of some stimuli such as the town’s position as the central market for the surrounding
rural areas and the centre for administrative services for the whole area. The construction of
the railway line in 1909-1910 helped to usher in the commercial and trade activities of the town.
The post-independence period, due to the expansion of the built-up area, has been associatedwith the increase of administrative functions, as well as educational, medical and other socioeconomic services.

Image 7. Kurseong Station on the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (a component of the World Heritage
Property) that cuts across the Settlement of Kurseong, North East Region. Source: Priyaleen Singh.

2.8

Links to Trade and Trade Routes

Currently, tea exports from India account for about 13% of world trade. Kolkata is the chief portof tea export from India. The other major ports through which tea is exported are Chennai ,Mangalore and Kochi. The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (DHR), a component of the World
Heritage property “Mountain Railways of India”, is a 2 ft (610 mm) narrow-gauge railway,
managed by Indian Railways, that extends from Siliguri to Darjeeling, connecting the two
districts of Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling in the Indian state of West Bengal. Darjeeling became awell-known British settlement and trading point for tea in the colonial period. Increasing traffic
by people and commodities overstressed the existing cart-road and a new transportation

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system was required. Transportation of tea by road was pioneered by Great India Roadlines,
which is now a specialized road transportation for the tea industry in the tea-producing statesof north-east India and caters to tea estates in Assam. Some of the largest tea manufacturers
are associated with it.
The narrow-gauge 120 km long railway link between Jogindernagar, Palampur and Pathankot
also facilitates transportation of Kangra tea to the Kolkata and Amritsar auction centre.
The Nilgiri Mountain Railway is a railway in Tamil Nadu, India, built by the British in 1908. The
railway still relies on its fleet of steam locomotives. In July 2005, the World Heritage
Committee inscribed the Nilgiri Mountain Railway on the World Heritage List as an extension to
the World Heritage property of the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. The property then became
known as the "Mountain Railways of India" after it fulfilled the necessary criteria. The Nilgiri
Mountain Railway also played an important role in the tea trade in India.

Image 8. Darjeeling Himalayan Railways traversing the Tea Estates, North East Region.
Source: Niladari Gupta.

The Mountain Railways of India World Heritage property includes three railways: the Darjeeling
Himalayan Railway, located in the foothills of the Himalayas in West Bengal (north-east India);
the Nilgiri Mountain Railways, located in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu (south India); and the
Kalka Shimla Railway, located in the Himalayan foothills of Himachal Pradesh (north-west
India). All three railways are still fully operational. Out of these, the first two have tea landscapes
along large stretches of the railway tracks. The people engaged and employed in the tea estate s
use the railways to commute.
The sites are inscribed under the following criteria:
Criterion (ii): The Mountain Railways of India are outstanding examples of the interchange ofvalues on developments in technology, and the impact of an innovative transp ortation systemon the social and economic development of a multicultural region, which was to serve as amodel for similar developments in many parts of the world. The Mountain Railways of India
exhibit an important cultural and technological transfer in the colonial setting of the period of its
construction, particularly with regard to the eminently political function of the terminus station,

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Shimla. The railway then enabled significant and enduring human settlement, of which it hasremained the main vector up to the present day.
Criterion (iv): The development of railways in the 19th century had a profound influence onsocial and economic developments in many parts of the world. The Mountain Railways of India
are outstanding examples of a technological ensemble, representing different phases of thedevelopment in high mountain areas. The Mountain Railways of India are outstanding examples
of how access has been provided to the plains and plateaus of the Indian mountains. They areemblematic of the technical and material efforts of human societies of this period to disenclave
mountain populations through the railway. They are well-maintained and fully operational livinglines. They are used in a spirit and for purposes that are the same as those at their inc eption.
The owner of the three components is the Ministry of Railways of the Indian Government. All
the laws of the Indian Union relating to railways apply to the property, in particular: the Railway
Act (1989) for technical protection measures, and the Public Premises Act (1971), which inparticular provides the right to expel unauthorized occupants. The Ministry of Railways makes
efforts to remove unauthorized occupation of land within the property as well as within the bufferzones adopted for the Kalka Shimla and Nilgiri Mountain Railways, but the lack of a recognised
boundary and buffer zone for the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway component makes it difficult toassess if encroachment is occurring. The adopted buffer zones encompass tea landscap es.

Image 9. Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a component of the World Heritage Property.
Source: Priyaleen Singh.

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Existing documentation

3.1

Landscape surveys

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There are no landscape surveys specifically devoted to the mapping of tea landscapes. The
Regional Development Plans located at the local Town and Country Planning offices would
need to be consulted in order to understand the extent of the tea landscapes on the ground.
The Survey of India maps, as a chronological series, located in its headquarters at Dehradun,
could be another source to understand the landscape profile of the tea landscapes.

3.2 Photographs and photographic surveys
No photographic surveys exclusively of tea estates have been carried out, however,photographs can be sourced from:•www.teaclimate.com, which features several images of tea landscapes and workshopswith the community relating to a collaborative initiative between the University ofSouthampton and the Tea Research Association. The project is investigating the impactsof climate change on tea production and livelihoods in north-east India. This project isfunded under the UK-India Education Research Initiative UKIERI (2014-2016).

•

Burra Bungalows and all that, Glimpses of Built Heritage and Memorabil ia of the Tea
Industry and Assam, a publication by INTACH edited by GM Kapoor, has a complete
photo documentation of built heritage associated with tea estates in the regions ofSilchar, Jorhat, Dibrugarh and Upper Assam, which are all sites in north-east India.

3.3 Inventories including recent mapping and databases
INTACH has prepared a basic inventory of the various surviving tea garden bungalows , which
has been published as a book titled: Burra Bungalows and all that, Glimpses of Built Heritageand Memorabilia of the Tea Industry and Assam.

3.4

Archive documents, written sources, early maps and plans, etc.

There are no archival maps and plans that could be identified for the tea landscapes, theirdemarcations or the built heritage associated with them. Archival documents such as
Gazetteers are sources of information on administrative, cultural and social aspects.

The

gazetteer of Assam: India-Assam State, Vol. I, Government of Assam, Guwahati: Assam, 1999,
and Census of India, 1971, Assam Series 3, Part II-A, General Population Table, are importantsources for identification of the migrations during the establishment of tea estates. The Reporton the Administration of Eastern Bengal and Assam, 1905-6; the Assam Administration Report,
1874-76; The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. VI, Argaon to Burdwan, published under the

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Authority of His Majesty’s Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford, 1908; Edward Gait, A
History of Assam, Calcutta,1905; and A. Mackenzie, History of the Relations of the Government
with the Hill Tribes of the North-East Frontier of Bengal, Calcutta, 1884, are other importantsources of information on tea landscapes and social and economic situations during theestablishment of the tea estates.

3.6 Conclusion, including consideration of appropriate
documentation for undertaking comparative studies
While the history of the tea industry has been well-researched, a detailed inventory of all thetea landscapes in the country is lacking. In order to carry out a comparative study, this inventory
will need to be supplemented by studies on socio-economic cultural aspects related tocommunities, data for which is presently lacking.

4. State of historic and technical knowledge
concerning tea landscapes studies
4.1 Definition of the period or periods during which the tea
landscapes flourished
As indicated in the timeline outlined below, tea landscapes in India are essentially a colonialconstruct:•

In 1841, it was discovered that the Chinese tea bush could be cultivated in Darjeeling.

•

Commercial cultivation began in approximately 1853.

•

By 1874, there were 113 tea gardens in the Darjeeling district alone.

•

James White set up the first Terai plantation, named Champta, in 1862. Planting was thenextended to the Dooars. Gazeldubi was the first Dooars garden and, by 1876, the area
had 13 plantations, which led the British to set up the Dooars Tea Planters’ Associationin 1877.

•

India's largest tea research centre, managed by the Tea Research Association, is locatedin Jorhat. This centre, which was established in 1911 at Tocklai (Jorhat), has madesignificant contributions towards tea attributes.

•

In 1849, Dr Jameson conducted a feasibility survey of the valley of Kangra in Himachal
Pradesh and found it suitable for tea cultivation. He brought Chin ese tea plants from thenurseries at Almora and Dehradun and planted them in government-owned gardens at
Kangra, Nagrota and Bhawama.

•

In the Nilgiris, tea was planted on an experimental farm in the Ketti Valley in 1853.

•

In 1869, Glenmorgan became the first estate in south India to produce green tea.

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259•

Tea plantations in Munnar were first established in the 1870s by A.M. Sharp.

•

In 1895, Finlay, a European company, acquired approximately 33 tea estates in Munnar.

•

In 1897, the Kanan Devan Hills Produce Company was formed to manage Finlay's estates.

•

In 1964, the Tata Group, an Indian corporate giant, entered into a collaborative venture with
Finlay leading to the formation of the Tata-Finlay group.

•

In April 2005, tea plantations under the Tata group were transferred to a new company
called Kanan Devan Hills Plantations Company Private Limited. Today, the company
manages 16 estates spread over about 8,600 hectares of land.

4.2 Have the landscapes evolved and, if so, how?
The Indian tea industry and its related landscapes have witnessed many changes. The recent
crisis in the Indian tea industry that started in 2001 has challenged the plantation model
economy. During the crisis, several plantations were closed down or abandoned, which
directly affected thousands of workers and resulted in the expansion of the small tea-growers
sector in India.
In early 2005, the industry also witnessed the old model of production being replaced by thebusiness model of achieving high productivity and competitiveness in international standards.
Tata Tea, previously one of the major companies holding a large market share of tea in India,
formally exited from its South Indian Plantation Operation (SIPO), by handing over tea estatesto the newly-formed Kanan Devan Hills Plantations Company Private Limited (KDHP). A newparadigm shift from the colonial mode of production to participatory manage ment in tea
cultivation is also taking place.
The Indian domestic tea market is predominantly a loose tea market, constituting around 60 %of the total tea consumption, with the remainder comprising packet tea. Over the past few years,
however, there has been a shift in the domestic market from loose tea to branded packet tea.
Apart from the changing scenario in the production sector and the intensifying brand products
and markets, the tea industry is also witnessing a diversification of crops. Most companies haveinitiated new projects for diversification of products, developing retail market and nature -based
tourism in and around their tea gardens.

4.3 State of current research on history of landscapes, plants,
planting methods, harvesting and processing methods,social structures and cultural systems
Generally, tea estates have been researched and articles are published in journals such as
Economic and Political Weekly and Journal of the Royal Society of Arts.
Notes on the History of Tea, by Gordon P. DeWolf Jr, discusses the history of tea cultivationand its expansion as an outcome of colonization. Indian Tea Research, by Saji M Kadavil, isI N D I A T E A C UL T U R AL L A N D S C A P E

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one of the most comprehensive research documents, detailing critical issues in the tea sectorof India and the social, economic and ecological conditions. Notes on the Production of Tea in
Assam, and in India Generally by J. C. Marshman is an archival document on land resources,
communities, migration and the structure of tea growth during the 1860s. Ethnicity and Isolation:
Marginalization of Tea Plantation Workers by Sharit K.Bhowmik addresses the conditions of tea
plantation workers in the framework of ethnicity and marginalization. There is , however,comparatively very little research on the Nilgiris and the plantations in the south. Participation
and Control: Study of a Co-operative Tea Factory in the Nilgiris is one of the publications which
discusses the plantations in Nilgiri. Burra Bungalows also mentions the traditional and modern
systems used for tea processing.

5. Threats to tea landscapes
5.1 Pressure from new development
The urbanisation and expansion of new urban areas have significantly affected the tea
landscapes. The railways that used to cut across the tea estates now largely run throughurban areas. The setting and the cultural landscape of the Darjeeling and the Nilgiri railways,
and the tea estates as established during the British period, are gradually being affected. The
Indian tea industry has witnessed many structural changes over the years. The emergenceof small tea growers and Bought Leaf Factories, crises in the tea industry , and the closureand abandonment of tea estates are the some of the changes in the recent history of the tea
industry in India. In early 2005, the industry witnessed major companies withdrawing fromproduction and concentrating on the packaging of tea, such as Tata and Hindustan Unilever
Limited (HUL). In the south, there is a new paradigm shift from the colonial mode of production
to participatory management in tea cultivation. In the north, McLeod Russel acquired the HUL
tea gardens and became the largest global plantation company. Tata and HUL intend to focus
on brand business and exploring the market substantially, rather than on the plantation
business, which is a low-margin sector.

5.2 Abandonment of traditional cultural practices
The cottage industry is facing tough competition from the establishment of modern tea factories
in the region. Maximum planters are selling green leaf directly to the tea factories instead ofprocessing it at small-scale cottage factories or households. As a result, many such small
cottage factories have closed.

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5.3 Impact of modern techniques of tea cultivation,
processing and management
Tea plants face contamination due to the growth of industrial farming, which is why organic tea
cultivation is gaining significance and has become the go-to source for clean, flavourful tea
leaves. As with other organic farm products, organic tea is produced using environmentally friendly methods of cultivation. Instead of relying on hazardous chemicals that damage theenvironment and remain in the finished product, organic tea farmers use traditional, natural
methods of pest and weed control. The result is an organic tea estate that works with thesurrounding ecosystem to produce healthy, vibrant crops and strong, flavourful teas.

5.4 Lack of maintenance/controls
Absence of adequate checks and controls during the processing of tea adversely affects thetea industry, and by consequence the tea landscapes. Tea planters consider that the main
issues are the failure of tea factories to sell the produce at appropriate rates, poor qual ity
production, outdated rules and regulations, lack of skilled labour and tea experts, lack of
coordination between different factories, and lack of interest of the small planters in quality
enhancement. For example, different grades of green leaves are collected together. Grade A,
which is generally considered two leaves and a bud, and Grade B are not collected separately.
When the two grades are mixed, it affects the quality of green leaves. Plucking of green leaves
after the prescribed duration makes the leaf stronger and increases quantity, but has asignificant effect on the quality. With tea prices declining due to these adulterations , thelivelihoods of the workers are affected.

5.5 Specific threats (modern/industrial large scale cultivation,
climate change, tea plants diseases and parasites, partial
abandonment of tea plantations, change of species orplant die-off, etc.)
Climate risk is high in Assam, ranging from the annual flooding of the Brahmaputra River, due
to intense monsoon rains and soil waterlogging, to winter precipitation deficits with seasonaldroughts. These changes in temperature and precipitation are thought to have an impact on
tea productivity. Over a thousand species of arthropod pests are known to attack tea plants
around the world, including 300 species of insects recorded in India alone. Crop production inIndia is significantly impacted by attacks from a wide variety of pests, including red spider mites,mosquitos, pink and purple mites, termites, red slug caterpillars and looper caterpillars. Studies
show that mites can cause more than 18% loss3 in crops when the infestation is severe. The

3“Functional and Numerical Responses of the predatory mite, Neoseiulus longispinosus, to the red spider

mite, Oligonychus coffeae, infesting tea” by Rahman et al. Journal of Insect Science.

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cumulative crop loss due to pest attacks can become as high as 55%, and in some cases even
100% crop loss has been reported. At the same time, large numbers of weeds also restrict theyield of tea.
In order to combat pest attacks, a huge quantity of pesticides is used in the industry, and thishas led to their indiscriminate use rather than integrated pest management. This has also
added to the costs of production, as pesticides are a high cost input. Such reasons have led
to more and more tea estates adopting organic methods of tea production. There are manyvarieties of organic tea already available on the Indian market, which are certified by Indianagencies. The Tea Board has several schemes for assisting plantations to adopt eco -friendly
methods of production.
The buildings within the tea estates are also undergoing change. INTACH has identified
approximately 110 tea estate bungalows and other built heritage structures associated withtea landscapes in the north-east region. In the absence of any recognition that thesestructures are an important part of the built heritage and an integral part of the culturallandscape, additions and alterations to these structures are carried out , completelytransforming their historic character.

6. Protection
6.1 Legal protection
The tea industry in India is highly regulated. Permission has to be obtained from the Tea Boardin order to plant tea on any land not currently planted with tea, as well as to replace tea planting
areas with other crops. The Tea Board also regulates and controls the total area of land undercultivation. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has prescribed maximum
residue limits for seven Plant Protection Formulations (PPF). Tea Research Institutes haverecommended limits for 17 more PPFs, which are awaiting notification by FSSAI. 4 All thesemeasures will help protect the tea landscapes.

6.2 Planning or other forms of protection
The acts and rules for tea production, cultivation, management and processing in India are:•Tea Act, 1953 (No. 29 of 1953)•

The Tea Rules, 1954;

4Policy on usage of Plant Protection Formulations in Tea Plantations of India, Ministry of Commerce andIndustry, Govt. of India 14, B. T. M Sarani, Kolkata- 700 001 West Bengal, India

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The Tea Board Bye Laws, 1955;•

The Tea (Distribution & Export) Control Order, 1957;•

The Tea (Waste) Control Order, 1959;•

The Investigation of Tea Undertaking/Tea Units (Procedure) Rules, 1981;•

The Tea (Regulations of Export Licensing) Order, 1984;•

The Tea (Marketing) Control Order, 1984;•

The Tea Warehouses (Licensing) Order, 1989;•

The Tea Board (Write Off Losses) Rules, 1996.

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Under the 1953 Tea Act, the Tea Board was established by the Government of India to regulate
the production and extent of the cultivation of tea, improve the quality of tea, promote
cooperative efforts among growers and manufacturers of tea, and secure better working
conditions and improvement of amenities and incentives for workers.
The Tea Board also periodically organizes several awareness-raising workshops incollaboration with the Tea Research Institutes in order to disseminate scientific information.
Blending Indian tea with other cheaper quality tea from different origins and packaging thisblend as tea from Indian origin (particularly as Darjeeling tea) affects the market of Indian tea.
Against this backdrop, Darjeeling tea, in particular, and Indian tea, in general, require full
protection under the umbrella of IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) and GI (Geographical
Indications) as per Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) guided by theWorld Trade Organisation (WTO). In order to ensure the supply of genuine Darjeeling tea andcheck labelling of other teas as “Darjeeling Tea”, the Indian government has incorporated acompulsory system of certifying the authenticity of exported Darjeeling tea into the Tea Act. In
addition to other varieties, orthodox Assam teas have also been registered as a GI in India.

6.3

Traditional protection

There is no record of traditional protection practices, and presently the Tea Board is the key
body looking after the interests of the tea plantations and the tea planters.

7.

Conservation and managementof tea landscapes

7.1

Conservation of natural and cultural features

The tea estates are not protected or identified as World Heritage, despite existing in the bufferzone of the World Heritage property of the Mountain Railways of India, which includes theDarjeeling Himalayan Railway and Nilgiri Mountain Railway. These tea estates havedemarcated boundaries as per the ownership of the land and include the tea plantation terraces

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264with vernacular housing and built heritage in the form of bungalows and processing units. The
terraced landscapes have maintained their authenticity in terms of form, continuity of function,practices and traditional knowledge.

7.2

Management of overall landscapes, including traditional
management

The plantation model of the tea industry works with its own structure and development
mechanisms and relies on the Plantation Labour Act for its operation and regulation. Various
Acts and Rules regulate and control the structure and function of the plantation sector in India,
which has its own methods of addressing issues such as the quality of green leaves, productionof tea, and social and economic responsibilities at the field and market levels. The present Tea
Board functions as a statutory body of the Central Government under the Ministry of Commerce.
The Board is constituted of 31 members (including the Chairman) drawn from Members of
Parliament, tea producers, tea traders, tea brokers, consumers, and representatives ofgovernments from the principal tea-producing states and trade unions .
Briefly, the primary functions of the Tea Board are as follows:•

Rendering financial and technical assistance for the cultivation, manufacture and marketingof tea;•Export promotion;•

Aiding Research and Development activities for augmentation of tea production andimprovement of tea quality;•

Extending financial assistance in a limited way to the plantation workers and their wards
through labour welfare schemes;•

Encouraging and assisting both financially and technically the unorganised small growers
sector;•Collecting and maintaining statistical data and publication.

The ITA (Indian Tea Association) has played a multi-dimensional role in formulating policies andinitiating actions towards the development and growth of the tea industry and its people, while
liaising with the Tea Board, the government and various other stakeholders of the industry. Theirrole is to design and implement inclusive and sustainable welfare initiatives catering to the rural
population and the tea community at large. The thrust areas identified by the ITA are health, family
welfare, female empowerment, education, agricultural extension and vocational training. The
ABITA (Assam Branch of Indian Tea Association) in partnership with UNICEF started various
welfare programmes in 2000 in the fields of education, crèche development and nutrition, andlater expanded and diversified into a more structured intervention to promote health, nutrition,
sanitation and child rights amongst the tea garden population.
Training is carried out regularly by the Tea Board of India in collaboration with the Tea
Research Association through the organization of workshops, training programmes, seminars

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and refresher courses on new technologies and quality development in order to meet thequality requirements of the world market. The Tea Research Association also publishes aquarterly bulletin covering every aspect of tea production and management, and the practices
to be followed in the ensuing quarter. The bulletin is distributed to estate managers well inadvance of each quarter to provide statistical and other relevant information regarding
necessary action.
UPASI (The United Planters' Association of Southern India) is an apex body of tea planters insouth India. There are three State Planters' Associations and 13 District Planters' Associations
affiliated to UPASI. It is the premier representative body of buyers, sellers, processors,
exporters, co-operatives and all other market intermediaries of tea, coffee, rubber and spices.

7.3

Sustainable development including strengthening
resilience of traditional systems

The Tea Research Association and the Darjeeling Tea Research and Development Centre play
important roles in conducting research in order to develop a sustainable model of tea planting.
The procedures outlined include working in harmony with nature to preserve biodiversity andthe ecosystem, enhancing individual and group efficiency within the traditional cultivation
system, and producing the best possible quality under the traditional manufacturing system.
Additionally, tea estates are instructed to follow the single set of agricultural practices (laid out
in the standard operating procedures) that has been developed and used for more than 150
years in order to sustain the growth of shoots and maintain the bush heights required for
traditional picking by hand. The tea leaves must be processed by the traditional rolling method,in which human effort and traditional knowledge are involved at every stage. Stakeholders arealso instructed to understand how a smallholder model could work successfully in different
contexts, how it needs to be supported, and also what constitutes sustainable livelihoods on
estates. This includes advancing the work on living wages begun by Oxfam and the Ethical Tea
Partnership, in addition to considering the future role for estates in the provision of in -kindbenefits. Training also includes instructions on how collaboration can work to ensure thathuman rights, including gender equality, are delivered throughout the tea value chain.
As part of the sustainable practices, the participants are trained to understand the potential
impact of mechanisation on tea workers and the wider community, and whether collaborative
action could be taken to reduce the impact on vulnerable workers and make the profession
more attractive. They are encouraged to improve research and mapping of tea -growing areas
likely to be affected by climate change, and to learn how other agricultural sectors are tacklingclimate change. The training includes scaling-up existing low-carbon processing practices,
including the use of renewable energy in production and processing. Participants are taught toevaluate and utilise the genetic diversity of tea to improve the sustainability and quality of thecrop as well as to improve composting methods and reduce waste. Tea leaves and bags

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frequently end up in landfills although they can generally be composted. The tea sector needs
to ensure that all teabags are compostable and that they are not disposed of in landfills, as well
as explore the potential of new innovations and sustainable ways to serve tea to consumers.

8.

Conclusion

8.1

An overview of the profile of this sub-region andits tea landscapes

While tea is grown in 16 states in India, the states of Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu andKerala account for approximately 95% of total tea production.
India’s major tea-producing districts/areas are as follows:•

Assam: Darrang, Goalpara, Kamrup, Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh, Nowgong, Sibsagar,
Cachar, Karbi Anlong, North Cachar;•West Bengal: Darjeeling, Terai (west Dinajpur), Doors (Cooch Bihar);•

Tamil Nadu: Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Coimbatore, Nilgiris;•

Kerala: Cannanore, Palghat, Kozhikode, Malapuram, Trichur, Trivandrum, Quilon,
Kottayam, Ernakulam, Idukki, Wynaad;•

Karnataka: Chikmagalur, Coorg, Hassan.

The state with the largest area under tea plantation in India is Assam.

8.2

Whether the lack of documentation and research hinders
full analysis of the tea landscapes

While the history and methods of tea cultivation are well documented, lack of information oncommunities, of socio-economic data and of a systematic inventory of all the tea landscapes
hinders a comprehensive analysis of the subject.

8.3

The distinctiveness of these tea landscapes in relation toother sub-regions

The tea landscapes in India, unlike many other sub-regions, are a colonial construct. The
continuity of these tea landscapes in their location and practices makes them distinct.

8.4

Which landscape might be said to best reflect theparticular characteristics of this region and which, if any,might have the potential to demonstrate OUV, either on
their own or in a series?

The tea landscapes of Assam and the Nilgiris are very distinctive. They both deserve researchand study so as to determine whether they demonstrate Outstanding Universal Value as
possible World Heritage properties.

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The tea landscapes of India are an important example of extensive agricultural and cultivation
systems that are supplemented by integrated social and cultural systems and practices.
The built heritage of the tea industry in Assam, from the manager’s bungalows, offices, theplantations, the factories and factory machinery, to clubs, churches and cemeteries, has been
an integral part of the history and heritage of tea industry for more than two centuries.
The tea industry is based on traditional practices that also underpin social and economic
systems. Communities, their knowledge systems, the practices of tea processing and thelandscapes created are all linked and have sustained and evolved over a period of almost
two centuries.

Image 9. Image showing a Built Resource associated with a Tea Estate in Darjeeling, North East
Region. Source: Rohit Jigyasu.

8.5

What are the main vulnerabilities of the tea landscapesof this sub-region?

The decline in the tea industry due to international competition has had an impact on the tea
landscapes, with many estates closing down. Small tea planters attribute this to the failure of
co-operatives to give timely payments to all suppliers, poor management skills, increasing
political interference and non-adoption of appropriate market strategy. Middle level tea planters
cite poor management, overdependence of co-operatives on loans, a poor grading system andoutdated technology, while large tea planters consider the main issues to be the failure of tea
factories to sell the product at appropriate rates, poor quality production, outdated rules andregulations, a lack of skilled labour and tea experts, a lack of coordination between different
factories of the region and a lack of interest of the small planters in quality enhancement. The

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closure of plantations, supplemented by growing urbanisation around the estates , are a major
threat to the tea landscapes.

8.6

How are these impacting on conservation, authenticity
and integrity?

The forms and the settings of tea landscapes are impacted by the rapid growth of urbanisation
and use of modern materials for construction, which are changing the form of the architecture
within and around the tea landscapes. While the usage of the tea gardens is intact, the negativevisual and spatial impacts on their integrity is due to the development around the railway tracks.
However, many of the estates that are distant from urban development and have demarcatedboundaries continue to be in a pristine state with the terraces, the vegetation, the communities
and the built heritage existing as one coherent whole.

8.7

How effective is current protection and management andin what ways might these be improved?

The current protection and management could be improved by introducing restrictions on sellingtea garden land, as well as increasing subsidies and loans, making proper arrangements forpurchasing the produce, strengthening small-scale tea industry, and providing special financial
assistance for establishing cottage tea processing units, along with increasing the role of small
tea planters in the management of co-operative tea units. Above all, there needs to be an
improvement in the living conditions of the tea plantation workers, without which the tea
plantations and the tea industry will not survive.

8.8

Possible recommendations for the future

The old plantations need to be rejuvenated. The neglected and abandoned tea garden owners
should be assisted to make tea gardens economical. Quality improving measures shoul d be
adopted by all the tea planters and the tea industry. The plight of the tea plantation workers
also needs to be addressed to ensure that they continue to work on tea gardens and employ
their skills that they have honed over generations.
Indian tea plantations that have their origins mainly in the 19th century are more considered byindustrial and productive aspects. The different institutions (Tea Board, etc.) focus mainly on
productivity and have not had much interest in cultural heritage. However , it is very importantto protect and recognise cultural heritage from this period as it illustrates not only the interactionof humankind and nature, but is a wonderful example of early industrial heritage and shared
heritage that demonstrates the links between different regions of the world.

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Bibliography
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29-37.
Garhwal University, “Tea cultivation and sustainable development: a case study of Kangra valley”,
Srinagar, Garhwal.
Prosenjit Das Gupta, Burra Bungalows and All That, INTACH, April 2012.
Marshman, J.C., “Notes on the Production of Tea in Assam, and in India Generally”, The Journal of theRoyal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 19, 1862, pp. 315320.
Neelanjana Mitra, “Indian Tea Industry: Problems and Policies”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 26,
No. 48, Nov. 30 1991, pp. M153-M156.
Rajya Sabha, Report on the Tea Industry by the Parliamentary Committee on Tea, 2003.
Ramendra Kumar Kar, “A Tribe in the Context of a Tea Industry in India: Some Preliminary Considerations
and Observations”, Anthropos Institute, 1976, pp. 868-877.
Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, “Tea cultivation in India”,
Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 57, No. 2934, February 12, 1909, pp. 265.
Tharian George K., “Historical Roots of the Crisis in the South Indian Tea Industry”, Social Scientist, Vol.
12, No. 4, Apr. 1984, pp. 34-50.
Tarit Kumar Datta, “V.Darjeeling tea, India”, Indian Institute of Management, Calcutta.
Whittaker, A., “The development of the tea industry in India and Pakistan”, Journal of the Royal Societyof Arts, Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, Vol. 97, No. 4800,
29th July 1949.
Yujiro H. and A. Damodaran, “Towards an Alternative Agrarian Reform: Tea Plantations in South India”,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 39, No. 36, Sep. 4-10, 2004, pp. 3992-3997.

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A Study of Assamand Darjeeling
Dr Aditi Chatterji
Centre for Urban Economic Studies, Universityof Calcutta, Kolkata, India

Introduction
The cultivation and drinking of tea have been widely known in China for centuries, but tea
cultivation and manufacture on a commercial basis in India were introduced by the British after
they found the plant growing wild in Assam. The following paper proceeds to study the evolutionof tea landscapes in Darjeeling, West Bengal and Assam, in east and north-east India, from theviewpoint of physical and social landscapes.

Map 1. India Northeastern States. Source: author.

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1.

271

General characteristics of Assamand Darjeeling
1.1

1.1

General geographical/ecological/geological data

Both Assam and Darjeeling are located in or near the Eastern Himalaya. The Himalaya dwarf allother mountain ranges. The 2,400 kilometre-long and 250 to 300 kilometre-wide mountain barrier,rising 500 to 8,000 metres above sea level, is relatively young and still prone to spells of tectonic
restlessness or crustal disturbances, indicating the accumulation of inner tectonic crustal stress.
The mountain body is still growing, and its framework is being deformed, the landscape being
continuously reshaped. The titanic force of compression due to the collision of the landmasses ofIndia and Asia transformed the once-massive pile of layered rocks on the northern margin of the
Indian shield into the majestic Himalaya. The Indian landmass continues to move and press
against Asia, leading to stresses and strain on the Himalaya and to natural hazards. The longmountain chain bordering the sub-continent isolates it from the rest of Eurasia. In the east, thechain assumes a long convex curve along the Patkai Hills-Arakan Yoma, forming the IndoMyanmar border ranges, with knee-bends in the north-western and north-eastern ends of themain Himalaya. The mountains bordering the subcontinent constitute a geological province
characterised by similar structural architecture and evolutionary history. The Himalayan province
ceases against the zone of collision of India with Asia, which is now occupied by the major rivers
Indus and Brahmaputra, the terrain of which displays a gentle topography of river flood-ways,
although located 3,600 to 5,000 metres above sea level. The Himalaya were conceived andevolved over 2,000 million years ago. The Indian landmass was welded to mainland Asia about
55 million years ago. Increasing pressure due to continental convergence over time caused thebuckled-up mass and wrinkled pile of layered rocks to be sheared of their roots, pushed great
distances south and thrown upon comparatively younger sedimentary rocks. Towns such as
Simla and Darjeeling are located on such uprooted, far-travelled rock sheets. 1.6 million years
ago, the Himalaya were subjected to severe deformation, which raised the mountains totremendous heights, triggered landslides and caused severe erosion. A basin formed due tosubsidence of the foreland has been and is being filled with sediments brought by the Indus,
Ganga and Brahmaputra river systems (Valdiya, 1998: 1-14).
Characteristic features of the Himalaya include fragile ecosystems. The southern slopes aresteep with precipitous scarps. Apart from fan-like and conical accumulation of talus, consistingof multifaceted fragments, the southern slopes have little soil cover or vegetation. The debris
fans and cones have a very sparse vegetation cover. The northern slopes are gentler and enjoy
abundant rain and shade: they are marked by a thick soil cover and forests of deciduous trees,
shrubs and grasses. The snowline is gradually moving higher, and glaciers are receding due toglobal warming. Minor developmental activities lead to landslides, soil erosion, the drying up of
springs and desertification of slopes (Valdiya, 1998: 20).

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2,000 million years ago, sea water from the ancient Purana Sea flooded the northern margin of
the Indian shield. The sea deposits have an aggregate thickness of over 13,000 metres andwere laid down from the Late Paleoproterozoic (>1,600 million years ago) to the Early Cambrianperiods (until about 525 million years ago). The nature of the basement forming the sea floor ismost likely characterised by large occurrences of porphyritic granite associated withmetamorphosed flysch. These rocks form thick sheets (“nappes”) all over the area, coveringlarge extents of the Purana sedimentary succession in three successions. The uppermost
nappe consists of medium-grade metamorphic rocks, mostly mica-schists with garnet,
granodiorite and granite rich in biotite and quartz. Volcanic rocks appear all over the Himalaya(Valdiya, 1998: 26-28, 48).
The warm, humid, tropical conditions about 18 to 16 million years ago fostered the growth of
thick rainforests in the floodplains, and abundant food and water led to flourishing forms oflife, such as reptiles (crocodiles and “gharials”), rhinoceros and hippopotamus, elephants,
tigers, buffaloes, cows, deer, goats and tree-climbing primates. By 5.1 to 1.6 million years
ago, the environmental conditions had changed, and the tropical forests were mainly replacedby savannah-type wide grassy plains dotted sparsely with trees. Grazing and browsing
animals, primates, carnivores and elephants flourished. Human -like primates appeared(Valdiya, 1998: 38-39).
Mountain (skeletal) soils vary greatly between the local rocks, ranging from the stony, sandy
hill foot fans and slope colluvium of the north-western Hills and the Aravallis to a more clayey
product of mass-movement in the humid south and east of the Himalaya and in Assam. The
alluvium-based soils of the Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra plains vary greatly in depth andcomposition with grades of alluvium. In the Ganga-Brahmaputra plains, in more humid
atmospheric and soil climates, textural sequences are finer throughout from loams to very fine,silty clays. Montane temperate vegetation, including wet temperate and Himalayan moist
temperate as well as Alpine types and subalpine grasslands, occur in the Himalaya. The tropical
wet evergreen and semi-evergreen types were typical rainforests and the true evergreen
occurred up to 1,070 metres in Assam. In areas where the progression was towards semi evergreen forests, as in alluvial tracts of Assam, canes trailing horizontally up to 61 metres form
dense brakes, a thorny thicket with a few tall trees like palms. The sub-tropical pine forest
occurs on the higher Khasi and Assam-Myanmar Hills (Spate and Learmonth, 1967, reprint
1972: 73-83, 87-89, 95-99).
Assam state, the largest tea growing area in the world, is situated in the extreme north-east ofIndia (the coordinates of Dispur, the capital of Assam state, are: 26.14°N, 91.78°E) . In ancient
times, it was known as Pragjyotishpur. The state has an area of 78,438 square kilometres andthe elevation varies from 25 to 1,960 metres. The boundaries of Assam have varied over time.
Before the British arrived, the northern boundary was constituted of hills inhabited by hill tribes,
including the Bhutanese, Akas, Daflas, Miris and Abars, while the Mismis inhabited the northeastern Mismi Hills. The eastern hills were home to the Singphos and Khamtis, while the Patkai

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Hills separated Assam from Myanmar. The Assam Range trends from west to east in the south:
the Garo, Khasia and Jaintia, North Cachar and Naga Hills. Assam proper is the Brahmaputra
Valley located between the northern and southern ranges. The Assam boundary was changedby the British. New regions were included in Assam, encompassing the whole Assam Range,
the Barak Valley, the Surma Valley and the Lushai Hills. After 1947, the boundary changed
several times due to the secession of the following areas: Sylhet district, except five thanas,
Khasi and Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills (Meghalaya), Naga Hills (Nagaland) and Lushai Hills(Mizoram). The Brahmaputra enters Assam from the north-east frontier and flows through fromeast to west (Chakravorty, 1997: 88-89).
A major feature of Assam is that it contains three out of six physiographic divisions of India: thenorthern Himalaya (Eastern Hills), the northern plains (Brahmaputra Plain) and the Deccan
Plateau (Karbi Anglong). Studies indicate that the Brahmaputra, the lifeline of Assam, is anantecedent river, older than the Himalaya. The river has steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal
Pradesh, but upon entering Assam it becomes a braided river (sometimes 16 kilometres wide)
and with its tributaries it creates a floodplain (Brahmaputra Valley: 80-100 kilometres wide,
1,000 kilometres long). The hills of Karbi Anglong and North Cachar, those close to Guwahati,
and the Khasi-Garo Hills, now eroded and dissected, were originally part of the Indian Plateau.
In the south, the Barak, originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border), flows throughCachar district with a 40-50 kilometre-wide valley and enters Bangladesh as the Surma River.
With the tropical monsoon rainfall climate, summer temperatures reach a maximum of 35 -38ºC,
while the winter minimum is 6-8ºC. There are heavy monsoon downpours, reducing summer
temperatures and leading to foggy weather in winter, often during afternoons. Spring (MarchApril) and autumn (September-October) are usually pleasant, with moderate temperatures andrainfall. Agriculture depends on the south-west monsoon rains.
Assam is one of the richest international biodiversity zones, with tropical rainforests, deciduous
forests, riverine grasslands, bamboo orchards and many wetland ecosystems, many of which
are protected as natural parks and reserved forests. The chief wildlife sanctuaries are two
UNESCO World Heritage properties: the Kaziranga National Park on the bank of theBrahmaputra, and the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, near the Bhutan border. Kaziranga is a refuge
for the Indian one-horned rhinoceros and the state is the last refuge for many threatened andendangered species. There are three other National Parks: Dibru Saikhowa, Nameri and Orang.
Assam has around 946 types of birds and 190 types of mammals.
Assam’s geological wealth includes petroleum, natural gas, coal, limestone, magnetic quartzite,
kaolin, sillimanite, clay, feldspar and some iron-ore.
Darjeeling (coordinates 27º3’N, 88º16’E) is a town in the Indian state of West Bengal, locatedin the Himalaya at an elevation of 2,042.2 metres. It is the headquarters of Darjeeling districtin West Bengal. The hills of Darjeeling are part of the Lesser Himalaya. The soil chiefly
consists of sandstone and conglomerate formations, which are the solidified and upheaved

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detritus of the mountain range. The soil is often poorly consolidated as the permeable
sediments do not retain water between rains. The area has steep slopes and loose topsoil,
leading to frequent landslides during the monsoons. The town falls under seismic zone IV ona scale of I-V near the convergent boundary of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates and issubject to frequent earthquakes. The district of Darjeeling lies between 26º31’ and 27º13’N
and 87º59’ and 88º53’E.
The district resembles an irregular triangle: the apex projected into British territory while thebase rests on Sikkim. It is a frontier district, between Nepal and Bhutan, stretching from theBengal plains to the south to Sikkim to the north. In British times, the frontier was demarcatedfrom Sikkim by rivers and mountain torrents, from Nepal on the west by the Singalila Mountains,and from Bhutan to the east by the Jaldhaka River, while the south-eastern and southernboundaries adjoined the British districts of Jalpaiguri and Purnea. The Terai stretches along thebase of the hills, a low-lying strip shut in on the north by the giant outliers of the Himalaya.
The remainder of the district consists of mountain spurs and ranges with no flat valleys, plainsor lakes and few bare slopes except where virgin forest has been replaced by the tea gardens
or cultivated fields. The district falls into two distinct tracts: the Terai beneath the hills , andthe ridges and deep valleys of the Himalaya. The Terai is unhealthy and marshy, and wasmostly covered by dense forests most of which have been cleared for tea gardens and settled
agriculture. An 1830 traveller wrote that the mountains were then completely covered with
forests, forming a sombre feature in the landscape, while by 1907, the slopes were dottedwith trim tea gardens interspersed with small plots of cultivated land. At the higher levels of
the Singalila Range, there were wide grassy slopes interspersed with pine forests andrhododendrons. The valleys on the south-eastern side of the Singalila Ridge are drained by
the Mechi, Balasan and Mahanadi Rivers, while the rest of the Darjeeling Hills is drained by
the Tista and its tributaries, except the extreme east, which is drained by the Jaldhaka(O’Malley, 1907: 1-3, 6).
Darjeeling has a temperate climate, with wet summers caused by monsoon rains. The annual
mean maximum temperature is 14.9ºC while the mean minimum temperature is 8.9ºC. The
average annual precipitation is 309.2 centimetres and the highest rainfall occurs in July .
Darjeeling is a part of the Eastern Himalaya zoo-geographic zone. Vegetation includes sal, oak,semi-evergreen, temperate and alpine forests. Dense evergreen forests of sal and oak occur
around the town with many varieties of rare orchids. The Lloyd Botanical Garden preserves rare
and common species of plants while the Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park conserves
and breeds endangered Himalayan species. There is much deforestation in the immediate
vicinity of the town, mostly due to the demand for fuel and timber, and air pollution nowadays.
The wildlife wing of the West Bengal Forest Department protects the district’s wildlife. Several
species of ducks, teals, plovers and gulls pass through Darjeeling while migrating to and from
Tibet. Civets, mongooses and badgers are small mammals found here.

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The rocks of the district have been subdivided into five series: gneiss, the Daling series, theBuxa series, Gondwanas and the Tertiary system. Their outcrops form a series of bands,
running generally parallel to the trend of the Himalaya and dipping one beneath the other into
the hills. The interesting feature of these subdivisions is that the younger formations always
seem to underlie the older ones: the Tertiary beds under the Gondwanas, the Gondwanas underthe Buxa and Daling series, and these under the gneiss, the original order of superimposition
being completely reversed by folding and faulting. The gneiss varies fro m a foliated granitoid
rock, consisting of quartz, feldspar and biotite, to a generally pure mica-schist, and includes
partly intrusive granite and partly metamorphosed rocks of sedimentary origin. The Daling
series consists of phyllite, slate and quartzite with some hornblende-schist, dolomite andlimestone. Copper ore occurs. The Buxa series consists of slate, quartzite and dolomite. The
Gondwanas are mostly formed of sandstone, shale and coal, crushed and faulted. The Tertiary
beds are mostly composed of soft, massive ‘salt and pepper’ sandstone containing mica,
feldspar, limestone and lignite in small quantities (O’Malley, 1907: 9-10).
The natural landscape outlined above has been significantly moulded by human impact.

1.2

1.2

The historical context

The following section studies the opening up of the two tea zones of Assam and Darjeeling ,mostly by the British in the nineteenth century.
The history of the tea industry in Assam begins in the 1830s on the southern banks of theBrahmaputra River near Sadiya. However, the story began about 150 years earlier in China
and Great Britain. The practice of growing and drinking tea originated in China. The Portuguese
encountered the beverage in their journeys to the East Indies and introduced it to Europe in the
16th century. By around 1665, tea was discovered and imbibed by the British aristocracy, chiefly
the Portuguese Queen Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II. By then, tea commanded a
price of 50 shillings a pound at times, despite government duties. The major agent in thebusiness was the English East India Company, which in 1600 was granted the monopoly of
trade with the East Indies (Orient) by Queen Elizabeth I. The English developed a taste for the
beverage, and by 1785, the import of tea from China to Britain rose to about 11 million pounds.
In 1788, Sir Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, suggested to the Company that they shouldlook for tea in India, possibly in Cooch Behar and Rangpur in East Bengal adjoining Assam. At
that time, the Company was content with its monopoly of the tea trade with China; 26 million
pounds were imported into England by 1816. However, by the turn of the 19 th century, there
was friction between Britain and China over trade terms, with uncertainty regarding theregularity and adequacy of tea supplies from China. The British Government was increasingly
anxious about the rising price of tea and attributed it to the Company monopoly. In 1819, David
Scott, an agent in Assam for the Governor-General, approached Dr Nathaniel Wallich,

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associated with the Calcutta Botanical Gardens, for a supply of tea seeds for experimental
cultivation in Assam. In 1823, Robert Bruce encountered Beesa (Bissa) Gawm, the Singpho
tribal chief, near Sadiya at the foothills of present-day eastern Arunachal Pradesh, for the
possible supply of tea plants and seeds from local sources. Maniram Dutta Dewan advised
Bruce that the tea plant grew wild in that area. The Singpho drank tea, which they called“phanap”, as a regular beverage. In 1824, Robert Bruce’s brother, Charles Bruce, obtained tea
plants from the Singpho chief of Sadiya, sent some to Wallich for regeneration and plantedsome in his back-garden in upper Assam. In 1833, the Chinese authorities refused to allow amonopoly trade in tea to the Company anymore, and in 1834, the British Government withdrew
the rights to tea trade monopoly chiefly due to very high prices. The Company could not afford
to lose out on the rising demand for tea in Britain and simultaneously had no further access toChinese tea. An effort was therefore made to grow tea in India. Lord William Bentinck,
Governor-General, set up a Tea Committee in 1834. The Committee concluded that tea wasfound in upper Assam from the research of Captain Jenkins and Lieutenant Charlton.
Simultaneously, George Gordon, the Committee secretary, was sent to China to buy plants andseeds and to hire some Chinese planters to assist in the opening up of tea plantations in India.
Dr Wallich and others organised expeditions to locate plants in upper Assam.
Charles Bruce, aided by his good relations with tribal chiefs, also found tea growing wild in
the hills skirting the Burhi Dihing River and Tingri. By 1837, plants were cultivated from
Chinese seeds at Koondilmukh, Jaipur and Chabua near Dibrugarh in upper Assam. Laterthat year, Assam tea was sent to London. By 1839, tea from Chinese seeds was being
grown in upper Assam. In order to ensure the quality of Indian plantations and tea, Chineseplanters were imported, but Charles Bruce pleaded for the hiring and training of ‘native’
labour. By 1839, the Company found the running of tea gardens a liability and began totransfer them to private entrepreneurs. In February 1839, the Assam Company wasestablished, with Charles Bruce as a director, to take over some gardens, and by November
1839, it merged with a joint stock company named the Bengal Tea Association to form thefirst limited liability company for the production of tea in India. The Bengal Tea Association
included some of the richest and renowned merchants of Calcutta, namely Dwarka NathTagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Rustomji Cowasji and Motilal Seal (Dasgupta , 2012: 1013. in Kapur, ed., 2012; Moxham, 2009).
Early planters required money, an intrepid spirit, the fortitude to face natural and humanadversities, and faith in the industry. J. Masters was sent to Assam, and after visiting Jaipur, heestablished the headquarters of the Assam Company near Nazira and subsequently plantations
at Sathseyah, Gabru-Parbut and China-doe. The company established its chief factory at thejunction of the Barhi-Dihung and Tingri Rivers. Captain Vetch, Political Agent of the eastern
Assam districts, convinced the powerful Singpho chief Ningroola to become a tea cultivator.
Early British planters leased land near and around modern Tinsukia and Jorhat, including
Nazira and Sonari, and set up small gardens run personally, which were sold and amalgamatedI N D I A T E A C UL T U R AL L A N D S C A P E

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in the Assam Company and the Jorehaut Tea Company (established 1856). British planters
joined companies as directors and served with tenacity and distinction, building the foundationsof the industry.
The pioneers of the tea industry in the Surma Valley, near Sylhet, were of the same calibre.
“Native” varieties of tea were also found in Cachar in 1855 and plantations were encouraged.
By 1868, several tea gardens had opened and were in operation, including Ballacherra,
Doodputtlee, Rampore, Arcuttipore and Doloo. By 1860, tea was grown in Assam, C achar,
Chittagong, Hazaribagh, Oudh, Darjeeling, Kumaon, the Punjab and the Nilgiris.
In those days, starting tea plantations required courage and drive, since it implied clearing thematted jungle with the help of elephants, dealing with some of the less friendly tribals, employing
labour from contemporary tribal Jharkhand, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, making plantations
and tending to tea bushes, controlling diseases like cholera, malaria and kalazar, fending off
wild animals like elephants and tigers, and dealing with torrential monsoon rain, tropical storms,
floods, earthquakes and other hazards (Dasgupta, 2012: 13-15. in Kapur ed., 2012). By 1859,
in addition to the Assam Company and the Jorehaut Tea Company, there were 50 other tea
estates in Assam (Moxham 2009: 98).
After the terrain was cleared of jungle, the lease area was surveyed to mark out water courses,
the hillocks or high grounds, and areas for the plantation, factory, bungalow, labour-lines andother constructions in the landscape. The managers did surveys themselves until “native”
surveyors (amins) were trained. Standard 12-acre sections were prepared for transplanting tea
saplings, and garden roads were created to reach different garden sections, after which planters
had to wait four years before the tea bushes yielded sufficient leaves. Tea production in the
Assam Valley areas rose from 49.5 million pounds in 1891 to 75.3 million pounds by 1900, while
the output from Cachar and Sylhet increased from 37 million pounds to 65.8 million pounds inthe same period (Dasgupta, 2012. In Kapur ed., 2012).
Darjeeling is another area of India where tea was planted by the mid-19th century. The quality wasseen to be excellent and Darjeeling tea became the benchmark against which all other fine blackteas were measured (Moxham, 2009: 98). The establishment of the tea industry in Darjeeling wasdue to the enterprise of Dr Campbell, who was appointed Superintendent of Darjeeling when thepossibility of initiating and developing the cultivation and manufacture of tea in the territories of theEast India Company became attractive. In 1840, Dr Campbell was transferred from Kathmandu to
Darjeeling and started the experimental growth of tea there. It was soon seen that the plant
flourished at this altitude and other planters followed, seeds being distributed by the government
to those wishing to cultivate the plant. The early plantations were experimental plots, but by 1856,
the industry began to be developed on an extensive scale, especially on the lower slopes. By theend of 1856, tea plants were sown and raised at Takvar by Captain Masson, at Kurseong by Mr
Smith and Mr Martin, at the Canning and Hope Town plantations by companies, and between
Kurseong and Pankhabari by Captain Samler, the Agent of the Darjeeling Tea Concern.

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1856 may be recorded as the year in which the tea industry in Darjeeling was established as
a commercial enterprise. That year, the Alubari tea garden was opened by the Kurseong andDarjeeling Tea Company, and one on the Lebong spur was opened by the Darjeeling Land
Mortgage Bank. In 1859, Dr Brougham started the Dhutaria garden, while between 1860 and
1864, four gardens were started at Ging, Ambutia, Takdah and Phubsering by the Darjeeling
Tea Company, and at Takvar and Badamtam by the Lebong Tea Company, while othergardens initiated in the early period were Makaibari, Pandam and Steinthal tea estates. All
these estates were situated in the hills and, by 1862, cultivation began in the Terai. In 1874,
there were 113 gardens with 18,888 acres under cultivation, producing 8,927,911 pounds; by1905, there were 148 gardens with 50,618 acres under cultivation, producing 12,447,471
pounds (O’Malley, 1907: 72-74).

Image 1. Glenburn, Darjeeling. Source: Nikhil Kapur.

The Wernicke family were pioneers who introduced tea on a commercial basis to the Darjeeling
district. They were originally Moravian missionaries. Arthur Jules Dash mentions a missionary
named Reverend W. Start, who came to Darjeeling in 1850 and was followed by a group ofGerman missionaries. The Wernickes were initially associated with the Bannockburn Tea
Estate, which they ran for three generations, and also Soom and Tukvar Tea Estates. Tea
planting then was an arduous job, involving long hours in the field from dawn to dusk. It wasmen like Andrew and Frederick Wernicke and George Watt Christison who learnt the hard way
and set the standards and duties of future generations of Darjeeling planters.
The early planters had to manage all their problems without the help of technical experts andscientists. They had to acquire knowledge regarding machinery and building, making tools andI N D I A T E A C UL T U R AL L A N D S C A P E

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equipment, plumbing and sanitation, engineering, building, surveying (to cope with roads
inclined to follow goat tracks and woodcutter paths) and transporting crops, and had to serveas accountants, lawyers and judges to settle disputes. In the early days, race relations werepeaceful, and the hill people recognised colonial justice and the ability to organise. The
Wernickes and Christison were good friends and renowned tea planters in Darjeeling from the1860s onwards (Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007).

1.3

Scale of landscapes

The Assam gardens were located mostly in the lowland areas of the Brahmaputra Valley andfoothills, while Darjeeling gardens were high elevation enterprises. The number of gardens in
Assam rose to 802 in 1983 and the state contributed to over 55% of the Indian output. 51% of
the tea garden workers in India were employed in Assam (Chakravorty, 1997: 32). By 1856,
development in Darjeeling had advanced from the experimental to a more extensive andcommercial stage. The Himalayan Gazette of 1936 wrote that tea planting in the Himalaya wasstarted with Chinese varieties, but this was soon replaced with the Assam hybrid. By 1866, thearea hosted 40 gardens and nearly 300 acres of tea cultivation. By 1936, there were over 1,150
gardens in the district covering 54,000 acres and yielding 17 million pounds of tea from
Darjeeling (Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007: 18).

1.4

Distribution and characteristics of tea landscapes

The characteristic tea landscapes of cleared forests,
with undulating expanses of tea bushes and womentea pluckers patiently plucking “two leaves and a bud”,
were developed over the course of over a hundredyears. The planter or manager’s bungalow was
generally at a high elevation as was the factory, while
the coolie lines or workers’ housing was locatedseparately and generally lower down.
(a) Cultivation
The first objective of cultivation is to remove
vegetation, as its presence harms the tea bush, andso that the tea crop can have its maximum supply ofwater and plant food. The soil should be kept free of
weeds throughout the year to prevent waterlogging

Image 2. Tea Landscape, Darjeeling.

and the rapid decomposition of organic matter in the

Source: Nikhil Kapur.

soil. Tea is well cultivated under shade trees. Soil

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stirring is done by cultivation, and soil from lower
layers is mixed with that of the upper layer
thereby increasing aeration. Soil stirring was
earlierconsiderednecessary

after

the

application of large quantities of bulk organic
manures like green crops, but more recent
experiments showed that there was nothing to
be gained by hoeing bulk manures into the soil.
When the soil suffers from drought, cultivating
the upper layer of 3-4 inches produces a mulch
which prevents the drying out of soil at lower
levels. “Cheeling” or surface scraping is anefficient method of suppressing weeds during
rains by the operation of scraping weeds fromsurfaces with minimum soil with a special“cheeling” hoe that is broader and shallower
Image 3 . Tea Landscape, Darjeeling.

than the ordinary “kodali”. The damage to theSource: Nikhil Kapur.

tea bush roots by deep cold weather cultivationand trenching is internationally recognised.

Deep cultivation may be employed at intervals to prevent the incursion of thatch grass and otherdeep-rooted weeds. The time for deep cultivation is when the soil is not too wet but not so drythat it is difficult to break up and pulverise clods. It is best done in winter. Earlier, trenching wasrecommended to break a stratum or pan of hard soil. Between the implements used, the flat
blade hoe or “kodali” is common in Assam, Cachar and Sylhet for light and deep hoeing; inDarjeeling, the Duars and Terai, the fork hoe prevails, especially on stony areas. There is lessrisk of cutting tea roots with the fork hoe; however, on sandier soils, the blade hoe is more
efficient for burying weeds.
On young, replanted tea, cultivation to maintain clean soil is essential as the jungle should not
be allowed to grow around the young plants. On level areas, where the position of drains andshade trees makes it practical, the cultivation of young tea may be performed effectively andcheaply using a “spring-time harrow” pattern machine, drawn by a buffalo.
On steep slopes, terracing is essential to avoid the rapid loss of surface soil. Terraces should
follow the slope contours and not be too prominent. The upper surface of the terrace may slope
very slightly into the hillside to prevent wash from one terrace to the one below. Bushes shouldbe planted in the middle or back of the terrace, but never near the edge, or they may suffer fromdrought. Grass may be grown along terrace edges and sides to prevent wash and damage,while stones may be used to face the sloping terrace sides; one really good digging annually isenough for steep land. Floods are hazardous and gardens flow away with a loss of soil nutrients.
On well-terraced steep slopes, or gentler slopes, contour planted and bunded, clean or selective

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weeding is a more effective treatment for soil. Selective weeding retains nourishing leguminous
weeds. Ferns are problematic in Chinese bushes. In slack seasons, spare labour may build
revetments to support roads or terraces in tea areas.
(b) Drainage
Tea cannot thrive in waterlogged soil, soil subject to frequent, lengthy flooding, and prolonged
dry spells. Sandy, loamy and clay soils require 15%, 18-20% and 25% optimum moisture
content, respectively. The main objective of drainage operations is to maintain the soil at its
optimum water content for as long as possible. Former drainage concepts followed the belief
that all rainfall must pass through the soil, which was a gigantic filter. The main reason why land
does not get dried up by drainage is its “capillary attraction”, such as evaporation leading toreplenishment of water from the soil: sandy and clay soils demonstrate the most active“capillarity”. The water table is the level below the soil surface at which the soil is completely
saturated with water. It is highest and lowest in rainy and dry weather, respectively.
Transpiration also leads to a loss of moisture content. Dry weather, over-draining, trenchingand other forms of deep cultivation, jungles, leafy green crops and evergreen shade trees all
reduce soil moisture, causing serious harm to tea. Drainage systems were laid out with dumpy
levels, clinometers, ranging rods pegs and measuring stakes and gauge rods. For hillplantations, drainage is simple as hill streams exist. Special drains are contoured.
(c) Pruning
In its natural forest state, the tea shrub grows to 15-30 feet (4.5-9 m) or more, reaching aheight and extent of foliage unfit for the rapid production of leaves in successive flushes,
making leaf gathering difficult and expensive. Pruning trims the form into a low bush , hence
it is much better to prune when the plantation is quite young, a year or 18 months after
planting. On most Darjeeling gardens, one-third of the whole area is annually pruned. The
largest crop is obtained in the third year after pruning, and the average crop per acre forwhole estates currently compares very favourably with earlier systems. In the plains,unpruned bushes produce poorer tea throughout the season than annual ly pruned bushes.
Pruned tea suffers from blister blight and thrips. In the case of good quality or “jaat” Assamtea bushes of the light-leaf Assam type, clean pruning gives stronger and better quality liquortea. Assam tea is best pruned in the winter.
The tea plant belongs to the genus Camellia, one of 14 genera comprising the order
Theaceae. It was originally classified as Thea and named Thea sinensis in 1753 by Linnaeus.
In 1935, a Conference of Botanists in the Netherlands classed it as a Camellia, and asatisfactory botanical name for the plant is Camellia Sinensis. Assam tea is manufactured
from the plant Camellia Sinensis var. assamica while Darjeeling tea is manufactured from
Camellia Sinensis var. sinensis (Bald, 1905, sixth ed. Harrison ed., 1957; reprint, 2013; fortypes of tea: Wikipedia 2017).

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282

Social and cultural systems

In tea garden areas in Assam and Darjeeling, white planters and managers were a distinct
minority, but controlled vast labour numbers or coolies from Jharkhand, Orissa and Andhra in
addition to locals in Assam and imported Nepali labour in Darjeeling. The servants, drivers andother necessary adjuncts were all “natives”, while the small colonial community went hunting,shooting and fishing, fraternised at clubs and churches and ran hospitals, and wives organised
fetes and flower shows. Mortality rates were high and many young colonial and “native” lives
were lost, as recorded in numerous cemetery tombstones and registers. Plantation labour ers
were frequently ill-treated, flogged, beaten and virtually enslaved, while women tea pluckers
were used for sexual unions by British and Indian planters and managers, as portrayed in films
such as those on Sagina Mahato and Dhanraj Tamang (Moxham, 2009; Dasgupta, 2012. inKapur, ed., 2012; Chatterji, 2007; Sen, 2016).

Image 4. Tea Garden Hospital, Assam, 2012. Korangani Tea Estate. Source: Debajit Chaliha.

1.6

Associated communities and settlements

Tea planting communities were very closely associated with priests, educators, communities of
missionaries and schoolteachers, as seen in the case of the Wernickes and Christison. Small
settlements developed in Assam, such as Dibrugarh and Jorhat, while the hill station ofDarjeeling became an Anglicised social enclave, defence cantonment, holiday resort and social,educational and recreational centre. Planters used to spend time there to relax, in renowned
places such as the Darjeeling Planters’ Club, the Darjeeling Gymkhana Club, the Windamere
Hotel, restaurants such as Glenary’s and cafés like Keventer’s and Nathmull’s tea rooms. The

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Indian aristocracy, such as the Cooch Behar and Burdwan royalty, visited the town for pleasurepursuits. The gap between the highest echelons of society and the lowliest coolies was great
indeed (Chatterji, 2007).

Image 5. Tea Garden Bungalow, Assam, 2012. Korangani tea estate. Source: Debajit Chaliha.

1.6

Links to trade, trade routes and economic opportunities

Tea has been an important commodity for world trade since the days of the Renaissance inEurope. While India was the top-ranking tea trading country for much of the 20 th and 21st
centuries, it has recently been overtaken again by China. The UK, USA, Russia n Federation,
Germany, Poland and Pakistan all import Indian tea. The Indian Tea Board was established in1949. Nowadays, most British planters and companies have been replaced with Indianownership and entrepreneurship (Chakravorty, 1997; Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007; see
Section 2).

1.7

Landscape relationships to others and the national context

Assam and Darjeeling tea landscapes are geosymbols of the two geographic zones and known
in national and international contexts as cultural landscapes and sites for literary, media, film
locations and national and international tourism.

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2. Known and important tea landscapes

2.1

Location and size

The number of tea estates in Assam increased from 785 in 1951 to 43,850 in 2005, while thearea under tea cultivation in Assam increased from 155,674 hectares in 1951 to 277,880
hectares in 2005, and Assam tea yields increased from 966 kilograms/hectare in 1951 to 1569
kilograms/hectare in 2005. The number of Darjeeling tea estates decreased from 99 in 1951 to
85 in 2005, while the area under tea in Darjeeling district increased from 16,569 hectares in1951 to 17,518 hectares in 2005 and Darjeeling yields increased from 473 kilograms/hectare in1951 to 563 kilograms/hectare in 2005 (Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007: 525, 527, 531).
Tea estates are distributed according to various size groups. 98 % of the total number of tea
estates belong to the size group of up to 10.12 hectares, while the remaining 2% is in the sizegroup of above 10.12 hectares. As many as 200 tea estates have average size holdings
between 50 to 100 hectares, while about 300 tea estates have holdings between 100 to 200
hectares, 400 tea estates are in the size group of 200 to 400 hectares , and almost 400 tea
estates have size holdings above 400 hectares. Tea is mainly produced in Assam, West
Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and to a small extent in Tripura, Karnataka, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The total area under tea cultivation in 1961 was 331,000
hectares, to which north-east and eastern India contributed 77.6% and south India 22.4%. It
increased to 518,000 hectares in 2005. Production improved from 354 million kilograms to
850 million kilograms between 1961 and 2005. Tea is also cultivated in Mizoram, Manipur ,Orissa, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Uttaranchal. In India, tea growing zones arelocated in the monsoon belt comprising Assam, West Bengal and the foothills of the Himalaya
in the north, and on the moist slopes and plateaus of the Western Ghats in t he south(Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007: 312-313).

2.2

Key characteristics of each landscape and harvesting

Assam tea landscapes are mostly located in lowland areas in the Brahmaputra Valley and thefoothills while Darjeeling tea landscapes are mostly at high elevations in the Himalaya. Labourcharacteristics also vary: while Assam gardens employ local tribes and people coming fromother parts of India, Darjeeling gardens mostly employ labourers from Nepal. Assam tea is a
black tea, grown at or near sea level, known for its body, briskness, malty flavour and strong,bright colour. Assam tea or the blends containing it are often sold as breakfast tea. The zone
also produces smaller quantities of green and white tea with distinctive characteristics.
Southern China and Assam are the only two areas in the world with native tea plants. The
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floodplain. The climate varies between a cool, arid winter and a hot, humid rainy season: ideal
conditions for growing tea. Due to its lengthy growing season and generous rainfall, Assam is
one of the most prolific tea production areas in the world. Assam tea is generally harvested
twice: a first and second flush. The first flush is usually harvested in late March, while thesecond flush, prized as ‘tippy tea’ due to the golden tips on the leaves, is harvested later: it issweeter, more full-bodied and superior to the first flush. Assam tea leaves are dark green,
glossy and quite wide, while the bush produces delicate white blossoms (Wikipedia, 2017).
Darjeeling tea from the Darjeeling district of West Bengal isavailable as black, green, white and oolong. It yields a thinbodied, light-coloured infusion with a floral aroma. The
flavour can include a tinge of astringent tannic characteristics
and a musky spiciness often called “muscatel”. It is usually
made of the small-leaved China variety, unlike other Indian
tea such as Assam. While black tea is produced traditionally,green, oolong and white tea are now more easily found, andseveral estates like Makaibari specialise in organic tea. Afterthe enactment of the Geographical Indications of Goods(Registration & Protection Act, 1999) in 2003, Darjeeling tea
was the first Indian product to receive a GI tag in 2004-2005.
A crop is harvested between two flushes. The first flush isharvested in mid-March following spring rains: it has a gentle,
very light colour, aroma and mild astringency. The second
flush is harvested in June and yields an amber, full-bodied
muscatel-flavoured cup. Monsoon or rains tea, harvested in
the rains, is less withered, more oxidised and sold at lower
prices. Much is consumed in India as “masala chai”. The
Image 6. Tea Garden Plucker,
Assam 2012, Korangani Tea Estate.
Source: Debajit Chaliha.

autumnal flush is harvested after the rains and is more fullbodied and darker (Wikipedia, 2017). It may be inferred that
Assam produces quantity and Darjeeling produces quality.

2.3

Planting traditions

The first step in the preparation of land for tea is to clear trees and shrubs, best done by
grubbing them out from the roots. Trees, stumps and bamboo roots are then rolled down intoravines where they may be chopped up for fuel. Some planters dig to about 40 centimetres all
over, grubbing out stumps and roots; many planters form the land into terraces at this stage,
while others prefer to form them after planting is done. This is one of the most important formsof work in tea gardens, as its prosperity and very existence depends on soil stability, as loose
soil is washed away by torrential rain.

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286The land having been prepared, germinating beds are formed for seeds, and nurseries madeat different points where water is available and the land to be planted is quite near. The soil innurseries should be thoroughly pulverised and all jungle, roots and stones removed. Beds 1 .5
metres wide are assembled on fairly level land with shallow drains in between. Sometimes theseed is sown directly into the nursery beds, but if the quality is at all doubtful, it should be
germinated in a hot-bed. A good seed is sown 2.5 centimetres deep and 1.5 metres apart. As
soon as the plants have sprung up and their individual character indicated, unsatisfactory, weakor blighted seedlings are rejected. After the land is dug all over and the soil thoroughly
pulverised, stakes are put into the ground to demarcate planting sites. The task requires
ingenuity and care, as it is necessary to arrange the plants in straight lines up and down
hillsides, slopes and ridges, and simultaneously plant them out in the terraces without loss ofspace or overcrowding. The distance between plants in terraces is 1.5 by 1.5 square metres,that is 2,722 plants to the acre. In some estates the plants are much closer, but this crowding
is a drawback. The pure Assam indigenous requires some distance, while the early planting at
Darjeeling was done in the system called “seed at stake”: the seed is taken from the germinating
beds upon sprouting and placed in the ground, one or two at each stake.
Planting out seedlings is done during the first monsoon months with great care. The mostsuccessful work is done in winter when the plants are taken up very carefully, each with the soil
around its roots adhering in a hard, unbroken ball. Many older estates have deteriorated due todestructive methods of culture, especially persistent digging during the monsoons. Later, bettermethods were followed, such as carrying out digging only in the dry season and hand-weeding
during the rains while keeping terrace faces and spaces between lines free of weeds by sickling.
Manure from stables and byres and the old thatch from the coolie lines is required. As artificial
manure is too expensive, top dressing with new soil from forests is the bes t way of improving
the land. Mulching with leaves is of great value as are leguminous plants, trees and crops.
Pruning is usually carried out a year after planting, extending the life of tea bushes to 100 years.
The plucking of young leaves or “two leaves and a bud” is done after spring: the bud makes“orange pekoe” and “broken orange pekoe”, the young leaf is “pekoe” while the coarser leaf is“pekoe souchong”. A growth of shoots is a “flush”. Plucking begins at the end of March andcloses in November. The pluckers are so quick and skilful that it is impossible to follow the
motion of their hands as they work (O’Malley, 1907: 78-82).

2.4

Types of tea

From data collected from the estates surveyed, it may be seen that various areas of field
operations are necessary like the standards of plucking, spacing, irrigation, fertiliser
applications, weeds, pest and disease management, pruning cycles and plucking operations.
Factory operations are one of the key areas of the tea industry. In Darjeeling, 82 % of tea ismanufactured by the Orthodox method, followed by 17% by the CTC (Crush, Tear, Curl)I N D I A T E A C UL T U R AL L A N D S C A P E

287

method, and 1% is green tea. Green tea, white tea and oolong are the other main types
produced (Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007).

2.5

Tea processing and manufacture

There are between two and seven procedures involved in the processing of fresh tea leaves,and the addition or exclusion of any of these stages results in a different type of tea. Eachprocedure is carried out in a climate-controlled facility to avoid spoilage due to excess moistureand fluctuating temperatures.
(a) Withering refers to the wilting of fresh green tea leaves. The purpose of withering is to
reduce the moisture content in the leaves and allow the flavour compounds to develop.
While it can be done outdoors, controlled withering usually takes place indoors. Freshly
plucked leaves are laid out in a series of troughs and subjected to hot air forced fromunderneath the troughs. During the course of withering, the moisture content in the leaf
goes down by about 30%, making the leaf limp and sufficiently soft for rolling. Additionally,
the volatile compounds in the leaf, including the level of caffeine and the flavours, startintensifying. A short wither allows the leaves to retain a green appearance and grassy
flavours while longer withering darkens the leaf and intensifies aromatic compounds.
(b) Fixing or “kill-green” refers to the process by which the enzymatic browning of the wilted
leaves is controlled through heat application. It appears that the longer it takes to fix theleaves, the more aromatic will be the tea. Fixing is done via steaming, pan firing, baking or
using heated tumblers. Steam application heats the leaves more quickly than pan firing ,and resultant steam teas taste “green” and vegetal while pan-fired teas taste toasty. The
process is carried out for green and yellow teas.
(c) Oxidation leads to the browning of the leaves and intensification of flavour compounds.
Immediately after plucking, cells within tea leaves are exposed to oxygen, and internal
volatile compounds start undergoing chemical reactions. At this stage, polyphenolicoxidase, including theaflavin and thearubigin, begin to develop in the leaves. Theaflavins
impart briskness and brightness to the tea while thearubigins offer depth and fullness to theliquor. In order to instil specific intensities in flavours, tea manufacturers control the amountof oxidation the leaves undergo. Controlled oxidation is usually done in a large room where
the temperature is maintained at 25-30ºC and humidity stands at 60-70%. Withered androlled leaves are spread out on long shelves and left to ferment for a fixed time period,
depending on the type of tea being made. In order to stop or slow down oxidation, fermented
leaves are moved to a panning trough to be heated and dried. The leaves are completelytransformed due to oxidation and exhibit an aroma and taste profile that is completely
different from that of leaves that do not undergo the process. Less oxidised teas tend toretain their green colour and vegetal characteristics due to a lower production of

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polyphenols. Semi-oxidised leaves are brown and produce yellow-amber liquor. In fully
oxidised tea, amino acids and lipids break down completely, turning the leaves blackish brown with brisk, imposing flavours.
(d) Rolling involves shaping processed leaves into a tight form. Wilted or fixed leaves are gently
rolled and, depending on the style, they are shaped to look wiry, kneaded, or as tightly
rolled pellets. During rolling, essential oils and saps ooze out of the leaves, inten sifying
flavours. The more tightly rolled the leaves, the longer they retain their freshness.
(e) Drying tea is a way of reducing its moisture content to below 1%. Drying enhances
flavours and ensures a long shelf-life; it is done at various stages of production. In orderto dry the leaves, they are fired and roasted at a low temperature for a controlled time
period, usually inside an industrial scale oven. Leaves that are dried too quickly turnabrasive and taste harsh.
(f) Aging and fermentation are sometimes used to make the tea more palatable, like wine
(Wikipedia, 2017).
Between 1870 and 1880, several changes occurred in the manufacturing process, particularly
in Darjeeling. Engineers raised it from a hotchpotch of “native” practices to a streamlined
industrial organisation of contemporary times. The modern tea roller is essentially the same asits hand-operated parent of 1870. The first steam boiler plant reached the Tukvar Tea Company
in 1872 from the Bengal plains due to the initiative of Colonel Ansell. By 1880, power -driven
rolling machines were more widely used. The hand roller consisted of parts to give a “rotary”
movement to a flat table: the leaves were thrown on the table and hand manipulated by men
around the table.
Around 1870, Jackson’s rolling machine was introduced, while by 1880, Jackson’s cross action
and hand rod roller were developed. The movement was not circular but backward and forward
for the table and right to left and reverse for the box. Pressure was applied by spiral springs
under the four corners of the table which supported it and kept it against the box, taking about
130 pounds of withered leaves working at 83 revolutions per minute. Next, Kinmod’s doubleaction “Excelsior” roller machine was marketed. This roller gave good results and was muchused in early factories, taking 2-3 maunds of withered leaves. It was followed by Jackson’s little
giant single action roller machine, which took about 60 pounds of withered lea ves and had acap, pressure screw and handwheel. After the “chulas”, the first comprehensive drying
apparatus was Davidson’s box pattern, with 4-5 superimposed trays working in angle iron slides(Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007).
After firing, the tea is sifted by machinery into various grades according to the size of the leaf
and the manufacture is complete. It is then packed in the famous chests of commerce. This isdone on most large estates by machinery. Tea is mostly packed in close-fitting chests lined withlead which have to be carefully soldered up, as tea is very susceptible to moisture, andhermetically sealed in order to retain its flavour and aroma. Several tea factories were buil t in

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locations where advantage could be taken of the water-power available in the mountain streams
on estates (O’Malley, 1907: 83). In modern times, the manufacture of tea bags, instant tea,loose tea and tea powder have assumed importance (Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007).

2.6

Social structures and cultural systems

Besides the trials and tribulations of opening up forested lands, planting tea and nurturing
bushes, early planters in Assam also faced the reverberations of the 1857 War/Mutiny. “Native”
infantry stationed at Chittagong rebelled and volunteer forces were raised from amongst
planters such as the Sibsagar Mounted Rifles, the Darrang Mounted Rifles and others,collectively named the Assam Valley Light Horse, in 1900. Tribal uprisings also meant
measures had to be taken to protect the white planting community. Several British army officers
became planters and bought tea gardens.
Another major preoccupation of planters was the collection and retention of the labour force.
Assam was very sparsely populated, and local, settled agricultural families were loath to leave
their homesteads to work in gardens. The 1820s Burmese incursions still troubled the local
people. Planters turned to labour from Bengal (Bankura and Purulia), Ranchi and Hazaribagh
in modern Jharkhand, Ganjam in Orissa, and Telengana, formerly Andhra Pradesh. These
areas were poor, hilly and stony, and suffered from drought as well as the depr edations of
the oppressive landed gentry, and little effort was required to attract poor and backward
people, often tribals, to migrate to Assam and work on plantations. A recruitment system andtransport had to be provided, and a Superintendent of Emigrations was constituted withregulations and licenses for recruitment issued by provincial author ities and district
administration. Standards for ventilation, the provision of drinking water and health check ups were set down.
A “Way Bid” proforma was initiated to keep track of the numbers recruited, the numbers actuallyreaching the gardens and any deaths or desertions along the way; these were kept with themaster of the steamer and train guards. The actual recruitment was first done by European
assistants, unsatisfactorily, in early 1840-1850, and later by tea gardens directly through the“sirdar” system: one senior labourer was deputed to the tribal areas of eastern India to meetvillage or tribal heads and persuade people to migrate to Assam. The “arcutty”, or labour
contractors or agencies, were also used for this purpose – they were adept at convincing
prospective labourers to move from their impoverished small farms to the wetter and cooler
Assam. The “sirdars” were instructed to recruit married couples. Most gardens allowed theimmigrant labourers to cultivate rice and vegetables on small plots within garden areas; thiscontinues today. However, it was not an easy life and most workers endured serious privations,
ill-health and flogging for absenteeism or missing out on work without leave (Dasgupta , 2012:
in Kapur ed., 2012).

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290The gap between the white sahib minority, local gentry planters, and the coolies at the lowest
echelons of the social system was indeed vast. Women tea pluckers were often exploited andused for illicit sexual unions by white and Indian planters, managers or assistants. Meetings of
the workers in gardens were prohibited except for religious and social purposes. Plantersjustified their action of preventing outsiders from entering labour lines with the exercise of theirright to private property. Therefore, planters segregated workers, who were unorganised andunable to protect themselves, while the planters’ interests were protected by the most powerful
and well-organised organisation in the country (Chatterji, 2007; Chakravorty, 1997). In the
Assam tea plantations, success was built upon a highly exploitative and draconian labour
regime. No other “modern” Indian industry operated for so long with labourers tied down bypenal contracts in the harshest of physical conditions. The Assam labour system was like“slavery” and later “serfdom” (Sen, 2016: xvi).
Darjeeling tea gardens mostly employed Nepali
labour. The Census of 1901 stated that tea garden
labourers and their dependents accounted forover two-thirds of the total district population.
General agriculture also attracted immigrants.
The Nepalis, among other immigrants, came tothis area, partly enticed by the British to work on
tea plantations and road or building construction,and partly due to the poverty of their birth placesin Nepal. Those Nepalis who could not work in tea
gardens pursued agriculture, and many were
engaged in the trans-Himalayan trade between
Tibet and the East India Company. From the mid19th century, the zone became a great recruiting
ground for the British Army, and the Nepali socialgroups or Gorkhas were found highly suitable formilitary careers as “martial races”.
The growth of the Nepali population in this area

Image 7. Nepali Tea Garden Coolie.

meant employment opened up in the tertiary

Darjeeling, 2012. Source: Aditi Chatterji.

sector by the first decade of the 20 th century.
Subsequently, the increased number of government offices and tourism, commerce andeducational institutions led to the growth of Darjeeling town’s population. It became the“summer capital” of the Bengal Government from the 1870s and a leading hill station. Since
the inception of immigration in the district, people belonging to many castes and tribes,
speaking over a dozen Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman tongues and hailing from Nepal, havealways been in a majority. An 1891 census indicated that of the district population of 223,314
persons, 88,000 were born in Nepal, excluding those whose parents and grandparents wereI N D I A T E A C UL T U R AL L A N D S C A P E

291born in Nepal. In 1901, 61% of the district population was of Nepali origin, including thefollowing castes and tribes irrespective of religion: Nepali Brahmins, Chhetris or Khasas,
Newars, Thakuris, Sanyasis, Gurungs, Mangars, Sunwars, Rais or Jimdars, Khambas,
Yakhas, Ghartis, Murmis or Tamangs, Kamis, Sarkis, Damais and Limbus . 27% were Tribes
and Scheduled Castes from the Indian plains, including the Rajbansis, Koches, Oraons,Mundas and Santals among others. Lepchas, the original inhabitants of the area, constituted
4% while the Bhutias (including the Sikkimese-Tibetans or Sikkimese Khampas, the
Nepalese-Tibetans or Sherpas and the Bhutanese Bhutias or Dukpa or Drukpa, Kagatey andYolmo Bhutias) formed 3% and the Tibetans 1% of the population. The remaining 4%
consisted of people belonging to Hindu upper castes, Muslims and non-tribal Christians fromthe plains and Europeans. In 1931, people of Nepali extraction, including Sherpas and
Limbus, formed about 52%; the Tribes and Scheduled Castes from the plains about 21%; theLepchas and Sikkimese Tibetans about 4%; the Bhutanese and Tibetans about 1% each;while the remainder were Hindu upper castes, Muslims, non-tribal Christians from the plainsand Europeans. Bengalis together accounted for 11.5% of the 1941 district population; tribes
from the Indian plains 7.2%; while other plains people such as Hindus and Muslims from Bihar
and Uttar Pradesh and Jains and Hindus from Rajasthan accounted for 7.4 %. The remaining
6.7% were Anglo-Indians, other Asians and Europeans.
A large number of Tibetans came overafter the Chinese occupation of Tibet.
The exodus of Tibetans to India beganinmid-1951,

while

most

Tibetanrefugees arrived from 1959. Bengalispeakers accounted for 18.43% of the
district

population,

andNepali-speakers 59.09%, after 1947. The
1971 census recorded 81.44% Hindus,
11.68% Buddhists, 3.71% Christians
and3%Muslims

inthedistrict

population (Chatterji, 2007).
The white minority were mostly tea
planters, called “sahibs” or “ma-baap”

Image 8. Interior, Darjeeling Planter’s Club, 2012.
Source: Aditi Chatterji.

by Nepali tea garden labour, and treated with devotion. They were located in tea garden
bungalows and fraternised at clubs, churches and sporting events in Darjeeling town as well as
in remote plantation areas. Anthony D. King (1976, 1984) has studied bungalows and clubs as
distinctive features of British colonial cultures. The Darjeeling Planters Club and Darjeeling
Gymkhana Club were favourite recreation spaces, as was the Lebong racecourse. Schools likethe Loreto Convent (1846), North Point College, Mount Hermon, St Paul’s and others were
established for British and Anglo-Indian children to have a healthy English education inI N D I A T E A C UL T U R AL L A N D S C A P E

292invigorating environments, while Darjeeling also served as a summer health resort andtuberculosis sanatorium (Chatterji, 2007).

2.7

Associated communities and settlement landscapes

The power structure of the three major ethnic groups in Assam and Darjeeling lay wit hin threecommunities: the white British, the Indian elite, namely Assamese and Bengalis, and theimmigrant labour dominance, namely Assamese in general and the Nepalis in Darjeeling. While
the white British minority controlled the cultural landscape of the Brahmaputra Valley, Assamand the Darjeeling hills, necessary adjuncts were the Anglo-Indian community, often the resultof British/Indian sexual unions and either sent to school in Britain or to the missionary schools
and colleges in the towns of Darjeeling, Kurseong and Kalimpong, run by Christian
missionaries, or to Dr Graham’s Colonial Homes in Kalimpong.
In Assam, Maniram Dutta Borbhandar Barua Dewan (1806-1858), dewan or minister to the
Ahom prince, Raja Purandar Singh, dewan or land agent of the Assam Company and a
successful tea planter in the 1840s, was hanged for sedition and rebellion by the British after
the 1857 War/Mutiny. He was followed by several of the Assam “native” gentry, including
Rosheswar Barua, who established six tea estates; Rai Bahadur Bisturam Barua and Rai
Bahadur Sib Prasad Barua, both of the renowned Khongiya Barua family ; Rai Bahadur
Jagannath Barua; Rai Bahadur Krishnakant Barua; Kaliprasad Chaliha; Hemadhar Barua; andthe Rajasthani Navrangrai Agarwalla. In Cachar, two Bengali gentlemen, Baikuntha Chandra
Gupta and Dinanath Datta, established tea gardens and constituted the Cachar Native Joint
Stock Company Limited in 1878 to finance them (Dasgupta, 2012: 14-15. in Kapur, ed., 2012).
The Banerjee family had huge plantations at Happy Valley garden in Darjeeling and Makaibari
garden in Kurseong. Bipra Das Palchaudhuri was a pioneer Brahmo Samajist England educated planter and an engineer of wealth and social standing, who was zamindar ofMaheshganj and opened up Terai gardens (Gayabari, Tindharia and Mohurgong) with Assamseed obtained from his friend Ananda Mohan Bose (Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007).
Settlements were mostly small and remote in the widespread Assam Valley, where tea garden
bungalows, clubs, golf courses, hospitals, churches and cemeteries formed little clusters inlocations like Dibrugarh, Jorhat, Darrang and other scattered locations (see plates). Darjeelingtown developed as a high elevation urban settlement replicating British landscapes. O’Malley(1907) describes Darjeeling landscapes: the town of Darjeeling was situated on a long spur,
projecting to the north from the Senchal-Singalila Mountains. The spur rose abruptly from
Ghoom to 2,403 metres at Katapahar, and gradually declined to 2,292 metres at Jalapahar andto 2,134 metres at the Chaurasta, after which it divided into two: the Lebong Spur and the
Takvar Spur, which sank down into the Rangit Valley. Darjeeling town is situated on a rangethat resembles a Y, the base being located at Ghoom, the ridge then stretching from Katapahar

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293

to the Chaurasta before arms on the right and left are formed by the spurs on which stood
Lebong (1,811.9 metres) and Birch Hill, the highest point of which was 2,095 metres above sea level. The total station area was nearly 1,282 hectares, and the difference in height between
the highest and lowest points was 609.6 metres. The ridge was very narrow at the top, along
which some of the European houses were perched, while others occupied positions on its
flanks. The eastern slope, which looked down into the Rangnu Valley, was very steep, while
the western slope was much gentler, and most of the public buildings and the bazaar were built
along the latter. Below the bazaar lay the jail, the Botanic Garden and the “native” town, which
was chiefly occupied by the poorer classes of “natives” and consisted of huts built without
method or regularity. Still further down were tea gardens, which came up to the limits of thehouses (Chatterji, 2007).

Image 9. Happy Valley Tea Garden, Darjeeling, 2012. Source: Aditi Chatterji.

2.8

Links to trade and trade routes

Tea has always been a widely traded commodity, with links to the national and international
markets. North Indian tea is marketed through auctions at Kolkata (Koehler, 2015), Guwahati,
Siliguri, Amritsar and London. Indian exports of tea during the last five decades have fluctuated ;but comprise around 200 million kilograms, exported to about 35 countries. Internal
consumption rose from 31% of total production in 1947 to 78% of total production in 2004. The
main countries to which India exports tea are the UK, Ireland, Germany, Poland and the Russian

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294

Federation. Packet exports between 1981 and 2004 increased from 32 million kilograms to 125
million kilograms, a 400% increase. The instant tea sold nearly doubled from 0.78 million
kilograms to 117.68 million kilograms. The total value of Indian exports in 2004 was Rs. 990.50
crores, against Rs. 55.38 crores in 1947 (Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007).
Darjeeling tea is transported by road and rail to Kolkata warehouses and then to buyers or
auction houses. The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway has operated since 1881. In the early days,
Assam tea was transported by boat via rivers and rail (Koehler, 2015; Dasgupta, 2012. in Kapured., 2012).

3.

Existing documentation

3.1

Landscape surveys

Some of the old plantation records and documents are available in the European manuscripts
section of the Oriental and India Office Collections of the British Library , while information is
also available from the British Association for Cemeteries in South Asia’s (BACSA) records andpublications.

3.2

Photographs and photographic surveys

Some excellent photographic collections with data captions and fascinating text have been
published by the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), including Burra
Bungalows and All That, published by INTACH in 2012, and a repository of old and new
photographs about tea gardens in Assam. The texts and photographs are provided by Prosenjit
Dasgupta and the collections are edited by Gour Mohan Kapur. Another forthcoming book on tea
bungalows in Bengal is edited by Gour Mohan Kapur, with beautiful photographs by Nikhil Kapur.

3.3

Archaeological surveys

The industrial archaeology of the scientific equipment and machinery, modes of transport andmemorabilia are all included in the collections published by INTACH in 2012 (Dasgupta, 2012.
in Kapur, ed., 2012).

3.4

Inventories regarding recent mapping and databases

The Indian Tea Association produced location maps in 1999 with grid spatial analysis to indicate
the spatial location of tea gardens in Assam. Topographical sheets of the Survey of India of

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295

Darjeeling are restricted as it is a frontier area, but the National Atlas and Thematic Mapping
Organisation (NATMO) has created some maps. Wikipedia has well documented articles on
Assam, Darjeeling, Assam Tea, Darjeeling Tea, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway and otherrelated aspects.

3.5

Archive documents, written sources, early maps and plans

The British Library in London has several detailed maps of Darjeeling town in the 1880s, which
the author consulted for her doctoral thesis on Darjeeling. There is a considerable number ofhistorical accounts, books and gazetteers of Assam and Darjeeling written by British
administrators like Sir E. Gait and L.S.S. O’Malley.

3.6

Conclusion

While a flourishing source of data by British administrators, planters and plantation companies
exists, recent efforts are largely undertaken by INTACH, while the author’s doctoral thesis,
Contested Landscapes: The Story of Darjeeling, published by INTACH in 2007, also has aconsiderable data collection on British and Indian landscapes of Darjeeling as well as the
Gorkhaland movement.

4.

State of historical and technicalknowledge on tea landscapes

4.1

Period of flourishing landscapes

The development of the Indian tea industry may be grouped into two major periods: the pre five-year plan period (1850-1950) and the five-year plans (1952-2007 onwards). The first may
be sub-divided into four periods: the period of rapid growth from 1850-1890; the period ofstability from 1890-1918; the inter-war period from 1918-1939; and the period of prosperity from
1939-1950.
During the period of rapid growth, the industry registered remarkable progress. The area
under tea cultivation grew from 750 hectares in 1852 to 152,000 hectares in 1890, indicating
an annual average growth rate of 504%. Production increased from 97,000 kilograms in 1850
to 57 million kilograms in 1890, accounting for an average annual growth rate of 14.66%. The
yield increased from 138 kilograms/hectare to 373 kilograms/hectare. The factors responsible
for this progress were many, including government grants with easy terms and conditions toplanters; the leasing of land to planters at nominal rents; the low investment cost per acre of

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land (varying between Rs. 40-70); the emergence of private entrepreneurs in tea cultivation;
the availability of labour in the early years; the formation of the Indian Tea Association in May
1881; the spread of tea cultivation in government plantations; the improvement of
manufacture methods (introduction of the mechanical roller in 1870, the dryer in 1877 andmechanical packaging); the formation of the Kolkata Tea Brokers Association in 1879; theoperation of a daily paddle steamer service between Kolkata and Guwahati in 1883; theopening of the first railway line in Assam (Jorhat Provincial and Dibursadia) in 1885 ; and theestablishment of the Kolkata Tea Traders Association.
During the period of stability, the tea industry witnessed an all-round development. The area
increased from 152,000 hectares to 275,000 hectares (average annual growth rate 2.9%), while
production increased from 57 million kilograms to 173 million kilograms (average annual growthrate 7.3%), and yields increased from 373 kilograms/hectare to 692 kilograms/hectare, showing
an average annual growth rate of 2.5%. This was mostly due to the development of the industry
in south India in 1895; the formation of the United Planters Association of South India (UPASI)at Coonoor in 1894 and associations in Assam and Bengal; the appointment of Dr Mann as
Scientific Officer in the laboratory of the Indian Museum in Kolkata to pursue scientific research;
the enactment of the Tea Cess Act in 1903 by the Indian Government to raise funds for thepromotion of tea abroad; the imposition of a levy of 28 paise per 100 kilograms of tea; theconstruction of the Assam-Bengal metre gauge railway line in 1910; the establishment of ascientific department in 1909 by UPASI, undertaking tea research exclusively; the shifting of
the research station to Tocklai in 1911; the development of the domestic tea market in 1918,
the direction to make provisions in the India Tea Cess Act for team promotion in India; and theformation of the Indian Tea Planters Association in Jalpaiguri in 1918.
During the inter-war period, the tea industry experienced many fluctuations. The area increased
from 275,000 hectares to 337,000 hectares, and production from 173 million kilograms to 205
million kilograms, mainly due to areal expansion. The average annual rate of areal growth was
1.1%, while production growth was 0.9%. The average annual growth rate of tea exports was
0.5%, while internal consumption stood at 2.9% and 1.2% per head annual consumption. Theinternational depression of 1929 had an impact on tea. The tea market was so depressed that
it was not remunerative to start a tea cultivation. To solve the problem, the first International
Tea Agreement (ITA) was signed in 1933 and the Tea Control Act (1933) was introduced. The
International Tea Committee (ITC), the Tea Cess Committee (1937) and the Indian Tea Market
Expansion Board were constituted.
The outbreak of World War II, the introduction of the bulk purchase scheme, Indian
Independence, the further extension of the Tea Agreement, the creation of the Central Tea
Board and the establishment of a new auction centre at Cochin were all major events leading
to the prosperity of the tea industry. There was a decline in area by 6.2%, while production
increased by 36% and yield by 44%. Internal consumption increased by 92%, exports by 22%
and per head consumption by 64%.

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During the First Five Year Plan (1951-1956), the industry developed due to the participation ofprivate entrepreneurs. The Second Plan (1956-61) saw the average annual growth rate of area
decline by 1.7%, but production and yield grew, and though exports declined, internal
consumption increased by 8.9%. The factors affecting the growth of the industry were the longlasting Suez Canal crisis in 1956; the submission of the Report of the Plantation Inquiry
Commission to the government; the issuance of the Tea Distribution and Export Control Orderof 1957; the Tea Waste Control Order of 1959; and the formation of the Tea Association of India
in 1956. During the Third Plan (1961-1966), exports and foreign exchange earnings declined,
and the China and Indo-Pakistani Wars caused problems. From 1964 onwards, the Food andAgriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) introduced regulations on exports.
The Annual Plans (1966-1969) saw decline, but the Fourth Plan (1969-1974) saw growth as
the government passed the Foreign Exchange Regulatory Act in 1973, which quickened theIndianisation of the industry. During the Fifth Plan, area, production, yield and consumption
increased. Positive moves included setting up the Indian Tea Industry Development Association
and a new auction centre at Siliguri in 1974 and 1976, respectively, while the Committee on
Tea Marketing made proposals and tea bag manufacture received a fillip. The Sixth Plan (19801985) saw overall growth primarily due to actions by the government and the Reserve Bank ofIndia. The Seventh Plan (1985-1990) saw progress. Both West Bengal and Assam wereadvised to expand areas under tea cultivation and witnessed development programmes, newplanting and rejuvenation. The Eighth Plan (1991-1996) saw increased growth, yield, production
and sales but there was a fall in productivity during the Ninth Plan (1997-2002), and the Tenth
Plan (2002-2007) saw exports decline. The government, Tea Board and various multinationaland corporate companies took several initiatives to promote the industry and tea culture.
Production and yield generally increased between 1950 and 2007, except for 1999, 2002 and2005 (Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007: 325-343).

4.2

Evolution of landscapes

The characteristic tea garden landscapes evolved mostly due to the destruction of forests ;however, the Darjeeling tea landscapes still represent the classic undulating green tea bush
covered slopes with shade trees and forested hills in the background, with pluckers moving inrows and the isolated managers’ bungalows, factories and coolie lines dotting separate areas.
In Assam, the improvement of transport routes, roads and rail has been undertaken.

4.3

State of current research on tea

There are several current research publications on the scientific research undertaken on tea
cultivation and manufacture and the sociological conditions of workers, which has received
considerable attention.

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Tea garden bungalows have been attracting publications with excellent photographs recently(Chakravorty, 1997; Banerjee and Banerjee, 2007; Sen, 2016). Tea planters like Swaraj
Kumar Banerjee of Makaibari have written books about scientific tea culture, and gourmet
Jeff Koehler (2015) has written a fascinating account on Darjeeling tea. Kapur ’s publication(ed. 2012) includes Prosenjit Dasgupta’s evocative text and beautiful photographs of Assamand Darjeeling plantation landscapes.

5.

Threats to tea landscapes

5.1

Pressure from new development

The various Assam and Darjeeling tea companies mostly belong to Assamese, Bengali and
Marwari entrepreneurs, who have assumed control over the erstwhile British cultur allandscapes. Tea tourism and festivals, the cultivation of organic tea and the establishment of
tea homestays like the “Glenburn” estate in Darjeeling have been carried out. The separatist
movements in the 1970s and 1980s caused problems for the tea gardens. (Chatterji, 2007;
Koehler, 2015).

5.2

Abandonment of traditional cultural practices

The glorious old days of the white plantocracy with the “native” labouring community haveterminated with Indianness. Bengalis have left Darjeeling for Siliguri, Kolkata and elsewhere inlarge numbers.

5.3

Changes in social structures

The cultural landscape of Assam and Darjeeling tea estates saw three shifts in power by ethnic
groups: the white community, the Indian aristocracy and middle-class Bengalis, and theindigenes/immigrants. The Nepali dominance for almost 20 years over the Darjeeling culturallandscape has been studied by Subba (1992), Chatterji (2007) and Koehler (2015).

5.4

Other problems

Scientific diseases from blights such as the dreaded red spider, climatic hazards, landslides
and the 2017 floods in eastern and north-eastern India have all been threats to the tea
landscapes of Assam and Darjeeling.

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299

Changes to integral buildings and related settlements

In Assam, white planters initially lived under canvas or in thatched huts and later had to build
their own bungalows, labour lines and factory sheds. Factories were rudimentary and large
enough to house the withering, rolling, fermentation, drying, sorting and packing systems.
Building materials were mostly forest timber, thatching grass and reeds. There were two
bungalow types: the “mati” bungalow at ground level, generally on a high piece of ground in aclearing with good surrounding natural drainage, or the more common “chang” type, built onhigh posts above leeches, snakes, insects and bad air. Assam being susceptible toearthquakes, the walls were frequently made of “ikra” reed daubed with earth, or timberplankings with thatched roofs, although corrugated iron sheets were used from the 1860s.
Subsequently, the 20th century saw more sturdy structures being constructed following the needfor factories to house more sophisticated machinery (Dasgupta, 2012. In Kapur, ed., 2012;
Moxham, 2009).

6.

Protection

6.1

Legal protection

Since Independence, the Plantation Labour Act (1951) has been applied to tea, coffee, rubberand cinchona plantations covering 12.5 acres (5 hectares) or more on which 15 or more persons
are employed or were employed on any day in the preceding 12 months. The state government
could request central government approval to make the provisions of the Act applicable to any
other class of plantation meeting the criteria within that state. Under the 1960 amendments to
the Act, state governments were authorised to declare the Act applicable in whole or partiallyto similar plantations employing under 15 workers. The definition has been retained in the
Payment of Gratuity Act (1972) which is also applicable to plantations (Chakravorty, 1997).

6.2

Planning and other formal protection

Since Independence, the interests of tea planters have been protected by organisations like theAssam Tea Planters’ Association, Bharatiya Cha Parishad, the Indian Tea Planters’ Associationand the Tea Association of India, which are now united under the Plantations Association with
headquarters in Kolkata. Although the Trade Unions Act was passed in 1926, tea workers were
not then allowed to form associations. However, by 1957, there were 101 trade unions in thetea plantation industry. The major trade unions of Assam plantation workers are the AssamChah Mazdoor Sangh (INTUC), the Akhil Bharatiya Chah Mazdoor Sangh (AITUC), the Assam
Tea Labourer's Association and the Assam Chah Karmachari Sangh (INTUC). The Assam Tea

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Corporation was created in the public sector by the Government of Assam in the 1970s. It has
15 tea estates, employing 16,000 workers (Chakravorty, 1997; see section on development
over the plans).

6.3

Traditional protection

The white and Indian plantocracy invested in medical treatments, hospitals, clinics and otherforms of preventive medical care for themselves and their workers in remote tea garden areasof Assam, Darjeeling and other plantation areas. The development of small tea holdings andco-operative tea cultivation is widespread in the Nilgiris and UPASI trains Scheduled Tribecommunities to cultivate tea on their small holdings (Dasgupta, 2012. in Kapur, ed., 2012;Chatterji, 1997).

7.

Conservation and managementof tea landscapes

7.1

Conservation of natural and cultural features

Subba (1992) and Chatterji (2007) have studied deforestation in the Darjeeling area in detail.
Deforestation began during the British regime, but the large-scale logging of timber for fuel,shipment to the plains, construction material and other uses began after 1947. Climate change
due to deforestation, flash floods, landslides and other natural hazards , including soil erosion
due to faulty terracing and drainage, have all occurred and now the government is undertaking
conservation of natural features. Natural hazards also damage cultural landscapes, including
by affecting buildings, roads and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.

7.2

Management of overall landscapes

The Forest Departments of the various states affected usually undertake afforestation , as doorganisations like the Rotary Clubs and the tea planter community, which distributes saplings
and seeds and raises awareness in whole communities. Entire slopes are bare (Chatterji,2007).

7.3

Sustainable development

Tea landscapes have brought about considerable environmental changes and changes to thescenery. The need for urban and regional planning, scientific farming and population control todeal with faulty sanitation, water supply, sewerage, drainage, atmospheric pollution from cars,

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trucks and buses belching smoke and creating pressure on the fragile roads, pollution fromplastic and other factors all requires public, private, governmental and municipal attention andfunds (Chatterji, 2007).

8.

Conclusion

The major Indian tea landscapes are seen in Assam, the Darjeeling district of West Bengal, theNilgiris of Tamil Nadu and parts of the Western Ghats, Uttarkhand, Himachal Pradesh andTripura. Most tea areas were opened up by pioneer white planters in the 19 th century and theleading tea companies still bear British names, like Williamson Magor and Duncans. The firsttea auction was held at Mincing Lane in London in 1839. After 1947, Indianisation occurred andmost gardens have north Indian (Marwari, Punjabi) and corporate ownership.
Assam and Darjeeling have distinct cultural landscapes compared to the rest of the country ,but not much research has been carried out on topographic or descriptive features of thecultural landscapes of tea areas. The two zones studied here are both geosymbols and theirlandscapes present fascinating historical and scientific heritage to the international community.
The shifts in power, place and landscape are well represented in these two natural landscapeunits which are excellent examples of the human impact on the natural environment and could
earn foreign exchange and attract Indian visitors as well as foreign, especially British, guests,
tourists and academics.
Assam is known as the Garden of India, while Darjeeling is known as having the world’s best
quality and flavoured tea. Darjeeling tea already has a Geographical Identification label.
Current protection and management is ineffective, therefore it would be good to have national
heritage protection for the whole Darjeeling zone and Assam Valley zone as heritage precincts
to pave the way for regional development and tourism. It might be possible to create heritage
sites in the Assam Valley and Darjeeling and to develop museums and cultural centres
encapsulating the rich history and culture of these sites, demonstrating the pioneer planters,
whether British, Assamese or Bengali, as well the lives and shared heritage of indentured and
Nepali workers: The Story of Tea. It is necessary to address climatic and physiographic hazards
as well as security issues and improve transport all over the two zones which are geosymbols
of outstanding natural and cultural heritage landscapes.
Better transport, safety and programmes to develop Tea Cultural Landscapes would help.
In case of a potential nomination to World Heritage List, both of these areas deserve deeper
research and study so as to establish whether they demonstrate Outstanding Universal Value.
The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Kaziranga National Park and Manas Sanctuary are
already UNESCO World Heritage properties.

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302

Bibliography
Agnew, J.A. and Duncan, J.S., The power of place: bringing together geographical and sociologicalimaginations, Unwin Hyman, London, 1989.
Backhaus, G., “The Problem of Grounding the significance of Symbolic Landscapes” in Backhaus, G.
and Murungi, J. eds., Symbolic Landscape, Springer Science and Business Media, 2009, pp.3-31.
Bald, C., Indian Tea A Textbook on the Culture and Manufacture of Tea 1905, sixth edition rewritten by
Harrison, C. J., Thacker, Spink and Co, 1957 reprint N. L. Publishers, Siliguri, 2013.
Banerjee, G. and Banerjee, S., Darjeeling Tea The Golden Brew, International Book Distributing Co.,
Lucknow, 2007.
Bonnemaison, J., Culture and Space Conceiving a new Cultural Geography, I B Tauris, London, New
York, 2005.
Chakravorty, R. N., Socio-economic Development of Plantation Workers in North East India, N.L.
Publishers, Dibrugarh, Assam, 1997.
Chatterji, A., The Changing Landscapes of the Indian Hill Stations – Power, Culture and Tradition, Prabasi,
Calcutta, 1997.
Chatterji, A., Contested Landscapes: The Story of Darjeeling, INTACH, Kolkata, 2007.
Cosgrove, D. E., Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape, Croom Helm, 1984; reprint University of
Wisconsin Press, 1988.
Dasgupta, P., Burra Bungalows and All That, INTACH, 2012.
Kapur, G.M. ed, Burra Bungalows of North Bengal, 2021, photographs by Nikhil Kapur .
King, A. D., Colonial Urban Development Culture, Social Power and the Environment, Routledge andKegan Paul, London, 1976.
King, A. D., The Bungalow: The Product of a Global Culture, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1984.
Koehler, J., Darjeeling A History of the world’s greatest tea, Bloomsbury, London, New Delhi, 2015.
Moxham, R., A Brief History of Tea. The Extraordinary Story of the World’s Favourite Drink, Robinson,
2009.
Matless, D., “The Anthroposcenic”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, Vol 42, No. 3,
2017, pp. 363-376.
O’Malley, L.S.S., Darjeeling District Gazetteer, reprint Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 1907
Sen, S., ed and compiled, Passage to Bondage Labour in the Assam Tea Plantations, Samya, 2016.
Spate, O.H.K. and Learmonth, A.T., India and Pakistan, 1972.
Subba, T. B., Ethnicity, State and Development A Case Study of Gorkhaland Movement in Darjeeling HarAnand Publications in association with Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1992.
Valdiya, K. L., Dynamic Himalaya, Universities Press, Hyderabad, 1998.

Acknowledgements
I am deeply grateful to Mr Gour Mohan Kapur, Convenor, Indian National Trust for Art andCultural Heritage (INTACH), West Bengal and Calcutta Regional Chapters, for his
encouragement, help and permission to use photographs by Prosenjit Dasgupta (2012) andNikhil Kapur (2018). Ms Nupur Prothi, New Delhi, Mrs Maya Primlani, Darjeeling, and Ms
Regina Durighello, ICOMOS, France, deserve my sincerest thanks.

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Tea Landscapes in
Sri Lanka
Jane Lennon
Honorary Professor University of Melbourne

1. General characteristics
Sri Lanka is a tropical island located in the Northern Hemisphere with distinct wet and dry
seasons.

1.1 General geographical/ecological/geological data
Sri Lanka is a small island (65,610 km²) in the Indian Ocean, 32 km off the south-eastern coastof India and 880 km north of the equator. It is shaped like a teardrop and is 435 km long northto south and 225 km east to west Much of it is low lying but the central mountains rise to over
2,440 m.
The country experiences a variety of climatic and weather conditions throughout the year withtemperatures ranging from 14-27 °C from the hill country to the lowlands, and with southwest
and northeast monsoon rains from May-July and December-January, respectively. The
temperatures are similar year-round, only slightly warmer in summer. The pattern of rainfall
is strongly seasonal. In contrast to most of the tea-growing regions of India, which have amonsoon season in the summer, much of Sri Lanka, including the central and southern
regions of the island where much of the tea is grown, experiences two distinct wet seasonsand two distinct dry seasons each year. Rainfall and temperature also vary greatly based on
altitude and location relative to the mountainous areas. The “wet zone” is where tea
plantations flourish and these parts are also very fertile, receiving 2,500 mm rainfall and, insome places, up to 5,000 mm.
These patterns result in unique and vastly different characteristics in the teas grown at different
locations within the country. Much of this variation goes unappreciated, as the bulk of the tea
exported from Sri Lanka is used in blends.

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1.2

304

Historical context: timespan during which the tea
landscapes have been in active production and their
persistence over time

Ceylon was famous for its spices; Arab and Chinese traders arrived in the first millennium
AD, then the Portuguese in 1505, the Dutch in 1636, and the British in 1796, who took controlof the port of Colombo and the whole island in 1815. The British transformed the landscape
into a plantation economy based on coffee, but native rodents, the Golunda rat, and a fungus(Hemileia testatrix) wiped out the crops from 1880 when there were 110,000 ha undercultivation.
Some seeds of Camellia sinensis var. assamica had been sent from Calcutta Botanical Gardens
to the Royal Botanical Gardens at Peradeniya, near Kandy, in 1839, and seedlings were sent
the following year. A coffee planter, Maurice Worms, visited China in 1840 and brought back a
Chinese worker and tea seedlings, which he planted out on his Rothschild Estate, and tea wasmade at great expense, but little more was achieved until the 1870s.
The Planters’ Association sent one of its members, Arthur Morice, on a tour of Indian tea
plantations in 1867, and he reported that there was every likelihood of successful tea cultivationin Ceylon, but as it took six years to produce a profit after the first planting, little action was
taken. The director of the Royal Botanical Gardens, however, thought differently and orderedseeds from Calcutta, which were planted out in 1867 by James Taylor, superintendent of theLoolecondera Estate (now Lulkandura estate in the Kandy district), in a commercial planting of
8 ha. By 1875, he had 40 ha under tea cultivation on Loolecondera and a factory there with awater wheel-driven rolling machine.

1.3 Scale of landscapes
By 1875, there were over 20 plantations, covering about 400 ha; by 1880, 4,000 ha had beenplanted. Tea continued to be planted on the old coffee estates and some new land – “low grown”
tea (from sea level up to 610 m) was grown on the few estates near the south-west coast; “midgrown” on the old coffee estates between 610–1,220 m above sea level around Kandy; and“high-grown” on the central peak (1250 m and above).
As had happened in India, the Assam varieties tended to perform better at lower altitudes andthe Chinese varieties higher, but there was much hybridisation between the two. By 1885, there
were over 4,000 ha under tea cultivation, and by 1900, there were 155,000 ha, a remarkableachievement in 20 years. These plantations produced 68 million kg of tea for export, mainly to
Britain. This made the tea industry of relatively tiny Ceylon nearly as big as that of India .

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1.4

305

Distribution and characteristic of tea landscapes,
including overview of type of plants and methods ofcultivation and harvesting, spatial characteristics

There are six main tea growing regions in Sri Lanka: Kandy, Matale, Matara, Nuwara Eliya,
Ratnapura and Uva.
The Assam tea plant is an agrotype which, if left alone, can reach straggly heights of 9-18 m.
In cultivation, it is plucked and pruned into a convenient 1 m high bush which may be reachedwith ease by the picker. There is a correlation in the agrotype between response to fertilizer,
leaf type, cell structure morphology, and yield of raw tea per acre. Selection of plants has
become intensely practical and discriminating. Ceylon with its rapid expansion was regarded
as producing second rate quality tea until after World War I. However, it was realized that if thecorrect ecotype were planted, pruned and fertilized, and the picking matched the season, thedesired result would occur.
The manufacture of tea is carried out on the estate. Mechanization happened early with the useof tea rolling machines to accelerate oxidation. Previously, this was done by hand, but one
machine can do the work of up to 100 people.
Bushes are picked more frequently if a higher quality tea is required, and less frequently if quantity
is desired. The first spring pick makes the best tea. Frequency of picking depends on the weather,fertilization of the soil, and pruning, etc. The tea leaves should be picked dry, but this is not always
possible, and large quantities of low-grade material result from these “rain teas”.
The landscape features that can be evident in tea plantations result mainly from the tea plantcultivation process. “Tea nurseries, planting and pruning are important agricultural techniquesthat help build the unique appearance of the landscape. In general, tea plants have a distanceof 0.6 m between each other and a distance of 1.2 m between rows. There are approximately
5,500 tea plants per acre” (Wijetunga & Sung, 2015).
Black teas represent over 95% of the world trade; they are fully processed teas. Green tea isfired before any oxidization occurs (Hobhouse, 1992: 126-7).
“The main landform feature in the tea estate settlements is the extensive plantation. The tea
factory, which is large in scale, is the major building component of the estate settlements withstaff quarters and worker (coolie-line) houses. The landscape formation of the tea estates
mainly concentrated on hill or mountain sites […] as a tea-terraced landscape. The tea factoryis adjacent to the main road constructed during the colonial era and widened or reconstructedduring the postcolonial era. The labourers’ houses are mostly located next to the tea factory,
while some other labourers’ houses are scattered throughout the plantation to enable greater
estate efﬁciency. The staff quarters or bungalows are located at a higher elevation than theplantation terrace to enable easy observation and proper governing as well as more protectionin the estate settlement” (Wijetunga and Sung, 2015: 676).

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306

Social and cultural systems

Most of the population are descendants of peoples who migrated from India from the firstmillennium BC - Sinhalese from the north and Tamils from the south. Some small Sinhaleseowned coffee estates were transferred to tea, and a group of Indian Parsees planted tea, but
most tea estates were British-owned in the 1880s. Most tea plantations were started by smallscale owners in contrast to those in India. In 1890, Sir Thomas Lipton visited Ceylon andpurchased 1,215 ha, which was only about 15% of the tea acreage and provided only a fractionof his needs, the majority of which were supplied from India.
A number of agency businesses developed, arranging the warehousing, shipping and selling of
the tea for a group of estates and providing management services for absentee landlords. The
Visiting Agent became a power in the industry. It became fashionable for young men “of goodfamily” to come out to Ceylon as tea planters. By 1900, they had built a very social way of life
with croquet lawns and tennis courts on their estates, clubs in which to drink and to dance, andgames of cricket, golf and polo. European women brought more formal standards to theplantations.
Elephants were a feature of tea plantation life. At first, they were shot by the British for sportand for ivory, although only 60% of male Ceylonese elephants had tusks; later , elephants
were domesticated to clear the jungle and remove stumps to enable tea planting. They moved
heavy machinery like tea machinery over difficult terrain and were used in the building ofroads and bridges.

1.6

Associated communities and settlements

A railway link was opened in 1867 from Colombo to Kandy, which proved invaluable for moving
tea and tea machinery to and from the coastal port.

1.7

Links to trade, trade routes and economic opportunities

British firms operated in conjunction with their northern India tea businesses , and this led toshared commercial intelligence and presumably some economies of scale especially regarding
shipping.

1.8

How the landscapes relate to others and to their overall
regional/national context

The tea landscapes are all adjoined and form a tea growing region, but local topographic
variations mean that some are isolated from others.

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2.

307

Known tea landscapes and important tea
landscapes

There are six main tea growing areas shown below (source: Tea-Producing Regions of Sri
Lanka / Ceylon, https://ratetea.com/region/sri-lanka/3/).

2.1 Location and size
Map 1. Kandy District. Map of Sri Lanka. Source: author.

Kandy is a district in Sri Lanka that is important in tea production. It is the middleof the three districts in the Central Province, and is located north of Nuwara
Eliya, and south of Matale.

Map 2. Matale District. Map of Sri Lanka. Source: author.

Matale District is a district in Sri Lanka, one of the three districts in the Central
Province, north of Kandy. Matale is home to the Dimbula region of tea
production. Although this town is more often spelled Dambulla, and sometimes
Dimbulla, in the tea world it is tends to be spelled Dimbula.

Map 3. Matara District. Map of Sri Lanka. Source: author.

Matara district is a district of Sri Lanka, located on the southern coast of theisland. Matara district also contains a small city named Matara, located o n the
coast, which is the largest city in the district.

Map 4. Nuwara Eliya District. Map of Sri Lanka. Source: author.

Nuwara Eliya is a district in central Sri Lanka, and an important tea-growing
region. Nuwara Eliya is the southernmost of the three districts in the Central
Province of Sri Lanka, just south of Kandy.

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Map 5. Ratnapura District. Map of Sri Lanka. Source: author.

Ratnapura is a district towards the southwest of the island, but in the interior.
Ratnapura is one of the two districts in Sabaragamuwa Province, the otherbeing Kegalle district. It is best-known for its gem mining industry.

Map 6. Uva province. Map of Sri Lanka. Source: author.

Uva Province is a province located in the interior of the island to thesoutheast, placing it on the eastern slopes of the central mountains.

2.2

Key characteristics of each landscapeKandy
The climate in Kandy is warm and wet all year round. There is substantial seasonal variability
in precipitation in this region, but the pattern is quite different from that on the mainland in India
and China. February is the driest month, and January and March are still relatively dr y. Octoberand November are the wettest months. Due to Kandy’s location in the tropics, there is only veryslight variation in temperature throughout the year.
Compared to Nuwara Eliya, Kandy is at a lower altitude and has a warmer climate, and, like Uva
province, Kandy is subject to drying winds during the dry season. Unlike Uva, however, the prime
harvest time here for high-quality teas is during the driest season, from December through toMarch. The top-rated Kandy tea is from Kenilworth Orange Pekoe (Ceylon black tea).
MataleThis region is located to the west of the central mountains, and, along with Nuwara Eliya andUva, is one of the three most well-known tea-growing regions of the country. Dimbula wasoriginally covered by a dense jungle of tropical forests, adapted to the area's strongly seasonalrainfall patterns.
The elevation of tea gardens in this area ranges from 1,000 to 1,700 m, spanning both "mid-grown"and "high-grown" teas. The most desirable teas from Dimbula are picked during the dry season
before the monsoon rains start, from January to March (Gascoyne et al, 2011). Teas from Dimbula
are often described as having qualities typical or characteristic of Ceylon teas. Twinings and Taylorsof Harrogate use Dimbula teas exclusively in their Ceylon tea. Tea gardens in Dimbula include
Bogahawatte, a certified Fairtrade tea plantation, Bogawantalawa and Kirkoswald.

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MataraThis district is in the region of Sri Lanka that receives a high amount of rainfall, which is suitablefor growing tea plants, in contrast to the area farther east along the coast which is much drier.
Matara district is home to Lumbini Estate, a tea garden which has engaged in somesustainability-promoting activities.
Ratnapura
This district, not very well-known in the world of tea, is partially bordered by Nuwara Eliya to thenorth, a region well-known for its high-grown teas. Ratnapura has a lower elevation, and its
geography is a transition between hills and plains. It is home to the New Vithanakande Tea Factory.

Image 1. Tea Small Holding, near Palabadalla.
Palabadalla.
Sept 2009. Source: J. Lennon.

Image 2. Tea Small Holding, near
Sept 2009. Source: J. Lennon.

Nuwara Eliya
This region has the highest altitude of the tea-growing regions of Sri Lanka. The climate is rainy
and cooler than most of the other tea-growing regions; frosts can occur in the area at higher
elevations. Nuwara Eliya is a relatively small contributor to the total volume of tea production,
but it is well-known for the unique high-grown character of its teas. Its central location also
places it near many of the other tea-growing areas such as Uva and Dimbula. This area has aconsistent humidity throughout the year, and tea is harvested here year -round. The mostdesirable harvests tend to be from January to March.
In addition to black teas, which make up the bulk of the production here, this region also
produces white tea, including Adam's Peak white tea, named for the English name of Sri Pada,
a local mountain that is a distinctive landmark and holds importanc e in many world religions.
Uva
This is the second least-populated province, divided into two districts, Badulla and Moneragala.
Tea grown in Uva is usually identified with Uva rather than one of the smaller districts. The tea
plantations are located at a range of altitudes, from about 1,000 to 1,700 m, making some "highgrown" and others "mid-grown" teas.

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Uva is important in tea production because its unique climate leads to a unique flavo ur of its
teas. Uva is located in the rain shadow of the central mountains in Sri Lanka; the region receives
ample rainfall in winter but is subject to strong, dry winds in late summer. The most desirable
harvests are usually those from August to October, when the tea is influenced by the drying
winds. This contrasts with the rest of the island, where harvests from this time of year are lessdesirable than other harvests.

2.3 Planting traditions
Deforestation, or cutting down the tropical rainforest, and establishing a drainage system are
prerequisites for setting up the tea gardens. Drainage systems are prominent features in theterraced landscape and the building and maintenance technology is unchanged to date as
traditional knowledge is used for landscape sustainability. Tea plants - Camellia sinensis var.
assamica - were transplanted from nurseries where cuttings had been taken from bushes.
Pruning tea bushes is a valued skill. In general, tea plants have a distance of 0.6 m between
each other and a distance of 1.2 m between rows, resulting in “approximately 5,500 tea plants
per acre” (Wijetunga & Sung, 2015).

Image 3. Tea Seedling Nursery, near Kitugala Beli-Lena. September 2009. Source: J. Lennon.

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2.4 Type of tea trees planted and techniquesof tea cultivation
Sri Lanka is best known for Ceylon black tea, although it also produces small quantities ofgreen and white tea. Typical Ceylon tea has a middle-of-the-road character, typical of blackteas consumed in the West. However, a small portion of artisan black teas are produced,
which are similar in style to teas from Darjeeling, Assam or other regions. The distinctive
Ceylon black teas are regarded highly because of their harvesting technique, which is skilled
hand picking.
Ceylon green and white teas tend to use similar names as Chinese varieties of tea. Althoughthese teas are usually recognizable as their varieties, their characteristics can be widelydifferent from the originals. Ceylon green teas are more well-known in the Middle East than inWestern countries.

2.5 Harvesting and tea processing
The routine for tea workers is hard, tedious labour. For the most part, women pick the tea —only young leaves and buds are carefully plucked from the bushes. Wages to pick tea average
about 400 rupees (US $3.07) a day, and the workers’ daily quotas average from 12 to 15 kg.
The hand picking technique is what gives Ceylon tea its distinctive character.

2.6 Social structures and cultural systems
The Sinhalese showed little desire to work on tea plantations as they had their own plots tocultivate and were repulsed by the idea of working for hire, so Tamils were recruited fromsouthern India and shipped over the Palk Strait, after which they walked up to 250 km to theplantations, where their conditions were appalling. By 1850, there had been about 272,000
arrivals and only 133,000 departures - at least 70,000 died and approximately 50,000 stayedon (Moxham, 2009: 165). Famine drove many to risk the journey to the estates in Ceylon andthe tea planters found a ready source of labour from these calamities. During the 1867 famine,
167,000 Tamils - men, women and children - moved to the Ceylon plantations. By 1900, thepermanent plantation work force had reached 337,000, mostly Tamils (Moxham, 2009: 166).
The native Sinhalese resented the arrival of so many Tamils in a population of under 4 million
and this became a major problem later in the twentieth century.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, tea was responsible for more than half of all export
earnings in Ceylon and although the acreage of tea only increased moderately during theremaining years of British rule, the improved agricultural techniques doubled the crop. When
Ceylon achieved independence from Britain in 1948, there were 222,500 ha of land under tea
cultivation on the island. The impact of independence was severe for the Tamils working on
tea estates. The United National Party was keen to restrict their citizenship, their right of

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residence and their right to vote, even though many had been settled in Ceylon forgenerations. The result was a civil war. Meanwhile, many Tamils left unwillingly for a moredifficult life in India.
With a socialist government after 1956, the British tea estates came under pressure fromincreased company tax and restricted export earnings. The proportion of foreign-owned estates,
mostly British, dropped from 70% to 31%. Nationalisation of tea estates happened in the early
1970s and small owners were allowed 20 ha for each member of the family, though the Stateacquired two-thirds of the total tea acreage. Production and quality fell.
Following land reform, there was a large increase in the proportion of tea grown on small
holdings – in 1999, 200,000 small holdings, growing only an acre or two each, formed half thetotal acreage. In 1993, the United National Party returned to power with a platform ofprivatisation. Government tea estates were presented to private managers and then offered forsale. Controls over marketing and tea exports were lifted, and while British companies took
advantage of the situation, Sri Lankan companies became the dominant force. By 2000,
production of both estate and small holder tea was rising and reached a record 675 million lbs.
Quality also improved.
Ceylon, which became Sri Lanka in 1972 (though the name Ceylon is retained by many of its
brands), exports over 90% of its production. With a policy of diversified sales, Britain now only
takes 3.5% of Sri Lanka’s exports and much of this is packaged tea which brings a bigger profit
to the sellers (Moxham, 2009: 198-201). Despite fair trade and labels such as Tea Direct,
oversupply occurs and the wages of tea estate workers seem set to fall further.
“Tea plantations have a unique social structure not seen in other regions in Sri Lanka. The cultural
practices of the majority of the Indian Tamil tea estate workers contributed to the creation of thecultural landscapes of Sri Lankan tea plantations” (Wijetunga and Sung, 2015: 673).
Tea planters used kanganies to recruit labour. These men were often from the same villages
as the men they recruited and gave them advances to cover the cost of their journey to theestates, so that the labourers were in debt from the start until they had worked this amount off.
Although “free” - not indentured as in India - the Ceylon coolies had to pay for the cost of theirtransport and recruitment. The managerial system of the kanganies gave scope for muchabuse. In 1904, the planters established their own labour commission to supervise the systemand to ensure that the labourers actually received the cash advances that they had to repay.
Wages were low in the 1870s but higher than those in India, though they were cut in the 1880s
when the price of tea fell, and were never restored.
The estates provided the workers with rice at a fixed price and organised their laundry and haircutting, which was debited against their wages.
In 1900, accommodation was described as follows: “A coolie line is usually a long building of
one story only, divided into a large number of compartments. Each apartment accommodates

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about four coolies, and it is obvious that they do not enjoy the luxury of much s pace […] lie
huddled together on the mud floors of these tiny hovels” (Cave, 1900).
Sanitation was often lacking in these lines. Work in the fields was hard; from 6 am until 4 pm
without a break or food, as the planters feared that if the workers stopped for a midday meal
they might not return. On the higher estates, it was cold, windy and often wet. The Tamils of
the hot south India plains were not well suited to these conditions and there were many deaths
from bronchitis and pneumonia (Moxham, 2009: 170-2).
“Estates were separated from the urban areas and other community settlements. The workload
and long working hours restricted the workers from leaving the estates. Indian immigrants
became established as introverted groups of people. The language, relig ious practices andrituals of Indian Tamil immigrants differed from the major Sinhalese communities. The intangible
values of the cultural practices of plantation workers is an integral portion of the landscape
identity of the estates. Diversity of the caste system amongst the immigrants also separated
them into groups for some rituals and practices. The immigrants from India belonged to 25
different castes that included Ayyar, Vellae, Kudianar, Akampadi, Kallar, Konar, Endayar,
Dewar, Sannali, Marayachchi, Walayar, Udayar, Awar, Pandaram, Chetti, Ambar, Wannar,
Pullar, Palayar and Melan castes. Wellalan, Kallon and Kowendan castes’ population were themost prominent in Nuwara Eliya region and the Hill country” (Wijetunga and Sung, 2015: 674).

Image 4. Worker Housing, near Kitugala Beli-Lena, September 2009. Source: J. Lennon.

2.7

Associated communities and settlements

By 1880, the government had built hospitals, dispensaries, shelters and wells along the North
Road route of the Tamil labourers walking to the plantations (Moxham, 2009: 166). The route
was closed in 1900.

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2.8 Links to trade and trade routes
British firms had links to India through business and shipping, and the sea lanes to Calcutta
and Coochin provided avenues for commercial intelligence and staff to travel.

3. Existing documentation
This report was based on the sources detailed in the bibliography and the author’s two visits tothe tea growing regions in 1993 and 2009. Unfortunately, government sources were unavailable
during this period of internal political and administrative instability to fill in the documentation
sections, which have been compiled from industry and some academic sources.

4.

State of historic and technical knowledge
concerning water heritage in the sub-region

4.1

Definition of period or periods during which the tea
landscapes flourished

Tea landscapes have flourished from the 1880s onwards.

4.2

Whether the landscapes have evolved and, if so, how

The Sri Lankan tea landscape is a product of colonialization. High mountain jungle cleared fortea estates and continuous cultivation has maintained the tea landscape as an agricultural
cultural landscape type.
“The major landscape changes that usually occurred with the tea plantations were deforestationand establishing the drainage system. The drainage systems are prominent features and thetechnology used to build and maintain the landscapes are unchanged to date as traditional
knowledge is used for landscape sustainability. To mitigate soil erosion effectively, four kindsof drainage systems are commonly used: (1) Netti Kanu (main drains collect water from thecontour drains), (2) Haras Kanu (contour drains), (3) Kutti Kanu (lock and spill), (4) Deni Kanu
(drain and silt pits); the soil is protected by advanced planting of alternative trees and shrubs
which provided soil protection” (Wijetunga & Sung, 2015: 673).

4.3

State of current research on history of landscapes,
plants, planting methods, harvesting and processing
methods, social structures and cultural systems

The cultural routes of immigrant Indian Tamil plantation workers are yet to be explored, otherthan the North Road that was followed once they had arrived in Sri Lanka.

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5.

315

Threats to tea landscape

Sri Lanka’s once-lucrative tea industry is facing a threat of collapse due to inability to increaselabour productivity and declining yields in high-grown, mid-grown and Uva tea sectors,
generating losses for several years. Sri Lanka is competing with Kenya, China, India andIndonesia and new producers like Malawi, Turkey and Vietnam. In Kenya, some estates havereached a target of 3,500 kg of tea produced per hectare, whereas in Sri Lanka the highest
achieved is 2,500 kg per hectare. The plantation industry is Sri Lanka's biggest employer , withover 250,000 workers involving one million residents (Sirimanna, 2011).
“Sri Lanka, which enjoyed a 23% of the Global tea
export trade 15 years ago, has seen a gradualdecrease year on year and currently accounts forabout 17% [...] The plantation sector is highly
politicised and around 70% of the tea production iscontrolled by the smallholder farmers who dependon heavy subsidies in replanting, fertilizer andprice guarantees [...]
Years of non-productive agricultural policies
coupled with government red tape has resulted innegativity in operating large plantations whichwere privatised with the state retaining thedecision- making powers. This has made the tea
plantations a “single crop business model” when
there

are

so

many

diversification

options

available.
Plantation companies too have not been proactivein diversifying into tea tourism, animal husbandry,large scale fruit and vegetable cultivation, othertree crops with commercial values and cultivatedtimber industries, new technologies in water
management,water

harvesting,irrigation,

alternate power generation and so many otherprojects too numerous to mention [...]

Image 5. Poorer Tea Estate near
Deanstone, Sept 2009,
Source: J. Lennon

The Sri Lankan tea plantation industry is the most expensive in terms of labour input,
representing an unprecedented 70% of the cost of production [...] Due to the comfort of theprotection net offered by the state to the tea smallholders, the quality of tea produced has fallen
far below desired levels. The quality standard applied by the Tea Board to qualify for the Lion
logo is the accepted norm for Pure Ceylon Tea of superior standard. It is unfortunate that noS R I L A N K A T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D SC A P E

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more that 30% of the manufactured teas qualify for the Lion logo in the current context ” (“Somethoughts on what ails Sri Lanka’s tea industry”, 13 October 2016 - 01:00 http://dailynews.lk/
2016/10/13/business/95742).

5.1

Pressure from new development

Losing areas for urbanisation projects.

5.2

Abandonment of traditional cultural practices

Traditional technology used in drainage and manual picking could be replaced by machinery inan effort to modernise, which would result in a loss of traditional knowledge.

5.3

Changes in social structures“Rural workers are moving en masse to cities in search of higher wages and a better life.
Traditionally, wages have been low in the tea industry, with many workers struggling to survive
on less than a realistic living wage. The attraction of service-sector jobs in the city can be hard
to resist” (Anderson, 2014, https://www.bbc.com/news/business-26123944).

5.4

Impact of modern techniques of tea cultivation,
processing and management“Introducing new technology to plantations [could lead to increased yields]. Tea plantations
need to re-look at the way they plant, nurture, harvest and manufacture tea. There are s everal
models available in developed tea countries such as Japan” (“What ails Sri Lanka’s tea
industry?” 13 October 2016, http://www.ft.lk/article/573481/Www.aquavista.lk).

5.5Lack of maintenance

Variable rainfall, tea plantations on marginal lands with weed infestations, and ethnic disputes
among workers have led to lack of maintenance in some areas like Deanstone.

5.6

Inappropriate or only partially appropriate reuses

Some districts have switched to cashew nut growing.

5.7

Specific threats“The Sri Lankan tea industry faces an uncertain future due to climate change. Pests and volatile
weather patterns threaten an industry already beset by increased competition and rising labourcosts […] Dilmah Teas, a 40-year-old Sri Lankan-owned enterprise, is launching a climatechange research station to study the potential impacts of climate change and develop future

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mitigation strategies. Other companies such as Unilever, which runs an instant tea factory in
Sri Lanka, have held events to educate employees on environmental issues such as water
conservation. With data suggesting Sri Lanka’s overall temperatures have risen 1 Celsius
degree the past century, the possibility of climate change wreaking havoc on this lucrative
industry is too big of a risk to overlook […] The Sri Lankan government runs a tea research
institute that covers everything from studying the treat of pests to helping tea growers respondand adapt to the changing climate” (Kaye, 2014,

https://www.triplepundit.com/2014/06/

climate-change-threatens-sri-lanka-tea-industry/).
Other threats to the Sri Lankan tea industry include the following:•

Government interventions: The government ban on importing glyphosate to control
weeds in 2016 has led to a weed explosion impacting on tea production and plantation
operations; plans in the 2016 budget proposed to restrict the size of tea estates run byregional plantation companies to 5,000 acres, a reduction of 20,000 acres on average(reducing economies of scale); the government provides subsidies only to small
holders; the concentration is still on producing premium quality tea, rather than on tea
bags which are gaining popularity;•

Working conditions: The failure of trade unions to achieve a higher pay rise for workers
could potentially damage productivity; workers are expected to pluck 18 kgs per day –but they encounter weeds, leeches and bees; workers are moving away due to living
conditions, causing a shortage of workers and an increase in retired workers living on
the estates;•

Social issues: these include leaky housing, alcoholism and domestic violence, and lackof sanitation and of access to education (Sexton, 2016).

5.8 Changes to integral buildings and related settlements
40,000 new houses are planned by the government to rehouse workers (Sexton, 2016).

6.

Legal protection in force

6.1

Legal protection

The following acts and ordinances form the existing legal framework for the protection of Sri
Lankan cultural heritage:•

Antiquities Ordinance No. 09 of 1940;•

Treasure Trove Ordinance No. 18 of 1887;•

National Environment Act No. 47 of 1980;•

Galle Heritage Foundation Act No. 07 of 1994.

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The following acts protect Sri Lankan natural heritage:•

National Environment Act No. 47 of 1980;•

Wilderness Areas Act No. 03 of 1988.

Issues with the legal protection in place include institutional power overlapping, politicalintervention, lack of social awareness and delays in fund generation (Wijesinghe, 2016).
“Unless development activities in areas like [these] projects are accompanied by proper EIA[Environmental Impact Assessment] studies and mitigation of the archaeological resources that will
be damaged, vast number[s] of sites - in fact much [of] Sri Lanka’s unrenewable cultural heritage
and the [raw] data for all future studies on ancient Sri Lanka will be destroyed without record.
Judicial law-making alone is not enough. [The] legislative process [should be harmonised] inline with the judicial vision […] Sri Lanka is lagging far behind in fulfilling the requirements of
the CCPWCNH [Convention Concerning Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage]
when compared with other signatories. A number of imminent threats to Sri Lankan heritage
are visible. There is a need to incorporate International principles via [a] legislative process andconsider an introduction of an Act [such as a] ‘Cultural and Natural Heritage Protection Act’”(Wijesinghe, 2016).
Sri Lanka is a country with a rich cultural heritage (including World Heritage properties). It needs
to preserve its World Heritage properties. There exists a number of possible threats to heritage.
Being a signatory to the World Heritage Convention, the country is bound to bring its law incompliance with international standards and to consider establishing a strong legal framework
to protect Sri Lanka’s heritage for future generations.
"Even at present the rapid expansion of vegetable gardens threatens the natural forests, with
illicit gem mining, felling of trees etc. […] being other direct human threats. Invasive alien
species and the phenomenon of some trees mysteriously dying have worried environmentalists ”(Rodrigo, 2010).

6.2

Planning or other forms of formal protection“In Sri Lanka, there has been a hesitant evolution of land use policy away from the simple
attraction of capital for plantation industries, through successive attempts to promote andprotect a peasant economy, to the present imperatives of employment creation and sustainable
development of natural resources. This last goal remains elusive. In many areas, land use is
obviously badly matched with the land which is being visibly degraded. It is well understoodthat the present pattern of land use is not sustainabled [sic] yet systematic information on land
resources is scarcely used at any level of decision-making” (Dent and Goonewardene, 1993).
Private land ownership is limited to fifty acres per person. The Government of Sri Lanka owns
approximately 80% of the land including most tea, rubber and coconut plantations, which areleased to the private sector on 50-year terms.

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319“People's participation in land use planning is a new concept in Sri Lanka but might be extended
through empowerment of existing local water management groups to make decisions onchange of water rights, land use and, even, land tenure” (Dent and Goonewardene, 1993).

6.3

Traditional protection and relationship to protectionof physical features

Heritage landscapes require protection - not just the site-specific antiquities or the generalenvironment.

7.

Conservation and management

7.1

Conservation of natural and cultural features

There is conservation of historical routes along the Nuwara-Eliya district, and of tea plantationrelated buildings and early industrial machinery displayed inside and outside factories.
Historical features and display items are part of heritage tourism promotional campaigns.
The tea landscape in the “wet zone” may be considered as having a good state of conservation
as the crop is still hand-picked.

Image 6. Former Tea Factory near Corbets Gap, Knuckles Conservation Forest, Sept 2009.
Source: J. Lennon.

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7.2

320

Management of overall landscapes, including traditional
management

Management is at the behest of the owners and follows traditional patterns.

Image 7. Knuckles Conservation Forest, Hare Park Tea Plantations on South-west, Sept 2009.
Source: J. Lennon .

7.3

Sustainable development including strengthening
resilience of traditional systems

Tea landscapes are currently resilient, but subject to change from climate events, economic
factors and labour availability as social pressures lead to change and migration to urban areas.
“Tea heritage tourism can be promoted. The tourism board and other authorities are working
on value-adding campaigns and the perception of tourists on the heritage landscape valuesof tea estates can be used for the betterment of heritage protection” (Wijetunga & Sung, 2015:
682).
“The tea industry plays a significant role in the Sri Lankan economy in terms of foreign exchangeearnings and providing employment opportunities. For more than a century, the tea industry
was the main employment provider, the main source of foreign exchange and the main sourceof government revenue. Nevertheless, recent statistics suggest that the contribution of the tea
industry towards the Sri Lankan economy is gradually declining. The industry faces several
problems. The area under tea cultivation is stagnant or shrinking, productivity is low, thereplanting rate is low, production costs are high and there is a shortage of labor willing to workin the industry. Sri Lanka's share of world exports of tea and production have declined
significantly as a result” (Thushara, 2015).

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8.

Conclusion

8.1

An overview of the profile of this sub-region
and its tea landscapes

321“As Ceylon tea prepare[d] to celebrate 150 years in 2017, there [were] serious questions
surrounding its future […] Famed for its taste and quality, Ceylon tea put Sri Lanka on the worldstage. But with plunging output and rising costs, the Ceylon tea industry faces a perfect stormof challenges. If this industry were to fail, the consequences for more than one million
people employed by the industry, and Sri Lanka at large, would be huge” (Sexton, 2016).
“The tea estate is the unit of the tea heritage cultural landscape. It consists of tea plantations,tea factories and activity area, staff quarters, labour housing (coolie lines), water drainage
systems, tea trails and the associated Indian Tamil culture. The tea estate is signiﬁcant as asettlement type in the island due to its unique character and elements. Therefore, tea estate
settlements are considered as a third type of settlement pattern in Sri Lanka with urban andrural settlements” (Wijetunga & Sung, 2015: 681).

8.2

Whether the lack of documentation and research hinders
full analysis of the tea landscapes

Detailed estate histories and further research would add to understanding the potential
Outstanding Universal Value and enable better comparative analysis.

8.3 The distinctiveness of these tea landscapes in relation
to other sub-regions
The “high-grown” tea landscapes are distinctive in relation to those in India such as Assam,
which was the source of the tea plants.

Image 8. Lush Kandy
garden with small
Holder Tea Growing,
Sept 2009.
Source: J. Lennon.

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8.4 Which landscape might be said to best reflect theparticular characteristics of this region and which, if any,might have the potential to demonstrate OUV, either on
their own or in a series?
The “wet zone” tea estates above 1,500m may have the most particular characteristics of thisregion, and still retain a good state of conservation and traditional processing, such as handplucking, that could be considered to have a certain degree of authenticity and could deservea further study on their potential to demonstrate OUV.

8.5 What are the main vulnerabilities of the tea landscapes?
Tea plucking in Sri Lanka is done predominantly by hand because of differences in terrain andthe way tea is planted, resulting in labour costs higher than in other countries. As wages accountfor up to 80% of input costs for the tea industry, labour pricing, combined with lower productivity,
is disadvantaging Sri Lankan growers in the global market (https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/
news/growth-prospects-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-tea-industry).

8.6 How are these impacting on conservation, authenticity
and integrity?
The main vulnerabilities of the tea landscapes of Sri Lanka are not yet having a great impact
on conservation, authenticity and integrity.

8.7

How effective is current protection and management andin what ways might these be improved?

It appears that there are no specific heritage landscape protection laws. Management is up to
the estate owners (Wijesinghe, 2016).

8.8

Possible recommendations for the future

It is advised to plan the legal heritage protection of the key authentic estates which show thehistorical evolution of tea landscapes.

8.9

Views on their potential to demonstrate Outstanding Universal
Value, including integrity and authenticity, as well as
ecological and cultural resilience, and an adequate state ofconservation

In order to prepare any potential nomination to the World Heritage List, much more detailed andin-depth research and study would be required, as there is a great lack of basic documents,
maps, inventories, etc., that would also require work on site.

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Bibliography
Cave, H.W., Golden Tips, Low, Marston, London, 1900.
Dent D.L. and Goonewardene L.K.P.A, “Resource assessment and land use planning in Sri Lanka: acase study”, Environmental Planning Issues, No. 4, December 1993, The International Institute forEnvironment and Development, London, 1993. Available at: pubs.iied.org/pdfs/7752IIED.pdf.
Gascoyne, K.; Marchand, F.; Desharnais, J.; Americi, H., Tea: History, Terroirs, Varieties, Camellia
Sinensis, Tea House, Firefly Book, 2011.
Hobhouse, H., Seeds of Change, Macmillan, London, 1992.
Moxham, R., A Brief History of Tea, the Extraordinary Story of the World’s Favourite Drink, Robinson,
London, 2009.
Sexton, C., Ceylon Tea: Does it have a future? Available at: http://newsfirst.lk/english/2016/12/ceylontea-future/156469.
RateTea.com, Tea-Producing Regions of Sri Lanka / Ceylon https://ratetea.com/region/sri-lanka/3/.
Thushara, S.C., Sri Lankan Tea Industry: Prospects and Challenges, Conference Paper, May 2015.
Wijesinghe, W.A.; Sanath, Sameera, Protection of Natural and Cultural Heritage in Sri Lanka: A legal
Perspective, Department of Legal Studies, Open University of Sri Lanka, 2016. Available at:https://www.academia.edu/9439400/.
Wijetunga Ch. Sh., Sung J. S., “Valuing the Cultural Landscapes Past and Present: Tea Plantations in
Sri Lanka”, Landscape Research, 40:6, 668-683, 2015.
Press & web
Anderson, R., “Tea industry’s future depends on corporate collaboration”, BBC News, 14 February
2014, https://www.bbc.com/news/business-26123944.
“Growth prospects for Sri Lanka’s tea industry”, Oxford Business Group, 19 September 2016.
https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/news/growth-prospects-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-tea-industry
Kaye, L., “Climate Change threatens Sri Lanka’s tea Industry”, Triple Pundit, 18 June 2014,
https://www.triplepundit.com/story/2014/climate-change-threatens-sri-lankas-tea-industry/43031
Rodrigo, M., “Lanka’s central highlands win heritage battle”, Window to Nature. Weekly Environmental
Diary, 7 August 2010.
https://window2nature.wordpress.com/2010/08/07/lanka%E2%80%99s-central-highlands-win-heritagebattle/.
Sirimanna, B., “Sri Lanka’s tea industry faces a threat of collapse amidst worker wage hike” Sunday
Times Sri Lanka, Business Times, Sunday, 7 July 2011,
http://www.sundaytimes.lk/110717/BusinessTimes/bt11.html“Some thoughts on what ails Sri Lanka’s tea industry”, Daily News Sri Lanka, 13 October 2016,
http://dailynews.lk/2016/10/13/business/95742.
”What ails Sri Lanka’s tea industry?” Daily FT, 13 October 2016
http://www.ft.lk/article/573481/Www.aquavista.lk.

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Cultural Landscape ofThai Nguyen Tea
Expert Group from Cultural Heritage
Department of Vietnam & Department ofCulture, Sports and Tourism of
Thai Nguyen province

1. Vietnam tea overview
1.1 Tea growing areas
Vietnam is one of the countries in which tea originates; it has a long tradition of growing andproducing tea thanks to its climatic and soil conditions favourable to tea planting. Tea plants
can adapt themselves to various areas; they can be found in 34 cities and provinces from thenorth to the south of Vietnam, but they are mainly distributed in six tea growing areas:i)North-Western Zone of mountainous northern Vietnam, including the two provinces of Lai
Chau and Son La;

ii)

Viet Bac-Hoang Lien Son Zone, including the provinces of Ha Giang, Tuyen Quang, Lao
Cai and the western part of Yen Bai (Nghia Lo and Van Chan);iii)

Northern Midland, including Vinh Phuc, Phu Tho, Bac Can, Thai Nguyen, Ha Tay, Hoa
Binh, Bac Giang, Bac Ninh, Southern Yen Bai and Northern Ha Noi;

iv)

North Central Zone, including Thanh Hoa, Nghe An and Ha Tinh;v)

Western Highlands, including Lam Dong, Gia Lai-Kontum and Dak Lak; andvi)

Central Coast, including Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Thua Thien, Quang Nam, Quang Ngai
and Binh Dinh.1

1.2

History of Vietnam tea

According to scientists, tea plants originated from ancient South-East Asia (including southern
Yunnan in China, Upper Laos, northern Myanmar, northern India and northern Vietnam).
Thousands of years ago, the inhabitants of the Bach Viet rice farming civilization (from northern
Vietnam and southern China) discovered tea plants and used them as a drink and herbal

1 Do Ngoc Quy, Nguyen Kim Phong, 1997, p.198.

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medicine. From its natural source, the tea plant was then cross-bred and produced into different
tea varieties to suit climatic and soil conditions. Tea plants have been introduced into various
areas all over the world as a result of cultural exchange and acculturation, wars and invasions,becoming an important and useful drink for humankind. In Vietnam, there are both naturally
growing and farmed tea plants.

1.2.1. NATURALLY GROWING TEA PLANTS

Naturally growing tea plants can be found in many areas of Vietnam, mostly distributed in thenorthern mountainous areas. In 1892, a French scientist, Pierre Lefèvre-Pontalis,2 discovered
ancient tea plants in the form of forest trees in the northern area lying between the Red River andthe Mekong River. In 1907, Philippe Eberhardt, head of a delegation of agriculture and forestry
inspection (Inspecteur Général de l’Agriculture et des Forêts en Indochine), discovered naturally
growing tea plants on Tam Dao Mountain (Vinh Phuc province) at an altitude of 900 m. Professor
Auguste Chevalier, a French botanist who collected plants throughout Indochina, detectedmany wild tea plants in forests north of northern Vietnam, in the eastern part of Truong Son
mountain range (Annamite Range), central Vietnam, and in the southern part of central Vietnamand Laos.3 In particular, a Russian research work published in 1976 with the title Tea plants ofNorthern Vietnam 4 by K.M. Djemukhatze offers thorough information on naturally growing tea
plants in northern Vietnam.
According to K.M. Djemukhatze, wild growing tea can be spotted in many areas of the former
Nghia Lo province (presently Nghia Lo town, Yen Bai province) in the forest of Suoi Giang. Suoi
Giang tea plants grow on mountain slopes at an altitude of 900-1,700 m above sea level, insouthern, eastern or other directions, in valleys or on hill tops. This illustrates that these tea plants
are native to the area. Locals often plant on slopes, which are especially favourable to farming
tea; it is important to select slopes that are favourable to farming techniques and can protect soil
from erosion. In the tea planting area of Suoi Giang, there are no obvious signs of soil erosion.
Plants have a wide canopy and are covered with thick dark green leaves. The height of the stemis 1.40 m, with a diameter of 60 cm. The bottom foliage consists of horizontal branches and hasa regular oval shape, with a diameter of 10 m. Plants are about 6 m tall and their life expectancy
is not less than 300 years. The tea plants grow well, giving a large and fat bud.5

2 Pierre Lefèvre-Pontalis, Note sur l’exploitation et le commerce du thé au Tonkin, Paris, 1892.
3 Do Ngoc Quy, Nguyen Kim Phong, 1997, p.24.
4 On working in Vietnam, K.M Djemukhatze had researched the ecology

and biochemistry of wild tea
found in some forests in Vietnam. When returned home, he summed up in a book Tea Plants of Northern
Vietnam (1976). This book was translated by Agricultural Assoc. Doctor Nguyen Ngoc Kinh, from
Russian into Vietnamese.

5 K.M. Djemukhatze, 1976. In Nguyen Ngoc Kinh (trans), 1981, p.44.

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Image 1. One of Old Shan Teas in Suoi Giang commune. Source: Do Ngoc Quy.

The main stem and half-frame canopy is of a greyish-white, the same colour as birch plants. In
December, tea plants grow strongly, and many have flowers blossoming. The sepal consists offive to six petals, and has an oval shape with pointed tips. The corolla includes five to nine
petals which grow unevenly. The petals stick together in an oval shape with edges curved
upwards. There are a lot of stamens of a bright yellow colour. Most of the tea flowers are white
and the fruit skin is green, sometimes dark brown. Fruits are easily separated and from themlarge tea seeds fall down. Most fruits contain one or two seeds, but rarely three or four seeds
can be found.6
In Lang Son, wild tea is found mainly in mountainous areas. A typical wild tea area is locatedin Tien Thong commune, an area of beautiful scenery at a height of 600-800 m above sea
level, and comprising about 15-20 ha. The tea growing areas are located in tropical forests,
dominated by perennial tea trees in addition to other tropical flora, including bamboo, wildchili and other woody plants and vines. Tien Thong is a natural wild tea area, about 200 -250
years old. These tea plants are native species, rather than imported products from othercountries. This has been confirmed by the land cover. The land here mainly consists of humus
feralit and red gold soil on the mountain. There are also other types of tropical soils, whichvary based on the terrain, altitude and other ecological conditions. Different from Suoi Giang
tea area, tea plants in Tien Thong commune grow very tall, even comparable to the height ofbamboo. Tea plants do not only grow at the foot of the mountain but also on the slopes. The
height of trees is 12-14 m, and the diameter of the stump is 30-40 cm and the tops 17 cm.
For some plants, the trunk is so wide that one person cannot embrace it completely. The tree
trunk is straight and tall, and looks like birch both in shape and colour. Trees begin to branch

6 K.M. Djemukhatze, 1976. in Nguyen Ngoc Kinh (trans), 1981, pp.42-43.

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at 6-8 m in height. The canopies are compact, and, for most trees, the leaves are large. The
leaves grow rather well, though some trees have fewer than others. Most of the leaves arecovered with fine, white feathers underneath. The bark is not often damaged, although many
termites can be found underneath. In Tien Thong, most of tea plants bloom in December, andtheir flowers are white, sometimes bright pink, and fragrant. In the middle of the flower, there
is a large ring of golden stamen. In many flowers, the stamens are longer than the pistil, butsome flowers have short stamens. Some trees produce large tea fruits. By analyzing a large
number of tea fruits, it can be seen that almost all the fruits have one to two seeds. Seeds
are large, with light brown skin, and very shiny.7
Ha Giang is at a higher latitude than Nghia Lo and Lang Son provinces. The wild tea plants
there were discovered in the 1920s. These tea plants are classified by Vietnamese experts as
types of "Shan" and "midland" tea. A typical example is the wild tea area in Thong Nguyen
commune, which has similar characteristics to Suoi Giang area, though there are somedifferences. In wild tea areas located on high mountains, on difficult-to-access terrain, tea plants
are much shorter than those of Suoi Giang. For most of these plants, their age is less than 100
years, but some trees are 200 or 300 years old. The tea plants have big, dark leaves. The soil
is of raddle, but is not very thick. Near the ground, the trunk is approximately 125 cm incircumference, while the canopy is 3 m high. These
plants are very rare. 8
In 2011, ten populations of ancient tea plants were
found in the Hong mountain range of Luu Quang
forest, Minh Tien commune, Dai Tu district, Thai
Nguyen province. The plants grow in jungles mixed
with bamboo forest at an altitude of over 850 m
above sea level. Since Luu Quang forest is far fromresidential areas and difficult to access, ancient tea
plants have been preserved intact. According tosome experts, these tea plants have existed for
hundreds of years. Some trees are approximately
1 m in diameter and 20 m in height. Tea buds aremuch larger than usual and leaves are softer,
larger and thicker, and have a clearer serration on

Image 2. An old Tea Plant in Luu Quang Forest,
Minh Tien Commune, Dai Tu District, Thai Nguyên
Province. Source: Vu Tien Hieu.

7 K.M. Djemukhatze, 1976. in Nguyen Ngoc Kinh (trans), 1981, pp.57-59.
8 K.M. Djemukhatze, 1976. in Nguyen Ngoc Kinh (trans), 1981, p.63.

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the edge, with a fresh taste that is not as tart as those planted in mass quantity. When
consumed, this tea is as fragrant as Bat Tien tea.

1.2.2. TEA PLANTS FARMED BY HUMANS

In Vietnam, people have known how to plant tea for a long time. Until the middle of the 20th
century, tea plants were grown throughout the mountainous midland in central and northern
Vietnam. This type of tea plant is tall, with large and thick leaves, and it can be harvested to
produce fresh tea called green tea. From 1882 to 1945, there began to appear other types:
industrial black tea and Chinese pan-fired green tea. At that time, the French began to organize
large-scale tea plantations such as those in Lam Dong, Kon Tum and Dak Lak provinces.
Since 1945, Vietnam has established state-owned forestry enterprises and tea producing andtrading companies in large numbers, mainly in two key tea producing areas: the northern
mountainous areas and the western mountainous midlands. Currently, together with stateowned enterprises, many private companies and households have invested in tea production
and business.
In Thai Nguyen province, tea acts as the key plant which brings economic and cultural value,grown by many inhabitants in most areas of the district. Today, the province is renowned for its
tea. In addition to tea production by households, many cooperatives and business companies
have been formed to enable the production and business to work more professionally, making
it become one of the targets of economic development, cultural exchange and tourism
promotion and attraction.
Vietnam's tea production is increasing over time. While Vietnam exported only about 2,000
tonnes of tea in 1960, it exceeded 135,000 tonnes in 2015, with farming areas of 134,455
hectares. Of these, Thai Nguyen tea has a special taste and is favoured by many; it is exported
to about 70 countries in the world (China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaisia, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
Russia, United States of America, etc.).

2.

Cultural landscape of Thai Nguyen tea an international scale heritage site

Among the 34 tea-growing provinces mentioned above, Thai Nguyen is one of the leading
provinces in terms of cultivation area, yield and quality of tea products. In particular, it isconsidered as a typical national tea cultural landscape and recognized as such at aninternational level. Research is beginning to be carried out in order to identify the characteristics
and values of this heritage site.

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Description

Thai Nguyen is a mountainous province, belonging to the midland and mountainous area of thenorth-east with a natural area of 3,541.67 km², located in the geographical coordinates from21o 19'N to 22o 03'N and 105o 29'E to 106o 15'E. Thai Nguyen borders with Bac Kan province tothe north; with Lang Son and Bac Giang provinces to the east; Hanoi capital to the south; andVinh Phuc and Tuyen Quang provinces to the west. Thai Nguyen has nine administrative units,
including seven rural districts (Dai Tu, Dinh Hoa, Phu Luong, Vo Nhai, Dong Hy, Pho Yen and
Phu Binh), Thai Nguyen city and Song Cong town. The population is over 1.1 million, with nineethnic groups living together: the Viet / Kinh, Tay, Nung, Dao, San Chay, San Diu, Hmong, Hoa
and Ngai.
At present, in all the districts, the city and the town of Thai Nguyen, tea growing and processing
takes place. As of 2017, the total tea growing area is 21,372 ha. Tea growing areas are
distributed in Thai Nguyen city and in rural districts of Dai Tu, Dinh Hoa, Phu Luong, Vo Nhai
and Dong Hy.

Image 3. Survey Group on Thai Nguyen Tea Cultural Landscape working in La Bang Tea Village,
Dai Tu District. Source: Nguyen Viet Cuong.

Over hundreds of years, the people of Thai Nguyen have domesticated tea species from thewild, and have imported or cross-bred others to create premium quality tea with a delicate
fragrance and natural green colour. This tea is the favourite of customers and earns the title“the best tea of all”. Some typical tea products include Tan Cuong tea, Bat Tien, Trai Cai,
shrimp-like bud tea, premium fishhook shaped tea, Phuc Van Tien tea, and others.

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Map 1. Map of tea planting districts in Thai Nguyen province.
Source: Thai Nguyen Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism.

This article reviews the tea planting areas in Thai Nguyen and the way in which they areinterwoven with cultural heritage, the beautiful natural scenery and the life of ethnic minority
groups.

2.1.1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TEA PLANTING
AREAS IN THAI NGUYEN

In general, tea planting areas are located in valleys or in low hills running in the north-south
direction and declining from north to south, surrounded by high mountains like Tam Dao,
Ngan Son and Bac Son. These are the bow-shaped mountains that shield the tea areasfrom extremely strong sunlight in the summer as well as cold winds in the winter. The
average temperature is 22-23°C, and the average humidity is 81.2%, with high rainfall of
2,000-2,500 mm. At the same time, reddish yellow soil on the shale in the hills occup ies thelargest area. The soil has a medium to heavy texture, with a soil pH of 4.5-5.5, and a slopeof 8-25 degrees. In particular, the water supply for these tea areas is very abundant becauseof the intertwined river system, with the three major rivers of Cau River, Cong River and RongRiver, and many other small rivers under the Ky Cung and Lo river systems. In addition, thewater supply includes the sources of water in ponds and lakes, especially Nui Coc Lake, and avery large underground water source. These climatic and soil conditions create a favo urable
environment for large-scale intensive tea plantations of excellent quality.
At present, in the tea areas of Thai Nguyen province, tea planting, care and production follow
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abbreviation for Good Agricultural Practices).9 The VietGAP production model tends to be
applied extensively here.
For a long time, the tea planted in the tea growing areas of Thai Nguyen was native to the
midland and farmed by seeding. However, in recent years, the production of this tea has
gradually decreased due to aging and poor quality, and has been replaced by new highproductivity and quality teas instead. As of 2017, the total tea area of Thai Nguyen province is21,372 hectares, of which the midland tea species accounts for 32.5%, and the new tea variety
67.5% [among them, LDP1 tea (68.9%), TRI 777, PH1 (6.8%), Kim Tuyen (13.2%), Phuc Van
Tien (10.1%), and other new tea varieties (1.0%)]. The LDP1 tea varieties, and some imported
tea varieties such as Kim Tuyen and Phuc Van Tien, have a high productivity and quality andare used for processing high-quality green tea.
The irrigation system for tea gardens has also been gradually replaced by automatic rotary
valves.
Forms of production in the tea areas are mainly carried out by households, craft villages,
cooperatives and businesses. At present, the traditional method of processing using pans andby hand is less used and mainly appears at tea festivals. Processing by mechanical means ofsemi-mechanized rotary machinery, crushing and small-scale processing lines can be mostly
found in households and cooperatives, accounting for 80% of the output of green tea of various
grades. Industrial processing methods appear in small and medium enterprises, but they areapplied to few businesses and the products are mainly flavoured black tea and green tea.
The following table illustrates and summarises green tea processing procedures in the form of
the traditional method and by using mechanical equipment:

Table 1. Traditional method and mechanical equipment for green tea processing
Traditional method

Using mechanical equipment

Step 1. Raw material (fresh tea bud).

Step 1. Raw material (fresh tea bud).

Step 2. Remove yeast by pan teafiring.

Step 2. Remove the enzyme (teafiring, tea
beating machine, steamer).

9 VietGAP is the acronym for Vietnamese Good Agricultural Practices, and is issued by the Ministry ofAgriculture and Rural Development of Vietnam for each product or group of fishery products, grow andfeed. VietGAP forms the principles, order and procedures to guide organizations and individuals to
produce, harvest and process post-harvest to ensure safety, improve product quality, ensure social
welfare and health of producers and consumers as well as environmental protection and traceability of
production.

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Step 3. Crush the first time (by machine).

handmade turrets).
Step 4. Dry (dry, pan).

Step 4. Sieve (by machine).

Step 5. Classification (hand sieve).

Step 5. Crush the second time.

Step 6. Finished products.

Step 6. Sieve (machine).
Step 7. Dry (dryer, rolling machine).
Step 8. Classification (sieves, mechanicalcutting, fan).
Step 9. Mix and pack products.

Harvesting is implemented on the basis of a 30- or 32-day harvest. Depending on the producttypes, people will pick tea in different ways. Tea is mainly hand-picked. For example, to makethe product dinh tea (royal tea), only the tea bud is picked. Other picking ways are: one bud,one leaf; one bud, two leaves; one bud, three leaves, etc. During harvesting, households
mobilize all of their members, mostly female, to pick tea by hand. This can also be found in thecooperatives or large enterprises. When picking tea, women often perform more elaborate workthan men.
The application of modern science and technology has contributed to promoting a rapid
increase in productivity and the area of tea planting in Thai Nguyen.
Products are sold in both domestic and export markets. The domestic market offers the best
advantages. The Thai Nguyen tea brand appears in all provinces and cities. Tea is sold in many
locations: traditional markets, shops, agents and supermarkets, with many forms of advertisingand promotion. Many households, cooperatives and enterprises have tea distribution networks
throughout the country. High quality products are exported to Pakistan, Taiwan, Russia, theUSA, China, the UK, Afghanistan, Indonesia, the United Arab Emirates, etc., with the Pakistan
market accounting for up to 50% of tea exports from Thai Nguyen.
High quality tea products deserving the title "the best tea of all" exist not only due to optimal
climate and soil conditions, but also because of the time-honoured tradition and experience of
the Thai Nguyen people. Therefore, in answering the question “What is the most importantelement in making Thai Nguyen quality tea?”, no final answers seem to be found.
Tea trees have been long attached to the Vietnamese in general and to the Thai Nguyen people
in particular. Tea does not only contribute economically, which is key to raising income andhelping to reduce poverty, but is also associated with intangible cultural values of the
inhabitants. Through the process of settlement and production associated with traditional tea

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333planting areas, the Thai Nguyen people have collected, refined and created cultural values andicons related to tea. Cultural values are expressed through traditional production, proverbs andidioms, culture and arts, products associated with a story or symbolic meaning of tea, the art oftea appreciation, processing, beliefs and customs, and behavioural culture, etc. The Thai
Nguyen people and Vietnamese people as a whole have long said that "the betel nut is the
beginning of the story" or "the teapot is the beginning of the story” when guests visit, meaningthat the host has to make tea first and can only then talk about business. This is clear evidenceof the value of tea in everyday life, through which it can offer motivation or inspiration forinhabitants to invent works of art for generations.
In particular, tea has long been an important drink and promoted as the essence of the art ofVietnamese cuisine. Vietnamese people have two ways of drinking traditional tea: fresh and dried.
For fresh tea, green tea leaves are picked, lightly lit, put into a kettle or large pot and boiled, thenused in everyday life. For dried tea, the dried tea buds are put in a pot with boiling water. In
addition, the Vietnamese are very precise in enjoying tea, using the method: "first: water, second:tea, third: pot, fourth: cup", meaning that the most important choice is the water, then the tea, thepot and the cup. The way of enjoying tea is divided into different categories: độc ẩm (drinking tea
by oneself), song ẩm (making tea for two), tam tứ ẩm (making tea for three), ngũ quần anh(drinking tea with friends), as well as enjoying tea according to the seasons, drinking marinatedtea, and combining tea with herbs as a medicine and to prevent disease.
Having a space dedicated to the drinking of tea is also very sophisticated, and usually only
former elites and imperial courts could afford it. Since tea enjoyment depends on economic
conditions and living habits, each region or each individual has different ways of drinking tea,such as a cup of fresh tea, a pot of tea served in the morning, or a cup of tea diluted carefully,
which reflects the important role of tea in people’s lives.

2.1.2. DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS OF TEA PLANTING
AREAS IN THAI NGUYEN PROVINCE

2.1.2.1. Tea planting area of Thai Nguyen city
Thai Nguyen city is known for the tea brand Tan Cuong. Planting areas for this special tea arelocated away from the centre of Thai Nguyen city, about 5 to 10 kilometres to the west, mainly
situated in the three communes of Tan Cuong, Phuc Xuan and Phuc Triu. As of 2017, the totaltea planting area of Thai Nguyen is 1,458 ha.
According to the history of Tan Cuong tea, tea has existed in the lives of the population’sancestors since the beginning of the twentieth century. Mr Nguyen Dinh Tuan (1876-1941),
often known as Doctor So, was born in Trau Lo village, Mai Dinh commune, Hiep Hoa district,
Bac Giang province. He was famous for his intelligence and poetic talent. In the final years
before his retirement, he was appointed as a Surveillance Commissioner in Thai Nguyen
province. In his autobiography, Doctor So mentions that on his way to Yen Bai province to takeV I E T N A M T E A C U L T U R A L L A N D S CA P E

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up a new position of academic manager, he met Mr Cu Doan, with whom he had taken theinterprovincial examination held by the royal court, who lived in Phu Tho province. From him,
Doctor So understood the economic value of tea plants. Tan Cuong (Thai Nguyen province)
was deserted at that time, and the people's lives were hard. Doctor So sent Vu Van Hiet(commonly known as Doi Nam), the first head of Tan Cuong commune, and some young men
to Phu Tho to collect tea seedlings for farmers to plant and earn extra income. Between 1921
and 1922, Doi Nam began to form tea plantations. In 1925, he set up a tea processing
workshop. Tan Cuong tea was packed in boxes, using the brand name of Bach Hac (White
Crane) which gained a reputation and dominated foreign markets. In 1935, Doi Nam's tea
products were exhibited in Hanoi and won the first prize for Canh Hac tea (Crane’s Wings). In
Tan Cuong commune, Doctor So is not only seen as the founder of the commune, but also
considered as the ancestor of Tan Cuong tea area.

Image 4. Tan Cuong Tea Area, Thai Nguyen Province. Source: Dong Dang.

The tea species were brought by Doi Nam from Phu Ho (Phu Tho province), specifically the Phu
Tho Research Center of Agri-Forestry (as it was known in the French Colonial period; presently
named the Tea Research Institute of the Northern Mountainous Agricultural and Forestry Science
Institute (NOMAFSI)), and were grown in Tan Cuong (Thai Nguyen). The plants belonged to a
species of midland tea (Camellia sinensis var. macrophylla), a cultivar of Chinese variegated tea(Camellia sinensis var. macrophylla). The morphological characteristics of the plant are that it issmall, woody, has a large leaf of a medium area with a length of 12-15 cm, a width of 5-7 cm anda light green colour with irregular sharp teeth, pointed tips and eight to nine pairs of tendons.
The tea has an average bud size and offers rather good productivity and quality, which adapts
to the ecological conditions in the midlands, being especially resistant to adverse conditions,pests and moderate cold.

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The species derived from Phu Ho (Phu Tho province) is very compatible with the climatic andsoil conditions of Tan Cuong, which is why it has a special flavour and taste. It can resemble
the natural fragrance of young rice, imbued with a delicate tartness; a taste that can only befound in the Tan Cuong area.
The tea areas of Tan Cuong are located on a relatively flat terrain. However, they still have thecharacteristics of a midland terrain with bowl-shaped hilly mounds alternating with each other.
Tea is planted around the hills in a cone shape, and surrounded by beautiful natural scenery,
mountains and rivers, very close to the scenic complex of Nui Coc Lake in Dai Tu district.
In these areas, tea cooperatives operate effectively; in particular, the Tan Huong Tea
Cooperative in Phuc Xuan is UTZ Certified (global good agricultural product standards). Highquality tea products are sold in the market, such as special tea buds, shrimp-shaped tea, nailshaped tea, etc. Products of Tan Cuong tea have been exported to many countries aroundthe world.
In Tan Cuong commune, a tea cultural space was built in 2011 to host the first national Tea
Festival. The cultural space was designed with the convergence of three main architectural
spaces: a reception, an exhibition area and an introduction to tea culture and products. Various
groups of documents and artifacts are stored and displayed so as to introduce the history anddevelopment of tea products and their unique culture. Among them, there are many precious
materials and objects such as a collection of documents and artifacts on planting, caring forand processing tea, a collection of ancient pots, etc. In particular, on the second floor, there isa place to showcase and introduce the history and development of tea cultivation in Tan Cuongtea area. It is estimated that about 15,000 visitors visited Tan Cuong tea area in 2015.
2.1.2.2. Tea planting area of Dai Tu district
Dai Tu is located in the north-west of the province of Thai Nguyen, and has favourable natural
conditions and fertile soil suitable for many crop trees, especially tea plants. In the district, 30/31
communes and towns are designated to grow tea, of which there are 19 communes lying at thefoot of Tam Dao Mountain, Red Mountain and Mountain of God where the soil, irrigation andclimate is favourable for tea plants, creating zones for the cultivation of quality tea products
such as La Bang, Khuon Ga (Hung Son), Hoang Nong and Quan Chu. The district of Dai Tu
has the largest tea growing area: 6,333 hectares, accounting for about 30% of the total area ofthe province of Thai Nguyen. Fresh teabud output reached 62,000 tonnes in 2015, and theteabud of Dai Tu yielded at 115 kg/ha, worth 102 million VND/ha.
Produced in the largest planting area, tea from Dai Tu has a typical aroma and taste. Currently,
in the district of Dai Tu, 52.73 hectares of tea have been certified as having VietGAP standards.
Apart from the midland tea variety, the inhabitants have recently introduced new varieties ofhigher yield and quality, such as the tea varieties LDP1, LDP2, Kim Tuyen, Bat Tien, Phuc Van
Tuyen, Keo Am Tich and TRI777. In the future, the authorities of Dai Tu district will support

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Image 5. La Bang Tea Planting Area in Dai Tu District. Source: Nguyen Van Phai.

locals developing planting areas for top-lined varieties and nursery gardens, enhance quality
control of varieties, gradually replace new processing equipment, and encourage and enableorganizations and individuals to invest in small and medium-sized factories equipped withmodern and synchronous equipment and processing techniques for green tea, focusing onbrand promotion, especially the registration of trademarks of tea produced in Dai Tu.
The tea area of Dai Tu is located around the Tam Dao National Park, a scenic area of Nui Coc
Lake that relates to the legend of Lady Cong and her lover Coc, which contributes to shaping
the values of the tea cultural landscape in the largest planting tea district of Dai Tu, Thai Nguyen
province. This land, with its romantic scenery and enormous tea hills, has attracted thousandsof tourists to visit and study each year. It is a wonderful environment with favourable conditions
to promote economic development and tea culture among people at home and abroad.

Image 6. Nui Coc Lake Landscape. Source: Viet Hung.

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2.1.2.3. Tea planting area of Dinh Hoa district
Dinh Hoa is a mountainous district located north-west of Thai Nguyen. For years, the tea plant
has been identified as a key crop tree in agricultural production, as it helps many households
to escape poverty and possibly become wealthy. The district currently has 2,230 hectares oftea. Fresh tea bud output reached 21,000 tonnes in 2015. The largest tea planting areas include
Binh Thanh, Phu Dinh, Phu Son and Diem Mac, which is known for its premium tea speciality.
Since 2011, the district of Dinh Hoa has implemented seven production models following
VietGAP standards in the communes of Trung Hoi, Phu Dinh, Son Phu and Thanh Dinh, totallingover 69 ha. In the coming years, it strives to increase the total area to 3,000 ha, of which tea
stem planting would account for over 70%. Meanwhile, it will carry out master planning, building
up tea producing villages as well as cooperatives and teams.
In Dinh Hoa district, the monument of Dinh Hoa safety zone, which was called a windy forest
capital or “a capital of resistance” areas during the Anti-French Resistance War period of 19461954, was classified by the Prime Minister’s decision as a special national monument. Annually,
it attracts a large number of tourists to visit and study.
In addition, there are traditional villages of ethnic minority groups, such as the village Ban
Quyen of the Tay ethnic group, in which the Tay people’s traditions are still preserved. This
needs to be conserved together with the tea cultural landscape and the natural beauty so as topromote the typical traditions of Tay people in Thai Nguyen province as well as Vietnamese
traditions as a whole.
2.1.2.4. Tea planting area of Phu Luong
Located north-west of Thai Nguyen province, Phu Luong district owns a tea planting area of
4,357 ha, producing 101 kg/ha per year (or 40,909 tonnes), of which an intensive planting areafor new varieties of high yield and quality covers 2,500 ha (accounting for 57.4%). These areas
are situated in rather flat hills and low mountains. Tea trees are shielded by palms, creating an
icon for the land of “palm forest and tea hills”.
The largest tea planting areas are located in the communes of Tuc Tranh (1,033 ha), Vo
Tranh (603 ha) and Phu Do (467 ha). The tea brand named after the site of Khe Coc (in Tuc
Tranh commune) is one of the famous brands of Thai Nguyen. Khe Coc tea is known for its
deep and delicate taste. The tea is planted in clean alkaline soil and watered by the upstream
Song Cau River.

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Image 7. Palm Forest and Tea Hill, Phu Do Commune, Phu Luong District. Source: Dong Dang.

2.1.2.5. Tea planting area of Dong Hy district
Dong Hy District is the third largest tea area. It has nine tea producing villages, concentrated in
Minh Lap commune, Hoa Binh commune and the town of Song Cau, as well as many tea making
and trading cooperatives. Their tea products have gained many awards and cup prizes in
exhibitions and competitions held by the province and others. Regarded as a key crop tree
producer, the district has focused on investment from different sources, supplying tea varieties
to households in various communes, especially high quality tea stem varieties. Currently, Dong
Hy continues to apply VietGAP standards for tea production in the communes of Hoa Binh andMinh Lap and in Song Cau town, with an area of over 30 ha. In 2017, the total area reachedmore than 3,200 ha, of which the marketable area is over 2,710 ha, at an estimated yield of
11,900 kg/ha a year and over 31,000 tonnes of fresh tea bud.
The tea planting area of Trai Cai in Minh Lap commune is long-known. Bestowed by nature withalluvia and water from the famous river of Song Cau, the tea products of Trai Cai are extremely
fragrant and delicate, and are highly appreciated by customers as a speciality of Thai Nguyen
province. At any time of the year in Minh Lap, enormous green hills can be found. The locals
have grown habituated to planting and producing tea. Over time, there have been four
traditional tea producing villages, located in Ca Phe 1, Ca Phe 2, Song Cau and Trai Cai. In
these villages, the main income source comes from tea plants.
2.1.2.6. Tea planting area of Vo Nhai district
The mountainous district of Vo Nhai is located in the northern part of Thai Nguyen province,
bordering with Lang Son province. Currently, its tea area is approximately 1,000 ha, of whichV I E T N A M T E A C U L T U R A L L A N D S CA P E

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the area of tea stem cultivation accounts for over half. The remainder is the midland tea area.
In recent years, the district has focused on replacing the midland tea with high quality varieties.
Tea is grown in the communes of Lien Minh, Binh Long, Lau Thuong, La Hien, Dan Tien andTrang Xa. At present, the district has two traditional tea producing villages and one tea
cooperative. In 2017, the output of fresh tea bud reached over 5,800 tonnes.

3.

World Heritage List and Thai Nguyen
Tea Cultural Landscape

Further research could study the potential of the Thai Nguyen Tea Cultural Landscape to meetthe criteria for inscription on the World Heritage List.
The Thai Nguyen Tea Cultural Landscape is an excellent example of the interaction between
humans and the natural environment and of the traditional continuous residence of humans,
illustrated by the fact that locals have resided, reasonably exploited and used the potentialities
of nature, such as soils, for planting various trees, typically tea trees.
In their settlements and work, inhabitants have learnt how to take advantage of natural
conditions like climate, land, terrain and water sources, and intensively plant speciality trees(i.e. tea), which bear many meanings in the food culture of Asia and all over the world. This
clearly justifies a harmonious interaction between humans and nature, paving a pre-condition
for sustainable development, protection of the living environment, and the creation andexchange of culture.
Thai Nguyen possesses diverse natural landscapes of plains, midlands and rolling mountains,and favourable natural conditions for tea plants. For thousands of years, the inhabitants have
lived in a beautiful natural scenery, and many tea planting areas are attached to legendary
stories and special places such as the Song Cong River, Mountain Lake Coc, Tam Dao
National Park (in association with Dai Tu tea), the karst system of Hang Pagoda, Tien Nu
Cave (relating to the tea culture of Dong Hy), Phoenix Mountain, and Mo Ga Stream(connected with the tea culture of Vo Nhai). This impacts people’s understanding of life andthe world as well as the cultural values relating to production, trading and culinary art attached
to tea plants and tea culture.
The people of Thai Nguyen have created special tea products from tea plants and have learnt theknow-how of tea processing and appreciation, which are learnt and transferred from generation
to generation. It is an achievement gained from everyday life so it is a special cultural value – tea
culture is still being developed and transmitted now. This cultural value is represented in various
forms like farming techniques, processing, production, the art of tea enjoyment, spaces for tea
drinking and utensils for tea making, as well as behavioural norms between humans and nature
and among humans, mindsets, lifestyles, customs, beliefs and arts, etc.

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4.

340

Factors affecting the cultural landscapeof Thai Nguyen tea

The tea plant is not only the basis of the production and trading sector, but also bears many
cultural values; it has asserted its position in the economic development of the region and is a
key element for development, enjoyment and cultural exchange. The cultural landscape of Thai
Nguyen tea is affected by the following factors:-

The process of population growth and urbanization: development leads to an increasein population, urbanization and industrialization, which occupy many agricultural land
areas, including tea planting areas. It is a challenge and a risk in the preservation of
the integrity of the traditional tea planting areas.

-

Environmental pollution: the human impacts cause environmental problems such as
water pollution, water shortages and air pollution, which also undermine yields and thequality of the tea.

-Natural impacts: climate change also affects Vietnam, causing droughts, floods,
landslides, frost, etc. In 2011, for example, about 22 ha of the tea planting area of Phu
Luong was damaged due to droughts. Besides, diseases and pests pose threats to thedevelopment of tea plants and leaves, including Peribatodes rhomboidaria,
Geometridae, etc., which can affect the evolution, integrity and values of the culturallandscape of Thai Nguyen tea.

-

Fake and poor quality products: for the purpose of profit, some seek to imitate thebrands of Thai Nguyen tea, whereas some households do not follow the procedures
strictly and sell poor quality products. This has significant impacts on tea producers
as well as on the development of tea plants, values and the brand name of Thai
Nguyen tea.

5.

Management and protection of theintegrity and authenticity of the culturallandscape of Thai Nguyen tea

Thai Nguyen is a key tea planting area in Vietnam, covering an area of 18,500 ha, of which
there is a marketable area of about 17,000 ha, with a yield of 10,900/ha and total output of
about 185,000 tonnes. Defining tea as a key crop tree, the authorities of Thai Nguyen province
have taken many measures to enhance its productivity and quality, including the application of
VietGAP standards.
Over time, the planting area has been increasing, helping to promote the economy, sustainablesocial order and the life of the inhabitants as well as of ethnic minority groups.

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Inhabitants have preserved typical traditions of producing, processing and enjoy ing tea, whichhave been collected and have become cultural values and norms.

Image 8. The 3rd Thai Nguyen Tea Festival in 2015. Source: Vu Tien Hieu.

In preserving and developing the cultural landscape of Thai Nguyen tea, the Prime Minister
issued Decision No.203/QD-TTg dated 22 January 2013, approving the project of conservationand promotion of tangible and intangible cultural values of Thai Nguyen tea for the period 20132015 and 2016-2020. The main contents can be described as follows:•

Preserving and developing Thai Nguyen’s famous tea planting areas and traditional tea
producing villages associated with traditional production methods, such as Tan Cuong,
La Bang, Khe Coc, Trai Cai and Song Cau; and master planning the tea planting areas
in order to improve productivity, quality and food safety of fresh tea bud material;•

Collecting, summarizing, listing, storing and filing scientific documentation, anddisplaying and exhibiting artifacts, relics and antiques; restoring, preserving andimproving cultural art forms;•

Improving the quality and promotion of traditional folk festivals of T hai Nguyen and tea
culture among communities; developing contemporary cultural art forms in harmony
with traditional ones;•

Furnishing facilities used for cultural and sports activities and organizing the Thai
Nguyen Tea Festival, including the Thai Nguyen Provincial Museum, multi-purpose
cultural houses, cultural exhibition centres, a sports complex and boat sailingcentres, etc.

•

Training, retraining and improving the capacity of the professional management,
officers and cultural researchers; providing training on skills, professions, behavioural
culture, communication and performing arts related to tea making and enjoyment;

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342

Furnishing infrastructure, services and products in the tourist destinations of Thai
Nguyen so as to connect them and form intra-provincial and inter-provincial tours andtravel routes to Thai Nguyen Tea Festival; focusing on tour and route development andtourist attractions associated with the traditional villages.

Selected bibliography
Quy, D.N. Nguyen Kim Phong, Vietnamese Tea Plant, Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 1997.
Lefèvre-Pontalis, P., Note sur l’exploration et le commerce du thé au Tonkin, E. Leroux, Paris, 1892.
Djemukhatze. K.H., Tea Plants of Northern Vietnam, Nauka Publishing House, Moscow,1976. Trans. by
Doctor Nguyen Ngoc Kinh, Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 1981.
Province Party Committee, People's Council, Thai Nguyen People's Committee, Dai chi Thai Nguyen,
National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, 2009.
People's Committee of Dai Tu district, Comprehensive report on tea plant development in Dai Tu district
up to 2020 with a vision to 2030, Dai Tu, April 2012.
Thai Nguyen People's Committee, Project on Value Enhancement and Sustainable Development of Tea
Plant and Trademark of Thai Nguyen Tea, for the period 2017-2020, Thai Nguyen, July 2017.
Website of Thai Nguyen province (www.thainguyen.gov.vn).

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Background History of
Tea Cultivation in
Myanmar
Dr Kalaya Lu, Associate Professor,
Dr Kyaw Kyaw San, Lecturer,
Dr Aye Mya Nyein, Lecturer
Dpt. of Botany, Univ. of Mandalay

The word “tea” comes from the word used in the Chinese dialect in place of the word “cha”.
Southern China and northern Myanmar are considered to be the homeland of tea, which wascultivated in China as early as 2700 BC, and was later carried to India and Europe by the
Chinese. Camellia, belonging to the family Theaceae, was believed to be native to Yunnan
Province in China and northern Myanmar (Maung Sein, 1973). According to the latest
taxonomic study, there are altogether nine species of Camellia in northern Myanmar, namely
Camellia caudate Wall, C. asimilis Champ, C. costei Rehd, C.drupifera Lour, C. irrawadiensis
F. Kingdon-Ward, C. stenophylla Kobuski, C. sinensis (or) C. assamica, C. wardii, and C.
forrestii (Kalaya Lu, 2006).
Among these species, Camellia irrawadiensis is endemic to Myanmar. Regarding its
morphological character, it was observed to be the most primitive type among Camellia species
worldwide (Kingdon-Ward, 1950). It was first discovered by F. Kingdon Ward in the 1940s near
the Putao District in Kachin State in northern Myanmar. It was found near the Mali Hka River(Pro-Ayeyarwaddy), from which it took its name irrawadiensis. Tea has been known for
thousands of years by the Tai people of Yunnan Province and northern Myanmar. Because of
the long history of understanding, cultivating and utilizing tea leaves in the area, a lot of valuable
traditional knowledge has been handed down for several generations.
In Shan State, the most popular non-alcoholic beverage is tea. Local Tai people of Shan Stateuse tea as an effective stimulant to refresh themselves after a hard day’s work at the farm. Tea
has become an essential part of their daily life and improves their daily routine.
Northern Shan State is renowned for its high quality of tea leaves and tea plantations. Northern
Shan State and northern Myanmar were where the Ai Lao Kingdom was located from 200 BC
to 400 AD (Anonymous, 1888-1924). The King of Ai Lao initiated the south-western Silk RoadM Y A N M A R T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S CA P E

344

trading route, known as the Hsu San Tu road, via the Putao area of northern Myanmar to India.
After Khun Lone Li Maw negotiated with the Chinese emperor of the Han dynasty, the northwest Silk Road reached its peak in the 2nd century. Tea leaves from Yunnan and northern Shan
State played a very important role as exports to India.
During the Lanna period (1296-1558), the cultivation of tea plantations achieved its golden age.
Fermented tea leaves were the first innovation by the Tai people of the Lanna Kingdom. Shan
State (Kyaing Tone) in Myanmar, Xishuangbanna in Yunnan, and Chiang Mia in Thailand wereonce the cultural estates of the Lanna Kingdom (Li, 2007). Tea cultivation can be traced in
Xishuangbanna (Yunnan), Pan Kung and Pan Long (northern Shan States). In Xishuangbanna,
1,000-year-old tea trees are living monuments or solitary specimens. In Myanmar, on the other
hand, 1,000-year-old tea trees still remain in situ in Northern Shan State at Lwai Seng mountain
range, as Tai and Shan people regard old tea trees as sacred and pay them respect.

1.

Fermented tea leaves used as pickle

The Tai people of Upper Myanmar, from Kachin State and Shan State in particular, first
introduced fermented tea during the 8th century.
The Tai people seem to have originated in south-west China; they were especially numerous
in the southern China area later known as Yunnan. In the 1st century, the Ai Lao Kingdom
emerged in Yunnan, using for the first time the south-west Silk Road. The kingdom, however,collapsed in the 6th century, and in the 7th century, the Tai established the Kingdom of Nanchao,
including areas now known as Kachin State and Shan State in modern Myanmar. Like otherpeople of south-east Asia, the Tai people were inclined to be migratory (Sein, 1973).
Though many stayed in Nanchao, others moved westward across the north of Myanmar. In
addition to forming principalities there, they even entered Assam, India, where in 1229 they
established the Ahom kingdom. Others moved south from Nanchao along the great river valleys
of Mekong and Chao Phraya. In the Menam-Chao Phraya Region, they adopted the aspirated
name Thai, meaning “free men” in the Mekong Region (Pearn, 1963).
The Tai had reached what is now northern Thailand by the end of the 11th century, andestablished a small state there at Payao in 1096. In 1296, they consolidated the Kingdom of
Lanna, which encompassed the Chinengai, Chieng Mai, Xisauangbanna and Kyaing Tone area.
The Tai people of northern Myanmar, Shan State and Thailand were greatly influenced by Ai
Lao and Nancho language and culture (Chartchai et al., 2017).
The first people to settle in this area in large numbers did so after migrating from southern China
and northern Vietnam, which is now part of the Tai Lue autonomous prefecture (Xishuangbanna)in the extreme southern Yunnan Province of China. Thus, they were Chinese in ethnicity andwere referred to as Yunnan in Yuan literature (Chartchai et al., 2017). The Yuan refer tothemselves as the Khon-Muang people of the area. These Tai speaking people may have hadM Y A N M A R T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S CA P E

345knowledge of tea plantation and fermentation, as recorded in Chinese literature. It is reported
that Zhuan Cha’tea Oolong tea, a sour and non-salted fermented tea, was produced by a Tai
speaking hill tribe of Yunnan province (Chartchai et al., 2017).
The original recipe for tea fermentation has not been identified within any other groups of hilltribes but the Tai speaking groups.
Myanmar recorded cultivation of tea in the 12th century, during the Bagan period. King
Ahlaung Sithu of the Bagan dynasty (1118) visited northern Shan State in order to search foran ancient temple that was erected by King Asoka of India. The Palong ethnic group
participated in searching for this temple, which has still not been found. However, King
Ahlaung Sithu gave the native ethnic Palong people seeds of tea as a gift for their voluntary
participation in the search. The Palong people accepted the seeds of tea and planted themat Lai Seng mountain so as to show their respect to the Bagan king. Nowadays, nearly 800year-old tea trees can be observed at Lai Seng mountain range, in northern Shan State.
Native ethnic people of northern Shan State regard these old tea trees as sacred and pay
them respect. The Novice Ceremony is a yearly celebration for these relic tea trees, during
which the trunks of the trees are wrapped with monk rope during lent or a fasting period.
Ethnic Palong people still worship these relic tea trees with offerings because they believethat they can bring luck, good harvests and good prospects. In this region, the tradition oftree worshipping has been handed down by generation to generation over many centuries;
therefore, this practice is deeply rooted in the local people, and the in situ conservation ofaged tea trees has become a community concept.
Looking into the history of Myanmar, a close relationship between the Myanmar royal court
and Shan royal chiefs had been established since the Bagan period during 13 th-14 th century.
Most of the Myanmar kings in the Inwa period (14 th-16 th century) were Shan, Tai or of mixed
Shan blood. In this period, which has come to be called the Shan period in Myanmar (Maw,2017), fermented tea became one of the essential royal food items in the Inwa court. The
custom of drinking tea also became rooted in Myanmar food culture, as Myanmar acquired
the habit from the Tai or Shan people of eating fermented tea leaves and drinking traditional
black tea.
In the Kong Baung period, during the 17th century, tea drinking and fermented tea eating
culture had already become Burmanised. Tea was designated an important royal item andlaymen of Myanmar were not entitled to drink royal tea. The Myanmar king distinguished thehigh-ranking position of his court men by offering fermented tea, which was wrapped inbanana leaves.

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Table 1. Varieties of Tea Species and Locality
Sr.
No.

Cultivation
Locality

Ethnicity

Tea variety

Pan Kum(northern
Shan State
Ah Twin
Taung)Tai
Mong,
PalongCamella sinensis

2

Nan Kham

Tai
Mong

C. Leptophylla3NanPhatkaTai
Mong

C. candida

1

Small
scale

Mediumscale

Commercial
scale

✓

✓

Centuryofcultivation

10th

C. grandibracteata

✓

✓

10th
✓

10th

C. yunnanensis
C. kissii

4

5

Tan Yang(NSS)

Tai Lue,
PalongC. sinensis

Ko Kang
(NSS)

Ko
Kang,
Tai Lue

C. oleifera

✓

21st

✓

19th

C. drupifera

C. yunnanensis
C. sinensis

6

Nan San(NSS)

Pa Long

7

Pan Long

Palong,PaO

C. microphylla

8

Yatsauk
(SSS)

Tai
Long,
PaO

C. sinensis

9

Pindaya
(SSS)

PaO,
Danu

C. yunnanensis

10

Tamonye
(SSS)

Ko
Kang,
Tai LueC. szechuanensis

11

Homalin(upperSagaing)

Tai Lian

C. wardii✓

C. yunnanensis

✓

15th

C. kissii
✓

19th

✓

19th
✓

C. caudata
✓

20th
✓

20th

✓

5th

C. cardifolia
C. stenophylla

12

13

14

Nang
Mone
(KachinState)

Tai
KhamtiC. irrawadiensis

Putao,
Putaung(KachinState)

Tai
KhamtiC. irrawadiensis

Mohnyin(KachinState)

Tai Lian

✓

2nd

✓

2nd

C. warolii

C. warolii
C. forrestii
5th

C. wardii
C. cordifolia✓

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347✓

C. forrestii
15

Chin StateChin

C. sinensis

✓

21st

16

Thandaunggyi (Bago
Region)Kayin

C. sinensis

✓

21st

Table 2. Cultivation of Tea in Myanmar in 2016-2017
No.

Regions and States

Area under cultivation(in acres)

1

Shan State (north and south)

200,4192

Mandalay Region

16,9763

Kachin State

15,0404

Chin State

9,200

5

Upper Sagaing Region

4,251

6

Pago Region

3,400

Tea was cultivated mostly in Shan State in Myanmar. It goes without saying that Shan State has
a long history of cultivation and utilization of tea. The second most cultivated area is the Mandalay
Region, and Kachin State is regarded as being in third position. In addition, Kachin State, now
known as Northern Myanmar, has a long history of cultivating local tea species that can be dated
back to the Ai Lao period (Kalaya Lu, 2008). In 2003-2004, Chin State started cultivating tea
plantations in the style of terrace cultivations. Now, it has attained an area of cultivation of 9,200
acres. Homalin of the Upper Sagaing Region also has a reputation for cultivating local tea species.
Most of them are cultivated in home gardens. Homalin has a long history of tea cultivation;according to their mulberry paper manuscript, the Tai Lian people of Homalin have cultivated tea
plantations since they settled in the Hugaung-Kabaw valley in the 8th century AD (Kalaya Lu,2008). The Thandaunggyi area of Pago Region has fair ecological conditions, providing for tea
cultivation. The Kayan ethnic people of Thandaunggyi area established tea plantations in the2010s. Now, the cultivation area has reached 3,400 acres.
Table 3. Yearly cultivation of Tea in Myanmar
No.

Year

Area under cultivation (acres)1

2005-2006

201,7202

2009-2010

228,7803

2011-2012

236,2404

2012-2013

223,8605

2015-2017236,270

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Kachin State, known as Northern Myanmar, has 15,040 acres of land under tea cultivation, andis the third most cultivated area in Myanmar. Chin State has good geo-physical conditions andlocal climate conditions that are suitable for cultivation of tea plantations. The cultivation of tea
plantations there was established in 2004. In the Upper Sagaing Region, Homalin township isknown for its niche dried black tea products. The cultivation of tea has been gaining momentum.
Thandaunggyi is the newest area in which tea plantations have been established; cultivation
started in 2005.

2.

Climate, topography and soil

The tea plant is essentially a crop of the sub-tropical and temperate climate. It is well suited to
growing under varying climatic conditions, ranging from sea level to an altitude of 2,500 above
sea level. The plants grow best in partial shade conditions with temperatures ranging between
18°C and 35°C and an annual rainfall of 100-180 cm per year.
Tea plants are usually cultivated on the slopes of hills. The method of contour terracing has
recently been practiced. Soil must be well-aerated, deep, friable loam or forest land rich inorganic matter. The plants are raised from seeds or seedlings or by grafting and aretransplanted in rows at 5 feet intervals. In Putao, northern Myanmar, tea plants are grown asliving fences. In Kachin State, most of them are cultivated as home garden plants. However, innorthern Shan State, plants are sometimes interspersed with cash crops and permanent shadetrees due to their sensitivity to drought, strong sun and wind. Proper drainage of the soil andmoist humid conditions are essential for the healthy growth of tea plants. The best topographic
range for the cultivation of tea plantations is between 1,000-1,500 m above sea level. Namsan,
which is said to be the town of traditional tea, is situated at 1,000 m above sea level. In northern
Shan State, tea plantations are cultivated at an altitude of 1,500-2,000 m above sea level, while
in northern Myanmar, tea plantations are sometimes grown on abandoned plots (following theshifting cultivation agricultural system) at an altitude of 3,500 m above sea level. In Chin State,tea plantations are practiced in the style of contour farming at altitudes ranging from 2,3003,000 m above sea level.

3.

Cultivation

Tea is cultivated on a large scale in areas with a moist and warm climate. It grows from almost
sea-level to an altitude of 2,460 m. Good rainfall, well distributed throughout the year, and theabsence of strong, dry winds and freezing temperatures are some of the essential requirements.
An average annual rainfall of 150 cm-370 cm is well suited for the cultivation of tea. However,an annual rainfall of 750 cm does not seem to produce any harmful effect on the plant, provided
that the soil is well drained and there is no waterlogging (Sen, 1996).

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In Myanmar, tea plants are usually propagated from seeds through grafting, budding andlayering. The seeds are usually collected in May-June. In December-February, they are sownin moist soil after soaking for 24 hours in water. The sowing of seeds is done in nurseries, whichshould be properly shaded. The seedling plants germinate within 1-3 months after sowing.
Generally, seedling plants of 1 to 1½ years old are transplanted to the fields or hillsides in AprilOctober. The land used for planting is cleared by removing forest growth, taking care to prevent
soil erosion. Pits of a convenient size, generally 30-45 cm deep and 24 cm wide, are dug, within
which the seedling plants can be grown. After transplanting, the young plant should be covered
with soil and a tripod assembled to protect the plant from the threat of animals. The old seedlingplants are planted at 6 ft intervals in a row. The orientation of the plants in the next row are inan alternate manner to the plants in first row; therefore, the plants are in a zig-zag arrangement,
which is very suitable for the plucking of tea leaves.
The parent tea plants are allowed to grow to their full size of 8-12 metres and usually flower
between March and July. The soil must be systematically measured, hoed and weeded.
Among the tea plants, oolong tea is planted at 1½ ft intervals in a row. These plants obtained fromrooted cuttings are most commonly used to set the uniformity of plant height during harvest time.

4.

PruningPruning is an essential part of growth of the tea plant in order to maintain its shape. Firstly, themain stem is cut a few inches above the ground and lateral branches are allowed to develop.
The process of pruning is repeated yearly in such a manner that the plants are shaped as flat,
wide and bushy.

5.

Plucking

When the plants attain the height of 2 ft, plucking can be initiated. Most of the ethnic tea
cultivators, Tai and Palong, are accustomed to plucking the tea by hand. The Palong ethnic
people are recorded as being the experts in tea plucking. They can pluck and gather as muchas 40-50 viss (64-80 kg) of tea leaves per day. The first plucking is done when the plants reach2 or 3 years old. The optimum yield of leaves is gathered when the plant is of 8 years in age.
Plucking proceeds for 7-14 days. In Pan Kum, only 3-4 plucking sessions are possible in a year.
The most famous plucking is called “Shwe Phe Moe Lut”, which is carried out before the rain.
In “Shwe Phe Moe Lut”, only 2 small young leaves and the terminal bud are plucked. In Hsipaw,
Tan-Yang, plucking can be done 10 times per year.
Plucking is generally done by hand and the leaves are collected in baskets worn at the waist oron the back. When harvesting the leaves, only the final two leaves are plucked. The best quality
tea leaves are plucked before the rainfall in April. These tea leaves, suitable for green tea, arealso called “Shwe-phe”. Tea leaves from the next month are called "Char-kan”, those from theM Y A N M A R T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S CA P E

350

third month are called “Khar-watt”, and those from the fourth month “Khar-nail”. Plucked plants
stimulate new shoot growth, allowing the next plucking to take place in about 2 weeks. Finally,
the leaves are dried under the sun for about one day and packed.
In northern Shan State, March to April is the best time of the first flush or first plucking before
the shower rains of April. The second flush will follow a month later; it is usually done in May.
In southern Shan State and some areas of northern Shan State, plucking continues throughout
the year at four intervals. Good plucking stimulates the new growth of leaves.

6.

Processing the dry tea

Harvested tea leaves may be processed into either green tea, black tea or fermented tea(Laphet-so).
In preparing black tea, the fresh leaves or harvested tea leaves are steamed for about 1
minute or allowed to wilt, then manually twisted by hand-rolling the leaves on a hard surface
or bamboo mat. The rolling and twisting of the leaves secretes a yellowish-colour liquid, andthen the leaves are rolled by roller and crushed by crushing machine. These leaves are put
in an iron pan for heating, and are stirred around until they dry. The dried tea is passed
through a perforated drum machine, which classifies the black tea into first, second and thirdclass. The smaller leaf parts that pass through the sieve are categorised as first class. The
classes of tea depend upon the sieve-plate.
Withering: Fresh leaves have a moisture content of about 75%. This moisture content has tobe reduced before the leaf can be rolled without breaking up. The plucked leaves are spread
uniformly on withering racks, arranged horizontally one above the other. Depending on the
climatic conditions, the withering process can be completed within 16-24 hours. If theatmosphere is humid, hot air is circulated over the racks to hasten the process. During withering,a loss of turgidity in the leaf cells, a partial loss of carbohydrates and a limited breakdown ofproteins occurs. The leaves lose their crispness and become soft and flaccid and are termed
as withered. They are now ready for the second step.
Rolling: The withered leaves are now rolled in rolling machines to rupture the leaf cells and to
extract the sap. Through this process, the enzyme and polyphenols are intermixed, and it also
helps to spread the soluble extract on the leaf surface. Proper rolling gives the characteristic
twist to the leaves and exposes the leaf juices for fermentation.
Sieving: After proper rolling, the leaves are passed on to the sifters. These consist of long andflat metal sheets with perforations, fixed to a frame. The metal sheets are in constant motion
and function like a sieve, allowing the broken, smaller leaves and fine particles to fall below,
while the larger leaves remain above. These are removed and rolled for the second time underincreased pressure. The leaves are now quite flaccid and more or less green in colour and areready for the next step.

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Fermentation: During the rolling process, the enzyme polyphenoloxidase begin s to act on
the substrate, polyphenol, resulting in the formation of orthoquinones. The rolled leaves are
spread on tiles or aluminium sheets and allowed to ferment. During fermentation, the tanninpresent in tea leaves is partly oxidised, giving the leaves their characteristic reddish-black
colour. The quality of the leaf depends upon the correct degree of fermentation. The time forfermentation ranges from 3 to 5 hours. Generally, the shorter the fermentation period, themore pungent the liquor, while the longer the fermentation period, the softer the liquor andthe deeper the colour.
Drying or Firing: After achieving the correct degree of fermentation, the leaves are dried
to check for further oxidation and to remove all moisture. The grade and quality of the tea
depends on the age of the leaves. “Shwe Phe”, meaning the youngest tea but with a goldentip, is regarded as the best quality tea. “Moe Lutt” means that the tea has been plucked
before the rainy season.
In Myanmar, fermented tea leaves are made into pickle, which is traditionally and commerciallyvery important. Zayangyi, located in northern Shan State, has a reputation for the production ofhigh quality fermented tea leaves.
On a commercial basis, tea can be divided into basic categories:
1. Traditional fermented tea leaves;
2. Traditional sun-dried tea leaves;
3. Black-semi fermented;
4. Unfermented green;
5. Silvery white (unfermented);
6. Oolong or semi fermented.
Commercially, black tea is the most popular and most important.
Green tea leaves are green in colour and farmed without fermenting. Myanmar introduced
green tea in 2010. The tea leaves needed for manufacturing green tea are always pickedwithout the stalk.
Oolong tea: The colour of oolong tea is greenish-brown and brews to a medium liquor. Smallscale production of oolong tea occurs in Myanmar.

7.

Special types of tea

Scented tea: This is prepared by drying the leaves with Spanish jasmine Jasminum grandiflora
L. and then separating out the dried flowers. The tea acquires the scent of Spanish jasmine. It
is a special preparation of the Shan State.
Agar tea: Dried tea leaves are steamed with water scented with agar oil extracted fromagarwood (Aquilaria agallocha).

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Mint tea: Oil obtained from the mint plant is sprinkled on the dried tea leaves, which are air
dried for a few hours. These mint-scented tea leaves are put into a bottle and tied closed.
Lotus pollen dusted tea: This tea is very unique and produced using the traditional knowledgeof the Tai Lue people, handed down from the Nan Chao period, when it was specially processed
for the royal family. Dried tea leaves are put into lotus flowers in the evening before they close
into buds. The small amount of dried tea leaves in the lotus bud is dusted and scented withlotus pollen throughout the whole night. When the sun rises, the lotus flowers reopen, and thelotus-scented and pollen-dusted tea leaves can be collected by boat. It is a long and laborious
work, and one of the aristocratic traditions of tea drinking culture which is still practised by the
Tai Lue people of northern Myanmar. Lotus-scented tea has a very sweet odour and a pleasantflavour; the Tai Lue people say that a better taste cannot be found in the world.

Image 1, 2, 3. Preparation of Lotus Scented Tea; Indigenous Technique of the Tailae. Source: authors.

The tea is the heirloom of indigenous techniques handed down from older generations. It holds
the potential for niche Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) and cultural ecotourism.

8.

Modes of use

Traditional fermentation method
The conventional methods and fermentation processes for production are basically the same,but vary considerably among regions.
Firstly, the collected tea leaves are steamed for about 2-2 ½ hours and set aside for 1 hour tocool down. After they are cooled, the leaves are put into a bamboo basket, pressed tightly withbanana leaves and left to ferment for 2-3 days, without adding any water. The fermentation
process goes on for 1-2 weeks. Local strains of yeast and Lactobacillus play an important rolein local fermentation. Based on the time of aerobic fermentation, a prolonged fermentation
process can be carried on for 1-2 months so as to gain the required sour and bitter taste. Many
factors affect the taste of fermented tea, including the age of the leaves and the fermentation
process. Microbiologically, a two-step fermentation process is followed in this traditional method

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353of fermentation. The initial step starts with yeast, which also supports anaerobic fermentation.
Lactobacillus strains are mostly found in step 1 of the fermentation process. The final fermented
product has a sour-bitter taste with a good flavour.
Fermented tea
Fermented tea has a sour-bitter taste with a good flavour. Elderly Tai people are used tochewing this tea rather than consuming it. Fermented tea leaves are consumed by the Tai
Khamti people as a condiment to chicken or pork. The Tai Mong people of northern Shan Stateboil it with eggs in order to infuse them with the flavour of tea.
As for beverages, a small amount of fermented tea is put into a fermented rice wine pot for onenight, creating the rice-tea wine that is typical of the Tai harvesting festival. Myanmar people
are accustomed to eating fermented tea leaves as salad. Fermented tea leaves are saturated
in groundnut oil or sesame oil and mixed with fried garlic and shredded tomato and eaten as amixed salad.
The Tai Lue people of northern Myanmar collect the pollen of Camellia spp during the floweringseason, which they mix with rice powder and molasses to make cakes. These cakes are sundriedfor preservation and are eaten as traditional confectionary after they have been steamed.
Tea root and bark wine
This beverage is prepared by the Tai Lue of eastern Shan State, and has become popular in
the Kyaing Tone area. The infusion of fermented tea roots and bark is mixed with sugar and alocal yeast strain obtained from the fermented tea leaves, creating a beverage that is highly
carbonated and drunk as medicinal wine.
In Shan State, traditional sun-dried tea is roasted with rice. Conventional roasted tea is very
popular. Most of the people of Shan State prefer drinking roasted tea.
In Mohnyin (Kachin State), unfermented fresh tea leaves are used as a vegetable. The leaves
are boiled and mixed with lime juice, grated coconut and peanuts to create a very famous dish,which is usually eaten at the full-moon day pagoda festival in March.
Medical properties of tea
The medicinal value of the plants is due to the presence of specific chemical substances, which,when consumed in small doses, produce physiological actions in the human body. Some ofthese important compounds include alkaloid, glycoside and resin tannin, etc. The refreshingand stimulating effect of tea is due to the presence of the alkaloids theine and caffeine. Tea
contains 2-5% theine, 13-18% tannin and a small amount of caffeine and volatile oil (Kyaw
Kyaw San, 2014).
Tea leaves are also considered an antioxidant. Following traditional Myanmar medicine, a pinchof fermented tea leaves saturated with sesame oil ought to be taken after meals to prevent any
kind of disease. The principal amino acids present in tea leaves are glutamic acid,M Y A N M A R T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S CA P E

354phenylatanine, leonine and isoleucine. In addition, tea contains a unique amino acid L-theaninethat may modulate aspects of brain function in humans.
In the process of leaf fermentation, ecological microorganisms participate in the chemicalchanging process which can promote antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Traditionally, thejuice extracted from leaves is given along with honey in cases of indigestion, diarrh oea andfever. Chewing tea leaves can remove foul odours from the mouth to help digestion.
The leaf extraction is used as an eye-drop in case of various eye diseases. It can also be used
as a dressing for blistered surfaces and ulcers. The decoction of the leaves is also used to treat
nausea and vomiting. Drinking tea leaves daily is said to prevent whooping cough and bronchitis,
and a decoction of leaves is used as a remedy for dysentery and diarrhoea.

9.

Production of tea in Myanmar

In Myanmar, over 120,000 acres of land is under tea cultivation in northern Shan State in Lashio,Muse, Kyaukme, Kwanlon and Laukkai District; over 50,000 acres are under tea cultivation insouthern Shan State in Loilin and Linkhei District; and about 7,178 acres are under tea
cultivation in the Homalin Township, Sagaing Division. Tea is also grown in the eastern regionsof Thanlwin, in Thandaung, Kayin State, and in southern and northern Chin State. Myanmar tea
differs in quality according to cultivation and processing methods.
Shan StateIn Myanmar, the custom of drinking tea and chewing fermented tea leaves started in Shan State
about 2,000 years ago. The influence of both Ai Lao culture and Chinese culture at that time
was so dominant in that neighbouring state attributed to Ai Lao. However, the culture in Shan
State developed with indigenous knowledge to create something different from those original
influences. Tea drinking and cultivation has varied in Shan State according to the local climate,environment and indigenous knowledge resulting from the peoples’ struggles with the harshenvironment. Some areas of Shan State have unique methods of use and production of tea.
Hot and humid summers followed by heavy rain fall and cold winters create the specificclimate, topography and edaphic conditions needed to make northern Shan State a tea
region. Mostly, local varieties of tea are cultivated using traditional methods. Recently, high yielding varieties have been exported from China. The tea plucking season extends fromMarch to December.
Pan Kum or Ah Thwin Taung Tea
This type of tea is the most famous for its flavour and aroma and is known as “Shwe Phe Moe
Lut”. Among the various types of tea, “Shwe Phe Moe Lut” has been drawing the public’s
attention since the Bagan period, 11 th century, thanks to its remarkable flavour, taste andcolour. Pure tea, green tea and oolong tea have also been produced since 2015. AboutM Y A N M A R T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S CA P E

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10,000 acres of land is estimated to be under tea plantation in the Pan Kum area, and 500
tonnes of fermented tea are produced yearly.
A combination of culture and tradition among the Tai people of the former Lanna Kingdom musthave created the traditional method of fermented tea production and processing of tea leaves.
Among the Tai people of Myanmar, the chewing of fermented tea leaves is a common habit for
the elderly people of Shan State but it has become less popular, and in northern Thailand thehabit has disappeared.
Northern Myanmar (or Kachin State)
Kachin State has a long history of cultivating tea, ongoing since the time of the Ai Lao Kingdom.
Kachin State is encompassed by the Eastern Himalaya mountain range, the altitude ranging
from 150-5,000 m above sea level. Tea plantations are booming on the foothills of the Himalaya
mountain range, which provides the perfect climate conditions for tea cultivation: heavy rainfall,
moderate summers and cold winters. Six species of wild tea plants and one endemic tea plantgrow in this area demonstrating that this is one of the areas where tea trees originated. The
area is the third largest tea production region in Myanmar, and has great potential forcommercial cultivation in the near future. The local Tai Khamti people have a long history ofhome garden cultivation of tea, especially with the local varieties of C.irrawadiensis, C.wardii
and C.forrestii. These species are known as Himalaya tea species that cannot be cultivated inany other part of the country.
Sin Kyaing Tea Estate
Situated in the north-eastern part of Kachin State, terrace cultivation is carried out here on the
Himalaya foothills, with a total cultivated area of about 800 acres. The Camellia sinenis species
from China was planted here for the manufacturing of green tea.
Mandalay Region
The Mandalay Region is the second largest tea production area in Myanmar. Even though mostof the land in the region is flat and not suitable for growing tea, two places have been
recommended for tea cultivation: May Myo (Pyin Oo Lwin) and Moegoak. Pyin Oo Lwin issituated at an altitude of 1,500 m above sea level while Moegoak is at 1,500-2,000 m above
sea level. The transport links of the Mandalay Region are the best for tea companies. Therefore,
land used for tea has increased over 5 years in the Mandalay Region. Most of the tea is grown
and manufactured using orthodox methods. These companies avoid growing local species oftea; their species are mainly introduced from China. The Mandalay Region has two distinct
areas for producing Khar, a special brand of green tea.
Moegoak tea is famous for its special strong flavour and long leaves. Moegoak is also famousfor producing traditional fermented tea leaves known as Moegoak tea leaves.

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Pyin Oo Lwin uses Chinese varieties of tea and practises orthodox methods. About 80% of thepresent output of tea is special green tea. Fermented tea leaves are not produced in Pyin Oo Lwin.
Chin State
Chin State was designated as a tea state by the government in 2005. The high mountain slope
has an elevation ranging from 2,500-3,000 m above sea level. Combined with red loamy soil
and an annual rainfall of about 80-110 inches, an environment is created which is favourable to
the growth of tea, Camellia sinensis. The slow growth of the leaves, due to the extremely cold
climate, and their slow maturation help to create a good quality green tea. The Chin area has
the potential for extensive growth of tea plantations.
Thandaunggyi (Bago Region)
Nature has provided the Thandaunggyi area with the most congenial climate and organic richsoil, which favour the growth of genetically modified tea species introduced from China. Tea iscultivated on the moderate mountain slopes at an altitude of 300-800 m above sea level. This
area is marked by rain throughout the year and by cold winters. Annual rainfall is 100-120 inches
per year. November to April marks the growing season. Terrace plantations are grown on themountain ranges. Due to the ideal climate conditions, the plucking season lasts throughout theyear. Traditional fermented tea is not produced here; this is a new cultivation site for the
manufacture of tea using both the orthodox and crush, tear and curl (CTC) methods.

10. Recent status of tea cultivation production
The objectives of the Myanmar tea sector are to fulfil domestic consumption needs; to export
surplus agriculture products; to earn foreign exchange; and to support rural development throughagricultural development. The key factors for development are: the creation of a profitable andsustainable market for tea; the utilization of good quality seeds to produce quality products withhigher prices; and the adaptation of good agricultural practices (Nu Nu Yi et. al., 2014).
Therefore, the development of tea production is necessary in the context of modern agriculture,
because tea cultivation and production has great potential for generating foreign currency.
Myanmar still has large and extensive areas for the cultivation of tea. In addition, there is muchdiversity of native tea species with good ecological adaptability to local climate conditions. The
tea industry also has a fair value chain and a supply chain, and provides sustainable
employment to a large number of people. The role of the research and development sector
should be accelerated to close the knowledge gap. The significant factor of Myanmar’s tea
cultivation lies in its spectacular array of local species diversity. Altogether 13 local species
have been used to produce tea for drinking and eating, and this variety is reflected in a diversityof taste and flavour. In such a situation, uniformity of odour and flavour cannot be assured.
Some of the endemic species - C.wardii, C. irrawadiensis, C. forestii - have never beencultivated in any other tea exporting country but Myanmar. Cupping tests for selecting the bestM Y A N M A R T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S CA P E

357

eco-varieties are increasing, and are important for choosing the best species. There is a large
number of farming families who live both in rural and town areas and consist of female workers
in particular. The government has issued a policy that encourages the extensive cultivation of
tea using organic farming systems.
Traditionally fermented tea (Ah Twin Taung) should be considered to be designated as GI (orGeographical Indication) of Myanmar in order to increase exports. This would also require
systematic high-quality management all along the supply chain.
Generally, tea cultivation utilises conventional methods; there is a need to acquire Good
Agricultural Practice (GAP). GAP has to be appropriate not only for cultivation, but also for
harvesting, preparing for the market and transportation. Due to neglecting the GAP system,
Myanmar tea products do not meet the requirements. The participation and networking of thegovernment

sector,International

Non-Governmental

Organisations(INGOs),Non-

Governmental Organisations (NGOs), Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) and farmers isessentially needed to reform traditional production into orthodox production. CTC-type
manufacturing has been operating at a small scale in some parts of northern Shan State, but itneeds to be encouraged. Much attention has to be paid by the government and the local
agriculture ministry to the overall development of tea production in the sectors of pre-harvestand post-harvest technologies and loaning and financial institutions.
The Kokang tea brand is popular in the local market; within the past decade, Kokang white tea
has extended to new markets both in local and foreign countries. External exposure and support
for promoting the market and potential market of tea is also still left wanting. The Myanmar Tea
Association was established in 2015 to assist farmers and has held workshops on the valuechain of tea and the use of GIs to promote products.

11. Conservation of tea genetic diversity
Myanmar is considered to be one of the birth places of tea trees. It is very important for theconservation of genetic diversity. In Myanmar, 13 species of Cammelia are found in Kachin
State and Shan State. Moreover, Myanmar has a long history of the utilisation and cultivationof tea. Culture-linked genetic resources conservation plays a very important role in preserving
trees over 800 years old. The Twin Taung area consists of Nam San, Zayan, Kum Hae, Man
Kout, Wang Long, Wang Kaung, Taung Moe, Pankum Kumhall and Kumpound villages. These
Twin Taung tea estates in northern Shan State were known to be the first tea plantations in
Myanmar, and their production and cultivation of tea is still ongoing today. These areas havehigh potential to be designated as heritage tea landscapes, and further research and work inthis sense should be encouraged.
There is also great potential for strengthening community links to conservation activities
based on the available diversity of tea species by enhancing agroforestry and organic farmingM Y A N M A R T E A C UL T U R A L L A N D S CA P E

358

in order to maintain the traditional tea landscape. The tree worshipping culture of local ethnic
people also testifies to a co-existence of culture and biodiversity. The conservation of tea
estates, management of mountain range farms, and the in situ conservation of mother tea
trees should be considered integral measures in contemporary sustainable tea development.
In regard to genetic diversity, this particular area is locally significant, nationally importantand globally unique.

12.

Recommendations

1. Improving the productivity of the current tea farming system
This is the most vital issue faced by tea communities and stakeholders in tea estate s.
Interventions for improving the productivity of the subsistence of tea farming systems aremuch needed.
2. Linking to micro-credit and micro-financeTea communication should be organised and self-help groups formed to instil the habit ofsaving and enhance financial security.
3. Development of market linkages
Market linkages should be developed and the local retail market should be extended;establishing a retail market network could be another option. The Myanmar tea exhibition
has to be promoted.
4. Promotion of capacity building and tea agroforestry should be encouraged
Tea agroforestry provides the best opportunities for creating a green belt, which can mitigate
climate change.
5. Encourage research on tea landscapes and their values

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References
Anonymous. History of the Shan State (II 002), The Library of Congress, Orientalia memo 3/25/52.,18881924.
Chartchai, K. et al., “Recent Research Advances and Ethno-Botanical History of Miang, a Traditional
Fermented Tea” (Camellia sinensis va. Assamica) of Northern Thailand” Journal of Ethnic Foods, 4 (2017)
135-144.
Cowan-Goe, I. and Than Than Sein, Myanmar Tea Cultivation and Processing Guide, Strengthen
Publication Series, International Labour Office, 2020.
Harvery, G. E., History of Burma (to 1824), Frank Cass London, 1967.
Heywood, V., LiR. K., Brummit, Culham, A., Seberg, O., Flowering plant families of the World, New York,2007.
Kalaya Lu. Studies on Floradiversity of Nmai Hka - Than Lwin water Division (Northern Eastern Kachin
State). Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Botany, University of Yangon, 2005.
Kalaya Lu, Traditional utilization and conservation management of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
of Northern Myanmar, Granted Departmental Research, Department of Botany, Myitkyina University,
Kachin State, 2008.
Kingdon-Ward, F., “Does wild tea exist?”, Nature, 165: 297-299 (1950).
Kyaw Kyaw Sann, “A study on Morphological Characters of Tea Plant and Effect of Fertilizers on Growthof Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze”. Universities Research Journal. Vol.6, No.1, 2014.
Maung Sein, L., Nan-Chao in Yunnan (AD 649-808), M.A. Thesis, Rangoon University,1973.
Li, Jin, Zhuang History and Culture, Ethnic Publication House, Nanning, China, 2007.
Nu Nu Yi, Thet Oo, Mg Mg Hla Shwe and Yan Lin. An analytical study on food safety issue in different
stages of vegetable production form farm to table, Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund, Food
Security Working Group, 2014.
Pearn. B.R., An Introduction to the History of South-East Asia. Longmans of Malaysia Ltd, Kuala Lumpur,
Hong Kong Print, 1963.
Sai Aung Tun., A Brief History of Shan State to 1960. Yangon University, Yangon, 2005.
Sen, S., Economic Botany, New Central Book Agency, Allen Press, New York, 1996.
Shwe Zin Maw, The Uneasy subordinate alliance: the relations between Myanmar and the Shan Statesin the Late Nineteenth century (International Conference on Burma/Myanmar Studies), Chiang Mai:
Chiang Mai University, 2015.
Tai Aung Chit, A study on Economically important plant grows in Lasho and Thein-ni township. Ph.D
Thesis. Department of Botany, University of Mandalay, 2009.
U Myo Min, Old Burma (as described by early Foreign Travellers). A Hanthawaddy Publication, Rangoon,
1947.

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Ethnic groups of Myanmar have along history of cultivating tea

Image 1. Tai Mong People ofnorthern Shan State are said tobe the first cultivators of tea
plantations in South-East Asia.

Image 2. The Tai Lae People of northern
Myanmar are accustomed to using thepollen of tea flowers to make pollen cake.

Image 3, 4. The Tai-speaking people of northern Myanmar are also involved in tea cultivation.

Image 5. Palong, belonging to the
Mon-Khmer language group, washanded down by the Tai people withregard to tea cultivation.

Image 6.
In the present day,the Palong tribe ofnorthern Shan State ismostly engaged in tea
cultivation andprocessing.

MYANMAR TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

Image 7. A 1,200-year-old tea tree
standing as a living monument to tea
cultivation in Xishungbanna Province,
China, which used to be a cultural
estate of the Lanna Kingdom.

Images 8,9. Cultivation of tea in Myanmar (Shan State) canbe dated back 1,500 years, during the Lanna period. Shan
State used to be one of the cultural estates of the Lanna
Kingdom.

.

Image 10, 11. Commercial-scale tea cultivation at northern Shan State.

Image 12. Tea plantation in northern Shan State.

Image 13. Tea plantation in Kachin State.

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MYANMAR TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

Images 14,15. Tea festival, first held in Mandalay, the third capital of Myanmar, in March 2017.

Images 16, 17. Fermented tea leaves were first introduced during the Lanna period, between
1,000-1,500 years ago. Northern Shan State used to be one of the cultural estates of theLanna Kingdom.

Images 18, 19. Fermented tea leaves were innovated by the Tai or Shan people, who used tocook the fermented tea with pork or chicken.

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MYANMAR TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

Image 20. Fermented tea has become one of
the essential and traditional food items in thecontext of Myanmar culinary culture.

Image 21. The most popular fermented tea leaves
come from Zayangyi village, Namsan township,
southern Shan State.

Image 22, 23, 24, 25, 26. Popular brands of fermented tea leaves.

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MYANMAR TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

Image 27. Roasted tea leaves from southern
Shan State.

Image 28. Green tea from Kokang, one of the bestteas from northern Shan State.

Image 29. Green tea from Kokang, one of
the best teas from northern Shan State.

Image 30. A silvery-white colour and hairy
leaves are some of the unique characteristics of
Kokang tea.

Image 31. Northern Shan State has created an
ecological niche suitable for the production ofbest quality tea.

Image 32. Green tea from Tangyan, northern
Shan State.

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MYANMAR TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE-

Images 33, 34. Black tea from northern Shan State.

Image 35. Ecological niche-based black tea
from Tamonye, northern Shan State.

Image 37. Ecologicaltraditional style roasted
tea leaves.

Image 36. Ecological niche-based black tea fromNamsan, northern Shan State.

Image 38. White tea (orsilver needle) has becomea famous item.

Image 39. Ecological nichedbased black tea from Kokang,northern Shan State.

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MYANMAR TEA CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

Image 40, 41, 42, 43. Famous Brand of dry tea leaves.

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367

Conclusions
Mónica Luengo

The aim of this study, as mentioned in the introduction, was to provide a useful framework forpotential nominations to the World Heritage List of tea landscapes in Asia . The intention was
not to identify all the types, nor all the possible sites, but to initiate a path of research that could
serve as a basis for later work. It was a complex task given the richness in values of theselandscapes and the vast geographic scope, with an incredible diversity.
The first steps of the study were more difficult than expected considering the absence ofprevious work on the subject, so the process has been complex. The search for homogeneity
between the different articles, in order to provide a common framework for comparative
analysis, was one of the main requirements. Soon it was clear that there was a great diversityof perspectives from which the subject could be approached, providing evidence for one of thestudy’s first conclusions: there is significant specialised expertise on tea, from agro-sciences tohistory to economy, but a lack of ad-hoc expertise to address the identification andunderstanding of these cultural landscapes with all their specificities.
There is an infinite amount of information and documentation on ecological, botanical, social,artistic, cultural, industrial, gastronomic and, above all, economic aspects about tea, which isundoubtedly one of the great crops grown in the region. There is also abundant data referring
to production, surface, yield and incomes, and to tea varieties, flavours and scents, including
green tea, black tea and red tea, and the thousands of varieties produced. However, there are
only few examples of studies, all of them very recent, concerning the landscapes resulting fromthe cultivation of tea. There is insufficient current data regarding tea landscapes and theirvalues, attributes, authenticity, integrity and protection and management processes. However,the numerosity and diversity of these landscapes, along with the multiple values they express,
suggest that there may be potential for inclusion on Tentative Lists and, eventually possibly, fornomination to the World Heritage List.
The consideration of these landscapes for World Heritage Listing may contribute towards
improving the balance and representativeness of the List under a variety of themes, such as

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agricultural landscapes, shared heritage, cultural routes, industrial heritage and even 20th
century heritage. The research on tea landscapes would illustrate important cultural periods,
raising awareness of the importance of this heritage type. China and Japan are currently
working on surveys from a cultural landscape point of view, but there is still a long way to go.
It seems paradoxical that while tea is an important part of economic, social, cultural andreligious life, the landscape from which all this flow of life springs and arises has not beenadequately studied, perhaps because the associated tangible and intangible values vary
greatly depending on the specific context, and even more so when discussing culturallandscapes in an Asian framework.
While compiling this thematic study, it was evident that there is a need for further research anddocumentation to understand better tea landscapes in Asia, their formation and their evolution
as a basis for comparative studies that may reveal potential for World Heritage Listing. Manyof them are organically-evolved landscapes and exceptional bio-cultural repositories withassociated intangible values, where traditional knowledge is clearly present.
Every location boasts of having the best tea in the world: whether it grows on hills, highmountains or by rivers; in orderly alignments that follow contour lines, as in Sri Lanka or
Myanmar; exposed to the winds and the sun or protected under palms, as in the Vietnamese
Phu Luong district (the “palm forest and tea hills”), under great trees or even under screens ofreeds or straw, as in the Japanese Uji-cha cultural landscape. The traditional tea fields in
Hwage-myeon in Korea combine tea trees, other trees, crops and plants extending along therocky slopes, so they do not appear as the most common line pattern, but feature a more natural
looking landscape, which is much less orderly or designed than that which is usually associatedwith tea trees growing in lines on the hillsides. However, in every case, it is always the same
tree, with infinite varieties. It is the origin of a world trade that long ago exceeded the limits of
the Asian region to settle all over the world.
All countries agree that the origin of tea cultivation is China, from where it spread throughout
the world. The oldest examples of tea landscapes may be found in this country, such as theancient tea plantations of Jingmai Mountain in Pu’er, which have been entered onto theChinese Tentative List (currently the only one). But many landscapes from other countries,
although not so ancient, have specific stories that make them unique and could be reflectedin potential nominations.
The study also introduces a very important aspect, which is the heritage consideration of theselandscapes for protection and management purposes. Many of them are protected by agrarianor environmental laws, and even their product, tea, is subjected to strict quality controls, butthere are very few that have heritage protection since they are considered only from a
production point of view. Some few examples, generally associated with well-known brands,
such as, for example, the craftmanship of traditional tea making at Mengding Mountain (China),
have been listed as intangible cultural heritage - including aspects like the protection andmaintenance of relic sites; the selection, planting and cultivation of varieties of tea trees;

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processing... - but the landscape itself is yet to be protected. Therefore, it can be affirmed that,in general, little protection has been granted to the landscape and places from a heritage pointof view, although there are examples such as the Uji-cha producing areas of the Yamashiraregion in Japan that were registered under the Agency for Cultural Affairs’ Japan Heritage
programme as “A Historical Walk Through 800 Years of Japanese Tea”.

In addition,inVietnam, the Thai Nguyen tea landscape has been protected by a project to conserve andpromote tangible and intangible cultural values. But, it has been mostly the inhabitants of theselandscapes that have themselves preserved the typical traditions of the cultivating, processing
and enjoyment of tea.
The same can be said in relation to the management of these landscapes, which is usuallyconsidered solely from an economic or production perspective, and only sometimes consideredfrom an ecological point of view, and, in very few cases, also from a heritage point of view.
Institutions such as the Indian Tea Board, and similar existing bodies in other tea-producing
countries, focus mainly on productivity, under-valuing the cultural heritage. Thus, many of the
traditional tea landscapes are in danger precisely because their production is considered prior
to their cultural character. However, there are already examples where the processes of
biological agriculture or bio-cultural strategies have managed to safeguard traditional
knowledge and techniques. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
has already granted four of these landscapes the status of Globally Important Agricultural
Heritage Systems (GIAHS), recognizing both their production and heritage value:

Pu’er

Traditional Tea Agrosystem and Fuzhou Jasmine and Tea Culture System (both in China), theTraditional tea-grass integrated system in Shizuoka (Japan) and the Traditional Hadong Tea
Agrosystem in Hwagae-myeon (Republic of Korea). In all four of these landscapes, their cultural
heritage, a product of wisdom created by ancestors living in harmony with nature, has beenprotected and recognised.
Few crops in the world have transformed entire regions of countries as tea has done,
dominating the current landscapes and associating these regions with the tea landscapes
where the different brands are produced. Frequently, the undulating fields with the neat anddistinctive rows of tea bushes characterise the region’s identity. Production of tea has increased
at an incredible pace, reaching maximum levels. Global demand for tea does not stop growing(3 billion cups are consumed every day across the world!), prioritizing productivity despitesustainability challenges, and giving rise to environmental and social emergencies that arehaving a tremendous impact on tea landscapes. However, consumers are increasingly
demanding high-quality tea that is frequently granted by the landscapes’ values. These tea
landscapes and tea production activities employ millions of people, a great percentage of whomare smallholder farmers for whom the basis of their livelihood is the cultivation of tea on theland that hosts them. Hopefully, this thematic study will be the trigger for the development of
cultural landscape analysis, research and studies in the region, shedding light on this amazing
heritage that is yet to be discovered.

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Recommendations-

Further research is highly advisable on tea cultural landscapes from an holistic
perspective, linking nature and culture according to the guidelines of the latest strategies
in relation to World Heritage (such as the Nature-Culture Journey, ICOMOS-IUCN), thatconsiders that natural and cultural heritage are closely interconnected in most landscapes,
and that effective and lasting conservation of such places depends on better integration ofphilosophies and procedures regarding their management. Particularly in tea landscapes,
people have interacted with their natural surroundings, participating in the functioning of
ecosystems and shaping the landscape through the cultivation of tea trees.

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Further analysis and documentation are also highly advisable regarding the potential for
new heritage typologies associated with tea cultural landscapes, such as cultural routes.
Linked to the theme is an inscription on the List: the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (DHR),
a component of the World Heritage property Mountain Railways of India, which connects
the two districts of Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling, a trading point for tea in the colonial period,in the Indian state of West Bengal. This rail route played an important role in the tea tradein India. But there are other routes that, based on the tea trade, linked regions andcountries with an intense exchange of ideas and values, such as the well -known ancientTea Horse Route that paralleled the Silk Road, connecting Chinese regions to othercountries such as Nepal and India. Other typologies that could arise come from the fieldof industrial heritage, as, since its origins, tea cultivation and production has become ahuge industry with a history that goes back for centuries and with diverse and incredible
assets associated with tea processing, transport, settlements, lodgings, and other kindsof built heritage. This typology is still little recognized or appreciated in many Asian
countries and further research could be an excellent starting point to identify, protect andmanage a threatened heritage.

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Further research also presents a unique opportunity to focus on a rights-based approach toWorld Heritage, promoting “strong relationships with communities and peoples in their work,
embracing the principle of free, prior and informed consent of source communities before
adopting measures concerning their cultural heritage, and offering all possible assistance sothat communities and right holders are consulted and invited to actively participate in the wholeprocess of identification, selection, interpretation, preservation and safeguarding, as well as thestewardship and development of cultural heritage” (ICOMOS, 2020, Buenos Aires Declaration
marking the 70th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights). Tea culturallandscapes’ must have a community-based approach, where sustainable development
strategies, through traditional knowledge and with community-driven conservation and local
empowerment, can be successfully applied (ICOMOS, 2014, Florence Declaration on Heritageand Landscape as Human Values). Much of the work carried out in tea landscapes has been

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the result of minority ethnic groups (the Blang people in China, for example) or derived from
migration (such as the Nepalis in India). Their cultural heritage is still to be recognised.
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A gender-based approach in future research on tea cultural landscapes is also essential.
Tea landscapes are key to livelihoods in many countries, with the tea industry being ahuge employer of cheap and skilled labour, especially at the time of plucking the tea leaves
when women, in particular, are required to work intensively. It should be ensured thatwomen have an equal participation in discussions and decision-making. Further researchshould open the door to new theoretical perspectives to better understand gender
relations, and could reinforce the promotion of gender equality in the World Heritage List,
recognising the contribution of women to society (UNESCO, 2014, Gender Equality.
Heritage and Creativity; Rӧssler, M, “Gendered World Heritage? A review of theimplementation of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention”).

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More research could also highlight potential new nominations relating to shared heritage,as around tea many nations have shared a rich and complex history. This is of key
importance in relation to tea trade, tea cultivation and even the tea tree varieties that were
exported from China to other countries. A clear example could be the commercial
production of tea in India after the conquest of large areas by the British East India
Company as the origins of a great tea industry with a rich and complex heritage. The
research could be reviewed from a new perspective, as ICOMOS highlighted during its
2020 International Day for Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS, 2020, Shared cultures, shared
heritage, shared responsibility) and explore the idea of sharing in relation to different
cultures, heritage and responsibility.

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Deepening the study of tea cultural landscapes could bring to light exceptional intangible
heritage, like that of the Blang people of southwest and southern China, who still maintaintheir primitive worship and altars for the Tea Ancestor, the Sacred Trees of the Tea
Spirit, or that of the Tea festival in Jorhat, in the north-eastern state of Assam in India,
not to mention the well-known Japanese tea ceremony (chan-no-yu). The thematic study
mentions some of them, and also the very close links between tea and religious andspiritual aspects. But they are only a minimum sample of the incredible intangible
heritage (ideas, beliefs, rituals, traditions, ceremonies, literature, arts …) linked to tea
cultural landscapes.

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Protection and management of tea cultural landscapes in the Asian region from aheritage point of view is still a pending subject. There is a lack of studies and surveys
that would lead first to the identification of such landscapes and then to the protection
and management of these landscapes that are living and evolving. They thus present
one of the main challenges for this type of landscape - how to protect and manage theconservation of their authenticity while maintaining one of their main characteristics:
dynamism. This is even more evident in productive agricultural landscapes, where
frequently change is inevitable and there is a need to find a careful balance between the

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conservation of the essence or significance of the landscape, and change,
simultaneously integrating all ecological processes and intertwining natural and cultural
systems and process.
-Considering potential nominations to the World Heritage List, protection and management
should take into account the interplay of natural and cultural processes and recognize newchallenges that may threaten in the future their Oustanding Universal Value. Among thesechallenges, some may be highlighted:-

Climatenchange
Climate change has become one of the main threats to cultural heritage in general andto World Heritage properties in particular, and especially to cultural landscapes, having
a great impact on their integrity. Climate change will have a negative effect on the
habitat suitability of tea-growing areas, for which much depends on the change ofseasonality, precipitation, temperature increase, among other factors, in the whole
region, and thus on tea landscapes. Modifications to yields and quality will consequently
have an influence on tea production and on the livelihoods of inhabitants and farmers.
Recent studies have already reported on current impacts on tea systems, so there isan urgent need to address this issue and adopt mitigating measures. Appropriate
strategies and policy frameworks should be implemented urgently so as to protect,conserve and manage this very fragile cultural heritage, subject to climatic factors
affecting the tea agro-system. The change to improved quality tea clones, the use ofdrought tolerant cultivars, the selection of new suitable areas for tea and theabandonment of the traditional landscapes are factors that have already beg un to takeplace. Along with these changes, natural catastrophes (e.g., floods, landslides,
diseases) and environmental pollution (water and air pollution, mainly) have increased,having a direct impact on tea landscapes.

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Abandonment of the agricultural lands
The process of migration from the countryside to the city is already affecting many tea
planting areas. It is a challenge and a risk to the preservation of the integrity of the
traditional tea landscapes. The abandonment of traditional tea landscapes is spr eading,with an impact on rural communities, biodiversity and ecosystem services. Althoughmigration occurs at different scales, it is always associated with socio-economicchanges such as declining and ageing populations, and an absence of new generations
to receive and practice traditional knowledge and techniques that have as aconsequence not only the loss of cultural heritage (both tangible and intangible) but
also a reduction in the rich biodiversity of traditional tea landscapes.

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Industrialization
Another major risk affecting tea landscapes is intense industrialization. In search for
an increase in yield and production, due to pressure of global market forces,industrialized processes have been encouraged in the past years. Recent strategies,

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373such as those adopted by FAO GIAHS landscapes and others, have involved turning
towards organic and traditional farming to sustain the tea landscapes, and should betaken into consideration.
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Tourism
Increasingly over the past years, there has been a growing interest in tea heritage
tourism, which has much contributed to well-being in rural areas in tea-producing
regions. Tea tourism is motivated by an interest in the production, cultivation, history
and traditions of tea. It is mostly developed in tea gardens, tea factories and tea
shops, together with institutions, such as museums or centres that interpret tea
culture. However, tea tourism is increasing at an enormous pace in several traditional
tea-producing areas and might constitute a risk as sometimes indigenous andimported tea traditions are being transformed into simple experiences for tourists,
without adequate interpretation. Tea tourism might be an opportunity , rather than arisk, if adequately linked with eco- and agro-tourism and cultural tourism, linking its
benefits directly to the community.

Countries in the Asian region, a major tea-producing area, should consider some tea culturallandscapes for potential nominations for inscription on the World Heritage List, but there is stilla long way to go considering the need for more detailed research and field work. Asia produces
a varied range of teas, and supports a huge tea industry with an associated heritage that
represents the long history of tea cultivation and tea landscapes. These tea landscapes, withan intense and calm sense of beauty, are the past and future of their rural environment andcommunities, a paradigm of a cultural landscape resulting from the harmonious interaction
between humans and nature, and should be represented on the World Heritage List.