IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Health

MISCELLANEOUS

Chapter

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CHILD AND ADOLESCENTMENTAL HEALTH POLICY
Gordon Harper

Gordon Harper MD
Harvard Medical School,
Massachusetts Department of
Mental Health, Boston, MA,USA
Conflict of interest: none
declared

Refugee
Mother andChildWilliam H.
Johnson(1901-1970);
Smithsonian
American Art
Museum, Giftof the Harmon
Foundation.

This publication is intended for professionals training or practicing in mental health and not for the general public. The opinions
expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IACAPAP. This publication seeks todescribe the best treatments and practices based on the scientific evidence available at the time of writing as evaluated by the authorsand may change as a result of new research. Readers need to apply this knowledge to patients in accordance with the guidelines andlaws of their country of practice. Some medications may not be available in some countries and readers should consult the specific drug
information since not all dosages and unwanted effects are mentioned. Organizations, publications and websites are cited or linked toillustrate issues or as a source of further information. This does not mean that authors, the Editor or IACAPAP endorse their content or
recommendations, which should be critically assessed by the reader. Websites may also change or cease to exist.
©IACAPAP 2012. This is an open-access publication under the Creative Commons Attribution Non-commercial License. Use,
distribution and reproduction in any medium are allowed without prior permission provided the original work is properly cited andthe use is non-commercial. Send comments about this book or chapter to jmreyATbigpond.net.au
Suggested citation: Harper G. Child and adolescent mental health policy. In Rey JM (ed), IACAPAP e-Textbook of Child andAdolescent Mental Health. Geneva: International Association for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Allied Professions 2012.

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IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental HealthPublic policy for child/ adolescent mental health aims to mitigate disparities
that stand in the way of children’s attaining their full potential:•••

Differences in endowment
Differences in life circumstances
Differences in access to services

Other discussions of policy emphasize the mobilization of political will
(Richmond & Kotelchuck, 1983), the translation of knowledge into practice(Harper & Cetin, 2008), or the evolution of public attitudes to children (Wise &Richmond, 2008). This chapter focuses on the mitigation of disparities. To that
end, it will review recent changes that have influenced policy:•••

Children’s lives in
the literature•••

Dickens: Oliver Twist,
David Copperfield
Stowe: Uncle Tom’s
Cabin
Hugo: Les Misérables

Increased knowledge of disparities and their consequences
New knowledge of interventions, on both the individual and thecommunity level, to mitigate these disparities
Increased professional and political readiness to act.

As children’s emotional development is embedded in their overall
development, disparities in mental health are necessarily examined in the light ofdisparities in overall health and well-being.

DISPARITIES – SCOPE AND CONSEQUENCES
Disparate endowment
Pre-modern societies did not recognize childhood as a separate developmental
stage or they regarded differences in children’s endowment as of little consequence.
The presence in the home of extended family members and flexible role expectations
often proved relatively tolerant of differences amongchildren. But modernization has changed children’s
lives in several ways.
First, with urbanization and increased intergenerational mobility (away from birthplace), fewer
children grow up in multi-generational families. In
nuclear families, two parents alone (or, often, a single
parent) have less “buffering capacity” to accommodate
childhood differences than did the aunts, uncles, andgrandparents of the extended family.
Second, increasingly standardized education,
starting in preschool, is less flexible in the face ofdifferent endowments and developmental trajectories.
To prepare children for standardized jobs, schools needto classify students. Accordingly, systems for testingof children were created, starting with the work of
Binet in France in the early 20th century, which sorted
children into “normal” and “abnormal” (Binet, 1903).
Third, as differences in temperament, learning
style and social endowment were increasingly
recognized, “different” children –initially thought to be a homogeneous group– were divided according to categorical disorders (e.g., dyslexia, receptive andPolicyJ.6“Please, sir, Can I have somemore"
Illustration for "Oliver Twist" by
George Cruikshank (ca. 1837).

2

IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Healthexpressive language disorders) and along dimensional lines (e.g., overall ability,
social perception, inattention and hyperactivity). Such recognition gave riseto advocacy and research organizations grounded in an appreciation of diverse
endowments (e.g., in the US, All Kinds of Minds and Mind Institute) and to thecreation of specialized services – educational, social, and clinical (Harper, 2011).
Fourth, once it became clear that children with special needs needed special
programs, many came to feel that such services should be available according toneed, not limited to those with family resources. Services could be made available
to larger numbers through private initiatives, non-governmental organizations(NGOs), legislation, or rights-based advocacy (Harper, 2012)
Disparate life circumstances
The depiction in 19th-century literature of children who grew up in
conspicuous adversity (poverty, slavery, orphanhood, child abuse) increased publicawareness of disparities in children’s lives (e.g., Shengold, 1989). In response,
universal public education was begun and destitute children were separated
from the mixed populations in publicly supported “poor houses”. Civic charities
supplemented the traditional role of religious organizations in caring for orphans.
New institutions advocating for abused children were created, starting in New
York City in 1875 (New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children;see History).
In the 20th century, public policy in many countries, notably in Scandinavia,
promoted the equalization of opportunity (Hilson, 2008). Even in developed
countries with incomplete commitment to that goal, like the US, civic organizations
advocated on behalf of all children. Some of these started with professionals(Ptakowski, 2010; see also the websites of Child Welfare League of America and of
the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry). Others had no guild
affiliation (e.g., Children’s Defense League).
Such efforts have been greatly strengthened by demonstrations that adverse
childhood experiences not only cause suffering to the child, but have measurable
long-term effects (see Table J.6.1). Using methods developed by the Centers for
Disease Control in the US, studies have shown the effects of disparities in earlylife experience on later health and well-being. In the UK, a different methodology– using the Cambridge Early Experiences Interview – has likewise demonstrated
Table J.6.1

Adverse childhood experiences

What are they?
•••

Psychological, physical, and sexual abuse
Violence against motherIn household – substance abuse, mental illness, prison history

For what do they increase the risk?
•
•
•
•
•

Alcoholism and drug abuse
Depression and suicide attempts
Smoking
Many sexual partners, STDs
Inactivity and severe obesity

Source : Edwards et al (2005), Felitti et al (1998)

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IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Healthadverse effects in adolescence (Dunn et al, 2011). Similar effects can be shown tooccur in a developing country: higher numbers of adverse childhood experiencespredict health-risk behavior in adolescents in the Philippines (Ramiro et al, 2010).
This argument links readily to increasing knowledge of brain development(Spenrath et al, 2011). In the US, the American Academy of Pediatrics, invoking
an eco-biodevelopmental model, uses the evidence that toxic stress from adverse
experiences and environmental influences leaves a “lasting signature on the genetic
predisposition” of the child (Shonkoff et al, 2011) to argue for a transformation ofchild healthcare (Garner, Shonkoff 2012).
Public awareness of the persisting effects of disparities has been fostered byresearch on inter-generational social mobility (DeParle 2012; Jäntti et al 2006).
These studies have shown different rates of social mobility in some countries(notably the US) than in others. That is, despite popular belief in “upward
mobility”, children’s class of origin powerfully shapes their future well-being.
Disparate access to services
In the US, Knitzer (1982) and others criticized existing services for troubled
children. They showed that:•••

Most troubled children received no mental health services at all
Available services were often fragmented between schools, mental
health and social services
Conventional services often disempowered parents who already felt
alienated and helpless.

Initiatives to decrease disparities in services supported by foundations
and the federal government followed. These initiatives, operating in dozens of

Yoo Soon Taek, wife of UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-moon, visiting the Centre
for Neurodevelopment and Autism in Children (BSMMU).
Photo: Bangladesh Association for Child & Adolescent Mental Health

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IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental HealthStates and communities, have increased screening for emotional-mental-behavior
disorders and encouraged new kinds of services (e.g., National Initiative andSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration www.samhsa.gov/
samhsa) meant to be more respectful and inclusive of parents.

EFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS TO MITIGATEDISPARITIESThe public in many countries increasingly recognizes that disparities inchildhood endowment, life experiences and access to services need not simply be
accepted but can become the focus of public policy. This awareness led to action
on behalf of children, constituting a “global movement for health equity” (Marmot
et al, 2012) in which mental health must take its place (Raviola et al, 2011).
Reflecting what Sridhar (2011) called the shift from clinical gaze (medicine)
to community gaze (epidemiology) to economic gaze, clinical evidence has been
supplemented by evidence from health policy and economics. A review of efforts
to mitigate inequality in early childhood (Walker et al, 2011; Engle et al, 2011)indicates that:
•
•
•
•
•

Adverse life experiences include nutritional deprivation and toxic/
infectious exposures as well as events like child abuse
Early–life adversity measurably impairs functioning in later childhood
and adolescenceInterventions ranging from iodine supplementation to early childhood
parenting support have a mitigating/protective effect
These interventions extend from iodine supplementation to wealthtransfers to family group conferencing (Titcomb et al, 2005)
Intervention is more effective early than late (see Figure J.6.1).

Figure J.6.1

Effectiveness of interventions

Source: Heckman JJ. Schools, skills and synapses. Economic Inquiry 2008; 46: 289-324. Reproduced with permission.

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IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Health

The limitation of the economic argument, of course, is that it provides nosupport for the humane and promotive care of those whose disabilities limit theirpotential as “human capital.” The counter position argues in terms of the burdenof disease and invokes human rights (Kieling et al, 2011).
The challenge of effecting and evaluating such interventions is very different
in developed and developing countries. In the US, much emphasis has been placedon demonstrating processes, like increased participation in care and the degree towhich implementation adheres to intentions (fidelity), as opposed to child- andfamily-level outcomes. Process, indeed, is much easier to measure than outcomes.
A private agency, the National Quality Forum, has generated some developmental
and mental health indicators, mostly focused on what providers do (screening,
follow-up, etc).
To move beyond measures of process (access, participation, fidelity, etc),
the concept of the “Triple Aim” has been promoted by the Institute for Healthcare
Improvement (Berwick et al, 2008). The “Triple Aim” looks at health outcomes,
consumer experience, and cost per member. Similarly, in the UK, the Health of the
Nation Outcome Scales for Children and Adolescents (HoNOSCA), developed by
the University of Manchester and the Royal College of Psychiatrists looks at actual
functional outcomes of children and youth with mental illness. Measures havebeen developed by various governments. For instance, in Scotland the government
has published a detailed set of indicators, encompassing both mental health andmental illness (Scottish Government, 2011).

Triple Aim (Berwick et al,
2008)
•
•
•

Health outcomes
Consumer experience
Cost per member

While disparities persist in developed countries (e.g., Canada; Kutcher etal, 2010), special challenges attend the needs and the policy responses in lessresourced (developing) countries. These challenges have been described for lessresourced countries as a group (Belfer, 2008; Omigbodun, 2008; Eaton et al,2011) and for particular countries: Brazil (Couto et al, 2008), Mexico (EspinolaNadurille et al, 2010) and Lebanon (Fayyad et al, 2010). The challenges include
low levels of resources to support care, unreliable networking infrastructure,and tension between traditional and modern approaches to healing. The World
Health Organization mhGAP report (Dua et al, 2011) specifically addresses thesechallenges.
Another approach to balancing appreciation of what is done (process) andwhat is being sought (outcome) is to use a “logic model”. This approach makes

Staff and children at a mental health service in
Duhok, Iraq.
Photo: Abdulbaghi Ahmad

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IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Healthexplicit the outcomes that matter while making it possible to test both the analysisof the identified problem and the relative contributions of each intervention
to the desired outcomes. The logic model goes through several steps, startingwith specification of the problem to be addressed and how it is assessed (Figure
J.6.2). In the next step, the desired goal is similarly stated, also specifying how
it is to be assessed (Figure J.6.3). The problem is then analyzed, in terms ofcontributing factors that lend themselves to intervention (Figure J.6.4). Finally,
with intervention, change in each identified factor is measured and related tochange in the original problem (Figure J.6.5).
The evidence for effective intervention has been reviewed (Kieling et al,2011) as well as the obstacles to implementation of better-evidenced practices(Hoagwood, 2003). Creative approaches include the location of practice in a“meta-system,” (Kazak et al, 2010). Illustrative examples include the work of
Fayyad and colleagues in Lebanon (2010) to train community health workers
to identify and help troubled children at the village level and the ambitious
program in Brazil (Couto et al, 2008), to develop centers of psychosocial care at
the community level throughout the country. An approach to early intervention
Figure J.6.2 Logic model: defining and measuring the problem

PSC: Pediatric Symptom Checklist; CGAS: Children's Global Assessment Scale; HANES:
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (of the US Centers for Disease Control);
HoNOSCA: Health of the Nation Outcome Scales for Children and Adolescents.
Figure J.6.3

Logic model: defining and measuring the goal

PSC: Pediatric Symptom Checklist; CGAS: Children's Global Assessment Scale; HANES: Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey (of the US Centers for Disease Control); HoNOSCA: Health of the Nation Outcome Scales for Children andAdolescents.

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IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Health

Figure J.6. 4
intervention

Logic model: analyzing the problem – identifying contributing factors for

The Problem is due to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Figure J.6.5
better?

Lack of early detection
Fragmented services
Parent-alienation
Cultural incompetenceSocio-demographic
adversities
Geographical disparities
No oversight looking at
Triple-Aim

Fix by:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Early detection
Coordinated services
Parent-partnering
Cultural competence
Unified Triple-Aim
oversight
Other

Logic model: which factors have changed? How have they helped the problem get

PSC: Pediatric Symptom Checklist; CGAS: Children's Global Assessment Scale; HANES: Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey (of the US Centers for Disease Control); HoNOSCA: Health of the Nation Outcome Scales for Children andAdolescents; C/A: child and adolescent; DV: domestic violence; MI: mental illness; JJ: juvenile justice; SED: serious emotional
disturbance.

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IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Healthused in diverse communities is the fostering of the parent-infant relationship,
both through the “Touchpoints” method developed by Brazelton (Sparrow, 2010;
Sparrow et al, 2011) and “Supporting Security” developed by Wittenberg (2009).

Touchpoints
The Brazelton Touchpoints Center has used a strengths-based, developmental,
relational, and culturally informed approach for family-self strengthening and communityself strengthening in over 160 communities. Social connectedness, parental self-efficacy
and community collective efficacy revive the capacity to envision the future of children andcommunity with hope. Such connection and hope are critical ingredients, often overlooked,
for one generation to be able to nurture the next. In addition to connecting to others andto the future, families and communities also draw strength through connecting to the pastthrough cultural identity. Rooted in dynamic, developmental systems theory, this approachempowers parents and other family members to discover and rely on the resources withinthemselves, their children and their communities.
Touchpoints does not exclude the contributions of professionals and their institutions.
Nor does it minimize the impact on children, families and communities of adversities suchas food, air and water insecurity. It offers a way of being, along with specific ways of doing
and saying that re-equilibrate the power imbalance and disrupt the monopoly on knowledge
and technology deemed pertinent to childrearing. Touchpoints also applies this attitude andstrategies to organizations and systems of care. Such a paradigm shift creates different
relationships between professionals and agencies and the children and families they serve.
This approach also connects families with each other and with what we call traditional andinformal community resources.

Figure J.6.6

PolicyClick on the picture to viewa short video (5:08) about
Touchpoints.

The evolving state role regarding psychoactive medications

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IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Health

Evolving public awareness, professional and political will
The growth of public and professional awareness of disparities in children’s
lives and of the possibilities of intervening is evident in many places. In the US,
the National Institutes of Health has established a National Institute on Minority
Health and Health Disparities which has funded close to a dozen centers focusedon health disparities around the country. However, none of these seems to be
devoted specifically to child health, let alone child mental health.
Regarding mental health, the WHO mhGAP report mentioned above
details the enormous distance between need and what is provided. The case fornational policies for child development and child mental health has been pointed
out in countries as diverse as Canada (Kutcher et al, 2010) and Brazil (Couto et al,2008) and on the international level (Belfer, 2008). A more active role for youth
themselves is seen in the use of “peer mentors” in the US and of young people as“health agents” in Tanzania (Kamo et al, 2008).
The degree of organized activity around the world on behalf of children’s
mental health, far greater than imagined even a decade ago, is reflected in the
Bulletin of the International Association of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry andAllied Professions (IACAPAP).

AND THE CHALLENGES…
Although children in many countries now benefit from public awareness of
disparities, their impact, and effective interventions, challenges remain. Several ofthese bear mentioning:
•

•

•
•

•

•

•

•

PolicyHow to balance the competing appeals of models of care that are
professionally driven (and may be parent-alienating) and those that areparent-driven (and possibly anti- or non-professional)?
How can we use innovations like peer mentors/ peer specialists todiminish troubled youths’ sense of defect and enhance their sense of
mastery?
How to balance interventions early, for prevention, and those later,when disability and dysfunction have appeared?
In countries where services in the mental health, educational, andsocial services have developed apart from each other, how can services
be integrated?
Where health insurance is used to support mental health service, how
to balance the requirements to demonstrate “medical necessity” withpreventive needs and with the need for help beyond the acute phase?
Amid promotion from manufacturers and the appeal to parents ofmedications that promise to be effective and easy, how to keep childmental health from becoming a reductionistic, single-perspective field?
How to define a comprehensive, population-based approach to childdevelopment and child mental health, given competition among those,parents and professionals alike, who would focus on one group to the
exclusion of others (as happens currently, with those who advocate
for and those who fear the consequences of increased entitlements for
those with some form of autism)?
Finally, as interventions for child mental health become more

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IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Healthrecognized, more potent, and potentially harmful, policy must address
the challenge of ensuring that services are safe and effective, not justremunerative to provider and satisfactory to consumer. The stagesof development of the State’s role in overseeing medication services,evolving from bystander to interested observer and enabler to monitor
and standard setter is represented in Figure J.6.6.

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Grade 8 students taking part in the pilot phase of the Respect 4U intervention at a secondary school in Masiphumele, atownship outside Cape Town, South Africa. Photo: Julius Oatts

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