TRACTATE KIDDUSHIN ACCORDING
TO THE MEIRIBy Yecheskel D. Folger© Yecheskel D. Folger, 1989, 1999, 2001
521 Fifth Avenue, 24th Floor
New York, New York 10175

APPROVAL LETTER FROM RAV PAM O”BMBS'D 21 Iyar, 36 l'sfirat ha'omer, 5749
Increasing numbers of persons nowadays study Torah and thirst for G-d's word.
Many books of halacha, agada and musar are being printed in English for theconvenience of those who are more familiar with this langauge. Several holy seforim
have also been translated into English, and more persons now have ready access tothem.
But translation is an art rather than labor, and not all persons can prepare aproper translation. The translator must have a clear and careful understanding of thesource sefer, and he must also master the language into which he translates. Only
then will the resulting work be correct, well written and to the point.
The translation of the Meiri which was prepard by my friend and former student
of our Yeshiva, Yecheskel Dovid Folger, is a work of this sort. After reviewing small
parts of different sections, I saw that he had the wisdom properly to explain theapproach of the Meiri in organized fashion, with good understanding, and in brief
and clear language.

Avraham Yakov HaKohen Pam

FOREWORD
R. Menahem b. Solomon Meiri (1249-1316) spent the greater part of his life in
Perpignan in the Provence section of southeast France. He was a renowned
commentator and scholar of the Talmud. His most distinguished colleague was the
Rashba with whom he corresponded frequently.
The name Meiri was derived from an ancestor whose name was Meir. His
Provencal name was Don Vidal Solomon (the son of Solomon).
The decades which preceded the Meiri's birth were unsettled times in France,
Provence and Spain. The schools of the French Tosefists were in large part
discontinued in this period. The Talmud was burned in Paris in 1244, five years before
the Meiri's birth. Earlier, in 1215, Pope Innocent III had decreed that Jews over 12
years old were to wear distinctive clothing and to pay an annual tax to local clergy.
Conflict between the clergy and temporal forces in Provence was accompanied bypersecution of Jews.
The Meiri's works may be viewed in part as an attempt to provide order for
disordered times, and to organize materials for a generation too distracted toorganize and synthesize without assistance. He provides a synthesis of the views of
the commentators who flourished before the onset of the turbulence. He
emphasizes orderly procedure. Each discussion is begun from elementary
fundamentals and then moves gradually, by stages, to the most complex dialectic.
There are brief introductions before each tractate, perek, and topic. Complicatedmatters are separated into individual parts which are dissected separately and arethen recombined for easy understanding.
The Meiri seeks to establish halacha from the talmudic texts, and at the sametime to use the process of establishing halacha as a tool to broaden understanding of
the text. It was his strongly held view that a student has not achieved fullunderstanding until he understands how the halacha is derived from the Gemara.
The Meiri emphasizes study of the Rambam's halachic conclusions for use in thisendeavor. Prior codifiers, primarily Spanish, had selected from each tractate only
what was relevant for the halacha under modern conditions, substantially omitting
all else. The Rambam was an exception; in abbreviated fashion he treats all halachic
matters, whether or not currently applicable. The Rambam's source material isimmense and covered the Bavli, the Yerushalmi, the Tosefta and other sources,
including the contributions of the Geonim, and his conclusions are organized by
topic in clear Mishnaic Hebrew. This approach is emulated by the Meiri.
Another important aspect of the Meiri's commentary is his emphasis on the
Mishnah. He develops each sugyah from its origin and for this reason he assigns aseparate section to the Mishnah and explains it fully before turning to the later
development and discussions of the amoraim. In these later discussions he refers thereader back to the Mishnah for matters already explained there. Distinguish thisfrom Rashi who in the Mishnah refers the reader to the Gemara for the clarificationof ambiguities.
The Meiri's style contributes much to the lucidity of his presentation. His Hebrew
is accurate, precise, direct and unencumbered.
His chief work is the Beit ha-Behirah on the Talmud, which he wrote from 1287 to
1300. In it he summarizes the subject matter of the Talmud, giving both the meaning
and the halacha derived from it. The work covers the orders of Mo'ed, Nashim, andNezikin, and the tractates Berakot, Hallah, Hullin, Niddah, Tamid, Middot, andMikva'ot. Beit ha-Behirah has been republished in its entirety in recent years from asingle complete manuscript in the Palatinate Library in Parma, Italy.
Each tractate and its individual chapters is preceded by a short preface outlining
the subject in general terms. The discussion begins with a presentation of thefundamental principles involved and proceeds with an explanation of the opinionsof each of the amoraim. The Meiri in conclusion sums up and collates these opinions,giving the relevant halacha as he sees it. Relevant analyses are drawn from theYerushalmi. An abundance of comments handed down by German, Provencal, andSpanish scholars with their different interpretations are incorporated, but each one
is given separately to prevent confusion on the part of the reader. In an unusualapproach, these scholars are not mentioned by name but rather by epithet. For
example, Rashi is referred to as the "greatest of rabbis," The Rambam is referred toas the "greatest of authors," and the Alfasi is referred to as the greatest of
posekim."
The Meiri's activity also included other halachic rulings, talmudic exposition,
biblical commentary, customs, ethics, and philosophy.
The vast majority of Meiri's works remained in manuscript until very recently,
probably on account of their exceptional length, which made it practically impossible
to copy them in full. It is also possible that his works were neglected because of anincreasingly intense emphasis by Torah scholars on pilpul, or dialectic. A small
number of his works were published in the second half of the 18th century and the
majority of them from the beginning of the 20th century up to the present day. An
exception is his commentary to the Book of Proverbs which was first published in
Portugal in 1492, and then included in the Kehillot Moshe edition of Mikra'ot
Gedolot (Amsterdam, 1724).
The preceding material was abstracted from Talpioth IV, 1 (1949) and acomprehensive article in Encyclopedia Judaica. These sources should be consulted forfurther biographical information.

***

The present work is a complete and expanded English adaptation of the Beit haBehirah on Tractate Kiddushin of the Babylonian Talmud. It is not a literaltranslation. It reworks the Meiri into contemporary terminology and modern modesof argumentation. There is no abridgment, and it preserves all that the Meiri actuallywrote.
My goal has been to enable modern English speaking students of the Talmud topenetrate beyond a basic comprehension of the Talmudic text, which they can arriveat using the Soncino translation. Using the Meiri, these students can now gain accessto the underlying Talmudic dialectic.
***
I acknowledge with gratitude the patience with which my wife Rachell and mychildren Chayi, Yomtov Shaul and Eliezer Menahem endured the many hours I
devoted to this work. Dr. Stanley Sprecher, Professor A. Kirschenbaum and Rabbi M.
C. Fuchs have offered encouragement and scholarly advice. Mr. Samuel Gross ofSefer Hermon Press bestowed abundant kindnesses. I thank them all. I am also
grateful to those readers who will write to me to point out errors to be corrected infuture editions.
I close with a blessing of shehehianu to Hashem for the peace of mind and many
blessings which have allowed me to complete this work.

5 Sivan 5749.

INTRODUCTION

Tractate Kiddushin
With the Assistance of the Almighty, Amen

Tractate Kiddushin is the first Tractate in Seder Nashim which deals with maritalbonds and related matters.
Before the Torah was given there were no formal marital bonds. Relationships
between "husband" and "wife" were casually instituted and separated. The
casualness of the relationship eliminated the wife's sense of obligation to work forher husband, to remain faithful to him, and to refrain from uttering oaths in anger.
In contrast, the bonds of yibbum could not be dissolved by halizah or otherwise.
The Torah formalized marital bonds by providing for kiddushin and marriage inthe presence of witnesses, requiring that the wife be given a kethubah, andpermitting divorce only by formal get. yibbum was made dissolvable by way ofhalizah. The husband was given the authority to punish his wife if despite his
warning she secluded herself with another man. Finally, the husband was given theauthority to absolve his wife of her oaths.
All of these matters are discussed in Seder Nashim. Tractate Kiddushin is the firsttractate in the grouping because it deals with betrothal, which begins the marital
relationship.
The discussion is divided into four perokim on the following outline:
how women are betrothed (this discussion includes information on the
precise words which must be used and the precise context which is
required);
who may betroth and through whom (this discussion includes informationon the cases in which the father's participation is or is not required, as wellas the effect and the validity of conditions precedent to betrothal);errors in betrothals;
categories of women for whom:
betrothal is permitted;

betrothal is effective but forbidden; andbetrothal is forbidden and ineffective.
Kiddushin is a kind of acquisition whereby the groom obtains rights in his bride.
Accordingly, the discussion of kiddushin leads to a discussion of business and otheracquisitions. Similarly, the listing of women who may not be betrothed evolves into a
discussion of the status of the children of forbidden marriages. This further develops
into a general discussion of familial purity, namely, which families are permitted tomarry into the Jewish people or into the priesthood.
This is the basis of the Tractate in general, but other matters are included indigressions.

***
The first perek focuses on the mechanics of betrothal, and uses this discussion asa base from which to discuss acquisitions in non-marital contexts. In the course ofthis discussion, note is made of the religious precept which commands men, but not
women, to have children, and this evolves into a discussion of other precepts whichbind men only. There follows an analysis of those precepts which apply worldwide
and those which apply only in Eretz Israel. The perek also deals with certain
extraneous matters.
____________________

PEREK I[2:1][Modes of Kiddushin]
The first Mishnah begins with an explanation of how kiddushin is effected andstates:A woman is acquired in marriage in three ways and acquires her freedom
in two. She is acquired by money, by deed, or by cohabitation. "By money":
Beth Shammai maintain, a denar or the worth of a denar; Beth Hillel rule,a perutah or the worth of a perutah. And how much is a perutah? Aneighth of an Italian issar. And she acquires her freedom by divorce or by
her husband's death. A yebamah is acquired by cohabitation, and acquires
her freedom by halizah or by the yabam's death.
[The significance of kiddushin]
Once a woman is betrothed by a man in kiddushin:(i) no other man can attain any marital rights in the betrothed woman, and(ii) she is not permitted to cohabit with any other man during the lifetimeof the man who betrothed her (unless she obtains a get).
Kiddushin does not result in a consummated marriage. It suffices only to institutethe intermediate status of betrothal. This intermediate status is sufficient to bringabout the results just discussed, but does not have the legal consequences of aconsummated marriage.
Specifically, betrothal is not sufficient to obligate the woman to perform the1seven types of work which married women must perform for their husbands , or toentitle the groom to the benefit of his bride's labor, or to inherit from her, or tohave rights in lost items which are found by her. These entitlements begin only after
the marriage is consummated by huppah.
Kiddushin can be effected in three ways: money, deed or cohabitation, bothnatural and unnatural.

1

See Keth. 59:2.

[A woman's acquisition of her freedom]
A woman acquires her freedom, to leave the control of the betrothing person (orthe control of her husband if the marriage was completed by huppah), in two ways.
These are divorce and the death of the husband or the betrothing person.
[The Mishna's emphasis on the numbers three and two]
The Gemara explains that the Mishna's emphasis on the number three is to stressthat there are only three modes of kiddushin. It also points out that althoughhuppah can complete a betrothal which was instituted by kiddushin, huppah alone
cannot bring about betrothal.
Similarly, the number three is intended to preclude the validity of halifin as
kiddushin. halifin is valid in business transactions even if the object transferred by
the buyer to the seller in the halifin ceremony is worth less than a perutah. Because
halifin is essentially ceremonial and non-monetary, it is invalid as kiddushin, even
where the item given in the halifin exchange is of great value.
The second numerical limitation, that a woman acquires her freedom in twoways, is designed to emphasize that she cannot acquire her freedom by halizah,
notwithstanding that a yebamah does acquire her freedom by halizah. In relation to2
divorce, Scripture requires that "He shall write to her a book of separation," fromwhich the Rabbis deduce that a book (i.e., a get) can separate her, and nothing else.
[Scriptural or Rabbinic derivation]
Now, the three ways in which a woman can be acquired are all of Scriptural
rather than Rabbinic derivation. The Meiri provides numerous proofs:
1. The Gemara derives the validity of money, deed and cohabitationfrom Scriptural verses:
money, from the verse "When a man shall take a woman," (taking
connotes the passage of money from hand to hand);deeds, from the verse in relation to divorce "and she shall leave [her3husband] and belong to another man," (the apposition of divorce tokiddushin implies that a deed is valid for kiddushin in the samemanner as a get is valid for divorce);2

Deut.24:1.

3

Deut.24:2.

4

cohabitation, from the verse "and he shall possess her."5

2. The Gemara initially suggests that huppah may be valid as kiddushin,
and ascribes the Mishna's failure to mention huppah to the fact that
huppah, as distinguished from money, deed and cohabitation, is not
Scriptural.
3. There is considerable discussion in the Gemara on why Scripture refers
to all three modes and on why any one of them could not be derived
6
from another of them or from any other two .
4. In questioning Beth Shammai's view that the monetary minimum is adenar, the Gemara asks "But monetary kiddushin is written in the Torah
7(and a perutah is considered money for all purposes in the Torah)!"Despite all these proofs, Rav Hai Gaon holds that monetary kiddushin is Rabbinic.
His source is a discussion in which the Gemara analyzes the power of the Rabbis to8
nullify kiddushin. The Gemara readily accepts the rule where kiddushin is by way ofmoney, since "betrothal by money is effected by sanction of the Rabbis, and islogically subject to revocation by them." The power to abrogate is considered moredifficult where kiddushin is by cohabitation, and is explained only on the groundthat the Rabbis are empowered to designate the cohabitation as having been illicit,
rather than for the purpose of kiddushin.
Rav Hai explains that nullification is more readily applied to monetary kiddushin
because such kiddushin is Rabbinic only, and is consequently subject to revocation by
them. kiddushin by cohabitation is Scriptural, and can be abrogated only if the
purpose of the cohabitation is not for kiddushin.
The Meiri does not consider this proof persuasive. To the contrary, monetarykiddushin is as much Scriptural as is kiddushin by cohabitation. It is neverthelessmore readily abrogated by the Rabbis because of their power to cause an
abandonment of the money or other property which was used to effect kiddushin.
The result of the abandonment is that the betrother did not perform the kiddushinwith his own money, and the kiddushin, although Scriptural, must fail automatically.
It does not matter whether the property ceased to be his on Rabbinic grounds or4

Deut. 24:1.

5

5:2.

6

5:1.

7

11:2.

8

Keth.3:1.

9otherwise .
The Rambam concurs with Rav Hai Gaon. He argues that all matters which arederived by applying the principles of hekesh, kal v'homer, gezerah shawah, or any
other of the 13 authorized rules of derivation and interpretation, are Rabbinic except
where the Rabbis expressly state that the matter is Scriptural. In fact, unless there isan express statement to the contrary, even matters designated as having beentransmitted to Moses on Sinai are Rabbinic only.
It follows that monetary kiddushin is Rabbinic, since its validity depends on the10gezerah shawah in which the verb take appears both in the context of kiddushin as
11well as in the context of the monetary purchase of real estate .
The Rambam concedes that consistent application of this proposition would
result in our ascribing Rabbinic status to kiddushin by deed as well as to kiddushin by
12money, since the validity of a deed is derived by hekesh . But the validity of a deed is13
Scriptural because the Gemara expressly so states .
This is the Rambam's view, but the Meiri prefers to emphasize the many citations
which evidence that all three types of kiddushin are Scriptural. Besides, the Meiri
questions the Rambam's premise that precepts derived from the accepted 13 rules ofinterpretation are Rabbinic. The requirement to honor the wife of one's father istaken by the Gemara to be Scriptural because it is derived by applying the rules of
14interpretation.

9

The same result would obtain where the Rabbis do not decree an abandonment, but merely
proscribe benefit from the item.
10"If a man takes a wife." Deut.22:13.

11"I have given the money for the field, take it from me." Gen.23:13.

12"And she shall leave his house [the house of the husband from whom she was divorced],and she
shall be to another man." Deut.24:2. The hekesh teaches that a deed is valid in the context of
being, i.e., kiddushin, as well as in the context of leaving, i.e., divorce by get.
13

At 9:2 the Gemara considers the possibility that kiddushin requires both money and cohabitation.
An objection is raised from the Torah's recognition of the status of a betrothed maiden: obviously awoman can be betrothed and yet be a maiden! The Gemara responds that perhaps the status of a
betrothed maiden can obtain only where kiddushin is by deed, since a deed is effective, standing
alone, in the case of get, and the validity of a deed as kiddushin is derived by hekesh from get.
Clearly, then, the Gemara ascribes the Scriptural status of the unbetrothed maiden to kiddushin by
deed.
14

Keth. 103:1.

[Monetary Kiddushin]
The Gemara's discussion of kiddushin begins with monetary kiddushin becausemoney is of general use in business acquisitions as well as kiddushin. Besides, in theverse "When a man shall take a wife and cohabit with her," the verb take implies
monetary kiddushin, so that in effect monetary kiddushin is mentioned first
Scripturally. On this reasoning, the Gemara should have discussed cohabitation
immediately after money. But the Gemara prefers to consider kiddushin by deedsecond, because of the general business applicability of written deeds.
[Monetary equivalents]
Monetary kiddushin consists of giving the woman to be betrothed either moneyor items having monetary value.
No evidence is required to support the rule that monetary value (as distinguishedfrom actual money) is sufficient for kiddushin, although the Gemara does require
evidence to support monetary value as legal tender for the compensation of tort
15
16
victims , or the redemption of slaves .
There are two possible explanations:
1. Monetary value requires Scriptural support only where payment of thevalue is made against the will of the receiving person, such as the masterfrom the slave or the injured person from the tortfeasor. On the other
hand, a woman, who cannot be compelled to accept kiddushin, or theseller of land, who cannot be compelled to sell, are assumed to be ascontent with monetary value as with money.
2. Specific derivation is required only for slaves to counteract the misimpression which might otherwise result from the direct mention of the17word money in the verse which deals with the redemption of the slave .
Similarly, there is specific mention of the word money relative to thetortfeasor's obligation to compensate.

15

B.K.7:1. Monetary value is derived from the otherwise unnecessary words he shall return in averse which provides for compensation by the owner of a pit into which an animal fell and was
fatally injured: "The owner of the pit shall pay, he shall return money to the owner of the animal."Ex.21:34.
16

In the verse "He shall return the price of his redemption," Lev. 25:51, the word return is taken
to imply any mode in which the redemption price is proffered to the slave's master.
17"He shall return the price of his redemption out of the money for which he was bought."
Lev.25:51.

But there is no need to correct any mis-impression for kiddushin because
the word money never appears in the context of kiddushin; the validity ofmoney is derived by gezerah shawah only.
The Meiri prefers the first explanation.
[Required declarations]
The groom must extend the money or its equivalent to the bride in the presenceof witnesses and he must say to her in their presence "You are betrothed to me" inwords she understands or in a context where she otherwise understands that
kiddushin is intended. He need not declare "You are betrothed to me with thisthing," but the expression is more complete if he does add these words.
The witnesses must see the groom extend the money or its equivalent, and theymust also hear his declaration, as will be explained further below.
[Kiddushin by deed; role of declaration]
Kiddushin by deed requires that the declaration "You are betrothed to me" bewritten on paper or on a pottery shard, and witnesses must see the writing and thetransfer of the deed by the groom to the bride's hand. They must also testify thatthe bride knew that the paper or shard was a deed of kiddushin.
Two issues arise in this context:
1. Need the groom orally declare that by the deed he proposes tobetroth the bride? Or is the statement in the deed sufficient?
2. If no declaration is necessary, must it be shown that the bride knewthat the deed was for kiddushin?
Those who require an oral declaration reason by analogy to get
who disagree argue as follows:18. Those

1. Instead of analogizing kiddushin by deed to get, the proper analogy is
to deeds of acquisition generally. A deed by a seller of land is valid if the19
deed recites "My land is sold to you." There is no need to make any
declaration.

18

At 5:2 the Gemara notes in the case of a deed of divorce, he must "write [the get] to her, give [theget] to her and state to her `thou art divorced'."
19

26:1.

2. No oral declaration is necessary, since the statement is alreadyinscribed in the deed. In fact, the Gemara refers to an oral declaration
only in the case of monetary kiddushin.
The reason for the distinction is that money is frequently given, or
loaned, or used as a medium of purchase. Unless the groom explainsthat he is giving it to the bride for betrothal purposes, the witnesses
cannot assume that there was any intent to betroth at all.
Compare the case where A counts money over to B:
Testimony by witnesses who were present at the counting can give A
no rights to return of the funds. Perhaps A owed the money to B, or
perhaps A gave them to B as a gift.
This ambiguity is absent where the nature of the deed is clear on its
face.
[Bride's awareness of deed's significance]
For monetary kiddushin all hold that no declaration is necessary where either:
1. The bride and groom had been discussing betrothal or marriage at thetime of the kiddushin (rather than only previously); or
2. that the bride otherwise realize that the money is for kiddushin.
What of kiddushin by deed for those who do not require a declaration? Must
one of these two conditions be satisfied? Yes.
The Meiri considers but rejects the view of some that a distinction be madebetween kiddushin by deed and kiddushin by money where the bride andgroom had discussed marriage previously but not presently. The rejectedview holds that a deed (but not monetary kiddushin) is supported by the
combination of the prior discussion and the formality of the witnesses andthe deed.
Note also that the deed cannot be a form but must be written expressly for the
purpose of the particular kiddushin, and with the knowledge and approval of thewoman to be betrothed.
[Declaration, testimony and presumptions for cohabitation]
Most commentators require a declaration in the general case of kiddushin bycohabitation. They dispense with a declaration where the couple had pre-existing
familiarity, such as in the case of cohabitation with a divorced wife:

The previous familiarity of the man with his divorced wife makes thepresumption of cohabitation strong even where there is no declaration.
Once cohabitation is assumed, we apply the further presumption that
cohabitation is not intended to be illicit, and kiddushin must have been
intended.
Where the couple was not previously related, or even where the previous
relation was limited to betrothal which was followed by divorce prior to20
consummation , cohabitation can be assumed only where there is an21
appropriate declaration.
The Rambam goes further. Where there is no pre-existing familiarity
cohabitation is assumed only if witnesses testify that the man and woman wereactually conducting themselves in the manner of cohabitation. No declaration isrequired if there are such witnesses.
Precisely what declaration must be made where there is no pre-existing
familiarity? The majority require that the declaration include a statement that the
cohabitation is for kiddushin. A minority disagrees and requires only that he say"Cohabit with me," without mentioning that the purpose is kiddushin. We rely on a
presumption that cohabitation is intended for kiddushin rather to be illicit.
By extension, the minority would apply the same rule, and consider
kiddushin to be effective, where there is no declaration at all but where
the couple and the witnesses all know that the seclusion is for the purposeof kiddushin. The fact that all participants know the purpose of the
seclusion suggests, even without a declaration, that there will be
cohabitation.
Certain Geonim maintain that the various presumptions which have been
described may be relied upon only to establish kiddushin of questionable status,
which can be relied upon only for strict rulings. The presumptions cannot be used toestablish certain and absolute kiddushin which can be relied upon for lenient rulings
as well.
Specifically, where kiddushin is certain and absolute, the kiddushin is given
effect even for the lenient purpose of invalidating a purported later
kiddushin of the bride by another man.
Questionable kiddushin is recognized only for the strict purpose of

20

See Git.81:1.

21

This accords with a Tosefta which states that there is kiddushin only where the cohabitation wasfor kiddushin. Presumably, the Tosefta's purpose is to require that there be an oral declaration.

requiring that the bride obtain a get before she marries another and to
apply incest prohibitions to the couple's mutual relatives. Questionablekiddushin does not invalidate later betrothals by another.
The Meiri disagrees and rules that kiddushin resulting from presumptions is
22
absolute and certain. The Gemara leniently applies the presumption that
cohabitation is for the purpose of kiddushin in the following case:
Assume that a ketannah was betrothed by a relative other than her father.
The ketannah may by miun annul her marriage at any time before her firstcohabitation after adulthood. By "cohabitation," we mean only
cohabitation which was not intended to be illicit.
Should she cohabit with her husband after she attains adulthood, Ravholds that the cohabitation is assumed to be licit. kiddushin results andsubsequent betrothals by others are invalid. Abbaye notes that this is alenient holding, and questions why Rav took pains to announce the23
presumption in another case where the result was strict!
Perhaps Rav's lenient case can be distinguished because there had been a pre-existing
24
marital relationship . Contrast this with the case of the divorced couple who had
severed their relationship. Arguably, more is required here before the couple can beassumed to have made peace and to intend their cohabitation to be for kiddushin.
The proper rule in these cases is difficult to resolve with certainty. In each casekiddushin should be considered effective for strict rulings.
[Voluntary declaration on deed]
We have previously noted that no declaration is required where kiddushin is bydeed. If, however, the groom chooses to make a declaration, he should say only
"You are betrothed to me." He should not add "with this deed". kiddushin is by theintangible effect of the writing rather than with the tangible value of the deed. In
fact, the deed need have no value. It may consist of a substance from which benefit

22

Keth. 73:1.

23

A betrothed B on condition that she had uttered no oaths, the marriage is consummated, and it was
discovered that she had in fact uttered oaths. Rav deemed the kiddushin valid and presumed that thecondition was waived. This is a strict holding because it requires that the wife obtain a get before she
marries another.
24

The same applies to the case in the preceding footnote: the wife in that case had been married as aminor, albeit conditionally.

25

is prohibited , even where the prohibition is Scriptural rather than merely Rabbinic.
The rule is different if the deed is worth a perutah and the kiddushin is proposed
to be by the deed's monetary value. Here the deed is invalid for kiddushin if benefit
therefrom is prohibited, even if only Rabbinically.
Compare the case of one who betroths with hametz after the prescribed
26hour on the fourteenth day of Nissan .
The Rabbinic prohibition divests the groom of his property ownership.
[Comparisons between kiddushin deeds and get]
A get may be written on forgeable material. Forgery is of no concern because we
require that the get be delivered to the wife in the presence of witnesses. Deeds of
kiddushin may also be written on forgeable material.
Also by analogy from get, the deed of kiddushin should be written withpermanent markings such as ink or red paint. It should not be written on a plant leaf
27
or other material which is connected to the ground .
Most commentators hold that kiddushin by deed is not valid unless there are twowitnesses to its delivery. The commentators say the following about witnesses to thesignature:
1. The Rashba compares the case to get: A get which has only one witness
but which is written in the husband's handwriting is valid Scripturally but
invalid Rabbinically. The same is true of kiddushin. In general, get differsfrom kiddushin only in that the kiddushin deed need not be dated.
Why does our Gemara say that one witness is not enough for kiddushin?
The Rashba offers two explanations:
1. The Gemara refers only to kiddushin by money or cohabitation.
2. Alternatively, the husband's handwriting is the same as a second
witness.
Where there are no witnesses but the deed is in the husband's
25

The same rule is applied by the Yerushalmi in the case of get. A get is valid even if written on
material from which benefit is prohibited.
26

Pes. 21:2.

27

See Git. 19:1.

handwriting, the Rashba holds that there is questionable kiddushin.
2. Others maintain that only delivery must be witnessed. Witnesses need
not attest to the signature on the deed.
3. The Raabad holds that witnesses to the signature are necessary if
kiddushin is to be absolute rather than only questionable.
The Meiri agrees with the second view.
[Deed must be prepared for the particular bride]
The deed must be prepared for the woman to be betrothed. If the deed was
prepared as a form, there is no kiddushin even if the deed is worth a perutah. The
groom intends the kiddushin to be a deed rather than money.
Questionable kiddushin results if the groom tosses the deed to the groundbetween him and the bride, and it is uncertain whether the resting place is closer tohim or closer to her.
[Minimum monetary amount]
How much value is required for monetary kiddushin? Beth Shammai require adenar or the value of a denar. Beth Hillel require only a perutah or the value of aperutah. The halacha is with Beth Hillel; a perutah is considered money.
A perutah is one-eighth of an Italian issar, which in turn is one twenty-fourth ofa denar, so that a perutah is 1/192d of a denar.
The Rambam notes that an issar weighs four grains of silver, so that a perutah
weighs one-half of a grain of silver. Why then do we refer to the perutah as a copper
coin? Because the silver in it is negligible and is added only to whiten the coin.
[Beth Hillel as the stricter view]
Where A uses a perutah to betroth B, Beth Hillel hold that B is betrothed, andshe must obtain a get before she marries another. Beth Shammai rule the kiddushin
28
invalid and permit B to marry another. A Mishnah takes this as an unusual case inwhich Beth Shammai take the lenient view and Beth Hillel take the strict view.
But are not lenience and strictness reversed if C then purports to betroth B withthe value of a denar? Beth Hillel would consider C's betrothal invalid and B could
marry without a get from C, whereas Beth Shammai would require that B obtain a
28

Ed. 4:7.

get from C!
Yes, but the Mishnah judges strictness and lenience by its effect on the first
betrother, not on later betrothers.
[Certain yibbum rules]
A yebamah is acquired only by cohabitation. There must be witnesses to theseclusion of the yabam and the yebamah. It is not necessary that the cohabitation befor yibbum.
It follows that no declaration is required, i.e., the yabam need not say "Be
betrothed to me with cohabitation." Similarly, as is the case with kiddushin bycohabitation generally, the witnesses need not be summoned to view the seclusion.
It is enough if they chanced to be present.
Although cohabitation is the sole Scriptural means to acquire a yebamah, theRabbis decreed that if a yabam purports to betroth her with money or a deed, arelationship of "expressed kiddushin" is established. The relationship prohibits
yibbum by any other brother of the deceased husband. But, until consummated bycohabitation, expressed kiddushin does not give the yabam any entitlements withrespect to the yebamah or her property.
A yebamah who was acquired by expressed kiddushin and who has notcohabited with the yabam may marry another only if she obtains both get andhalizah from her yabam.
A yebamah can acquire her freedom prior to yibbum and expressed kiddushin
either by halizah or the death of the yabam.
Once she has cohabited with the yabam, she is considered his wife completely for
all purposes and can then acquire her freedom only by get or the death of her
husband-yabam.
Commentators seek to explain why the Mishnah does not say "A yebamahacquires her freedom in two ways." The Meiri does not consider these efforts
important.
[The Gemara]This completes the exposition of the Mishnah. All of its rules are consistent withthe halacha. The Gemara discusses the following matters:[The Mishnah's terminology]
The Gemara considers why the Mishnah speaks in terms of acquisition (a woman

is acquired) rather than in terms of kiddushin (a woman is betrothed). This is29
contrasted with the Mishnah's style in the second chapter : "The man betroths."
Similarly, there is discussion regarding the reference in the second chapter to the"man betrothing" (with the emphasis on the man), whereas in the our Mishnah thereference is to "a woman is acquired" (with the emphasis on the woman).
There are yet other fine points which need not be mentioned here, especiallygiven the confusion in the commentaries, the text and other difficulties. Generally,
however, the matters are simple and easy to explain without delving into
complexities.
[Derivation of money's validity]
When the Gemara asks "How do we know money," do not explain the question
as "How do we know that a woman is betrothed with money?" This is a question
30
which is asked and explained later .
Rather, the Gemara knew that business transactions effected by money are
31
considered acquisitions because of the verse "Fields are acquired with money" .
What concerned the Gemara is the use of the term in the marital context. Hence, thequestion is "How do we know that the betrothal of a woman by money is anacquisition?" (In fact, in many manuscripts, the question is directly expressed in thisfashion.)
The Gemara responds that betrothal is an acquisition because of a gezerah
shawah. The verb take appears both in reference to kiddushin and in the business
context of Abraham's purchase of Efron's field.
There is a follow up question: "And how do we know that the taking in thecontext of Efron's field is considered an acquisition?" This question was not posed by
the Rabbi who asked the original question, for the Gemara knew all along thatbusiness transactions by money are acquisitions. Rather, the question is a rhetoricalfollow-up to the answer: once we have the gezerah shawah to Efron's field, we
certainly know that the Efron's transaction was an acquisition, no less thanacquisitions generally, because of the verse in the context of Efron's field: "the field
32
which Abraham bought" .

29

14:2 and 22:2.

30

3:2.

31

Jer.32:34.

32

Gen.49:30.

[Other complexities]
The Tosafot delve unnecessarily into the Mishnah's use of the article "the" in the33phrase "the woman is acquired," whereas a similar Mishnah begins with the phrase"A virgin is married," without the article "the".
[Forced betrothal]
A woman cannot be betrothed against her will if:
1. The woman says that she does not accept the
kiddushin.
2. She says at the time of kiddushin that she is accepting kiddushin underduress.
3. The man effects kiddushin without her knowledge.
4. The kiddushin were given in a conversation which did not deal withkiddushin, and only later does the man maintain that kiddushin wereintended.
5. At the time of kiddushin the woman professes to accept kiddushin
willingly, but it is later proved that she was under duress.
34

There is no direct evidence from Scripture; the verse "If a man takes a woman" canbe read to mean against the woman's will. The same applies to the phrase at the endof the verse: "And he cohabits with her." In fact, the contrary rule applies to yibbum
35
and get: both are effective under duress . The rule for get is persuasive for kiddushin:recall that kiddushin by deed is derived by hekesh from get.
Nevertheless, it must be that unwilling kiddushin is of no validity; otherwise,
there is no daughter left to our Father Abraham! It cannot be that Jewish women
can be forcibly betrothed! Besides, forced monetary purchase transactions areinvalid. That yibbum and get are effective under duress is an exception based on
Scriptural direction.

33

Keth.2:1.

34

Deut.24:1.

35

In the case of yibbum the verse "And he shall effect yibbum with her" denotes forcible yibbum. The
verse "And he shall send her away" denotes forcible divorce.

36This rule is supported by another Gemara in which R. Huna holds that a forced
37
sale of land is valid where the seller acquiesces , and R. Ashi states that
corresponding kiddushin (i.e., where there is forced acceptance) is not valid. R. Ashi
explains that the invalidity is a penalty assessed by the Rabbis for improper action.
[Duress applied to the man]
What if the woman compelled the man to betroth her?
1. The Ittur holds that the kiddushin is invalid. Even Amimar, whodisagrees with R. Ashi and holds that a woman's forced acceptance of
kiddushin is valid, would distinguish the case of the forced man because
the forced man receives nothing of value.
Contrast this with the forced seller who at least receives his purchaseprice, and the forced woman who at least receives her kiddushin.
But why does the Gemara not refer to compulsion by the wife? Because
this is rare.
2. The Rambam and the Raabad both hold that the kiddushin are valid.
Note that a man can be forced to effect kiddushin if he seduces orforcibly violates an unbetrothed maiden. Also, a man can be compelled38
to acquiesce in the divorce of his wife.
The man suffers no change in his monetary condition by the betrothal.
Contrast this with the seller of land, who loses his land.
But does not the man lose the perutah he paid towards kiddushin, anddoes he not become subject to incestuous restrictions on marriage withrelatives of the bride? Yes. But these costs are trivial.
The Meiri rules that where the compulsion was exerted by the wife, the Rabbis should
penalize her and invalidate the kiddushin. Where others exert the compulsion, thecompelled kiddushin should be treated as questionably valid.

36

B.B.47:2.

37

The Gemara compares forced acquiescence to a sale to forced acquiescence in bringing a sacrifice.
A sacrifice brought by forced acquiescence is valid in order to reconcile the verses "He shall bring it
near," which suggests compulsion, and "in accordance with his will" which suggests willingness.
38

B.B.48:1.

[Certain laws relating to bodily discharges]
Keri results in ritual impurity until nightfall, regardless of the number of39
emissions . If a male has only one zivah discharge, his impurity is the same as keri. If
40
a male has two or more zivah discharges, there is a higher degree of impurity . andthe impurity continues for seven days. The same ritual impurity results if there arethree discharges, but there is the additional requirement that a sacrifice be brought
before sacrificial food may be consumed.
Which zivah appearances are taken into account in computing whether there
was more than one appearance? Only those which occur within a three-day period
during which there was a zivah discharge at least once every 24 hours.
There are the following additional rules:
1. In calculating whether a sacrifice is required on account of there
having been three appearances, neither of the first two may beascribable to the non-zivah causes described below. The third discharge
41
is recognized whether or not zivah related .
2. In calculating whether there is a high degree of ritual impurity on
account of there having been two appearances, the second is counted
only if it cannot be ascribable to non-zivah causes. It does not matter
whether the first is ascribable to non-zivah causes.
3. If there is only one discharge, it is not relevant whether the discharge
can be ascribed to non-zivah causes. Keep in mind that even if thedischarge is clearly zivah related, the uncleanliness which results is no
greater than that of keri.
A discharge is ascribable to non-zivah causes if it can be ascribed to the following
seven causes:
food which is excessive or which is known to cause emissions;39

Keri is emitted with erection and pleasure, and the emission is viscous and white, similar to thewhite of a non-fertilized egg. Zivah results from sickness, and emerges without erection or enjoyment.
The emission is less viscous and is similar in composition to the water of barley dough, and in color to
the white of a fertilized egg. See Nid.35:2.
40

The impurity of keri does not defile the bed or seat of the ba'al keri. The impurity of zivah does
defile the bed and the seat of the zav.
41

The verse: "These are the rules of the Zav and he who has a zivah discharge, whether male orfemale," Lev.15:33, implies that there is one appearance, namely the third appearance, for which amale zav is similar to a female zavah in that no causative investigation is required.

drink which is excessive or which is known to cause emissions;carrying an excessive burden;
jumping;disease;contemplation; andvisual stimulation.
42

Scripture refers to zivah as emerging "from his [the zav's] flesh," which suggeststhat the discharge must arise naturally from the flesh rather than from external
43
causes.
No investigation is made of any other possible factor, including whether the zav
slept, laughed, rode an animal, etc.
In women, zivah is an appearance of blood other than on menstrual days,
regardless of cause. It does not matter whether or not the discharge can be ascribed44
to any of the seven listed causes .
[The citron]
A citron is a tree for (i) orlah, (ii) revai, and (iii) sheviith. This means that the year
in which a particular citron fruit blossoms (the test for trees) is the relevant year for
determining whether it is referable:
to the tree's third year for the purposes of orlah,
to the tree's fourth year for the purposes of revai, orto the seventh year of the sheviith cycle.
But the citron is a vegetable for other purposes: the year in which the citron fruit isharvested (the test for vegetables rather than trees) is the year to which the fruit is42

Lev.15:2.

43

Contemplation and visual stimulation are causative only if they occur not more than 24 hours prior
to the discharge. There is an analogous rule which treats as keri all zivah discharges which occur
within 24 hours after a keri discharge. The other five factors are causative regardless of the time which
lapses before the discharge.
44

Nid.36:2.

ascribed for the purposes of determining which tithe applies, and the crop for whose
benefit the fruit may serve as tithe.
The first tithe, which is given to the levite, applies in each of the first six ofthe sheviith years. The second tithe, the benefit of which is to be consumed
by the owner in Jerusalem, applies only in the first, second, fourth and fifth
years. In the third and sixth years a tithe for the benefit of the poor issubstituted for the second tithe. Years for this purpose are determined byreference to the 15th day of Shevat.
Produce must be tithed before it is consumed, whether before or after the
harvest. (The only exception is for casual consumption.) The issue discussed
in the Gemara is not the point at which fruit must be tithed before it iseaten, but the particular crop with which a particular fruit is to be tithedand the particular tithe which applies. Hence, citrons harvested on the 14th
45
day of Shevat cannot be tithed with citrons harvested on the next day .
Rashi explains the Gemara differently. The Gemara's reference to a citron being
treated as a tree is not meant for the purpose of determining the particular year towhich to ascribe the citron in applying orlah, revai and sheviith. Rather, it is for the
purpose of applying orlah, revai and sheviith in the first place, since these rules do
not apply to vegetables.
The Meiri disagrees:
If this were the Gemara's purpose, the Gemara should have listed otherrules which apply to trees, namely shikha and peah, but which do not apply46
to vegetables .
Also, if the purpose of the Gemara were merely to list specific rules which
apply to trees and vegetables, the Gemara should have mentioned that it isforbidden to graft a citron with a vegetable outside of Eretz Israel,notwithstanding that it is there permissible to graft a vegetable of one
47
species with a vegetable of a different species.
In fact, Rashi himself elsewhere interprets the Gemara in the manner proposed by the
Meiri here.

45

R.H.14:2.

46

The laws of shikha and peah apply only to produce which is brought into the home for storage.
This test excludes vegetables.
47

Such grafts are prohibited in Eretz Israel.

[3:1][3:1]
A citron is treated as a vegetable because, like a vegetable, "it grows on all
waters." This means that a citron requires both rain and irrigation, unlike trees
which generally rely on rain only.
Why is it significant whether or not irrigation is required? Because Scripture
directs that produce which is similar to grain and wine (grapes), which rely on rain,
must be treated as grain and wine:
In referring to terumas maaser, Scripture directs: "Your terumah shall beconsidered the equivalent of [terumah on] grain from the storage house,
and on wine from its tanks."48
Now, we know that the test for categorizing grain is the year in which the grain is
one-third grown. So also trees, which rely on rain, are categorized by the equivalent:49
the time at which the fruit blossoms .
[The koy]
A koy is possibly a beast of chase and possibly cattle, and is consequently subject
to whichever rule applied to these groups is more stringent:
Its blood must be covered after slaughter as is the rule for beasts of chase.
The koy may not be slaughtered on holidays, since the koy may be cattle,
and it is forbidden on holidays unnecessarily to carry earth to cover blood.
Its helev is forbidden like that of cattle.
50

It must not be made to breed with either cattle or beasts of chase .

48

Num.18:27.

49

The derivation is an asmakhta, rather than truly Scriptural. Note that the requirement to tithe theproduce of trees is Rabbinic.
50

The Meiri is uncertain why the prohibition on crossbreeding results from the koy's uncertain status.
Even if we were certain that a koy was a beast of chase, the koy could not be bred with a beast ofchase of different species. Similarly, even if it were clear that it was cattle, the koy could not be bredwith cattle of different species.

[3:1]
One who bequeaths all of his cattle or all of his beasts of chase to his sondoes not give his son rights in a koy.
For rules which apply both to cattle and to beasts of chase, a koy is treated as both,such as forthe requirements of slaughter as a precondition to consumption,
the ritual impurity attaching to carrion, andthe prohibition against eating limbs removed from an animal while alive.
[Declaration required of a messenger]
A messenger who brings a get sent by a husband from overseas to his wife here
must declare that the get was written and signed in the messenger's presence. The
same declaration must be made by a messenger who brings a writ of liberation for aslave.
[Certain exclusions implicit in Mishnah's terminology in other contexts]
51

The Mishnah uses the phraseology "X number of ways"
other possibilities. For example:

in order to exclude

The Mishnah's purpose in listing three ways in which a woman is acquired
is to exclude two other ways, namely, huppah or halifin.
In the case of a zav, an investigation is made only of the seven listed waysby which an emission can be caused, but not of sleep, hilarity or riding,even though they too can cause emissions.
A citron is similar to a tree in three ways, but not for tithes.
A koy is similar in certain ways to a beast of chase, in other ways to adomesticated animal and in yet other ways to neither of them.
A get and a slave's writ of liberation are similar in three ways (namely, torequire testimony of the messenger that he witnessed the writing and thesigning, to validate testimony of a Kuti and to invalidate gentile
signatories) but they are not similar on the rules of agency.

51

As opposed to the more common listing phraseology: [X number] of things.

[3:1]
The agency power which the husband vests in a messenger entrusted todeliver a get to the husband's wife can be canceled at any time prior todelivery of the get. The get is harmful to the wife and she cannot be said
to have vested rights in the get.
An agency to deliver a writ of liberation to a slave cannot be revoked.
The slave immediately obtains rights in the writ when the mastertransfers it to the agent.
The Mishnah which states that there are seven things which characterize a dunce
and seven things which characterize a wise man does not use the term ways for two
reasons:
1. Neither the wise man nor the dunce can have only some of the sevenproperties, so it cannot be said that person X is a wise man in four ways but
not in three other ways. The listing illustrates aspects in which the wise
man and the dunce are different, rather than aspects which define the wise
man or the dunce.
2. The term way is inappropriate where the listed attributes themselvesdefine the person described. The seven characteristics described in the
Mishnah are those which serve to define who is the dunce and who is thewise man.
52

Another Mishnah states that one who seduces a na'arah must pay three things(types of damages), whereas one who forcibly violates her must pay four things: hemust also compensate the na'arah for the pain of her violation.
1. Here, too, the seducer always pays three things, and the violator always
pays four things, and it cannot be said that person X is like a seducer insome ways and like a violator in other ways.
2. Besides, the term ways is not used because there is no intent to exclude;that the seducer does not pay for pain merely reflects the fact there is no
pain in seduction cases.
[Our Mishnah's exclusion of halifin and huppah]
Given that the term ways is intended to limit and exclude, what mode of
kiddushin is intended to be excluded by the word ways in our Mishnah? The Gemara

52

Keth.39:1.

[3:1]
explains that the term is intended to invalidate halifin and huppah.
Absent the Mishnah's limitation, halifin would have been valid. The
efficacy of money as kiddushin is derived by gezerah shawah from realestate transactions (i.e., Abraham's acquisition of Efron's field), in which
halifin is as effective as money.
Why in fact is halifin invalid? Because the symbolic object which is rituallytransferred by the buyer to the seller in a halifin exchange can have a valueof less than a perutah. A woman does not "sell herself" for less than aperutah.
But some commentators persist: why invalidate halifin for this reason? A deed of
kiddushin can be worth less than a perutah! There are two answers:
1. Get can be effected only by deed. Consequently, the hekesh from get to
kiddushin must teach that there can be kiddushin by deed. On the other
hand, the fact is that Efron's field (although halifin could have been used)
was actually acquired through the use of money. Therefore, it is proper,
considering the dictum that a woman will not sell herself for less than aperutah, to limit the derivation to the precise facts of the case, namely toan acquisition by money rather than by halifin.
2. The concept of a deed implies that there is no monetary transfer, andthere is accordingly no shame to the bride in that she is receiving nomonetary value. The halifin exchange, on the other hand, involves the
symbolic transfer to the bride of an object to which she technically acquires
ownership. It is embarrassing to her to be acquired in a type of transaction
which involves transfer of property value, and which in theory can involve
property worth less than a perutah. The entire form of transaction isconsequently invalidated, even in the case where the object used is in fact
worth more than a perutah, and even if she agrees to accept it.
Compare this to the woman who agrees to be betrothed by meaningless,self invented, artificial types of acquisition. Such forms of acquisition are ofno effect, notwithstanding that they are acceptable to her.
53

Also note the Gemara in which a man tells a woman "take this large
amount of money on condition that you will return it to me." Although far
in excess of a perutah is involved and although the woman is agreeable,

53

6:2.

[3:1]
the Gemara invalidates the kiddushin because it is similar to a halifin
transaction.
Rashi's textual reading is "a woman will not permit acquisition of herself for lessthan a perutah." Rabbeinu Tam emends the text to delete the words of herself
because to Rabbeinu Tam they suggest that the validity of halifin is to be
determined on a case by case basis depending on acceptance or rejection by aparticular woman.
The Meiri sees no need to emend the text. In referring to of herself Rashi isreferring to women generally, so that, if a particular woman is an exception fromthe rule, her kiddushin by halifin is still invalid.
Compare Beth Shammai's explanation that kiddushin requires a denar because of
the presumption that women consider a lesser amount embarrassing. A woman
cannot after the kiddushin claim that she is an exception to the general rule.
But there is the following difference between monetary kiddushin and halifin:
In the case of monetary kiddushin Beth Shammai must accept the validityof kiddushin by a perutah (rather than a denar) if the woman then knew
and then accepted that only a perutah was offered. After all, a perutah is amonetary unit. This is analogous to the rule that wealthy women (such as
the daughters of R. Yannai) may at the time of kiddushin knowingly settle
on less than a tarkavful of denarii as the minimum kiddushin appropriate
for their social standing.
In the case of halifin even knowing acceptance at the time of kiddushin
would be of no avail. Unlike the perutah for Beth Shammai, halifin has nominimum monetary value which can salvage kiddushin.
[halifin in transactions with gentiles]
Is halifin valid in transactions with gentiles? The following Gemaras are relevant:
1. Our Gemara suggests that halifin would have been valid for kiddushin
but for a woman's reluctance to sell herself for nominal amounts. The
validity of halifin would have been derived from the same gezerah
shawah from which monetary kiddushin is derived, that is, from Efron's
field.
Does this suggest that halifin would have been valid for Efron, agentile, and that this mode of transaction is generally valid for
gentiles?

[3:1]

Perhaps not.
i. Although the implication is that Efron (who lived prior to thegiving of the Torah) could have sold his field by halifin, there is noevidence that gentiles after the giving of the Torah retain thislegal capacity.
Prior to the giving of the Torah, gentiles were subject to thesame civil laws as Jews, and the primeval validity of halifin in
the civil law is suggested by the verse, in Ruth,"And this waslong the rule in Israel, that [a buyer] would remove his shoe
54
[and ritually transfer it to the seller in a halifin transaction."
ii. Efron, being a gentile, could not sell by halifin. The derivationof halifin for kiddushin would have been a two-stage process:a. the gezerah shawah to the acquisition of Efron's field, which
validates real property type acquisitions for kiddushin, andb. application to kiddushin of intra-Jewish real property law,
including acquisition by halifin.
55

2. A Jewish slave may redeem himself from a gentile master by
repaying "the money with which he was purchased." The Gemara takes
this to mean that money is effective for redemption, but that "produce
or utensils" are not. Does this mean:i. Redemption from gentiles is valid only where the kinyan ismonetary, but not where the kinyan is halifin, or thatii. halifin is valid for gentiles, but the ritual object which must betransferred to the gentile-seller in the halifin ceremony cannot bemoney.
56

3. Another Gemara

54

Ruth 4:7.

55

8:1.

56

Bek.13:1.

states that a gentile has only one means of[3:1]
acquisition, i.e., money. Does this not mean that halifin is invalid?
Not necessarily. Perhaps the intent is to invalidate meshikhah
as a kinyan for gentiles. This is not a strained reading. The
same Gemara refers to the Jew as also having only one
means of acquisition. At a minimum, the Jew has at least two
forms of available kinyan: halifin and meshikhah. The
Gemara must mean that a particular kinyan, the passage ofmoney, is invalid in acquisitions by Jews. Just so the reference
to gentiles is to invalidate the particular kinyan ofmeshikhah.
[Gentile as attorney-in-fact]
If A wishes to vest in B the power to deal with A's property as attorney in fact,
the standard procedure is for A to transfer the power by halifin to witnesses who as
B's agents acquire the power for B. If a gentile is to be appointed as an attorney infact, the power can be transferred to him by halifin if halifin by gentiles is valid.
However, a gentile cannot appoint agents, and, accordingly, the power should betransferred directly to him and not through witnesses.
57

But does not the gentile act as agent when he exercises his power?

Yes, there is an element of agency, but an attorney in fact is also an ownerof rights. This explains why an attorney appointed by A retains his power
after the death of A, notwithstanding that A's minor heirs do not have thecapacity to appoint agents.
Certain commentators disagree, and do not permit a gentile to act as
attorney in fact at all. A distinction should be made between minors andgentiles:A minor will in the future have the capacity to appoint agents. That is
why we can rely on the ownership aspect of a power to bind the minor.
A gentile can never act as an agent, and we cannot rely on ownership

57

B.K.70:1.

[3:1]
doctrine to support his acting as an attorney in fact.
[3:2][Father's rights in property given to his daughter as kiddushin]
Property given as kiddushin to a na'arah, and most certainly to a ketannah,
belongs to the father:
If the kiddushin is monetary, the money is his.
If by deed, he succeeds to ownership of the paper.
If by cohabitation, he may accept a gift from the groom for arranging the
kiddushin. Alternatively, the father may (against his daughter's wishes)
waive a gift which the groom has proposed to give.
The Gemara first attempts to derive the rule by the following syllogism.
1. A na'arah leaves her father's control upon kiddushin:
By kiddushin the father loses the power to absolve her of her oaths
without the concurrence of the groom.
It matters not that until the marriage is completed by huppah, thefather continues to be entitled to her labor and to her inheritanceshould she die.
The Gemara prefers to find instances in which the na'arah leaves her
father's control which apply both to priests and non-priests. Otherwise, theGemara could have noted that a na'arah who is the daughter of a priest
may eat terumah until she is betrothed to a non-priest. In effect, by
kiddushin her father loses the right to entitle her to eat terumah.
2. When a maidservant's term expires "she shall go out for nothing,
58
without money." The suggestion is that:
this master, i.e., one who is not the father, receives no payment on
expiration of the term of his control, but thaton expiration of another master's control, that of the father upon his
58

Ex.21:11.

[3:2]
daughter's kiddushin, there is a requirement to make payment.
But to whom?
3. When a groom is tried for slandering his na'arah bride, her father says "I59have given my daughter to this man." This teaches that a father may
betroth his daughter to another.
If the father can betroth his daughter, it follows that he, not his
daughter, is to receive this payment.
The Gemara rejects this reasoning because it is possible to limit the verses toketannah:
1. True, the context of the verse dealing with slander refers to theslandered woman as a na'arah. But the circumstances may be that she was
betrothed as a ketannah but was slandered after she became a na'arah!
2. The learning of the verse which deals with the maidservant, from which
we derive the rule that the father is entitled to the kiddushin, can also
logically be limited to the ketannah.
This reading might at first seem strained, for why would Scripture tell usthat the father receives a ketannah's kiddushin? We already know that afather may sell his ketannah into servitude and to retain the purchaseprice!
Yes. But a ketannah's servitude ends after a maximum of six years. It is
possible that the Scriptural teaching is that the father's rights apply even
where he imposes a status (kiddushin) which continues forever.
The Gemara also holds that it is more logical for a father to own a ketannah's
kiddushin than to own a na'arah's kiddushin.
1. A ketannah has less independent capability than a na'arah. A na'arah
who has been betrothed can herself accept a get while her father is alive,
notwithstanding that her marriage was not completed by huppah. A
ketannah, even if sufficiently mature to preserve her get, canindependently accept a get only if her marriage was completed by

59

Deut.22:16.

[3:2]
60

huppah.

2. A ketannah is not subject to penalties or punishment, whereas a na'arah
61
is an adult for such purposes.
Ultimately, however, the Gemara notes that the verse dealing with themaidservant refers to na'arah: the verse's basic teaching is that a maidservant's term
62
expires when she becomes a na'arah . Consequently, the implication that payments
are made to her father is best applied to her as na'arah.
And this is the halacha, with only one exception: a na'arah can accept or retain
kiddushin during her father's lifetime if betrothal occurs after a marriage which wasconsummated and then terminated by divorce or death.
[The father's rights to his daughter's labor]
63"And if a man shall sell his daughter to be a maidservant," suggests that adaughter and a maidservant have legal similarities. From this Rav derives the rulethat a father is entitled to the benefit of his daughter's labor.
But a father can sell only his ketannah into slavery! How do we know that
he owns his daughter's labor when she is as a na'arah?
Because were the verse limited to ketannah, no Scriptural direction would
be required: from the fact that a father can sell his daughter into servitude
it is evident that he is entitled to her labor.
Separate sources are required for Rav's rule on the father's right to hisdaughter's labor and our Gemara's rule on the father's rights to his daughter's
kiddushin:
If only Rav's rule were known, the father's rights could have been
explained as natural compensation for the sustenance he provides, and the
60

43:2.

61

Rashi emphasizes this distinction, rather than the distinction in paragraph 3 relating to get, because
Rashi holds that even a ketannah may accept a get during her father's lifetime, notwithstanding that
her marriage was not consummated. See 43:2.
62

Unless terminated earlier.

63

Ex.21:7.

[3:2]
rule would not have been applied to the externally derived funds of
kiddushin.
Were only the kiddushin rule known, the father's rights would have been
explainable on the grounds that the funds were not produced by thedaughter's toil.
[Other potential sources]
A father's rights to his daughter's kiddushin and labor cannot be derived fromany of the following three sources:
1. A father can annul oaths made by his daughter "in her youth, in her
64
father's house."
Civil law cannot be derived from the ritual law of oaths.
2. The penalty which a ravisher or seducer must give "to the father of the65
na'arah."Civil law cannot be derived from laws of fine or penalty.
3. The monetary indemnity payable to the father of a girl who wasravished or seduced.
These cases are distinguishable because the father himself also sufferedmonetary loss.
There appears to be circularity of reasoning in the Gemara's attempt to use as asource the rule that a ravisher must pay shame and depreciation indemnities to thefather. This doctrine is itself derived from the rule that the father can forcibly
66
betroth her to a foul person afflicted with boils. How then can the Gemara attempt
to derive the kiddushin rules from rules which are themselves based only on
kiddushin?
Some commentators explain that the Gemara does not intend to derive
64

Num.30:17.

65

Deut.22:29. See also, Keth.29:2.

66

The fact that the Beth din may compel the foul groom or husband to divorce his wife is not
relevant.

[3:2]
kiddushin rules from shame and depreciation but only from the rules
regarding a daughter's labor. This is inconsistent with the flow of theGemara's discussion.
Another commentator explains that even without learning derived fromkiddushin, a father would logically have been entitled to half of thedepreciation and shame indemnities, and that it is only his entitlement tothe second half which is derived from kiddushin. If so, kiddushin doctrine
can be derived from the father's entitlement to the first half of his
indemnity payments.
The Meiri concludes that these analyses are unnecessary. For the purpose of fullanalysis, the Gemara at times takes pains to show that proposition A could not bederived from proposition B even were proposition B not derived from proposition
67
A.
[4:1]
[The right of a priest's daughter to eat terumah]
1. A priest's daughter may eat terumah until she is betrothed to a nonpriest.
2. If her groom or husband dies, and there are no male or female issue,
including grandchildren, she may again eat terumah.
3. There is an exception from Rule 2: if her marriage was to a man who
disqualified her from the priesthood, then her bar from terumah isperpetual.
4. Grandchildren born to a mother who is a gentile or a heathen slave are
not deemed issue. If these grandchildren are the grandmother's only
remaining descendants, she may eat terumah.

67

See, e.g., 17:2, and the Meiri's discussion relating to the rule that a Jewish slave serves his master'sson, but not any other relative, on the master's death.

[4:1][A priest's wife's right to eat terumah]68

1. A non-priest's daughter may eat terumah once she is marriedpriest.

to a

2. On the death of her priest-husband, she may continue to eat terumah
only if there are issue from her marriage to the priest. See preceding Rules
2 to 4 on what constitutes issue.
[A priest's slave's right to eat terumah]
A priest's gentile slave may eat terumah: "the property purchased with [the69priest's money may eat of [terumah]" . A Jewish slave, whether serving for the
maximum six-year term or whether serving until the Jubilee (as a result of theceremony in which the slave's ear was bored), may not eat terumah: "the sojourner
70
and the hired hand may not eat of it."
The term sojourner is a reference to the bored slave, and the term hired hand isa reference to the non-bored slave who leaves after a six-year term. Were Scripture
to refer only to the hired hand, the term might have been ascribed to the non-boredslave only, on the theory that only he should not eat terumah. And we would haveheld that a slave who serves until the Jubilee should eat terumah because he is ineffect his master's property. Hence the need for both references.
[Why Scripture directs that a maidservant is freed both at na'arut and bagrut]
In the verse dealing with a Jewish maidservant, "And she shall go out for71
nothing, without money," the phrase go out for nothing is held to apply to bagrut
72
and the phrase without money is held to apply to na'arut . Given that na'arut73
occurs before bagrut, why are both references necessary?

68

The entitlement begins only after huppah and not at the point of kiddushi.

69

Lev.22:11.

70

Lev.22:10.

71

Ex.21:11.

72

Bagrut is generally achieved at age 12 and one half plus a day, and na'aruth is generally achieved atage 12 plus a day.
73

Some commentators emend the text to state that the first phrase, for nothing, refers to na'aruth,[4:1]
At first, the Gemara explains that if the Torah had only mentioned without
money, the phrase would have been applied to the latest status possible, i.e., tobagrut. Compare the result just discussed were the Torah to mention only the hired
hand relative to terumah.
The Gemara then rejects this comparison. There is no inherent contradiction inreferring both to the bored slave and to the non-bored slave:
True, if a bored slave were directly prohibited from eating terumah we
could have derived the same prohibition for the non-bored slave by afortiori reasoning: as less of the priest's property he most certainly is not to
eat terumah. But the bored slave and the non-bored slave are twophysically separate persons, and both can coexist and be referred to by
Scripture at the same time.
Contrast this with the maidservant, who if freed when she is a na'arah will
never be subject to servitude when she reaches bagrut: There is no woman
to which the bagrut phrase will ever apply!
The Gemara then proposes that the second verse refers to a woman at age 20
who by then has shown signs of being barren, and is therefore established to be anelonit. The verse frees her at that age notwithstanding that she never achieves the74
status of na'arut . But this explanation is rejected on the grounds that an elonit's
freedom at age 20 can be otherwise derived.
But why need Scripture free her at age 20?
(i) Once she achieves that age and exhibits signs of elonit.h she should
retroactively be considered to have been an elonit and a bogeret fromage 12.
75

In an analogous case , Rav holds that once a girl is proved to be an

and the second phrase, without money, refers to bagrut. This is illogical, since a maidservant who is
freed at na'aruth will not be subject to servitude at the time of bagrut. Besides, this reading requiresthat the Gemara's concern on the need for two phrases focuses on the need for the phrase without
money. But this second phrase has been shown previously to be essential to teach that a father isentitled to his daughter's kiddushin.
74

An elonit's sales price belongs to her father, and her sales price may be deemed kiddushin if her
master wishes to designate her in betrothal.
75

Yeb.80:1.

[4:1]
elonit at age 20, she is deemed retroactively to have attained bagrut
at age 12. She is therefore subject to punishment for all
76
transgressions committed after that age .
(ii) That being so, her freedom at age 20 follows automatically as aresult of her having attained bagrut at age 12, so that her sale after thatage was never valid in the first place! And it must be that her saleoccurred after age 14, for we know that a maidservant's maximum term
is six years!
The Meiri concludes that our Gemara limits Rav's rule to transgressions
which occur after signs of elonit first appeared: bagrut cannot reach backpast the first sign of elonit (or age 12 if later). The Torah must free an elonit
at age 20 where her sale into slavery occurred after age 14 (so that she
cannot rely for freedom on the expiration of her six-year term) and prior to
the first signs of elonit. In that case her sale into slavery occurred before
she attained bagrut.
Ultimately, the Gemara determines that the verse is necessary to establish thebasic principle that an elonit can be sold into servitude notwithstanding that she will
never be a na'arah.
[Adulthood in males and females]
The following table summarizes the rules on maturity of males and females:
I. Male:1. Until age 13 plus one day--minor, regardless of pubic signs.
2. At a minimum age of 13 plus one day, with pubic signs--adult.
3. At a minimum age of 19 years and 11 months, if no pubic signs, isdeemed adult on the occurrence of the first of the following:i. eunuch signs
ii. pubic signs
76

Rav says that 12 is the age to which adulthood can be retroactively extended, and 18 (not 20) is theage at which signs of barrenness are recognized. This accords with Beth Shammai's rule on females.
But Rav's principles are equally valid for the ages determined by Beth Hillel: 13 and 20 for males and
12 and 20 for females.

[4:1]
iii. age 35 years and one day (majority of lifetime)
II. Female:
1. Until age 12 plus one day-- ketannah, regardless of pubic signs.
2. At a minimum of age 12 plus one day, with pubic signs-- na'arah for six
months.
3. Six months after na'arut--bagrut (adulthood)
4. At a minimum age of 19 years and 11 months, if no pubic signs, attains
bagrut on the occurrence of the first of the following:i. elonit signs
ii. pubic signsiii. age 35 years and one day (majority of lifetime)77

Pubic signs generally consist of two pubic hairs. In girls, eight top signs , if all arepresent, are the equivalent of pubic hairs; there is a presumption that pubic hairs
were present but were somehow dislodged. If not all eight top signs are present,
there is questionable adulthood. Pubic hair prior to age 13 in boys and age 12 in girls
are considered moles and are ignored.
A bearded male is considered a eunuch only if he shows all signs ofeunuchhood. A non-bearded male is a eunuch if he shows any one of thesesigns.
78

The signs of eunuchhood are discussed elsewhere .

77

See Nid.47:1.

78

Yeb.80:1.

[4:2][4:2][Acquisition and freedom of maidservants]
A Jewish maidservant is acquired by money and not by cohabitation. She canredeem herself at any time by repaying the unamortized portion of her purchaseprice.
[Alternate derivation of monetary kiddushin]
Recall that one derivation of monetary kiddushin is from the verse relating to amaidservant "And she shall go out for nothing, without money." The Gemara refers
to a sage who derives monetary kiddushin otherwise: from the verse "If a man takes
79
a wife" . The verb take connotes money which is passed from hand to hand.
Why do we need the sage's verse? To teach that the man takes, that is, betroths,
the woman. Were the sole source of monetary kiddushin the verse "And she shall goout for nothing, without money," we would have held that the woman must
betroth the man:
The payment which is not made (i.e., by the maidservant to her master),would have been contrasted to the payment which is made (i.e., by the girlwhen she leaves her father, the other master).
Some commentators question this: the payment which is not made by themaidservant to her master is one from the purchaser (of the rights to her
own body) to the seller (of those rights). When transposed to kiddushin,
the correct analogue should be a payment by the groom (who is thepurchaser) to the bride's father (who is the seller)!
Two explanations are possible:
1. If there were no second verse, the verse "And she shall go out" would
have been interpreted as teaching that the girl's master receives nopayment because he is a seller. Where she leaves her other master, herfather, it is the groom who receives the payment because he is a79

Deut.24:1.

[4:2]
purchaser.
2. If there were no second verse, we would have thought that kiddushin
may initially be given by the bride to the groom, so long as the groom
thereafter pays the value over to the father-in-law. Ultimately, it is theseller who receives payment!
[5:1][Redemption of hekdesh and second tithe]hekdesh and second tithe may be redeemed for money. The second tithe may
also be redeemed with produce, but redemption other than for money is secondaryin importance: Scripture speaks in terms of "tying the money [of redemption] in your80
hands." In the case of hekdesh Scripture says "and he shall give the [redemption]
81
money and [the property] shall stand as his." Actual money is required, and even a
promissory note is invalid.
[Get written on a living creature, etc.; the requirement that the get sunder all
relations]
82

R. Jose the Galilean invalidates a get written on a living creature . There would
otherwise be a Scriptural inconsistency:
Scripture on the one hand provides that a get need be written (which83
suggests that any written format is sufficient) , and in the same verse
limits the permitted form of writing to a book.
The inconsistency is reconciled by holding that the word book narrows the broad
universe of permissible get to inanimate objects such as books.
R. Jose's view does not prevail, and a get written on the horn of a cow or thehand of a slave is valid if the husband gives the cow or the slave to his wife.

80

Deut.14:25.

81

Lev.27:19, with changes.

82

See Git.19:1.

83

And he shall write to her a book of separation.

[5:1]
A get must sever all connection between the husband and the wife, and any
lingering bonds render the get invalid. For example, a get given on condition thatthe wife never drink wine or go to her father's house is invalid. On the other hand, acondition limited to a third person's lifetime is valid since there is the potential forcomplete separation of all bonds on the death of the third person.
Now, in the case of an oath not to enter into A's house, the oath is deemed not
violated if A sells the house or dies, since the oath is read to mean "only so long as
the house belongs to A." Why then is a get invalid if given on condition that thewife not enter her father's house; should not the reading be "so long as your father
is alive"? If so, why is the get invalid, given that a condition which depends on athird party's lifetime is a total separation? Because oaths are interpreted inaccordance with their everyday meaning, whereas a get is interpreted strictly.
[Why separate derivations are required for the three types of kiddushin]
Money, deeds and cohabitation as kiddushin are separately derived from
Scripture. None of the three can be derived from any of the other two:
Money would have been distinguished on the ground of its effectiveness inredeeming hekdesh and second tithe.
A deed would have been distinguished on the ground of its exclusive
validity as get.
Cohabitation would have been distinguished as the exclusive means ofacquisition in yibbum.
Money and cohabitation, taken together, would have been distinguishedbecause they offer benefit or pleasure.
Money and deeds, taken together, would have been distinguished on
account of their general validity in business transactions.
Deeds and cohabitation, taken together, would have been distinguishedon the ground of their validity in forced situations, i.e., a deed in the caseof get and cohabitation in the case of yibbum.
But what of the fact that a father can forcibly betroth his minor
daughter by monetary kiddushin? That rule is not known at this stage ofthe argument, for we are at this point weighing the results were there
no verse validating monetary kiddushin.
That a father can forcibly sell his daughter into slavery is irrelevant; only

[5:1]
marital compulsions are determinative. And a master cannot forcibly
84
designate his maidservant as his wife .
[huppah as kiddushin; consequences to terumah; huppah as consummating marriage;
definition of huppah]
Rav Huna holds that huppah is effective as kiddushin because of the following
kal v'homer:
Money cannot consummate a marriage but can institute kiddushin;therefore huppah which can consummate a marriage should certainly beeffective as kiddushin!
An analogous kal v'homer would teach that money can consummate amarriage:
If huppah can consummate a marriage but cannot institute it, thenmoney which can institute a marriage should certainly consummateit!
However, it is illogical that without the seclusion of huppah there should
be instituted all the marital rules which attend consummated marriage:e.g., the strangulation of an adulterer rather than his or her stoning,
and the right to inherit the wife's property on her death.
Abbaye agrees with R. Huna. Raba, although he confronts Rav Huna with certain
difficulties, remains silent in the face of Abbaye's arguments. This suggests a possible
concession to Abbaye's views. Even if Raba did not concede he would appear to be in
the minority in opposing Rav Huna.
The Meiri nevertheless concludes that huppah is invalid as kiddushin. Note thecertainty with which the Gemara holds that the Mishnah's limiting use of the word
three is intended to invalidate huppah. The Gemara's concern on how Rav Huna
would interpret the word three suggests that Rav Huna stands alone.
85

Similarly indicative is a Gemara which deals with the forbidden maritalconnections which bar the daughter of a priest from eating terumah. R. Meir holds
that betrothal by a high priest of a non-virgin renders her unfit to eat terumah. In

84

19:1.

85

Yeb.58:1.

[5:1]
considering whether R. Meir would hold that huppah would similarly bar a nonvirgin from terumah, the Gemara sharply responds: huppah does not effect86
kiddushin, why then should it bar the woman from eating terumah?
The "purchase of [a priest's] money" may eat terumah. A betrothed woman isdeemed acquired by the groom, and consequently Scripture permits her to eat
terumah if the groom is a priest. Rabbinically, however, huppah is a precondition toher eating terumah. There is concern that while still in her parent's house she may
unwittingly offer terumah to her siblings.
Either huppah or cohabitation can complete a marriage. Where kiddushin is bycohabitation, either huppah or a second cohabitation can complete the marriage.
The essential element of both huppah and cohabitation is seclusion. The term
huppah means a seclusion which follows kiddushin.
[5:2][Value or declaration by the bride; related rule in commercial transactions]
As previously explained, monetary kiddushin involves the transfer of value by the
man to the woman, accompanied by the statement "You are betrothed to me," or"You are a wife to me." He need not add "with this thing," although the use of
these words is preferable. If she gives the object and declares "I am betrothed toyou," there is no kiddushin.
If he offers the object and she makes the statement, there is questionablekiddushin. The issue is whether Scripture, which requires that "a man take a wife,"
intends that the declaration as well as the action be effected by the man.

86

The Gemara in Yebamos ultimately concludes that huppah does bar the woman from eating
terumah. But this results not from its effectiveness as kiddushin but from the fact that the
seclusion of huppah and the woman's availability for intercourse with the high priest arethemselves grounds for ineligibility.

[5:2]
Although the ambiguity is based on Scripture, the questionable kiddushin
has Rabbinic status only. The rule which requires strict interpretation of
Scriptural ambiguity is itself Rabbinic.
Where, however, the couple were discussing betrothal, he offered the object andshe made the declaration, there is absolutely valid kiddushin. The case is no worse
than if there were no declaration at all and betrothal was being discussed.
The Meiri disagrees with several commentators who hold that silent kiddushin isbetter than kiddushin accompanied by the bride's statement. These commentators
reason that where there is a statement the couple rely on the ineffective statement
rather than on the accompanying discussion of betrothal. The Meiri prefers toanalogize the case to the absolute kiddushin where both the man and the woman
make declarations.
The Gemara does not deal with the case in which she offers the object, and hesays "Be betrothed to me with the pleasure I give you in accepting the object." Alater Gemara does hold this kiddushin valid if the man is an important person whose
acceptance gives the woman pleasure worth a perutah. Some commentators would
apply the same rule where the groom is not an important person but she isnonetheless fond of him.
The Rambam holds that the later Gemara is not the halacha. The Alfasi is
inconsistent. He approves of the later Gemara, but he does not here mention thelater Gemara's holding as an exception to the general rule that the man must give
the kiddushin.
Some commentators attempt to reconcile the apparently inconsistentholdings of the Alfasi. They explain that the kiddushin is invalid because
she made no confirmatory statement of kiddushin.
The Meiri disagrees. Where there is no confirmatory statement there cannever be an issue of kiddushin! All other circumstances are irrelevant.
The Tosafot apply similar rules in the context of land purchases. They distinguishcases in which the seller and the purchaser respectively make declarations. The Meiri
disagrees. It is essential that the purchaser give the purchase price, and it ismeaningless who, if anyone, makes any declaration.
[Certain incomplete declarations; the law of explicit and inexplicit abbreviations]
Assume that A declares to B "You are betrothed," or "You are a wife," without
saying "to me." The abbreviated expression is inexplicit, and the kiddushin is not
valid. A did not make clear that the kiddushin was to him and not for another.

[5:2]The Meiri discusses the following views and variations:
1. The expression is explicit where the couple had been discussing
betrothal; here, kiddushin is effective even without any declaration at all.
2. Some say that:a. If A is present at the Beth din where the status of the kiddushin isbeing judged, and maintains that he meant the kiddushin to be for his
benefit, the kiddushin are definitely valid. It follows that if A is notavailable to testify, B's status as against the whole world is that of awoman who is definitely betrothed, given that a mere statement by A
would result in definite kiddushin.
b. A does not have the credibility to maintain absolutely that the
kiddushin was for the benefit of C, and not for A's own benefit. B isdeemed possibly betrothed both to A and to C.
3. Others hold that even where A maintains that he meant himself, thestatus of B's kiddushin to A is no more than questionable.
4. Yet others maintain that kiddushin to A are questionable, whereas
kiddushin to anyone else are absolutely invalid.
5. A final view holds that the expression is inexplicit even for A, and that
there is not even questionable kiddushin.
The Meiri prefers the last view, and believes that it is supported by the flow of theGemara's discussion. The Gemara would have mentioned any circumstance in which
there is an issue of kiddushin.
The formulations "You are sent forth," You are divorced," and "You arepermitted," are valid for get notwithstanding that the phrase "to me" is omitted in
the first two cases, and the phrase "to any man" is omitted in the third. The
formulation is explicit because no one can divorce another's wife. The Gemara inwhich Samuel appears to hold the abbreviated expression inexplicit both for get andkiddushin should not be so read: only kiddushin is intended.
Certain formulations in a deed are definitely invalid. An example is thestatement in a get, "I am not your husband," and the statement by thehusband in a deed of kiddushin "I am betrothed to you." The husband
cannot "take" himself in kiddushin nor can he send himself away in get.
Whether the get or kiddushin is invalid if only the oral declaration isdefective depends on whether an oral declaration is required with a deed.

[5:2][Related holdings for nazirites]
If A says "I will be...," he is a nazir only if another nazir is then passing by. Only
then is the expression explicit. Otherwise, even if A grasps a goblet of wine or his87hair, where arguably the intent is to affect his appearance , the expression is
inexplicit. Perhaps he meant only that "I will be in a fast."
88

Elsewhere Samuel holds that if A makes an oath to separate from B, he must
explain exactly what he means by separation. Otherwise the expression is inexplicit;
it is not clear whether he means separation for food or for other matters. The
Gemara asks, if so, why is a person a nazir when he inexplicitly says "I will be" whenanother nazir passes by?
How does this square with our Gemara's treatment of the same case as
valid because it is explicit?
The Meiri first suggests that there are relative levels of explicitness, as
follows:
1. I will be...
2. I am separated from you; this is equivalent in explicitness to: I will bewhen a nazir passes by.
3. I am separated from you in that you may not eat my food.
Thus, "I will be" when another nazir passes by is explicit relative to case 1, but
inexplicit relative to case 3.
Another explanation is that the Gemara's question is from the case in which anazir previously passed by; it is that case which is inexplicit. The Meiri disapproves ofthis explanation because there is no reference in the text to previous passage of89
another nazir .

87

In the manner of a nazir who may not shave his hair.

88

Ned.4:2.

89

The Gemara in Nedarim concludes that the Mishnah which requires that A state for what purpose
he is separating from B indeed holds that inexplicit abbreviations are invalid. The Mishnah accords
with the halachic view of R. Judah, with whose view Samuel agrees.
It is unclear whether the Meiri holds that Samuel ultimately withdraws from his view that A is anazir if he says "I will be " when another nazir passes by.

[5:2]
It is sufficiently explicit for A to betroth B and then to say to C, in B's presence:90"And you." This entire area will be explained in greater detail elsewhere.
The phrase inexplicit abbreviation, literally translated, means a non-probative
hand or handle. The words hand or handle refer to speech. The verse "and in his
91
hand was a coal," means, "and with his mouth he spoke."[6:1][Where no declaration is required; ambiguous cases]
Kiddushin is valid in the following circumstances:
1. A gives B monetary value, and tells her "you are betrothed to me," inclear language, whether or not A and B previously discussed kiddushin. It isnecessary only that the bride and the groom understand that a ceremonyof kiddushin is taking place. This understanding can be achieved either
because the participants understand the words used, or because they arefamiliar with the customs which attend the ritual.
It is preferred but not required that the groom add the words "with thisthing."
2. A gives B monetary value, says nothing, but the couple previously
discussed kiddushin.
Kiddushin is invalid in the following case:A gives B monetary value and uses ambiguous language, in a case where
the couple did not previously discuss kiddushin.
The Raabad explains that the ambiguous situation results in a defect inthe testimony of the witnesses; they cannot testify on exactly what it
90

Ned.4:2.

91

Isa.6:6.

[6:1]
was they saw even if all present understood that kiddushin was
intended.
But there is kiddushin if the groom previously explained to the witnesses
exactly what he intends by the ambiguous phrase he is about to use.
Kiddushin is questionable in the following case:
Ambiguous language is used and the couple had previously discussed
kiddushin. The case is worse than one in which there is no language at all,since the language that was used can be interpreted to suggest a joint
effort at labor, etc., rather than kiddushin.
The following are examples of clear formulations, and are valid both orally andin writing:
1. You are my wife.
2. You are my betrothed.
3. You are acquired by me.
4. You are mine.
5. You are under my authority.
6. You are tied to me.
7. You are taken by me.

The following are ambiguous formulations:
1. You are singled out for me.
2. You are designated for me.
3. You are fit for me.
4. You are my help.
5. You are my rib.
6. You are my replacement.

[6:1]
7. You are gathered unto me.
8. You are seized unto me.
9. You are my harufah. The Gemara notes that this formulation is valid in
Judea, where the term is synonymous with betrothal.
Nowadays the phrases "You are my harufah and "You are my rib" are commonlyused everywhere, and are clear kiddushin formulations. Note also the verse "And she
92
was a maidservant, harufah [meaning betrothed] to a man."
No oral declaration is necessary if the kiddushin is given to the bride in thecontext of a discussion in which the issue of kiddushin was discussed. The discussion
must be in a form which would have been effective as a declaration. For example, if
A asked B "Do you want to be my wife?" and he then gives her an item of value inthe presence of witnesses (who need not be summoned for this express purpose), thekiddushin is valid.
If, on the other hand the kiddushin was given after B asked A "Do you wish to
be my husband?," the kiddushin is not valid, since this formulation would not beeffective as a straight declaration. The rule would be no different even if A and B
93
had previously negotiated all financial arrangements for their marriage .
The discussions mentioned in the prior paragraphs must take place at the time of
kiddushin. If the discussion takes place prior to kiddushin, there must not be any
intervening discussion of any kind, even if somewhat related to marriage. For
example, there is no kiddushin if after A asks B "Do you wish to be my wife?," andbefore A actually gives B the item of kiddushin, A and B discuss the impending
marriage of another couple.
Commentators disagree on whether discussion between A and B on mattersrelated to their future household (e.g., financial requirements, property settlements
between A and B, B's housework) count as interruptions which would invalidate
kiddushin.
A statement made by A to B after he passes kiddushin to B is valid if B confirms
her acceptance. A later Gemara considers the result where B is silent.

92

Lev.19:20.

93

See 50:1 for the rules relating to gifts that are directly or indirectly sent by one member of anengaged couple to the other.

[6:1][When declaration is required for a get]
The rules on prior discussions, and the absence of any requirement that witnesses
be expressly summoned, apply to get as well as to kiddushin.
Note the following views:
1. Some commentators maintain that in fact no statement is needed, and theGemara's reference to get is imprecise. After all, a get is valid even if given against
the wife's will. The only cases in which a statement need be made at all are where:
the husband proffered the get to his wife as a promissory note or amezuzah, in which case a corrective statement to the wife or to the94
witnesses is necessary, or
where the get was delivered to the wife while she was asleep, in whichcase an alerting statement is necessary to satisfy the rule that a get can begiven only to a wife who realizes that the document is important andshould be preserved.
The corrective statements can be made after the get was delivered. There is norequirement that the get be returned by the wife to the husband and deliveredanew.
2. Other commentators, including the Rambam, take the Gemara literally andrequire either a direct statement or get-related discussions, precisely in the manner
applicable to kiddushin. Where the get is given as a promissory note, a statement isrequired absolutely, and no reliance can be place on get-related discussions.
These commentators hold that a wife who is deaf and dumb can be divorced
only if the equivalent of a statement can be communicated to her by gestures.
Contrast this with the commentators discussed in the preceding paragraph, who
require no gestures where the wife is intelligent enough on her own to realize theimportance of the preserving the get.
3. A third group of commentators take a middle ground, and hold that get issimilar to kiddushin but not precisely the same. Whereas in kiddushin both the wifeand the witnesses must realize that kiddushin is involved, in the case of get it issufficient if either the wife or the witnesses realize that a get is involved.

94

It is sufficient that the corrective statement be made to the witnesses even if not made to the wife.
It is assumed that the statement is not made to the wife because of the husband's embarrassment.

[6:1][Only learned persons may deal with kiddushin and get]Only persons who are fully conversant with the laws of kiddushin and get should
presume to rule in these areas. There is risk of serious error.

[7:2][6:2][Operative phrases in get and deeds of emancipation; rule in commercial transactions
between partners]
The operative phrase in a get is "You are permitted to every man." Theoperative phrase in a deed which emancipates a female slave is "You are free." Ifthese phrases are reversed the documents are invalid:
1. A female slave cannot be told you are permitted to every man,because she cannot marry until she has tevilah in a mikveh.
2. A wife cannot be told you are free because the language is simply
inappropriate to divorce.
The phrase you are to yourself is valid both in a get and in a deed ofemancipation.
"You have no concern with me" is inappropriate in a get. "I have no concern
with you," is even worse. It suggests that the husband is removing himself as a legal
obstacle from his wife.
The phrase "I have no concern with you," is also insufficient to extinguish theusufruct rights of a husband in his wife's property. Its weakness is its ambiguity. The
phrase can be read to mean "I have no concern with X in that I am confident in my95
rights as regards X, and no person can relieve me of those rights ."Why then is the phrase effective to free a slave and, with a kinyan, to extinguishrights in jointly owned property?
Here are several explanations:
1. The phrase is valid for partnership rights with a kinyan because theconfidence-as- to- rights reading is inconsistent with the making of aformal kinyan. The emancipation of a slave requires no kinyan, and thephrase is given the same formality as if a kinyan had been performed.
2. The emancipation of a slave is more in the nature of a waiver than atransfer of rights. The phrase can accomplish a waiver, but it cannot
accomplish the greater task of transferring ownership rights.

95

Ker.24:2.

[7:2]
3. Property can be consecrated by words alone and no kinyan isrequired. A slave once freed is in some measure consecrated: hebecomes subject to the precepts which affect Jews generally.
How do the formulations you are free, you are to yourself, and I have no affair
with you function to free a slave? The phrases must be written into a deed, andwitnesses must attest either to the master's signature or to the master's transfer ofthe deed. This is the Rambam's view. The Raabad generally agrees, except that hemaintains that an oral statement is valid if accompanied by an act of kinyan.
Apart from by deed, a slave can be freed only by monetary payment, or by theloss of a body member as a result of a blow by the master.
[Penalty applied to a master who sells his slave to a gentile]
A gentile cannot acquire true title to a slave from a Jewish seller, and the seller
96
retains legal title. "You may buy slaves from them (gentiles)," directs that they(gentiles) cannot acquire slaves from you, nor can one gentile acquire title to a slavefrom another gentile. That is why a slave who has been redeemed from a gentile
cannot marry a Jewish woman until he receives a deed of emancipation from hisformer Jewish master.
Notwithstanding the gentile's failure to acquire title, the Jewish courts do notcompel him to cede the slave without payment. Instead the Beth din compels theformer Jewish master to redeem the slave for up to 10 times the price which themaster received for the slave.
This penalty is assessed because the master caused the slave to default inthe observance of the religious precepts.
The Jewish master must then proffer an emancipatory deed.
[Assignment of future rights; deeds of emancipation given before a slave is acquired]
What if the Jewish master gives the deed before he has redeemed the slave andbefore the slave has escaped? Is the deed an invalid assignment of future rights? No.
When R. Simeon b. R. Gamliel in our Gemara asserts that prior deeds are valid, heincludes deeds given prior to the slave's escape or redemption.
What is the analysis? Although the escape was at the time only a future event,96

Lev.25:24.

[7:2]
the master's rights in the slave were already in existence. Nor is the mastertransferring any right to the slave. The master is only removing the prohibition on
97
marrying a Jewish woman which otherwise attaches .
Other commentators explain that although an assignment of future rights
is invalid, a waiver of future rights is effective. This explains how a married
woman can waive the lien on her husband's land which secures her
kethubah settlement. The kethubah rights are future rights because she isentitled to them only in the future event of her divorce or her husband's
98
death.
This doctrine also explains another rule. A husband who divorces his wife
need not pay her kethubah unless she swears that she had not previously
99
received payment . The husband can waive this future right before
divorce. The renunciation binds not only himself but also later assignees.
[Betrothal with a debt; betrothal with agreed usury]
The Gemara sets forth the following dialogue:
If a man betroths a woman with a debt, she is not betrothed; with thebenefit of a debt, she is betrothed; yet this may not be done, as it
constitutes an evasion of usury.
This "benefit of a debt," how is it meant? Shall we say that he fixed theinterest as a loan, he having said, I am lending you four zuz for five.--butthat is real usury! Moreover, it is, in point of fact, a debt!
This [benefit of a debt] holds good only if he extended the term for
repayment.
To understand the Gemara we must first consider the basic rules on kiddushin by
waiver of a debt, the right of a borrower to demand return of usury he has paid to
his lender, and kiddushin with agreed usury.
1. Betrothal by waiver of debt.
97

Since an advance deed of emancipation is not an assignment of future rights, R. Simeon b. R.
Gamliel is not listed at 62:2 as an authority who holds that an assignment of future rights is valid.
98

See Git.55:2.

99

Keth. 86:2.

[7:2]A cannot betroth B by forgiving B's debt to A. This applies whether or not the
debt is documented, and whether or not A returns the debt document to B for
cancellation:
The borrowed funds are assumed to be already spent and not to be within
B's control. The forgiveness of the debt does not afford to B the tangible
benefit which is the essence of monetary kiddushin. We do not make aspecial rule for the unusual case in which B still holds the borrowed funds.
There are the following subsidiary rules:
1. The Tosafot propose that forgiveness of a debt is valid as kiddushin if A
uses the formulation "Be betrothed to me with the benefit of theforgiveness of your debt to me." The Meiri disagrees, and sees no reason totreat this formulation differently.
2. Forgiveness of debt cannot serve as consideration in business
100
transactions .
3. kiddushin is valid where A betroths B by forgiving a collateralized loan,
101
but only if A returns the collateral to B .
4. kiddushin is effective where A betroths B with both a perutah and the102
forgiveness of a loan .
2. Return of agreed usury
If A agrees to pay usury to B, and A pays the usury, the Beth din can compel B toreturn the usurious funds to A, as if B had stolen the funds from A. Where interest is
not agreed, A cannot demand that B return the non-agreed interest. But B is
prohibited from accepting this interest from A.
3. kiddushin with agreed usury
What of kiddushin with agreed usury which is payable or paid by the proposedbride to the proposed groom? There are the following views:

100

47:1

101

19:1.

102

45:2.

[7:2]
1. A cannot betroth B with interest which B owes A. The obligation to
pay usury is merely a payment obligation, as is the debt itself, andsuffers from the same infirmities as debt.
On the other hand, once usury was paid, the usurious denar can beused to effect kiddushin. This is consistent with the rule that A may
betroth B with an item which A has stolen from B and is legallyobligated to return to her anyway. In both cases, the bride is assumed towaive her right legally to compel return of the item used as kiddushin.
Furthermore, whereas a thief must return the item he has stolen, alender who has accepted usury need not return the precise denar
received. Our case should be no different than if A betroths B withusurious funds A obtained from C. The kiddushin are valid since C
cannot demand that A repay to him the precise denar used to betroth B.
It follows that the Gemara excerpted above, which invalidates
kiddushin with usurious funds, deals only with betrothal by way of theforgiveness of an obligation to pay such funds. Were the funds alreadypaid by B to A, A could use the funds to betroth B.
"But that is real usury!" does not suggest that there is a special rule
which invalidates usurious funds as kiddushin apart from the generalrule which invalidates payment obligations. If that were the Gemara's
purpose, it should have maintained simply: "but that is usury!" and isinvalid as kiddushin.
The Gemara's surprise is the characterization of the case as one
involving only an evasion of usury rather than real usury.
The Gemara's follow-up question: "Moreover, it is in point of fact a
debt!" supports the view that the Gemara's discussion is limited to thecase in which the usury remains a debt which has not yet beendischarged.
2. An opposing view holds that funds which were previously paid by B
to A as usury cannot be used by A to betroth B; B is entitled to return of
the usurious funds anyway. There is no assumed waiver of this right.
Unlike the case of an item which was unwillingly stolen from the bride,
it cannot be said with certainty that the bride is aware of the rule that
she can compel her lender to return interest which she paid willingly.
The commentators who hold this view must explain why it is that the[7:2]
excerpted Gemara deals only with usury which is a debt, if the same rulewould apply even were usury already paid and no longer a debt. They
must explain that the case happened to be one in which the obligation
had not yet been paid.
"But that is real usury!" means that there is a special rule whichinvalidates usury already paid and which is no longer a debt.
But how so? Have we not established that in the present case the debt
had not yet been paid?
Yes, but the Gemara refers to the fact that kiddushin would have been
invalid even had usury already been paid.
Because of uncertainty on which view is correct, it is best to treat the kiddushin as
possibly valid.
[Non-agreed usury]
One who pays non-agreed interest has no right to demand its return. It follows
that once non-agreed usury was paid by B to A, A can use these funds to betroth B.
We also know A cannot betroth with interest before B has paid it. It is a debt,
and waiver of a debt cannot serve as kiddushin.
But what of a case in which there is no loan of funds, the interest was not yet
paid, and the interest is non-agreed?
Assume, for example, that A loaned B a measure of grain, the loan was not
yet paid, and B proposes to betroth A with the value (non-agreed interest)by which grain appreciated between the time of the loan and therepayment.
Analyze the case this way:
1. There is no debt, so the kiddushin cannot fall because of the doctrinethat a debt cannot support kiddushin.
2. Still, acceptance of the usury is prohibited, but once paid the borrower
cannot compel the lender to return it.
Does the advance proscription on acceptance mean that A gives B
nothing since, if asked, the Beth din would not countenance A's
acceptance of the usury?

[7:2]
Or does A give value since B is not asking the Beth din's guidance, isprepared to pay the usury to A, and, once payment is made, the Bethdin will not compel A to return the usurious payment?
The Meiri reaches no conclusion.
[Betrothal with "the benefit" of a debt]
In the excerpt cited above, the Gemara concludes that the words benefit of adebt mean an extension of the term for repayment. It is this extension which suffices
as kiddushin but which constitutes an evasion of usury rather than real usury. Hereare various explanations:
1. The Rambam explains that A proposed to lend money to be for astated term requested by B. A counter-proposed, prior to the loan, toestablish a longer term as value for B's kiddushin. It is the benefit of thisextension (actually, the time offered beyond B's request), which suffices
for kiddushin. There is an evasion of usury because of B's payment to A,
in the form of her betrothal, for the benefit of the extension.
Some commentators explain that there is no real usury because notangible benefit passes from the borrower to the lender. This isincorrect, since it is usurious for the lender to receive value in the formof the borrower's labor or in the form of sharecropper rights to theborrower's field. The true distinction is that B receives as much pleasurefrom the betrothal as does A. In true usury, only the lender gains.
2. Whereas the Rambam explains that the extended maturity isestablished at the time of the loan, Rashi explains that the extension is
given at the time payment would otherwise be due: A tells B "Be
betrothed to me with the monetary value that you would have paid toanother lender to obtain the extension I have given you". There is noreal usury for the reason discussed for the Rambam: she benefits asmuch as he.
The what-you-would-have-paid formulation would validate
kiddushin even if applied to forgiveness of the loan rather than only
to its extension:
Kiddushin would be valid if A were to say to B "Be betrothed tome with the monetary value you would have paid to another topersuade me to forgive your loan."
The value to B is not the money comprising the loan, which is[7:2]
deemed long spent, but the perutah which B would otherwise berequired to spend to effect the extension or the forgiveness.
The Gemara wishes to express the two extremes of the proposition: if
there is no reference to the perutah to be paid to another, evenforgiveness of the entire loan is invalid as kiddushin. If there isreference to the perutah, even the mere extension of time is valid as
kiddushin.
3. Others explain that the extension is given after the original loan but
before the due date; there is no real usury because he could not at thetime of extension press her for payment. The Meiri disagrees with thisview for it would wrongly suggest that it is not usurious for a borrower
prior to the due date to pay amounts to the lender to extend thepayment date.
4. Yet others agree with Rashi that the extension is given at the time
payment would otherwise be due. They maintain, however, that thereason there is only an evasion of usury is that A does not say "Be
betrothed to me with the perutah you would otherwise pay to effect anextension." Rather he says only "Be betrothed to me with the benefit of
the extension I give you." But this is strange, for what has he given her,
if not the perutah she would otherwise have had to pay to obtain theextension?
Some explain that B is prepared at the time of maturity to makepayment and then has funds available for this purpose. What B "gets" asa result of the extension is the equivalent of a new loan. In a similarvein, it is clear that kiddushin would be valid, if at the time B offers to
pay a loan, A tells her that the loan is forgiven. There is direct passage ofbenefit to her.
5. A fifth group of commentators hold that there is no real usury in thesense that there is no agreed interest, but only a gift of funds she makes
on her own motion in consideration of A's prior extension of thematurity date. Usury of this kind is elsewhere referred to as after-loanusury, and is less serious than usury agreed in advance.
6. Rabbeinu Tam interprets the case as involving the payment by A of aperutah to C to induce C to extend the term of his loan to B. Although
this is generally permissible, in our case there is evasion of usury,
because the borrower-woman B is being betrothed to the payor A,
making it appear that the payor is in fact not acting independently but
rather as the borrower's agent.

[7:2][Transfer of property conditional on return]
Assume that A gives property to B with the understanding that B must return theproperty to A. The gift to B is valid if B ultimately returns the gift to A. The issues
subsumed under this heading follow.
I. Types of transfers conditional on return
A. Business transactions.
The transfer of a denar by a buyer to a seller of land is a kinyan which completes
the sale. The formality is effective even should the parties agree that the denar is tobe returned to the seller.
Now, a seller of land is liable to his purchaser should the seller's title be attacked;
a donor of land is not responsible. Certain commentators maintain that the Gemara
deals with a case in which the donor wishes to be responsible in the manner of aseller; hence the pro forma passage of a denar.

[7:2]The Meiri disagrees. The procedure should not suffice to impose responsibility on
the seller.
B. Redemption of a first-born son.
A first born son is validly redeemed from a priest notwithstanding that the priest
agrees to return the funds used.
C. terumah given to a priest
If terumah is given to a priest by a non-priest on condition that the priest
return the terumah, and if the terumah is in fact returned to the non-priest donor,
the following rules apply:
the donor has fulfilled his religious obligation to give terumah to a priest
despite the rule that a priest is prohibited from accepting terumah on103
these conditions ; a gift made subject to an obligation to return is valid atlaw;
the non-priest may not himself consume the terumah, but he has title to104
the terumah and may sell it to any priest ; andthe sales proceeds are not terumah and may be freely consumed and used
105
by the non-priest .
D. Passage of a citron on Sukkot
A's obligation to acquire a citron on Sukkot is satisfied if he accepts a gift of B's

103

Why the prohibition? Because the priest's actions suggest that his purpose is to curry favor withthe donor in order to be selected by the donor as a future recipient of terumah given without a returnobligation.
Similarly, a non-priest may not give terumah to a priest who assists the donor in the harvest. The
Torah demands that terumah be given "in exchange for his [the priest's] priestly labor [Num. 18:31]",
not as salary for assistance to the donor.
104

This sale will presumably be at a price lower than the price for grain which is not terumah.
Potential purchasers are limited to priests.
105

The special status of terumah does not transfer to the sales proceeds.

[7:2]
citron, even if the gift is made subject to A's obligation to return it to B.
E. kiddushin
There is no kiddushin if A betroths B with an item which B must return to A. If B
does not return the item, the transfer is void since the condition to the transfer was
not fulfilled. If she does satisfy the condition, she did not obtain the value which is
requisite for valid kiddushin.
The Gemara explains that the case is analogous to halifin, which is similarly
invalid as kiddushin. The object of nominal value which a buyer gives tothe seller to effect halifin is generally returned by the seller to the buyer;
the purpose of halifin is merely symbolically to express the parties'
goodwill and the finality of their actions.
The equivalence is not complete:[7:2]

As noted previously a buyer can acquire land by passing to the seller adenar subject to a return obligation. If the transaction had the status of
halifin, the sale would not be valid since a coin cannot serve as theobject transferred by the buyer to the seller in a halifin transaction.
Furthermore, if there were true equivalence, the seller could insist on
106
retaining the denar as in halifin .
Because the equivalence is incomplete, some commentators emend thetext to read that a conditional gift is invalid as kiddushin because the caseis similar to halifin, and non-knowledgeable observers "might be misled tobelieve that halifin is valid as kiddushin".
Others emend the text to remove the reference to halifin entirely.
II. Consequence where the obligation to return was not stated but was implicit.
A gift given subject to an unspoken return obligation is not a valid gift. Examples
are where the non-priest donor gives terumah and only implies that he expects areturn, or if where the non-priest relies on a course of dealings in which there wereconsistent returns. We fear that:
1. The donee may have thought that no return was required; and2. Perhaps the donor never intended to transfer true title.
Compare the case of R. Hananiah the priest. R. Hananiah declared invalid
his redemption of the first born son of a non-priest where the father madeno explicit return condition, but ostentatiously intimated that he expected107
the funds to be returned .
III. Consequence if an item's value is returned rather than the item itself.
Assume that a gift is given with a return obligation. If the item itself is lost, is thegift valid when its monetary value is returned?
Some commentators say no. They reason from get. A get given by a husband to106

Ned. 48:2.

107

See Bek.51:2.

[7:2]
his wife on condition that she return his coat is valid only when the actual coat is108
returned. It is not sufficient that the wife pay the value of the coat.
But the case of get can be distinguished on two grounds:
1. An owner may have a special attachment to a familiar garment.
Similarly in the case of a citron on Sukkot: the owner values the
citron not for its monetary equivalence but for its utility in fulfilling109
religious precepts .
2. A divorcing husband may wish to inconvenience his wife. That is
why his conditions are interpreted unfavorably to the wife.
IV. Consequence of a waiver of the requirement to return.
A husband who gives a get subject to a stated condition cannot later waive thecondition and validate the get. But here again the case of get is distinguishable on
the ground that a husband's words relating to get are always interpreted strictly.
A more convincing analogy can be drawn from the law of oaths. Assume that anoath is to expire on receipt of specified consideration from a third party. The oathwill expire earlier if the person uttering the oath waives the consideration and110
considers himself as if he had received the consideration.
V. Kiddushin with a stolen or borrowed item.
A thief cannot effect kiddushin with an item which he has stolen and to which111
he has not obtained title.

108

Git.74:2.

109

In fact, if the citron is lost prior to its return, the donee does not fulfill the precept which requiresthat he own a citron on Sukkot: The gift was never validated by a proper return.
Since the citron itself must be returned, it follows that B cannot consecrate the citron and still fulfill
the precept that he own a citron on Sukkot. In B.B. 137:2 the Meiri reconciles our Gemara withanother Gemara which holds that a gift is not valid if the donee does not have sufficient title toconsecrate it.
110

Ned.24:1.

111

A thief obtains title to a stolen item when the owner resigns all hope of ever regaining control of
the item.

[7:2]
112

A cannot betroth B with an item which B has borrowed . B has no title to theborrowed item notwithstanding that B may satisfy his obligation to A by returning
to A either the item or its monetary value.
But some commentators would permit A to betroth B with an item borrowed by
A from C if C was informed that the item was borrowed for kiddushin. The
statement of purpose gives A additional rights which are nearly equivalent to title. It
is as if the parties understood that only a return of value (rather than of the item
itself) was intended.
113

Consider the following analogous case . If A tells B, "Lend me your shirt so that
I may visit my sick father" B may ritually tear the garment in mourning if his father
dies. He need only repay A the value of the garment. If A was not informed of B's
purpose, B may not ritually tear the garment since he does not hold effective title; if
he does tear the garment, he is a thief.
VI. Kiddushin with an item which the groom received only on condition that hereturn it.
Recall under Heading III the dispute among the commentators whether a doneeof a conditional gift may return the gift's value rather than the gift itself. There iscertainly no kiddushin if the item itself must be returned.
But what if we hold that monetary value is sufficient? Shall we, as in the case of
the borrowed item under Heading V, give the borrower "title" only when the lenderknows the purpose of the loan? Or shall we say that the donee of a conditional gift
has more title than a borrower, and the donor need not know?
The Meiri concludes that the donor must know.
VII. When return is required if a specific time is not stated.
If one gives a gift which is conditional on return, but does not specify the time of

Kiddushin with a stolen item is invalid even where the husband gives his wife a kethubah and later
cohabits with her. Although intercourse by itself can effect kiddushin, in this case the pair intend the
kiddushin to be effected by the stolen item, not by the later intercourse.
112

One commentator maintains that if C lends an item to A for a specified time, then A may validly
betroth B with the value B obtains from use of the item during the period before C can demand its
return.
113

M. Kat. 26:2.

[7:2]
return, some say that the donee may delay indefinitely, and the gift is validated
upon its ultimate return. Others establish 30 days as the outside limit for return.
Others maintain that the gift must be returned on the donor's demand to satisfy
114
the condition and to validate the gift. They reason from the following Gemara :R. Huna holds that a get is valid immediately if given on condition that thewife pay a specified sum to the husband. The wife by acceptance of the get
becomes indebted to her husband for the specified amount. R. Huna
115
expresses the same rule for kiddushin .
Were the rule stated only for get we might have thought that the only in the case of
get is there immediate validity because the husband will not be embarrassed tocollect, presumably on demand, the amount owed to him by his former wife.
Does this not suggest that where no time limits are stated amounts are dueon demand?
Not necessarily. Perhaps there is no legal time limit on when the payment
must be made for the divorce to be valid. R. Huna relies on a pragmatic
prediction that the divorced woman will succumb and pay a former
husband who is not embarrassed to press for money.
The Meiri concludes that all should depend on the circumstances of the gift. A
citron is needed on each day of Sukkot and can be presumed to be returnable by thenext day. If not so returned, the gift of the citron should be invalid, even if the donor
makes no demand. Similarly, if a denar is given by a buyer to a seller to effect theformal transfer of land, we may presume that the proper time for return isimmediately after the sale is completed if the buyer makes a demand. All other cases
should be similarly judged by their logical circumstances.

114

60:1.

115

R. Huna agrees that where the specified sum is not paid by the time of the obligor's death, thekiddushin or get are void from the beginning.

[7:2][7:1][Betrothal where benefit is given to or provided by a third party; related law on
guaranties and the emancipation of gentile slaves]
B is betrothed if at her request A gives money or (in the view of certain
commentators) makes a loan to C. The law of guaranty teaches that a guarantor
need derive no monetary benefit from a transaction in order to be bound; emotional
satisfaction is enough. Here, too, the value to the woman is her pleasure upon thefulfillment of her request.
This pleasure must be referred to in the statement which accompanies the
kiddushin. A must tell B "You are betrothed to me with the pleasure you achieve
116
when I fulfill your request to give funds or to make a loan to C."
Note that where A gives money to C at B's request, there is kiddushin
although C assumes no obligation to anyone. This suggests to somecommentators that A is bound if A tells B to give a maneh to C and that A
will repay B for giving the maneh to C. It does not matter that A does notguaranty an obligation. All that is necessary is that funds be transferred toa third party at the request of the so-called "guarantor."
The same thinking suggests that if A presses B to repay a loan and C says to
A "Forgive B, and I, C, will repay the debt," C is a guarantor although B's
obligations are extinguished, and C is not the guarantor of a loan.
But does not the last case also violate another rule of the law ofguaranty: that guaranty obligations can arise only at the time of theinitial loan? No.
1. Some commentators explain that the waiver of A's rights against B
is the equivalent of the passage of funds from A to C.
2. The Meiri prefers to explain that C is not a guarantor at all.
Instead, he is a direct obligor of A.
There is no kiddushin where at B's request A extends the term of a loan
made by A to C.
116

The formulation is not necessary if A initially offered to give B the money while stating "You are
betrothed to me with this" and she then asked him to give it to a third party while expressly agreeing
to be betrothed thereby.

[7:2]In the analogous case a guarantor is not legally bound to repay a loan
which was not initially made at his request. That the loan was later
extended at his request does not afford sufficient benefit to the guarantor
117
to bind him .
The rule applies with greater force where there is no benefit to B at all, such as where
she requests that A discard the proffered funds.
B is betrothed to A if she accepts a maneh given to her by C as A's agent. The
groom need not bear the expense of the kiddushin. Similarly, a gentile slave may beredeemed with funds provided by third parties.

117

B.B.175:2.

[7:2]

If C is not A's agent, then A must be present while the maneh is passed, and hemust then tell B "Be betrothed to me with the maneh that C is giving you on my118
behalf.
The betrothal to A is valid even if C used his own property rather than A's
property. Nor is it necessary that B know whose property was used.
The rule would be otherwise where A instructed C to use property supplied by
A. To avoid difficulties it is best for the principal to assert that an agent may use
either his own property or the principal's property.
119

If B tells C, "Give a maneh to A, and I will be betrothed to C," she is betrothed toC. This rule is derived jointly from:the law of guaranty, which teaches that one person, e.g., the woman, canbe bound, although another (A) receives the direct benefit, andthe law of redemption of gentile slaves, which teaches that the acquisitionof rights by one person, e.g., the betrother, is valid even if the necessary
consideration flows from another.
It is necessary that C tell B at the time the maneh is passed "Be betrothed to me withthe benefit of the maneh which A gave me at your direction".
There is also kiddushin where B tells A to give a maneh to C in order that she be
betrothed to D.

118

Some commentators maintain that this statement by C may be made even after the maneh was
paid by A. The betrothal is valid retroactively. Compare the case in which a son after the fact
acquiesces in a betrothal made on his behalf by his father. See 45:2.
Other commentators hold that no statement is required where there is obvious acquiescence. Thisview is probably incorrect, as will be shown at 45:2.
119

Some commentators suggest that we are less strict if the principal gave the agent money to be
used for kiddushin and the agent commingled this money with his own funds. These commentators
assume that the principal considers all money as fungible. However, the Meiri would rely on thisview only in extreme circumstances.

[7:2][Where a bride can be betrothed when she gives value to her groom]
B is betrothed to A if A accepts her maneh and is an important person whose
acceptance of the maneh confers pleasure on B. It is necessary that A tell her "Youare betrothed to me with the pleasure I afforded you in accepting your gift," or"with the denar you would otherwise have had to pay to C to persuade me to accept
a gift from you."[Rule in commercial transactions]
All of these rules apply also to commercial transactions. For example, there is asale if A tells B "Give a maneh to C and my field is sold to you."
However, Rashi and certain other commentators make an exception where A
tells B "take this maneh and my field will be sold to you (an important person)
because of my pleasure of your acceptance." The doctrine of a grantor's benefit
from gifts to an important person applies only in the case of kiddushin, where thedoctrine is enforced by the desire of the woman to be wed to the important person.
[No kiddushin agav another transfer]
Chattels can be acquired as adjuncts to [agav] transfers of real property. But a
woman B cannot tell A "Acquire this maneh and acquire me agav the maneh." Whynot?
1. The legal effect of betrothal is not acquisition in the sense that one
acquires ownership in real property or chattels.
2. Real property cannot be acquired agav chattels, and a person counts asreal property.
The Gemara's evidence is drawn from slaves; because of Scriptural
direction slaves cannot be acquired agav real property. This presents two
difficulties:
i. How can we derive learning from slaves to people generally?
ii. Even slaves to some extent count as chattels; other chattels cannot
be acquired agav slaves!
The Meiri concludes that the true emphasis of the Gemara is on the
proposition that kiddushin does not involve a sale.

[7:2][Purported betrothals of or by "half" persons]
If A tells B "Half of you is betrothed to me" there is no kiddushin because one
woman cannot marry two men. If he tells her "Be betrothed to half of me," thebetrothal is valid, because what he means is that he expects her to acquiesce should
he determine to marry an additional woman.
Were he really to mean that only half of his legal capacity is involved in the
betrothal, such as where A is one-half slave and one-half free, B would not
be betrothed, since the one-half of A which is slave cannot marry a Jewish
woman.
The Rambam, however, holds that where A is half-free, B is possibly betrothed;
yet other commentators hold that she is certainly betrothed. What of the statementin the Gemara that one who is half slave and half free man cannot marry a Jewish
woman?
The Rambam understands the Gemara to mean that he cannot effectabsolute (as distinguished from questionable) kiddushin.
Those who maintain that the kiddushin is absolute interpret the Gemara tomean that the kiddushin is prohibited but is valid if performed.
The Rambam also writes that a woman who is half slave and half free cannot bebetrothed until totally free, but once freed she is betrothed in full, as is the case withthe betrothal of a minor which becomes complete on her maturity. If yet anotherbetroths the half free woman before she is freed, she is deemed questionably
120
betrothed to both. These matters are discussed elsewhere.
[Consecration of a portion of a sacrificial animal]
The Gemara distinguishes:
one who attempts to betroth half of a woman, fromone who attempts to consecrate only the head or only the heart of an animal.
An animal has no independent mind, hence the will of the owner to consecrate
pervades the entire animal. A woman can be betrothed only to the extent she agrees;
if her agreement is that only half of her person is to be betrothed, she cannot bebetrothed in full against her will.

120

Git.43:1.

[7:2]
Indeed, the case of betrothal is similar to the case of a partner who sanctifies his
half of the animal; the sanctification cannot pass to the half owned by the otherpartner because the will of the other partner is an impediment. Only when the firstpartner acquires the interest of the second can the first partner consecrate the other
half.
Some emend the text to provide that the animal is automatically fully
sanctified upon acquisition by the first partner of the second partner's
interest, and that there is no requirement that the first partner thenexpressly sanctify the other half. But carefully corrected texts do require
the second sanctification. The Rambam concurs.
Can the animal be sacrificed? No. The animal was not fit for sacrifice, and was
initially rejected, while the first partner owned only half. The rejection is permanent.
What is to be done with an animal which is sanctified but cannot be sacrificed?
The animal grazes freely until blemished. It is then redeemed from sacred status by121
sale , and the proceeds, to which the animal's former sacred status attaches, areused to buy a substitute sacrificial animal.
Under the laws of temurah, if the owner prior to redemption announces that
another animal is a substitute for the one initially rejected, the substitute animal
assumes the same rejected status and is also permanently unfit for sacrifice.
[Rejection of sacrifices]
The preceding discussion reflects three aspects of the law of rejection:
1. Rejection can occur even if initial, i.e., even though the animal was notproperly and completely sanctified
prior to the rejection.
This contradicts those who hold that only animals which were previously
properly sanctified can be rejected.
Those who hold this contradicted view argue that all animals are unfit
for sacrifice during the first seven days after birth. Why is not the animal
rejected permanently? Because the animal was not sanctified prior to
rejection.

121

Only blemished animals may be redeemed from sacred status.

[7:2]
2. Live animals can be rejected.
This contradicts those who hold that there is rejection only where an
animal was previously sanctified and properly slaughtered. An example
is the rejection which results when blood is spilled or rendered ritually
impure before it is applied to the altar.
3. Rejection can occur to objects whose sanctity attaches to their monetary
value; rejection is not limited to objects which have a bodily sanctity in thesense that they themselves are offerable on the altar.
In our case, for example, the sanctity introduced when the first partner
sanctified his share of the jointly owned animal did not sanctify the bodyof the animal. The animal became sacred only to the extent of themonetary value of the first partner's interest, with the result that theTemple became entitled to the monetary proceeds to be received on saleof that share.
At first sight one might suppose that in every case of initial rejection, thesanctification which results in rejection can be no more than monetary.
But this is not so. A leper, by way of example, is required to bringspecified sacrifices after a prescribed number of clean days. Animals
sanctified for this purpose prior to the passage of the requisite numberof days are deemed sanctified bodily, although at this stage they are notfit for actual sacrifice.
The Rambam rules, contrary to our Gemara, that animals cannot be initiallyrejected while alive even though the sanctity is only monetary. The highlighted
even though language is puzzling since monetary sanctity is less likely to be rejected
than bodily sanctity. Be that as it may, the Meiri agrees with the Rambam andextends the Rambam's rule even to cases in which the rejection was not initial but
122
there had been prior valid sanctification: live animals can never be rejected .
[Consecration of non-vital portions of a sacrificial animal]
Recall that an animal is fully sanctified when the full owner of the animal
sanctifies a portion. This applies only when he consecrates a limb which is essential tolife. Sanctity does not pervade an animal where a less essential bodily member, suchas an arm or a leg, is consecrated.

122

See Pes.73:2 and Yoma 64:1.

[7:2]How do we treat the animal? The animal cannot be sacrificed in the Temple
because of its unconsecrated portion, nor can it be sacrificed out of the Temple
because of its consecrated limb.
The Gemara directs that:the animal be sold to a buyer who wishes to bring a sacrifice of the samekind, and the proceeds to the seller are not sacred except for the portion123
ascribable to the limb which was consecrated.
There are two possible interpretations of the Gemara's prescription:
1. The buyer succeeds to full ownership of the animal, and he sacrifices it as
its owner. The sanctity which previously attached to one limb passes to a
portion of the sale proceeds, and the seller must buy a small sacrifice withthese funds. Commentators who hold this view differ on whether thebuyer must consecrate the animal anew or whether the initial consecration
continues although the seller's interest is extinguished.
2. The buyer never succeeds to ownership of the consecrated limb. The
Gemara's reference to the portion of the proceeds ascribable to the limb isimprecise. The Gemara means to say that the proceeds to the seller are notsacred, except for the portion ascribable to the limb, which portion hedoes not have, because the limb was not sold. When the buyer ultimately
sacrifices the animal, he sacrifices it both for himself and for his seller, who
is in effect his partner.
124

View No. 2 is supported by a Gemara which questions how it is that the buyer's
obligation to bring an animal as a sacrifice is satisfied if he does not sacrifice ananimal he owns in full. The Gemara explains that the buyer carefully phrases his
obligation as being to bring a denar's worth of sacrifice.
Return now to the second view. What if the buyer and seller mistakenly believethat the limb can be sold, and the buyer pays for the limb? The purported sale of thelimb is invalid, and does not impart any sanctity to any portion of the sale proceeds.
The "sale" is a mistake and the buyer is entitled to a refund of the amount he "paid"
for it if he demands the refund prior to sacrifice of the animal, when arrangements
can still be made for proper sacrifice of the animal on behalf of both the buyer andthe seller as "partners".
123

Er.5:1.

124

Tem.11:2.

[7:2]
If the buyer makes his demand only after the sacrifice, mostcommentators hold that he is not entitled to a refund, since he presumably
made the sacrifice only for himself, and he did not benefit the seller.
Some commentators disagree and hold that the seller did benefit fromthe sacrifice. It does not matter that the buyer mistakenly thought that hewas bringing the sacrifice entirely on his own behalf.
In an analogous case, an animal which is erroneously sacrificed as a typeof sacrifice other than intended satisfies the owner's obligation to bring
the requisite sacrifice. If that rule is extended to our case, then the seller
did benefit from the sacrifice, and the buyer's entitlement to a refund
continues even after the sacrifice.
[7:2][Where two halves are betrothed separately]
If A says to B:
1. "Half of you is betrothed to me for half a perutah and the other halfof you for another half a perutah", or
2. "Half for a perutah and the other half for a perutah," or
3. "Half for a perutah today, and the other half for a perutah tomorrow,or
4. "You are betrothed for a perutah, half of you today, and half
tomorrow" (even if the two statements are made substantially at thesame time), or
5. "Your two halves are betrothed to me with a perutah" (as one
statement),
there is only questionable kiddushin. In each case there is a reference to kiddushin of
125
half a women.

125

If A says to B "Half of you today and the other half tomorrow," there is no question that if
another betroths her later on the first day, the second betrothal is valid. There is nothing to suggestthat the first betrother intended his betrothal to be valid as of the first day once he betroths thesecond half of B.

[7:2]The Rambam rules that there is absolute kiddushin in the first two cases,
probably because the Gemara, after propounding these two cases, states "If you
should decide to rule [that kiddushin is valid in cases 1 and 2], how would you rule [inthe other cases]?" This suggests to the Rambam that the Gemara's preferred view on
the first two cases is that the kiddushin are absolute.
But the Meiri maintains that the contrary implication can be drawn from theGemara's later analysis of the case of "your two halves for a perutah": The Gemara
suggests that because only one statement was used this case is more likely to resultin kiddushin than all prior cases.
Cases 1 through 4 each involve two statements. The Tosafot hold that there is no
kiddushin at all if these statements are not made substantially at the same time
(tokh k'dei dibur). Rashi disagrees, on the authority of the Gemara's suggestion that
Cases 1 through 4 are possibly valid because, if made on the same day, one statement
may be a continuation of the other. To Rashi continuation suggests words which are
not in proximity. The Meiri agrees with the Tosafot that continuation suggests
proximity in time.
[Where two fathers are involved]
Assume that the father of sons A and B gives a perutah to the father of two
daughters, C and D (who are minors and can therefore be betrothed by their father),and says "for one perutah C is betrothed to A and D is betrothed to B." Thekiddushin are questionable. There is a full perutah if one focuses on the fathers, but
not if one focuses on C and D.
Assume that one father says to the other, "Your daughter and your cow for a
perutah," or "Your daughter and your plot of land for a perutah."
Did the son's father mean to apply the perutah against both the daughterand the other object (even though legally, the cow, as a movable object
cannot be acquired with money alone), in which case there is no
kiddushin?
Or was his intent to apply the perutah to the woman, and to acquire thecow with meshikhah and the land with hazakah, in which case there is
kiddushin?
Because of the uncertainty we rule that there is questionable kiddushin.
What of the cow and the land? They are retained by their original owners. Title
remains in the original owner wherever transfer is questionable.

[7:2][Betrothal with objects of unknown value]
The following rules are derivable from the Gemara's discussion of betrothal withsilk or silk clothing:
1. If A betroths B with object X "for whatever it's worth," B is betrothed,so long as X is worth a perutah.
2. If A betroths B with object X, does not say "for whatever it's worth,"and object X is what it appears to be (i.e., object X is not low quality
126
cloth plated with gold) , then B is betrothed notwithstanding that she
assumed that objects of type X have greater value than they actually
127
have.
3. If A betroths B with object X which he tells her is worth 100 perutahs,
and X actually does have that value, then B is betrothed
notwithstanding that she did not confirm the valuation at the time of
the betrothal. Once the value is confirmed, she is betrothed from thetime she received the object. Should C purport to betroth B before theobject's value is confirmed, C's betrothal is void.
The Tosafot maintain that most persons have some concept of the value of silk,rings which are not set with precious stones and similar items, and it is only for suchitems that the Gemara requires no prior valuation.
For objects whose value is less well known, such as precious stones, theassumption is that B does not permit herself to be betrothed unless and until the128
value of the object used as kiddushin is confirmed by experts.

126

If A gives B a gold-covered silver ring, there is no kiddushin even if B says that she would haveaccepted the ring had she known. Such kiddushin are valid only if A at the time of kiddushin
announced that kiddushin was to be by item X "whatever its material, and whatever its worth".
127

The rule is the same even should B later claim that she acted based on a mental reservation that
she would be betrothed only if object X had a designated minimum value. Mental reservations areinvalid. Similarly, A cannot invalidate his unconditional kiddushin of B by later claiming that heassumed B was the daughter of a priest. See 50:1.
128

The Gemara at 12:1 requires an appraisal of a black marble stone given in kiddushin. The Tosafot
explain that in this case the concern is not that the woman as a non-expert must be assured that thestone is as valuable as it appears to be. To the contrary, the purpose of the appraisal is to assure thatthe stone is not worth less than a perutah.

[7:2]The Tosafot extend their rule to forbid kiddushin with rings with stone inlays
unless the stone is appraised at the time of kiddushin; the stone (which requires
129
appraisal) is as important to B as is the ring (which has well known value) .
The Meiri prefers not to distinguish among types of objects. But because of theuncertainty introduced by the Tosafot's view, it is customary to permit kiddushinwith an inlaid ring only if the bride is told to rely only on the ring and not on thestone.
[Where the declaration does not define the actual object used; implicit agreement]
Where A betroths B and improperly names the object used, such as where A says
"Here is a ring," but he actually gives B a denar, B's betrothal is questionable. A andB both know that the object is a denar, and they in effect implicitly agree to refer to130
131that it is not necessarily a false
the denar as a ring . Similarly, the Gemara holds
oath for one to swear that he saw a "camel fly": perhaps he saw a bird and called it"camel."The doctrine of implicit agreement has no place where one party is not in aposition correctly to assess the facts of the situation. For example, there is no
kiddushin by A of B if B thought the oil obscured in a cup given her as kiddushin waswine, or vice versa. The same applies if she is deceived because a veil obstructs her
vision.
In sales transactions, the doctrine of implicit agreement does not apply tostatements made at the time of sale. The concept does apply to representations
made prior to the sale. Specifically:

129

The Tosafot acknowledge that the rule is different where A betroths B with a combination of aperutah (valid as kiddushin) and a loan (invalid). Since the perutah is tangible, it is assumed that the
tangible consideration is important to B. The kiddushin are valid.
130

The Gemara at 8:1 deals with the case of kiddushi which is made with a maneh of which one of
the 100 component denars is copper rather than silver. The kiddushin is valid if both parties realized
and accepted that one denar was copper.
Does this support the doctrine of implicit agreement? Not necessarily. The case is distinguishable on
the ground that the general silver character of the maneh is not destroyed because one of 100
component denars is copper. Perhaps there would be no kiddushin if the whole maneh were copper
even if the parties were aware of the situation.
131

Shab.29:1.

[7:2]
A sale is invalid if at the time of sale the seller wrongly identified a plot of
land as kur-size, notwithstanding that both he and the buyer realized that132
the plot's size was only one-half kur . The only exception to this rule iswhere the plot was commonly referred to as kur-size.
But where prior to the sale the seller assures the buyer that land is capableof producing 20 measures of oil, when actually it could produce only 16
measures, the buyer is not entitled to relief if he was expert and himself
realized the land's capability. The seller's representation should have beentaken to mean that the 16 measures were equivalent to 20 in quality and133
value .
[Betrothal with coinage]
Some say that betrothal with a coin is invalid. Their argument is that the
government's legal-tender fiat, which may be abrogated, "artificially" increases thevalue of the coin beyond its "real" value. But this view is mistaken, and suchkiddushin are valid.
[Kiddushin with real property]
Certain commentators hold that kiddushin with land is ineffective because awoman betroths herself only for property which she can transport and store securely.
The following observations are relevant:
1. A get written on real property is invalid, even if the husband transfers
134
title to the land to his wife . Scripture requires that he give her the135
get which suggests that the get must be physically transferable. The
corresponding verse for kiddushin, "If a man take a wife," should
similarly imply that kiddushin objects must be takeable, i.e., movable.
It is true that the taking refers to the woman, rather than to theobject whereby kiddushin is effected. Still the Gemara applies theterm taking to kiddushin objects, too. Recall the gezerah shawah in

132

B.M.104:1.

133

B.B.106:1.

134

Git.21:1.

135

Deut.24:1.

[7:2]
which this taking is compared to the taking of Efron's field in orderto derive the rule that money is valid as kiddushin.
2. Even if there were no corresponding verse for kiddushin, rules relating
to get can be freely applied to kiddushin because of a hekesh between
the two concepts.
136

3. The Gemara lists aspects in which get and deeds of emancipation
are similar but in which they differ from kiddushin. The Gemara explainsthat the effectiveness of a writing on real property is not one suchaspect, because in this respect get, kiddushin and deeds of emancipation
are treated alike. All are invalid! Does this not prove that real property
cannot be given as kiddushin?
No. The reference is not to real property given as value, but todocumentary kiddushin written on real property.
4. The Rashba argues that kiddushin with real property is valid. A
137
Tosefta states that kiddushin with real property is not valid if (theRashba reads only if) it is connected in some way with idolatry, such as atree worshipped as an idol or its fruit, a city marked for destruction as aresult of idolatry, or an idol's statue and its pedestal. The Rashba
deduces that kiddushin with real property is valid if the real property is
not connected with idolatry.
Those who disagree with the Rashba maintain that the Tosefta stresses
idol-related real property only to invalidate sales proceeds. It is only foridol-related property that the ineffectiveness of land carries over into
proceeds of land.
Some attempt to distinguish the Tosefta as involving items which are
not real property in the legal sense. That is why prohibition results only
from the idol relationship. They explain that the Tosefta refers to a tree
which was worshipped as an idol, but which was dedicated while still asapling not connected to the ground.
The Meiri thinks that this distinction is nonsense. True, there is some
dispute on whether fixtures constitute real property, but all agree
that a tree planted in the ground is real property for all purposes!
136

Git.9:2.

137

4:7.

[7:2]
138

5. The Rashba draws support from a Yerushalmi which states that a
get is invalid if written on real property because of the Scripturalreference to "a book [a chattel] of divorce" which is given by hand fromthe husband to the wife. There is no similar reference for kiddushin.
Because of these arguments and the resulting confusion, it is best not to permit
kiddushin with real property.
[8:1][Money is valid to acquire a Jewish slave]138

Git. 2:3;12:2.

[7:2]
A buyer acquires legal title to a Jewish slave by transferring money to the139
seller . This is not halifin. halifin is based not on payment, but on an exchange
principle in which a buyer transfers the halifin object to his seller in exchange for theitem to be purchased.
[Monetary equivalents; halifin as a back-up transaction where less than a perutah isinvolved]
Money should be taken in its broad sense. It need not consist of coinage and its
value need not be as readily ascertainable as coinage. Monetary equivalents are alsosufficient. But only money or monetary value of at least a perutah is valid to transfer
140
title by payment of money .
Remember that the nominal item given by the buyer to the seller in a halifin
transaction need not have the value of a perutah. Whether title can be transferredwith objects valued at less than a perutah depends on whether the parties can relyon halifin as a back-up form of transaction.
Whether halifin is available as a back-up in turn depends on the item sold and on
the halifin item:
1. Grains, produce and other consumables can be acquired in a halifin
transaction, but they cannot themselves constitute the halifin item.
141
Scripture proffers a shoe as an example of the nominal halifin item,
and this is intended to exclude consumables.
2. Coins cannot serve as the halifin item, nor can coins themselves betransferred in a halifin transaction.
3. A vessel, receptacle, garment, tool, weapon, etc. can be acquired in a
halifin transaction and can also serve as the halifin item. Recourse can be
had to halifin where an item of this sort is valued at less than a perutah142
and is transferred by the buyer to the seller.

139

14:1.

140

Even commodities which can be readily consumed or used (such as bread, utensils, grains andother produce) are not considered a monetary equivalent if they are worth less than a perutah.
141

Ruth 4:7.

142

See also B.M.47:1.

[7:2][Monetary equivalents and indeterminate values relating to redemption of a firstborn son]
The father of a first-born son who is not a priest or a levite must redeem the son
by paying a five selah redemption price to the priest. The following rules apply,
many of which are analogous to those regarding kiddushin:
1. Money or monetary value may be used.
2. The redemption is valid if neither the father nor the priest make any
representation regarding the value of the item given in redemption.
It is not necessary that an expert corroborate the item's value at the timeof redemption.
3. If in fact the item is not worth five selah's, the redemption is not valid
until the balance is paid.
4. If the father and the priest both agree to accept five selah's as thevalue of an item which is actually not worth that amount, then:a. Where the item is of universal utility, such as a garment or a calf,
the redemption is valid. One can conceive of situations in which suchitems can be of great value to any person. That is why we accept the143
priest's affirmation of value.
b. Where the item is not of universal use, such as a scarf which serves
as distinctive headgear only for scholars, then an affirmation ofexcess value is accepted only if made by a select person for whom theitem is of use, e.g., a scholar.
Rashi maintains that if a non-scholar expressly accepts the scarf at
its purported five selah value, the redemption is valid; it is only if therecipient makes no express affirmation that the validity of theredemption depends on whether the recipient is a scholar. The Meiri
disagrees: notwithstanding that R. Kahana expressly affirmed theexcess value of the scarf, the Gemara validated his redemption only
because R. Kahana was a scholar.
The R. Kahana the priest who is referred to in our Gemara is not the R. Kahana

143

The Meiri disagrees with commentators who hold that affirmations of value are invalid where thedisparity in value is more than one selah.

[7:2]
144

who is referred to elsewhere as being entitled to eat priestly gifts only on accountof his wife who was the daughter of a priest. The Tosaefot explain that R. Kahana
145
the priest was a contemporary of R. Johanan . The second R. Kahana lived many
years later and was a contemporary of R. Ashi. The Gemara records many dialogues
between the later R. Kahana and R. Ashi.
[Where funds given are less than the amount declared]
If A announces that he is betrothing B with a maneh, but he then gives her only
one denar, B is betrothed. A's statement is interpreted as if he had said:
1. "I am betrothing you with a denar."
2. "If I fail to pay you the balance of a maneh, my kiddushin shall be voidfrom the beginning as if it never occurred."
3. "If I do pay you the balance, my kiddushin shall be valid from themoment I gave you the denar."
Payment of the balance of the maneh is therefore a condition to the immediate
validity of the kiddushin. The rule in this case is called Betroth-and-Pay.
[Where the maneh displayed includes a copper denar]
What if A displays to B a maneh which contains one hundred denar, but one ofthe denars are copper rather than silver? The result depends on whether A said "Be
betrothed with this maneh," or "Be betrothed with a maneh.
In a this maneh case, B is betrothed if she realized the copper denar at the146
time . She need not say anything. This is not a case of waiver -- she nevercounted on receiving only silver denars.
But if she did not know that the denar was copper, such as where the
kiddushin occurred at night or where the denar was plated with silver,

144

Hul.132:1.

145

See B. Kama 117:1 for a case in which R. Kahana was chastised by R. Johanan.

146

A silver denar that cannot be passed is treated the same as a copper denar. If it passes, but onlywith difficulty, kiddushin are valid, but on B's demand A must give B a silver denar in exchange. If A
dies prior to the exchange the kiddushin are void.

[7:2]
there is no kiddushin.
In an a maneh case, the kiddushin is valid only if B expressly says that she
accepts the copper denar. The validity of the copper denar depends on her
waiver.
[Issues in Betroth-and-Pay]
1. Can B revoke before A performs the condition?
2. Can A revoke the kiddushin before he performs the condition? If so, theresult would be that there is no kiddushin even if he afterwards pays themaneh.
3. If A has no power to revoke, can B compel him to perform thecondition?
4. If A does have the power to revoke, does he have the power only where
the condition depends on him, or does he have the power even where thecondition's performance depends on B? For example, take the case inwhich A gives B a gift on condition that B make a return gift to A. Can A
revoke before B makes the return gift?
5. If A has the power to revoke, can he demand that B return the denar?
6. Can B validate the kiddushin by waiving A's obligation to pay?
Each of these issues will be discussed in turn.
1. Can B revoke before A performs the condition?
Consider this issue under several headings:
a. Where A says "Here is a maneh."147

1. Consider the Gemara which analyzes the following two cases :i. A tells B "You are betrothed to me on condition that I give you 200
zuz," and he gives her nothing now.
Note that this case is equivalent to Betroth-and-Pay, with the

147

60:1.

[7:2]
following differences:(1) Whereas in Betroth-and-Pay the formula is only interpreted aspresent kiddushin subject to ultimate payment of the maneh, inthis case the condition is express.
(2) Whereas in Betroth-and-Pay the intent is clear that kiddushin is
intended from the time of the initial statement, in this case the
Rabbis dispute whether kiddushin is intended to reach back to thetime of the statement once the 200 zuz are paid.
R. Huna holds that kiddushin are effective from the start once A pays B
the funds. R. Yehuda validates the kiddushin only from when the funds
are given because he holds that the on condition phrase connotes that148
effectiveness is to run only from the time the condition is performed .
The Gemara explains that holdings of R. Huna and R. Yehuda resultin different rulings where C attempts to betroth B before A pays thefunds. R. Huna holds that C's kiddushin is void, and R. Yehuda
validates C's kiddushin.
ii. A gives B a get on condition that B give A 200 zuz. R. Huna validates
the get from the start once B pays the funds. R. Yehuda validates the get
only from when the funds are given.
The Gemara explains that the holdings of R. Huna and R. Yehuda
result in different rulings only if the get is destroyed or lost before
the funds are paid. R. Huna rules the get valid, whereas R. Yehuda
rules that there is no get.
Now, should not R. Huna and R. Yehuda also differ where B accepts
kiddushin from C after she accepted her get and before she made therequisite payment? Why does the Gemara not mention this difference?
It must be that even R. Yehuda would agree that the get is valid fromthe start once she accepts Kiddushin from C and she ultimately makes
the requisite payment to A:
Once she accepts C's kiddushin she stands in the position of the man
who promised a maneh and betrothed with a denar, and whose own
148

R. Huna's view prevails. The "on condition" formula is interpreted as an intent to effect immediatekiddushin.

[7:2]
decision will determine whether or not the kiddushin will ultimately
stand. In both cases, the action, whether kiddushin or get, stands,
and the opposing party can do nothing to thwart the performanceof the condition.
Moreover, by accepting C's kiddushin she obligated herself to pay A
to validate her get. Since she is in a position to fulfill her obligation,effectiveness runs from the moment of C's kiddushin.
The Meiri therefore concludes that B has no power to revoke where one denar was
paid out of "a" maneh.
b. Where A says "Here is this maneh"; where A is counting out money in an"a" maneh case.
The result is different were A to say "Be betrothed to me with this maneh."
There is no kiddushin until she receives her final denar. B is presumed to have hermind set on the maneh which was displayed to her, and to accept betrothal only
when that entire maneh is delivered. The kiddushin is void until she receives themaneh in full. A formal revocation is not necessary.
A baraitha rules that where A betroths B with a maneh and is counting out the
maneh to B, B (and most certainly A) may revoke the kiddushin until the moment at
149
which B finally has her entire maneh in hand .
Now, the Gemara claims that once the rule is known that B can revoke in an amaneh case where A is counting out the maneh, there is certainly no need to teachthe rule that there is an infirmity in kiddushin in a this maneh case where A paid 99
denar out of 100. Does this not suggest that the rule in both cases is identical, andthat revocation is necessary?
No. The Gemara's point is only that there is an infirmity in kiddushin in
both cases, not that the cases are precisely alike. In the first case B must
expressly revoke and in the second case kiddushin are void even without
express revocation.
c. Where a maneh is promised and 99 denars were given.
Where betrothal is with a maneh, and A gave B 99 denars out of 100, B can
149

This rule applies whether A told B that A was betrothing with a maneh or whether A told B that
he was betrothing her with the maneh which A displayed to B. The Alfasi appears to distinguishbetween these cases, but this is illogical and is probably a typographical error.

[7:2]
revoke kiddushin at any time until she receives her final denar. A formal revocationis necessary.
The Raabad explains that where B received only one denar, it is presumed
that B would have objected were she not willing to accept kiddushin withthe condition that A pay later. However, where A already paid 99 denars,
there is concern that B might not be amenable to the deferral of A's
obligation, but is embarrassed to demand that the last denar be paid
150
now .
2. Can A revoke the kiddushin before he performs the condition, with the result that
there is no kiddushin even if he afterwards pays the maneh? Commentators differ.
The following considerations are relevant:
1. The Gemara at first suggests that Betroth-and-Pay is inconsistent with thebaraitha which rules that where A betroths B with a maneh and is counting out the
maneh to B, B (and most certainly A) may revoke the kiddushin until the moment at
151
which B finally has her entire maneh in hand .
How and why is the baraitha inconsistent with Betroth-and-Pay?
Those commentators who maintain that neither A nor B can revoke in
Betroth-and-Pay explain that the Gemara's concern is twofold, i.e., that thebaraitha evidently permits both A and B to revoke. Those commentators
who permit A to revoke in Betroth-and-Pay explain that the Gemara's
concern with the baraitha is only with the baraitha's apparent willingness
to allow B to revoke as well as A.
2. If A says to C "Acquire this field for B on condition that you write the deed for
152
him," A can revoke the transaction until the deed is written and transferred .
On the one hand, this suggests that offers can be withdrawn prior to thesatisfaction of a condition.
On the other hand, the case can be distinguished on the ground that A
150

Of course, kiddushin would be valid were A to say "Be betrothed to me with 99 denars on
condition that I pay you a final denar." This is no worse than any other conditional kiddushin.
151

This rule applies whether A told B that A was betrothing with a maneh or whether A told B that
he was betrothing her with the maneh which A displayed to B. The Alfasi appears to distinguishbetween these cases, but the Meiri disagrees.
152

27:1.

[7:2]
by his statement expressly makes the transfer's effectiveness conditionalon the deed. There is no express limitation in Betroth-and-Pay. In fact,
the groom says that he is betrothing B now.
3. A married woman is entitled to sustenance, clothing and conjugal rights.
If A betroths B on condition that B has no claim to these requirements, thebetrothal is valid and the waiver of B's rights to sustenance and clothing is
also valid. However, B continues to be entitled to conjugal rights, and these153
rights are not waived .
But why does not A simply revoke his kiddushin? After all his
condition was not satisfied, since B continues to be entitled to conjugal
rights! This suggests that an offeror cannot revoke his offer where he has
set a condition to effectiveness. By analogy, in Betroth-and-Pay A cannot
revoke his own offer if he chooses not to perform his own condition to pay
B a maneh.
Can the case be distinguished on the ground that the attempted
condition relating to conjugal rights is void because it contravenes
Scriptural requirements? No. A is not saying "Be betrothed to me without
the benefit to you of the designated rights." All he asks is that there be no154
kiddushin if these rights by law must withstand a purported waiver!
Can the case be distinguished because of the inherent inconsistency
between the statement and the condition? Is there an argument that to be
betrothed means to have marriage obligations? No.
i. If this were a true inconsistency, why is the condition valid as to foodand clothing?
ii. There are many marriages in which the husband and wife seek only to
153

19:1.

154

Compare this to the case in which A tells B "You are divorced on condition that you (who are not
the daughter of a priest) eat terumah." The condition is not void, although she is prohibited fromeating Terumah. As far as he is concerned, "let her not eat and let her not be divorced!" Git.84:2.
Distinguish the case in which the husband wishes to absolve himself from the Torah requirementthat he satisfy his wife's conjugal rights. Also distinguish the case of terumah from the case in which a
man's condition is designed to afford him rights which the Torah specifically demands that he nothave. An example is A's betrothal of a woman captured in battle on condition that he be entitled tosell her into slavery. The condition is void and the kiddushin are valid.

[7:2]
serve each other in permitted seclusion, without any thought ofconjugal relationship.
It follows that logical inconsistency invalidates a condition only where theinconsistency is insurmountable, e.g., "This is your get but the paper ismine." (And even in the latter case, if the husband says "on condition thatthe paper is mine," rather than "but the paper is mine," his condition is155
valid .)
156

4. In a later Gemara
R. Ashi rules against a seller of land who hadannounced prior to the sale that he was selling on account of his decision
to emigrate to Eretz Israel, and who sought to rescind his sale when he157
failed to emigrate . In effect, a failure of a condition set by A does notgive A the power to revoke his action!
But this case can be distinguished. The seller failed to make his emigrationa condition to the sale. Instead, his statements are taken only as
explanatory.
158

5. Where A divorces B on condition that B pay a maneh to A , Raba holds
that the divorce is valid even where A was compelled to accept the maneh.
159
Obviously A has no revocative power .
Why does the Alfasi not include Raba's holding in his compendium of halachot?

155

See Git.75:1.

156

50:1.

157

See 50:1. for the result where the seller did not emigrate because of highway brigands or other
impediments. Whether or not the seller would prevail in this case depends on the precise language
which R. Ashi used to rule against the seller where there were no impediments:
If R. Ashi's words were: "he could have gone had he desired," the meaning is "if he really wanted togo, he could have found a way," notwithstanding impediments.
If R. Ashi said "had he desired, could he not have [easily] gone?" the suggestion is that the seller lost
his case because there happened to be nothing to deter him from emigrating. Were there
such factors, the seller would have prevailed.
158

Git.74:2.

159

Raba's holding stands notwithstanding that R. Papa questions it.

[7:2]The Meiri explains that this omission is not because the Alfasi disagrees with theresult, but because the Alfasi believes that this result is merely a subset of a broader
160
rule which the Alfasi considers halachic: the doctrine that a condition which is161
rendered physically impossible is void . In Raba's case the husband's refusal to allow
the wife to perform the condition renders performance impossible. The condition
thereby becomes void and the get is automatically valid.

The Meiri further notes that his view under Heading No. 1 that B cannot revoke
kiddushin in Betroth-and Pay is also a subset of the Alfasi's concept of impossibility.
If B attempts to revoke the kiddushin, she in effect is attempting to make it
impossible for A to satisfy the condition, and this renders the condition void and the
kiddushin valid.
The Meiri concludes that A's attempted revocation is void. If he afterwards pay
the maneh kiddushin are valid from the start.
3. If A has no power to revoke, can B compel him to perform the condition?
Some hold that B can compel A to perform. But this view is inconsistent with a162
Gemara in which A tells B "You are divorced on condition that you (who are not
the daughter of a priest) eat terumah." The condition is not void, although she isprohibited from eating terumah. As far as he is concerned, "let her not eat and let
her not be divorced!"
Now, the woman accepted the get subject to a condition which is incumbent on
her to perform. Does not the fact that the woman is not compelled to perform thecondition suggest that there is no power to compel?
Not necessarily. A wife can be compelled to accept a get, and we do notinterpret her ostensible acceptance of both the get and the attendant condition as awilling act. That is why she need not perform the condition where performance (theeating of terumah) would violate a religious principle.
160

In adhering to this view, the Alfasi rules with R. Simeon b. Gamliel rather than with the majorityof the other sages. See Git.75:2.
161

An example is a condition that the wife wet-nurse a son for two years, where the condition
becomes impossible to perform on the son's death. Another example is a condition that the wife
serve the husband's father for two years where the father refuses the service.
162

Git.84:2.

[7:2]The Meiri concludes that B cannot compel A to perform the condition, and A
may delay as long as he sees fit.
If completion of the condition becomes impossible because of some outsidecause, such as A's death or the lapse of a time limit, the kiddushin is void absolutely
and immediately. Not even halizah is required where A dies without children.
4. If A does have the power to revoke, does he have the power only where thecondition depends on him, or does he have the power even where performance
depends on B?
For example, take the case in which A gives B a gift on condition that B make a return
gift to A. Can A revoke before B makes the return gift?
Those commentators who rule "yes" hold that A's purpose in setting thecondition was to reserve for himself the opportunity to revoke his own sale or gift
until B reciprocates.
Would the same commentators also permit B to revoke, or can B cancel the gift
only indirectly by not reciprocating?
Some commentators say no. We know that once B does reciprocate, thegift is validated from when A made the gift, not from the time of B's
reciprocating gift. Control of the gift is therefore in A's hands, not in B's.
The Meiri is not impressed with this logic. Besides, A's right to revoke
would be more coherent if B, too, were given the right to revoke prior to
B's reciprocation.
Keep in mind that all this is academic, since the Meiri rules that even A cannot
revoke. In fact, the Meiri therefore concludes that where A gives B a gift oncondition that B reciprocate, neither of A or B may revoke, and B may delay as longas he sees fit before he reciprocates.
5. If A is held to have the power to revoke, can he demand that B return the denar?
Yes. The contrary rule that kiddushin gifts are permanent and are not returnableapplies only when the kiddushin is valid but is later upset by divorce, whether on
account of the husband or on account of the wife. But where there is a flaw in the
kiddushin itself the groom is entitled to demand return of the item given in163
kiddushin .

163

See B.B.145:1.

[7:2]
6. Can B validate the kiddushin by waiving A's condition?
The Meiri rules that B may waive performance of the condition and thereby
solidify her kiddushin. A waiver which is properly witnessed is the equivalent of164
performance . Compare the case of A who forbids B to benefit from A unless B
benefits A's son: A can waive the condition and deem it as if B had given the desired165
benefit .
The rule is different in the case of a divorce which is conditionally given by thehusband. Here, waiver is invalid because the enmity between husband and wife casts
166
doubt on the husband's true willingness to make the waiver .
[Subsequent acquiescence to amount previously rejected]
Assume that A wishes to betroth B for 100 denars, while B demands 200. Assume
further that one of them subsequently comes forward and says "I agree." The
Tosefta holds that 200 denar are required for kiddushin if it is A who comes forward;167
if B comes forward, 100 are sufficient .
Why do we not simply look to the amount which B actually accepts? It must bethat the Tosefta's case is Betroth-and -Pay: at the time of the disagreement A gave B
only a denar -- and the issue is whether the condition subsequent is 99 or 199. An
alternate explanation is that after the initial disagreement, A gave B a bundle ofmoney which she did not count, so that nothing can be implied from the amount offunds delivered.
[Rule where collateral is given in the place of value]
The Gemara next discusses the following:
If A says to B, "Be betrothed with a maneh, and he gives her a pledge on
it, she is not betrothed: there is neither a maneh or a pledge.

164

Waiver must be express. For example, if one of the maneh's component denars is copper rather
than silver there is no kiddushin even if B recognized the substitution. To be valid, she mustannounce that she accepts the copper denar in place of the silver denar.
165

Git.74:2.

166

Id.

167

The same rule applies in price disagreements in sales transactions.

[7:2]The sons of R. Huna b. Avin bought a female slave for copper coins. Not
having the coins at hand, they gave a silver ingot in pledge.
Subsequently, the slave's value increased, and the seller wished towithdraw. R. Ammi said there are neither coins nor an ingot.
The Tosafot explain that the Gemara's meaning is that B is not betrothedbecause she has only a security interest in the pledged object, whereas A retains title;
the security interest does not give her the assurance of ownership that she would
have from a present transfer of title. The same rule applies in the case of the slave's
failed sale.
The Gemara's explanation "there is no silver ingot" means that title to the ingot
had not passed. Under this interpretation, the phrase there is no pledge means there
is no title to the pledged item.
Note that in this view, the pledge itself is good as a pledge, although deficient as
title. The Gemara's holding is therefore limited to types of transactions, such as
kiddushin or the purchase of a slave, whose validity depends on the transfer of title.
Others explain that the phrase there is no pledge means that a pledge which
does not secure an actual loan is invalid as a pledge. By extension this view would
168
hold that a pledge to secure a gift is also invalid .
In this view there would also be no pledge in the following instance:
Assume that A gives B a gift of land, and A promises to allow B to recoveragainst A's remaining lands should A's creditors seize the gifted land. The
promise is not enforceable. The grant of rights in A's remaining lands is ineffect a pledge which is not supported by an obligation.
The rule would be otherwise where A assumes the personal
responsibility to indemnify A against A's creditors, and the pledge of A's
remaining lands then secures A's obligation.
Alternatively, B can obtain a valid interest in A's remaining lands if A byformal kinyan transfers to B present ownership rights in these lands,
with the understanding that these rights are to be exercised only if title
to the gifted land is attacked by A's creditors.

168

The Alfasi agrees with this position. In a responsum the Alfasi invalidates a pledge made to securea gift of old coins. But why did not the donor consummate the gift by halifin? Because of the rule thatcoins cannot be transferred by halifin.

[7:2]The Tosafot's view is somewhat supported by the rule that one may assert a169
claim against laborers' tools as a remedy for labor they failed to perform . Thissuggests that the tools are validly pledged notwithstanding the absence of a loan.
Those who disagree with the Tosafot explain that the hiring person's recourse
against his laborer's tools is not by way of a pledge, but is a penalty assessed against
one who damages another: the damaged person may foreclose against property ofthe damaging person which the damaged person happens to hold.
In fact, even in the case of the silver ingot which was given for the slave, if
prices had risen and the purchaser wished to renege, his wrongfulabrogation of the sale would have entitled the seller to foreclose against
the ingot notwithstanding that there is no valid pledge.
But there is no wrongful action if A reneges on a promise to make a gift to B. Since
there was no loan, and therefore no pledge, B has no rights against A at all.
The Ittur disagrees with much of what has been said:
1. Were A to say to B "Be betrothed to me with a maneh for which I give
you this pledge", or "I am purchasing this maidservant for copper coins forwhich I pledge you this silver ingot," the kiddushin and the sale would bevalid. The pledges are invalid in our Gemara only because they were
offered subsequently. The Ittur also explains that this distinction is soelementary that the Gemara did not use it to explain an apparently
inconsistent baraitha which holds that kiddushin with a pledge is valid.
2. In the case of a pledge to secure a gift, the moral obligation to make thegift, even if not enforceable, is a sufficient obligation to support thepledge.
The same would apply if an attempt is made to transfer a gift presently,
and the transfer fails because of legal invalidity. An example is where an
169

B.Mez.78:1. The claims asserted against the laborer's tools may exceed the promised wages by 40
or 50 zuz.

[7:2]
170

attempt is made to transfer coins by halifin . A pledge made to secure thegift is valid.
Although the Ittur's views can be supported logically, they are inconsistent with theflow of the Gemara's discussion.

170

Recall that halifin is invalid for coins.

[7:2][8:2][Betrothal with object pledged by a third party]
A lender may betroth a woman with an item pledged by a borrower. The lender
has a kind of ownership right in the pledged item, and when these rights aretransferred to the woman there is enough value to support kiddushin. It is as if thelender had given funds to the woman which she loaned to the borrower against apledge.
Contrast the case in which A promises a maneh to B and wishes to betroth
B with a pledge which secures A's promise. In that case B does not receive
title to a pledge which had been previously established in favor of A. She
171
receives only security for an obligation to give her title to an item .
But are a pledgee's ownership rights meaningful? Yes. A pledge may be retainedby the pledgee after the borrower's death. This is despite the rule that chattels
inherited by heirs are not responsible for the deceased's debts.
172

True, this rule applies only to pledges given after the loan was made . Still,ownership rights in contemporaneous pledges are sufficient to support kiddushin.
173
This is proved by the rule that a master may designate his bondmaid as his wife byfreeing her of a perutah's worth of labor:
Analytically, she is betrothed by the transfer to her of an obligation she
had to him (a "loan") which was secured by her body (a "pledge"). The"loan" (her obligation to work) was contracted simultaneously with herpledge (the transfer to the master of the labor inherent in her body).
Rashi holds that contemporaneous pledges are invalid as kiddushin. He distinguishes
the case of the bondmaid because the transaction in which the bondmaid's body waspledged is a sale in addition to a pledge. The Meiri disagrees.

171

Recall that some commentators hold that the pledge to B is invalid in any event because it does
not secure a loan.
172

Since R. Issac's derivation of the rule is limited to pledges made subsequent to the loan.

173

19:1.

[7:2][Betrothal with an object which the woman previously pledged to the groom]
Another rule can be derived from the analogy to the bondmaid: A man-lender
may betroth a woman-borrower with collateral which the woman had given to the
174
man .
Why then does our Gemara emphasize pledges given by others? To exclude thecase in which A promises B a maneh and gives her a pledge to secure that promise.
[Betrothal by transfer of a debt owed by a third party]
Assume that a lender by way of kiddushin, assigns to a woman the lender's loan
rights against a borrower. The Rambam holds that the kiddushin are valid if all threeof the lender, the borrower and the woman were in each other's presence when theassignment is made. This reflects the rule that a debt is irrevocably transferred fromthe assignor to the assignee, and the assignor loses the right to renounce the debt, if
the assignment is made in this way. An alternate procedure is for the lender totransfer the debt to the woman by a separate instrument of assignment.
[Ownership rights in Jewish-Gentile pledges]
Some maintain that the rule which permits betrothal with items pledged byothers applies only where the item was pledged by a Jew, but not where the item
was pledged by a gentile. The Scriptural source from which the Gemara derives
ownership rights in a pledgee refers only to inter-Jewish transactions.
The same issue of ownership rights in objects pledged by a gentile applies
elsewhere:
A Jew must immerse in a mikveh utensils which were previously owned bya gentile and which a Jew uses once he obtains ownership rights. Is
immersion required for utensils which were pledged by a gentile to a Jew?
175
The Gemara reaches no definite conclusion .
Some commentators require immersion because of this uncertainty. These
commentators should also take the strict view in our context and should
hold that there is possible kiddushin.

174

The kiddushin are valid whether A says to B "Be betrothed with the loan" or "Be betrothed withthe pledge."
175

A.Z.2:2.

[7:2]
Even those commentators who take a lenient view on immersion would
possibly take a strict view on kiddushin. The issue on immersion is Rabbinic.
The issue of kiddushin is Scriptural and deserves stricter interpretation.
[Betrothal with a promissory note to pay value]
Is B betrothed if A promises her a maneh and gives her a promissory note for thefull amount?
Contrast the case in which A betroths B with a maneh and gives her only adenar. In that case, although there is present kiddushin the kiddushin canbe upset if there is a later failure to make payment of the balance due. The
issue here is whether the kiddushin are final now, so that if A fails to pay, B
has only a monetary claim against A.
One commentator says "yes." It is as if A has given B a maneh which sheloaned back to him.
Consider the following:
1. A sale of land by A to B is valid if B pays A 200 zuz of the 1,000 zuz
purchase price and gives to A B's promissory note for the balance. If B later
176
fails to pay, A cannot revoke the sale. He can only sue B for the balance .
Is this case evidence? Not necessarily.
The case involves partial payment; perhaps where the entire purchase priceis in the form of a note, the sale is not final until the payment is made infull.
2. If a slave gives his master a "deed" which consists of a note to the masterof the entire unamortized portion of the slave's purchase price, theemancipation is not documentary but is valid as standard monetaryemancipation. Clearly, then, even a note for the full purchase price is valid.
Why then does the Gemara require that in land purchases there be a 200
zuz down payment? The reference to the 200 zuz is in fact superfluous.
The Gemara mentions it only as a carryover from the prior discussion of
the consequence should the buyer or seller renege where the sale is not
final (i.e., where no note was given). In that case, the partial payment is176

B.M.77:2.

[7:2]
important:
If the seller cancels, the buyer may demand return of his 200 zuz or
200 zuz worth of the seller's best lands.
If the buyer cancels, the seller can return the 200 zuz or give thebuyer 200 zuz worth of the seller's worst lands.

[Does the grant of a pledge extinguish debt for the oath on partial denials?]
Where A sues B for 100 maneh and B admits 60 but denies 40, he has made apartial denial. The Torah requires that B swear that he does not owe the 40.
Where B denies the full amount there is no Scriptural oath.
Where B admits the 60 and proffers it to A ("here it is"), A's claim is reduced to
40. There is no partial denial and there is no oath.
What if B offers a pledge to secure the portion conceded? Is that portion of thedebt extinguished? Is the oath eliminated?
Recall that our Gemara holds that A cannot betroth B with a loan, and that even
where A pledges an object to B to secure the loan, the value given by A to B is still aloan. From this the Alfasi and another commentator deduce that a pledge does not
extinguish a debt and that it is the continuance of the relationship as a loan which isfatal to kiddushin. It follows that the Scriptural oath applies. There is a record of acase in which the Alfasi required an oath in accordance with this view.
Other commentators disagree:
We mentioned previously that a pledgee can hold his pledge until
payment. Recall also that where a pledge was not contemporaneous withthe loan, the lender has a kind of ownership interest in it.
Besides, the case should be no worse than if the defendant had given theclaimant a promissory note. All agree that the tender of a note is theequivalent of a "here it is" type payment.
The case can be distinguished from kiddushin because here, unlike
kiddushin, an actual loan preceded the pledge.

[7:2][Delivery of a pledge by a gentile as payment for wine]
No monetary value or other benefit may be had from wine touched by a gentile.
That is why one who sells wine to a gentile must obtain payment for the wine before
177
the gentile takes possession .
Assume that the gentile gives the Jew a pledge for the purchase price. Has theJew been paid? Can the Jew immediately afterward give the wine to the gentile?
Some commentators reason by analogy from kiddushin that the pledge
does not transfer title to the gentile and does not count as payment.
What then shall the Jew do if the gentile cannot pay cash? The Jew must
lend money to the gentile against the pledged item, and the gentile must
use the borrowed funds to make a present payment to the Jew for thewine.
The Meiri disagrees:
Unlike the case of kiddushin or the case of the maidservant, the pledge inthe case of the gentile secures a true loan: the loan of the wine.
Besides, the pledge is valid to transfer ownership of the wine under gentile
law, and the gentile can no longer renege. Since this obligation of thegentile can be enforced by the Jew, he has in effect received final payment
for his wine.
[Money valid only for transfer of gentile slaves]
A gentile slave may be purchased for money. Chattels other than slaves cannot
be acquired by payment.
The buyer and seller can each renege, and are penalized only by the me shepora
curse.
There is not even a me shepora curse if no money was paid and only a pledge
178
was given .

177

A.Z.71:1.

178

B.M.41:1.

[7:2][Kiddushin if bride rejects value after angry acceptance; related rule in ambiguous
cases]
There is no kiddushin if A tells B "I betroth you with this maneh" and B takes themaneh angrily and throws it to A's face, or if B puts the maneh in her purse and thenangrily empties it.
Rejection need not be immediate or in A's presence. What is essential is thatwitnesses testify that it was clear from her behavior that she rejected the maneh
from the moment that she received it. Should B accept the maneh without anger,
she is betrothed even if she discards the maneh immediately.
What if she throws the maneh into the sea? If she is betrothed she is not
responsible to return the maneh. But where betrothal is rejected, B is liable to A forloss of the maneh which she causes directly.
B would not be liable if loss of the maneh is caused indirectly, such aswhere she throws the maneh to the ground and it rolls into the sea.
Liability for indirect loss can be imposed only on persons who
willingly accept deposits of another's property. This does not apply to
B in light of the resistance she displayed towards accepting themaneh.
Shall we assume that she could not have rejected the kiddushin, because if she did shewould be liable to A for the maneh? And shall we explain that she desired kiddushin
but wished merely to test A's anger?
No. If she appeared angry the kiddushin are rejected.
It goes without saying that there is no kiddushin if B did not know that
kiddushin were intended, or if A spoke as if he were giving B a gift.
If B responds to A by saying "Give them to my father" or "Give them to yourfather", there is no kiddushin. Her intent is merely to avoid A. The result would be
different were B to say "Give them to my (or your father) so that he can accept them179
for me" or "so that I be betrothed to you." What is essential is that the Beth din
determine that B intended to accept kiddushin and that she referred to her father
only to suggest that he safeguard the maneh or for some other plausible reason.

179

Rashi holds that the second formulation is effective only if the entire procedure was initiallysuggested by A.

[7:2][Where the kiddushin object is placed on property jointly owned by the bride and thegroom]
If B says to A "Place the kiddushin on this rock" she is betrothed only if the rockis her property. If B owns the rock jointly with A there is questionable kiddushin.
Why is B betrothed if the rock is her own?
1. Rashi maintains that a woman must acquire her kiddushin object witha standard kinyan. It is a kinyan for a buyer to place the seller's chattel
on the buyer's real property. The Meiri agrees.
A difficulty with Rashi's view is that where C and D own real property
jointly, C cannot acquire a chattel from D merely by placing it on the180
jointly owned real property . Why then is there questionable kiddushin
where A and B jointly own the rock on which the kiddushin is placed?
That a get placed on jointly owned property is absolutely invalid
does not present a difficulty to Rashi. A get must completely leave
the husband's control. On the other hand, kiddushin are valid if thewoman obtains even a modicum of possession or benefit. Recall that
there is kiddushin if value is given to a third party at the woman's
direction.
2. Other commentators disagree. They hold that a woman's acquisitionof rights in the object given her as kiddushin is not judged byconventional acquisition standards.
Note the absence of formal kinyan type requirements when an item
is directly given to the woman. In contrast to the rules in a typicalpurchase, the woman need not perform meshikhah or lifting toformalize her kiddushin.
The focus in kiddushin is not on the woman's acquisition of the
kiddushin item, but rather on the change in the woman's status. There is
kiddushin where the object is placed on her rock, not because there is avalid kinyan, but because of the implication that she means to accept
the kiddushin rather than reject it.
The issue of the jointly owned rock revolves around whether the same
implication can be drawn.

180

The sale is valid only if the chattel is placed in a receptacle owned by the buyer. See B.B.84:2.

[7:2][Kiddushin given to others; pre-existing obligation to others; costs incurred in saving
another person's life]
If A offers food to B as kiddushin and B says "Give it to a dog," there is no
kiddushin.
There is kiddushin where the dog belongs to B: B benefits, and A has noantecedent independent obligation to feed the dog. This distinguishes the case from
where B directs that A give the food to the poor, where there is no kiddushin. A as
well as B have a pre-existing responsibility to feed the poor.
What if A and B jointly own the dog? There is a three-way split amongcommentators. Some maintain that B is not betrothed if the food is worth less than
two perutahs (because her share is only half of the food or less than a perutah) but
she is betrothed if the food has a value of at least two perutahs. Others maintainthat kiddushin are invalid in any case; B's intent might have been for A to feed the
dog today, and for B to reciprocate by feeding the dog (out of her own resources)
the next day. Yet other commentators rule that there is questionable kiddushin.
If B directs A to give the food to a dog which is attacking B, the kiddushin arequestionable. A benefitted B by saving her life. But she may not give him credit forthis benefit, since the Torah obligates him to save her and not "to stand by while the181
blood of your friend [may be shed]."Now, need A save B's life where B does not offer to reimburse A for his costs?
If yes, the kiddushin are questionable only where B offers to make thisreimbursement. If B does not offer reimbursement, there is absolutekiddushin since A was not required to assist.
Some commentators rule that B must offer to reimburse A. They reason from the182
doctrine that C cannot save his own life with the unauthorized use of D's property .
Others maintain that this doctrine applies only where D is not present at C's
emergency. If D is present he must authorize the use of his property without the legal
right to reimbursement by C.

181

Lev.19:16.

182

B.K.60:2.

[7:2]The second group of commentators argue from the doctrine that D need
not assist C in unloading C's donkey if C does not join in the work. The
doctrine requires special derivation from a verse which suggests that D
183
must work with C, not for C . Were there no such verse, D would havebeen required to contribute his labor to assist C even if C sat idly by.
By extension, this suggests that where C is not in a position to help himself,and certainly where C's life and not only his property is at stake, D must
184
contribute his own efforts without a promise of compensation .
If B directs that A give food to a poor person, there is no kiddushin, even if thepoor person was from her city and even if the poor person had previously relied on B
and was in fact pressing her for assistance. True, the poor of A's city are more her
responsibility than B's. But B is not exempt from responsibility altogether and A is
therefore not deemed benefitted by the food.
Why then does the Yerushalmi rule that there is kiddushin where B directs A togive a large coin to the poor? Because the coin is more than a poor person needs forsustenance.
[9:1][Where object was previously requested by the woman other than for kiddushin]
If B requests that vendor A give her an apple, and A offers the apple askiddushin, the following rules apply:
1. If B answers "Yes" when A gives her the apple, she is betrothed.
2. If B is silent, the better view is that there is kiddushin. A minority holdthat there is no kiddushin because A acted only on B's initiative and B
must therefore confirm her continuing interest.

183

See Ex.23:5.

184

See B.K. 60:2 and 117:1.

[7:2]
3. If B merely repeats her original request for food, or if she says "Give it
to me", she is not betrothed. Her intent is to indicate that betrothal isabsurd.
4. If A repeats his intent to betroth B while he gives her the apple there
is kiddushin even if B is silent or says "Give it to me."
Of course, B is betrothed if she initially suggested the kiddushin, and A responded bysaying "Be betrothed with this apple." This applies even if she is silent while she
accepts the apple or says merely "Give it to me."[Witnesses to a deed of kiddushin; terminology]
The essence of kiddushin by deed is the witnessed transfer of the appropriate
writing. It is not necessary that witnesses sign the deed. This explains why theGemara permits the deed to be written on pottery shards notwithstanding that185
signatures can be readily forged on shards .
Can we say that signatures are important, and that pottery shards may be
used only where the writings are carved and cannot be forged? No, this isunlikely. Besides, carved inscriptions are not writings.
The man A must write in the deed that he is betrothing the woman B.
There is no kiddushin if the deed recites the woman's statement "I am betrothed
to you" or her father's statement "My daughter is betrothed to you." The
Yerushalmi says of such statements "What of it?", which the Meiri interprets as186
meaning of what concern is it since A neither gives anything nor says anything .
Where, however, the deed is worth a perutah, there is questionable kiddushin
since possibly the intent was to betroth with the deed's monetary value. Compare
the rules for monetary kiddushin which is given by A, and in which B declares the
kiddushin.

185

Sample signatures which are to be used for later verification may be written only on shards which
are unenforceable as loan documents. If written on material which can serve as a deed, an unethicalperson might fraudulently insert loan language above the sample signatures. Keth. 21:1.
186

The Meiri disagrees with those who would interpret the Yerushalmi as meaning why treat thiscase differently from other acceptable formulations.

[7:2][Deed need not have inherent value; result if deed is written on proscribed material]
The deed need not have any particular inherent value: it may be worth less thana perutah. That is why deeds may be written on materials from which enjoyment or187
states flatly that a deed is valid forbenefit is proscribed. Another Gemara
kiddushin even if its use is Scripturally proscribed.
But consider the following dialogue in the Yerushalmi:
Rabbi holds that get and kiddushin written on proscribed materials arevalid. R. Eleazar holds that both are not valid.
The Rabbis of Caesarea explain that Rabbi and R. Eleazar do not
disagree. Rabbi validates both get and kiddushin on proscribed materials
where the proscription is Rabbinic. R. Eleazar invalidates both where theproscription is Scriptural.
Rav invalidates kiddushin made with hametz between 11:00 A.M. andNoon on the 14th day of Nissan. Why so? Hametz in that hour is
proscribed only Rabbinically! Because:
The essence of kiddushin with hametz is its monetary value. That is
why Rabbinically proscribed hametz is not valid.
The essence of kiddushin by deed is the writing, not the monetary
value of the document. That is why a deed is good where theproscription is Rabbinic.
If so, Scripturally proscribed deeds are valid. At worst the deed has
no value as a result of the proscription, and we know that a deed isvalid even if the parchment or paper is not worth a perutah!
No. A Scripturally proscribed document has no value at all, and istreated as if it does not exist. Documents which are worth less than aperutah have some value and therefor exist. The same is true of
Rabbinically proscribed documents: The Rabbinic proscription does
not destroy the document's existence.
The highlighted if so language at first appears to be a disbelieving rejoinder: if in fact
the essence of kiddushin by deed is the writing, Scripturally proscribed deeds (whichby law are void) would wrongly be held to be valid. The final paragraph then explains

187

Git.20:1.

[7:2]
why Scripturally proscribed deeds are void even though the essence of kiddushin is awriting: there must still be some residual value.
Read this way, the Yerushalmi would hold that Scripturally proscribed deeds are
not valid.
But the Meiri suggests another reading. The if so language is expository, rather
than inquiring:
Since the essence is the writing, Scripturally proscribed documents are valid.
The final paragraph deals with the issue: why tell us that Scripturally proscribedkiddushin is valid when we already know that low value documents are valid? The
Yerushalmi then explains that Scripturally proscribed documents have no value at all,and that is why we must be taught that they are still valid as kiddushin.
[A deed should not be written on proscribed material, but is valid if written on thismaterial]
One should not write a deed on proscribed material although the deed is valid ifused. What is proscribed is benefit, and the effectiveness of the kiddushin is itself abenefit.
Some commentators disagree. They maintain that there is no proscribed benefit
here because the value of the benefit is arguably less than a perutah.
Why then is it that a benefit of less than a perutah may not be had from an
object proscribed by oath? Because proscriptions resulting from oaths are
unusually strict: even a customary premium-type gift offered by a seller to188
a buyer is forbidden where the buyer foreswore benefit from the seller.
They note that the fulfillment of religious precepts (such as the precept which
requires men to marry and have children) is not considered to have monetary value.
Even these commentators hold that one should avoid using proscribed deeds
which have an inherent value of at least one perutah. True, the deed is not given as
money, and the value of the desired result is less than a perutah. Still and all, thegroom has made use of a deed worth a perutah to bring about a desired result.
The Meiri concludes that it is inappropriate as a matter of decency willfully toperform a precept, such as kiddushin, with a proscribed item. Similarly, one should
188

Ned.32:2.

[7:2]
not willfully perform halizah with a sandal dedicated to idols, or use as a lulav palm
189
fronds which were dedicated to idols .
[The proper recipient of the deed of kiddushin]
A na'arah, and most certainly a ketannah, may be betrothed only through herfather, whereas a bogeret has independent capacity to effect her own kiddushin.
That is why there is kiddushin if B is a na'arah or a ketannah and A gives a deed toB's father in which A writes "Your daughter is betrothed to me."If A gives the writing to B, she is betrothed if B is a na'arah and her father
approves and in effect designates her as his agent. A ketannah cannot be an agent.
Although there is kiddushin where B is a ketannah and her father directs
her to accept monetary kiddushin from A, that result does not flow from
B's agency. Instead, it depends on the doctrine that kiddushin is valid if
given to a third party at the direction of the woman, or, in the case of aketannah, at the direction of her father.
The rules are reversed where B is a bogeret. She may accept the kiddushin
personally, or she may in effect appoint her father as her agent to accept the
kiddushin.
[Deed written as a form is invalid]Kiddushin by deed from A to B is valid only if A wrote the deed for B. There is no
kiddushin if the deed is written as a form or for another woman or "for any woman I
want," or "for either B or C" or "for both B and C." This rule is derived from a similar
rule for get.
The rule applies even where the deed is worth more than a perutah. Where theintent is to betroth by deed rather than money, there can be no resort to themonetary value of the deed if it is invalid as a deed.
[Other factors which invalidate deeds of kiddushin]
Kiddushin deeds which are written by idiots, minors, slaves or gentiles areinvalid. All other factors which Scripturally invalidate a get also invalidate a deed of
kiddushin. For example, the following deeds written by A to B are invalid:

189

Yeb.103:2, and Suk.31:2.

[7:2]
a deed written on plants attached to the ground;a deed written on the hand of a slave or the horn of a cow (unless A
gives B the slave or the cow), even if A thereafter dislodges the horn andgives it to B and even if the horn is worth a perutah;a deed in which the inscription is carved rather than written;
a deed written on the ground;a deed written on two tablets rather than one.
Rabbinic (as opposed to Scriptural) invalidity of get does not carry over tokiddushin. For example, the following requirements apply to get but not to
kiddushin:
the agent who delivers a get must declare that he witnessed the writingof the get and the signatures;the witnesses must testify that they signed the get in the presence ofeach other;
the get must be deposited in the wife's hand securely, so that thehusband would not be able to retrieve it were it connected to a string
which he holds.
This lenience for kiddushin is supported by the rule that kiddushin deposited on arock which is jointly owned by the man and the woman is possibly valid, whereas aget so deposited is definitely void.
If witnesses to a get are illiterate, the Beth din impresses their names unto thedeed with a knife, and the witnesses then fill the impression with ink. The Gemara
190
cautions that this rule applies to get only and not to other documents . The Meiri
concludes that the Gemara's intent is not to exclude kiddushin, but rather to treat
get and kiddushin in the same way. In both instances there is no requirement thatwitnesses sign the deed; only witnesses to the transfer are essential. But whereas in a
get the signing witnesses serve a purpose by facilitating subsequent validation of the191
get , even this purpose does not apply to kiddushin.

190

Git.19:2.

191

Git.3:2.

[7:2][Conditional kiddushin]
A conditional get is invalid. Kiddushin in which A says to B "Your betrothal to me
is effective to all persons except C," is also considered conditional and is invalid by
192
analogy from get . Does this suggest that all conditions are as invalid in kiddushin
as they are in get? The Meiri believes not, and that only conditions which affect awoman's right to marry another invalidate kiddushin.
[9:2][Must the bride know and approve while the deed is being written?]
What if A wrote a deed of kiddushin for B, but B did not know this when thedeed was being written, or B was opposed to kiddushin at the time?
Raba and Rabina say the kiddushin is valid, by analogy from get in which
the wife's knowledge is required only when she actually receives the get.
R. Papa and R. Sherabia disagree. The knowledge of the transferorhusband is required at the time the get. The woman is the transferor (ofher body) in kiddushin. Her knowledge is therefore required at the time ofwriting.
The Meiri prefers the logic of Raba's view. Besides, R. Papa is only Raba's disciple; andRaba is supported by Rabina, who was later in time and whose views are generally
dispositive.
The Alfasi and the Rambam agree with R. Papa and require knowledge. Theyfind persuasive the baraitha which R. Papa invokes to support his position, and they
consider unconvincing Raba's response that the baraitha, which expressly requires
knowledge in documents of betrothal, refers only to financial agreements which
relate to the betrothal, but not to the kiddushin itself. Besides, they consider Raba's
response inconsistent with the dispositive view of R. Ashi.

192

Git.82:2.

[7:2]
R. Ashi's position is derived by them from the propositions and dialogue in the193
following Gemara :(1) There is a general rule that financial arrangements entered into byprospective in-laws are deemed binding when their respective children
are betrothed, even if there is no writing.
(2) Rabina asks R. Ashi whether a writing is permitted in these circumstances.
(3) R. Ashi rules that no writing is permitted.
(4) Rabina refers to the baraitha which requires the knowledge of both thehusband and the wife on betrothal documents, and asks "Don't you
agree that the baraitha refers to financial documents?"(5) R. Ashi answers that the baraitha refers to an actual deed of kiddushinrather than to financial agreements.
The Alfasi and Rambam explain the Gemara as follows:
1. The issue of whether a writing is permitted in Rabina's question (2) is
not whether the parties may reduce their financial understandings towriting. Rather, the issue is whether the party who is promised a dowryobtains rights in the promisor's property sufficient, should the promisor
renege, to foreclose against purchasers of property from the promisor.
The question whether a writing is permitted is a shorthand way of
asking whether there apply the rules of foreclosure which generally
attend written obligations.
That a writing is permitted means that foreclosure rights do apply. It
follows that the document must be written with the knowledge ofboth parties, as is the rule for all documents which affect third
parties.
On the other hand if the writing is not permitted, in the sense that it
is ineffective against third parties, it follows that the writing can be
written without the knowledge of the parties.
2. In step (3) R. Ashi responded that third parties cannot be affected. It
follows that knowledge is not required.

193

Keth.102:2.

[7:2]
3. In (4) Rabina attacks R. Ashi's position and attempts to prove that therights of third parties are affected, from the baraitha which requires theknowledge of both parties to financial agreements.
4. R. Ashi answers in (5) that he reads the baraitha as dealing only withthe betrothal document itself. Consequently, R. Ashi is free to hold thatknowledge is not required in financial documents, and that third parties
are not affected.
In sum, R. Ashi's position that third parties are unaffected is tenable only if thebaraitha which requires the knowledge of both the husband and the wife is limited
to actual deeds of kiddushin. This required interpretation of the baraitha is consistent
with the view of the Alfasi and the Rambam that the deed of kiddushin must be
written with the knowledge of both the husband and the wife.
The Ba'al Ha'maor and the Ritva interpret the R. Ashi-Rabina dialogue
differently, with the result that R. Ashi can interpret the baraitha as dealing eitherwith financial arrangements or with actual kiddushin. The issue is not whether thebaraitha makes R. Ashi's position untenable but whether the baraitha directly
supports R. Ashi's position. They accomplish this result by reversing the meanings ofthe phrases which the Gemara uses.
The phrase a writing is permitted implies to:
the Ba'al Ha'maor that contracting parties generally intend theirtransactions to be recorded, and to
the Ritva that arrangements may be recorded without knowledge ofthe parties because third party rights are not affected.
Conversely, that a writing is not permitted means that the writing canbe written with knowledge only:
the Ba'al Ha'maor holds that there is no assumption that contracting
parties intend their transactions to be recorded;
the Ritva holds that third party rights are affected and the parties
may not have intended the liens which arise from written
documents.
In Step (3) R. Ashi held that no writing is permitted, in the sense that:(i) for the Ba'al Ha'maor knowledge is required and(ii) for the Ritva liens are created.

[7:2]In Step (4) Rabina attempts to support R. Ashi.
In Step (5) R. Ashi says that the baraitha is not definite proof, since it canbe read as dealing with betrothal itself.
Note that R. Ashi never concludes that the baraitha must deal with actual deeds of
kiddushin. R. Ashi merely expresses uncertainty which undermines Rabina's proof.
The Raabad takes yet another approach:That a writing is permitted means that the promisor assumes a direct
personal obligation to pay the promised amounts or items to thepromisee. That a writing is not permitted means that the promisor
intends only a present gift of items which the promisor is now in aposition to give. If he is not in a position to give these items now, heassumes no obligation or debt to pay the items to the other party. The
writing is not permitted in the sense that it is of no avail to establish an
obligation.
R. Ashi ruled in (3) that there is no personal obligation.
In (4) Rabina attacks R. Ashi's view with the baraitha which suggests thatthe only issue is the parties' knowledge of the precise amount promised.
It is evident that once they have knowledge, in the sense that there is
precise agreement, a document can be written which is legally binding.
In (5) R. Ashi, to maintain his position, is compelled to limit the baraitha
to actual deeds of kiddushin.
It follows that the Raabad's view is supportive of the position of the Rambam and theAlfasi. The baraitha agrees with R. Papa and R. Sherabia.
The Meiri concludes that the views of Raba and Rabina should prevail, but that
attention should be paid to the views of R. Papa and R. Sherabia wherever possible.
One final point on the Gemara just discussed:
The Gemara later refers to a Mishnah which deals with men who marry
wives who have daughters from previous marriages. If wise, such a man
would agree in writing to support the wife's daughters only so long as thehusband and wife were alive and married. The Gemara maintains that theMishnah is inconsistent with R. Ashi. Why?
The Ba'al Ha'maor and the Ritva explain that the Gemara's problem is withcharacterizing the men as wise.

[7:2]
Recall that the Ba'al Ha'maor and the Ritva hold that liens are created bywritings.
The Gemara's problem is how these men are wise, if by recording theiragreements they subjected their properties to a lien in favor of theirstepdaughters?!
The Rambam, Alfasi and Raabad hold that no liens are created by writings.
The Gemara's problem is not why the Mishnah called the men wise.
Rather, the issue is why a writing is required.
[Binding nature of financial commitments relating to betrothal]
All commentators agree that financial arrangements are binding without formal
kinyan. The only issues revolve around whether there are attendant liens and onwhether the relationship is one of gift or personal obligation.
How is it that the legal relationship is established by mere words without thebenefit of a kinyan? Further, why is it that the Yerushalmi holds these commitments
binding only where they are made by the bride's or groom's father, but not by otherrelatives?
1. One group of commentators relies on the Gemara's stated194
explanation that commitments are binding because of the pleasure
the match gives to participants and their families. No relative derives thesame joy at the match as does the father.
2. Other commentators hold that the commitments are binding toassure onlookers that the accompanying kiddushin is binding and is notconditioned on performance of the financial commitment. This rationale
applies only where the undertakings are made substantially at the sametime as the kiddushin.
If this is the explanation why does the Gemara explain thatcommitments are binding because of the pleasure which the in-laws
derive from the impending match? The Gemara's rationale is supportive
only.
This approach explains why commitments are binding only when
undertaken by the father. Where the undertaking is by other relatives,

194

Kes.102:2.

[7:2]
there is not the close interest or control which can cause onlookers
mistakenly to assume that the child's actions were contingent onundertakings made by the relative.
3. A third group of commentators begins analysis with thefollowing question: why are the groom's financial commitments to his
195
bride not binding if not in writing ?:If the first group of commentators is correct, why are not thecommitments binding because of the emotional benefit the groom
will derive?
If the second group of commentators is correct, why is there noconcern of potential error on the conditionality of kiddushin?
The explanation is that the binding nature of the father'sobligations derives, not from the potential of error or from emotional
benefit, but rather from the father's obligation to marry off his son andhis daughter. Although a father is not obligated to provide a dowry to
his son, the satisfaction the father feels on discharging his obligation to
betroth his son carries over and affects the goodwill with which hemakes financial commitments in favor of the son.
The groom himself, or the groom's or bride's mother or brother,
do not have this duty, and that is why their commitments are notbinding.
Should the rule be different if the bride's father bequeathed her
with specific property to be used towards her dowry, and her motheror brother orally committed to transfer this property to the groom?
No. The mother and brother are not obligated to marry her off andthey have no standing to establish commitments on which third
parties can rely. The daughter does of course have a claim to theproperty.
Where the mother and brother commit with their own property,
even the daughter has no claim.

195

The Meiri's source for this principle is the Yerushalmi. The Rambam's apparent inconsistency with
the Yerushalmi is explained by the Meiri in Kes.102:2.

[7:2][Financial commitments made by others than the father]Commitments which are not backed by a kinyan are binding when madebilaterally by each spouse's father. What if there is a father on one side and anotherrelative (or no relative) on the other? Is the father's unilateral commitment binding
without a reciprocating binding commitment?
The commentators differ. The following considerations are relevant:A Mishnah teaches that a groom who cannot enforce his father-in law'scommitment need not consummate the marriage. The bride "sits and196
waits until her hair turns gray." Why is the commitment not enforced?
i. Because the commitment was unilateral? If so, this indicates thatunilateral commitments are not binding.
ii. A unilateral commitment is binding, but the father-in-law has no
assets or has died.
iii. A unilateral commitment is binding, but the groom chooses not tosue.
The Yerushalmi supports those who hold that a unilateral commitment
is binding. The Yerushalmi deals with a husband's written commitment
to his wife, which by definition is unilateral. The Yerushalmi explainsthat this commitment is binding because it is equivalent to a father-inlaw's oral commitment to his son-in-law.
But why take the Yerushalmi as evidence that commitments by ason's father is binding? Does not the Yerushalmi speak in terms ofthe commitment improving the daughter's station relative to hersisters? Let us then limit the Yerushalmi to commitments to adaughter and a son-in-law!
No. In the course of its later discussion, it is obvious thatcommitments are binding on the son's father as well.
The Yerushalmi at first maintains that the rule which holds
unilateral commitments binding would have been of greaterinterest in the context of the commitment of the groom's father
than of the commitment of the bride's father:

196

Keth.108:2.

[7:2]
It is readily understandable that a bride's father's promise is"acquired" by the groom in-conjunction-with his acquisition of
the bride. It is more noteworthy that the bride can seal thebargain of her groom's father!
The Yerushalmi ultimately concludes that there is no inconjunction-with mechanism, so that even the binding nature of
the bride's father's commitment is of interest.
Pervading the discussion is the assumption that the commitment of the197
groom's father is as binding as that of the bride's father .
[Recording an otherwise non-binding commitment]
A kinyan would make binding even the commitment of a mother or a brother.
What if there is no kinyan but the commitment is recorded? The Yerushalmi holds
that the commitment is not binding. This also applies where A tells B in writing "BuyC's land, and I will give you X." Commitments not backed by kinyan bind only fatherson their children's betrothal.
What if the commitments are made by a stranger? Here, too, theYerushalmi rules that the commitments are not binding. Should there not
be a presumption that a stranger, whose participation is voluntary, intends
to be bound? No. To the contrary, a stranger has less interest in the bridethan does a brother or mother! He certainly does not wish to be boundwithout the appropriate kinyan.
Our Gemara disagrees. Witness the case in which A states in a writing that he198
owes B a maneh . R. Johanan holds that the statement, although not backed by a
197

There is a suggestion in the Yerushalmi that a father's commitment to his son is binding only forthe son's first marriage.
A father has no obligation to give his son anything. Only the father's joy at his son's first wedding
supports the commitment.
A father's commitment to his daughter is supported by obligation as well as joy. The father'sobligations continue for subsequent marriages.
Our Gemara deals only with rules which apply uniformly to sons and daughters. This explains why itdoes not mention the first marriage rule.
198

Keth.101:2.

[7:2]
kinyan, is sufficient to create an obligation even if there never was a loan.
Rather surprisingly, the Alfasi applies that rule even where A prepares thewriting in error. Perhaps, the Alfasi's rule applies if the writing was intentional andconscious but was based on a misapprehension of facts. An example is where A"confirms" a loan to B and forgets that he had previously repaid this loan. Probably,
the Alfasi would agree that there is no obligation if the very signing of the
document is an error, such as where A thought he was signing some document otherthan an affirmation of a loan to B.
[The effect of the death of the groom or bride on the parent's commitment]
Where the bride or groom dies before the wedding, the deceased person's
199
father has no obligation to the survivor . Even the deceased groom's brother who
acts as yabam has no claim. It does not matter that the yabam succeeded to certain
rights and obligations from his deceased brother. The father-in-law can tell theyabam "I wanted to help your brother, but I do not want to help you."
The Yerushalmi explains that the father's oral commitment is annulled because"it was made with a view to marriage."
Does the Yerushalmi require that the father have said that marriage was acondition? Or do we rely on a presumption?
The Rambam and the Alfasi hold that a presumption is meant, and they also
apply the presumption to invalidate any claims by the surviving spouse against his or
her own father. Other commentators disagree and require an express statement by
the father.
But all hold that the deceased person's heirs can assert no claim even if thefather made no statement. The issue of whether a statement is necessary
affects only the rights of a surviving yabam or the rights of the father's sonor daughter.
[Commitment by a third party where a parent dies]
Assume that A by kinyan or deed obligates himself to B to provide a dowry to B's
daughter. Does this obligation survive B's death? Can the daughter maintain that A
intended to assist her, and that B participated only as her agent? Or can A insist that
he only wished to help B?
199

Keth.66:1.

[7:2]The better rule is that A's obligations survive.
[Knowledge required regarding a kethubah]
Both the husband and wife must know in advance what is proposed to be
written in a kethubah. Otherwise, the kethubah may undervalue the wife's property.
Once the marriage is consummated the wife may be reluctant to sue her husband to
be made whole.
The rule is different for promissory notes in business transactions: a scribe may
write a note for the borrower without the lender's knowledge. A lender will not passfunds until he reviews the document carefully. Besides, if an error is discovered at alater time, the lender will sue to correct it.
[Certain rules relating to cohabitation]
Note the following rules:
1. If a man cohabits with an unbetrothed virgin who is not yet bogeret
he must pay a 50 shekel fine, he must marry her, and he is subject toother penalties.
2. If a man commits adultery with a na'arah who is a virgin (a "maiden")
and who is betrothed, both he and she are penalized by stoning.
3. If a man commits adultery with a betrothed woman who is not a
virgin, or with a married woman, he and she are penalized bystrangulation.
Our Gemara holds that kiddushin by cohabitation is valid, whether the
cohabitation is natural or unnatural. The Torah refers to "cohabitations of a200
woman" in the plural, and this implies that unnatural cohabitation is equivalent tonatural cohabitation for all purposes. Indeed, we know that incestuous unnatural
201
cohabitation is proscribed . The same is true of cohabitation with a betrothedmaiden: both the man and the woman are stoned whether the cohabitation was
natural or unnatural.
If a betrothed maiden cohabits with ten men unnaturally, all are stoned, since200

Lev.20:13.

201

San.54:1.

[7:2]
she remains a maiden after each cohabitation. However, if her groom cohabits with
her unnaturally, later men are strangled and not stoned. Although she remains
physically a maiden, she loses the legal status of virginity because of thiscohabitation.
Rabbi is in the minority. He holds that if a betrothed maiden cohabits with themen unnaturally, even where the first man is not her groom, only the first man isstoned, and all later men are strangled.
The same would apply if she had been previously betrothed to a groom
who died after cohabiting with her unnaturally. She is no longer a maiden,
and those who cohabit with her are not subject to fines.
However, if several men unnaturally cohabit with an unbetrothed maiden Rabbi
202
concedes to the majority that she remains a maiden for the purpose of applying the
50 shekel fine for the seduction or rape of such women.
Which of the 10 must marry her? The Yerushalmi holds that she candesignate which of the 10 is to marry her, and that she can change her
designation at any time until betrothal. She requires a new betrothal tothe person she ultimately selects, because the intercourse in which she wasviolated cannot serve as kiddushin: by definition there are no witnesses
who attest that he told her "Be betrothed to me with this intercourse."
What is the halacha?
The Rambam rules that no fines are payable by a man who cohabits unnaturallywith an unbetrothed maiden, even if she never previously cohabited with anyone,naturally or unnaturally. Consider the following in analyzing the Rambam's position:
1. It is difficult to reconcile the Rambam's holding with our Gemara, inwhich the concept of fines payable for unnatural cohabitation ispervasive.
203

2. The Rambam's view also contradicts a Gemara which argues that a
violated unbetrothed maiden must be compensated for her shame (inaddition to her rights to a 50 shekel fine). The Gemara reasons that only
if payment is made for shame will a man who cohabits unnaturally
202

The majority do not expressly state a view on this case. However, the phrase Rabbi agrees suggeststhat his agreement is with the majority.
203

Keth.40:1.

[7:2]
suffer a deservedly greater penalty than one who cohabits naturally. The
Gemara does not even consider the possibility that unnatural violation is
exempt from penalty. It is irrelevant that the Gemara ultimately
204
concludes that liability for shame is derived otherwise .
205

3. Another Gemara deals with the interplay of the rule that one who
seduces an unbetrothed maiden must marry her, and the obligations ofa High Priest:
i. to marry only a maiden; andii. not to marry a widow or divorcee.
The Gemara first states the proposition that a High Priest who seduces amaiden who was widowed from a previously unconsummated marriage
need not marry her, because the marriage is proscribed.
But given that a High Priest may marry only a maiden, is not themaiden automatically proscribed to him on account of his own
cohabitation with her? The Gemara answers that the priest's
cohabitation was unnatural and that the woman is a virgin. Only an
outside proscription, such as her widowhood, can exempt the priest
from the obligation to marry the woman.
Here is a clear statement contrary to the Rambam that unnatural
cohabitation results in penalties to the seducer. Only the girl'swidowhood protects the High Priest from penalties.
206

4. The Rambam's view is supported somewhat by a Gemara
which
discusses the rule that a brother who seduces his unbetrothed sister must
pay the standard fine of 50 shekels. Now:
Cohabitation of siblings is punishable by kareth.
Any onlooker may kill any person who is about to engage in

204

The alternative derivation begins with a verse which requires that the violator pay 50 shekels forthe pain he caused the maiden. This suggests that the 50 shekel fine is an addition, on account of thespecial pain resulting from violation of chastity.
205

Yeb.59:1.

206

Sanh.73:1.

[7:2]
incestuous relations punishable by kareth.
There is no monetary penalty for actions which subject one to thethreat of capital punishment.
So, asks the Gemara, why need the brother pay the penalty?
The Gemara answers that an onlooker may intervene only wherethe victim had not previously been violated. In our case the sister had
been previously violated unnaturally, so that the brother who is now
violating her naturally is not subject to capital punishment. It follows
that he must pay the monetary fine.
Why does the Gemara emphasize that the current cohabitation,
for which the penalty is paid, is natural?
The Rambam holds that no penalty would be payable forunnatural cohabitation.
Those who disagree hold that the Gemara's only interest was inexplaining that the first violation is unnatural. Insofar as concerns
the second violation, a natural violation is treated the same as anunnatural violation.
Certain commentators who disagree with the Rambam maintain that a penalty is
paid for unnatural cohabitation only where the violation, although otherwise
natural, did not physically remove virginity. This would explain the rule that apenalty is paid only for a na'arah and not for a bogeret: the virginity of a bogeret isphysically not as complete as that of a na'arah. The Meiri disagrees.
[Uncertain betrothals]
Where A betroths one of two sisters and he does not know which, he cannot
marry either sister, since he may have betrothed the other. But there is sufficientbetrothal to require each sister to obtain a get before she marries anybody else.
The rules which limit the acquisition of a yebamah to cohabitation, and of a[7:2]
207

bondmaid to money, will be discussed below.
[10:1][Minimum age for valid cohabitation]

A girl attains the capacity for cohabitation at age three years and one day, a boy
at age nine years and one day.
R. Jonathan holds that if a child below these ages engages in incestuous oradulterous cohabitation with an adult of the opposite sex, the adult is subject topunishment (and if a woman she is forbidden to her husband), notwithstanding thatthe child is not subject to punishment.
R. Jonathan emphasizes the following verse:

207

14:2.

[7:2]
208

1."The man alone that lay with her shall die"This implies that capacity for punishment is judged separately for each participant in
the cohabitation.
209

R. Josiah disagrees
His source is the verse. No party is subject to punishment if the other is exempt.
210

2."They shall both of them die"The fact that Verse 2 deals with the adultery of a married woman is no objection,
since learning for one marital capacity can be derived from learning which relates to211
cognate capacities. There is therefore no need to emend the text to provide that R.
Josiah's source is the following verse relating to a betrothed maiden:
212

3. "And they shall die"

There is disagreement on R. Josiah's precise meaning. Rabbeinu Tam explainsthat even R. Josiah never intended to free one party to a proscribed intercourse if
213
the other is underage . Rather, his purpose is only:
to exempt the adult from punishment if for any reason the adult'spunishment is not the same that the other party's punishment would havebeen were the other party an adult.
214

Specifically, both R. Josiah and R. Jonathan subscribe to R. Meir's view that one
who cohabits with a betrothed ketannah is not stoned. The issue is whether the man

208

Deut.22:22.

209

Holdings which directly contradict R. Josiah in Sanh.55:2 are ascribable to R. Jonathan.

210

Deut.22:51. The phrase both of them is the source of the rule that a pregnant adulterous woman is
executed with her fetus. Er.7:1.
211

The Meiri holds that the Gemara in Er.7:1 discussed in the preceding Note presents Verse 2 as R.
Josiah's source.
212

Deut.22:4.

213

Hence, the holdings in Sanh.55:2 need not be ascribed exclusively to R. Jonathan.

214

Sanh.66:2.

[7:2]is strangulated:
R. Jonathan holds that the man is subject to the general penalty for
adultery: strangulation.
R. Josiah frees the man entirely, for were we to penalize him withstrangulation, his penalty would not be the same (stoning) to which thegirl (and, in fact, he) would have been subject were she of age.
The majority of the Rabbis disagree with R. Meir, and the dispute between R. Josiah
and R. Jonathan is academic.
[Stages of cohabitation; licit and illicit cohabitation]
Betrothal by cohabitation is effective only at the end of cohabitation. The end of
cohabitation occurs when there is complete penetration; there is no requirementthat there be any further bodily movement or release. Although initial penetration
results in culpability for incestuous or other proscribed relations, for the purposes of
kiddushin the parties do not consider their action complete until the end of
cohabitation.
Two rules follow:
1. If the woman accepts kiddushin from B after the beginning of
cohabitation with A, she is betrothed to B.
2. Since a High Priest can marry a virgin only, he cannot betroth bycohabitation, since the betrothal becomes effective only at the end of
cohabitation when his bride is no longer a virgin.
215

How is our Gemara to be reconciled with another Gemara which rules that initial216
cohabitation is sufficient for marital relations ? The commentators offer thefollowing explanations:
1. The beginning of cohabitation effects betrothal only where the intent
to effect kiddushin in this way is expressly stated.

215

Yeb.54:2.

216

The Gemara derives the rule by gezerah shawah ("If a man takes a woman" (Deut. 24:1)) from theverse on incest "If a man takes his sister" (Lev. 20:17)). Initial penetration is sufficient for incest
because of a direct Scriptural reference (Lev. 20:18).

[7:2]
2. What is important is whether the cohabitation was ultimately
completed. If not, there is no suggestion that complete cohabitation was
intended, and initial cohabitation is valid. Where cohabitation iscompleted, no significance can be given to its early stages, since thecouple obviously intended completion. The following rules result:i. If cohabitation is completed, intervening kiddushin accepted fromanother is valid, because the first kiddushin was not intended to becomplete until the end.
ii. A High Priest may not betroth by cohabitation which hecompletes, since in that case kiddushin is intended to be effective
only upon completion, and his wife is then no longer a virgin. But hemay betroth with cohabitation which is terminated at an early stage,
because kiddushin is meant to be effective at the early stage, and sheis then yet a virgin.
3. Yet another commentator reconciles the Gemaras thus: The beginningof cohabitation, in the sense of initial penetration, indeed does effectbetrothal. Our Gemara deals with an even earlier stage: where the man
touched the woman but made no penetration at all.
4. The Gemara which validates the beginning of cohabitation deals notwith kiddushin but rather with cohabitation which follows kiddushin
and which consummates marriage in a manner equivalent to huppah.
The consummation of marriage is significant. It entitles the husband
to inheritance rights from his wife, it makes it permissible for him (ifhe is a priest) to become ritually impure for her if she dies, and it
otherwise affects marital relations and rights.
The Meiri disagrees with the last explanation. He finds no reason to treat early217
cohabitation differently for kiddushin than for consummating marriage .
The Meiri concedes that the halacha rules that cohabitation in general can
218
consummate marriage :217

He reinforces his argument by noting that the gezerah shawah referred to in the preceding Notedoes not at all suggest that its learning be limited to marital consummation rather than betrothal.
218

If betrothal is by cohabitation, a second cohabitation (or huppah) is required to consummate themarriage.

[7:2]
A Tosefta holds that a woman betrothed to a priest eats terumah onceshe enters the huppah or cohabits with her husband.
219

Another Gemara states that there is a presumption that an overnight
stay by a betrothed man and woman in the man's premises is intended
for the purpose of consummating the marriage.
220

But the proposition must be reconciled with another Gemara
the following two sotah rules:

which discusses

1. A betrothed woman cannot be made a sotah. The Torah refers to the221"straying of (the sotah) from her husband."2. A woman can become a sotah only if she previously cohabited withher husband. Why then is Proposition 1 necessary?
The Gemara explains that Proposition 1 is necessary where the groom
cohabited with his bride while she was still in her father's house. In thiscase, she is only betrothed, yet her cohabitation with her groom
precedes the adulterer's cohabitation.
Now, why is the groom's cohabitation, which we deem equivalent to huppah, notsufficient to consummate the marriage to make the woman subject to the rules ofsotah? Because cohabitation completes marriage only if it is intended to be licit.
There is no presumption of licit cohabitation where one without propriety cohabitswith his bride in her father's house.
[Property rights of a na'arah]
While a girl is a na'arah her father is entitled to all value she receives towards her
betrothal. Her father also owns any property she finds and the benefit of her labor.
The father may discharge her vows in cooperation with her groom. Both she and herfather may accept a get from her groom. However, her father has no usufruct rights
in property which she inherits from her mother's family. Once her marriage isconsummated, her husband succeeds to all her father's rights, and her husband also
obtains usufruct rights in property which she inherits.

219

Keth.48:2.

220

Sot.24:2.

221

Num.5:29.

[7:2][Betrothed woman's rights to terumah]
The Rabbis forbid a woman who is betrothed to a priest from eating terumah
until the marriage is consummated. The Gemara discusses two potential concerns
behind this prohibition.
1. The groom may annul the betrothal should he discover a major bodily
defect in the bride (the Nullification Concern).
2. The bride may offer terumah to her siblings while, as a bride, she still
resides in her father's house (Ulla's Concern).
Note that Ulla's Concern does not apply once she is transferred to theauthority of the groom's agents to bring her to the huppah. Her siblings
are no longer with her. The same is true if her father accompanies theagents: the father is an adult and he will not mistakenly eat terumah.
The Gemara discusses the relative status of betrothal as against consummatedmarriage. Why does not the Gemara state that only consummated marriage entitles
the woman to eat terumah? Because she may eat terumah where betrothal is bycohabitation. Why? Because both potential concerns are absent:
It is presumed that during cohabitation he would have discovered any
bodily defects he finds objectionable.
The couple having cohabited, the bride is presumed to have left her
father's house.
The Gemara ultimately concludes that the Rabbis' interdict was grounded on
Ulla's Concern rather than on the Nullification Concern. The law does not react tothe remote possibility of nullification of kiddushin on account of a bodily defect.
Besides, the Rabbis' interdict applies even where the groom waives the right to claim
nullification.
Rabina comments in the Gemara "But what can I do if:
despite the absence of a Nullification Concern, anddespite a kal v'homer which teaches that after monetary kiddushin thebride eats terumah as a Scriptural matter,
the Rabbis still prohibit her from eating terumah as a result of Ulla's Concern."
The kal v'homer is:
A gentile slave can eat terumah on account of her purchase by a priest

[7:2]
notwithstanding that intercourse with a priest does not entitle her to eat
terumah.
That being so, a betrothed woman who may eat terumah upon kiddushin
by intercourse, should certainly eat terumah when kiddushin is by way ofher "purchase" by money or other value.
[Further rules on the minimum age for intercourse]
A girl aged three years and a day may be betrothed by intercourse at her father's
direction. She is considered betrothed for all purposes:
An adult male is stoned if he cohabits with her while she is betrothed, andis strangulated if he cohabits with her while she is married.
If her groom dies she is a yebamah.
yibbum with an adult yabam renders her a married woman for all
purposes, so that a third person who then cohabits with her isstrangulated. If the yabam is a minor, the yibbum is effective to requirethat she obtain a get (as well as halizah) from the yabam before she
marries another.
Although a girl aged less than three years and a day may be betrothed by money or
documents, cohabitation is invalid as kiddushin. The act has no physical permanence.
It is as if one presses a finger to an eye. Just as more tears will follow the initial tears,
so too will her virginity be restored.
[Degrees of ritual impurity]
There are differing degrees of ritual impurity. Two of these degrees are:
1. A father of impurity. A person or object which is impure to this degree
defiles persons or objects which he or it touches or carries.
2. A first degree of impurity. A person or object which is impure to thisdegree can defile only foodstuffs and liquids.
Our Gemara applies these rules as follows:
1. A niddah is a father of impurity. Her seat and bedding are also fathersof impurity, even if separated from her by many spreads and nottouched by her.

[7:2]
2. One who cohabits with a niddah aged at least three years and a day is
a father of impurity. However, his seat and bedding, if not touched byhim, only have a first degree of impurity.
3. A garment carried by a zav but not touched by him is also only impure
to the first degree. The Gemara refers to this garment as having lain on
the zav.
4. One who touches but does not cohabit with a niddah is ritually
impure only until nightfall, and his bedding and seat are not defiled atall.
5. One who cohabits with a niddah aged less than three years and a day
has the status of one who touches a niddah who is older than three
years and a day.

[7:2][10:2][Minimum age for intercourse regarding terumah and cohabitation with unfit
persons]
It was previously noted that a girl who is betrothed to a priest may not eat
terumah until the marriage is consummated by huppah or cohabitation after the girlis three years and one day old.
If the girl is less than three years and one day old, her cohabitation is anullity for terumah, and the same is true of her huppah.
If she cohabits with a gentile, a mamzer or another unfit person after she is three
years and one day old, she becomes unfit for the priesthood. Those who cohabit with
her incestuously are executed notwithstanding that she is exempt because she is not
yet adult.
[Factors determining whether a gentile slave may eat terumah]
A priest's gentile servants and maidservants may eat terumah only if they are"the purchase of the priest's money." That is why a gentile maidservant cannot eat
terumah if she cohabited with a priest but was not purchased by him.
[11:1][Potential rescission as affecting a slave's right to eat terumah]
The Gemara concludes that slaves may eat terumah immediately after purchaseby a priest. We are not concerned that the purchase may ultimately be nullified:
1. Obvious defects are waived.
2. Hidden defects, such as a mole, a dog bite, or bad breath (whether
from the mouth or nose), are of no account, since they do not detractfrom the slave's ability to perform labor.
3. Epilepsy which results in seizures at regular intervals is not obvious to
the purchaser, since the slave can be hidden from public view when aseizure is expected. A purchaser can nullify a sale if a disease of this kind
is discovered. But such seizures are uncommon. Slaves cannot be
forbidden to eat terumah on account of an unlikely nullification.
4. If the slave is discovered to be a thief or kidnapper or a gourmand,[7:2]
this is to be expected of slaves and is not grounds for nullification.
5. If the slave is discovered to be an armed robber or one who has beensentenced to die by the government, such facts are "well known" andare assumed to be waived.
The Rambam rules that the purchase of a slave can be nullified if the slave isafflicted with a grave skin disease, or any affliction which saps his strength, or
epilepsy, idiocy or leprosy. These conditions either adversely affect the slave's
capacity to perform labor or they engender disgust sufficient to make the slave unfit
to perform personal services for the master. These conditions are considered not
obvious to a purchaser.
Recall the holding that a slave's history as an armed robber is "well known." This
222
must be reconciled with the Gemara which says of a slave who is discovered to be
an armed robber or subject to governmental order of execution:
he [presumably the purchaser] tells him [presumably the seller] "there is
your slave, take him!"
If the purchaser can nullify the sale, why do we permit a slave to eat terumah
immediately after purchase? There are several possible explanations:
1. The purchaser can nullify only if the slave was imported from anotherlocation so that the purchaser could not have known the slave's status.
This possibility is too remote to prohibit terumah.
2. The purchaser can nullify only if he has not yet paid for the slave. Until
then, the burden is on the seller, as plaintiff, to prove that the purchaser
knowingly waived the slave's problematic status. Again, this is too
remote to prohibit terumah.
3. In our Gemara the phrase "such matters are well known," means thatthe notoriety makes the purchase of such slaves unusual. We need makeno exceptions to the general rule that a slave may eat terumah.
4. The Gemara which permits a party to the transaction to declare "Hereis your slave, take him" does not refer to a statement by the purchaser.
Rather, it is the seller who says "Here is your slave. You purchased him.
You knowingly waived his status."

222

B.B.92:2.

[7:2][The minimum monetary value of kiddushin]
Beth Hillel hold that:
1. No woman is betrothed for less than a perutah even if she professes tobe content with less than a perutah. Her judgment on value is ignored.
2. Every woman, no matter how exalted, is betrothed with a perutah
unless she expressly demands additional value.
3. Betrothal with a perutah is valid, even if given at night or in othercircumstances in which it cannot be presumed that she was aware that
only a perutah was given.
4. It is essential only that there be no error in the basic nature of what
was given. For example, there is no kiddushin if what appeared to be a
precious stone was actually a pebble.
Now, in explaining why Beth Shammai require a denar, the Gemara first statesthat a woman's dignity will not permit her to be betrothed for less than a denar. To
which Abbaye objects: Do you mean that R. Jannai's daughters, who are very
particular and very wealthy, would not be betrothed even if they accept a denar?
The Gemara responds that there is no issue if a woman affirmatively accepts a denaror even a perutah. The issue is the amount a woman can be presumed to accept
where she is not aware of the amount given her, e.g., at night or through agents.
At this stage of the discussion, Beth Shammai's view can be summarized asfollows:
1. If a woman expressly accepts a perutah, she is betrothed.
2. If a woman expressly accepts less than a perutah she is not
betrothed (her judgment is invalid).
3. If a woman accepts kiddushin at night or through agents, she isbetrothed only if the value is a denar.
4. A woman can expressly set a minimum value she requires for
kiddushin. This value may be greater than a denar.
The Gemara ultimately determines that Beth Shammai's insistence on a denarflows from the general rule that all Scriptural references to money (literally "silver")are to silver Tyrian coinage. The care Scripture takes to invalidate copper coinage
teaches that substantial value is required. Beth Shammai therefore assume that adenar is required notwithstanding that there is a smaller silver Tyrian coin: the[7:2]
ma'ah, which is one-sixth of a denar but which has no substantial value. Under thisview, Beth Shammai hold that kiddushin with a perutah is invalid even if expressly
accepted.
But keep in mind that all of this is academic, since Beth Hillel's view prevails anda perutah is adequate.
[11:2][Minimum monetary values in relation to the oath for partial denials]
Where A sues B for 100X and B denies all, there is no Scriptural oath. Where B
denies 60X and admits 40X, A can demand that B swear that he does not owe the
40X denied. In order for the oath to be imposed the minimum amount concededmust be two ma'ah's and the minimum amount denied must be a perutah; it follows
that the minimum amount of the claim must be two ma'ah's and a perutah.
The Gemara suggests that these requirements are inconsistent with BethShammai:
As noted, Beth Shammai take strictly every reference to silver in Scripture
as referring to one Tyrian silver coin. Once it is shown that substantial value
is required, the Beth Shammai deduce that as to kiddushin, a valuable
denar, rather than a less valuable ma'ah (the smallest silver coin) is
requisite.
Why then are two ma'ah's required rather than one? Obviously, Scripture
leaves to the Rabbis room to interpret Scriptural monetary requirements!
Beth Shammai respond that Scripture is indeed strict in stating its monetaryrequirements. Two coins are the minimum to support an oath because Scripture
223
refers to the oath as being in relation to "silver and utensils." Scripture's plurality
224
for utensils also applies to silver .
[Why there is no minimum value for utensils]
Why is no particular value required for utensils? A utensil has inherent value
223

Ex.22:6.

224

The amount denied need be no more than a perutah, because it is the implication of the verse's
plurality that the entire claim involves value not in excess of two silver coins (plus a perutah).

[7:2]
because of its usefulness. The statement that "just as silver is valuable, so also areutensils valuable" does not create a rule which requires a certain value for utensils.
Rather, it is a statement of fact: all utensils have sufficient value to support an
225
oath.
[Certain difficulties with the view Beth Shammai]
226

The Gemara proceeds to attack Beth Shammai's position with a Mishnahholds that:which

1. Second tithe in the form of copper may be converted into silver,
and may then be converted back to copper for ease in expenditure;and2. Second tithe which was previously converted from commodities
into copper may be reconverted into silver to make the tithe moreeasily transportable to Jerusalem.
Were Beth Shammai correct, how could there be conversion into copper? Scripture
227
refers to silver in relation to the second tithe!
A similar question is posed from hekdesh, where there is a similar reference to228
silver in redemption ("He shall add a fifth in silver and make a valid redemption" )and the rule is nevertheless that hekdesh worth a maneh may be validly redeemed229
with a perutah .

225

The Meiri therefore finds it unnecessary to emend the text to read: "Just as all utensils haveinherent value, so also must silver have some minimum value," i.e., a ma'ah. See Shev.40:2.
226

M.S.2:9.

227

Deut.14:25.

228

Lev.27:19.

229

A maneh's worth of hekdesh may be redeemed for a perutah because the rules which permit
cancellation of a transaction on account of overcharging do not apply to hekdesh. The rules arederived from Lev.25:14 which refers only to overcharging of one's comrade; the term excludes
hekdesh.

[7:2][How R. Assi's view is consistent with Beth Hillel]
R. Assi holds that all Scriptural references to silver are to Tyrian coinage. How
can we reconcile R. Assi with Beth Hillel's prevailing view that a perutah is sufficientfor kiddushin?
The Gemara explains that R. Assi's rule applies only where Scripture mentions a
specific sum of money. For example, the five selah's which are payable to the priest
in redemption of the first born, the fifty shekels payable by a ravisher and a seducer,
the hundred shekels payable by a slanderer, and the thirty shekels payable to themaster of a slave who was tortiously killed, all are payable in Tyrian currency, of
which four denars equals one Scriptural selah.
R. Assi's rule does not apply where Scripture refers to silver or money generally,and not to a specific sum. Here, the reference is variably to Tyrian and to provincial
coinage, depending on the context and on the tradition of the sages.
R. Assi's rule also does not apply in cases of Rabbinic monetary references, even if
to specific fixed amounts. Here, the reference is to provincial currency, of which one
selah (also referred to as an istira) is equal to 1/8 of a Tyrian selah or 1/2 of a Tyrian
denar.
By way of example, the Rabbinic rules applying specific monetary penalties forembarrassments are read in terms of provincial coinage. The selah which is payablefor shouting into a neighbor's ear is an istira.
[Betrothal of a maidservant by designation]
The master of a Jewish maidservant, or his son, may betroth the maidservant, if
she approves. The master must say "You are betrothed to me with the money yourfather accepted as your purchase price." This betrothal, in which no additional value
is provided, is known as designation.
[No purchase if designation is prohibited]
The sale of a maidservant is invalid if neither the purchaser nor his son ispermitted to designate her. That is why a father may not sell his daughter as amaidservant to his son. Neither the son (her brother) nor his son's son (her nephew)
will be permitted to designate her.
She may be sold to her father's father. Even though her grandfather cannot
betroth her, his son (her uncle) may do so.

[7:2][No purchase if redemption by deduction is impossible]
A Jewish servant or maidservant may each purchase their freedom by deduction,i.e., by paying their master the purchase price which remains after deducting the
portion for the expired portion of their term.
Just as a maidservant cannot be sold in circumstances where designation isproscribed, so too a maidservant cannot be sold in circumstances where there can be
no redemption by deduction. Since a perutah is the smallest monetary unit, a sales
price of less than two perutahs is invalid because the sales price cannot be split into
one monetary unit's worth of deducted time and one unit's worth of redemption
price.
Shall we apply the same rule to male slaves where there is no designation?
Commentators differ.
[12:1][Calculation of the value of a perutah]
The perutah for kiddushin must be worth 1/192 of a denar. When a denar is
worth 24 issars this results in the Mishnah's value for the perutah of 1/8 issar.
Issars fluctuate in value relative to the denar and the perutah, and sometimes
depreciate so that there are 32 issars to the denar. In that case, kiddushin stillrequires 1/192 of a denar or 1/6 of an issar, rather than 1/8.
A contrary incorrect view holds that the value of a perutah is determined solely
by reference to the issar rather than to the denar, and that a perutah is 1/6 of an issar
regardless of the value of the issar relative to the denar.
I. Correct View
(perutah can equal 1/8 issar)
selah = 4 denars = 24 ma'ah = 48 pundion = 96 issars = 768 perutah
1 denar = 6 ma'ah = 12 pundion = 24 issars = 192 perutah
1 ma'ah = 2 pundion = 4 issars = 32 perutah
1 pundion = 2 issars = 16 perutah
1 issar = 8 perutah[7:2]
1/8 issar= 1 perutah
II. Incorrect(results in perutah always equaling 1/6 issar)
24 issar=6 ma'ah = 18 hadris = 36 hanez = 72 shamnin = 144 perutah= 1 ma'ah = 3 hadris = 6 hanez = 12 shamnin = 24 perutah
1 hadris = 2 hanez = 4 shamnin = 8 perutah
1 hanez = 2 shamnin = 4 perutah
1 shamnin = 2 perutah
Since 24 issar= 144 perutah, 1 perutah = 1/6 issar[Penalty for transgressions and rewards for proper behavior]
The me'ilah penalty for a perutah's worth of benefit from hekdesh is to pay 1-1/5
perutah to hekdesh and to sacrifice an asham which has a value of at least two
selah's or 1,536 perutahs. If punishment is this great for an accidental and minortransgression, consider how great the punishment is for purposeful and majortransgressions!
The reward for good deeds is a greater multiple of true merit than is punishment
for misdeeds. Consider, then, how great the award is for those who fulfill
commandments.
[Kiddushin which is or may be worth a perutah elsewhere]
The Gemara states the following proposition:
Samuel said: If a man betrothed a woman with a date-fruit, even
where [the date is not worth a perutah], she is neverthelessbetrothed: we fear that it may be worth a perutah in Medea.
But we learned: Beth Hillel rule, by a perutah or the worth of aperutah? [and in Samuel's view anything may be worth a perutah
somewhere!]--There is no difficulty: the one refers to certain kiddushin; the latterto doubtful kiddushin.

[7:2]
Several issues must be clarified:
1. What if the object is definitely not worth a perutah here but may
be worth a perutah in place B?
2. What if the object is possibly worth a perutah at the site of
kiddushin?
3. What if the object is definitely not worth a perutah here but isdefinitely worth a perutah in place B?
4. Does it matter whether the object would be destroyed ordisintegrate before place B could be reached?
Each of these issues are considered in turn.
1. The object is definitely not worth a perutah here but is possibly worth aperutah in Place B.
This is Samuel's direct holding. There is questionable kiddushin. She requires adivorce from the betrother, and if subsequently betrothed by a second person, also
requires divorce from the second.
2. The object is possibly worth a perutah at the site of kiddushin.
There is questionable kiddushin.
3. The object is definitely not worth a perutah here but is definitely worth
a perutah in place B.
The majority rule that there is absolute kiddushin. A minority rules that the
kiddushin are questionable because the bride may insist that she obtain value here.
A third group of commentators arbitrate the dispute by declaring the kiddushin
absolute where travel to B is convenient by frequent caravan, and questionable
where travel to B is inconvenient.
The following arguments are presented:
1. Samuel's view is not clear. He holds there is questionable kiddushin
where the object is possibly worth a perutah in Medea. Does thissuggest that there would be absolute kiddushin where the object isdefinitely worth a perutah in Medea? Or is the point that even inthat case the kiddushin would be questionable only?

[7:2]
230

2. R. Judah holds that where A offers second tithe to B by way of
kiddushin, and B does not know that it is second tithe, the kiddushin
is invalid. Second tithe may be consumed only in Jerusalem. Had she
known the kiddushin was second tithe, she might have rejected the
kiddushin because of the risk and trouble of the trip to Jerusalem.
But note that betrothal is absolute if B realized that second tithe wasused. On this analysis, there is absolute kiddushin whenever a
woman knowingly accepts as kiddushin an object from which a
231
perutah of benefit can be derived only after travel and trouble .
3. A business debt from A to B may be satisfied in currency which isof value exclusively in a distant location, but only if B has occasion to232
travel to that location . This suggests that there is absolutekiddushin if there are frequent caravans to the locale in which theobject has the certain value of a perutah, and that there is otherwisequestionable kiddushin only.
4. Does it matter that the object would be destroyed or disintegrate before
Place B is reached?
The Rambam rules that kiddushin are absolutely invalid unless Place B can bereached in time for the bride to derive a perutah of benefit. It does not matter that
objects of the same kind are worth a perutah in place B.
Others disagree: there is concern that a person who later travels to place B will
mistakenly think that kiddushin there with the object in question is invalid, notrealizing that kiddushin was invalid in place A only because in place A it was not
worth a perutah, and place B could not be reached in time.
Even the Rambam would concede that it is not necessary that the bride haveoccasion to go to Place B.
In evaluating these issues, consider the following:
230

52:2.

231

R. Meir disagrees and holds kiddushin with second tithe invalid, even where B was aware that
second tithe was being used. The halacha agrees with R. Meir. But this does not undermine theanalysis in the text. R. Meir's holding is based on his view (which is of no significance in our context)that an individual can have no ownership interest in second tithe on account of its sacred character.
232

B.K.97:2.

[7:2]
Some commentators hold that the Beth din can investigate
rumors regarding transgressions by designated persons, andannounce that they are baseless, only where the populace would
accept that the Beth din had performed an investigation which
supported the Beth din's conclusion. For example, the Beth din may
announce that the rumor is baseless that A betrothed B with theportion of a fruit which adhered to the core; the populace willassume that an investigation revealed that the fruit was not worth aperutah.
This Gemara is readily understandable if the Rambam's view
prevails. All that is necessary for the investigation is a determinationthat the object was not worth a perutah within the definable area
within which the object could be transported prior to its
disintegration. But if there is no such limitation, the investigation
would have to cover the world and would never be complete; thepopulace's suspicions would never be squelched!
Those who disagree with the Rambam explain that theGemara deals with a case where the basic facts of the betrothal, i.e.,
whether any object at all was passed in kiddushin, are known only byrumor. Only in this case are we not concerned that the object may be
worth a perutah elsewhere.
[The halacha]
What of the halacha? The great majority of commentators agree with Samuel. A
minority do not, and there is yet another minority which disagrees with Samuel evento the point that they invalidate kiddushin where the object used is known to be
worth a perutah elsewhere. A final fourth view arbitrates these differences:
Samuel's view is relied upon to prohibit the woman's marriage to another,but not (unless there are witnesses to the definite value of a perutah in adesignated location at the time of kiddushin) to taint the legitimacy of herchildren by another.
Note the following arguments:
1. Our Gemara asserts that Samuel's position is inconsistent with BethHillel who fix the value of kiddushin at a minimum of a perutah. The
Gemara's only issue is why fix a minimum value if possible value
anywhere would invariably validate the kiddushin anyway. But theGemara has no problem with Samuel's basic concept that an item isvalid for kiddushin if it is definitely worth a perutah, even if only at[7:2]
some distant location.
2. R. Joseph agrees with Samuel in the case cited in our Gemara of
one who betrothed with a myrtle branch.
3. R. Hisda disagrees with Samuel in our Gemara. Abbaye and Raba inturn disagree with R. Hisda. But they note that their disapproval isgrounded not on their agreement with Samuel, but rather becauseof concern with a rumor that witnesses were present abroad who
could testify that the object used was worth a perutah here at thetime of kiddushin.
The Gemara compares Samuel's case with similar rulings relating
to captive women. A captive woman is assumed to have been
233
violated by her captors despite her protestations to the contrary .
But she is believed where the fact of her captivity is known only
through her testimony, and the Beth din is not certain that there
are witnesses to the captivity. If she wished to state an untruth,
she would more likely not have conceded her captivity in the firstplace. This credibility is not lost where there are only rumors that
there are witnesses to her captivity. Why not?
A captive woman has greater credibility because she makes herself
unattractive to her captors. Besides, only her suitability for priests
is in question and the issue is less serious than the marital mattersof concern in our Gemara.
Does this mean that Abbaye and Raba are concerned withvalue elsewhere only if there are rumors to that effect, and that they
disagree with Samuel who has this concern even if there are no
rumors? Not necessarily. Possibly their point is that even where
Samuel's rule does not apply (e.g., according to the Rambam if theobject would perish before transport to a locale where it might beworth a perutah), there is nevertheless doubtful kiddushin if there isa rumor that the item was worth a perutah here on the day of
kiddushin.
3. Our Gemara considers the case of one who betrothed with a matof myrtle twigs in which four zuz were hidden. The only factor which233

Her assumed violation serves to proscribe her to her husband if he is a priest, even if her violation
was unwilling.

[7:2]
the Gemara considers supportive of kiddushin is the bride's silence
after the existence of the zuz was disclosed.
Does this suggest that it is not relevant whether the mat itself,
without any secreted zuz, might be worth a perutah elsewhere?
Again, not necessarily, and for the same reason: the Gemara's
interest is in the possibility of kiddushin in cases where Samuel's rule
does not apply. An example is where the mat, having value only
when moist, cannot be transported elsewhere (where it might beworth a perutah) before it disintegrates. That is why kiddushin canbe based only on the woman's silence after she discovers the zuz
secreted in the mat.
This is consistent with the Rambam's approach. The Rambam
separates the issue of (i) a woman's silence after belated discovery
that she has received value, and (ii) the significance of value
elsewhere of items whose receipt the woman realizes
immediately.
Thus, the Rambam rules that a woman's silence after receiving her
kiddushin is not supportive of kiddushin. Yet he holds that the
woman is validly betrothed with a mat of myrtle twigs (even if she
discards the money, keeping only the mat), where it may havevalue elsewhere if transported there in time.
4. One who pledges amounts to hekdesh beyond his means is
obligated to pay to hekdesh no more than the assessed value of his
234
property. The Mishnah rules that the value of the pledgor's slave
must be taken as the slave is. It does not matter that the purchase of
new clothing would increase the slave's value beyond the actual costof the clothing.
A diamond and a cow must similarly be valued at their present
locations, and not as potentially increased by transport elsewhere.
This supports the commentators who hold kiddushin is invalid unless
234

Eruk.24:1.

[7:2]
it is worth a perutah at the place where betrothal was attempted.
[12:2][Kiddushin which was possibly worth a perutah at an earlier time]
Assume that A betroths B with an object which is definitely not worth a perutah
anywhere when the kiddushin is being judged by the Beth din, but it is possible thatthe object was worth a perutah at the time of the kiddushin. The following rules
apply:
1. There is kiddushin if both A and B testify that the object was worth
a perutah at the time of betrothal.
2. There is kiddushin if witnesses testify that the object was worth aperutah at the time of betrothal.
3. But where B was subsequently betrothed to C, A's betrothal of B
can only be validated by witnesses. Neither the testimony of A and B,
nor the testimony of B's mother or other relatives, can be credited.
Their motivation may be wrongfully to abrogate C's kiddushin.
Thus, R. Hiya's wife was not believed when during the travail ofchildbirth she claimed that her mother told her that she (R. Hiya'swife) had been previously engaged to another. The Gemara would
have denied credibility even were R. Hiya's wife to claim that sheherself had accepted kiddushin from another. This lack of credibility
is far-reaching. Not only can she not forbid her husband to live withher, she cannot forbid herself to live with her husband, and she may
235
continue to eat terumah if her husband is a priest .
4. If the Beth din is assured that there are witnesses who can testify
that the kiddushin is valid, this knowledge is sufficient to prohibit B's
continued cohabitation with C. Most commentators hold that what isrequired is actual knowledge that witnesses exist, not merely rumorsthat witnesses exist. The reference in the Gemara to there being
witnesses in Idith is not to the possibility of such witnesses, but to thecertainty of such witnesses.
Recall also that a captive woman's credibility is not lost because of235

Ned.94:2.

[7:2]
236

rumors that there are witnesses to her captivity.

5. Where B is only betrothed to C, and not yet married to him, it isappropriate to take account of a rumor that there are witnesses, andto postpone marriage until the rumor is confirmed or disproved. If
the couple nevertheless marry, the Beth din compel their divorce, andthe status of their children is questionable.
The rumor must be confirmed or denied only where the act of
betrothal is certain, and the only rumored issue is whether or notthere are witnesses on the value of the kiddushin object.
[kiddushin by cohabitation is discouraged; other reprehensible conduct]
Kiddushin by cohabitation is valid but unseemly. Consider the witnesses which
are necessary and the great importance which attaches to their precise testimony.
The situation is worse where there was no prior engagement: the groom is given
malkot because of the appearance that the cohabitation was not for the purpose of
kiddushin.
We also find fault, but do not give malkot, to one who betroths by money ordeed without a prior engagement, such as one who betroths in the street.
The Gemara lists the following additional cases of reprehensibility and malkot.
1. It is reprehensible for a husband to annul a get sent by messenger
unless the messenger is informed prior to delivery. The wife may
contract another marriage before she learns of the annulment. But
the husband is not given malkot.
2. One who lodges with witnesses a secret protest to a get he laterdelivers is not given malkot, despite the risk that his wife may
wrongfully contract a marriage with another.
His action is reprehensible if not prompted by force. If the get isexacted by force, his action is not even reprehensible.

236

The cases are analogous. It does not matter that a captive woman might arguably have greater
credibility because of her ability to make herself unattractive to her captors. Also no distinction ismade on the grounds that only her suitability for priests is in question and that the issue is therefore
less serious than the marital matters of concern in our Gemara.

[7:2]
3. We ban, but do not give malkot, to one who harasses andembarrasses a messenger sent by the Beth din to deliver a summonsor to seize collateral.
One who has been banned for 30 days on account of nonsubmission to court summons is banned again. In neither case do
we give malkot.
4. The Beth din gives malkot to a son-in-law who dwells in his
mother-in-law's house, if the two were previously under suspicion. If
there is no prior suspicion, then the matter is reprehensible but there
is no malkot.
Some commentators maintain that because of increased morality
nowadays, it is permissible for one to dwell with his mother-in-law
except in cases of rumor and suspicion.
The ban in these cases is fixed by the Beth din according its powers and the237needs of the time .
[Must witnesses be present when kiddushin is confirmed?]
When a woman is given a worthless object towards kiddushin and is later toldthat a valuable item was secreted in the object, there is valid kiddushin if she
confirms the betrothal.
But must witnesses be present when she makes the confirmation? The Meiri
holds that witnesses are required. He presents the following reasoning:
A woman is not betrothed with items unknown to her, or with items
which are known to her but to which she pays no attention. If A
betroths B "with this cup" she is not betrothed if the cup is not worth aperutah, even if there is water in the cup, and the cup and the water,taken together, are worth a perutah.
The rule obviously applies where the groom drew her attention to
the cup and away from its contents, by saying "Be betrothed withthe cup." But the rule goes further: there is no betrothal even where237

The text follows the second version of rules set by Rav. Certain commentators conclude that the
halacha is in accord with Rav's first version under which we give malqoth to each person whose
action is reprehensible.

[7:2]
the groom was more general and said "Be betrothed with this238
object."
It follows that the woman in our case is betrothed only when she
becomes aware and pays attention to the item secreted in the worthless
object, and it makes no difference whether the man betrothed her"with this [worthless item]," or whether he even says more generally"Be betrothed with this."239

The act of kiddushin, at the time when kiddushin is effective
witnesses in order to be valid.

, requires

The rule is different where A says to B, "Be betrothed to me if I am righteous." B
is betrothed even if A is absolutely wicked for he may have meditated repentance in240
his thoughts . No witnesses are required. It is assumed that the groom will repent
in order to validate the kiddushin.
But some commentators disagree, and from the case just mentioned reason
generally that witnesses need not be present at the satisfaction of a condition
subsequent to kiddushin.
[Silence as acquiescence to kiddushin; liability of a bailee; kiddushin by objects
previously entrusted to the bride as bailee]
The Meiri then discusses the following series of rules:
1. A bailee may at any time return to his bailor items which the bailor
entrusted to the bailee's custody. The only exception is where thebailment was taken for a specified term.
2. Assume that A entrusts B with a gold coin and tells B that it is a silver
coin. The coin is lost. B is in theory a bailee insofar as concerns the
hypothetical silver coin, but not for the gold coin. Consequently, if B ismerely negligent, B is responsible only for the value of a silver coin. If B

238

See 48:2. The woman is betrothed if the content of the cup is something to which the woman does
pay attention. Thus, if the content of the cup is something to which the woman does take heed, suchas wine, she is betrothed if the wine and the cup together are worth a perutah.
239

In other words, witnesses must be present when a condition subsequent to kiddushin is satisfied.

240

49:2.

[7:2]is actively destructive, he is responsible for the full value of the goldcoin. A tells B, "You didn't accept responsibility for a gold coin, but you
had no right actively to destroy my property."
However, if B did not know that there was any money hidden
within a worthless item, then B is responsible only for the worthless241
item, even if B was actively destructive .
3. If A gives B an item as kiddushin and does not request that B act asbailee, B's silence connotes acceptance of kiddushin. But this applies only
if the funds are given to her in hand, not if the funds are merely hurled242
towards her . This is to be contrasted from get which is valid if hurled
243
to a resting place which is closer to the wife than to the husband .
4. There is no kiddushin where A gives an item to B and B is silent when244
A later betroths her with it . We reason that she failed to discard theitem, not because she wished kiddushin, but rather because of her
proper concern for her liability as bailee.
But why did she not simply return the object to the man? As
noted, the law permits a bailee at any time to return the bailment to thebailor?! There are two reasons:
It is assumed that the woman was unaware of this rule.
Alternatively, she accepted the bailment for a designated time, andhas no right to terminate the bailment.
5. If A gives an item to B as bailee and immediately says "Take it inbetrothal," and B promptly objects, there is of course no kiddushin. But
if B is silent and yet does not discard the item, there is doubtful
kiddushin. She never accepted the bailment, and the case is similar tothat in Proposition 2, in which a person who has not accepted a
241

B.K.62:1.

242

Unless, of course, she expressly directs him to do so. See 8:2 for valid kiddushin where A places the
kiddushin object on B's property at B's direction.
243

See Git.78:1 for the rationale behind the differing treatment of kiddushin and get.

244

Contrast this with the case where B accepts kiddushin with an apparently worthless object, but issilent later when value is discovered to be secreted in the object.

[7:2]
bailment is liable only for active destruction. If she did not wish to be
betrothed she should have discarded the item without liability.
Can she invalidate kiddushin by arguing that she did not know that theitem could be legally discarded?
No. Here, she never accepted the bailment and she should have
known instinctively that her liability is unlikely.
We therefore rule with Rabina that her possible ignorance of the civil
law is sufficient only to render the kiddushin doubtful, not to void it.
There are two additional details:
If the rule which frees her of liability for discard was explained to her
at the time of the betrothal, her failure to discard should result in
definite kiddushin. The only possible exception is where we can
explain that she failed to discard the object because she was
reluctant to involve herself in an embarrassing court case.
If she was advised to object, but did not, there is definite kiddushin.

[7:2][13:1][Stolen or borrowed items as kiddushin]
There are cases where there is no kiddushin even if the woman was silent while
she received funds from her proposed groom. Where A borrows, steals or seizes aselah from B and he then gives it to her, purportedly as kiddushin, she is not
betrothed even if she is silent and even if she never previously demanded repayment
245
or return. She is merely retrieving her own property . The only exceptions are:
1. Where A and B had become engaged prior to her receipt of thefunds, meaning that negotiations and discussions relating to theimpending betrothal were absolutely complete.
What if the engagement follows receipt of funds? There is no
kiddushin even if she later confirms the betrothal. The funds
which were already given by A to B served to repay his debt toher. They cannot now be resurrected as kiddushin.
Contrast this with the rule where A deposits a selah with B andlater asks that she be betrothed with it. Here, there is kiddushin if
246
she verbally accepts.
2. Where there was no engagement but B said "Yes" when she

245

The assumption that the payment was merely repayment of a pre-existing debt applies only where
the loan is mentioned while A gives B the funds. If the loan is not mentioned, we do not apply thepayment to the loan, even where the loan was recent, and could not be said to be forgotten.
But in cases involving seized or stolen property the payment is applied to the seized or stolen
property whether or not the seizure or the robbery is mentioned, so long as the seizure or robbery
did not occur long ago.
Can B avoid betrothal by showing that she accepted A's property as collateral for a pre-existing loan?
The Rashba rules that she cannot. If she wished to avoid kiddushin she should have said so expressly.
Certain commentators prefer to limit the Rashba's holding to cases in which the collateral has value
in excess of the loan. In that case it can be said that the woman intended kiddushin to be effective on
the basis of the excess value.
246

But where there is no verbal acquiescence there is no kiddushin based on the former deposit, even
if engagement negotiations were complete.

[7:2]
247

received the funds.

The majority view is that A continues to be obligated to repay
his debt. However, it is assumed that B waived her right to restitution
for robbed or stolen items.
The Yerushalmi disagrees. Even in the case of robbed or stolen
items, the assumption is that B stands on her rights; she is content to
let the matter ride, accept funds as kiddushin now, and obtain her
property at another time. The Yerushalmi therefore holds that there
is no kiddushin where A seized one of B's chattels, rather than B's
money. Chattels are not fungible, and we do not assume that B
accepts chattel X as kiddushin and expects A to give her chattel Y by
way of return for the seized item.
A baraitha quoted in our Gemara holds that A can betroth B
with item X which he forcibly purchased from B. The Yerushalmi
must explain either that:
1. Item X is money rather than a chattel, and A forced an exchangeof one form of money for another, or
2. The case of a forced sale is different from a seized or stolen
item. There is an assumption that where negotiations arecomplete B acquiesces in the sale which A previously forced, andthere is no requirement that A return the chattel to her. Although
the transaction was forced, she at least received a fair purchaseprice for item X.
The Meiri suggests that account be taken of the Yerushalmi's view.
[Kiddushin with items stolen from a third party]
The stolen objects to which we have been referring are objects which the man A
previously stole from the woman B. If the objects were stolen from a third party C,
the validity of kiddushin depends on the ability of B to obtain absolute title free of247

Some commentators hold that the kiddushin are valid only when A later repays the debt.
Compare the rule where A promises B a maneh and gives her only a denar.

[7:2]
248

claims of the original owner . Two elements are necessary for the claim-freetransfer of title to a stolen object:
1. The original owner must despair of its return; and2. There must be a transfer of possession from the thief to a third
party.
Despair is assumed in the case of theft. It must be proved in the case of robbery, since
the victim knows the robber's identity and may expect somehow to compel the249
robber to return the victim's property .
But what of the transfer of possession requirement: is the transfer by A to B for
kiddushin itself a transfer of possession for this purpose? Or does kiddushin requirethat title already have vested in the man before it is given to the woman?
The following sources are helpful:
1. hekdesh loses its sacred character when accidentally transferred toa third party. Where A transfers hekdesh to B by way of kiddushin, R.
Judah holds that kiddushin are valid, notwithstanding that the250
transferor never had title prior to the transfer . The Meiri considers
this strong evidence that B is betrothed where the only transfer isfrom the thief to her.
251

2. A later Gemara

holds that where A seizes property from C and A

248

A baraitha at 52:1 validates kiddushin where there was a prior engagement and A, in the face of B's
silence, betrothed B with an item which A robbed, or stole or seized from B.
Now, if the words from B modify only seized, the baraitha would be inconsistent with the rule in
the text, since it would appear that kiddushin are valid even where the item was robbed or stolen
from others.
But the words from B modifies each of the words robbed, stole or seized, not only the last word
seized.
249

This is the halacha. R. Simeon disagrees and assumes despair whether or not the malefactor was
identified. See 52:2.
250
251

55:2.

55:2.

[7:2]
then gives the property to B as kiddushin, there is no valid betrothal.
Raba explains that this results from our holding that despair is notassumed since C knows A's identity and expects somehow to reobtain his property:
Some hold that this suggests that were there despair, B would
have been betrothed.
Others distinguish the Gemara on account of Raba's view that
despair alone, without transfer of possession, is sufficient toconvey title to a stolen item.
[Kiddushin with an object stolen from the bride where the bride despaired of its
return]
Does B's despair validate kiddushin where the object had been seized from her
by A and there had been no prior engagement? No. All that matters is whether
there had been a prior engagement. Hence, this is a case in which kiddushin is more252
easily effected with items stolen from others than with items stolen from B :This rule is easily explainable for those who disagree with Raba andmaintain that a victim can compel return of the item after despair
until there was a change in possession. B's acceptance of her own
item is not a change in possession for this purpose.
But what of Raba who holds that despair without change ofpossession conveys claim-free title? Why is there no kiddushin where
the woman had despaired? Because Raba agrees that where thethief ultimately returns the stolen item the victim is deemed to haveowned it all along.
What then is the legal consequence of the rule that despair
conveys title? Only that after despair the thief has the right tosatisfy his obligation to make restitution with either the stolen

252

But where there had been a prior engagement, B is more easily betrothed with items which had
been stolen from her, since no despair or transfer of possession is required.

[7:2]
item or its value; before despair the victim has a legal right tocompel return of the item itself.
[perutah in real property and halifin transactions]
Real property cannot be purchased or rented for less than a perutah. On theother hand, in a halifin transaction, the ritual object transferred by the buyer to theseller need not be worth a perutah.
[13:2][Sacrifices to be brought by a woman who gives birth]253

A woman who gives birth must sacrifice first a hattat and then an oleh . The
254
purpose of the hattat is forgiveness. The oleh is more in the nature of a gift . These255
rules follow :1. If a woman dies prior to bringing her hattat, her heirs need notbring the hattat. There is no forgiveness for the dead. Neither need
they bring an oleh, since hattat must precede oleh.
2. If the woman brought her hattat but failed to bring her oleh, herreal property is subject to a lien which requires that the heirs bringthat sacrifice. The real property is bound whether or not the woman
prior to her death identified the animal or fowl she intended tobring as her oleh.
If she has no real property, the only property which can be subject toa lien is a fowl which she identified for the purpose of sacrifice prior

253

That Scripture (Lev.12:6) mentions the oleh first is irrelevant. In all cases, whether the hatos isanimal or fowl, a hattat precedes the accompanying oleh.
254

An oleh does serve in a general way to obtain forgiveness for the failure to perform positive
precepts. But contrary to a hattat sacrifice, which must be brought for a specified transgression, theeffect of an oleh is more diffuse and need not be identified with the failure to perform a definite
positive precept.
255

All these rules apply to men as well, such as to a leper or a zav who are also required to sacrificeboth a hattat and an oleh. The few commentators who hold otherwise are incorrect.

[7:2]
256

to her death.

3. If contrary to law, the woman brought her oleh but failed to bringher hattat, the heirs do not bring the hattat.
257

If prior to her death she had already identified the fowl to be her
hattat, her heirs must see to it that the fowl is put to death,consistent with the general rule for a hattat whose owner dies prior
to sacrifice.
[Categories of hattat sacrifices which must be put to death]
The following are the categories of hattat which must be put to death:
1. the offspring of a female hattat;
2. an animal or fowl which was to be sacrificed in place of anotherhattat;
3. a hattat whose owner died;258

4. a hattat which becomes over-age prior to sacrifice; and

5. a hattat whose owner obtained forgiveness through the use ofanother hattat (e.g. while the first hattat was misplaced).
Certain of these categories cannot physically or legally apply to a hattat which isbrought by the public rather than an individual. A hattat brought by the public must
be male and can have no offspring. The public cannot legally sanctify a hattat whichis to be sacrificed in exchange for another hattat. Nor can the public as a whole die.
R. Simeon (but not the majority) reasons by extension that none of thesecategories applies to the public. Similarly, as to hattat brought of fowl: such hattat
cannot be the live offspring of another hattat, and by extension R. Simeon (but not
256

See R.H.6:2.

257

The hattat of a woman who gives birth is of fowl only.

258

Only a minority of the Rabbis hold that an over-age hattat is put to death. The halacha isotherwise: the animal is permitted to graze until it receives a blemish which makes it unfit for
sacrifice. It is then sold, and the monetary proceeds are deposited in the fund from which voluntaryoleh sacrifices are brought for the public.

[7:2]
the majority) would not put to death any hattat of fowl, whatever the category. The
259
Tosefta agrees with R. Simeon. Our Gemara agrees with the majority .
[A lender's lien]
Some hold that a lender's lien is Scriptural. What does this mean?
260

That the property of the borrower guarantees the borrower's debt

, whether:

the debt is contracted orally or in writing,in or out of the presence of witnesses: or261

the borrower does or does not expressly grant a lien to the lender .
It follows that third party purchasers take title to the seller's land subject to thelien of the seller's creditors. But to protect unwitting purchasers, the Rabbis orderthat the lien be disregarded where the debt was not documented and hence notpublicized. But the lien securing oral debt stands as against the borrower's heirs.
In our Gemara R. Papa explains that the lien binds heirs because of the lien's
Scriptural basis. But this is not R. Papa's personal view. R. Papa himself holds that thelien is not Scriptural but nevertheless binds heirs because of a Rabbinical interest to262
encourage loans .
R. Papa's personal view may be grounded on his minority position that aborrower's obligation to repay debt is not a civil absolute which a creditor
can enforce. Rather, it is a religious obligation which the Beth din compels
him to satisfy. If the debt itself is not a civil obligation, it follows that liens
to secure the debt are not Scriptural.
259

Based on another derivation, the majority agrees with R. Simeon that the public is excluded fromthe rule that a hattat is put to death once the owner is forgiven by use of another hattat. The animal
is treated in the manner described in the preceding Note.
260

The binding nature of a guaranty is derived from the verse "I will guarantee him." Gen. 43:9.

261

That a contractually granted lien is valid requires no special authority. The case is covered by thegeneral rule that a person must perform his contractually assumed duties. A person's "yes" must be"just." See B.M.49:1.
262

B.B.176:1. The Raabad also holds that heirs are subject to their testator's lien only to encourage
lending and not as a result of the Scriptural basis of the lien.

[7:2]
Other commentators explain that even those who hold that liens are Scriptural must
rely on the same Rabbinic interest in encouraging loans to explain why they did not
abrogate the lien to protect heirs.
In any event, a lien securing oral debt can be foreclosed against heirs only
in limited circumstances:on a debt not yet past maturity (otherwise there is concern that thedeceased may have paid the debt); ora debt which was acknowledged by the deceased; ora debt for which the deceased was placed under a ban for non-payment
which continued to his death.
263

Details of these rules are explained elsewhere.

[Marital prohibitions which do or do not survive death]
Where A is married to B and may not marry C because of C's incestuous
relationship with B (such as where C is B's mother), in most cases the prohibition
survives B's death. But where A cannot marry C solely because C is married to B, andnot because of any family relationship, A may marry C on B's death. The only
exception is where C becomes a yebamah on B's death. These rules are explained in
264
greater detail elsewhere .
[Factors relating to a widow's right to remarry]
265

The Torah decrees for a divorced woman "she shall leave and be to another."
The Gemara considers whether the implication is that only she (a divorcee) canremarry but not a widow.
A prohibition so derived would have had the status of a positive precept
since it would be based on the positive affirmation that a divorced woman
may remarry.

263

B.B.174:2.

264

Sanh.54:1.

265

Deut.24:2.

[7:2]
This is all academic, since the Gemara concludes that a widow may remarry.
[Redemption and related procedures for consecrated animals which become unfit for
sacrifice]Consecrated animals which are unfit for sacrifice may not be slaughtered or
consumed until redeemed. There is me'ilah if the animal is improperly slaughtered.
Once redeemed, the animal may be slaughtered and eaten, but it may not be shornor used for work. "Thou shalt not work with the first-born of your ox, and thou shalt266
not shear the first-born of your sheep," refers to unfit animals after redemption.
267

Another Gemara derives the rule from the verse "You shall slaughter [implying
268
you shall not shear] and you shall eat meat [implying you shall not milk]" .
The animal's meat may be consumed only by humans and may not be given todogs or livestock. The previous verse ends "and you shall eat," which implies that
only humans may partake.
[14:1][Certain rules for yebamah]

266

Deut.16:19.

267

Bek.15:1.

268

Deut.12:16.

[7:2]A yebamah is acquired by cohabitation even against her will, and she acquires
her freedom by halizah. halizah must be conducted by a Beth din of natural born
Israelites, none of whom is a proselyte and each of whom has a Jewish father and a
Jewish mother. Once the yebamah has loosened the yabam's shoe and has made thestatements required by Scripture, all those present must declaim "loosed shoe,"269
three times .
A married woman is forbidden to others on pain of strangulation. A yebamah isforbidden only by negative precept: "The wife of the dead man shall not be unto a270
stranger."271

It is preferable that the yabam's own shoe be used for halizah but any person's
272
shoe is effective. The verse's emphasis on his shoe mandates only that the shoe beappropriate to the yabam.
Even if he owns the shoe it cannot be so large that he cannot walk in it, or sosmall that it does not cover most of his foot, or lack a heel or a sole.
The sole must be of the same piece of leather as the rest of the shoe, lest a halfshoe be wrongly used.
[Designation of sacrifices by the high priest and by a woman who gives birth]273

On Yom Kippur the high priest sacrificed one goat as a hattat and consigned
the other to die at the precipice of Azazel. Lots were used to determine which goat
was to be used for each purpose, and a purported designation by the priest was ofno effect.
The reverse is true of other sacrifices: designation is effective, lots are of noconsequence. For example, a woman after childbirth and a Nazirite must each bringan oleh and a hattat. Once the two animals or fowl are obtained, the determinationof which is to be used for each sacrifice depends in the first instance on the personbringing the sacrifice. If the owner fails to make the designation, the priest's269

Yeb.106:2.

270

Deut.25:5. See also, Yeb.92:1.

271

In Yeb.103:2 the Gemara suggests that the yabam be given a shoe for the purpose of halizah.

272

Deut.25:9.

273

Sin offering.

[7:2]
designation is effective. Hence, the two verses "And she shall take two fowl, one for274
oleh and one for hattat," (which suggests that the owner makes the selection),275
and "The priest shall make them, one an oleh and the other a hattat," (suggestingthat the priest makes the designation).
[One get must be written expressly for each woman to be divorced]
A get must be written for the particular woman who is to be divorced and not as
a form. One get cannot be used to divorce two wives, even if both have the same276
name. "And he shall write to her."[Kinyanim for a Jewish slave]
The second Mishnah begins the discussion of acquisitions other than kiddushin. It
considers first acquisition of a Jewish slave:
A Jewish slave is acquired by money and by deed; and acquires himself byyears, by Jubilee and by deduction from the purchase price. A Jewish
maidservant is more [privileged] in that she acquires herself by "signs". He
whose ear is bored is acquired by boring, and acquires himself by Jubilee or
his master's death.
A Jewish person may sell himself into slavery when he is so poor that he has
nothing to eat. He may not sell himself to raise funds to pay debts or to purchaseanything other than food, or when he can still raise funds for sustenance by selling
any remaining property. Alternatively, a Jewish person may be sold into slavery by
277
the Beth din in order to repay the principal amount of property he has stolen.
Also, a father may sell his daughter into slavery.
A slave may be sold for money or by deed:
1. The money is paid to:the slave when he sells himself,

274

Lev.12:18.

275

Num.6:11.

276

Deut.24:1,3.

277

But not to pay the qefal penalty.

[7:2]
to the victim of the theft when the Beth din sells the slave, andto the father when he sells his daughter.
The purchaser must declare that the slave is to become his
property by way of a monetary kinyan consisting either of themoney paid as purchase price or by additional money paid toconsummate the formal kinyan.
2. The slave, the Beth din or the father can sell by deed in which is
inscribed "I am sold to you," or "such and such person is sold toyou," or "my daughter is sold to you."[Derivation of kinyanim for Jewish slaves]
The following verses relate to sales by the slave himself:"When your brother shall be impoverished and shall be sold to278you." (sale to a Jewish master)"When the hand of a sojourner or resident with you shall achieve,279
and your brother shall be impoverished and be sold to him." (saleto a gentile master)
The following verses deal with sales by the Beth din:"And if has no [assets with which to repay], he shall be sold for his
280theft."
281"When you shall buy a Jewish slave."282"When your brother the Jew shall be sold to you."

278

Lev.25:39.

279

Lev.25:47.

280

Ex.25:2.

281

Ex.21:2.

282

Deut.16:12.

[7:2]
283

The verse "from the money whereby he was purchased"
who sells himself to a gentile.

deals with a slave

The rule that money is a kinyan for the purchase of a slave begins with:
1. The verse "from the money whereby he was purchased," in the context
of a slave who sells himself to a gentile.
2. The rule for a slave who sells himself to a Jew is in turn derived by
284
gezerah shawah from the slave sold to a gentile .
3. The rule for a Jewish maidservant is derived from the phrase and "she285
shall redeem herself," which suggests that she was initially acquired withmoney.
4. Finally, the rule for a slave sold by the Beth din is then derived either by286
hekesh from the Jewish maidservant , or directly by the same gezerah
287
shawah from the Jew who sells himself to a gentile .
A deed is valid because of negative implication from the verse for a Jewish
288
maidservant "She shall not leave in the manner of gentile slaves." The implicationis that she can be purchased in the manner of gentile slaves, i.e., by deed. The rule isthen applied to one sold by the Beth din by the hekesh. From there, the gezerah
shawah is used to apply the rule to one who sold himself.
Gentile slaves can also be acquired with hazakah. Why not imply that amaidservant can also be acquired with hazakah? Because of the verse "Andyou shall pass them [gentile slaves] as a heritage." Lev.25:46. The word283

Lev.25:51.

284

The word sakhir appears in both contexts. Lev.25:40 and 50.

285

Ex.21:8.

286

The words the Jewish slave and the Jewish maidservant appear next to each other in the context
of the slave sold by the Beth din. Deut.15:12.
287

The word sakhir also appears in the context of one sold by the Beth din. Deut.15:18.

288

Deut.21:7. Gentile slaves are freed if their master should remove one of their limbs. Jewish slaves
do not leave if this occurs, and instead have only a monetary claim against the master for the damage
caused.

[7:2]
them suggests that gentile slaves are more easily transferred than Jewish
slaves: the additional mode of transfer is hazakah. Similarly, a Jewish slavecannot be transferred by halifin.
Once acquired by his master, a Jewish slave is subject to the servitude of slavery,and his labor is his master's property. If he was sold by the Beth din, his master may
in certain cases compel him to wed the master's gentile maidservant.
[How a Jewish slave obtains his freedom]
A Jewish slave who has been sold by the Beth din is freed upon the expiration ofa six-year term.
One who sells himself can specify a greater term. Commentators differ on theproper term where none was specified: some suggests that the term should then be
six years, while others hold that the term continues until the Jubilee.
The shemittah does not cut short the term of the slave or the maidservant. The
Jubilee does.
All Jewish slaves and maidservants leave by deduction, meaning payment to themaster of the portion of the purchase price which is allocable to the unexpired
portion of the term.
Where the master dies, a slave of a Jewish master must serve only the slave's son
289
and not any other relative . If the master is a gentile, the slave need not serve eventhe son. A maidservant also need not serve the master's son.
[Privilege of a maidservant to obtain freedom in certain circumstances]
The Mishnah lists the privileges of the maidservant which give her additional
means to freedom. They are the appearance of signs of na'aruth and, where she is anelonit, the appearance of signs of bagrut. Why does not the Mishnah list as an extra
privilege the rule that the maidservant need not serve the master's son after the
master's death? There are two explanations:
1. The privilege applies only where the master has a son; where there
is no son, the male slave is also freed upon the master's death. The

289

The limitation is derived from the verse "And he shall serve you" (Deut.15:12) which suggests thatthe slave need serve only you but not your heirs. The limitation is not applied so strictly as to exclude
your son.

[7:2]
Mishnah prefers to list privileges which always distinguish themaidservant from the male slave.
2. The Mishnah's listing is not complete in any event. Note that theMishnah fails to mention that all slaves can be freed by deed ofemancipation.
A slave's ear is bored if prior to sunset on the last day of his six-year term herefuses to leave and declares: "I love my master..." The act of boring gives the masterownership rights in the slave. His term continues until the earlier to occur of the
Jubilee or the master's death. He need not serve the master's son. His term does not
290
expire after six years . He cannot obtain freedom by deduction, since the masterdid not acquire rights in him by money purchase.
This completes the exposition of the Mishnah, all of which is consistent with the
halacha. The following are the matters which the Gemara considers.
[Acquisitions by gentiles]"All of a gentile's acquisitions are with money." Rashi explains that this means
291
that a gentile can acquire only with money, and not by meshikhah . But what of292
another Gemara which says that meshikhah is valid in acquisitions among gentiles
and between gentiles and Jews?
1. Some commentators explain that our Gemara's intent is not tolimit the gentile's mode of acquisition to money, but rather to saythat money is valid as well as meshikhah.
293

This is consistent with another Gemara which deals with the rulethat a gift given to a prostitute may not be used as a sacrifice. A
gentile prostitute need not perform meshikhah to acquire rights inan animal given a gift of this kind. Those who amend the text toread that meshikhah is invalid are mistaken.

290

The Torah requires that he serve his master forever, Ex.21:6, meaning until the Jubilee.

291

Rashi derives this rule from the verse which permits acquisitions "from the hand of your friend."
This suggests that an object can be acquired by meshikhah only if by a friend, i.e., a Jew.
292

A.Z.43:2.

293

Tem.29:2.

[7:2]
2. Rashi holds that our Gemara is not consistent with the halacha.
3. Rabbeinu Tam maintains that our Gemara means that a gentile
can acquire slaves only with money. This results from the following
reasoning:
294

295

In general, a gentile's only kinyanim are money , meshikhah or296
hazakah . A gentile can never acquire by deed, and this rule
extends also to his acquisition of slaves.
Unless there is express evidence to the contrary, such as in thecase of hazakah, a gentile cannot have more means than a Jew
with which to acquire a slave.
Although a gentile can use meshikhah generally, a Jewish
master cannot acquire a slave with meshikhah. It follows thata gentile cannot use meshikhah to acquire slaves.

294

Based on the verse for a gentile master described earlier.

295

R. Johanan holds in B.M.47:2 and Bek.13:2 that Scripture permits money purchases only for Jews.
By negative implication, gentile acquisition must be by meshikhah.
296

Jews were not permitted to acquire the lands of Amon and Moab. But these lands became
permissible to Jews once the lands were seized and legally acquired, in a hazakah type acquisition,
by King Sikhon, a gentile. Git.38:1. See A.Z.73:2 for the extension of this doctrine to permit analogous
modes of acquisition, such as lifting.

[7:2][Distinctions between slaves who sell themselves and slaves who are sold by theBeth din]In addition to the distinctions mentioned in the Mishnah between a slave who
sells himself and one who is sold by the Beth din, there are the following additional
differences:
1. On the expiration of his term, a slave sold by the Beth din is297
entitled to be furnished with gifts by his master . One who sells
himself has no right to be furnished with gifts.
2. A slave may sell himself to a gentile, but the Beth din cannot do so.

297

The nature of these gifts is explained in greater detail below.

[7:2][15:1][When the ear of a Jewish slave is bored]
A Jewish slave is bored in his right ear, but only if his declaration "I love my298master" , and his insistence on continuing servitude, occur when there is sufficient299
time remaining in the term to do at least one perutah of labor .
[Gifts to be given to a Jewish slave]
It is a positive precept that the master furnish gifts to his Jewish slave on
expiration of his term. One who fails to furnish gifts violates the negative precept
300"You shall not send him empty-handed, you shall give him gifts" . If the slave dies
before receiving his gifts, his heirs succeed to his rights.
The phraseology used by the Gemara to express this concept, "his [theslave's] labor belongs to his heirs," refers to the basis for the requirement
to furnish gifts: the assumption that the slave's work for his master was
worth more than the amount which the master paid for the slave.
A slave's gifts are his own property even if received by him during his term while
he is still subject to his master's domination.
The slave's right to receive gifts is not subject to the claims of his creditors,
notwithstanding R. Natan's doctrine that a creditor may foreclose on the borrower's
301
rights to receive property from a third person . The Torah means to exclude
298

Ex.21:5.

299

22:1.

300

Deut. 15:13.

301

Assume that A owes money to B, and that B owes money to C. R. Natan holds that A must pay C
directly. He derives his rule from the verse in Num. 5:7:

"And he [interpreted as borrower A]
shall give it [the amount he owes to borrower B]
to him [interpreted as ultimate creditor C][7:2]
302

creditors by its emphasis on him in the verse "You shall give gifts to him."

Some commentators extend this exemption to wage claims of a laborer.
They limit R. Natan's principle to loans in which actual monetary amounts
were initially received by borrower B. Wage claims owed by B were neverembodied in identifiable money and therefore cannot be the subject of the303
ultimate creditor's claim.
[A Jewish slave can be compelled to marry a gentile bondwoman]
The master can compel a Jewish slave who was sold to him by the Beth din toto whom he [interpreted as borrower B]
is indebted."
The literal reading is "he shall give it to whom he is indebted." However, the use of the noun asham(with its suggestion of principal ownership rather than debt) suggests ultimate ownership of theclaim, which belongs to the final creditor C. If the intervening creditor B were meant, the word
hilvahu (he who loaned him) would have been preferable.
302

Deut. 15:14.

303

The Meiri's disagreement with this view is explained in B.K.40:2.

[7:2]
marry a gentile bondwoman. The rule is derived from an apparent inconsistency
between two verses:
1. "For he (the Jewish slave) has labored for you twice the labor of a304
day laborer," which suggests that the Jewish slave must labor atnight as well as by day, and,2. in explaining why a Jewish slave might wish to remain with hismaster at the expiration of his term, "For it is good for him with305
you," which suggests that the slave is with you when you eat, withyou when you drink and with you when you sleep.
The verses are reconciled by holding that the slave need not labor at night but that
he must cohabit with a gentile bondwoman furnished by his master.
[15:2][Jewish slaves sold to gentiles]
No matter how destitute he is, a person may not sell himself as a slave to agentile or a ger toshav. But a sale in violation of this rule is valid, and the slave's termin this case is not limited to six years but extends to the Jubilee, at which time wecompel the gentile to free the slave if we have the legal power to do so.

304

Deut. 15:18.

305

Deut.15:15.

[7:2]
Prior to the Jubilee, the slave may redeem himself by payment of the pro rata
portion of his purchase price allocable to the unexpired portion of his term, and hemay borrow to raise these funds. If he cannot raise his full redemption price, he may
306
pay a portion and thereby reduce his term accordingly, as will be explained .
If he cannot obtain the requisite funds, even by borrowing, then his nearest
relatives can be compelled by the Beth din to provide these funds. If no relatives arein a position to assist, then the community at large is responsible to raise theredemption moneys. The slave freed thereby need not perform any services for theredeeming party.
The rule is different for a Jewish master. Relatives may not redeem the slave
against the master's will or against the slave's will, nor may he redeem himself withborrowed funds, nor may he offer less than the entire redemption price.
This disagrees with the Rambam. The Rambam holds that relatives cannot
be compelled to furnish the requisite funds, but, once funds are raised, themaster can be compelled to accept redemption funds and to free the slave.
Even the Meiri agrees that if the slave himself (as distinguished from
relatives) raises the funds he can force his freedom.
The rule that there is no six-year term for a Jewish slave who sold himself to agentile master is derived by Rabbi [Yehudah HaNasi] from the verse "and if he (theJewish slave sold to the gentile) is not redeemed with these (referring to redemption
307
funds), then he shall leave at [remain enslaved until] the Jubilee."Were it not for the verse, the contrary rule would have been derived by thefollowing reasoning:
There is a six-year term applicable to Jewish masters, for whom there is noredemption by relatives. Given that gentile masters are subject toredemption by relatives, most certainly they should be subject to the six
year term.
[Redemption by relatives]
Both R. Jose and R. Akiva otherwise interpret the verse "And if he is notredeemed with these." Here is their analysis:

306

20:2.

307

Lev.25:54.

[7:2]
1. The Torah first discusses the mechanics of redemption by relatives.
The verse then decrees: "And if he is not redeemed with these, thenhe [must continue in servitude and] shall leave [only] at the Jubilee."
The words suggest that he works until Jubilee if there wasredemption other than by these.
What is meant by these?
2. R. Jose asserts that the reference is to the prior verses which deal
with redemption by relatives:
If he is not redeemed by relatives, but is instead redeemed byothers, then he must work for the non-relative redeemers until
the Jubilee.
But if he in fact is redeemed by these (relatives), he need not workfor them.
3. R. Akiva takes the opposite view. The meaning is:If he is not redeemed by others (non-relatives) than these (therelatives), i.e., he is redeemed by relatives, then only need hework to the Jubilee.
This is of course the reverse of R. Jose's holding.
4. The Gemara protests that R. Akiva's rationale is inconsistent withthe plain meaning of the verse! The verse does not read by otherthan these!
5. The difference between R. Akiva and R. Jose is then explained onanother ground altogether. The dispute is based on the three clausesin the following verse dealing with redemption of a slave sold to a308
gentile :Or his uncle or his uncle's son may redeem him (redemption byrelatives)
Or if he attain wealth (self redemption)
And he shall be redeemed (interpreted to mean redemption by

308

Lev.25:49.

[7:2]
others)There is no question that the middle clause, dealing with self
redemption, results in absolute freedom. R. Jose maintains that theteaching of the middle clause is appropriately drawn to the priorverse, dealing with relatives. While R. Akiva maintains that the
middle verse's teaching more appropriately flows to the following
verse, dealing with redemption by non-relatives.
6. If this is the basis of the argument, why do R. Akiva dispute themeaning of the words of these?
7. Initially, the Gemara explains that without reliance on the word
these, as variously interpreted by R. Jose and R. Akiva, both would
have held that the middle verse appropriately modifies both theprior clause (dealing with relatives) and the later clause (dealing withstrangers).
But the Gemara quickly protests that this does not resolve R. Akiva's
difficulties with the clear import of the verse (the verse does not readby other than these).
8. The Gemara ultimately concludes that the two argue on what theappropriate result should be on logical grounds. The reference to
Scripture, i.e., the word these, is used only to support logical309
arguments, and not as a source of doctrine .
Rabbi uses the verse which includes the word these for the purpose mentioned
earlier, and he has no support for the views of either R. Jose or R. Akiva. He
therefore concludes that the middle clause modifies both the prior and the later
clauses, so that the slave is freed in all circumstances.
What then, is to be done with the negative implication of the words with these?
Simply that if not redeemed the Jewish slave is to be left in the hands of his gentile
master, and we are not to attempt by subterfuge to free him prior to his term.
309

The logical arguments deal with which rule best encourages redemptions and discourages sales
into slavery.

[7:2][16:1][The deed for the sale of a daughter]
The father must write the indenture document for his daughter on paper orpottery shards. He must write "My daughter is sold to you, my daughter is acquiredby you." The document is void if the master is the one who writes, for example,"Your daughter is sold to me").
[Rights to the property of a deceased convert]
Anyone who legally seizes the property of a convert who dies without Jewish
310
heirs obtains legal title, as will be explained.
["Money" for redemption]
A promissory note, or any other monetary equivalent counts as money for the
purpose of a slave's redemption. The Torah requires that "He...return his
311
redemption" and specifically fails to mention money.
[The slave's deed of emancipation]
A slave's deed of emancipation must be in writing. It is not sufficient for the
master merely to announce to the slave in the presence of witnesses, "Go!"312
unformalized by a kinyan .
Action of this sort without a document is in the nature of a waiver. A waiver,
although valid to release a debt claim, cannot release the ownership claim which amaster has in a Jewish slave insofar as concerns his labor. This ownership right issimilar to the ownership one has in a tree the fruits of which he has purchased for alimited period.
For the same reason a master cannot without a document or kinyan waive any
portion of his right to the slave's labor.

310

B.K.110:1 and infra 23:1.

311

Lev.25:51.

312

Were the command formalized by kinyan, the case would be treated as if there were a deed. It is
presumed that transactions which are formalized by kinyan will be recorded.

[7:2][Ownership rights in a Jewish slave; consequences of waiver of rights]
Why is it that the Mishnah does not refer to documents as a mode of freeing
313
slaves? Why are documents mentioned only in a baraitha ? Shall this be taken as
evidence that our Mishnah holds that even an oral waiver is effective to free slaves?
314
And that we hold with another Gemara that states outright that a master has noownership rights in a Jewish slave?
315

No. A later Gemara quotes Raba as holding that a master does have ownershiprights in a slave. The Gemara which holds that a master has no ownership rights in a
Jewish slave means that the master does not have full rights in the manner of agentile slave.
Why then does our Mishnah omit mention of documents? Because it focuses onmeans for a woman to obtain freedom against the master's will.
[Waiver of an unsecured debt]
A majority of Geonim conclude that the waiver of a debt, where there are noownership rights, is valid without the formality of a kinyan or of a document. If themaster had no ownership rights in the slave, the command "Go!" would have been
sufficient to free the slave. Even the Rambam, who expresses concern on whether awaiver was made in jest, would agree with the Geonim where the waiver is sincere,such as where the creditor appoints witnesses to attest to the waiver.
The Alfasi agrees. In a responsum he distinguishes between
a case of pure waiver, in which no kinyan is required (even witnesses
are not absolutely necessary), andsubmission to arbitration, where the agreement to arbitrate is valid
only if formalized by a kinyan.
By agreeing to arbitrate, the defendant is binding himself to pay should he notprevail. This is more than a waiver, and a kinyan is required to make thedefendant's undertaking binding. Once a kinyan is required of the defendant, we
do not discriminate against him, and we require a kinyan also of the plaintiff.

313

16:1.

314

B.M.99:1.

315

28:1. The same implication can be drawn from B.K.113:2.

[7:2][Waiver of a secured debt]
What of a debt secured by a pledge? Can it be waived without a kinyan?
The Ittur maintains that a kinyan is required.
He argues that a pledgee's rights are as much ownership rights as theincomplete rights which a master has in a Jewish slave. It must be that themaster's rights are not complete: for otherwise how does the Jewish slavediffer from a gentile slave?
The same learning can be drawn from a later Gemara316 which deals withthe right of a master to designate a Jewish maidservant to himself as his
wife.
R. Jose ben Judah states that the kiddushin in this case is not thepurchase price originally paid by the master to the girl's father, butrather the relinquishment of the rights the master has to thecontinuance of her labor during the balance of her term, which rights
are secured by the maid's body in the way of a pledge.
The Meiri disagrees with the Ittur.
A master's rights in a slave are indeed ownership rights insofar as the slave's
labor is concerned.
Note the analogy above of one who buys the rights to a tree's fruits
for a specified term; the ownership rights in the tree as to the fruits
are complete.
317

A pledgee's rights in chattels
waived.

are of lesser status and can be

There is sufficient contrast with the gentile slave: the master has
ownership rights to the slave's body. These rights are not limited tothe slave' labor.
318

The Meiri further supports his position elsewhere .

316

19:1.

317

Land pledges do transfer ownership rights and cannot be waived.

318

B.K.49:2.

[7:2][Waiver of documentary debt]
The Yerushalmi records a disagreement on whether a documentary debt can bewaived without the lender's return of the promissory note. The Meiri notes that adocument cannot confer greater status than a pledge; given his view that a debt
secured by a pledge can be waived, it should follow that the waiver is effective
without return of the note. However, in what appears to be a postscript, the Meiri
writes that he was ultimately persuaded otherwise.
[Inheritance of certain of a father's rights in his daughter's property]
A father's rights to his daughter's earnings continue throughout her youth until
she is bogeret. The father's heirs cannot succeed to these rights. "And you shall319
bequeath them [your gentile slaves, but not your daughters] to your sons."
A master's rights in a bondmaid survive the death of the girl's father.
[Slave's freedom on master's death]
Both a Jewish bondmaid and a male slave whose ear has been bored are freed
on death of their master. This mode of freedom is not listed in the Mishnah, since
the Mishnah does not list means of freedom which are shared by male slaves withfemale slaves.
[Certain rules relating to time of puberty]
Signs of puberty are not fixed "above." This means that a girl is not elonit untilage 19 years and 30 days even if she previously shows signs of elonit.
320

Signs of puberty in a girl result in her being a na'arah for six months so long as
these signs appear before age 20. A girl who shows no signs of puberty or elonit
continues to be a minor until she has lived the major portion of her life, that is, until

319

Lev.25:46.

320

After which she is a bogeret.

[7:2]
she is age 35 plus one day.
[16:2]The same applies to a male. Even with signs of eunuchhood a male without signsof puberty continues as a minor past age 13 plus one day until he is age 19 years and
30 days. Without such signs he continues as a minor until signs of puberty or
eunuchhood appear or until he is age 35 years plus one day.
Signs of puberty are fixed "below." This means that signs such as pubic hair
which appear before age 12 plus a day in females, and 13 plus a day in males, areignored. They are assumed to be moles in the skin. In fact, hair which sprouts before
these ages cannot be taken as signs of puberty even if they remain in place after
these ages are attained.
Hair which is not known to have grown prematurely is presumed to have grownafter the age of puberty. Two pores which are discovered after puberty are assumed
to have been occupied by pubic hairs which were dislodged.
[The obligation to provide gifts on a slave's departure]
A master must provide gifts to slaves who leave the master's control:
1. A female slave is given gifts in four events (expiration of the six year
term, Jubilee, death of her master and signs of puberty);
2. A male, non-bored slave obtains gifts in two cases (expiration of the six
year term and Jubilee); and3. A male bored slave obtains gifts in two cases (death of the master andJubilee).
The halacha agrees with the baraitha which begins with the words "and theseslaves obtain gifts." The halacha disagrees with the baraitha which holds that there
are three instances in which male slaves receive gifts and three instances in whichfemale slaves receive gifts.
A slave who redeems himself obtains no gifts. Gifts apply only "When you [the321master] shall send him away," not when the slave buys himself out of bondage.
Needless to say, a slave who flees his master's control obtains no gifts, for he is321

Deut.15:13.

[7:2]
obligated to complete his term. If the slave returns and completes his term, he isentitled to gifts.
Note the following rules:
1. A slave's creditors have no claims against the slave's gifts.
2. A bondmaid's gifts belong to her father. If her father previously
died, the gifts are her own, although there are commentators who
322
dispute this in certain circumstances .
3. A bondmaid's findings belong to her father. Her master can claim
only the value of labor he lost while his bondmaid obtained thefound items.
[Effect of Jubilee on an escaped slave]
Assume that:a slave is sold into servitude four years before the Jubilee,
he escapes three years into his term (one year before the Jubilee), andhe is recaptured at the Jubilee.
The Jubilee cuts off the obligation to work the final two years of his term. But
what of the year prior to the Jubilee in which he had escaped and did not work.
Need he make up that year?
The Meiri rules that there is no need to make up the year, and that this explains
why a baraitha cited in the Gemara holds that an escaped slave need not be given
gifts where the Jubilee intervenes:
Were the slave required to make up, why should he not receive gifts after
he satisfies all of his obligations to his master? Did not the slave work thefull number of years he would have completed had he not escaped?
Certain commentators who disagree, and who require that the slave makeup the lost time, exempt the master from giving gifts only where themaster waives his rights to the lost labor, such as where the escapeoccurred just prior to the Jubilee and where the cost of gifts exceed the322

B.M.12:1.

[7:2]
value of the lost labor.
The same commentators also require a bored slave who escapes prior to
the Jubilee to make up the time lost as a result of his escape.

[7:2][17:1][Jubilee and ailing slaves]If the slave's labor was interrupted because of illness, what time must hemake up?
He need not make up for any lost time if the interruption affected one dayless than a majority of his term, i.e., a day more than three years.
If he was ill one day more, so that a majority of his term is affected, theslave must make up for the whole period of his illness, not just the extra
323
day .
This is analogous to the law of overcharges. Overcharges of up to one-sixth arewaived; if the overcharge exceeds one-sixth, the full amount of the overcharge
324(even the first one-sixth) is recoverable .
If a slave was sold only four years before the Jubilee, how many years must he be
ill before he must make up for the lost time? The illness test for a typical six-year
term is three years.
Is that test rooted in the requirement that a majority of the term be spentin illness (in which case two years is sufficient in a four-year term).
Or is there something substantive in the three-year period?
The Rambam holds that the three-year period is substantive because of Scripture's
325
reference to the slave as being as a "hired" man . Unless otherwise expressed, theterm of hire of a hired man is three years. The Meiri disagrees and holds that theproper test should be two years.
An escaped slave who falls ill for less than a majority of his term is treated as anescaped slave and not as an ill slave. He must complete his term. The master can

323This applies only if the slave was totally incapacitated. If the slave could perform needlework(even though he previously performed heavier work), he receives full credit for all time served.
Where the Jubilee intervenes, we apply the rules for escaped slaves.
324

Some commentators disagree and require that the slave make up only the extra day.

325

Lev. 25:40.

[7:2]
claim that the slave would not have fallen ill had he not escaped. Where illness
preceded the escape, the master can claim that recovery would have been prompt326
had there been no escape .
[Bondmaid's right to gifts]
A bondmaid also receives gifts on expiration of her term. The Torah demands
327"And to your bondmaid do the same" as you do to a slave who is bored and who
refuses to leave upon expiration of his term. This does not mean that a bondmaid's
ear is to be bored; the reference must be to a requirement that a bondmaid be given
the same gifts as a male slave.
Why would we even think that a bondmaid might not be entitled to gifts?
Because her sale is always voluntary on her father's part. The Beth din does not sell a328
bondmaid into slavery on account of theft.
[The property to be given as gifts]
A slave is outfitted with property which is subject to natural internal increase, as
is the property mentioned in Scripture "from your sheep, your threshing-floor and329
your wine-press," . The master need not give gifts of money (which increase only
from investment or business) or gifts of clothing.
How much property must be given?
R. Judah's view is that 30 selah's are required, by derivation from theamount payable to the master of a slave who has been gored.
R. Meir holds that the gifts need aggregate only 15 selah's in value. Hisview is derived from Scripture's threefold mention of sheep, threshing floor
330
and wine-press; the purpose is by gezerah shawah to apply to each an

326

Yerushalmi.

327

Deut. 15:17.

328

Sotah 23:2.

329

Deut.15:14.

330

The word empty appears both in this context and in the context of the redemption of a first bornson for five selah's.

[7:2]
implied value of five selah's.
R. Simeon's view is that 50 selah's are required, by derivation from the
maximum valuation of a human whose value has been vowed to theTemple.
From this follows the Gemara's question: how do R. Judah and R. Simeon explain
331
the threefold explanation of Scripture?
332

If the master's house was blessed on account of the slave , the master shouldtake this into account in considering whether to make gifts above the minimum
requirement.

331

Note that everyone agrees that there is no requirement that gifts be given only of the specific types
outlined in the verse.
332

Deut.16:14.

[7:2][17:2][The son's succession rights in his father's slave]
A master's son succeeds to his father's rights in a Jewish slave. Other heirs of themaster (even his daughter and his brother, and most certainly his other relatives) do
not succeed to these rights. Not even a son succeeds to his father's rights in a slave
whose ear has been bored, in a slave who has been sold to a gentile or to a convert,
or in a bondmaid.
[Designation of a bondmaid]
Should the father wish to designate the bondmaid to be his own wife, there is
no requirement of kiddushin. All that is necessary is that he tell her "You are
betrothed to me with the money which I paid to your father when he sold you tome."
The son succeeds to the father's right to designate the bondmaid as his wife inthat he, too, need not provide new kiddushin. It is sufficient that the father say toher "You are betrothed to my son with the money I paid to your father when he soldyou to me." All other relatives must provide new kiddushin and cannot rely on themaster's initial outlay, unless these relatives initially agreed with the father that themoney to be paid to him by the master would constitute kiddushin for them.
[Comparison between the rights of a son and the rights of a brother]In situations where Scripture suggests that certain rules apply only to one of thebrother or the son, without specifying which--such as in the succession to rights in anancestral field or a Jewish slave--we award these rights to the son, because the son's
rights are greater. A bondmaid cannot be designated to the master's brother.
But is it not true that only a brother can be a yabam? Yes. But a son's rights are
greater: whereas the son's designation rights apply even where the master has abrother, a brother's yibbum by definition applies only where there are no surviving
sons.
[The comparative succession rights of a son and a brother in ancestral fields]
The rule is applied to ancestral fields as follows:
1. If A sanctifies an ancestral field, he may redeem it from the Temple
treasury at a price of 50 silver shekels for each plot of land capable ofbeing sown with a homer of barley. If less than 49 years remain until[7:2]
the Jubilee, the purchase price is adjusted proportionately.
2. If the Temple treasurer sells the field to third parties prior to the
Jubilee, then A may redeem the field from the buyer at the same
333
fixed rate .
3. If A does not redeem his land from the Temple treasurer or from athird party purchaser prior to the Jubilee, the priests succeed to the334
land upon the Jubilee .
For this purpose, a third party purchaser includes any relative
other than A's son.
If the purchaser is A's son, the land returns to A upon the335
Jubilee .
[The comparative succession rights of a son and a brother in inheritance]
A son is also superior to a brother in inheritance. Here are the major relevant336
verses :1. If a man dies and he has no son, you shall transfer his estate to hisdaughter.
2. If he has no daughter, you shall give his estate to his brothers.
3. And if he has no brothers, you shall give his estate to the brothersof his father.
4. And if his father has no brothers, you shall give his estate to the333

The Meiri disagrees with Rashi's statement to the contrary.

334

Where the land was not previously sold to a third party, the priests must pay the redemptive priceto the treasurer in order to avoid a loss to the treasurer. The later commentators dispute whether thepriests pay the fixed rate discussed in the text, or whether they must pay the land's true value.
335

This rule is derived in Er.25:2 by analogy to the law of inheritance as well as from the special
relationship a son has concerning the designation of his father's bondmaid. Actually, a son'spriority in inheritance is itself derived from the doctrine relating to the appointment ofbondmaids. See the text below.
336

Num.27:8-11.

[7:2]
337

nearest relative in his family [interpreted as the father] .
Obviously, verse 4 is out of order, since surely the father should inherit before
the father's brothers. The verse, to the extent it provides for inheritance by thefather, is properly placed immediately prior to the verse which provides for thebrother's inheritance.
Why place the father ahead of the brother but not ahead of the son?
The fact that the son is stated to be ahead of the brother is not a sufficientanswer. The brother is stated next when there is no son. Where there is noson why should the father be interposed ahead of the brother?
Because we learn from designation that wherever there is doubt on which relative
has rights we prefer the son, even against the father.
[A gentile's inheritance rights]
A gentile has inheritance rights. Anyone who seizes property in which a gentile
has inheritance rights must return the property to the gentile and is otherwise guilty
338
of theft . If gentiles had no inheritance rights why would Scripture take pains to339
direct that a gentile cannot bequeath rights in a Jewish slave ? Also indicative is the340verse "For I have given [the land of] Ur to the sons of Lot as an inheritance."
A Jewish apostate also has inheritance rights.
[A convert's inheritance rights]
A convert has no Scriptural right to inherit from his gentile father. He is as a
new-born child, and he has no family relationship with his gentile natural relatives. It
341
is only a Rabbinical injunction which prohibits a convert from marrying his sister or

337

Num.27:11.

338

B. K.113:2.

339"And he [the Jewish slave] shall calculate [the unamortized portion of his labor] with him [thegentile master] who purchased him," Lev.25:3, but not with his son.
340
341

Num. 5:9.

Lest incest laws be misconstrued as being less severe for Jews than for gentiles.

[7:2]

his half-sister.
The Rabbis, however, afford him inheritance rights, because otherwise he might
be tempted to return to gentile status to obtain his inheritance under gentile law in
the gentile courts.
The Rabbinic rule that affords a convert inheritance rights prevails over therights of a third party who has seized the inheritance. This is an example of
the authority of the Rabbis to expropriate property rights.
But if the convert backslides we return to the strict law and we do not
expropriate a third party's rights. Also, like an apostate Jew, he continues to be aJew, and should he betroth a woman, the betrothal is valid.
[Subsequent determinations--berera]
Under the doctrine of berera, subsequent determinations are considered to bemade retroactively. Examples of berera follow, and will be helpful in considering
whether berera accords with the halacha.
1. As a general rule one may not benefit from idols or wine oflibation. Nevertheless, if a convert and his gentile brother stand toinherit property from their father, the convert may say to his brother:"You take the idols and the wine of libation and I will take moneyand fruits." Two explanations are possible:
i. The proposal is not deemed an exchange by the convert of hisrights in these properties, because as a matter of law, the convert
never obtained a true property right in the inheritance at all. His
inheritance rights are rabbinic only. The rule would be different if
the exchange is proposed after the prohibited items had comeunder the control of the convert.
ii. Once the exchange is made the ultimate disposition of inheritedproperty is deemed to have been determined retroactively under
the doctrine of berera, so that the convert never had an interest in
the forbidden item.
2. Where A and B were partners prior to A's conversion, A may nottell B "You take the idols and I will take the fruit." Again, two
explanations are possible:
i. There is no doctrine of berera.

[7:2]
ii. The doctrine of berera applies only where there is a division ofproperty of the same physical kind but which differs in legal
342
ownership or ritual status . Berera cannot retroactively establishthat partners owned physically different property when in fact
they previously shared ownership and enjoyment of both.
343

3. A Mishnah deals with a haber brother and a non-haber brother
who inherit grain only a portion of which was definitely tithed. The
haber may tell the non-haber "You take the grain there and I willtake the grain here," with the intention that the haber take thegrain which was definitely tithed.
The Mishnah emphasizes, however, that this sort of selection is not
permitted where one species, e.g., wheat, was definitely tithed, andanother species e.g., barley, was not definitely tithed.
The possible explanations follow:
i. There is berera where one species is involved but not where two
species are involved.
ii. There is no berera where Scriptural matters are concerned,
whether or not two species are involved. The doctrine is appliedhere, in the case of one species, because the issue is only Rabbinic:
Even if one takes possibly untithed grain and exchanges it for
tithed grain, all that has occurred is a violation of the Rabbinic
prohibition against the sale of untithed grain.
But what of the Scriptural precept against encouraging
344
transgressions by others ? That precept is not violated because
there is no certainty that the grain was not tithed. In fact, there
is a presumption that even the deceased non-haber tithed his
grain.
4. Where two brothers inherit two fields and divide the fields
between them, the division can be nullified if a creditor of the father
342

Such as where one property is subject to the strictures of orlah or k'lay hakerem.

343

D'mai 6:9.

344

"You shall not place an obstacle in the path of a blind man."[7:2]
345

later forecloses on one of the fields.

The Gemara explains that where two brothers divide an estate,each does not acquire his own field while releasing his rights
against the other. Rather, the division is by berera, andretroactively confirms the ownership rights each brother isconsidered to have had immediately upon the father's death.
Since there are no releases, it follows that the retroactive selection
can be undone by the creditor's attack.
5. There is further proof of berera. Without berera the division of an
inherited estate would constitute the acquisition and release ofrights. Consonant with the rules applying to acquirors of land ingeneral, the division would have to be undone at the Jubilee. Thatbeing so, no person at all can have the legal status of the full ownerof the property (as opposed to owning temporary rights to produce)
unless he is the last in line of ancestors each of whom had only one
346
son since the original conquest of the land by Joshua.
6. R. Eliezer b. Jacob holds that if two partners vow not to benefit
from each other, each may enter into jointly owned real estate.
Berera established that each step that a partner takes on theundivided property is on property which belongs to him.
The Meiri concludes for reasons stated elsewhere that all of these proofs are notpersuasive. Berera is not applied to matters of Scriptural (as opposed to Rabbinic)
import.
[Additional rules on a convert's inheritance rights]
A gentile cannot inherit from a convert, such as where the father became aconvert while his son remained a gentile. There is no family relationship between
father and son. Nor is there concern of backsliding by the survivor, who is gentile.
One convert cannot inherit from another, such as where a father and a son
became converts together:345

B.B.107:1.

346

Git.48:1.

[7:2]
There is no familial relationship, and there is no concern on backsliding,since apostasy will not avail the son any additional rights: the disposition of
the deceased convert's estate (who dies Jewish) will be conducted by theBeth din and not by the gentile courts.
Mere sympathy to the plight of the surviving convert is not sufficient for us
to remove property from a third person who seized it legally on the deathof the deceased convert.
Nor are we swayed by concern that the surviving convert may backslide asa matter of spite notwithstanding that his inheritance rights will not be
thereby improved: we cannot concern ourselves with matters of spite. Let
the convert follow his tendencies!
[Moral obligations relating to convert inheritance]
That being so, one who borrows from a convert need not repay the borrowed
amounts to the convert's son (who is also a convert) on the death of the lender. The
sages are not particularly pleased if the borrower nevertheless determines to repay.
Some go even further and maintain that repayment is not approved because therepaying borrower is reducing the value of his own estate to the detriment of hisheirs. This is analogous to one who disenfranchises his sons: the act is valid but is not347
approved of by the Rabbis .
348

The Gemara is concerned with making this rule consistent with a Mishnah
which states the contrary rule: the Rabbis do approve of one who repays theconvert's son. According to the Meiri's textual reading, the Gemara explains that:
repayment is not approved where the surviving convert was born agentile;repayment is approved where the surviving son was born Jewish but
was conceived a gentile, such as where his mother became a convert
after he was conceived.
In short, the dispositive question is whether birth was Jewish.

347

B.B.133:2.

348

Sheviith 10:9.

[7:2]
349

This must in turn be reconciled with a Gemara which discusses the case of theconvert Isur who was the father of R. Meri and for whom Raba held 12,000 zuz. Now,
R. Meri was conceived a gentile but was born Jewish. When Isur turned ill, he sought
to transfer the funds to R. Meri. Raba assumed that the funds could not be validly
transferred:
1. Money cannot be transferred by halifin.
2. The funds were in Raba's possession so that R. Meri could notacquire ownership by drawing the funds into his own possession bymeshikhah.
3. Inheritance rights do not apply from one convert to another.
4. The same legal deficiency which invalidates inheritance without awill invalidates purported bequests by will.
5. Generally, A can transfer to B A's rights against C, if A, B and C areeach in each others' presence. Raba could avoid this result merely byrefusing to appear in Isur's presence.
6. The funds could not be transferred to R. Meri as appurtenant to atransfer of real property because Isur owned no real property.
Having in theory exhausted the possibilities, Raba felt confident that Isur could nottransfer the deposit to R. Meri. However, Raba was frustrated, and claimed to havebeen damaged, when it was suggested that the deposit be transferred by way of adeed of "confession" by Isur that the deposit was the property of R. Meri. Isur
acted on this suggestion, and R. Meri succeeded to the deposit.
Why was Raba irritated? Do not the Sages approve of the return of suchproperty? The following explanations have been offered:
1. Rabbeinu Tam holds that our approbation is limited to the case of
a loan which benefits the borrower. The borrower's moral
obligations are greater than the moral obligations of a bailee on adeposit.
2. Others explain that Raba was frustrated because he wished toreturn the funds voluntarily rather than by the legal compulsion
which arose from the confession. Raba's reference to having been
349

B.B.149:1.

[7:2]"damaged" means his damage at not having been in a position totake voluntary action approved by the Rabbis.
3. Were Raba to return the funds voluntarily, R. Meri might have felt
morally compelled to reward Raba for taking an action not legallyrequired.
Other commentators rely on the case of Raba and Isur to propose an entirely
different textual reading in our Gemara. What is essential is not whether the birth
was Jewish, but whether conception was Jewish. The Rabbis approve of return only
when conception was Jewish. R. Meri's conception was not. This explains Raba's
irritation, but leaves open the question of why there is no legal inheritance whenconception was Jewish. One who is conceived and born after his mother ceased to be350
a gentile is a Jew for all purposes . Besides, the statement that the Rabbis do not
approve appears in our Gemara in the context of one who became a convert inconjunction with his sons, i.e., with sons who were conceived and born gentiles.
A third group of commentators holds that the test is in fact Jewish birth. But theresults of the test are the reverse of the Meiri's reading. We approve of return where
the birth is gentile and there is fear of backsliding. We disapprove where the birth
was Jewish and there is no concern of backsliding.
The Meiri disagrees. For one, backsliding will not afford the convert any
inheritance, since under Jewish law he remains Jewish in any case. The
gentile courts will not interfere since the deceased was Jewish. Given nopractical results, we are not concerned with backsliding out of spite, as
discussed previously.
And, as already noted, the Gemara expresses the rule that there is no
Rabbinical approval in a case in which the gentile and his sons become
converts together, i.e., where both conception and birth were gentile.
A fourth group of commentators agrees with the proposition in the first readingthat where conception is gentile and the birth is Jewish, the Rabbis approve ofvoluntarily passing the deceased father's property to the son. They explain, however,that this applies where only one parent (not two parents) were gentile atconception. R. Meri's disability arose from the fact that not even his mother was
Jewish at conception. The Meiri considers this view far-fetched, and concludes thatthe first textual reading is correct.

350

Yeb.97:2.

[7:2]
351

The Meiri elsewhere explains related doctrines which are derivable from thecase of Raba and Isur, and also the rules relating to death-bed bequests fromconverts to Jews, from Jews to converts and from converts to converts.

351

B.B.149:1.

[7:2][18:1][Marital status of a designated bondmaid]
A bondmaid who has been designated is considered a betrothed woman until
the marriage (with the master or his son) is consummated. Until the designation isconsummated, the master cannot inherit from the bondmaid, or defile himself on
her account if he is a priest and she dies, or annul her vows without the cooperationof her father.
She can marry others only upon the death of her husband or if he gives her aget. By saying that she is not freed by the death of her master-son husband, theGemara means that she is not "freed" of her rights but instead has the full rights ofa widow.
She is subject to the requirements of yibbum should her husband die.
[When a father may sell his daughter into slavery; redemption requirements ofrelatives; no redemption for notes]
A father may not sell his daughter unless he is so impoverished that he has
nothing to eat and he has nothing else to sell. If relatives determine that the father
has the wherewithal to redeem his daughter, they can compel him to do so to
safeguard the family's honor.
Where the father does not have sufficient funds, we cannot compel the masterto accept a promissory note as a redemptive payment. The master paid good funds,
how can we compel him to release his rights for words written on a shard?
[Relative's redemption requirements for male slaves]
The rule is different for a male slave who is sold to a Jewish master: his relatives
cannot be compelled to redeem him. Scripture refers to redemption by relatives only
352
353
in the context of a slave sold to a gentile master and not to a Jewish master .
Were the Rabbis to impose a redemption requirement to safeguard the family's
honor, the slave would merely sell himself again.
The same reasoning explains why the majority hold that relatives cannot be352

Lev.25:49.

353

15:2.

[7:2]
compelled to redeem a bondmaid: the father would promptly sell her again. Only
the father can be compelled.
This suggests that where a person is compelled to raise funds forredemption himself the Rabbis do not fear that he will again effect a sale,perhaps because they will simply compel another redemption.
Some emend the text to explain that the slave is not compelled to redeem
himself (to protect the family's honor) because he will promptly sell himself
anew. But, if so, why do we compel the father to redeem his daughter if
she is a bondmaid? Will he not sell his daughter again?

[Sale of a thief into slavery; general rule]
The rule that a thief may be sold into slavery is applied as follows:354

To recover for the theft and the attendant fine the victim proceeds firstagainst the thief's chattels, and then against the thief's real property. The
thief's prime real property is attached first, consistent with the rule that a
tortfeasor's best property is subject to claims of his plaintiff.
The thief is sold only if he is a male and only if there is a shortfall inrecovery for the actual theft.
Once the victim recovers the value of the stolen item, the thief can nolonger be sold into slavery to recover the fine. Instead, the victim is his
creditor and is entitled to recover the fine should the thief ever obtain355
funds. A man may be sold "for his theft" , not for a fine.
[Witnesses who falsely testify with a view to causing one to be sold into slavery]
If C and D testify that A loaned money to B, and it is proved by witnesses that C
and D were elsewhere at the time, C and D must under the law of hazamah pay to B
the amount they wrongfully desired him to lose. This rule does not apply totestimony which would have resulted in the sale of B into slavery: C and D are not354

The fine is equivalent to the theft where the stolen item was not sold or slaughtered. Where thestolen item was sold or slaughtered, the penalty may be as great as four or five times the theft.
355

Ex. 22:2.

[7:2]
sold into slavery because of such testimony.
[Minimum value of theft]
A thief can be sold only where his own value is not a perutah or more greater356
than the value of the item which was stolen. Scripture requires that "he be sold" ,this implies that all of the thief must be sold, not merely a portion. Where the valueof the stolen item exceeds the thief's value, the thief remains indebted to the victim
for the excess, in the same manner as applies to the fine owed by the thief.
[Additional rules regarding slavery on account of thefts]
1. One who steals twice from the same person is sold only once. He
remains indebted to the victim for the second theft, with payment tobe made when the thief obtains sufficient funds. The rule is different
where thefts from more than one victim are involved: the thief issold once for each victim. The terms of servitude are consecutive.
2. If thefts from one or many are discovered before the thief issummoned to the Beth din, the value of the thefts is aggregated,
the thief is sold only once, and the proceeds of the sale are applied
against all of the thefts.
3. If partners steal, each is sold against the value of his portion of thetheft, so long as his own value does not exceed the value of thisportion.
This is the traditional understanding, and it accords in large part with the357
Rambam. Other commentators disagree . The dispute is based on differinginterpretations of the following dialogue in the Gemara.
The Gemara attempts to explain an inconsistency between our Mishnah, whichsuggests that a slave can be sold twice, and a baraitha which (based on the Scripturalrequirement that he be sold for "his theft," not "his thefts") holds that a slavecannot be sold twice. The Gemara's initial attempt is explained as follows:

356

Ex.22:2.

357

The Meiri ascribes these other views to Rashi. This is inconsistent with the version of Rashi we
have.
Recourse to the Ritva is necessary to supplement the following discussion in the Meiri.

[7:2]
1. The Meiri's view.
i. Where one theft is involved, and the thief's value is less than thestolen item, he is sold only once. He cannot be sold for the balanceof the theft when the term of his first servitude expires. There canbe only one sale for each individual theft. This is the baraitha'scase. In short: one theft--one sale.
ii. Where two thefts are involved, even from the same victim, twoterms of servitude are permissible, and this is the case ascribed to
the Mishnah. Each sale is an independent sale for an individual
single theft. In short: two thefts--two sales.
2. Other view.
i. For one theft, the thief is sold again and again until the entire
value of the theft is recovered. This is the point of the Scripturalphrase that he must be sold as many times as is necessary "for histheft." In short: one theft--two sales.
ii. The thief cannot be sold twice for two thefts, whether from one
victim or from two victims. In short: two thefts--one sale.
The Gemara takes issue with its initial explanation as follows:
1. The Meiri's view.
The Gemara questions why is more than one sale permitted where
two thefts are involved? The phrase "for his theft" can be taken
generically, in the sense of his having committed the crime oftheft!
Other examples of generic reference is the phrase "and a358
359
plentitude of beast" and "the fish in the canal."
2. The other view.
Why should not one victim sell the thief many times? The phrase
For his theft is generic, and can mean many thefts!

358

Jonah 4:11.

359

Ex.7:18.

[7:2]The Gemara's final explanation is as follows:
1. The Meiri's view.
The baraitha takes the limiting phrase "for his theft", to mean one
360
crime per person . Where there are two thefts from two persons,
there are two sales, because insofar as concerns each victim there
was only one theft. In short: one victim--one sale; two victims--twosales.
2. The other view.
One victim can sell the thief many times, so long as he summons
the thief to the Beth din only once. But where there are several
victims, only the first victim can sell the thief. In short: one victim-two sales; two victims--one sale.
By way of summary, the Meiri's reading of the Gemara's initial and final views is
as follows:
Original view

Ultimate view-one theft, one sale-one victim, one sale

-two thefts, two sales -two victims, two sales
The other reading of these views follows:
Original view

Ultimate view

360

Unless the thefts were committed before the thief was summoned to the Beth din, in which casethe one sale is made to cover all the loss from all of these thefts.
What if a thief's term of servitude expires and he steals again from the same victim? Of course, hesold anew.

[7:2]-one theft, two sales-one victim, two sales-two thefts, one sale

-two victims, one sale

[18:2][Daughter may be sold only where designation is feasible]
A father may sell his daughter only to a master who may marry her. She cannot
be sold to her father's son (the girl's brother, whose kiddushin is ineffective), or to
the father's grandson (the girl's nephew). She may be sold to her father's father, foralthough the purchaser cannot designate the girl himself (she is his grand-daughter),he can designate her to his son (the father's brother), since a woman may marry her
uncle.
There are relationships in which kiddushin is proscribed, but the kiddushin is
effective if contracted despite the prohibition:
A high priest may not marry a widow, and no priest may marry a divorcee
or a haluzah. If they do betroth such women, the kiddushin are effective.
May a daughter be sold to a person who has this relationship? For example, may
361
a haluzah or a divorcee be sold to a priest? Yes. Scripture recognizes that a sale
may be valid notwithstanding that there are impediments to kiddushin. It is362
permissible for a bondmaid to be "evil in the eyes of her master" , in the sense that
he cannot betroth her because of a prohibited relationship.
[When can a father sell a daughter who was a haluzah?]We must take the following rules into account in constructing the case in whicha father sold a daughter who was previously a haluzah or a divorcee:
1. A father who has once betrothed his daughter to another can never:(i) betroth her to another again if the marriage was consummated, or(ii) sell her into servitude even if the marriage was not consummated.

361

The halacha is that a minor's halizah is invalid. The Rambam holds that the halizah is neverthelesssufficient to proscribe the minor to a priest.
362

Ex.21:5.

[7:2]
2. A father who has once sold his daughter may sell her again and he may
also betroth her. This applies even where the initial sale ultimately resulted
in designation and marriage which was later terminated. In short, adaughter may be sold twice.
The Gemara states that the father's rights are lost once his daughter's
groom spreads his garment over the daughter. This applies only where
the father betroths her to the groom, not to the case where thedaughter is designated as the indirect end result of a sale into servitude.
The father's sale is not the equivalent of his having contracted
kiddushin by designation for her. The potential of designation is too
remote.
3. By definition, a girl who is to be sold as a bondmaid must be a ketannah.
4. A ketannah cannot alone contract a valid marital relationship, which
when terminated results in her being a divorcee or a haluzah.
5. If her prior marriage was contracted for her by her father, under
Proposition 1 he loses the right to sell her into servitude.
6. Recall, however, Proposition 1 that a father does not lose his right to sellhis daughter after a prior sale, even if the prior sale ultimately resulted in
betrothal by way of designation.
In what circumstances can a father proposes to sell his daughter, who is a divorcee
or a haluzah, to a priest? Where the girl was divorced from a prior master, or
became a yebamah on his death.
[Marital status of a designated woman]
The Gemara's discussion should be understood as follows:
1. Does designation result in betrothal only, or does it result in
363
consummated marriage similar to the effect of huppah ?

363

Why does not the Gemara mention another distinction: only if the marriage is deemed
consummated may the bride eat terumah if her husband is a priest? The commentators differ:
1. One group holds that the bride may not eat terumah even if designation is equivalent to huppah.
2. Others deduce the opposite rule: a designated bondmaid may eat terumah even if her status is[7:2]
Only if the marriage is deemed consummated may the master
inherit from his designated wife, or defile himself for her on her
death, or annul her vows without her father's cooperation.
2. Consider the verse "To sell her [the bondmaid] unto a strange
people he [the father] shall have no power, seeing that he [themaster] has dealt deceitfully with her [by designating her and then364
divorcing her]."If we interpret the verse as suggested by the brackets, it appears
that the father cannot sell the girl but there is no verse which
eliminates his power to betroth her to another. It must be thatdesignation effects betrothal only, since we know from
Proposition 1 that a father's rights in a daughter are lost once her
marriage is consummated.
But the verse has nothing to do with bondmaids! It deals with agirl who was previously betrothed by her father to another.
3.(i) Recall the case of the widowed girl who is sold to a priest, andour conclusion that there must have been the following sequence of
events:sale by the father to a master
designation by the master
death of the master, andfather's sale to the priest.
It must be that the designation had the status of kiddushin only. For
if the designation counts as consummated marriage, how could thefather later sell her anew, given the rule in Proposition 1(i) that afather cannot betroth or sell his daughter once her marriage isconsummated!

betrothal only. Recall that a betrothed woman may not eat terumah because ofconcern that, given her continued residence in her parent's home, she may offer
terumah to her siblings. This does not apply to a bondmaid who serves her master andlives apart from her siblings.
364

Ex.21:8.

[7:2]
Note that we treat the father's as a sale, not as a betrothal on
account of the right he gives the master to designate. The Gemaraat this point assumes that this applies only if we agree with R. Jose
that a master designates his bondmaid, not with the funds he paid
to her father for her purchase, but rather by waiver of his rights toher servitude during the balance of her term.
For if designation is by way of her father's purchase price, thenher father in effect indirectly betroths her to the master. Thisshould bring into play the rule that a father cannot sell his
daughter once he has betrothed her.
The Gemara ultimately determines that even if we disagree with R.
Jose, the father's involvement in designation to still too remote tocount as his betrothal.
(ii) But this suggestion proves too much. Keep in mind that thefather here proposes to sell his daughter to a priest, not to betroth
her to a priest. Even if we hold that designation results only in
kiddushin we must explain how the father can sell her again to asecond master, given the rule in Proposition 1.ii that a father cannot
sell his daughter after he has contracted any marital relationship forher, even if only kiddushin.
(iii) You must therefore say that the kiddushin which resultsfrom designation is not equivalent to general kiddushin for the
purpose of applying the rule against sale following betrothal. If so, itwould not be surprising if designation has the status of huppah andnevertheless does not relieve the father of all rights.
(iv) No. The fact that a widowed girl can be sold to a priest
after a prior designation proves that designation is kiddushin, nothuppah:The father retains selected rights when he himself effects standard
kiddushin. It is easy to understand that he loses no rights at allwhen his daughter effects kiddushin on her own throughdesignation.
But a father's authority is totally lost on standard maritalconsummation. If designation counts as consummated marriage,
why should his control not be lost where she consummates themarriage by designation?

[7:2]The Tosafot further explain that the rule which forbids a father
to sell his daughter after kiddushin is an unexpected exception
from the general rule that a father's rights continue until themarriage is consummated. That being so, we apply the
exception as narrowly as possible, and limit it to the case inwhich the father effected the kiddushin, and do not apply it to
kiddushin which the daughter effected by designation.
On the other hand, it is the general rule that the father loses his
authority on consummation of a marriage, and there are no
exceptions which must be applied narrowly. Consequently, why
not apply the rule to consummation by designation?
[19:1][Designation to a master's son]
A master may designate a bondmaid to his son only if the son is an adult andonly if the son is willing. The procedure is for the father to say to the bondmaid,"You are designated to my son with the money that your father accepted [from me]for your value."[Bondmaid must approve designation]
The bondmaid must also approve notwithstanding that her father had thepower to betroth her to another against her will. The father's involvement in thedesignation is indirect, and his authority is therefore circumscribed. Other
commentators disagree.
In any event, it is clear that the father's approval is not required: the Gemara
notes that the father cannot forestall designation by betrothing the girl to365
another .
[Termination of right to designate]
The right to designate a bondmaid ends on the master's death, since she thenobtains her freedom. The right also ends at sundown on the last day of her term. She
can, however, be designated a moment before sundown on that day,notwithstanding that the remaining value of her labor is then less than a perutah.

365

19:2.

[7:2]
This follows from our holding that designation is not with the value of her
remaining servitude, but with the money her father accepted on her sale.
The rule is otherwise if she wishes to obtain her freedom by redemption of theunamortized portion of her purchase price: there must be at least a perutah's worthof remaining labor.
[Cohabitation with minor; minor has no marital status]
A minor is not penalized for adultery if he cohabits with a married woman. She,however, is penalized if he is at least nine years and one day old.
A minor has no legal marital relationship with his wife. That is why an adult who
cohabits with a minor's wife does not commit adultery. This rule applies even if theminor was age nine years and a day and his cohabitation was sufficient for yibbum.
[Father's direction to daughter to accept kiddushin]
The Gemara states that a man can direct his daughter to accept kiddushin fromanother, and proves this by the fact that a father who sells his daughter in effectdirects her to submit to potential designation by her master.
Can we distinguish designation on the ground that it is by way of thepurchase price which the father receives directly from the master?
No. R. Jose holds that the father does not participate in the master's
designation, and designation is by way of forgiveness of a portion of the
girl's servitude, rather than by way of the purchase price paid to the father.
And this proposition stands notwithstanding that the halacha disagrees
with R. Jose and holds that designation is by way of the purchase pricefunds initially paid by the master to the father.

The Meiri's teachers extend this rule and permit the father to give his daughter
blanket authority to accept kiddushin from whomever she chooses, and that it is notnecessary that the kiddushin be to a groom designated by the father. After all, thefather gives the master authority to designate his daughter!
The Meiri objects that this extension in effect makes the daughter the agent of
the father in contravention of the doctrine that a minor cannot be an agent. The
Gemara's reference is not to authority given to the daughter, but rather to thefather's suggestion to a prospective groom that he give kiddushin to the daughterand thereby betroth her to him. This is effective, since it is the equivalent of the[7:2]
direction by an adult woman to a prospective groom to place kiddushin on a366
designated boulder or dog in order to effect kiddushin .
Why then does the Gemara analogize this to the designation of a bondmaid? Byselling his daughter to her master, whose identity is known, her father in effectgives the master ultimate authority to betroth in the same manner as a father who
suggests to a prospective identified groom that he betroth his daughter.
[Transfer of a secured loan in kiddushin]
Can there be kiddushin by transfer to the woman of a secured loan? The Meiri
answers "yes," and he supports this by reference to R. Jose. Designation in R. Jose'sview is by way of the labor which she owes to the master in the sense of a loan forwhich her body is collateral. But the rule survives notwithstanding that the halacha
disagrees with R. Jose.
[19:2][Mechanics and time of effectiveness of designation]
Designation occurs when in the presence of witnesses the master tells his
bondmaid "you are betrothed to me or to my son with the money that your father
accepted [from me] for your value." It is not necessary that there be time remaining
in her term for her to perform even one perutah of labor, since we ultimately rule,
contrary to R. Jose, that designation is with the initial purchase price, and not withthe value of the remaining labor. It is only requisite that the ceremony be performed
while there is at least a moment (not necessarily a perutah's worth) remaining of theterm of servitude. Once she is designated, she is the master's wife and he can nolonger demand servitude of her.

366

8:2.

[7:2]
Since designation is by the purchase price paid by the master initially, it follows
that designation is effective from the time of initial purchase. Therefore, intervening
kiddushin which is accepted by the father from third parties is invalid. The case issimilar to that in which a man says "Be betrothed to me now and after 30 days."
Once the 30 days pass, the kiddushin is effective from the start and intervening
367
kiddushin by others is invalid .
Note that in our case no 30-day or other specific period which is set for
designation at the time of the initial sale. But this failure to set a time is of noconsequence, for the rule is that one who says "You are betrothed to me now andwhen I so desire," betroths effective as of the initial statement once he expresses adesire to betroth. Intervening kiddushin are invalid notwithstanding that no time
limit was set.
One commentator applies the same rule to a gift given "now and when I
desire." The Meiri is concerned that this extension goes too far. At least in
the case of the bondmaid there is an outside limit on when the designationmust occur, i.e., before the expiration of the six year term of servitude.
There is no limit at all in the case of a gift.
If the father betroths her to another while she is a bondmaid, and the master
fails to designate her, then the father's betrothal is effective once her term is over or
she is otherwise set free.
[R. Jose and intervening betrothal]
Recall again R. Jose's view that designation occurs by way of waiver of remaining
servitude, rather than by way of the purchase price initially received by thebondmaid's father. At first sight it appears that it is inherent in R. Jose's view thatintervening kiddushin are effective. The master provides no value which precedes
the value given by the intervening betrother.
But the matter is not self-evident:
The master does not expressly delay the time of effectiveness. Contrast thiswith the case of one who says "Be betrothed to me after 30 days." In thatcase effectiveness is expressly delayed, and there is no question thatintervening kiddushin by others is effective.

367

Contrast one who says simply "Be betrothed to me after 30 days," without adding the word now,where intervening kiddushin are valid.

[7:2]
Besides, not all legal consequences are delayed from the time of sale. Effectivefrom that time, the father's approval to her designation is no longer required.
Therefore, without a baraitha to the contrary, we might have thought there is anunderstanding that designation, once it occurs by way of the forgiveness of her
labor, is effective from the start, at least for the purpose of questionable kiddushin.
[Master's agreement not to designate; certain other stipulations]
The father cannot enforce an agreement by the master not to designate thebondmaid, even if the agreement was made at the time of sale. The agreement
contravenes non-monetary Scriptural requirements and is void. Similarly, one who
betroths on condition that he not be responsible for food, clothing and conjugal
rights, is relieved of the monetary requirements relating to food and clothing, but
not of the non-monetary requirements relating to conjugal rights.
One commentator maintains that even a stipulation on food or clothing is invalid
if expressed as above, since the stipulation is violative of the religious rule which
demands that he fulfill these monetary obligations. What is valid is a stipulation that368
she waive her rights to these monetary obligations. This is similar to the Gemara
which distinguishes between the following two stipulations to avoid the rule thatdebts are extinguished by the shemittah:
1. I make this loan to you on condition that Shemittah not extinguishit--ineffective since the operation of shemittah cannot be avoided byagreement.
2. I make this loan to you on condition that you do not rely on
shemittah to extinguish your loan--effective since the operation ofshemittah continues, and the borrower has merely agreed to waive
his monetary recourse to shemittah.

368

Mak.3:2.

[7:2][Simultaneous dual designations; when a daughter may be sold or betrothed]The simultaneous designation by one person of two bondmaids is ineffective,369
based on the Scriptural reference to designation in the singular: "designate her" .
A father can sell his daughter only while she is a minor, but he may betroth her
so long as she is a na'arah.
[20:1][Master's bodily damage to a Jewish slave]369

Ex.21:8.

[7:2]A Jewish slave is not freed if his master causes him to lose a limb. If, for example,
the master blinds the slave's eye, the slave's servitude continues and the slave is370
entitled to compensation. "If he comes in by himself, he shall go out by himself"means that he is entitled to indemnity for any bodily loss.
[Single Jewish slave cannot be compelled to marry; related rules]
From the same verse we derive the rule that if the slave was single when his term
began, he is entitled to leave single. His master (or the master's son on the master's
death) cannot obligate the slave to marry a gentile bondmaid in order to engenderchildren who will remain the property of the master as gentile slaves.
In fact, the slave is not permitted to marry a gentile bondmaid even if theslave so desires. There is concern that the single slave, once married to thegentile bondmaid, will continue to live with her after he is freed.
The right to obligate the slave to marry a gentile woman applies only where theslave was previously married and is less inclined to continue to live with the gentile
bondmaid.
In no event may the master separate the slave from his prior wife and children.
371
Scripture speaks in terms of his wife being "with him" .
The master cannot require that a slave marry two gentile bondmaids, or requirethat two slaves marry one gentile bondmaid. Scripture speaks in terms of thesingular, both of the slave and of the bondmaid: "If his master shall give him a372wife."[Redemption of Jewish slaves]
A Jewish slave may obtain his freedom by paying to the master a redemption
price equal to the unamortized portion of the slave's initial purchase price.
Calculation of the redemption price is made in favor of the slave in those cases inwhich the slave either appreciated or depreciated in value after his initial sale to hismaster. For example, if the slave was sold for a maneh (100 zuz) and his value
increases to 200, his redemption price is calculated based on his initial value. If the370

Ex.21:3.

371

Ex.21:3.

372

Ex.21:4.

[7:2]
reverse occurred, his redemption price is based on his present, lower value.
A Jewish slave who is sold to a gentile may redeem himself in part. This rulesometimes assists the slave and is sometimes to his detriment, as will be explained
373
374
below . A Jewish slave cannot be redeemed in part .
[Master's conduct towards Jewish slaves]
A master may treat himself no better than he treats his Jewish slave in matters of375
food and drink. "For he is well with you" teaches that he must be equal with you
in matters of food and drink. You may not eat white bread and ask him to eat black
bread, you may not drink old wine and ask him to drink new wine, and you may not
sleep on a feather bed while he sleeps on straw. This is the source of the proverbthat one who buys a Jewish slave buys himself a master.
The Geonim hold that these rules are not obligatory, but merely express
standards of approved conduct. The Geonim also say that although the institution of376
Jewish slavery was abolished with the abolition of the Jubilee , the rules ofapproved conduct still apply to permanent servants.
Where local custom permits a master to feed his servants at a designated level of
expense, the master nevertheless may not feed himself more expensively. This is so
despite the rule that custom regarding conduct with slaves prevails over legal
377
requirements .
All of these rules apply to lodging as well as to food.
What if the master stipulates in advance with his permanent servants that thesuggested rules of conduct are not to apply? The stipulation is valid, since it effects awaiver only of suggested modes of conduct. Even express stipulation is invalid topermit the master to feed his servants unfit food.

373

20:2.

374

15:2.

375

Deut. 15:16.

376

69:1.

377

See Meiri B.M.87:1.

[7:2]
378

Many of these rules are reflected in a Mishnah regarding workers who were
hired by the sons of R. Johanan b. Masya and whom the sons agreed to feed. R.
Johanan complained that the sons didn't agree on advance on how much foodwould be offered. The workers could therefore claim a repast fit for King Solomon,
since the workers were Jews and were elite persons descended from the Patriarchs.
R. Johanan therefore directed that his children stipulate in advance that theworkers are entitled to bread and beans only. Because R. Johanan proposed to eat
superior food, the stipulation was required even though under local custom black
bread was sufficient for servants.
In determining whether R. Johanan meant bread of beans or bread and beans,379
the Gemara notes that the stricter reading is required because, even were there an
express stipulation otherwise, bread and beans are as essential to the servant as is apole which protects a ship from colliding against a reef.
In dealing with his Jewish slave, a master should conduct himself withcompassion and brotherhood: "Amongst your brothers the children of Israel, one
380
shall not impose hard labor on his brother." Even for gentile slaves the Yerushalmi
recounts the practice of R. Johanan, who when eating meat gave his slave meat, andwhen drinking wine gave his slave wine, referring to the verse "For in the womb you
381
made me and you made him."
One commentator states that a master may treat himself better than his slave, solong as he does not treat his children better than he treats his slave.
The slave has a personal obligation to carry out the terms of his servitude.
[Relative severity of precepts]
It is forbidden to trade in the produce of the shemittah year. Scripture makes
382such produce available only "to eat" , from which we deduce "but not to trade."This negative deduction from a positive commandment has the force of a positive
378

B. M.83:1.

379

B.M.87:1.

380

Lev.25:46.

381

Job 31:15.

382

Lev. 25:6.

[7:2]
commandment only, but it should nevertheless not be treated lightly. The Rabbis
said "Be as concerned with a less important commandment as with a severe one, for383
you do not know the reward allocable to a particular commandment" . The same
applies to penalties; one does not know the precise penalty ascribable to a particularcommandment.
The Gemara elaborates on the unexpected severity of apparently less importantcommandments:
1. If one does not take heed of even the minor proscriptions relating toshemittah, that is, not to trade in its fruits, dealt with in Lev.25:6, then in
the end he will be forced to sell his chattels.
This is derived from verses 13 and 14 of the same chapter:
Verse 13 concludes the section on shemittah and Jubilee with "In thisyear of Jubilee you shall return every man unto his possession."
Verse 14 begins "If you sell anything to your neighbor, or buy of yourneighbor's hand", which refers to chattels which are acquired fromhand to hand.
2. If he disregards the punishment or does not perceive it as such, he will becompelled to sell his fields, as set forth in verse 25: "If your brotherbecomes impoverished and sells of his possessions."
3. If he still disregards the punishment, he will be compelled to sell his
house, as provided in verse 29: "And if a man sells his house."
4. If he still disregards the punishment, he will be compelled to sell his
daughter into servitude, as provided in the verse "And if a man sells his
daughter as a bondmaid."
Note that the verse on selling a daughter as a bondmaid does not appear
in the progression of verses with which the Gemara deals here. Still, theGemara assumes that this punishment should precede that next stated,that is, the borrowing of money on interest. There is a maxim that betterone sell his daughter into slavery (with a term that can be cut short byredemption) than borrow money on interest (which is an obligation whichconstantly increases).

383

Abot 2:41.

[7:2]
5. If he still disregards the punishment he will be compelled to borrow oninterest, as in verse 36 "If your brother is impoverished, do not take of him
usury or increase."
6. If he still disregards the punishment, verse 39 states that he will "sellhimself to you" as a slave.
7. If he still disregards the punishment, he will sell himself to a convert, andnot to a righteous convert, but to a ger toshav, as provided in verse 47.
8. Ultimately, he will sell himself to a gentile, which isintended by verse 47's
reference to the family of a convert, and even to the service of the idol
itself (by hewing wood and drawing water) as is meant by the reference inthe same verse to a sale to the "stock."
Despite the fact that all these misfortunes were brought about by thetransgressor's own free will, we throw no stones after the fallen person. Instead wehave compassion for him, as provided in verse 48: "after he is sold, he shall be
redeemed."[20:2][Redemption and changes in slave's value; redemption in part]In calculating a slave's redemption price, his appreciation or depreciation is taken
into account favorably to the slave. Some also hold that a Jewish slave who has beensold to a gentile master may redeem himself in part, i.e., he may reduce the balance384
of his term by partial payment . These two rules operate in tandem as follows:
Assume that the slave was purchased for 200, and his value had
declined to 100 when he redeemed half of his term by paying 50. If hisvalue again increases to 200, the slave need pay only another 100 (half of
his value at the time of redemption) to obtain his freedom.
Were the slave not permitted to redeem himself in part, his priorpayment of 50 would be deemed to have been paid towards aredemption price determinable only on full redemption--in this case200. This would have required him to pay an additional 150 to obtainhis freedom. In this instance, partial redemption helped the slave.
384

Redemption in part cuts short the term of servitude. It does not result in alternating days ofservitude and freedom.

[7:2]
Assume that he was purchased for 200 and the slave redeemed halfof his servitude by paying 100 to the master, and that he thereafter
depreciates in value to 100. To obtain his freedom the slave must pay an
additional 50 towards the one-half of the servitude which the master stillowns at present value.
Were the prior redemption not effective in part, the 100 which themaster held on account would have been sufficient for theredemption of the slave without the payment of any additional
funds at all. Here the effectiveness of a partial redemption hurt theslave.
Additionally, some hold that a Jewish slave sold to a gentile may be redeemed byhis relatives and may borrow his redemption price.
But what is the halacha in these cases?
1. The Meiri holds that the proper rule would permit partial
redemption where helpful to the slave and not where
disadvantageous to him:
There are direct statements in the Gemara and by Rabina (whoseviews are generally authoritative on account of his having lived later
than R. Ashi) that there is no partial redemption.
It is appropriate, out of a sense of justice to assist the slave, to limit
Rabina's holding to partial redemptions which are disadvantageous
to the slave.
Where helpful to the slave we should rely on R. Ashi who states as apremise to another proposition "If partial redemption is permitted,
then what if..." Where the Gemara uses this syntax, the propositionin the assumed premise is often taken as halacha.
2. Other commentators prefer not to antagonize the gentile master.
They therefore validate partial redemptions even where contrary to
the interests of the slave, especially since in most instances the slave
would be helped by the rule.
3. Yet other commentators follow Rabina's holding literally andinvalidate all partial redemptions.
4. The Meiri also rules that the slave may borrow his redemptive

[7:2]
funds. The verse reads "or his hand shall achieve, and he shall be385
redeemed." The word or emphasizes that self-obtainment of funds
is not the only means to freedom, and that borrowing is permitted.
But this holding is uncertain. The verse's intent may be to exclude
borrowings.
[Redemption where master is Jewish]
Where the slave, whether male or female, is sold to a Jewish master, whether by
the slave himself or by the Beth din, there can be no redemption by relatives. The
verse relating to relatives appears in the context of gentile masters only and states,
386
in limiting fashion, "he shall redeem him" . This suggests that relatives can redeem
only slaves owned by a gentile master.
We also know that relatives can compel the father to redeem his daughter, but
no other relatives can be so compelled.
The Torah's failure to permit redemption by relatives suggests a policy not toease the path to the slave's freedom. It follows that the slave of a Jewish mastercannot borrow his redemptive funds and he cannot redeem himself partially.
[Redemption of varying categories of sold or consecrated property][Note: the following rules are summarized on page 21:1]
One who sells a house in a walled city may redeem on the date of sale or during
the first 12 months after the sale, but not afterwards. Redemption is for the fullpurchase price, without any deduction for the period in which the purchaser lived in
the house. Redemption cannot be by relatives, or with borrowed funds or in parts.
Jubilee does not affect ownership even if Jubilee occurs during the one-year period
in which redemption is permitted.
If a house in a walled city is sanctified and is then sold by the Temple treasurer toa third party, the original owner may redeem it from the third party for one year
after the third party's purchase. If not redeemed by the end of the one year period,
redemption rights are forever lost. Redemption rights continue indefinitely so longas the Temple treasurer has not sold the house.

385

Lev.25:49.

386

Lev.25:48.

[7:2]A house which is sanctified in a city dedicated to Levites may be redeemed by theoriginal owner indefinitely. Further, should the Temple treasurer sell the house to athird party, the house returns to the original owner at the Jubilee.
One who sells an inherited field may redeem it prior to the Jubilee after thepurchaser has harvested two yearly crops. The redemption price is the unamortized
portion of the purchase price based on the number of years remaining to the
Jubilee. The seller may not borrow to pay the redemption price; Scripture limits
387
redemption to cases in which "his hand achieves" . Nor may he partially redeem his
388
field; Scripture requires that "he find [sufficient funds] to redeem it" . Relatives
have redemption rights: "And his redeemer who is related to him shall redeem the389
sale made by his brother" . If not redeemed, the field returns to the seller at the
Jubilee.
The redemption price for an inherited field which was sanctified is one selah andone pundyon for each year remaining until Jubilee for each plot of land on which a390
kor of grain can be planted. Redemption can be immediate, and there is no twoyear waiting period. Partial and borrowed redemptions are permitted.
If neither the sanctifier nor his son redeems the field prior to the Jubilee the fieldthen passes to the priests who pay the value of the field to the Temple treasurer, so
as not to give the impression that sacred property can pass from the treasurer
without redemption. If the treasurer sold the field to others prior to the Jubilee,
then the field passes to the priests at the Jubilee without any payment, since thetreasurer previously received a payment for the sanctified field.
[Redemption in part]
What is meant by the proposition that a sanctified field may be redeemed in
part? Is the intent that half of the field is redeemed immediately (redemption interms of space), or is the meaning that the time period during which the purchaser
may retain the entire field is cut in half (redemption in terms of time)?

387

Lev.25:26.

388

Id.

389

Lev.25:25.

390

Same as a homer.

[7:2]
391

1. A Mishnah in M. Erukhin expressly invalidates partial redemptionof sanctified fields. The Meiri suggests that the Mishnah may refer topartial redemptions in terms of time, whereas our Gemara deals withthe partial immediate redemption in space of a portion of the392
sanctified field . Rashi also holds that partial redemption is in termsof space rather than time.
2. Some commentators take the opposite view, and validate partial
redemption in time but not in space.
i. This is consistent with the rule that one who mortgages a field assecurity for a loan cannot repay half of the loan and demand
release of half of the mortgage, even where the mortgage covers
393
two distinct fields .
ii. One who buys a kor of grain can revoke the purchase if he isproffered anything less than a whole kor, even if he is offered a394
pro rata reduction in the purchase price .
iii. Recall the rule that the sanctifier of an inherited field may
redeem the field at an arbitrary price based on the size of the field
and the number of years remaining to the Jubilee (a selah and apundyon per year per plot of land fit to plant a kor of grain).
395

The Gemara
holds that if the field contains depressions orelevations which are at least 10 tefachim high or low, the fixed
redemption price does not cover these elevations and depressions,and these areas must be separately redeemed at actual value. The
Gemara then asks why these excluded areas are not separately
redeemable at the selah and pundyon price, and explains that theseareas are not fit for planting. Were they fit for planting, they could
have been separately redeemable, but only because of their
391

Er.25:1.

392

The Meiri speaks in terms of a house sold in a walled city, but the sources he cites speak in termsof the sanctified field.
393

B.B.107:1.

394

B.B.105:1.

395

B.B.103:1.

[7:2]
distinctiveness in terms of elevation and depression.
This initially suggests that the doctrine of partial redemption refers
to time only, and spatial partial redemption is permitted only where
the part is distinctive in some way.
Those who support partial redemption in space, including
Rashi, would explain either that:a. The Gemara readily accepts the premise that the elevated anddepressed areas should be treated as separate fields, consistent
with the general rule that redemption of half of a field ispermitted. The Gemara's sole concern is why, even as separate
fields, they are redeemed at actual value rather than at the fixedselah and pundyon rules. This is Rashi's explanation; orb. Although partial redemption in terms of space is generally
permitted, such redemption is not proper where the part
redeemed is of better quality than the part not redeemed.

[7:2][21:1][Redemption of a house in a walled city]
A house which is sold in a non-walled city can be redeemed immediately,
without any waiting period. Redemption is based on the unamortized porion of thepurchase price calculated on the number of years remaining to the Jubilee. The
house returns to the original owner at the Jubilee, without the payment of any
funds, since Scripture provides that the house shall be "treated as the fields of the396
Earth" . Redemption may be by relatives, but not with borrowed money and not inparts.
[Meaning of redemption by relatives]
In each case where redemption may be by relatives, the meaning is that relatives
may, if they so desire, redeem the property against the will of the current owner.
397
The verse "And he shall redeem the sale made by his brother"means if therelative so desires. The closest relative has priority. Scripture provides that his "uncle398
or his uncle's son" shall redeem the property, listing the closer kinship first.
[Summary of redemption rules]
Here is a summary:
I. The seller of an inherited field is subject to six rules, three of which arefavorable to him and three of which are not favorable:
A. Unfavorable to seller:
1. no redemption prior to two year waiting period.
2. no redemption with borrowed funds.
3. no redemption in parts.
B. Favorable to seller:
396

Lev.25:31.

397

Lev.25:25.

398

Lev.48:49.

[7:2]
1. after two years redemption permitted based on amortization until
Jubilee.
2. redemption by relatives permitted.
3. unredeemed fields return at the Jubilee.
II. The seller of a house in a walled city is subject to seven rules, six of which areunfavorable to him, and one of which is favorable:
A. Unfavorable to seller:
1. redemption is always at full purchase price.
2. no redemption by relatives.
3. no redemption with borrowed funds.
4. no redemption in parts.
5. no redemption after first year.
6. Jubilee ineffective even during first year.
B. Favorable to seller:
1. No waiting period prior to redemption.

III. The seller of a house in a non-walled city is subject to the rules applicable to theseller of an inherited field except that redemption can be immediate, without any
waiting period.
IV. The sanctifier of an inherited field is subject to five rules favorable to him andone unfavorable to him:
A. Favorable to sanctifier:
1. Redemption is at a set arbitrary price of a selah and a pundyon peryear per plot of land on which a kor of grain can be planted.
2. No waiting period.
3. Borrowing permitted.

[7:2]
4. redemption may be in parts.
5. if redeemed by the sanctifier's son, it returns to
the father at the Jubilee.
B. Unfavorable to sanctifier:
1. if not redeemed by the sanctifier or his son, the field is distributed
to the priests at the Jubilee (for payment if not previously redeemedby another, without payment if previously redeemed).
V. The sanctifier of a house in a walled city:
1. may redeem immediately and forever, so long as a third party has
not purchased the house from the Temple treasurer.
2. redemption in this case continues after the Jubilee.
3. redemption is at initial purchase price, without deduction.
4. all redemption rights expire one year after the house is sold by theTemple treasurer.
VI. The sanctifier of a house in a non-walled city:
1. has immediate and continuous redemption rights.
2. is entitled to return of the house at the Jubilee if sold by theTemple treasurer to another.
[The phrase "and in all" relating to inherited fields]
The Gemara discusses the purpose of the additional words and in all in the verse
399"And in all inherited fields you shall give redemption to the land." The words are
obviously intended to extend the reach of the rules for inherited fields to othercontexts. But to which context?
If the reference is to houses in non-walled cities, the only purpose of the phrase
can be to give priority to the relative who has the highest degree of kinship; thebasic rules permitting redemption by relatives are independently derived from the399

Lev. 25:24.

[7:2]
400

fact that such houses are to be "treated as fields of the land."That being so,
Scripture should have stated simply that priority is by degree of kinship, without
relying on a phrase which is more logically used to import a whole body of law. But
if the new context is houses in walled cities, the phrase and in all, which suggests theimportation of a whole body of law, is understandable.

400

Lev. 25:31.

[7:2][21:2][Various rules relating to the boring of a slave's ear]
A Jewish slave's ear is bored with an awl, a needle, a borer, a stylus or with anyother metal puncturing instrument. Wooden instruments, such as a prick or a thorn,
may not be used.
401

Notwithstanding the Scriptural phrase "the awl," there is no implication thatthe great awl be used; a small awl is in fact sufficient. Similarly, the halacha does not
402
agree with R. Judah's rule that the phrase "the thigh" implies that only the sinew
in the right thigh is prohibited.
The cartilaginous body of the ear is bored, not the soft part.
403

Scripture requires that at the Jubilee the slave "return to his family" , whichmeans to the established rights of his family, including the right to officiate in the404
Temple . We do not bore the ear of a Jewish slave who is a priest and who would

401

Deut. 15:17.

402

Gen.32:33.

403

Lev. 25:41.

404

But the priest-former slave may not reassume any official position he may previously have had,such as the Presidency of the Beth din. Mak.13:1.

[7:2]
405

thereby be blemished.

A slave's ear is bored only if he married a gentile slave presented to him by his
master. Recall that the Gemara would have permitted a priest's ear to be bored were
it not for the blemish it would cause. This suggests that the master can present a
gentile slave for marriage even to a slave who is a priest.
[22:1][Women captured in battle]
A Jewish soldier may cohabit with a woman whom he captures during battle. He
may do so only once and only if he intends to bring her to his home to convert andmarry her. The Torah assumes that the soldier's passions will prevail; it therefore
permits cohabitation, and directs only that cohabitation be with a view towards
conversion and marriage.

405

Bek.37:1. Boring of the soft part of the ear is considered merely a puncture of the skin which does
not render a priest unfit for service.

[7:2]She is the soldier's property as soon as she is captured, and no other person may
406
seize her. "You shall take her," means that the soldier takes her as his property.
The verse would be unnecessary if it referred only to taking in betrothal after she
willingly converts: why would we even think that betrothal is not effective?
The captive should not be pressured to convert. This is what the Gemara meansby forbidding the soldier to "molest" her. The Meiri disagrees with Rashi's
interpretation that the soldier "molests" her by cohabiting with her before her
407
conversion. A minority explain that the soldier "molests" her if he cohabits against
the woman's will.
The soldier may marry the woman immediately if she decides to convert. If she
resists conversion, he must let her spend 30 days in his house. During this period she
deliberately makes herself unattractive by shaving her head and letting her nails
grow, and she grieves over the loss of her family, religion and customs. If she
ultimately determines to convert, he may marry her once three months pass from theday on which she first entered his house.
If he decides not to marry her, he must free her. He cannot sell her, or treat her
as a bondmaid.
If she has not converted after 12 months, the soldier must compel her to accept
the seven precepts which were given to the sons of Noah and which apply to all
gentiles. She remains a gentile and he may not marry her.
Note the following additional rules:
1. If the soldier is a priest he may not marry a captive woman. A priest may
not marry a convert.
408

2. Scripture permits the soldier to cohabit with a "beautiful" captive . By
this, Scripture means only that the captive must be beautiful in thesoldier's eyes.

406

Deut.21:11.

407

Note that at 21:2 the Gemara states outright that one cohabitation is permitted.

The Yerushalmi records that Rav disagrees with R. Johanan, and holds that one cohabitation ispermitted before conversion.
408

Deut.21:11.

[7:2]
3. The soldier can take only one captive: "and you desire her." Nor may hetake a captive for his father or other relative. The Torah's dispensation is
directed only against the soldier's passions, not those of others.
4. What of the child if a captive becomes pregnant from cohabitation
before conversion? The child is gentile, the same as its mother, and does
not have any family relationship with the father. In fact, the father's son
may marry the child.
It is this rule which Amnon applied in marrying Tamar. Amnon and Tamar
were children of King David by different mothers. Tamar's mothercohabited with King David upon her capture in battle before conversion, sothat Tamar was not related to Amnon. That is why Tamar was convinced
409
that King David would "not forbid you from me." Absalom was Tamar's
full brother, except that he was conceived after their mother converted.
[When a slave's ear is bored]
A slave's ear is bored if he refuses to leave when his term expires, and if he thentwice declares "I love my master, etc."
What then of the requirement that the first statement be made at the"beginning of the six-year term?" Raba explains that this means only that it must be
made while there is still time for the slave to do one perutah's worth of labor. The
second statement must be made at the last possible moment prior to the end of theterm. The purpose of all this is to ensure that both statements are made when
freedom is in sight, and it is certain that they are made with full understanding andwillingness.
The following additional circumstances must be present before a slave's ear isbored:
1. The master must have a wife and children. "For he loves you [the410master] and your household ."2. The slave must have a wife and children. "I [the slave] love my wifeand children."

409
410

Sam.II, 13:13.

Deut.15:16.

[7:2]
3. The master must love the slave. "For it is good to him [the slave]411
with you. "4. The slave must love the master. "For he loves you..."5. Neither the slave nor the master may be ill. "For it is good to him
with you."[Master's obligation to sustain his slave's wife]
Scripture directs that at the end of the term "his [the slave's] wife shall leave412
413
with him," and "his children shall leave with him." The reference cannot be to agentile bondmaid:
A gentile bondmaid which the master gives to the slave in marriage,
as well as their children, are the master's property and do not leave:414"the wife and her children shall be unto the master."
The reference must be to a Jewish wife which the slave took prior to servitude, or
which he took during his term with his master's approval. Now, such persons are
not slaves. In what sense do they leave? In the sense that the master no longer
feeds them! This proves that the master must feed them until the slave is freed.
Note also:

411

Deut.15:16.

412

Ex.21:3.

413

Lev.25:41.

414

Ex.21:4.

[7:2]
1. The master need feed only a woman whose marriage to the slave
was consummated, not one who is only betrothed to the slave or
who is obligated to perform yibbum with the slave.
2. The master does not feed a woman who is forbidden to the slave,even if the proscription is only by positive precept or Rabbinic
interdict. This woman does not "leave with him."
3. The slave's wife owns her own labor. This is not required by law,
but is morally correct. A prior agreement that the wife's work will
belong to the master is valid, since no precept is violated.
[22:2][How the ear is bored]
The master himself (not his son, his messenger or a court official) must bore the
awl through the slave's ear directly into an upright door. Boring is invalid if the ear isbored first and the ear is then placed against a door to continue the boring into the
door.
415

There need be no door-post. Scripture refers to the door-post
that the door be upright in the manner of a door-post.

only to require416

The ceremony is invalid if performed on two slaves simultaneously .
[Why the ear is bored]
Why is it the ear that is bored? As punishment: the ear heard G-d say that "The417
children of Israel are slaves unto me," and this slave nevertheless committed theftand caused his sale by the Beth din into slavery. Note that the ceremony of boring
applies only to slaves sold into slavery by the Beth din, and not to slaves who sell418
themselves into slavery voluntarily .

415

Ex.21:6.

416

Sot.8:1.

417

Lev.25:54.

418

The Mekhilta, Ex.21:6, explains that the slave is punished because he committed theftnotwithstanding that at Sinai his ear heard the commandment "Thou shalt not steal."[7:2]
Why is boring into the door, and why the reference to the door-post? Because
doors and door-posts belonging to Jews were witnesses to G-d's avoidance of Jewish
homes when G-d decimated the Egyptians and delivered the Jews from slavery. A
419
witness to a crime takes precedence in punishing the malefactor .
The Midrash explains that the Jewish word for awl is numerically equivalent to430, which is the number of years of Jewish oppression beginning with the birth ofIssac. This slave ignored the lesson of those 430 years and took action which resulted
in his sale into slavery!
[Dignity of the slave]
The slave must be sold quietly and with respect, not on the auction block where
gentile slaves are sold.
The slave cannot be asked to perform more work than is commonly assigned tolaborers, or work that the master does not need. The master should not direct theslave to labor "until I return," if the master intends to delay. It is for such
420
transgressions that Scripture cautions "You shall fear your G-d."
Where the Beth din has power, it compels a gentile master to adhere to thesame rules. "He [the gentile] shall not cause him [the Jewish slave] to labor421
unconscionably."
The slave cannot be asked to perform demeaning and embarrassing work. For
example, the master cannot demand that the slave put on or take off the master's
shoes, or carry the master's clothing to the bath house, or act as a barber or baker422
for the general public. "You shall not make him work the labor of a slave," butonly the work of a non-slave laborer. Also, "He [the Jewish slave] shall be as the423
hired hand and as the alien resident with you" .

419

Deut.17:7.

420

Lev.25:43. The Rambam holds that unconscionable labor means work which has no apparent end.

421

Lev.25:53.

422

Lev.25:39.

423

Lev.25:40.

[7:2][Acquisition of slaves]
The third Mishnah deals with the acquisition of gentile slaves, and provides
as follows:
A Canaanite slave is acquired by money, deed or hazakah, and heacquires himself by money through the agency of others, and bydeed, through his own agency: this is R. Meir's view. The Sages
maintain: by money, through his own agency, and by deed, throughthe agency of others; providing that the money is furnished byothers.
[Relationship with seven nations]
The Canaanites are one of the seven nations of whom the Torah directs that the424conquering Jews "not leave any soul alive" . Why then does the Mishnah refer to a
Canaanite slave? There are two possible explanations:
1. The reference is non-specific, and means gentiles generally, rather
than Canaanites. After all, the original Canaanites have long since
been exiled and can no longer be traced.
2. There is no absolute requirement to kill the members of the sevennations. Rather, here are the rules of conquest:
i. No Jewish enemies are killed, even if from the seven nations, if
they sue for peace and agree to pay tribute to Jewish conquerors
and to abide by the seven precepts to which gentiles are subject.
ii. The Jews take the initiative and offer peace to all nations otherthan Amon and Moab, for whom Scripture directs, "You shall not
425
The Meiri disagrees with theseek their peace or goodwill."
Raabad who holds that the obligation to offer peace ceased after
the Jews crossed the Jordan River into Israel proper.
iii. If an enemy nation refuses to submit to tribute and to accept
the seven precepts, then:424

Deut.20:16.

425

Deut.23:7. If Amon or Moab sue for peace on their own initiative, they too, are exempt from therequirement that no soul remain alive.

[7:2]
a. if the enemy is one of the seven nations, no soul may be leftalive.
b. if the enemy is of any other nation, only the adult males are
killed, and all others are spared.
Why then did the Gibeonites feel compelled falsely to claim that they
were not of the seven nations when they sued for peace with
Joshua? Because Joshua had not yet offered peace, and they did notknow that Jewish law would absolve them were they to submit.
But why were they punished to be hewers of wood and drawers ofwater, and why does it appear that they were spared only because
the Jews had already sworn to save them? Because they sought todeceive the Jews on their true identity as one of the seven nations.
It results that there are cases in which the seven nations are preserved, and it isto such a case that the Mishnah refers when it discusses the acquisition of a
Canaanite slave.
[Persons from whom slaves are acquired and to whom slaves are sold]
Return now to the Mishnah. The Mishnah recites the kinyanim by which a gentile
slave can be acquired:
1. by a Jew from a Jew;
2. by a Jew from a gentile or a resident alien;
3. by a Jew from a gentile who sells himself; and4. by a Jew from a gentile who sells his sons or his daughters.
A gentile can acquire only the labor of a fellow gentile; he can acquire no actual
ownership interest in the slave. That explains why the slave may marry a Jewish
woman if he escapes from his gentile master and converts to Judaism. Still, when a
Jew acquires the gentile's labor rights, these rights are transmuted in the Jew's
hands into absolute ownership.
The Mishnah does not refer to a slave who is sold by a Jew to a gentile. Such aslave is free under Jewish law, and the seller is penalized and compelled to redeem
him from the purchaser at a price up to ten times the slave's worth.
A slave is validly acquired by kinyan. After the slave is purchased the master mustarrange for the slave's tevilah and circumcision, and he must see to it that the slave[7:2]
perform those commandments which women are required to perform. If over a 12month period the slave refuses to be circumcised and to accept these426
commandments, the Jew may sell the slave to a gentile . In this case, and in thiscase only, the gentile purchaser can acquire the slave by any of the kinyanim
referred to in the Mishnah.
[Other kinyanim for slaves]
Return again to the Mishnah. A gentile slave can be acquired by the kinyanim ofmoney, deed and hazakah because slaves can be acquired and sold in the samemanner as real property. But note the following:427

1. halifin is valid for land as well as for slaves . But halifin is notlisted because it is not a type of acquisition which is peculiar to landand slaves. Even chattels can be acquired by halifin.
2. meshikhah is valid for slaves, but is not listed because it physicallycannot apply to land.
3. Sales of slaves are final and are not undone at the Jubilee, since
Scripture directs "You shall cause them [gentile slaves] to labor428
forever" . A sale of real property is valid only until the Jubilee.
A buyer cannot acquire a slave by lifting the slave. If the buyer directs the slave
to lift the buyer, there is a kinyan, but the kinyan is grounded on hazakah, since theact of lifting displays the buyer's dominance over the slave.
[Is redemption a benefit? Slave's rights when given property to the exclusion of his
master]
The balance of the Mishnah revolves around the following three issues:
1. Is it a benefit for a slave to be freed, or is it a detriment? If abenefit, others can accept a deed for the slave without the slave's
knowledge. If a detriment, others cannot accept a deed without the426

Yeb.48:2.

427

The Meiri's teachers hold that halifin cannot be used to acquire a gentile slave from a gentile
master.
428

Lev.25:46

[7:2]
slave's knowledge.
Whereas it is the essence of a deed that the slave accept it, it is theessence of redemptive money that the master accept it. It follows
that money paid to the master without the slave's knowledge iseffective even if a slave's freedom is a detriment to the slave.
2. Assume that a slave wishes to be redeemed. Certainly others canaccept a deed for him. But can he himself accept the deed andacquire the deed and his freedom simultaneously? Or is his own
acceptance of the deed a nullity because he belongs to his master?
3. Can a slave ever personally own property? Or must a slave's
property belong to his master even where the property is given to
the slave on condition that the master obtains no ownership?
If the slave can never own property then the slave cannot buy his
own freedom by giving money to the master directly. The money wasnever his to give, since the money became his master's property assoon as the slave received it.
R. Meir holds:
1. It is a detriment for a slave to be freed.
That is why a deed cannot be given to others without the slave's
knowledge. But the master can accept money from others acting
without the slave's knowledge.
2. A slave can obtain his freedom and property simultaneously.
Hence, a slave can himself accept his master's deed.
3. A master acquires his slave's property even where a donor
stipulates with the slave that the master is to obtain no ownership.
Hence a slave cannot buy his freedom by paying money himself to hismaster.
The Sages hold:
1. It is a benefit for a slave to be freed.
Hence, others can accept a deed on his behalf.

[7:2]
2. A donor can stipulate that a slave have private ownership ofproperty.
Hence the slave himself can pay redemptive money to the master,where it is stipulated that the master is to have no ownershipinterest until he receives the money as redemption funds.
3. A slave can acquire property and his freedom simultaneously.
Hence, he can accept a deed directly from his master.
R. Simeon b. Eleazar holds:
1. It is a benefit for a slave to be freed.
Hence, others can accept a deed on his behalf without his
knowledge.
2. A slave cannot alone own property, and a slave cannot acquire
property and his freedom simultaneously.
Hence, a slave cannot alone accept a deed or pay money to hismaster.
All of the Sages, R. Meir and R. Simeon b. Eleazar hold that others can pay
money for the slave. Even R. Meir who holds that freedom is a detriment would relyon the argument that the money is being paid not on the slave's behalf but rather
for the benefit of the master who receives the payment.
The halacha accords with the Sages.
[The conditions whereby a donor to a slave can exclude a master's rights; the dispute
between R. Shesheth and R. Eleazar]
Recall that the Sages permit a slave to pay redemptive money to his master, if
the slave received the money from others on condition that the master have noownership interest. What sort of condition is meant?
Is it sufficient for the donor to give the money to the slave, on thesimple condition that the master obtain no rights in the money? A
condition of this kind is called a general limitation.
Or must the slave's rights in the money also be limited? Must theslave be told that the money is his only for the particular purpose ofobtaining his freedom? A condition of this kind is called a particular[7:2]
limitation.
R. Meir is one grade more stringent than the Sages. If the Sages hold that only aparticular limitation is sufficient, then it must be that R. Meir disapproves of eventhis condition. But if the Sages hold that a general limitation is sufficient, R. Meirdisapproves of the condition only where it is general, and he credits the condition
where it is particular.
R. Shesheth and R. Eleazar dispute the positions of the Sages and R. Meir on thisas follows:

R’ Shesheth

R. Eleazar

GeneralParticular

Sages

good

good

R. Meir

bad

good

Sages

bad

good

R. Meirbadbad

R. Eleazar extends his rule to apply also to married women: where a married
woman receives property her husband owns it, unless the wife was given
ownership with a particular limitation, such as where the property is given her only
for the purpose of purchasing her own food or clothing.
The Meiri explains that the discussion under the next several headings is notcritical to an understanding of the Gemara.
[Arguments in support of R. Shesheth and R. Eleazar]
The Alfasi rules with the Sages as interpreted by R. Eleazar. Here are thearguments for and against the Alfasi's holding:[7:2]
1. How can we disregard the wishes of the donor and ignore his general
limitation?
The Alfasi would answer that there are other cases in which we disregard adonor's intention. Here is an example: a testator cannot direct thedisposition of property upon the ultimate death of a person, such as a son,
who will inherit from the testator. It does not matter that the son receives
a greater share than he would have received had the testator not made his429
bequest .
2. What of the rule that a person can revoke the legal effect of a statement
if he withdraws it promptly ("tokh k'dei dibbur")? Did not the person who
gave property to the slave immediately insist by his general limitation thatthe master was to have no rights? Why then does the Alfasi ignore thelimitation?
Because the donor does not intend to revoke his prior statement. He
thinks, wrongly, that both the prior statement and the limitation are valid
and consistent.
3. A child is considered rebellious only when he has stolen from both his430father and his mother. The Gemara explains that property can be stolen
from the mother where the mother received the property with the provisothat her husband was to have no ownership rights. This is a general
limitation!
The Alfasi would respond that the Gemara is not precise on the nature of
the limitation, and that a particular limitation is in fact required.
4. If R. Shesheth prevails then even R. Meir holds that a slave can freehimself with property he received with a particular limitation. If so, why
does the Mishnah hold that for R. Meir there can be monetary redemption
only if performed by others?
5. A Yerushalmi validates property transferred to a slave with a general
limitation. Obviously, the Yerushalmi accords with the Sages as interpreted
by R. Shesheth.

429

B.B.129:2.

430

San.71:1.

[7:2]
431

6. Consider the following Gemara in Nedarim :Assume that a person forbids his son-in-law by oath fromderiving any benefit from him. How can the father in law benefit his
daughter without violating the oath? The Mishnah suggests that hegive property to his daughter and tell her that the property is given
only for the benefit of "what you put in your mouth."
What if he tells her simply "only on condition that you dowhat you want and that your husband not interfere?" Rav holds thatthe condition is invalid. Samuel holds the condition would be valid.
The Gemara explains that Rav's position is consistent with R.
Meir who invalidates limitations.
Now, a Mishnah holds that a husband may transfer to his wife
for the benefit of third parties property which is to serve as an erub.
Given Rav's view that the Mishnah in Nedarim follows R. Meir,
how is the Mishnah in Nedarim consistent with the Mishnah on
erub? Would not R. Meir hold that the transfer of the erub property
to the wife is a nullity because her husband owns everything that she
owns?
Raba explains that even R. Meir would agree with theMishnah on erub: the wife is merely a medium for the transfer ofownership to third parties, who, unlike the wife, can draw ownershiprights away from the husband.
A baraitha directly conflicts with the Mishnah on erub. The
Gemara explains that in the case of the Mishnah the wife herself has
a parcel of land which requires the benefit of erub. Since she requires
the erub for herself she can also obtain rights for others. In thebaraitha the woman has no land of her own which requires coverageby the erub.
The Gemara can be explained in one of three ways:
The first approach would hold that the Gemara runs counter to the
Alfasi:

431

85:1.

[7:2]
a. What you put in your mouth is a particular limitation, andon condition that you do what you want is a general limitation. The
Gemara accords with R. Shesheth:i. Samuel validates a general limitation because he rules with theSages according to R. Shesheth. Rav credits only a particular
limitation because he holds with R. Meir according to R. Shesheth.
ii. But how does Samuel explain the Mishnah? Why does it suggest
only a particular limitation? Either:(1) it reflects R. Meir's position, or(2) it prefers to state a position with which even R. Meir canagree.
iii. The Gemara's follow-up question attacks Rav for agreeing with
R. Meir. Why does the Mishnah countenance a wife's ownership inthe erub case?
b. The second possible approach is:
The Gemara agrees with the Alfasi: the Sages validate only aparticular limitation and R. Meir voids even a particular limitation. R.
Eleazar's view is correct.
The language do what you want is midway between a generaland a particular limitation, in the sense that the property is given to
the daughter only for consumption, and not for business or saving
purposes.
Both Rav and Samuel agree with the Sages that a true
particular limitation is valid. But where the limitation is midway, Ravholds the limitation insufficient for the Sages, in the same way that afull particular limitation is insufficient for R. Meir. But in no way does
Rav agree with R. Meir.
Samuel disagrees because he considers a midway limitation
the same as a full particular limitation which the Sages validate
according to R. Shesheth.
The Gemara then takes issue not with Rav, who in essenceagrees with the Sages, but with R. Meir himself. Can R. Meir's
holding be reconciled with the Mishnah on erub?

[7:2]c. A third approach would support the Alfasi on the dominance of R.
Eleazar, allow Samuel to hold with the Sages according to R. Eleazar,and still reconcile R. Meir with the Mishnah which validates "only toyour mouth":
Rav holds that what you put in your mouth is even stronger
than a particular limitation, since it limits to one designated use thepotential uses to which the wife can put the property given her. This
super-limitation is valid even for R. Meir in R. Eleazar's
interpretation.
Since Rav determines that the Mishnah is consistent with R.
Meir the Gemara follows up by attacking Rav with the Mishnah onerub. How is R. Meir consistent with that Mishnah?
But why does not the Gemara explain that in the case of erub thewoman obtains independent rights because it was given to her
with the super-limitation that she is acquiring it only for the
benefit of others?!
Because a super-limitation is valid against the husband only where
the wife acquires property from a person other than the husband.
In that case the wife's meager rights provide less of a handle onwhich the husband's claims can fall. But where the property is
acquired from the husband, the super-limitation reserves rights in
the husband, and should make it more difficult for the wife toobtain rights. It results that in the case of erub R. Meir should notallow the woman to obtain rights. How then to reconcile R. Meirwith the Mishnah which gives the wife erub ownership?
In summary, the halacha according to the Alfasi certainly supports a superlimitation; that sort of limitation is valid even in R. Meir's view. The halacha goes
further and holds with the Sages according to R. Eleazar that any particular
limitation is valid.
The Meiri discusses two final matters relating to the Gemara in Nedarim:
1. The dispute between the Mishnah and the baraitha on whether
erub can be transferred through the wife could have been resolved
differently. The rule which requires an erub for an alley way is Rabbinic
only. Perhaps, the Mishnah and the baraitha differ on whether the Rabbis
intended their rule to be as strict as rules which are Scriptural in[7:2]
432

derivation.

2. There is another inconsistency between the Mishnah and thebaraitha. The Mishnah validates transfer for erub through maidservants.
The Mishnah's reference must be to minor maidservants, for we know therule that maidservants are free on their majority. Yet the baraitha
invalidates minors for the purpose of the transfer!
The Meiri suggests that a minor is invalid only when he or she is the sonor daughter of the transferring person and is dependent for support on
the transferring person. In this case only, the property transferred to theminor cannot be said to have emerged from the transferor's control.
[Distinctions between a master's rights in his slave's property, and a husband's rights
in his wife's property]
Return again to the Gemara in Nedarim. Assume that the Gemara supports R.
Shesheth's view. Still, can we derive doctrine on the rights of slaves from learningwhich relates to the rights of married women? Can we maintain that a master legallyowns the slave's body, so that there is greater difficulty in evading the master's rights
in property given to the slave?
Consider the following:
1. A lender directs a borrower to use the borrower's slave to return aborrowed item to the lender. The risk of loss passes to the lender as soon as433
the item is given to the slave .
Samuel limits the rule to Jewish slaves. For gentile slaves the risk ofloss passes only when the lender receives the item in return; until then theitem is still considered to be in the borrower's possession.
Why? In Nedarim under the first approach Samuel held that a wife
can alone own property given her with a general limitation. Is not property
which a master gives to his gentile slave the equivalent of property given
with a general limitation?! Why then did not the Gemara in Nedarim
confront Samuel with the rule on borrowed items in the same way it
confronted Rav with the rule on erub? Does this not suggest that a wife
more readily can exclude her husband's ownership than a slave can exclude
432

Compare the Gemara at Git.64:2.

433

B.M.98:2.

[7:2]
his master's ownership?!
Not necessarily:a. A general limitation is not assumed when the master gives theborrowed item to his gentile slave.
b. Samuel assumed that the anonymous Mishnah on borrowed items434
was taught by R. Meir , who holds a general limitation is invalid intransfers by a husband to his wife. The Yerushalmi supports this view.
c. The Gemara in Nedarim in fact could have questioned how
Samuel's holding is consistent with the baraitha dealing with thereturn of borrowed items. But the Gemara prefers to question Rav's
position, since there is a direct married woman-to-married woman
contradiction, than to question Samuel, where the issue is why there
is a distinction between borrowed-items-slaves and married-womenoaths.
2. A husband can divorce his wife by placing her get on his real property,
435
and then transferring the real property to her . But does not the property
again become the husband's the moment he transfers it to her? Raba
explains that at the moment she receives her get, the woman
simultaneously obtains ownership and her freedom. He proves this byshowing that a gentile slave who grasps his deed of emancipation obtains
his freedom and "his hand" simultaneously.
Why cannot the same point be proved by the validity of a get passed to awife's hand?
The Gemara explains that a husband's ownership rights in a wife's hand is not
equivalent to a husband's ownership rights in her real property or in the handor body of his gentile slave.
This suggests that the ownership rights of a wife and a slave are distinguishable.
3. Our Gemara treats slaves and women alike, and states as an undisputed
proposition that "a slave has no kinyan without his master, and a wife has no434

Consistent with the rule that a Mishna whose author is not stated is presumed to be taught by R.
Meir.
435

Git.77:2.

[7:2]
kinyan without her husband."The Meiri concludes that the better view is not to make a general distinction
between the rights of slaves and the rights of married women. But what of anarrower distinction? Perhaps slaves and married women are treated alike when
they receive property from third parties, but are treated differently when theyreceive property from the master or husband on the following theory:in the case of the slave, nothing has transpired, since the case is nodifferent than if a master passes property from his right hand to hisleft hand or if one says "Let my real property obtain ownership rights
to my exclusion";in the case of the married woman, she can obtain property from her
husband since she is not legally owned by her husband.
If this distinction is correct it would explain why the Gemaras dealing with thereturn of borrowed items and divorces distinguish between married women andslaves, since both cases do not deal with property proffered by third parties. Our
Gemara, on the other hand, does deal with third parties, and that is why the cases
are treated alike.
The Meiri concludes that, although our Gemara deals with property acquired
from third parties, the finality with which the Gemara asserts that slaves and married
women are treated alike suggests that there is no distinction even where property is
acquired from the master or the husband.
[The Yerushalmi's view]
The Yerushalmi concludes that R. Meir does distinguish between slaves andmarried women. A slave's hand belongs to his master but a married woman's hand is
her own.
The Yerushalmi notes R. Meir's holding that a woman who wishes toredeem second tithe on her inherited property must pay to the sanctuary
the additional one-fifth of value which is payable only when an ownerredeems, and which is not payable when a stranger redeems.
The Yerushalmi also uses the distinction to explain a baraitha whichinvalidates erub through slaves but validates erub effected through wives.
But there are several indications that our Gemara is not impressed withthese proofs:

[7:2]
436

a. Our Gemara refers to the same holding of R. Meir regarding second
tithe and initially considers this holding in conflict with R. Meir's rule onslaves. The conflict is resolved only by explaining that the wife inherited
the second tithe from her father, and that the sacred nature of the second
tithe removes it from the category of the wife's inherited property in which
the husband obtains rights.
b. The Gemara in Nedarim explains the erub conflict otherwise: R. Meirpermits a husband to give property to his wife on behalf of third parties
only where the woman herself will benefit from the erub, such as where437
she owns real property in the area to be covered by the erub .
This completes the non-critical material which began under the heading"Arguments in support of R. Shesheth and R. Eleazar."[Does husband have absolute or usufruct rights in gifts by others to his wife?]
In those instances where the husband succeeds to gifts made to his wife, is his
ownership absolute, or does he have usufruct rights only? Rashi and othercommentators give the husband absolute ownership rights, by analogy to themaster's ownership in property given to his slave and the rules relating to property
found by the wife. Others compare the case to property inherited by the wife, and438
give the husband usufruct rights only .
The following observations are relevant:
1. The Yerushalmi seeks to explain why a husband owns property
found by his wife, notwithstanding that he has only limited rights to
her labor. One reason is concern that she will take her husband's
property and falsely claim that she found it.
The Yerushalmi disapproves of this explanation. If that is theconcern, the woman can still abuse her husband by falsely claiming

436

24:1.

437

Ned.88:2.

438

Surprisingly, certain Rashi texts suggest that a husband has absolute ownership in property
inherited by his wife after marriage, and that the limitation to usufruct applies only to property
inherited after marriage. This limitation is in direct conflict with Kes.78:1.

[7:2]
439

that the property was not found, but was given to her!

Some commentators hold that this suggests that the wife retains
basic ownership notwithstanding that her husband has usufruct
rights: if the husband's ownership is absolute, of what use would
the false claim be to the wife?
Others hold that the concern is that the wife will fabricate a claimthat the gift was given her with general or particular limitations
sufficient to avoid her husband's property rights altogether.
2. The Alfasi maintains that a gift to a wife is in essence anacquisition of property. This acquisition is consensual and ispresumably grounded on some benefit which the wife gave to thedonor. Why should it give to the husband greater rights thaninheritance which is automatic, which in theory more easily transfers
rights to the husband and in which the transferor cannot be
presumed to have derived benefit form the wife? Should we notlimit the extent to which the donor's desires are thwarted by
restricting the husband's rights to usufruct?
3. If A deposits with B money to be used for the dowry of A's
daughter C, C can direct B to give the money to C's husband only440
once she is an adult and her marriage has been consummated .
Since C's statement avails her husband, it is obvious that without thestatement his rights are not complete: presumably he has only
usufruct rights.
But it is possible to distinguish this case. By depositing funds with B,
A in effect established a limitation which (in the absence of C's
statement) deprives C's husband of rights generally. Perhaps if there
439

The Yerushalmi ultimately explains that gifts by third parties receive public notice, whereas
findings of property do not. Hence, a woman will falsely claim a finding but will fear a false claim of agift. But why do findings belong to the woman where there are witness that she found the property
and did not steal it from her husband? Because the Rabbis wish to avoid excessive distinctions in
halacha.
The Yerushalmi also mentions R. Johanan's rationale for the rule on findings: a husband owns his
wife's findings because we wish to avoid arguments between the husband and the wife.
440

Kes.69:2.

[7:2]
were no limitation, the husband's rights would be complete even
without C's statement.
The Meiri concludes that logic dictates that the husband has usufruct rights only.
[Acquisition of freedom by loss of limb or halifin]
Return to our Mishnah. A gentile slave can acquire his freedom by loss of limb aswell as by money or deed. Why is loss of limb not mentioned in the Mishnah?
Because this mode of freedom is in essence a penalty, and the Mishnah deals onlywith monetary rules, and not with penalties. Besides, freedom for loss of limb
follows only after the master gives the slave a deed.
halifin is not listed as a means for a slave to acquire his own freedom. This must441
be reconciled with another Gemara which discusses a master who threw a hat to amaidservant and said "Acquire the hat and acquire your freedom." The Gemara rulesthat the maidservant was not freed because the hat belonged to the master rather
than to the maidservant.
The suggestion is that halifin was ineffective only because the halifin item
must belong to the buyer. Were the hat to belong to the maidservant, suchas where it was given to her by others with appropriate limitations, halifin
would have been effective! Why so?
The Rambam explains that the master attempted to free her, not by way of
halifin, but by way of money. But did not the master know that it is the slave whomust give the master redemption funds, and not the other way around? The masterwas confused by the rule that validates kiddushin which is given by the bride to thegroom. He did not realize that such kiddushin is validated only where the groom is
an important person, and the bride derives psychic benefit from the groom's
acceptance of the funds.
This completes the exposition of the Mishnah. All of its tenets, in the mannerexplained, are consistent with the halacha. The following are the matters added in
the Gemara.
[Scope of halifin]
halifin is a good kinyan for chattels other than coins.

441

Git.39:2.

[7:2]
Promissory notes and deeds have no intrinsic value and cannot be acquired byhalifin. They can be acquired only as adjuncts to (agav) transfers of real property.
[Mechanics of meshikhah for animals and slaves]
An animal is purchased by meshikhah if the animal approaches the buyer in
response to his call, or if the animal moves after the buyer strikes the animal with astick.
The rule is different for an adult gentile slave: the buyer must seize and pull theslave. An adult slave has a mind of his own, and, unless seized, the slave's movement442
cannot be attributed to the buyer's action . Minor slaves are treated as animals forthe purposes of meshikhah, yet are also treated as adults in that they may also bepurchased by money, deed or hazakah.
[Mechanics of mesirah for animals and slaves]
The essence of mesirah is delivery, a concept which applies to chattels but not toanimals. There is no kinyan if a buyer seizes an animal by its hoof, hair, saddle,
saddle-bag, the halter in its mouth, or the bell around its neck. The concept ofdelivery is even less appropriate to slaves than to animals, and gentile slaves cannot
be acquired by mesirah.
[Lifting as a kinyan for slaves]
The Gemara states that slaves cannot be acquired by lifting. Why? Some
commentators base this on the rule that if an object is commonly lifted, it can beacquired only by lifting. They reason by extension that the kinyan does not apply toitems which are not commonly lifted, such as adult slaves. If this were the correct
rationale lifting would be valid for minor slaves who are commonly lifted.
But the rule which invalidates lifting for slaves is stated absolutely, with no hintthat it is to apply to adults only. The true reason why slaves cannot be acquired bylifting is that it is not appropriate for a master to lift his slave. It follows that evenminors cannot be acquired by lifting.

442

What if the slave moves when struck by the buyer? Do we attribute the movement to the buyer
or to the slave's own mind? The better view is that there is no kinyan.

[7:2][hazakah as a kinyan for slaves]
There is hazakah when a buyer asserts dominance over a gentile slave, even if fora minor service. There is hazakah where the slave unties the buyer's shoe or carries
his baggage after him, or if the slave bathes, undresses, washes, anoints, scrapes,
dresses or lifts the buyer.
What of conventional labor which is not personal to the buyer's body, such as
sewing or weaving? Some commentators hold that these services do not reflect
dominance and possession, but are more in the nature of usufruct from ownership of
the slave's body.
Others disagree. Why then does the Gemara lists exclusively personal
services (even carrying the buyer's baggage to the bath is a personal
service)? Because these services can be performed anywhere and not onlyat the buyer's work place.
A gentile bondmaid is freed if she has relations with her master: there is apresumption that the master does not wish to have illicit relations with a bondmaid.
How then can our Gemara consider whether a bondmaid can be acquired by the443
master (as a lifting by the bondmaid) by having relations with her? Because it isobvious that the presumption does not apply to the master, and that he wishes his
relations to be illicit.
[Rights to a convert's slaves on the convert's death]
A convert's heirs are only those children which he has after conversion. If he has
no heirs, anyone can freely acquire the convert's property by kinyan on his death. A
slave then owned by the convert acquires his freedom by hazakah, since the slave
dominates himself at the moment of his master's death. But if another person thenasserts dominance over the slave, that person acquires the slave by hazakah.
The Sages hold that a minor slave also acquires his freedom on his master's
death; Abba Saul holds that a minor cannot acquire his freedom in this way.
[Must the slave be aware of his master's death to acquire his own freedom?]Must the slave, whether adult or minor, be aware of his master's death at the443

The Gemara ultimately rules that cohabitation with a gentile maidservant does not count as lifting
for these purposes. Lifting is a kinyan only where there is work by one person for the benefit ofanother, and where the laboring person suffers some discomfort.

[7:2]
time the slave asserts dominance over his own body?
Shall we compare the case to the rule that one cannot acquire ownershipof a convert's field by hazakah unless the person performing hazakah isaware of the convert's death?
Or is it more appropriate to reason from the rule that a person can acquireownership of property which is placed on his real estate, whether or not
the owner of the real estate is aware of the situation?
The Meiri prefers the second analogy.
The Gemara recounts that:Mar Zutra directed that the slave of R. Judah the Indian (a convert who was
dying without children) remove Mar Zutra's shoes by way of hazakah.
The Gemara's immediately succeeding statement can be read in differing ways. The
precise reading selected affects whether the halacha accords with the Sages or
Abba Saul. But there are further results: the first two readings assume thatawareness is not required. The third disagrees.
1. According to the Meiri, the Gemara says:
Some say the slave was an adult, in accordance with Abba Saul [who holds
that a minor does not acquire his freedom on the death of his convertmaster]. Others say the slave was a minor in accordance with the Sages[who hold that a minor does acquire his freedom on the death of his
convert-master].
Those who say the slave was an adult, in accordance with Abba Saul [who holds
that a minor does not acquire his freedom on the death of his convert-master] holdthat Mar Zutra intervened because the slave was an adult and would otherwise haveacquired his own freedom forthwith whether or not he was aware of his master's
death; were he a minor the slave would not have acquired his own freedom in any
event and hazakah by Mar Zutra could have been accomplished later. This reading is
consistent with Abba Saul.
The "others" who say the slave was a minor in accordance with the Sages [whohold that a minor does acquire his freedom on the death of his convert-master] holdthat Mar Zutra had to intervene at the time of the convert's death, rather than later,
because even a minor slave would otherwise have acquired his own freedom on themaster's death. This supports the Sages.
Since the halacha generally supports the second version where there is an[7:2]"others say" dispute, the halacha accords with the Sages.
2. The Alfasi's reading is a flat undisputed statement that:the slave was a minor in accordance with Abba Saul [who holds that aminor does not acquire his freedom on the death of his convert-master].
Note that this is the direct reverse of the Meiri's reading. The Gemara's point is toexplain why Mar Zutra demanded a service (carrying shoes) which continued for sometime, rather than perform a quick hazakah at the scene.
It must be that Mar Zutra agrees with Abba Saul that there was no need toperform a kinyan at the scene.
The Sages, on the other hand, would require quick action, because in theirview the minor would acquire his own freedom immediately on theconvert's death.
The Alfasi concludes that the halacha is consistent with Abba Saul.
The Meiri protests that the Alfasi's reading does not necessarily support Abba
Saul. Perhaps Mar Zutra acted as he did, not because he held with Abba Saul, but
because he feared that a third party might appear later and maintain wrongly that
Abba Saul is correct and that the third party made hazakah before Mar Zutra.
3. There is a third possibility. Both the Sages and Abba Saul hold that adult slaves
can acquire their own freedom only if they are aware of their master's death.
But whereas Abba Saul holds that minors are worse than adults and cannever acquire their own freedom, the Sages hold that minors are better
than adults in that they acquire their own freedom whether or not they
are aware of their master's death. Minors are in effect wards of the
Almighty, and awareness by the Almighty is sufficient to liberate them on
their master's death.
This analysis supports the following textual reading:Some say the slave was an adult [without limiting the case to either
Abba Saul or the Sages]. Others say the slave was a minor in accordancewith Abba Saul.
Mar Zutra went beyond hazakah, and took action which might be interpreted as
designed to distract the slave. Those who say the slave was an adult hold that Mar
Zutra's purpose was to distract the slave from knowledge of the master's impending
death. This is vital whether one agrees with the Sages or with Abba Saul.

[7:2]
Those who hold that the slave was a minor must agree with Abba Saul, for theSages hold that a minor automatically acquires his own freedom whether or not he isdistracted. Mar Zutra's action is consistent with Abba Saul. Its essence was not to
distract the slave, but rather to acquire him before a third person makes hazakah.
The Meiri disagrees with the third view since a person should be entitled toacquire an interest in his own body without awareness of the death of the master.
[23:2][Agent appointed by a slave; priest not an agent]
Just as a slave can acquire his deed of emancipation directly from his master, so
can he appoint an agent to accept the deed. If A has two slaves, one cannot accept adeed for the other. But A's slave can accept a deed from B as the agent of B's slave.
If A makes an oath not to derive benefit from priest B, B may nevertheless offer
A's sacrifices on A's behalf. In conducting sacrifices, a priest is not an agent of theperson who brings the sacrifice. Priests are agents of the Almighty.
[24:1][Redemption of the second tithe]
The redemption price for second tithe derived from one's own land is the valueof the tithe plus one-fifth. Four zuz worth of second tithe must be redeemed for fivezuz; the premium is one-fifth of the five zuz. The rule applies:
whether the land was acquired by inheritance or gift;whether the second tithe is derived from a husband's own lands or fromhis wife's lands in which the husband has usufruct rights. The second tithecounts as usufruct, and the husband has absolute ownership in it;
whether the owner redeems the tithe himself or through an agent; andwhether the owner redeems his own tithe or the owner's wife redeems thesecond tithe with her husband's funds.
A single woman can redeem her own second tithe without adding a fifth, on
the strength of the verse "If a man [but not a woman] redeems second tithe [he must

[7:2]
444

add a fifth]."Where a third party gives a woman money on condition that her husband obtainno ownership rights, the woman can use the funds to redeem her husband's tithe
without adding a fifth, since in this case she is not her husband's agent.
A husband has no usufruct rights in second tithe which his wife inherits.
Usufruct rights attach only to property which is entirely personal and no part of whichis sacred. That is why if the husband redeems the tithe, or if the wife redeems thetithe with her husband's money, she need not add a fifth. The husband's money is
being used to redeem the wife's second tithe.
[Slave's freedom on account of loss of limb]
A gentile slave is freed if his master deliberately strikes him and causes thepermanent loss of his eye, his tooth or one of 24 surface projecting limbs, i.e., the 20
fingers, the protruding portion of the two ears, the nose, the breast in a woman and445
the male member in a man. Scripture lists the eye and the tooth only to indicatethat the affected limbs must be on the body's surface, and that the loss must be
permanent, in the manner of a lost eye or tooth.
Why are both eyes and teeth listed? If only teeth were listed, we would haveincluded a child's teeth which are not permanent in the manner of an eye. If only
eyes were listed we would have excluded adult teeth which are not present at birthin the manner of an eye.

444

Lev.27:31. What then shall we make of the double verb in the cited verse "And if the redeeming
man shall effect a redemption...", which the Sifri takes as a directive that a woman must also add afifth? That verse applies only where a woman redeems her husband's tithe as his agent.
445

Ex.21:26,27.

[7:2][24:2]The Rambam rules that a slave is freed if the master wrenches the slave's beard
and dislocates his jaw. True, the jaw itself is not one of the limbs whose loss offunction frees a gentile slave. But the slave is freed because the master caused theteeth embedded in the jaw to lose their function.
What if the master removes a limb, such as a blind eye, which had notfunctioned previously? The slave is freed. Compare the rule that fowl may be
446
sacrificed if a limb is non-functional .
Conversely, a slave is freed if the master does not remove the limb but by directcontact makes non-serviceable a limb which was previously serviceable. For example,
if the slave's eye was dim but usable, or if his tooth was loose but usable, the slave is
freed if the eye or tooth is made non-usable, notwithstanding that the eye or tooth
is not actually removed.
A slave is not freed for damage which will eventually heal, such as a wound tothe hand.
A slave who has been freed by loss of a limb may not marry a Jewish woman
until he obtains a deed of emancipation. The halacha accords with R. Akiva, under thegeneral rule that R. Akiva prevails in disputes with single Rabbis, such as R. Tarfon inthis instance.
But what of the rule that the halacha agrees with the views of arbitrators? Do
not sages in the Gemara purport to arbitrate R. Akiva's dispute with R. Tarfon? No!
The halacha follows the arbitrators' view only in disputes related in the Mishnah, notin disputes related in a baraitha.
The arbitrators hold with R. Tarfon that no deed is required where an eye or
tooth is involved, and with R. Akiva where one of the 24 limbs is involved. They
explain that freedom on account of loss of an eye or a tooth is Scriptural. Freedomon account of the loss of other limbs is derived indirectly by the Rabbis, and must
therefore be supported by a deed.
But is not a doctrine Scriptural when it is derived by klal u prat

447

? There are446

But not if the limb is totally removed or if a wing is totally withered. A limb that is withered is thesame as a limb which has been removed. Some commentators limit this rule to the wing, because afowl's strength and capability center in its wing.
447

The klal (general proposition) is "If a man smite," suggesting that any limb can be smitten. The[7:2]
two views.
1. Some commentators explain that doctrines derived from klal u
prat are Rabbinic in essence, and klal u prat is used only to support the448
refers to the following three
Rabbinic rule. Similarly, the Gemara
propositions as Rabbinic although they are derived from klal u prat:i. Any material which can support plant growth may be used to cover
the blood of a slaughtered fowl or animal, notwithstanding that449
Scripture refers only to earth .
ii. A get may be written on any material, notwithstanding that Scripture450
refers only to a book .
iii. A nazirite may not shave with any implement, notwithstanding that451
Scripture proscribes only a razor .
2. Rabbeinu Tam explains the matter differently. Certainly, all 24
limbs are equal Scripturally with the eye and tooth. Still, a deed is required
for all other limbs because they are not stated directly. There is concernthat those who are not learned might not be aware of the klal u prat andmay believe that the slave was not freed. If the slave marries a Jewish
woman without a deed, such persons might be misled into holding that aslave who was not freed may marry a Jewish woman.
This error is made more likely because the hurt to the slave is frequently
accidental or unintended, and the master is motivated at some later time,
when the memory of witnesses has faded, to announce that the slave was
not freed at all.

prat (specific proposition) is "the tooth...the eye." The interpretive rule of klal u prat infers that
Scripture did not limit the general to the specific.
448

Sot.16:1.

449

Lev.17:13.

450
451

Deut.24:1.

Num.6:5,

[7:2][Abrogation of kiddushin and get because of Rabbinic doctrine]
R. Ahai Gaon holds that where kiddushin was witnessed by persons452
who are Rabbinically incompetent as witnesses the woman must obtain453
a get before she marries another . Rabbeinu Tam's reasoning applies. Not
all persons are aware that the witnesses are incompetent, and they may be
misled into believing that a betrothed woman can marry another without
a get.
Why then is no get required where a woman is betrothed withhametz after 12 o'clock on the 14th day of Nissan? Is not hametz thenproscribed only Rabbinically!
Firstly, the Rabbinic proscription of hametz is widely known, anderrors are not likely.
Secondly, the kiddushin are no invalid by direct Rabbinicalproscription. They are indirectly voided because the Rabbinic
proscription removes the owner's property right. kiddushin then fails
automatically.
One cannot reason from cases in which the Rabbis explicitly
invalidate kiddushin to cases in which there is no explicit holding.
Some commentators extend the rule of R. Ahai Gaon to require a
get for kiddushin which is witnessed by persons whose incompetence isderived from indirect Scriptural references. (The only relationship which
Scripture invalidates directly is testimony of fathers for sons, or sons forfathers.) They reason from our Gemara which downgrades derivations
which rely on Rabbinic interpretations. The Meiri disagrees strongly withthis view.
Some, including the Alfasi, take the opposite extreme and disagreewith R. Ahai Gaon. They do not require a get where the witnesses areincompetent Rabbinically. They apply the rule that the Rabbis intend theirrules to be the equivalent of Scriptural doctrine, and they therefore annul
the kiddushin. The Meiri opposes this.

452

This applies only after there has been a public announcement of the witnesses' incompetence.
Until then, their testimony is valid for all purposes. San.26:2.
453

Similarly, where a woman cannot engage in yibbum because marriage to the yabam is forbidden
Rabbinically, the yebamah must still perform halizah before she may marry another.

[7:2]
What would the Alfasi hold if a get is delivered in the presence ofRabbinically incompetent witnesses? The Meiri presumes that here theAlfasi would not invalidate the get.
The Rabbis are empowered to annul kiddushin because kiddushin iscontracted subject to the reserved right of the Rabbis to annul. This isbased on their power to force an abandonment of value used inmonetary kiddushin, and to declare that intercourse which was intended
for kiddushin is illicit.
There is no corresponding power or rationale for get.
Besides, even for kiddushin the right to abrogate is exercisable only
where expressly referred to in our Gemara, and not wherever the Rabbis
might consider kiddushin improper for some reason.
The following are examples of cases in which there is no express
reference to abrogation:
where an agent betroths a woman for himself rather than for his
454
principal ;where kiddushin is effected with the proceeds of orlah or k'lay
455
hakerem ;456

where the man was previously married

; or
457

where betrothal is prohibited on pain of flagellation.

[Responsibility for damage caused by one's animal]
The owner of an animal is responsible for all damages which his animal causes bydirect physical contact while it is walking naturally. The owner is responsible for only
one-half of the damage which is caused indirectly, such as by pebbles thrown by the
animal, or if the damage is caused by unnatural behavior.
454

58:2.

455

56:2.

456

Presumably the Meiri here refers to the herem of Rabbeinu Gershom.

457

12:2.

[7:2]
It follows that if a cock stretches its head into the cavity of a glass vessel,
and then crows and breaks it:
1. If there was food in the vessel, the behavior is natural. Still, the owner's
responsibility is limited to one-half of the loss because the cock's body did
not directly touch the vessel. Compare the rule for damage by pebbles.
2. If there was no food in the vessel, the behavior is unnatural, and theowner's responsibility is limited to one-half of the loss for that reason.
The same applies to damage caused by a neighing horse or a braying donkey.
[Personal injury caused without physical contact]
If A blows into B's ear without touching him, and deafens B, A is responsible
only for B's embarrassment and not for any other damage suffered by B. If A seized B
to blow into his ear, A is responsible in full. These rules are explained in detail458
elsewhere .
[Loss of limb by the master acting as doctor, etc.]
If the master is a doctor, and the slave asks him to apply salve to his eye or to
drill his tooth, the slave is freed if the master blinds his eye or dislodges his tooth.
What is essential is not the intent to blind the eye or to loosen the tooth, but rather
to touch the eye or the tooth. Needless to say, the slave is freed if the master
intended to remove the tooth for health reasons.
But if the master blinds a fetus's eye the fetus is not freed, since the master did
not intend to touch the eye. Similarly, the slave is not freed if the master throws an
animal at the slave and the slave's eye is blinded or his tooth is dislodged as a result.
If the slave had a sixth finger on his hand and the master removes it, the slave is
freed only if the finger was in line with the other five.

458

B.K.18:2.

[7:2][25:1]The slave is not freed if the master castrates him by loosening his testicles
without removing the scrotum, or if the master removes the slave's tongue. Only
patent and obvious losses result in freedom.
[Freedom on loss of limb subject to jurisdiction of present-day Beth dins]
The Alfasi does not list halachot which are in essence penalties, because suchhalachot are rarely invoked and because the Beth din does not presently have the459
power to assess penalties . Why then does the Alfasi refer to the rule which frees aslave on the loss of a limb? Because the Beth din does have the power to ratify
property seized towards a penalty; a slave is considered to have seized his own body.
[What is an "exposed" area?]
A leper is considered unclean if any of the following signs are present:
1. If at any time there is a white hair within the affected area.
2. If at any time there is healthy skin within the affected area.
3. If the affected area expands during any of the seven-day periods inwhich the potential leper is sequestered for examination.
460

Where the affected area is on the tip of a limb , and healthy skin obstructs thepriest's vision so that he cannot see the entire affected area at one time, the affected461
person is clean. Scripture requires that "The priest shall see it," which means thatthe whole affected area must in the same view be seen as one affected area.
If the leper's whole body is affected, he is clean unless there is some portion of
his body on which there is healthy skin which can be examined in one view. Here,
there is no verse "The priest shall see it." Still, Scripture considers healthy skin to be a462
sign of uncleanliness only where "The healthy skin is in the affected area," . This
459

See B.K.54:2.

460

This applies to all of the 24 limbs by which a slave is freed. But the nipples of a man do not countas the tip of a limb.
461

Lev.13:3.

462

Lev.13:10.

[7:2]
means that the healthy skin must be located where unhealthy skin would haveresulted in uncleanliness if it did not cover the whole body.
A person who is unclean because of association with a dead person can be
purified only by ritual sprinkling on an exposed part of his body. For this purpose,
the tongue is considered unexposed, whereas the lips, although sometimes joined,
are considered exposed.
On the other hand, the tongue is not considered hidden for the rule that aperson is clean if hidden parts of his body touch a dead reptile or a zav.
A priest is not considered blemished for truly internal defects, such as the lack ofa kidney or the puncture of his intestines. But a priest is considered blemished if thegreater portion of the unattached part of the tongue is removed. The tongue isconsidered exposed for this purpose.
Both the tongue and the tooth are considered hidden in applying the rule that
all exposed parts of the body must be made wet in tevilah. Although the tongue andtooth need not be made wet, they must be wettable were the mouth opened. The
tevilah is invalid if there is an irritating foreign object which separates the teeth, andwhich, if the mouth were opened, would not have allowed water to enter between
the teeth.
That is why a woman who was a niddah must remove all bones from her
teeth prior to tevilah. It is assumed that such bones are irritating. If a bone
is found after tevilah, another tevilah is required.
Why must a niddah's mouth be susceptible to being made wet?
1. The Gemara recites a case in which Rabbi required that his bondmaid
undergo tevilah because she had a bone between her teeth during her firsttevilah.
True, the purpose of the tevilah was to allow the bondmaid to eat rituallypure food. But the same rule applies where the purpose of the tevilah is tomake a former niddah fit for relations with her husband.
463

2. Another Gemara holds that "whatever separations invalidate tevilah
also invalidate tevilah for .... niddah." The only possible meaning is thatwhatever separations invalidate tevilah for ritually pure food also
invalidate tevilah for the purpose of a niddah's relations with her husband.

463

Yeb.47:2.

[7:2]Do not think the rule is Rabbinic. Note the Gemara's reference to therequirement that there be an entry of water, which tracks the Scriptural language.
Our Gemara also applies R. Zera's rule for menahot:for objects which are fit for mixing [in our case for making wet], the mixing[in our case the making wet] is not indispensable; for objects which are not464
fit for mixing, the mixing is indispensable .
The rule for menahot is definitely Scriptural.

464

R. Zera's rule is discussed in greater detail at B.B.81:2.

[7:2][25:2][Certain sacrificial blemishes]
An animal is blemished for sacrificial purposes if:
its testicles or male membrum is bruised or crushed; orif the membrum (but not the testicles) is broken or cut.
bruising refers to the mild crushing of the testicles by hand;crushing refers to more severe crushing by hand;cutting refers to case in which there still remains some connection
between the testicles between the body; andbreaking refers to the complete separation of the testicles from the465
body, but retention of the testicles within the scrotum .
Bruising and crushing are as obvious in the testicles as they are in the membrum,breaking and cutting are not; this explains their differing treatment.
The same applies to the prohibition against castrating animals under the verse
466"And in your land you shall not do so" : only the male membrum may not be
broken or cut.
[Kinyanim for animals]
The fourth Mishnah deals with the acquisition of animals:
Large cattle are acquired by mesirah; small cattle by lifting: this is theopinion of R. Meir and R. Eliezer. But the Sages rule: small cattle are
acquired by meshikhah.
Real property can be acquired with money, deed or hazakah. Chattels
cannot.

465

This explains how there can be breaking after cutting. Shab.111:1.

466

Lev.22:24.

[7:2][Kinyanim for chattels generally]
There are nine kinyanim for chattels. Six do not require physical contact between
the purchaser and the chattel, and three do require contact. The six which do not
require contact are:1. the lease by the seller to the purchaser of the real property on which thechattel rests;
2. halifin in which there is a ritual transfer of nominal value by the buyer tothe seller;
3. halifin in which there is a true exchange, such as a cow for a donkey.
4. acquisition of the chattel as an adjunct (agav) to the acquisition of real
property;
5. the placement of the chattel on other chattels which belong to thepurchaser, but only where the purchaser's chattels rest on a publicthoroughfare and not on the seller's real property;
6. the placement of the chattel on real property owned by the purchaser.
These kinyanim have the following limitations:i. Kinyan No.6 is effective only where the buyer's real property is secureagainst thieves;ii. halifin is not effective where the item transferred by the buyer to theseller is a coin or belongs to the seller.
These forms of kinyan transfer ownership of every conceivable type of chattel,
except that coins cannot be transferred by halifin.
The three forms of kinyan which require physical contact between the buyer andthe chattel are:
1. lifting:
2. meshikhah; and3. mesirah.
A person can use any of the nine kinyanim to acquire a chattel for anotherperson.

[7:2]Why do we not list as a kinyan the confession by A that B owns a chattel?
Because this form of transaction is not structured as a transfer by A to B, but rather
as a statement (concededly fictional) that B owned the chattel all along.
[Mechanics of mesirah]
Precisely what is mesirah? The Gemara explains that there is mesirah if the buyer
seizes the animal by its hoof, hair, saddle, saddle-bag, halter or bell.
Must the seller pass these items into the hands of the buyer? The Tosafot hold467
"yes." They refer to a Gemara which holds that mesirah is ineffective to acquire
property lost by others or property which was owned by a convert who died withoutheirs.
The Gemara explains: "Who delivers the object to the buyer for the purposes ofkinyan?"But the Gemara can be interpreted as inferring only that in a proper mesirah theseller must orally instruct the buyer to seize the saddle, etc.
In fact, another Gemara suggests that a seller in a mesirah transaction tells thebuyer "Go [rather than come to me] and seize the object to make a kinyan."[The halacha on how animals are acquired]
Return again to the Mishnah.
R. Meir and R. Eliezer hold that large animals such as horses, mules, asses andoxen may be acquired by mesirah because of the inconvenience of meshikhah or
lifting. Smaller animals, on the other hand, can be acquired only by lifting.
The Sages of the Mishnah disagree and hold that meshikhah is also effective forsmaller animals, because the legs of these animals can become entangled in earth andgrass, so that lifting may be more difficult than meshikhah.
However, the halacha accords with none of these viewpoints. Instead, it follows
the Sages of the baraitha who hold that all animals are acquired by meshikhah, that468
lifting is not necessary for any animal , and that mesirah is not sufficient for any

467

B.M.8:2.

468

Except perhaps for such truly light animals as kids or calves, or fowl such as geese or chickens.
This is supportable by B.B.86:1, which maintains that objects which are by nature lifted can be[7:2]
animal.
[Ranking of lifting, meshikhah and mesirah]
Return now to the three kinyanim which require physical contact. Thesekinyanim apply differently to different chattels. This is best understood by ranking
the three in order from greatest effectiveness to least effectiveness:
1. lifting for chattels which are readily lifted;
2. meshikhah only where lifting is impractical; and3. mesirah only where lifting and meshikhah are impractical, such as a ship.
Anything which is susceptible to a higher form of kinyan cannot be acquired by alesser form. A higher form of kinyan is always valid for an object even where thatform of kinyan is not necessary: a ship can be acquired by meshikhah. Also, the seller
can insist that the buyer must use a higher level of kinyan than is necessary. The
469
parties cannot by agreement validate a lower degree of kinyan .
This is the Meiri's view. Rabbeinu Tam disagrees and ranks mesirah superior tomeshikhah, since, as will be shown below, mesirah is valid in a public thoroughfare
whereas meshikhah is not. The consequence is that large cattle, for which meshikhah
is known to effective, should certainly be acquired by mesirah, which is a higher formof kinyan and which is also practical for cattle.
Consider the following in evaluating Rabbeinu Tam's position:
470

rules that the kinyan of riding an animal (the1. Another Gemara
equivalent of mesirah) is inferior to the kinyan of leading the animal (theequivalent of meshikhah).
Rabbeinu Tam would explain that the Gemara just mentioned deals withlost property or the property of a convert who dies without heirs. It isbecause there is no seller to deliver the animal that mesirah is defective
and is no better than meshikhah.

acquired only by lifting.
469
470

This principle is disputed by the commentators. See B.B.76:2.

B.M.8:2.

[7:2]
471

2. In another Gemara the Sages hold that mesirah is not effective so longas the buyer does not make meshikhah. This is a strong suggestion thatmeshikhah is the superior kinyan.
3. The Sages in our Mishnah state their view that both large and small
animals are acquired with meshikhah in the following syntax: just as small
animals are by meshikhah [meaning meshikhah only], so also are large
animals acquired by meshikhah . The parallelism suggests that onlymeshikhah is effective for large animals, and does not support Rabbeinu
Tam.
[Kinyanim differ in the domains in which they are effective]
1. Lifting is valid everywhere, even on the seller's real property.
2. meshikhah is effective only in the no-man's alley which adjoins athoroughfare, or in real property which is jointly owned by the seller andthe buyer, or where the chattel is drawn from a public thoroughfare into
one of these domains.
3. mesirah is valid in a public thoroughfare, and in private real property inwhich neither the buyer nor the seller have an ownership interest. The
Meiri holds that mesirah is also effective in an alley and on real property
472
jointly owned by the buyer and the seller . mesirah is not effective on theseller's real property.
Assume that an object is susceptible to meshikhah but is situated in a publicthoroughfare in which meshikhah is invalid. Can mesirah be used? The Alfasi holds473
yes . The Meiri disagrees. Here are considerations to be kept in mind:474

1. The Gemarastates that meshikhah is valid in an alley and jointly
owned property, whereas mesirah is valid (presumably for the same object)in a public thoroughfare and in real property in which neither party has an

471

B.B.76:1.

472

Those who disagree maintain that these domains are valid for meshikhah only.

473

Some go even further than the Alfasi and hold that any object which is appropriate for meshikhah
can nevertheless be acquired by mesirah where the seller so directs.
474

B.B.76:2.

[7:2]
interest. Does this not support the Alfasi?
Not necessarily. Perhaps the Gemara does not refer to the same object.
Rather, the Gemara separately refers to an item which is susceptible tomeshikhah and to an item which is susceptible only to mesirah.
475

2. Consider a Gemara which discusses a dispute between R. Meir and theSages on the proper kinyan for a ship. R. Meir holds that mesirah isappropriate, whereas the Sages require meshikhah.
R. Ashi explains that where the seller simply directs the buyer to make akinyan all agree that mesirah is sufficient. The issue is where the seller
directs the buyer to make meshikhah. The Sages hold that the seller was
specific, whereas R. Meir holds the seller simply meant "do the appropriate
kinyan and then you may pull the ship to wherever you want."
The Alfasi understands the Gemara to mean that the Sages hold thatmeshikhah is the generally acceptable mode of kinyan for a ship. How thencan be mesirah be effective?! It must be that this refers to domains whichcannot support meshikhah!
But the Meiri disagrees. There is no question but that mesirah is theappropriate kinyan for a ship, and that is why mesirah is effective. The
only issue in the Gemara is whether the seller is understood to demandmeshikhah as a higher form of kinyan.
This completes the exposition of the Mishnah. The following is the substantive
portion of the Gemara's discussion:[Use of rented or loaned real property to transfer chattels]
Where A, the owner of real property, rents his land to B, B acquires a kind of
temporary ownership in the land. It is this ownership which suffices to transfer to B
chattels which he purchases from A and which are located on the rented real
476
property .

475

B.B.76:1.

476

However, A is still responsible for religious violations which are done through the use of his
property. This is the meaning of the Gemara (A.Z. 15:1) which holds that renting does not change
property ownership.

[7:2]
Even a loan of real property is sufficient to convey temporary ownership to theborrower. The only distinction is that a rental transaction can be completed by thepayment of money. For this purpose the money paid by the renter to the owner forthe chattel is sufficient. To complete a real property loan, the borrower must either
obtain a deed or perform hazakah.
[Use of buyer's receptacle as a kinyan]
A chattel can be acquired if placed on or in a receptacle owned by the buyer
which is not located on seller's real property. The seller need not direct the buyer tomake a kinyan if it is clear that a sale was contemplated.
If the receptacle is located on the seller's real property, there is a kinyan only if
the seller directs the buyer to make a kinyan. Here the kinyan is not by way of thebuyer's receptacle. Rather it is by way of the loan of the real property on which thebuyer's receptacle is located.
Distinguish this from the case in which the chattel to be purchased lies directlyon the real property (not on buyer's receptacle). For the seller to loan his real
property to the buyer in this case requires a deed or hazakah.
[Mechanics of lifting as a kinyan for animals]
A buyer can purchase an animal by placing an object under each of the animal's
legs.
[26:1]

Several commentators hold that there is no ownership change in rented real property. Instead, theright given by A to B to maintain the chattel on the rented property is sufficient to transfer
ownership of the chattel to B.

[7:2]
If the seller directs the buyer to acquire an elephant or other large animal bylifting, the animal may be lifted by causing it to step unto a bundle of branches
477
three tefachim high . The buyer can also hold branches over the animal's head tocause it to raise itself three tefachim. This is the equivalent of the rule that there ismeshikhah where the buyer merely causes the animal to move; it is not necessarythat the buyer physically move the animal.
[Kinyanim for real property]
The next Mishnah continues the discussion of kinyanim:
Property which offers security [real estate] is acquired by money, deed or
hazakah. Property which does not offer security [chattels] can be acquired
only by meshikhah.
Property which does not offer security may be acquired in conjunction withproperty which offers security by money, deed or hazakah; and it obligates
the property which provides security to take an oath concerning them.
Money is valid even if:
not given as the purchase price;
it represents only a portion of the purchase price, or only a perutah;
478

many fields are to be acquired with one perutah.

What is essential is that there be an intent that the money effect a kinyan. Where
the intent is not to acquire with money, but with hazakah, the buyer can acquire479
only those fields for which he has paid in full .
The essence of hazakah dominance by the buyer. Dominance can be expressedby such minor activity as locking a gate to the field, or setting up a fence around thefield, or breaking a hole through a fence around the field. The kinyan is performed
477

An interest in an erub can be acquired where the object is lifted only one tefach (Erub.79:2). Why?
Some explain that direct lifting by hand requires only one tefach, and it is only where the lifting is bychattels that three are required. A more plausible explanation is our general lenience in issues of erub.
See also B.K.29:2.
478

But only if all fields are mentioned.

479

27:1. See also B.M.49:2.

[7:2]
either in the presence of the seller or at his direction.
Money serves as a kinyan only where it is not the custom to write a deed, or
where the parties agreed that a kinyan by money will suffice. Where it is customary
to write a deed, there is no kinyan until the deed is written.
Precisely what does this mean? Some commentators explain that the Gemara is
not to be taken literally. The kinyan is valid, and the Gemara infers only that the
scribe and the witnesses are compelled to write the deed. The Meiri disagrees:
If either party can withdraw (which the Meiri believes to be the rule), what
kinyan has occurred?
If the kinyan is effective only upon signing of the deed, again, nothing has
occurred!
And, if the kinyan is in fact complete, nothing more need be done, because
a deed which follows halifin (by way of example) is evidentiary only andhas no operative force.
[Can real property be transferred nowadays by deed?]
What is the rule today? Are deed's customary where we live? Consider thefollowing:480

1. Our deeds appear to be directed more at evidence of the transaction
rather than as an operative kinyan. Our deeds recite the transaction as
having already occurred, and are witnessed. If the deeds were operative
documents, they would recite "My land is hereby sold to you," and there
would be no requirement of witnesses. In fact, deeds are written even forchattels, and this must be for evidence only, since deeds are invalid as akinyan for chattels.
481

2. Another Gemara clearly holds that deeds, at least in the Gemara'stime, were customarily meant as kinyan, rather than as evidence only. The
Gemara holds that a purported transfer of land by a husband to his wife is
not valid, because the transaction is only a scheme for the husband to
determine whether his wife has secreted funds. The Gemara adds that if

480
481

And also to establish responsibility of the seller if there is a later attack on seller's title.

B.B.51:1.

[7:2]
the transfer is by deed rather than money, so that no scheme could be
intended, the transfer brought about by the deed is final.
The Meiri concludes that at the present time deeds are presumed to be for
evidence only, so that a deed is not a necessary precondition for the validity ofmoney as kinyan. Still, halifin is so universally used that money cannot serve askinyan until there has been halifin.
[Where deeds are sufficient without money]
Our Gemara holds that a deed without money is valid as kinyan:
for gift transactions;482

in sales in which both parties agree that a deed is sufficient; andin sales in which the seller is conveying title to a field because of its poor
483
quality .
[hazakah or halifin for real property without money]
Some commentators reason by extension that hazakah or halifin without money
are valid as kinyan only for gifts and not for sales, on the theory that such formalities
484
should have no greater status than a deed . The Meiri disagrees, primarily because
it is unlikely that the doctrine would not have been mentioned in the Gemara. He
also considers and deals with the following arguments:
1. The Scriptural bases for hazakah and halifin are cases in which gifts

482

Assume that one party, for example the buyer, has stipulated that he alone can decide whether the
kinyan will require both money and a deed, or whether a deed alone shall suffice.
The buyer is in a favored position once money has been paid. He can withdraw by declaring that hedesires both formalities. Should the seller wish to withdraw, the buyer can thwart him by declaringthat he wishes money to be effective standing alone.
483

Where money standing alone is invalid, the party who withdraws is subject to the curse of mishepora. Most commentators hold that there is no curse if a party withdraws where there was a deed
which was not valid standing alone.
484

One commentator also notes that where hazakah is customary, neither money nor deed is valid
without hazakah.

[7:2]
rather than sales were involved!
The Meiri's response is that the Scriptural references are not sources.
They only support traditional learning.
485

deals with a buyer who has made partial cash
2. Another Gemara
payment for real property. It suggests that if the buyer wishes to finalize
the transaction, he agree with the seller that the balance of the purchaseprice be considered paid by a loan made by the seller to the buyer. If
halifin were valid without payment of the purchase price in full, why does
not the Gemara suggest halifin?
Perhaps because the Gemara wishes to point out how the transaction
can be made irrevocable using only a monetary kinyan.
486

3. Yet another Gemara
asserts that the three-year hazakah of adverse
possession is an issue only where there is a dispute on ownership, and that
simple hazakah transfers title to gifts, distributes property among heirs,
and conveys title to property left by an intestate convert. None of theseexamples involves a sale.
But perhaps the Gemara's purpose is to list cases in which a minor
action such as hazakah conveys title without passage of money. Thisis always true in gift transactions. But in sales transactions the seller
most likely (but not necessarily) transfers only the property for which
the buyer has paid.
487

Besides, the Mishnah
as well as gifts.

to which the Gemara refers deals with sales
488

4. In considering the superiority of one form of kinyan to another , theGemara does not say that hazakah is valid standing alone whereas moneyand deeds are not.
But perhaps the Gemara does not wish to use validity standing alone as a485

B.M.47:2.

486

B.B.52:2.

487

B.B.42:1.

488

27:1.

[7:2]
distinction, because money and deeds are each valid standing alone where
the parties so stipulate expressly.
[Requirements for deeds given as kinyan]
A deed intended as a kinyan, rather than as evidence:is valid only when transferred by the seller to the buyer's hand,489

requires no signing witnesses
handwriting,or that it be written in the seller's

and can be on non-permanent, forgeable material.
If the deed was forgeable, was not witnessed and was not in the seller's
handwriting, the seller can later deny that the deed was his act since a deed of this490
kind is invalid as evidence . However, if the seller acknowledges the deed as his491
act, the deed is absolutely valid as a kinyan .
[Transfer of chattels in conjunction with real property]
Chattels can be acquired in conjunction with (agav) real property, whether or not492
the chattels are on the real property , and regardless of the amount of real propertytransferred. Even a speck of real property, when transferred by money, deed or
hazakah, is sufficient to convey 1,000 sheep and 1,000 camels. The only essential

489

Some commentators require that there be witnesses to the transfer.

490

The Gemara (Keth.21:1) which requires that the deed be inscribed on non-forgeable material refers
to a deed to be used for evidence.
491

Some commentators hold that a deed on forgeable material is valid as kinyan only if the writing is
engraved. The Meiri disagrees. The Gemara is specific in referring to writing; the term excludes
engraving. See Git.20:1.
492

This is the Gemara's conclusion. Initially, the Gemara considered the possibility that the chattels
must physically be located on the real property sold by the seller to the buyer.
But how could the Gemara even consider this possibility? Would not agav then be merely a subsetof the rule that chattels can be acquired if located on the buyer's property?! Not so, for the buyer's
property can effect a kinyan only if it is guarded against outsiders. But where agav applies, chattels
can be transferred even where the property is not guarded.

[7:2]
formality is that the seller say "Acquire the chattels with the real property."
Now, our Gemara uses the Aramaic formulation "agav," which literally means "inconjunction with". But "agav" can also be translated less formally as "with"; thephrase in conjunction with is not absolutely necessary. Note that the in-conjunctionwith kinyan is derived from the verse "And their father gave them silver and gold493
presents and delicacies with fortified cities in Judea."
Rashi holds otherwise. The Gemara considers whether a statement by the seller isrequired in agav transactions. The Gemara wishes to prove that no statement isrequired by listing cases which do not involve a seller's statement. But in one of thosecases the seller did indeed use the with formulation! Obviously, with has no validity!
The Meiri disagrees. The Gemara does not claim that none of the listed cases
494
involve a statement; only that some do not .
[Oaths in combined real property and chattel disputes]
Oaths are not imposed in real property disputes. But if disputes involve chattels
and real property an oath may be imposed for both types of property. This is theconverse of the rule that chattels follow real property for the purposes of kinyan.
This completes the exposition of the Mishnah. There follow the matters discussed
in the Gemara.
[Liability of seller and donor for claims by his creditors]
A seller is responsible to his buyer should the sold property be seized by theseller's creditors. The donor of property does not have this responsibility towards his
donee.
Where a gift is given, but the transaction is referred to as a "sale," the donor does
assume responsibility towards the donee and purchasers from the donee, even where
the donee acknowledges that the transaction was actually a gift. The majority holds
that it is not necessary for a formal "sales" price to be recited. Even without a "price"

493

Chron.II, 21:3.

494

I.e., the case involving R. Gamliel's statement when arriving on a ship in company with the Sages,
and the case involving the seller who directed that a deed be written in favor of a third person.

[7:2]
495

the donor is responsible to the extent of the property's value.

[Why money is not a valid kinyan for chattels]
Scripturally, money is a kinyan even for chattels. Money is invalid nowadays only
because the Rabbis wish to encourage the seller to safeguard a chattel he retains in
his possession after having received the purchase price. Otherwise the seller mightshow no concern and tell the buyer "Your wheat was burned in my attic."
496
Ramifications of this doctrine are discussed elsewhere .
[Minimal land sufficient for peah, bikurim, prosbul and agav]
All land, no matter how small, is liable to peah and bikurim, and to theconfession which is made on bikurim. The Gemara does not refer to the confession
which must be made periodically relating to the tithe, because that confession has
no necessary relation to the land. It must be made even by one who buys untithedproduce on the market.
The deed of prosbul can be written only if the borrower owns real property. Anyland owned by the borrower is sufficient, regardless of size.
Finally, as already noted, all land no matter how small, is sufficient whentransferred by the seller to the buyer simultaneously to convey chattels from the497seller to the buyer .

495

Depending on the circumstances, the value of the property is determinable either at the time of
the gift or at the time of attack by creditors.
496

B.M.46:2.

497

See also B.B.27:1.

[7:2][26:2][halifin out of buyer's presence; formal confession]
The Gemara refers to a person who wished to convey a multitude of chattels andfor whom only the kinyan of transferring chattels agav real estate was practical. The
Gemara asks why the chattels were not transferred by halifin, and answers that thebuyer was not present.
This suggests to some commentators that halifin is valid only in the presence ofthe buyer. They say that this is so even nowadays, when it is traditional for thewitnesses, not the buyer, to transfer the nominal halifin item to the seller on behalfof the buyer. The witnesses act as the buyer's agents, and the buyer must therefore
be present.
The Meiri disagrees:
The difficulty in our Gemara was that no third person was willing to assist
the buyer by conveying a halifin item to the seller.
Indeed, it must be that the buyer could not locate assisting third parties.
Otherwise, why did not the seller convey the chattels directly to the third
party on behalf of the buyer?!
But why did not the seller formally "confess" that the property belonged to thebuyer? A formal confession can transfer property even where the confession is "I
owe 100 zuz to A," rather than "I owe these 100 zuz to A"!
1. Perhaps the seller did not wish to make a knowingly false "confession"even for a legitimate purpose.
2. The seller wanted the public to know of his largess. Had he used the"confession" route, the public might not have realized that the"confession" was only a formality.
[Land necessary to support an agav transaction]
Chattels can be acquired in conjunction with (agav) real property even though
the specific land being transferred is not identified. It is sufficient to say that a"tefach by tefach" plot of land is being sold. Some commentators require that theseller identify the land in which the sold plot is included, and some (probably
incorrectly) go even further and require that the seller indicate the direction (north,east, etc.) of the larger field in which the sold plot lies.

[7:2]As a matter of law the seller must actually own the land in which the tefach bytefach plot is included. However, the Geonim ruled that even landless sellers can use
the in- conjunction-with kinyan because every Jew owns four cubits of land in Eretz
Israel. The Geonim legislated this rule for the purpose of finality in sales transactions,and to avoid the unfair voiding of business transactions.
[Formalities in transfers by the very ill]
The Gemara analyzes a case in which a transferor sought to make a proper
kinyan. The Sages assume that the transferor must not have been ill, whereas R.
Eleazar holds that the transferor may have been ill.
The Sages hold that were the transferor ill, he could have transferred his chattels
by oral declaration without a kinyan. R. Eliezer, on the other hand, holds that evenan ill person is not exempt from kinyan.
[terumah and tithe arranged by Rabban Gamliel from afar]
While travelling in a ship with other Sages, Rabban Gamliel said "Let the first498
tithe which I am to measure out be given to R. Joshua b. Hananiah, the Levite , and499
the place where it is lying is rented to him ." R. Gamliel was compelled to donate
the tithe to a Levite who was present on the ship so that the Levite be able
immediately to donate a portion of the tithe as terumah to a priest. Once compelled
to give the tithe to a Levite who was present, Rabban Gamliel preferred to give it to
R. Joshua because he was learned and venerable.
[Levites' rights to tithes]
Another Gemara recites that Ezra penalized the Levites for not emigrating with
him in mass at the beginning of the Second Commonwealth:
R. Akiva holds that prior to the penalty the tithe could be given to
Levites only. The penalty consisted of permission to give the tithe topriests as well as Levites.

498

See Er.11:2 in which R. Joshua b. Hananiah directed R. Johanan b. Gudgada not to assist R. Joshua
in the closing of the gates "for I [R. Joshua] am of the family of Levites in charge of the gates at theTemple, but you [R. Johanan] are among the Levites who sing in the Temple."
499

The Meiri notes that the Gemara's insistence on rentals suggests that loans of real property are
insufficient to support agav. This is probably because the loan was not formalized by kinyan.

[7:2]
R. Eliezer holds that prior to Ezra the tithe could be given to bothpriests and Levites, and Ezra penalized the Levites by disqualifying
the Levites entirely.
Both hold that Ezra's penalty was permanent.
That R. Gamliel gave the tithe to a Levite, notwithstanding that the penalty was
permanent, shows that he holds with R. Akiva.
The Tosefta notes that R. Joshua donated terumah out his tithe, and that theterumah was given to R. Eleazar B. Azariah who was also present on the ship, and
who was a tenth generation descendant of Ezra the priest.
[Agav with sub-leased property]
The Tosefta mentions that this terumah was given to R. Eleazar b. Azariah by
way of the agav kinyan which permits chattels to be transferred in conjunction withrentals of real property. The real property which R. Joshua rented to R. Eliezer was
the same real property which had been rented to R. Joshua by Rabban Gamliel toaccomplish transfer of the tithe. But what of the rule that a lessee cannot sublease
500
leased land ? Perhaps the rule does not apply where the lessor permits otherwise.
Alternatively, perhaps the rule does not prohibit formalistic rentals which are for the
purposes of kinyan only.
Rabban Gamliel next gave another tithe to R. Akiva b. Joseph as the treasurer onbehalf of the poor. The year happened to be either the third or sixth of the sevenyear shemittah cycle, and a tithe to the poor was obligatory. The tithe wastransferred to R. Akiva by renting to R. Akiva (for an actual rental payment) the real
property on which the tithe was located. The Gemara assumes that the kinyan was
agav.
[Must chattels be located on real property supporting an agav transfer?]
From Rabban Gamliel's emphasis on renting the particular real property on
which the tithes were located, the Gemara attempts first to show that agav iseffective only for chattels located on the real property transferred or rented. But theGemara concludes that the inference is not necessary. Perhaps Rabban Gamliel did
not wish to inconvenience R. Joshua and R. Akiva by giving them tithes on land
which was not rented to them and from which the owner could demand that thetithe be removed at any time.
500

B.M.29:2.

[7:2][Limitations on transfers by placement on buyer's land]
Why did not the Gemara explain that the kinyan Rabban Gamliel used was notagav, but rather the transfer of chattels to a buyer on whose land (whether ownedor rented) the chattel stands? There are two possible explanations:
1. If the kinyan were of the on-whose-land variety, Rabban Gamliel should
first have mentioned the rental of real property (making the land thepossession of R. Joshua and R. Akiva), and only then should R. Gamliel havementioned the tithes given to them. The failure of Rabban Gamliel to insist
on this order of transfer suggests that both were transferred
simultaneously in an agav kinyan.
2. The tithes were located in Rabban Gamliel's house, so that they were notguarded against Rabban Gamliel. The on whose land kinyan is ineffective
where the land is not guarded for the benefit of the buyer.
501

Another Gemara expresses the concept somewhat differently. "Were R.
Joshua and R. Akiva standing at the side of the field in which the tithes
were located?!" The Gemara cannot mean that the produce was in thefields: the obligation to tithe does not arise until produce appears in frontof the owner's house. Rather, the produce was in Rabban Gamliel's house,and by asking whether R. Joshua and R. Akiva were standing there, theGemara's only point is that the produce was not guarded in favor of thetwo.
[Was Rabban Gamliel's produce tebel?]
There are three possible interpretations of Rabban Gamliel's urgency, and theprecise nature of Rabban Gamliel's actions:
1. Although terumah had been separated from the produce, tithes were
not. The produce was therefore tebel.
2. The tithe had been separated but not delivered. The remaining produce
was not tebel.
3. The Meiri's preferred view, which is in essence a combination of theother two approaches.
Each approach will now be considered in detail.
501

B.M.11:2.

[7:2]
I. The produce was tebel
It is certain that Rabban Gamliel had separated terumah:
1. Even one grain of wheat is sufficient to satisfy terumah obligations foran entire pile of produce.
2. terumah is validly separated by the owner's unspoken thought. It neednot be physically measured out.
3. Even if Rabban Gamliel's urgency prevented him from himself separating
terumah, he could easily authorize others to separate terumah on hisbehalf.
But separation of the tithes was a different matter. Each tithe is of considerable
dimension; by definition each constitutes one-tenth of the entire produce. Further,
the tithes ar not validly separated unless the proper amounts are carefully measuredout.
It was this process which Rabban Gamliel did not succeed in accomplishing
before his departure (perhaps because he left at the beginning of the harvest anddid not expect to be delayed as long as he was), and which he did not wish to502
entrust to others . That is why the produce was tebel for tithes, and that explains
Rabban Gamliel's urgency to separate the tithes. He wished to assure that his
household not eat tebel.
If the tithe was not separated, why Rabban Gamliel's reference to the tithe
which he was to measure? Because the term also means to separate.
Note that the term measure is used even in relation to terumah which theLevite separates from his tithe. We know that terumah need never bemeasured, only separated.
A scrupulous person is not suspected of separating tithes from tebel when the
produce is not close by. How could Rabban Gamliel accomplish the separation while
away on a ship? Because it is only necessary that the tithe be in the same location as503
the produce from which it is taken ; it is not necessary that the owner be close by.

502

The Yerushalmi also notes that terumah was commonly separated immediately after the produce
was wind-winnowed, but that tithes were not separated until the owner desired to do so after hegathered the produce into his house.
503

To avoid a situation in which the contemplated tithes have been unknowingly burnt or otherwise[7:2]
Now, Rabban Gamliel's household did not know which portion of the produce
had been tithed by Rabban Gamliel. How could they eat any produce at all? Is it
because they relied on the doctrine of berera to establish retroactively that they did
not consume the tithe portion? But we know from other sources that berera does504
not apply in this case!
Yes. We cannot rely on berera to permit persons to proceed to eat the
produce. Berera is sufficient post facto to absolve from punishment those
who go ahead anyway and eat the produce.
Supportive of the tebel interpretation is the Mishnah's lead-in to the case of
Rabban Gamliel: One whose produce is located at a distant place, must call them aname [presumably dedicate and separate tithes] in the manner of Rabban Gamliel.
II. The produce was not tebel; the tithes had been separated but notdelivered.
When must the tithe be distributed?:"At the end of three years, you shall take out all the tithes of your505
produce." This means that tithes must be distributed not later than thethird and sixth years of each seven-year shemittah cycle.
What about tithes and other separations which need not be
distributed, but instead must be consumed by the owner inJerusalem (such as second tithe, bikurim and neta revai)? These tithes
must be burned when tithes of the first type must be distributed.
When he distributes or burns his tithe, the owner must confess that "Iremoved the sacred [produce] from my house...and I also distributed
506
it...." . The confession must be made on a festival because of a gezerah
shawah: the word end appears both in the verse just mentioned, and also507
in the verse "At the end of seven years during the festival of Sukkot."destroyed.
504

See D'mai 7:4.

505

Deut.14:28.

506

Deut.26:13.

507

Deut.31:10.

[7:2]
508

The verse "When you shall cease to tithe..." suggests that the festival forconfession purposes should not be Sukkot, since there are kinds of produce
for which the obligation to tithe does not mature until after Sukkot. The
festival must be Passover.
Rabban Gamliel's concern was that his tithes might not be distributed prior to
the relevant deadline. Why did Rabban Gamliel use the phrase produce which I am
to measure, which suggests that he was referring to a separation of the tithe fromtebel, rather than to distribution of the tithe? It is improbable to explain that after
an initial separation the tithes were commingled with other produce and that
therefore a new separation was necessary!
Perhaps, the tithe was very near other produce, and perhaps it is customary tomeasure out produce (including tithes) in the course of distribution.
Why did not Rabban Gamliel distribute terumah? We know that the confession
applies to terumah as well as to tithes; terumah is implied by the word also in theverse "and I also distributed it"!
The Meiri disagrees with those who hold that the confession for terumah is
Rabbinic only, and that the verse is used only as an asmakhta.
But what of a Gemara (Yeb.43:1) which appears to suggest that there is no
deadline for distribution of terumah? That Gemara means only that terumah cannot
be burned in the manner of second tithe or bikurim; instead terumah must be
distributed to a priest.
Perhaps, Rabban Gamliel had succeeded in distributing terumah prior to his
departure.
Why does the Gemara refer to the case of Rabban Gamliel as one in which theowner did not succeed in "calling his produce a name?" Does this not suggest thatthe issue is one of dedication rather than distribution? Perhaps not. The meaning
may be that the owner failed to designate the names of the persons to whom thetithes were to be distributed. The Mishnah's point may be that the owner mustdesignate specific recipients, and he cannot satisfy his obligations merely by saying"Let the tithes belong to those entitled to them."
Note that the Mishnah which relates the actions of Rabban Gamliel appears
among other Mishnahs which deal with the distribution of tithes.

508

Deut.26:12.

[7:2]
But this approach suffers from the fact that the produce to which Rabban
Gamliel referred was in his field rather than in his house. One would have expectedthat tithes which had been separated would have been placed in Rabban Gamliel's
house.
Can we explain that the produce was in Rabban Gamliel's house which was
not guarded for the benefit of R. Joshua and R. Akiva, so that the house
was akin to an open field for R. Joshua and R. Akiva? This is unlikely.
The Meiri concludes that the preferred explanation is a combination andamplification of the two preceding readings:
III. Separation and Distribution
Rabban Gamliel wished to separate out the tithes, and to distribute them.
His concern was not that his household might eat untithed produce. They would
realize that in Rabban Gamliel's absence they could not rely on the presumption thata scrupulous person does not delay in separating tithes from his produce.
Rabban Gamliel's urgency was simply to distribute the tithes at the earliest timepossible, which is when the produce is introduced into the owner's house, namely
Sukkot. Rabban Gamliel did not wish to wait until the Passover deadline.
There was no need for Rabban Gamliel to separate terumah because he hadalready done so at the time of his departure when the harvest began. His failure to
separate the tithe at that time is explainable on account of the harvest not having
been completed. Rabban Gamliel assumed that he would return prior to Sukkot toseparate and distribute the tithe in person, but his delay made this impossible.
Hence, his action on the ship.
[27:1][Slaves transferred by agav must be located on real property]
Chattels which are acquired in-conjunction-with [agav] real property need not belocated on the real property. The only exception to the rule is that slaves must be
509
located on real property for a valid transfer .
Livestock are treated as chattels and need not be located on the real property.

509

B.K.12:1.

[7:2]
Note the reference in our Gemara to 100 sheep being transferred on a square tefachof property, and another Gemara's reference to a cow and a garment both having
been transferred (presumably subject to the same requirements) in conjunction withreal property.
Whether or not the chattels are located on the real property, the kinyan is not
valid unless the seller expressly directs the buyer to acquire the chattels agav real
property. The Meiri disagrees with the Rambam who says that no declaration isnecessary where the chattels are located on the real property.
[Revocation of authority to write deed]
If A tells C and D to acquire a field for B by hazakah and to write a deed for B as
evidence, A can revoke the authority to deliver the deed at any time before delivery.
This applies even after C and D complete the hazakah and write the deed. But once
the hazakah is complete A cannot revoke the sale of the field so long as he did not
510
make the sale conditional on delivery of the deed . The Meiri explains the purpose511
of the deed elsewhere .
Assume that A needs funds and prepares a deed for his real property so that it isimmediately available should he succeed in selling his field. A scribe may write adeed of this kind, since the seller is the only person who may be damaged should thedeed be lost and should a finder claim that he acquired the field. If upon sale of theland to B, A authorizes B to acquire the deed agav the land, B does succeed toownership of the deed. The distinguishing factor is that the deed already exists.
The rule is otherwise where A directs C and D to acquire a field for B by halifin.
The immediacy of halifin and the ease with which it can be accomplished suggeststhat A wished B to acquire easily and without difficulty; hence, B acquired the rights
to the deed in conjunction with his acquisition of the real property. It is in such acase that we apply the rule that a seller is presumed to intend that the buyer's
kinyan be recorded. The Meiri disagrees with commentators who would apply thepresumption only where the seller does not object to the writing of the deed.
[Agav suffices to transfer promissory notes]
The in-conjunction-with agav kinyan also transfers to the buyer promissory notes
which third parties gave to the seller, but only if the seller authorizes the buyer to
510
511

For variations on this rule, see the Meiri to B.B.77:1.

B.B.77:1.

[7:2]
acquire the notes and the obligations which they represent.
Can an oral unrecorded claim be transferred by this kinyan? The Rambam holds
no, and he disagrees with Geonim who hold that the kinyan suffices to transfer any
and all claims.
[Requirement that payment have been made for certain chattels transferred by agav]
Chattels can be transferred agav real property whether the real property is
donated and the chattels are sold, or vice versa. But if the chattels are sold rather
than donated, and the chattels are not located on the real property, the kinyan iseffective only for chattels for which full payment has been made. In our Gemara,
Raba notes that "the matter [the agav kinyan referred to in a baraitha] was learned
only when payment was made."
It follows that the rule for agav is the same as the rule stated by Samuel
regarding hazakah on different parcels of real property: a hazakah in one parcel ofreal property can serve to acquire other fields only if payment has been made.
The Rambam disagrees with this proposition, and holds that chattels can beacquired agav real property even where payment has not been made in full. Raba's
statement to the effect that "the matter was learned only where payment wasmade" refers not to the baraitha but rather to Samuel's statement that ten fields canbe acquired with one hazakah.
But is it not true that the matter was learned formulation generally applies
only to a Mishnah or a baraitha? Yes, but Raba's point is that Samuel's
statement was also mentioned in a baraitha, and the baraitha's holding
was limited to cases of full payment.
[Agav where real property and chattels are transferred to different purchasers]
Is there a kinyan where the real property is transferred to A and the chattels areto be transferred to B? Probably not.
But what of the fact that Rabban Gamliel's tithe was effectively transferredto the poor although the kinyan used was a rental of real property to R.
Akiva:Firstly, the real property was rented to R. Akiva only for the purpose oftransferring the chattel (the tithe) to the poor.
Secondly, R. Akiva acquired the real property as trustee for the poor.

[7:2][Seller's rights if buyer makes hazakah but fails to pay the purchase price]
Where A sells real property to B and B makes a hazakah before he has paid forthe property, the property in which the hazakah was made belongs to B, and A's
rights are limited to his claim as creditor of B. This applies even where A insists onreceiving the balance of his funds, and even if it is clear that the prospect of prompt
payment motivated the seller to sell.
512

But what of the Gemara which holds that a seller who has been insistent on
payment can revoke a sale before he has received payment in full? That applies only
where there has been no hazakah or other kinyan, and the sole potential kinyan isthe partial payment of money which was not declared to have been made as akinyan.
Those who disagree with the Meiri hold that a seller can withdraw if he has
been insistent on payment, even if the buyer succeeded in making ahazakah or other kinyan. They claim that the Gemara described in thepreceding paragraph appears to deal with chattels, since it refers to A who
has sold something to B. That being so, there must have been a kinyan
other than money, for money is invalid as a kinyan for chattels. It follows
that even for chattels an insistent seller can withdraw after a proper kinyan
so long as he has not received full payment.
The Meiri counters that the Gemara can be explained as dealing withchattels in a case in which there was no true kinyan. There was only thepayment of money, which, while not a kinyan for chattels, in a proper caseis sufficient for a me shepora curse on the withdrawing party. The issue in
the Gemara is whether the buyer's partial payment (in the face of theseller's insistence to receive full payment promptly) is sufficient to entitle
the buyer to utter this curse.
[Acquisition of numerous fields with money or hazakah]
All agree that a hazakah on one field is effective for other fields only to theextent payment has been made for them; it matters not whether or not the seller is
insistent on receiving payment. In this case, the money does not serve as kinyan, forif so there would be no need for hazakah at all; instead, payment serves a condition
precedent to the validity of hazakah.
Where payment has been made in full, the Earth is considered one block so that

512

B.M.77:2.

[7:2]
a hazakah for one field suffices for all, no matter how distant.
Money as a kinyan suffices for all fields only where all fields are mentioned. The
same is true of deeds; a deed for one field cannot transfer other fields, even if paid
for in full, unless all fields are mentioned. But all fields which have been paid for,whether or not mentioned, are transferred by hazakah.
By definition, there is no requirement of payment where the lands are donated.
hazakah in one of the donated fields transfers all.
The same is true where the fields are rented: there is no requirement that therental have been paid in full for all fields. This results from the doctrine that rental
obligations are deemed to accrue only on completion of the term, so that there is no
payment obligation at the time of the kinyan.
Where some fields are sold and the rest are donated or rented, all aretransferred when payment has been made for the sold fields.
The rule is different for chattels. A separate kinyan is required for each of ten
animals or for all ten together (such as by pulling all ten with one halter if they are
all tied together), unless all 10 are transferred agav real property.

[7:2][27:2][Superimposition of oaths for sotah]
If a wife secludes with another man despite her husband's warning, her husband
compels her to drink the bitter waters and to take an oath that she did not commit
513
adultery with the man with whom she was secluded .
On this oath, the husband can superimpose the additional oath that she did notcommit adultery with any man while she was betrothed or married to the husband.
514
Scripture expresses the oath as a statement by the woman "Amen, Amen." The
duplication connotes:
Amen to the curse (i.e., that her abdomen shall swell and her thighshall fall if she swears falsely) and amen to the oath;amen that she was not unfaithful by this man, and amen that she
was not unfaithful by any other man;amen that she did not commit adultery while married, and amenthat she did not commit adultery while betrothed.
In short, the husband can superimpose an oath for any relations which would prohibit
his wife to him. Adultery committed during betrothal also suffices to prohibit awoman to her husband.
Conversely, a woman is not prohibited to her husband on account of relations
with another man which occurred before her betrothal, or while she was divorced
from her husband and before he married her anew; and no oath can besuperimposed regarding relations of this kind.
A woman who is a yebamah and who has relations with a man who is not her
yabam is not subject to capital punishment, whether by the Beth din or divine. The
relations are prohibited only by negative precept. Whether an oath can besuperimposed regarding such relations is disputed by R. Akiva and the Sages:
R. Akiva holds that kiddushin is invalid if purportedly effected
between persons whose relationship is prohibited by negative

513

Sot.18:1,2.

514

Num.5:22.

[7:2]
precept. Given his view of the seriousness of the relationship, he also
holds that a woman who violates a negative precept, such as theprecept which forbids a yebamah from cohabiting with a man otherthan her yabam, would also prohibit the woman to her husband.
That being so, her husband can superimpose an oath relating to her
relations while a yebamah.
The Sages, on the other hand, hold that kiddushin are effective if
performed by persons whose relation is prohibited only by negative
precept. Accordingly, a woman's relations with another while ayebamah do not prohibit her to her yabam, and it follows that anoath of this kind cannot be superimposed.
The Sages would agree that the yabam can superimpose an oath that she did notcommit adultery during the lifetime of the brother whose death caused her to be ayebamah. This adultery would make her unfit to the yabam.
[When must warnings, seclusions and oaths occur to support superimposition]
We have just explained that where there has been a proper warning andseclusion after a marriage is consummated, the husband can superimpose an oaththat his wife did not commit adultery at the betrothal stage. But the bitter waters
are not administered, and there is no oath, where the husband's warning and thewife's seclusion occur during the betrothal stage or (even in R. Akiva's view) while
the wife is a yebamah; the warnings and seclusion must occur "while you are under515[married to] your husband." It does not matter that a betrothed woman who
secludes with another despite proper warning loses her right to a marriage
settlement, because her own action results in her prohibition to her groom.
That is why the Gemara is concerned with a baraitha which holds that a husband
can impose an oath that his wife did not commit adultery when betrothed, as well as
when married:
1. If the warning, seclusion and oath occur while she is still betrothed, thatis impossible! The bitter waters and the oath are administered only "while
you are under [married to] your husband."2. If the warning and seclusion occurred while she was betrothed, but thewaters and the oath are being administered after the marriage was

515

Num.5:19.

[7:2]
consummated, that too is impossible!
The bitter waters detect adultery only for the purpose of "cleansing the516
husband from transgression." The waters are not administered where
the husband transgressed and cohabited with his wife after he suspected
her of adultery.
Note in passing that the Rambam holds that the waters do not avail where
the husband committed any adulterous transgression with any woman at
517
any time during his life. The Meiri considers this far-fetched .
3. If the warning and seclusion occurred while she was betrothed, but thewaters and the oath are being administered after the marriage wascompleted by huppah and before the husband transgressed by cohabiting
with his wife, that too is impossible!
The waters detect only whether "you cohabited with a man in addition to518
your husband," suggesting that the husband must have cohabited withthe woman before she cohabited with the suspected adulterer.
The Gemara ultimately concludes that the baraitha deals with a case in which both
the warning and seclusion occurred after the woman's marriage was consummated,
and the oath is superimposed for acts done during betrothal. This is the Meiri's
textual reading, and it reflects his view that oaths can be superimposed for betrothal
where no warning occurred at that stage.
Other commentators emend the text to provide that the doctrine applies only
where at least the warning occurred during betrothal. Still others hold that althougha warning at the betrothal stage is requisite as an anchor on which to support asuperimposed oath, that warning itself is not sufficient to compel even theunderlying oath. They consequently emend the text to deal with a case in which thewife was warned while betrothed (supporting the superimposed oath), and she waswarned again (supporting the underlying oath) and secluded with another after her
marriage was consummated.
The Ra'avid asks why the Gemara does not explain the baraitha as dealing with acase in which:516

Num.5:31.

517

Shev.5:1.

518

Num.5:20.

[7:2]
the husband cohabited with his bride while she was betrothed (sothat his cohabitation preceded that of the suspected adulterer);
the warning and seclusion with another occurred afterwards while
she was still a bride;
he subsequently completed the marriage by huppah (so that she is"under her husband"); andhe did not cohabit with her after the suspected seclusion (so that hedid not transgress).
True, this would not present an issue for the Rambam, who holds
that any unlawful intercourse renders the husband a transgressor
for this purpose; the Rabbis forbid a groom from cohabiting withhis bride in her father's house. But this is a minority position withwhich the Raabad does not agree!
If the case can be explained so and as involving an oath for the betrothal stage on its
own strength, how can the Gemara derive from the baraitha the doctrine ofsuperimposition of oaths?
There are two possible explanations:
1. The baraitha treats the oath on the betrothal stage the same as the oathon the yebamah stage:
In the case of yebamah there can be no relations with the husband
which leave the woman a yebamah. Any cohabitation with theyabam automatically terminates the yebamah status and renders theformer yebamah the former yabam's wife for all purposes. It must
therefore be that the yebamah referred to by the baraitha had notcohabited with the yabam. For the sake of consistency, we cannot
interpret the baraitha as involving a betrothed woman's relations
with her groom.
2. Some commentators maintain that the requirement that relations withthe husband precede that of the suspected adulterer is satisfied only withpermitted relations, not with illicit relations. The Meiri disagrees with thesecommentators.
[Other potential sources for the rule of superimposition]
Recall that an oath can be imposed that there was no adultery with any man, not[7:2]
only the man with whom the warning was given. Why does not the Gemara derive
the doctrine of superimposition from this oath?
The Meiri explains that the doctrine of superimposition is important only inmarital relationships which are alone insufficient to support an oath, such as the
betrothal stage.
But warnings and seclusions for any man are sufficient to support an oath, andthere never was any question that this minor sort of superimposition was permitted.
This is what the Yerushalmi means when it says that superimposition cannot bederived from oaths applied to other potential adulterers because such are matterson which oaths are normally imposed.
[28:1][Underlying and superimposed oaths on uncertain claims]
A single witness is of no significance in the law of sotah. No oaths are imposed,
nor are bitter waters administered, unless two witnesses confirm both the husband's
warning and the woman's seclusion.
In monetary disputes one witness suffices to impose an oath on the defendant.
Certain oaths can be imposed by a plaintiff only if he has a positive claim.
Illustrative are the oaths imposed on a defendant where a plaintiff's claim is
supported by one witness or where a defendant denies a portion of the plaintiff's
claim.
Other oaths can be imposed by the plaintiff even if he is uncertain whether the
defendant is liable. Illustrative are:the oath which a bailee must make on the circumstances in which thebailment was lost or destroyed; andthe oaths which the Rabbis impose:on a guardian on the proper discharge of his duties, andon partners and sharecroppers before they divide and distributejointly owned property.
Both positive and doubtful oaths can support superimposed oaths, but thesuperimposed oaths must be for positive claims only.

[7:2]The Gemara notes that the doctrine of superimposition is derived from sotah.
But for sotah where the combination of the husband's warning and the wife's
seclusion is equivalent to a positive claim of adultery! How then do we derive from519
sotah the rule that even doubtful claims support superimposed oaths?
The Gemara explains that the word oath appears both in the context of the oathmade by a sotah in the Temple, and the oath made by a defendant in monetary
matters in the Beth din outside of the temple. The gezerah shawah teaches that justas Scripture treats a relatively questionable sotah claim (where the suspected
adulterer had not previously been seen in association with the wife) the same as amore certain claim (such as where the suspected adulterer had previously been
known to speak with the wife), so also outside the Temple, Scripture directs that anoath based on an uncertain claim support superimposed oaths the same as oaths
520
based on positive claims.
As noted previously, the superimposed oath must be on a certain claim. Why so,given that the husband of a sotah can superimpose oaths on possible adulteries ofwhich the husband asserts no claim? Because the underlying claim of sotah, althoughtreated by us as a certain claim on account of the husband's warning and thewitnessed seclusion, is still in essence an uncertain claim; it is this special treatment
for sotah which for sotah permits superimposition for uncertain claims. Alternatively,
the case of sotah can be distinguished on the ground that Scripture treats all claims
on sotah as certain, whether or not based on warnings or witnessed seclusions.
[When doubtful oaths may be superimposed]
But what of another apparent exception to the rule that the superimposed oath
519

Certain commentators hold that the Gemara's reference to certain and doubtful oaths refers to thesuperimposed oath rather than to the underlying oath. The Gemara treats as a certain superimposed
oath the issue of whether the woman committed adultery with the identifiable man against whom
she was warned and with whom she secluded. The Gemara therefore inquires on the source of thedoctrine that even doubtful oaths can be superimposed. The Gemara responds that the husband canalso superimpose an oath on the uncertain issue of whether his wife committed adultery withanother, unknown, man.
520

There is as an alternative explanation of the Gemara's statement that for sotah a questionableclaim is equivalent to a certain claim: that a wife whose adultery was witnessed is treated the same asa wife whose seclusion, but not whose adultery, was witnessed. The Meiri disapproves because
where actual adultery was witnessed, the wife is prohibited absolutely to her husband and her guilt is
not tested by the bitter waters or any oath. The Meiri suggests, however, that where the husband waspresent with the witnesses the waters and the oath are administered.

[7:2]
must be certain? Although no oath is imposed directly on partners who have alreadydivided their joint estate, such an oath may be superimposed on an underlying oath
which is administered on any other issue! There are two possible explanations:
1. The rule is different for partners because oaths among partners, such as
when applied prior to division of the estate, are inherently designed toresolve doubts even where there are no claims.
2. The Meiri himself prefers to introduce a new definition of the doubtful
oath which cannot be superimposed: only claims which the plaintiff shouldhave known with certainty, but does not know, are not superimposed.
Where one partner divides an estate unbeknownst to the other the absent
partner cannot be faulted for being unaware of whether the division wasproper. That is why he may superimpose an oath on the partner who
divided the estate.
521

Another Gemara
rules:

supports this proposition. But first note the followingi. One who rents an animal is not liable for accidental death, but one
who borrows an animal is liable.
ii. Where A rents one animal and borrows another, and one animal
dies accidentally, he is liable if the dead animal was borrowed but
not if it was rented.
iii. Where the lender questions which animal died and A is certainthat the animal was rented, A is absolved without any oath.
iv. Where the lender maintains with certainty that the dead animal
was loaned and A maintains the opposite, then A must absolve
himself with an oath that the animal was rented.
Now, generally, oaths in civil cases without any witness are imposed only
where the defendant concedes the plaintiff's claim in part. In the last case,there is no partial concession; what is the basis of the oath imposed on the
defendant?
The Gemara explains that even if the defendant is to be believed that thedead animal was rented he must still swear that the animal did not die as aresult of his negligence; this is the standard oath applied on bailees. That
521

B.M.97:2.

[7:2]
being so, we superimpose the oath the dead animal was rented and notborrowed.
Now, the standard bailee's oath is applied even where the lender is
uncertain whether there was negligence. Why, then, when the lender is
uncertain which animal died do we not superimpose an oath on the
borrower to swear on which animal had died?!
This proves that claims about which the plaintiff is expected to beknowledgeable (such as which animal was rented and which wasborrowed) cannot be superimposed on oaths imposed for doubtful claims.
Any oath on a positive claim can also support a superimposed oath which relates
to the defendant's personal status. The plaintiff can demand that the defendantswear that he is not the plaintiff's Jewish slave.
But why state the rule? We already know that a slave's status is equivalent toreal estate, and we also know that oaths may be superimposed regarding realestate!
Yes, but we might have said that oaths are more easily superimposed
for land, because sales of land are often kept secret by embarrassed
buyers, and oaths are therefore more necessary to determine the522facts .
[Where superimposed oaths are not allowed]
No superimposed oaths are allowed on the following claims:
1. That the defendant is the plaintiff's gentile slave. In fact, the plaintiff isbanned if he demands such an oath of the defendant. Gentile slaves areaccursed, from the verse "Canaan is accursed... and he shall be a slave unto
523
him." That is why we ban him who indirectly refers to his comrade asaccursed; one who is banned is accursed.
2. That the defendant is a mamzer. In fact, the Rabbis prescribe that the

522

Another Gemara notes that the buyer of land, as distinguished from the seller, prefers to publicize
his purchase. B.B.42:1. Our Gemara holds that it is possible that the buyer acceded to the seller's
reluctance to publicize.
523

Gen.9:25,26.

[7:2]
plaintiff receives 40 lashes for demanding the oath. That is because theplaintiff would have required one who marries the defendant to receive 40
lashes for transgressing the prohibition of "A mamzer shall not enter the524
congregation of G-d."
3. That the defendant is wicked.
If the plaintiff makes this demand, the defendant may justify
plaintiff's opinion of him by competing with the plaintiff anddiminishing the plaintiff's livelihood. (The Gemara's reference to life
rather than livelihood is imprecise.) One who wrongfully competes525with his friend is considered wicked . By competing, the defendantjustifies the plaintiff's aspersion.
Other commentators maintain that the Gemara's reference to theplaintiff's life is precise: the defendant may attack the plaintiff
physically. In this way, the defendant justifies the plaintiff's view of
him as wicked, in light of the verse "Wicked one, why do you strike
526
your friend?!"[Exchange transactions]
The sixth Mishnah deals with exchange transactions:
Whatever can be used as payment for one object, as soon as one party
takes possession thereof, the other assumes liability for what is given in
exchange. How so? If one barters an ox for a cow, or an ass for an ox, as
soon as one party takes possession, the other becomes liable for what isgiven in exchange.
The buyer assumes the risk of loss as soon as he acquires title. At the same time, thebuyer assumes the absolute obligation to pay the balance of the purchase price.
The dialogue which follows in the Gemara can be explained in several
different ways:
1. Rashi explains the dialogue as follows:
524

Deut.23:3.

525

San.81:1.

526

Ex.2:13.

[7:2]The Gemara first assumes that the phrase whatever can beused as payment refers to coinage. The kinyan is not the passage ofmoney as purchase price (which is invalid for chattels), but rather
the ritual transfer of money by the buyer to the seller as halifin.
But if whatever is used as payment means money why does theMishnah illustrate the transaction with "if one barters an ox for acow, or an ass for an ox"?
Because the point of the Mishnah is that money, animals andproduce are alike in that they are valid as halifin. It does notmatter that they are not conventional chattels in the sense of theshoe-halifin referred to in Ruth.
Note that in Rashi's view if animals or produce are invalid ashalifin coinage is similarly not valid.
The Gemara then maintains that coinage should not betreated the same as produce. A coin has no inherent value; its value
depends on the government's continued support. Consequently,
even if animals or produce can serve as halifin coins should not.
The Gemara responds that coins are in fact invalid as halifin.
The phrase whatever can be used as payment means whatever mustbe evaluated as payment, i.e., any object which is not currency andwhose value as against other objects must be determined.
Only such objects, in fact excluding coins, can serve as halifin.
Further, the halifin is effective even when an item of little value istransferred for an ox: the kinyan is complete and the seller of theox reserves only a monetary claim for the balance of the purchaseprice.
The Gemara then concerns itself with another issue. How does
R. Nahman reconcile the Mishnah with his view that produce cannot
serve as halifin, and the corollary holding that animals, too, cannot
serve as halifin. Why does the Mishnah hold that the barter of an ox
for a cow is a valid halifin transaction?
Although the difficulty with R. Nahman is raised after the Gemara
reinterprets the phrase whatever can be used as payment, thesame questions could have been brought up at the stage at which
the Gemara held that the phrase meant money. Recall that at thatstage the Gemara held that money, produce and animals are all[7:2]
equivalent in that they can effect halifin notwithstanding thatthey are not conventional chattels.
2. The Alfasi explains the Gemara otherwise. In his view coins (were it
not for their transient value) and animals have a halifin statussuperior to produce, since coins, animals and chattels are used
repeatedly for convenience, as opposed to produce which isconsumed and which ultimately spoils.
Why then does the Gemara take issue with R. Nahman, whoholds that produce cannot serve as halifin? Because when theGemara thought that money was valid as halifin, the Mishnah'sreference to an "ox for a cow" could only be read as meaning "themeat of an ox for the meat of a cow," i.e., produce, disproving R.
Nahman. The Mishnah's text could not be an ox for a cow, for ifmoney (whose value depends on fiat) is valid as halifin it follows thatanimals are certainly valid and the Mishnah would not take pains tomention their validity.
But once the Gemara concludes that the Mishnah holds thatmoney is invalid, R. Nahman can easily explain the Mishnah as
dealing with live animals rather than meat. The Mishnah wishes toteach that animals are valid as halifin notwithstanding that coins arenot.
Another Gemara supports the Alfasi's view that produce canbe invalid as halifin even if coins are valid. The formula halifin
recitation in a deed recites that the halifin was made with
implements which are themselves proper for acquisitions. The
Gemara explains that:the word implement excludes produce,
proper excludes objects from which no benefit is permitted,
implements which are proper for acquisitions excludes objects
which belong to the seller, andimplements which are themselves proper for acquisitions excludes
coins.
Obviously, the exclusion of produce does not by itself exclude coins.

[7:2]
527

Also supportive is another Gemara which deals with the casein which a cow owned by A is being exchanged for a donkey owned
by B, by way of A's transfer of the cow to B in halifin. It turns out thatthe donkey died and A and B dispute whether:
the death occurred after the halifin, in which case the exchange isvalid, the donkey was transferred to A while alive, and A bears theloss, orthe purported exchange occurred after the death of the donkey sothat the donkey's death is B's loss.
Clearly, a live animal can be used as halifin. And the Gemara does
not consider that this might conflict with R. Nahman.
The Meiri does have one difficulty with the Alfasi. Why would anyone exchange
the kosher meat of an ox for the forbidden meat of an ass? Perhaps the Mishnah's
real emphasis is on the exchange of the meat of a cow for the meat of an ox, andthe reference to the meat of an ass is imprecise.
3. A third group of commentators agrees with Rashi that animals aretreated as produce, based on the verse "and the fruit of your528
animals,"
and the equivalence of animals to produce for the529
purposes of tithe-related exchanges .
But they differ from Rashi in limiting this holding to animals which
are not suited for labor because of their small size, their age or theirexcessive fat. Animals which are suited for labor are not produce.
The Meiri would agree with the third group except for the uncertainty on whether
any particular animal is or is not produce. The Meiri ultimately supports the Alfasi.
[Exceptional cases in which chattels are transferred by money-type payments]
Return now to our Gemara. How can R. Nahman reconcile his view that produce
cannot be halifin with our Mishnah? The Gemara explains:

527

Keth.77:1.

528

Deut.28:11.

529

Eruv.27:2.

[7:2]
Money sometimes ranks as an object of barter. How so? If one
barters the money of an ox for a cow, or the money of an ass for acow.
The Gemara's basic point is that the ox-for-a-cow language does not deal withhalifin, but with monetary kinyan. There are three possible interpretations of theGemara's precise meaning:
1. There is a circumstance in which the payment of money, not as
halifin, but as purchase price, is valid as a kinyan for chattels,
notwithstanding the general rule that such payment is a kinyan only
for real estate. The case in which money is valid for chattels follows:
A has a cow. B asks him how much purchase price A would
demand to sell the cow. A responds that he needs a donkey. B saysthat he has no donkey, but B has money equal to the monetary
value of a donkey.
In this case there is a kinyan as soon as A accepts the money, because
the money was passed as the monetary equivalent of a chattel. The
case is treated as if B had passed the donkey to A.
This follows from the rule that the payment of money is valid as akinyan for chattels as a Scriptural matter. It is the Rabbis who
invalidate money out of concern that a seller who received money
and retains possession of the chattel would not bestir himself toprotect the chattel against loss.
The Rabbis do not apply their injunction in the unusual case in which
the money is passed as the equivalent of a chattel.
2. Others explain the case precisely in the reverse:
A has a cow. B asks him how much purchase price A would
demand to sell the cow. A says he requires a maneh. B says he has
no maneh, but he does have an ox worth a maneh.
Once A accepts the ox the transaction is complete, notwithstandingthat the ox was given as money in substitution for a demand for
actual money. The transaction is unusual, and the Rabbis would notinvalidate the transaction for the reasons for which they invalidate
money.
3. The Raabad explains:[7:2]A has a cow. B asks him how much purchase price A would
demand to sell the cow. A says he requires a maneh. B reaches into
his pocket for money, does not count them, and A accepts themoney without counting.
In this unusual circumstance the payment of money is valid as akinyan.
4. Rashi and the Rambam explain:
A agrees to sell his cow to B for a maneh, and B completed thekinyan by meshikhah of the cow. Before B pays for the cow, A
suggests that B keep the maneh in exchange for B's ox which A
wants.
As soon as the parties agree to the exchange, the deal is complete
and no further kinyan is required. In effect, A has paid money to B
for B's ox, and in this unusual case the Rabbis are content to leave
undisturbed the Scriptural holding that the payment of money for achattel is valid as kinyan.
Now, in fact A did not pay any money; he only forgave B's
530
monetary debt. How does this square with the Gemara that theforgiveness of a monetary obligation is not a kinyan even as a
Scriptural matter?
Rashi and the Rambam must explain that there is a distinction
betweenobligations which arise from loans and which are intended to be
spent, and are deemed spent, andobligations which are generated in sales transactions, which areintended to be paid immediately and which are therefore
considered to be as present as physical money.

530

47:2.

[7:2]
531

The Meiri considers this explanation far-fetched .
This completes the exposition of the Mishnah. The Gemara does not set forthmatters which need be discussed here.
[28:2][Kinyanim in transactions with the Sanctuary]
The next Mishnah reads:
The Sanctuary's title to property is acquired by money; the title of acommon man to property is acquired by hazakah. Dedication to theSanctuary is equal to delivery to a common person.
The Sanctuary's treasurer, as well as common persons, acquire real estate by
payment of the purchase price. But whereas the payment of the purchase pricesuffices for the treasurer even for chattels, common persons require a kinyan such asmeshikhah, lifting or the like.
The Mishnah refers to hazakah as a kinyan for chattels, but this is imprecise.
hazakah is valid for real estate only. Nor can the Mishnah refer to real estate: even acommon person can acquire real estate by payment of money.
Why is money a valid kinyan for the Sanctuary?
For R. Johanan the explanation is simple. He holds that money isvalid as a kinyan even for common persons as a Scriptural matter.
The Rabbis invalidated money for common persons but did not
disturb its validity insofar as concerns the Sanctuary, in view of thespecific reference to money in the verse "you shall give the moneyfor your value [to the Sanctuary]."531

See also Meiri to B.M.47:1.

[7:2]
But what of Resh Lakish who holds that money is not valid as akinyan from a Scriptural standpoint? The Yerushalmi explains that all
chattels are located on G-d's guarded real estate and are acquired by
the kinyan of location-on-real-estate. "The world and all included in532
it is the property of G-d" .
If an individual dedicates an animal for sacrifice, the transaction is complete even
if the treasurer of the Sanctuary is absent. The rule is explainable with the
Yerushalmi's rationale.
533

If so, and given that even an offer to buy or sell is considered a dedication , forwhat purpose does the Mishnah rule that the Treasurer acquires by payment ofmoney? There are two possible explanations:
1. Once the treasurer has made a money payment he can no longer
renege. In civil transactions, a common person may renege before akinyan and after the payment of money; he is subject only to thecurse of me shepora.
2. Rav Hai Gaon explains that an individual is in fact bound when hetells the treasurer "I will sell the object to you for so much money":
this is the equivalent of dedication to the Sanctuary.
But there is no dedication if an individual only quotes a price to thetreasurer without saying that "I will sell for such and such price." But
the individual is bound if he accepts the treasurer's money.
mesirah is only one of the kinyanim which are valid for an individual. The
Mishnah mentions mesirah as an example of these kinyanim.
532

Ps.24:1.

533

See B.B.133:2 and Er.27:1. The Mishna in Erukhin deals with a case in which A offered to buy a fieldfrom the treasurer for 20 zuz, B offered to buy for 10, and A then reneges. The Mishna rules that A is
responsible for the 10 zuz loss which the treasurer will incur by selling to B.

[7:2]The Gemara discusses the following matters relative to the Mishnah.
[29:1][Price variations in the course of dealings with the Sanctuary]
Assume that the Sanctuary as seller receives the purchase price for an item which
later increases in value. The following rules apply:
1. The Sanctuary can rescind the transaction and insist that it is bound only
by kinyanim which bind individuals.
2. If the Sanctuary rescinds, it cannot take an inconsistent position anddemand that the buyer take the item at the higher purchase price. The
buyer can freely withdraw without a me shepora curse.
Assume that the Sanctuary receives the purchase price for an item which later
decreases in value. The following rules apply:
1. If the buyer performed meshikhah or another kinyan valid for534
individuals, or if he performs a binding dedication , the Sanctuary caninsist that the transaction be completed. It has a status no worse than acommon person.
2. The same is true if the buyer paid the purchase price. The buyer is bound,since transactions with the Sanctuary as seller are (at the Sanctuary's
option) complete upon passage of funds.
The same rule would apply where the buyer did not pay thepurchase price in full before the item's value decreased. When does itmatter whether the purchase price was paid in full? Where the pricerises and the buyer insists that the Sanctuary either accept his priorpayment as payment in full or release him.
[Obligations of parents towards children]
The next Mishnah provides as follows:
For all obligations of the son upon the father, men are bound, but women534

Can there be a meshikhah without a dedication? Yes. This occurs where a person silently performs
meshikhah after the treasurer quotes a sales price.

[7:2]
are exempt. But for all obligations of the father upon the son, both men
and women are bound. For all affirmative precepts limited to time, men
are liable and women are exempt.
All affirmative precepts not limited to time are binding upon both men
and women.
All negative precepts, whether limited to time or not limited to time, arebinding upon both men and women; excepting "You shall not round the535
corners of your head, neither shall you mar the corners of your beard, "536
and "He shall not defile himself for the dead. "Obligations of the son upon the father means obligations which the father must
perform for the son. Examples are the obligation to circumcise the son, to redeem
him from the priest if the son is his mother's first-born, to teach him Torah and a537
trade, and to arrange for his marriage .
Mothers are exempt from these obligations because women do not have theseobligations for themselves:
1. Circumcision and redemption are required only of men.
2. Women need not study Torah since Scripture requires only that the
538
Torah "be taught to your sons."
3. Women need not marry because only men are commanded to be
fruitful and multiply.

A woman needs a trade as much as a man. But it stands to reason that a woman who
need not teach her son Torah should not have the obligation to teach him a trade.

535

Lev.19:27.

536

Lev.21:1.

537

Note that a father's obligation to arrange his son's marriage is not derived Scripturally. Its source isthe verse in Jeremiah "Take wives and beget sons and daughters, and take wives for your sons."(Jer.29:6)
538

Deut.6:7.

[7:2]
539

Besides, the greatest honor of a woman is modesty , and in arranging for her son to
study a trade, a mother would have frequent occasion to visit her son's teachers.
Obligations of the father upon the son means obligations which the son isrequired to perform for the father. Examples are the son's obligations to fear andhonor the father. Daughters who have sufficient funds are also responsible for thesematters.
Women are exempt from affirmative precepts which are limited to time, such as
the precepts of sukkah and lulav. But, as will be explained below, there are
exceptions to this rule; women are subject to the precepts relating to matzo, theeating of the Passover sacrifice, the sanctification of holidays, periodic assembly at
the Temple and rejoicing during the festivals.
Women are responsible for affirmative precepts which are not limited by time,such as the obligations to be charitable and to perform good deeds. We have alreadynoted three exceptions to this rule:teaching Torah;
redeeming the first-born: andmarriage.
Women are subject to all negative precepts. It does not matter whether theprecepts are limited by time, such as the eating of hametz on the Passover or the
performance of work on Sabbath or the festivals, or are not limited by time, such as
the prohibition against eating certain animal fat or carrion.
There are three exceptions to this rule:
1. Since a woman is not subject to the prohibition that she not mar her own
beard, she is also exempt from the prohibition against marring the beardof another.
2. A woman is exempt from the prohibition against "circling" the head byshaving, because the prohibition is in the same verse as that which
prohibits marring the beard.
3. Scripture refers to the sons of Aaron, and excludes daughters, in relation
to the rule that priests may not defile themselves for the dead.

539

Ps.45:14.

[7:2]The Gemara discusses the following matters:
If a father does not circumcise his son, the responsibility devolves on the local
Beth din; if there is no Beth din the responsibility devolves on the congregation.
The Geonim require that a representative of the Beth din or of the congregation
recite the blessing which praises G-d for having accepted the child into Abraham's
covenant. The Raabad generally agrees but suggests that the sandek recite theblessing. Yet others prefer that the mohel recite the blessing. The Meiri disagrees
with the Rambam who disputes the Geonim and permits only the father to recite theblessing.
[Personal obligation to arrange for one's circumcision and redemption]
A child who was not circumcised must arrange for his own circumcision when hebecomes an adult. For each day of delay, he (not his father) commits a sin for which
the penalty is kareth: "And the uncircumcised male who will not perform
540
circumcision, that soul shall be cut off." The Rambam explains that the child can
avoid kareth by arranging for circumcision at any time before his death.
An adult first-born son must redeem himself from the priest if his father did not
do so. If a father has enough money to redeem either himself or his first-born son,the father should redeem himself. Commandments which relate to one's own person
have priority.
[29:2][Priority between father and son on redemption]
Assume that:
1. A is B's father.
2. Both A and B are first-born sons who were never redeemed from a
priest.

540

Gen.17:14.

[7:2]
3. Either A or B pledged to the priest property which A or B
subsequently sold subject to the pledge, and that neither A nor B
have any unsold property.
In this case, the priest cannot seize the property from the purchaser: a creditor can
attack a purchaser's title only if the debt is secured by a writing.
Assume that:
1. A is B's father.
2. B is a first-born son who was never redeemed from a priest.
3. B's first-born son C was also not redeemed.
4. A pledged property to the priest for B's redemption, and A or B
subsequently sold the property subject to the pledge.
5. B has five selah's of non-pledged property.
The pledge is invalid for the reasons stated earlier. The case is analyzed as one inwhich a father has only sufficient funds to redeem either himself or his son. As noted
earlier, the father B should redeem himself before he redeems his son C.
Were the priest's pledge valid, B would have redeemed himself with the pledged
property, because A made the pledge for B and not for C. A grandfather need notredeem his grandson. The property which is free from pledge would have been used
for C.
How would we rule if B pledged the property for C and the pledge werevalid?
1. If at the time of pledge B was already obligated to redeem C, then thepledged property can be used for either B or C.
2. If C was not 30 days old at the time of pledge, and B was not thenobligated to redeem C, then the pledged property can be used only for B's
redemption.
[Priority among creditors]
Assume that in an unrelated case:
1. A lends 100 zuz to B on a written note in month 1.

[7:2]
2. B sells property valued at 100 zuz to a third party in month 2.
3. B dies in month 3.
4. A lends 100 zuz to B's son, C, in month 4.
5. When A presents his claim in month 5, C has only 100 zuz in his
possession.
By analogy to the preceding holding, the proper rule is that C uses his 100 zuz to
repay his own loan from A. A then attacks the purchaser's title based on the claim A
had against B. The purchaser cannot resist A's attack by directing A to collect from C.
The fact is that A's claim against C did not mature before the sale to the purchaser;
this is analogous to the failure of a claim for redemption to mature before a firstborn is 30 days old.
But if A accepts a payment by C which is designated by C to be on account of B's
debt, A's position is damaged, since A cannot proceed against the purchaser for adebt from C which was not matured at the time of the sale. Commentators differ onwhether A can resist a payment which C insists on designating as on account of B's
debt.
It goes without saying that if C's debt matured before B's sale that A can proceedfor either debt against the 100 zuz as well as against the property of the purchaser.
[Priority among precepts]
Precepts which will expire if not performed timely have priority over payment
obligations which do not expire.
Where one can readily perform the festival pilgrimage or the redemption of hisson, but hardship will be incurred to perform both, the redemption has priority.
Scripture requires that "All the firstborn of your sons you shall redeem," and only
541
then does it state "and no one shall appear before me empty."
The pilgrimage has priority if performing the redemption would make it
impossible to perform the pilgrimage.

541

Ex.34:20.

[7:2][Additional obligations of the father]
A father must redeem the first-born of each of his wives. The test is whether theson "opened his mother's womb." But for inheritance purposes only the father's
firstborn receives a double share. The son must be "the beginning of his father's
542
strength."
As explained earlier, a father has primary responsibility to teach his son Torah. If
the father neglects this duty, the son must school himself as he grows older. Where afather can either school himself or his son, but not both, the father has priority
unless the son is exceptionally capable.
[Preferred age of marriage]
One should study Torah first and then marry. Marriage is a millstone around
one's neck which does not permit scholarly concentration. This rule does not apply
where one desires to marry for the sake of the purity of his thoughts, and it iscustomary that men study while women conduct the household's business affairs.
To avoid sinful thoughts it is advisable to marry at about age 14. Otherwise, andespecially if marriage is postponed past age 20, the sinful thoughts of youth will be
ingrained and will never leave. One of the sages said that he married at 16; had hemarried at 14 he would have told the Satan, "An arrow in your eye."[30:1][Obligation to correct a son's behavior and to educate him]
A father must supervise and correct his son's behavior, primarily between ages 16(when true understanding is achieved) and 24 (when the father's influence wanes).
A father's obligation is to teach his son the precepts in the written Torah. The
son himself must then broaden his knowledge to the best of his abilities. He should
dedicate one-third of his study time to Scripture, one-third to Mishnah and one-third
to Talmud and related studies and investigations.

542

Deut.21:17.

[7:2]
Scripture requires that "you shall make [the Torah] known to your sons and to543
your son's sons." The Gemara explains that, as in the story of Zevulun b. Dan, aperson's obligations extend to his grandchildren (should the son not fulfill theobligation), but not to later generations.
The obligation to teach Torah applies even to persons other than one's children544
and grandchildren. The verse "And you shall teach them diligently to your sons"
includes students who are spiritual sons, as in the verse "the children of the prophets
545
emerged" , where the reference is to students. But the obligation to educate one's
sons and grandchildren is more extensive, since it requires that the father or the
grandfather hire teachers. For non-relatives, the obligation is personal and there is
no monetary obligation.
The obligation should be cherished and should not be a burden. The father
himself should conduct his son to his studies, he should review the day's studies withhis son and he should add a verse from the studies expected for the next day.
R. Joshua b. Levi would don a non-appropriate covering on his head while
hastening to escort his son to his studies. R. Joshua explained that the commandments
requiring a father to educate his son is equivalent to "the day you stood before the546
Lord your G-d at Horeb."[How well-versed must a person be?]One should continue his studies until he becomes thoroughly familiar with evenminor details of the Torah. The early scholars were called soferim, or counters,
because they counted all the letters of the Torah, and concluded that:547

the letter waw in the word gahon
Torah in terms of letters,548

the words darosh dorash
543

Deut.4:9.

544

Deut.6:7.

545

II Kings 2:3.

546

Deut.4:10.

547

Lev.11:42.

548

Lev.10:16.

marked the exact midpoint of themarked the exact midpoint of the Torah in[7:2]
terms of words,549

the word we-hithgalahmarked the exact midpoint in terms of verses,
550

the letter ayin in the word mi-yaar
terms of letters,

marks the midpoint of Psalms in551

the verse "But he being full of compassion"
Psalms in terms of verses, andmarks the midpoint of

the Torah has 8,888 verses, Psalms has eight more, and Chronicles has eight
less.
Certain of these matters became doubtful with the passage of time. Today we do
not know whether the waw in gahon belongs to the first half of the Torah or thesecond half. We cannot resolve this issue by counting the letters of Torah, because,
although we rely on generally accepted Torah scrolls, we are no longer certain inwhich words silent letters are written and in which words silent letters are dropped.
Note, for example, the inconsistencies between the traditional mesorah and the
552
553
554
Midrash. The Midrash states that the words pilagshim , wa'asimem and kalot
all have dropped silent vowels, whereas the mesorah preserves the vowel in eachword.
The Geonim hold that readings which the Talmud uses as a source of doctrine
are definitive, and that Torah scrolls are invalidated if written otherwise. This applies555
to the word karnot
in which the mesorah drops the vowel and the Midrashpreserves it, as well as to the words le'totofot, b'sukkot, and ayn lo. But where nodoctrine is derived from any particular reading, the Meiri would be lenient and hewould not void Torah scrolls which do not accord with accepted norms on silent

549

Lev.13:33.

550

Ps.80:14.

551

Ps.78:38.

552

Gen.25:6.

553

Deut.1:13.

554
555

Num.7:1.

Lev.4:7.

[7:2]
556

letters or on chapters which are open or closed.

One should be prepared to answer Torah questions promptly and crisply. Of
persons who have this ability Scripture says "They shall not be ashamed when they557
speak with enemies in the gate."
The term "enemies" refers even to fathers and sons and teachers and students,
who naturally love and are tolerant of each other, but who are as enemies when
they dispute matters of Torah. But their purpose is to arrive at the truth, andScripture assures that "they shall not be ashamed," and they shall restore theirfriendship once their dispute is resolved.
[30:2][Power of learning]
The Torah protects and rehabilitates even persons who transgress because of
powerful urges and who develop evil personalities. Compare a plaster which isplaced on a son's wound by a father who has punished the son; so long as the plasteris on the wound, the wound will heal regardless of what the son eats or drinks, but if
removed the wound will break out into sores. So too G-d created evil desire (thewound) but prepared the Torah as a remedial plaster.
Anyone who is beset by evil desire should figuratively take the desire into thestudy-house. If the desire is strong as iron, it will shatter into fragments; if strong asstone, it will dissolve.
[Obligation to arrange a daughter's marriage]
A father must seek to marry off his daughter as well as his son. He must dress her
556

In closed chapters, the succeeding chapter begins on the same line. In open chapters, thesucceeding chapter begins on the next line.
557

Ps.127:5.

[7:2]
properly and give her a dowry to make her attractive to the most fit among
potential suitors.
[Obligation to teach a son a trade]
A father who does not teach his son a trade teaches him to be a brigand. For
when the son matures he will seek to live in the style to which he was accustomed.
What if the son is taught Torah? Some commentators hold that it is notnecessary to teach the son a trade, for where there is Torah, there is food. Other
commentators hold that the son must still be taught a trade. All agree that a son
who is taught to trade in merchandise need not be taught a craft.
[The requirement to honor one's parents]
It was previously explained that both men and women must honor and fear theirparents. However, a woman need not honor her father while she is married and does
not control her own affairs.
One honors and fears G-d when one honors and fears his parents; where aperson respects his parents, it is as if G-d dwelled among them and he too was558
honored . Note the following verses:
559"Honor and fear your father and your mother,"560
with your substance."and "Honor the Lord

Also, "Every man shall fear his mother and his father,"562
fear the Lord, your G-d."561

and "You shall563

and "Whoever

As to cursing, "And he cursed his father or his mother,"

558

B.K.25:1.

559

Ex.20:12.

560

Prov.3:9.

561

Lev.19:3.

562

Deut.6:13.

563

Lev.20:9.

[7:2]
564

curses his G-d."

This is appropriate because G-d is a partner in every person equally with the565
person's father and mother. The Gemara explains that the father is responsible forwhite matter from which is created bone, sinew, nail, brain matter and the white of
the eye. The mother is responsible for red matter from which is created skin, flesh,blood, hair and the pupil of the eye. G-d is responsible for spirit, soul, facial form,
vision, hearing, speech, movement, knowledge, understanding and wisdom. The
father and mother contribute five attributes each, whereas G-d's contribution of ten
566
items is equal to the parents' joint participation .
Scripture mentions the father first in regard to honor; the mother is mentioned
first in regard to fear. This is to equalize the natural tendency to honor the motherand to fear the father.
[31:1]

564

Lev.24:15.

565

Nid.31:1.

566

Compare B.K.25:1. G-d stated that it was appropriate for Miriam to be ostracized for 14 days for
disrespect to G-d, since a seven-day ostracization would have been appropriate had she insulted herparents.

[7:2]
G-d is all-knowing, and the fear of Him must always be in a person's heart. "The567
eyes of the Lord pass through the Earth," and "The heaven is [G-d's] throne and568
the Earth is [His] foot-stool." One who secretly transgresses, because he imaginesthat G-d is not aware, is as if he pushes off the legs of the Holy Presence, in the sensethat he denies G-d's omnipresence.
For the same reason, one should not walk with haughty mien. Several of thegreat Sages would not walk four cubits with haughty mien or bareheaded.
The Gemara next recounts the case of a son who was told that the father must
be honored ahead of the mother because the mother must herself honor her
husband. The son asked R. Joshua whether the same rule applies once the mother isdivorced. R. Joshua answered:
From your eyelids it is obvious that you are a [texts differ on whether R.
Joshua said "widow's" or "divorcee's"] son; pour some water for them in abasin, and screech for them like fowls!
There are four possible interpretations:
1. The Meiri's reading is that R. Joshua concluded that the mother was a
divorcee. R. Joshua's answer was a ruling that when there is an issue ofpriority between a father and a divorced mother, the two must be treatedequally, and where this is impossible both should be served at the sametime, with the issue of priority to be resolved by the parents themselves.
2. R. Joshua concluded from the son's swollen eyes that the child's motherwas a widow. Compare the statement elsewhere that R. Gamliel cried until
the lashes on his eyelids were dislodged.
R. Joshua's response was a sarcastic retort that the son had posed atheoretical question, since the child's father had died. It follows that R.
Joshua's statement cannot be taken as a ruling.
The Meiri disagrees with the concept that R. Joshua assumed that themother was a widow because of the son's eyelids. The phrase on the child's
eyelids should not be taken literally. And, even if taken literally, perhaps
the child cried over some other person who died?!

567

Zakh.4:10.

568

Isa.66:1.

[7:2]
3. R. Joshua's conclusion was that the son's mother was a widow, but notfrom the son's swollen eyes. Rather, R. Joshua enjoyed the son's retort andconcluded that the son had the cunning which the sons of widows
commonly develop as a result of hardship.
4. R. Joshua's conclusion was that the son's mother was a widow. But R.
Joshua did not respond sarcastically, since the son's query still had
meaning: the widow had remarried and the issue was priority between thewidow and the son's stepfather. R. Joshua ruled that a stepfather is ofequal priority with a mother.
One must go to great extremes to honor one's parents. Indeed, even gentiles
have been known to honor parents on moral grounds although gentiles are notsubject to the Torah's commandment on the subject.
A certain gentile in Ashkelon had the opportunities to sell merchandise at a profitof 600,000 gold denarii, and to provide a precious jewel for the high priest's ephod at
a profit of 80,000 gold denarii, but in each case he forewent the opportunity because
he would not wake his father to obtain the key to the warehouse in which themerchandise was stored.
The gentile also did not embarrass his mother when she spat at him and tore his
gold-embroidered clothing while he sat among the elders of Rome.
In the following year, G-d rewarded him by causing a red heifer to be born in his
herd. In setting a price for the heifer he asked that the Sages compensate him only
for the profit he lost because of the honor he paid his father. The Sages agreed.
The events just described must have occurred during the Second Temple, for
569
during the First Temple, only the one red heifer prepared by Moses was sacrificed .
That being so, why is it that jewels were still sought for the ephod:
The function of the jewels set into the ephod was to serve as an anchor forthe hoshen in which the urim v'tumim were contained. The urim v'thumim
were abolished during the Second Temple!
570

During the First Temple, the shamir was used to inscribe the names of
the 12 tribes on the stones set in the ephod. The shamir was not available
during the second Temple!

569
570

Parah 3:5.

A living creature.

[7:2]
Yes. But the priests continued to seek to place jewels in the ephod in order tocontinue as much tradition as was possible.
[Blessings for voluntary actions]
May a person recite a blessing when he or she voluntarily performs aprecept?
Consider our Gemara which deals with the dispute between R. Judah andthe Sages on whether the blind are exempt from precepts. R. Judah holds
that the blind are exempt. R. Joseph, who was blind, initially preferred R.
Judah's view that the blind are exempt from precepts; by performing theprecepts R. Joseph held he would obtain a greater reward than one who
performed on an obligatory basis. He reversed his position when helearned that one who performs precepts which he is obligated to performreceives a greater reward.
If no blessing can be recited by one who performs precepts voluntarily,
how could R. Joseph initially prefer a position which would not permit him
to recite blessings?!
The argument goes further. It must be that R. Joseph followed the majority
view and considered himself bound to perform precepts. Initially, he only
wished that the precepts could be voluntary (which he knew they werenot) for if so he would have received greater reward.
Could R. Joseph desire a situation in which he could not recite blessings
when he knew in actual fact that blessings were required?!
Does not this prove that blessings may be performed for voluntary actions?
Not necessarily. In fact, the Rambam holds that persons, such as women,
who are fully exempt from precepts cannot recite blessings on account theprohibition against taking G-d's name in vain.
But what of R. Joseph?
R. Judah asserted only that the blind are exempt as a Scriptural matter, but
the Rabbis require that the blind nevertheless perform the precepts. The
Rabbinical requirement was sufficient to support blessings.
The French Rabbis, including Rabbeinu Tam, disagree with the Rambam as is[7:2]
571

explained elsewhere.

[Specific requirements relating to a parent's honor]
To honor one's parents means to feed them, to give them drink, to dress them,to take them in and out and otherwise to do without limit whatever is appropriate.
In certain situations, it may be appropriate to do less, and, in fact, even to permit
one's parents to serve him.
The Yerushalmi recounts that R. Tarfon asked that his mother step on his hands572
when her stockings were torn . R. Tarfon was subsequently ill, and his mother asked
that the Sages pray for him because of the great honor he displayed toward her. The
Sages responded that were R. Tarfon to perform such services many thousands oftimes he would not have satisfied even one-half of the commandment.
Conversely, R. Ishmael's mother complained to the Sages that he refused to allow
573
her to wash his legs . The Rabbis held that R. Ishmael should have permitted her to574
conduct herself so, for such was her will .

571

E.g., R.H.33:1.

572

Our Gemara also records that R. Tarfon would bend down to permit his mother to climb on him
into her bed.
573

The Meiri disagrees with a reading that he refused to permit her to wash his legs and drink thewater.
574

Our Gemara holds that where the father is learned the son must not accept services from him.
The father is distressed thereby no matter what he says.

[7:2]
R. Mani commented that this demonstrates how persons' fates differ: R.Tarfon
was criticized for doing too little, whereas R. Ishmael was criticized for refusing toallow his mother to serve him. R. Zeira initially regretted that he had no living
parents to honor. When he learned of the cases of R. Ishmael and R. Tarfon hethanked G-d for not having parents: "I could not serve as did R. Tarfon, nor could I
accept services as did R. Ishmael."
The son's words and manner when proffering services are more important than
the services themselves. The Yerushalmi recounts that a hunter would feed his father
meat of pheasant. When his father would ask on how the son obtained thepheasant, the son would insult the father "Old man, eat and chew, just as dogs eat
and chew." Although the son fed his father well, he acted improperly and drove
himself from this world. Conversely, the Gemara recounts that a son who owned amill suggested that his father work the millstones while the son substituted for his
father in the army. The son received a reward in the world to come.
[31:2]
A son must honor his father even if the son is of mature years and is a Sage in his
own right. Abimi had five ordained sons and still ran to open the door, crying "yes,yes," when his father R. Abbahu arrived. On one occasion R. Abbahu asked that
Abimi bring him some water. R. Abbahu drowsed while Abimi went to bring thewater, and Abimi bent and stood over him until R. Abbahu awoke. While waiting,Abimi was rewarded by a realization which had previously eluded him: Why does575
not the dirge "a song of Asaph " begin with the words "a dirge of Asaph"? Abimi
now realized that the song praises G-d for destroying the wood and the stones of
the Temple rather than destroying his people. "G-d expended his furor by kindling a576
fire in Zion."
The requirement to honor one's parents cannot override other precepts.
However, one may leave Eretz Israel to greet one's parents or otherwise to honorthem.
In an area where the father is well respected, the son should not request that his
demands be heeded out of honor to himself, but rather because of the honor owed
to his father.
The requirement to honor continues after the father's death. During the 12575

Ps.79:1.

576

Eikha 4:11.

[7:2]
months following his father's death, a son should accompany quotations from hisfather with the phrase "Thus said my father, my teacher, for whose resting place I
am an atonement." After the 12 month period he should use a phrase such as "Hismemory be for a blessing, for the life of the world to come."
A sage speaking to an audience refers to his father as "my father," but theinterpreter refers to him by name.
One fears his father by not standing in his presence without his permission, by
not sitting in the father's accustomed place, by not contradicting him in his presence
and by not suggesting compromises in disputes between the father and others.
[Son's financial responsibility towards his parents]
It was noted earlier that one honors his father by feeding him, giving him todrink, dressing and covering him and taking him in and out. Out of pocket costs areat the father's expense, although the son is not compensated for the value of hislabor.
Since the principal rule is that the father must pay his own expenses, the son may
support the father with the tithe which is dedicated for the poor; the son is notconsidered to be discharging his own obligation with the poors' tithe. Nevertheless,the Rabbis disapprove and curse the son unless the son sustains the father's basic
needs from the son's own resources, and has recourse to the poors' tithe only for
amounts beyond the father's minimum requirements.
Where the father has no assets, the son must bear all costs, and the Beth dincompels him to do so. The Midrash notes that would that all questions of halacha
were as clear-cut as the proposition that a son is compelled to support his father at
the son's expense.
If the son has no assets he must solicit contributions on behalf of his father. On
577
the other hand, the obligation to honor G-d is only "with your substance," so that
there is no obligation to separate terumah, tithes or other offerings from one's field
where one has no assets. The Midrash also notes that in this respect the obligation to577

Prov.3:9.

[7:2]
honor one's parents is greater than the obligation to honor G-d.
This holding and the doctrine that a father can be compelled to support his infantchildren are exceptions to the rule that the Beth din does not compel actions forwhich Scripture promises a reward. Some extend the exception to hold the Beth din
578
can compel a person to make charitable contributions generally .
[32:1]
One who redeems his own second tithe must add one-fifth to the redemption
price, whereas one who redeems another's second tithe need not add this fifth. Inorder to avoid the fifth, a father may give his adult children money with which toredeem the father's tithe, and two partners and a master and his student may
redeem each other's second tithe.
The son must not embarrass his father or lose his temper at him, even if thefather takes a packet of the son's money and throws it into the sea. A father may
train his sons in this respect, by appearing to destroy property. The father should,
however, be prepared to waive the son's possible insult to him. Also, the father
should not actually violate the precept against wanton destruction of property.
Although R. Huna appeared to destroy his silk clothing for this purpose, he actually
tore the clothing only along the seams.
Assume that criminals were sentenced to various forms of death, some of which
are more severe than others. By way of example, stoning is considered more severe
than burning. Assume also that it is not known who was condemned to which death.
All are executed with the most lenient form of death, even if the great majority had
been condemned to a more severe form of death.
Where one's father incorrectly interprets the halacha or commits a similar error,
or transgresses a precept, the son should not accuse the father of an error ortransgression. Instead, he should ask him politely whether the relevant authority infact supports the father's position.
Where the requirement to honor one's father conflicts with the performance ofanother precept, one should honor the father if the other precept can be done by578

See Keth.49:2.

[7:2]
another person or at a later time. If the conflict is irreconcilable, then the otherprecept should be performed, because the father, too, is subject to the precept.
Never may a father order a son to violate any precept, whether Scriptural or
Rabbinic. The same applies to the precept to study the Torah; this obligation has
precedence over the obligation to honor one's parents. Note that Jacob was notpunished for the many years he spent in study at the house of Ever.
[May a person renounce an honor due him?]
A father, a master and even a Nasi may renounce his honor, but the renunciation
should be accepted by others only with dignity and with such reluctance that it isclear that the others had no right to demand the renunciation.
A king may not renounce any honor. No person may treat the king lightly or
accept any service from the king, even with the king's permission. The purpose of therule is to maintain the populace's awe of the king. In decreeing that "You shall579
appoint a king over you," Scripture requires that all be done to maintain the king's
dignity.
[32:2, 33:1][Obligation to honor a teacher or a sage]
A student's obligation to honor his master is greater even than his obligation tohonor his father. His father brought him to this world, whereas his master is
responsible for bringing him to the world to come. If the master is the student's
principal teacher, the student must rise in his honor so long as he can see him.

579

Deut.17:15.

[7:2]
One must also honor a sage who is not one's teacher, even if the sage is young.
580
The verse "You shall honor the face of a zaken," is not limited to a zaken in the581
sense of an aged person but also refers to one who has acquired wisdom . One mustrise even 100 times a day each time the sage passes within four cubits until the sage
leaves his presence.
Where the sage is President of the Beth din the obligation to rise begins as soon
as the sage is seen and continues until the Sage passes at least four cubits out of his
582
presence . In the case of a Nasi, the obligation begins as soon as the Nasi is seen, andcontinues until the Nasi either sits down or is no longer seen. Some apply the same
rule to one's principal teacher.
There is no obligation to rise where this would cause monetary loss, such as toworkers. To the contrary, day laborers should not rise, because they thereby causemoney losses to those who hired them. This is not inconsistent with the fact that
tradesmen in Jerusalem would stand up and inquire on the welfare of those who
would arrive in the City with bikurim. The laborers did not wish to honor the arrivals,
but only to encourage them to return in the future.
One should not rise before a teacher in such places as a privy or the inner roomsof a bathhouse. Rising of this sort is not an honor. In such a place it is forbidden evento think of Torah matters.
One may not close one's eyes purposefully to avoid seeing the passage of a583
teacher or sage. Scripture cautions, "You shall fear your G-d." On the other hand,the sage or teacher should take pains to avoid undue interruption; wherever possible
he should pass in such a way as not to require persons to rise.
If a sage is seated, it is inappropriate for those who do not know him well to passby bareheaded or with lack of respect.
There is no requirement to stand up for an aged person who is not learned.
Nevertheless, even a young sage should, by motioning as if he is about to rise, honor
an aged person who conducts himself decently. "You should rise for and honor the580

Lev.19:32.

581

The word can be read as an acronym: zeh kanah: he acquired wisdom.

582

When the President of the Beth din enters the study hall, all present honor him by forming one
row in front of him and one row behind him. See Horiot 13:2.
583

Lev.19:32.

[7:2]
584

hoary head."

585

There is no need to honor an aged sinner or wicked person.

There is no need to rise for aged gentiles, but such persons should be honored byoffering them a hand in walking and the like. Where it is inappropriate for a sage tooffer assistance, the sage should send others for this purpose. Thus, R. Nahman
would offer his court assistants for this purpose. R. Nahman considered it
inappropriate to offer assistance himself, not because of his honor, but because of
the honor of the Torah he represented: "Were it not for the Torah there are many
Nahman's in the street."[33:2]

584

Lev.19:32.

585

In describing an aged sinner, the Gemara uses the term ashmai. The term is derived from the verse"and the earth shall not be sashem" (Gen.47:19), meaning the Earth shall not be barren.

[7:2]
A student need rise for his teacher only twice a day; not more often than themorning and evening prayers one offers to G-d. He need rise even 100 times daily
only for a sage other than one with whom the student is studying. This accords with586
the Gemara
which recounts that R. Assi when exhausted from his studies would
stand at the door of the study hall to rise for scholars who would enter and leave.
Some commentators hold that a student must indeed rise every time his teacher
rises, even if many times daily. The point of our Gemara is that one should not seek
to arrange for opportunities to rise more than twice daily, given that one addresses
G-d in prayers only twice daily. Others modify this holding slightly. One is not
required to arrange such opportunities, but one may if he so desires, in the same
way as one may address G-d more frequently if one so desires.
But what of the rule that day laborers are not permitted to rise? That rule
is not a prohibition; it is an exemption from the obligation to rise.
A son must rise for his father even if he teaches the father. The father need
not rise for his son.
A teacher or father who is riding is treated as if he is walking, andonlookers must rise.
A leper who sits in a tent defiles others who sit in or pass through the tent.
A leper who walks through a tent does not defile others in the tent,
whether they sit or walk. The same is true of a leprous stone that is carriedin a tent. What is relevant is whether the stone rested within the tent, notwhether the person who is defiled rested or passed through.
There is a different rule for defilement by a corpse. Here it does not matter
whether the corpse was at rest within the tent or whether the corpse wasbeing carried through. In both cases, all those in the tent are defiled.
One must rise when a Torah scroll is raised or passes by. The Gemara explainsthat those who learn Torah cannot be given more respect than the Torah itself.
587

But does not another Gemara suggest that those who learn Torah do
deserve greater respect? The Gemara notes that the Sages byinterpretation limit the number of lashes given as punishment to 39,586

Ber.28:1.

587

Mak.22:2.

[7:2]
588

despite the Torah's reference to 40 lashes ! From this the Gemara
deduces that it is foolish to rise before a Torah scroll but not before thesages!
No. The Gemara does not mean that sages are worthy of more respect thanTorah. The Gemara only underscores the folly of those who fail to rise for
the Sages.
R. Simeon reprimanded R. Eleazar and R. Jacob for rising in R. Simeon's honor
while they were engaged in a Torah discussion. R. Simeon explained that two had
been ordained whereas R. Simeon had not yet been ordained. R. Simeon further
maintained that even if he had been ordained they should not have risen because
they were engaged in Torah, and the Torah [meaning a person engaged in Torahdiscussions] does not rise before those who learn it.
Abbaye condemned this teaching because a Sage must rise for his teacher, evenfrom a Torah discussion. This is the halacha.
[34:1][Certain affirmative precepts for which women are responsible]
We previously explained that women are responsible for affirmative precepts
which are not limited to time. Among these precepts are the commandments:

588

Deut.25:3.

[7:2]
to build battlements for safety on flat roofs ("You shall build a589
battlement" ),590

to return lost property ("You shall return [the lost property]") andto dismiss the mother fowl from her nest before removing her offspring
591("You shall send away [the mother]" ).
True, each of these affirmative precepts is commonly associated with a negative
precept which is binding on women as well as men. But there are cases in which thepositive precept does apply (for which women are not responsible), while thenegative precept does not apply. Specifically:592

The negative precept against causing the "loss of blood" by failing tobuild a battlement applies only to houses which are built without abattlement. Where there was once a battlement, the obligation to repair it
springs exclusively from the affirmative precept.
593

which holds that one who raises a
But what of the Gemara
defective ladder violates the negative precept? That Gemara refers
to a ladder which was defective from the start. Alternatively, theGemara refers to a Rabbinic proscription only, and the reference to
Scriptural verse is an asmakhta.
It is possible that the woman originally intended to send the mother fowl
from her nest, but failed to do so. This intent is sufficient to remove thenegative precept "You shall not take the mother with the children", andonly the affirmative precept remains.
A woman may have already retrieved lost property and removed it to herhome, so that she no longer is liable for the negative precept "You shallnot ignore the [property]." Only the affirmative precept to return theproperty remains.

589

Deut.22:8.

590

Deut.22:1.

591

Deut.22:7.

592

Deut.22:8.

593

B.K.15:2.

[7:2]
An erub of courtyards may be made only with bread. Rashi's contrary statementin our Gemara is intended for explanatory purposes only, and not as halacha. An
erub of boundaries and a partnership of courtyards on a street can be made with afood and a garnish. Water and salt are not considered garnishes unless combined as594
salt water into which food may be dipped. For reasons discussed elsewhere ,mushrooms and truffles may not be used.
[34:2]

594

Erub.27:1.

[7:2]
595

There is an obligation to rejoice in the festival season . The Gemara at one
point considers that a woman might be required to rejoice only through her
596
husband, and that Scripture's reference to rejoicing by widows
refers only to arequirement that a benefactor of a widow see to it that the widow rejoices.
However, the Meiri concludes that the halacha requires that each woman mustrejoice in her own right.
The affirmative precept to wear tefillin is limited to time because the precept597
does not apply on Sabbath and the festivals .

595

Deut.16:14.

596

Deut.16:11.

597

See Sanh.68:1.

[7:2][35:1][Women generally subject to negative precepts]
With the exception of the precepts relating to rounding the corner of the head,marring the corner of the beard and defilement, a woman is subject to all negative
precepts. This doctrine is derived:598

from the verse "When a man or woman shall commit any sin...,"
directs that women be treated equally with men for penalties, andwhich

the verse "And these are the judgments which you shall place before
599
them," which equalizes men and women for civil laws.
[May women serve as judges?]
Now, the Tosafot derive from the last verse the doctrine that women may serve
as judges, and they adduce further evidence from the prophetess Deborah, of whom600
Scripture says "And she judged the Jews."
Now, women are incompetent as
601
witnesses, for Scripture says "And the two men shall stand [as witnesses]." Whatshall we make of the dictum that all persons who are fit as judges must be fit as602
witnesses ?
The Tosafot explain that the rule means only that men who wish to act as judges
can do so only if they have competence as witnesses.
The Meiri disagrees. The verse "And these are the judgments which you shallplace before them" has nothing to do with giving women the power to act as
judges. Rather, the verse means only that the Beth din will deal equally with claims
made by women as well as men, and against women as well as against men.
Deborah assumed her authority only because of her extraordinary qualities;

598

Num.5:6.

599

Ex.21:1.

600

Judges 4:4.

601

Deut.19:17.

602

Sanh.34:2.

[7:2]
even so, she acted only through male judges who stood in her presence.
"And she sat...and the children of Israel [including male judges through603
whom she acted] came before her for judgment."[35:2][Exemption of women from precepts on marring the beard, etc.]
In the Mishnah we noted that a woman is not bound by the prohibition against
marring the beard or "rounding" the head. She may round her own hair or beard
should she grow one, and she may round or mar the head or beard of men or other
women.
For all other purposes, the beard of a woman, should she have one, is treatedthe same as a man's. For example, should there be a plague in her beard, the plague
is judged by the rules for plagues in the beard, not the rules for plagues on the skin.
A beard is marred only if the hair is shaved with a razor. If hair is removed with apincer or a remover, there is no proscription, since these implements pluck the hairrather than shave it. If hair is removed with scissors, there is no proscription because
the hair is not removed completely.
[36:1]

603

Judges 4:5.

[7:2]
Women as well as men may not cause baldness out of grief for the dead. The
same is true for the interdict against making incisions and cutting the skin for thedead. The Yerushalmi mentions that R. Hamnuna directed the scholars to order theirwives not to cause themselves baldness on account of the dead. In explaining the604
proscription, Scripture cautions "For you are a holy nation,"
which applies towomen as well as to men.
The interdict applies anywhere on the head. Now, the interdict insofar as
concerns Israelites is phrased in terms of "You shall not ... make any baldness605
between your eyes for the dead."
But note the more general verse directed to606
priests "They shall not cause baldness in their head."
The word baldness appears
in both verses, and the resulting gezerah shawah permits doctrine for priests to be
applied to Jews generally.
The reverse is also true. The verse for priests is not limited to action taken on
account of the dead, the verse for Israelites is so limited. The gezerah shawah teaches
that the limitation for Israelites is to be applied also to priests. There is no injunction
against causing baldness out of anguish for a ship which sinks or a house whichcollapses.
The injunction against incising and cutting is also limited to grief for the dead,with one exception: incising and cutting as part of idol worship is prohibited.
Each action which causes baldness, and for which a separate warning was given,
is a separate infraction. For example, five infractions are committed if in the face ofseparate warnings, baldness is caused by each of five fingers, whether by plucking
out hair, or by coating the fingers with a hair-removing drug.
Whereas baldness by definition applies only to hairy portions of the body,
incising and cutting are not so limited. Note also that the injunction against cutting
and incising applies whether done by hand or with any implement.
The Yerushalmi records a dispute on the minimum amount of baldness which is607
proscribed. Some sages emphasize the word baldness as connoting any baldness,no matter how small. Others hold that the area made bald must be at least the size of
604

Deut.14:2.

605

Deut.14:1.

606

Lev.21:5.

607

Deut.14:1.

[7:2]
a bean, on account of doctrine derived from the minimum size of a plague in the608
body .
[Sacrificial requirements which do not apply to women]
The next Mishnah lists sacrificial requirements which do not apply towomen:The rites of laying hands, waving, bringing near the meal offering, taking
the handful, burning the fat, pinching the neck of bird sacrifices andreceiving and sprinkling the blood, are performed by men but not by
women, excepting the meal offering of a sotah or a nazirah, where they
themselves do perform waving.
A man must lay his hands, with all his strength, on the head of his animal
sacrifice before it is slaughtered. This applies to all voluntary and obligatory sacrificesother than to:
first-born sacrifices,
maser behemah, and
the Passover sacrifice.
The requirement is derived from the verse "and he [the owner] shall lay his609
hands..."The person who brings the sacrifice confesses his sins during the rite of laying his
hands, but only if the animal is brought as a hattat, an asham, or an oleh. If theanimal is a shlamim, the owner praises G-d and does not confess.
Only the owner of the animal may lay hands. The rite is improper if performedon the owner's behalf by his agent, his slave or his wife: the verse just mentioned
directs that the owner shall lay his hands.
Women need not lay hands because the verse is addressed only to sons of Israel.
There is disagreement on whether women are merely exempt from laying of hands,
or whether they are forbidden to lay hands even if they choose to do so.

608

By gezerah shawah, since the word baldness also appears in relation to plagues. Lev.13:42.

609

Lev.1:4.

[7:2]The rite of waving applies to peace-offerings. The owner takes the chest and thethigh of the animal in his hands, the priest places his hands under the owner's hands,
and together the chest and the thigh are waved forward and backward, andupwards and downward. The ceremony is performed to the east of the altar.
Although a woman's peace offering also requires the rite of waving, the rite inthis case is performed by the priest alone, without the woman's participation. A
woman performs the rite of waving only with the meal offering of a sotah or of anazirah.
The rite of bringing near applies both to animal sacrifices and to meal offerings.
For animal sacrifices the ceremony follows the waving rite, and consists of bringing
to the altar the portion of the sacrifice which is to be consumed on the altar. For
meal offerings the ceremony is performed by the priest after the meal was placed ina sacred container and mixed with oil and frankincense; the container is thenbrought to the priest who in turn brings it near to the southwest corner of the altar.
Our Mishnah wishes to emphasize that the ceremony can be performed only by amale priest. In discussing the rite relating to a meal offering, Scripture directs that610
the "sons [not the daughters] of Aaron shall bring it near."
The rite of taking the handful refers to meal-offerings, where Scripture directs
611"and [the owner] shall bring the meal offering to the sons of Aaron," who thenperform the rite, again excluding women.
The rite of burning the fat of the animal on the altar is exclusive to male priests
both for meal offerings ("And the priest [not the priestess] shall burn its
612
613
the
remembrance" ) and animal sacrifices ("And the sons of Aaron shall burn ")portion of the animal to be consumed on the altar.
That women are not competent to perform the rites of arranging logs, fire andportions of sacrifices on the altar is derived from their exclusion from the rite ofburning the fat.

610

Lev.6:7.

611

Lev.2:2.

612

Lev.2:2.

613

Lev.3:4.

[7:2]
614

Scripture says that a priest
brought as a sin-offering.

(but not a priestess), may pinch the neck of fowl

Scripture requires for animal sacrifices that "The sons of Aaron shall bring
615
near." It is traditional to apply the verse to the rite of bringing near to the altar
the blood of the sacrificed animal.
The Mishnah directs that the rite of sprinkling blood on the altar can be
performed by male priests only. Sprinkling of the hattat of Yom Kippur and of theparah adumah can be performed only by the High Priest. The Mishnah which
excludes women refers to fowl sin-offerings. That women are excluded is derived
from the fact that they are excluded from sprinkling the blood of animals,
notwithstanding that even a non-priest may slaughter an animal. The rule for fowl isstricter: only a priest may pinch the fowl's neck. It follows that a woman should
certainly be excluded!
A sacrifice can be brought during the day only. The laws of sacrifice are
therefore affirmative precepts which are limited in time, from which women are
excluded in any event. Why does the Gemara require separate derivations?
The Meiri explains that although women are exempt from such precepts, there isnothing in the law which invalidates what women voluntarily choose to do. The
Scriptural references invalidate any voluntary actions.
But how could we even think that women can serve as priestesses when they
presumably cannot wear the ritual garb required of priests? Because if there were no
Scriptural direction we would have ruled that only men must wear the ritual garb.

614

Lev.1:15.

615

Lev.1:5.

[7:2][36:2][Which precepts apply only in Eretz Israel]
The next Mishnah states:
Every precept which is dependent on the land [of Israel] is practiced only inthe land; and that which is not dependent on the land is practiced bothwithin and without the land [of Israel], except orlah and kilayim.
R. Eliezer said: hadash too.
Precepts which are directed at a person's body apply everywhere, even forprecepts (such as tefillin and a donkey's first born) in which Scripture speaks in termsof "When you shall come into the land."Conversely, precepts which focus on the land or its produce (such as terumah,tithes, leket, shikha, and peah), apply Scripturally and even Rabbinically, only in Eretz
Israel.
The only exceptions to the rule are orlah and kilayim. Although related to theland, these precepts apply Rabbinically, but not Scripturally, even outside of Eretz
Israel.
R. Eliezer holds that hadash is also an exception; notwithstanding its relation to
the land, it applies everywhere, even nowadays, as a Scriptural matter.
[Where Hallah applies]
The Yerushalmi asks why no mention is made of Hallah which relates to the landand nevertheless applies everywhere Rabbinically? (The same question could havebeen asked of terumah which applies Rabbinically in areas which are adjacent toEretz Israel.)
The Yerushalmi answers that the Mishnah lists only precepts which apply even to616
a gentile's property. Neither Hallah (which applies only to "your dough" ), nor
617
terumah (which applies only to "your grain" ) affects the produce of fields owned
by a gentile.

616

Num. 15:20.

617

Deut.18:4.

[7:2][orlah, etc. relating to a gentile's produce]
It must follow from the Yerushalmi that the Mishnah lists orlah because it affects
gentiles as well as Jews, and this is consistent with the Rambam's ruling. Why then is
it common practice to buy grapes from gentiles even though gentiles commonly
graft new vines unto old ones, and newly grafted vines are considered newly planted
for the purposes of orlah? There are two possible explanations:
1. The Rabbis apply the rules of orlah to grafts only out of concern thatorlah might apply, not out of certainty. That being so, the Rabbis except
gentiles from the rule on grafts but not form orlah generally.
2. The type of graft prevalent today is not a new plant. It is inserted into
the root of the old plant and continues always to draw sustenance fromthe old root.
618

But what of the flat statement in another Mishnah that orlah does not apply
to the plantings of a gentile? And what of the Sifri which holds that the verse for619
orlah "And you shall plant" exempts gentiles from orlah, without suggesting that
there is a Rabbinical proscription? Some commentators explain that perhaps theMishnah and the Sifri are limited to a gentile's plantings in his own field; theYerushalmi refers only to the gentile's plantings on a Jew's behalf, such as by a620
gentile day laborer or a gentile sharecropper.
621

If so, what of the Gemara which prohibits a gentile's cheese on account of apresumption that the gentile preserved the cheese (or the milk from which it was
produced) in resin of orlah? That Gemara's concern is that the gentile may have used
resin derived from the Jew's field, or from the Jew's field in which the gentile is a622
sharecropper. Similarly, the Gemara which holds that a gentile seller is not given623
credence when he identifies his produce as orlah refers only to produce identified

618

Orlah 1:2.

619

Lev.19:23.

620

Those commentators who apply orlah even to a gentile's own field explain that the verse cited by
the Sifri is limited to its facts: produce which was seized by Jews during the initial conquest under
Joshua.
621

A.Z.35:2.

622

Yeb.122:1.

623

It is assumed that the gentile wished only to increase the value of his produce, since the produce of[7:2]as having been produced on Israeli lands; that is why the produce would have been
proscribed were the gentile believed.
Compare the related proposition that a gentile is not believed when heclaims his produce is sheviith. All agree that sheviith does not apply to agentile. It must be that the concern, were the gentile believed, is that the
produce was grown on the land of a Jew.
Return now to the Yerushalmi. That the Mishnah lists orlah but not terumah or
Hallah suggests that terumah does not apply to Jewish produce which is winnowedby a gentile, and that Hallah does not apply to Jewish dough which is kneaded by agentile. However, the Alfasi and others disagree and proscribe grain winnowed by agentile, or dough kneaded by a gentile. The following considerations are relevant:624

1. A Gemara holds expressly that there is no terumah or Hallah on grain
winnowed by a gentile or Hallah kneaded by him. The Alfasi must limit theGemara's holding to cases in which the gentile performed these processes
on his own produce, and then sold the completed produce to a Jew.
2. The same Gemara states that certain Sages disagree and hold that there
is a Rabbinic prohibition on grain winnowed by a gentile because of thosewith pockets. There are two possible explanations:i. There was concern that the rich, with big pockets, would avoid
terumah by arranging for gentiles to winnow the produce belonging
to the rich. This is consistent with the Yerushalmi which apparently
holds that such grain is exempt from terumah. It conflicts with the
Alfasi who holds that the rich would avail themselves nothing byarranging for gentiles to winnow grain: the resulting produce is still
liable to terumah.
ii. The Alfasi must explain that the concern was that the rich would
sell their grain to gentiles, so that the grain is the property of thegentile and is exempt. These sales can be accomplished secretly andwithout embarrassment: a gentile's acquisitions can be sealed withthe passage of money and no physical meshikhah is required.
625

3. There is no tithe for produce owned and winnowed by a gentile
newer plants sometimes exceeds in value that of older plants.
624

Men.67:1.

625

Only your grain (Deut. 18:4) must be tithed.

. But if[7:2]
the produce is purchased by a Jew or is winnowed by a Jew, the Jew must626
separate a tithe . Most commentators explain that the Jew winnowed the
produce because he is the gentile's sharecropper, and that without thenear-ownership status of a sharecropper a Jew who winnows would not be
required to tithe. It follows that, conversely, a gentile's non-ownership
activities, such as kneading, should not exempt a Jew's produce fromobligations such as Hallah. This supports the Alfasi.
4. Similar implications can be drawn from two holdings of another627
Mishnah :i. There is no Hallah where a Jew kneads a gentile's dough.
ii. Where a gentile and a Jew together knead dough in which they
are partners, there is Hallah only where the Jew alone owns enoughof the dough to satisfy the Hallah requirement. Clearly, where only
the gentile owns the minimum amount, the Jew's kneading of thegentile's dough would not result in a Hallah requirement. It follows
that, conversely, a gentile's non-ownership kneading should notexempt a Jew's produce from Hallah. This supports the Alfasi.
But if the Alfasi is correct, what of the Yerushalmi's difficulty? In what way is
Hallah a less strict requirement than orlah? Why then does our Mishnah list orlah but
not Hallah? Perhaps, the Alfasi would apply orlah even to a gentile's own plants,
whereas Hallah does not apply to a gentile's own dough. Alternatively, it may bethat whereas Hallah requirements are purely Rabbinic, the requirements of orlah
and kilayim have higher status: they may be considered to be halacha transmitted
628
from Sinai . But what of the reference to Rabbinic derivation? It is imprecise.
626

Bekh.11:2.

627

Hallah 3:5.

628

For orlah there is a clear statement in the Gemara that the rule is based on halacha. The Meiri[7:2]
halacha for orlah and kilayim which is transmitted from Sinai is nearly equivalent to
the Scriptural status of hadash.
This completes the explanation of the Mishnah. The Gemara discusses thefollowing:[37:1][The words "dwelling" and "coming" and their implications]
Until the mishkan was constructed in the desert, it was permissible to bringsacrifices on private altars, which were also known as minor or individual altars. The
use of private altars was not permitted in the desert once the copper altar (referred
to as the great altar or the public altar) was available in the mishkan.
During the fourteen years after the River Jordan was crossed and Eretz Israel wasconquered and settled, private altars were permitted for individual sacrifices but notfor public sacrifices.
During the ensuing period in which the mishkan was in Shiloh, private altars
were again not allowed.

suggests that the same may be true of kil'ayim notwithstanding the absence of a statement of thissort.

[7:2]
Private altars were again allowed for individual sacrifices for one final period
after the destruction of Shiloh and before the construction of the Temple inJerusalem, that is, during the period in which the mishkan resided in Nov and629
Gibeon .
Scripture requires that public sacrifices, which were always performed on the630
great altar, be accompanied by libations on the same altar . When individuals werelimited to the great altar in the desert, were they, too, required to pour libations? R.
Ishmael and R. Akiva disagree:
1. R. Ishmael notes that the Scriptural verse which deals with private
libations refers to the period after "You shall come to the land of your631
in Eretz Israel." He sees this as meaning the permanentdwelling
dwelling after the conquest and settlement and the establishment of themishkan in Shiloh. This proves that previously individuals did not pourlibations on the great altar!
2. R. Akiva, on the other hand, does not interpret the word dwelling tomean ultimate settlement after conquest. Rather, the phrase means
wherever the Jews shall dwell.
If the verse is so inclusive why do we need a verse at all? It must be that the verse
teaches the converse: that libations are required wherever and whenever sacrifices
are brought, including private altars whenever permitted, even in the desert.
The purpose of the verse cannot be to prohibit libations outside of Eretz
Israel. Sacrifices were not permitted outside of Eretz Israel.
R. Akiva would apply a different rule in those cases where Scripture speaks
in terms of "you shall dwell in her," such as in relation to the appointment
632
633
of a king , or first fruits . Such language clearly denotes final settlement
after conquest.

629

The rationale behind these changes is discussed at Meg.9:2.

630"And so [the pouring of libations] shall you do to the altar", referring to public sacrifices. Ex.29:38.

631

Num.15:2.

632

Deut.17:14.

633

Deut.26:1.

[7:2]To understand the following Gemara, realize the following:
1. The verse dealing with libations refers to periods in which the Jews shallcome to the land of their dwelling.
634

2. The verse dealing with hadash also refers to coming and dwelling.
Hence, R. Ishmael concludes, by analogy to his view of the law of libations,that hadash applies only in Eretz Israel and after the conquest andsettlement.
635

636

637

3. The verses which deal with orlah , sheviith
and Jubilee refer tocoming but not to dwelling. R. Ishmael's doctrine does not apply in thesecases. On the other hand, R. Ishmael holds that dwelling without coming isequivalent to dwelling and coming.
One sage disputes R. Ishmael, and maintains that the word coming is alone
sufficient to limit a doctrine to Eretz Israel after conquest and settlement.
But even this sage would not limit tefillin to Eretz Israel although the638word coming appears . The limitation to Eretz Israel is implied only
634

Lev.23:10,14.

635

Lev.19:23.

636

Lev.25:2.

637

Id.

638

Ex.13:5.

[7:2]
for precepts which deal with the land, not to those which are
directed to the person.
What of Hallah where there is a reference to coming but not to639
dwelling ? Even this Sage agrees that the precept applies in Eretz
Israel even before conquest and settlement. This results from thepeculiar formulation of the coming term for Hallah: the phrase canbe read to mean upon your collective arrival.
Realize, however, that all of these distinctions are not consistent with the
halacha. The halachic test is whether the precept attaches to the land or to theperson.
[37:2][Comparisons among hadash, kilayim and orlah]
As discussed in relation to the Mishnah, the halacha disagrees with R. Ishmael
and forbids hadash even outside of Eretz Israel and even before the dwelling which
followed the conquest; the reference to dwelling means wherever you dwell.
The law of hadash proscribes the new year's grain harvest until the omer isbrought on the 16th day of Nissan, which is the second day of Passover.

639

Num.15:18.

[7:2]
Immediately after the Jews crossed the Jordan River with Joshua and before theconquest, "they ate of the produce of the land on the morning after the640
Passover." The Mishnahwould explain that the verse either:(i) refers to the day (the 15th day of Nissan) after the day (the 14th day of
Nissan) on which the Passover sacrifice is brought. If so, the verse refers to
old produce and not to hadash, or(ii) refers to the day (the 16th day of Nissan on which the omer was
brought) after the first day of Passover (the 15th day of Nissan). If so, theverse can refer to hadash.
[38:1]The Gemara maintains that hadash has the following properties:
1. It is not permanently forbidden;
2. Not all benefits are forbidden; and3. there are circumstances in which the proscription can be removed andthe hadash can be consumed.
For kilayim:
1. The prohibition is permanent;
2. All benefits are forbidden; and3. The proscription cannot be removed.
orlah has two of the three strict features of kilayim. The Gemara does not identify
these two features.
Rashi explains that:

640

Josh.5:11.

[7:2]
hadash is not permanently forbidden in the sense that new produce may
be consumed after the 16th day of Nissan whether or not the omer was
brought. And after the destruction of the Temple, when the omer can nolonger be brought, the dawning of the 16th day of Nissan is Scripturally
sufficient to permit the consumption of hadash.
Note that R. Johanan b. Zakai modified this rule somewhat bydelaying consumption of hadash until the close of the 16th day.
That the proscription on hadash can be removed means that the bringing
of the omer can lift the proscription even in the midst of the 16th day.
That kilayim is permanently forbidden, and that kilayim's proscription
cannot be removed, means that the produce of wheat and grape whichwere sown together, and the produce derived from such produce, isforbidden forever.
We know that orlah shares two stringent features attributed to kilayim: all
benefit is forbidden from orlah, and its proscription cannot be lifted during thethree years after planting. That there is one stringent feature of kilayim which is notshared by orlah must mean that the proscription of orlah is not permanent, since
fruits of a tree are permitted once three years pass from the time of planting.
Here is a summary of Rashi's holding:hadashpermanent

benefit forbidden

benefit can be removed

no.

yes.

yes.

New produce may beconsumed on 16th day of
Nissan whether or notomer was brought

kilayimyes.

omer is valid even on the 16th

yes.

no.
even the produce of produce isforbidden.

orlah

no.

yes.

yes.

[7:2]
Fruits of a tree may beeaten once three years
passomer is valid even on the 16th

But, asks the Meiri, what of the fact that the proscription of orlah is permanent
for the fruits which grew during the three years after planting!?
There are alternative explanations of the stringent features for kilayim. Thatkilayim's proscription may not be lifted means that the very existence of kilayim
springs from transgression. hadash, on the other hand, is legally sown. Accordingly,
the feature which does not apply to orlah is the lifting of the proscription, since alltrees are legitimately planted, and the proscription does not apply at the time ofplanting.
Under another explanation, a proscription is forever if it is universal, in the sensethat it applies to gentiles as well as to Jews. This is true of kilayim in the limited
641
circumstances discussed elsewhere relating to tree grafts , but not to hadash or
orlah.
That the benefits of kilayim are forbidden is derived from the verse as to kilayim
642"lest you shall consecrate [the produce wrongly sown as kilayim]" . In the Hebrew,
the word consecrate (tukdash) can be read to mean consume in fire. Accordingly, theverse is read to forbid the use of kilayim even as kindling.

[38:2][When laws of Jubilee and sheviith apply]
The laws of Jubilee applied Scripturally only during the period of the First
641

See San.56:2.

642

Deut.22:9.

[7:2]
Temple when all the Jews were on all the land. The Jubilee laws which released theland applied only in Eretz Israel, whereas the laws which released slaves applied
everywhere.
What of sheviith?
1. The rules forbidding working of the land applied only when Jubilee
released the land.
643

2. So long as Jubilee released the land
debts everywhere.

in Eretz Israel, sheviith released

Now, during the Second Temple, the Rabbis applied the proscriptions against
working the land on sheviith, and the Rabbis required the release of debts on
sheviith. Although some dispute this, and hold that the proscription against working
the land applied Scripturally during the Second Temple, the Yerushalmi supports theview that this was Rabbinic only.
There is considerable confusion on whether the rules relating to release of debts,
644
etc. apply in modern times. The Meiri discusses this at length elsewhere .
[Where it is uncertain whether produce is orlah or kilayim]
Assume that produce is found near a field of orlah or kilayim and it is possiblethat the produce is derived from the field:
1. In Eretz Israel the produce is forbidden. The proscription of orlah andkilayim is Scriptural in Eretz Israel, and we are therefore concerned with
the nearby orlah and kilayim.
But what of the rule that the presumptions derived from the majority (inthis case, the majority of produce which is not orlah or kilayim) prevails
over presumptions drawn from nearness? The rule does not apply in casesof close proximity.
Others explain that majority prevails even over near-proximity. Our
Gemara involves a case in which produce was known to have beentaken from a field which had both orlah and non-orlah. That is why
643

Alternatively: "so long as scheviith proscribed working the land...." This reading is possible if one
holds that working the land was not Scripturally proscribed during the Second Temple.
644

M.K.36:1; Git.36:1.

[7:2]
the majority is not relevant.
2. In Syria the proscription has less force. The produce is permitted.
3. Elsewhere, the produce is permitted even where it is obvious that the
produce is derived from the field and even to the person who collects the
produce. All that is necessary is that there be the remotest possibility to theperson eating the produce that the produce was transported from someother place.
That the collecting person may himself eat the produce goes against
the Gemara's initial thought that doubtful produce is permitted only
when collected by another.
The produce is forbidden if witnesses testify or it is otherwise certain thatthe produce was derived from the forbidden field.
Note that orlah and kilayim are treated alike. It does not matter that outside of Eretz
Israel, orlah's proscription is based on halacha transmitted from Sinai, and kilayim's
proscription is only Rabbinic.
[39:1]
What did Levi mean when he said "Supply me with orlah, and I will eat it"? Most
hold that this relates to the Gemara's initial view that even doubtful orlah ispermitted only if collected by another. Levi's purpose was to show that the otherneed not be a gentile.
The halacha would explain that Levi asked that the produce be collected without
his knowledge so that as far as Levi was concerned there would be a remotepossibility that the produce is not orlah. The Meiri considers this procedure
undesirable, since the Jew collecting the produce does know absolutely that the
produce is orlah.
[Three aspects of kilayim]
There are three aspects to kilayim, all of which are defined in detail below:
1. The grafting of trees of differing species;
2. kilayim of the vineyard; and3. kilayim of seeds of different species.

[7:2]
Trees may not be grafted in or out of Eretz Israel on pain of malkot. Nor may a
Jew direct a gentile to graft trees. But once grafted, the fruit is permitted, even to
the person who grafted the tree.
kilayim of the vineyard is proscribed Scripturally in Eretz Israel and Rabbinicallyelsewhere. No benefit may be derived from the produce.
kilayim of seeds is proscribed in Israel on pain of malkot. A Jew may direct agentile to sow such kilayim. Once sown, even by a Jew, the produce may beconsumed. Why then does the Gemara say that benefit is permitted, which suggeststhat consumption is proscribed? The Gemara wishes merely to contrast the case withkilayim of the vineyard, where even benefit is proscribed.
Outside of Eretz Israel a Jew himself may commingle seeds and sow kilayim ofseeds. Must he attempt to separate the species so that they not draw the same
sustenance from the soil? No.
[Definitions relating to kilayim]
kilayim of trees refers to the grafting of, say, a branch of a nut tree into a fig
tree, or even into a tree which does not bear fruit. Similarly, vegetables cannot be
grafted onto trees and vice versa, so that a tree branch may not be grafted onto a
melon bush to benefit from the moisture of the melon bush.
There is no prohibition where there is no grafting. That is why one may sow tree
seeds with any other tree seeds or any other seeds whatsoever.
Different variations of one species may be grafted unto one another. This is the645
import of the Mishnah which holds that kilayim does not apply to grafts of peartrees, crustumenian pear-trees, and sorb-apples. We are today uncertain of the
precise identity of these species, but they certainly differ from each other more than,say, different species of figs.
kilayim of seeds applies to one who sows two species of plants, whether ofbeans, vegetables or grains. For example, the proscription applies to wheat andbarley, beans and lentils, and moss and leeks.
kilayim of the vineyard according to R. Josiah means the sowing of two speciesof plants in one "hand throw" among grape vines, or in one hand-throw with grape
seeds. The species which are proscribed Scripturally are only those (such as grains,645

Kil.1:4.

[7:2]
646

hemp or lof ) which ripen at the same time as grapes. The Rabbis also proscribe
certain beans and vegetables, but not iris, casus, king's lily and related plants. Notethat in each case the person who sows also violates the precept against kilayim ofplants.
[How many species are requisite for kilayim; must they be sown simultaneously]
What if the two species are not sown in a hand-throw but only consecutively? Or
647
if there is only one species besides grape? There is no kilayim of the vineyard . Butcommentators differ as follows:
1. Some hold that there is no proscription at all against either sowing in thisway or eating or otherwise benefitting from the resulting produce.
2. Other commentators explain that it is only the proscription against
sowing which is limited to two species which are sowed simultaneously.
But no benefit can be derived from the produce of even non-simultaneous
sowing of one plant species with grape seed or in a vineyard.
3. Other commentators propose a compromise:(i) it is forbidden to sow even one species with grapes,(ii) if only one species is sown the produce may be consumed, and(iii) the produce may not be consumed where there are two species, eventhough they are not sown in a hand-throw.
The following considerations apply:i. It must be that R. Josiah holds that the produce of grape andone species may be consumed, for otherwise for what purpose does
the Gemara note that the populace follows R. Josiah's view?
648

ii. What of a Mishnah
which holds that a plant (even one
plant!) which grows in a perforated pot is proscribed if it is passed
over a vineyard long enough for the grapes to increase in size by
646

An onion-like plant.

647

Of course, there is kil'ayim of plants if two species are involved.

648

Kil.7:8.

[7:2]
1/200? That Mishnah is not consistent with the halacha!
iii. Another Gemara determines that wine and oil must betithed separately and then considers whether oil and grain must betithed separately. The Gemara reasons that since tithes cannot be
649
given from grapes for oil where no kilayim applies , then tithes
certainly cannot be given from grapes on grain where kilayim does
apply. The Gemara then asks "But what of R. Josiah" who holds that
there is no kilayim unless two species are sown in a hand-throw into
grape vines?
Clearly, the Gemara assumes that R. Josiah holds that there is notkilayim for one species even for the purpose of proscribing
consumption of the produce which results.
iv. Our Gemara relies on R. Josiah in finding that there was no
kilayim where one sowed grain among grapes. Presumably, theperson doing so intended to eat the produce, and still there was noban. It must be that the produce is permitted where only one speciesof grain is involved.
650

v. Another Gemara

distinguishes between:

plants which have been sown together with grapes (i.e., by ahand-throw) where the produce is absolutely prohibited, andplants which were sown separately from the grapes, where theproduce is proscribed only if the grape increased in size by at least
1/200 during the period in which the plants grew in the grape's
651
proximity .
In the second case there was no seeding by hand-throw and yet the
produce is proscribed where there was the 1/200 addition.

649

Scripture refers to tithes of the best of the oil, and of the best of the grain and wine, Num. 18:12,
suggesting that the tithes for these two categories are separate.
650
651

Hul.116:1.

In this way the Gemara resolves the apparent inconsistency between one verse which suggests
only the filling of the kil'ayim is proscribed, and another which suggests that even the seed is
proscribed. See Deut.22:9.

[7:2]
For what purpose then, do we apply the rule that the produce of
kilayim is not proscribed until the grape go beyond the half-ripe
stage of boser and becomes similar to a white bean? For the
purpose of the Rabbinical ban whereby even the plant other than
the grape becomes forbidden.
652

vi. Note the Gemara's reference to kilayim which may result
when a barrier between a vineyard and other plants is destroyed; to653
one who covers his comrade's grain field with grape vines ; to one654
who permits thorns to grow in his vineyard ; and to cascuta as
655
kilayim in a vineyard .
[kilayim through a gentile]656

suggests that it is permissible to pay a gentile a minor
Another Gemara
amount to plant one (but not two) species of plant in a vineyard. But several
commentators hold that the Gemara applies only to cuscutha which may perhaps
have the status of a tree and is therefore exempt from kilayim of the vine
altogether. In all other cases, one cannot do through a gentile what one cannot do
one's self.

652

B.B.2:1.

653

Kil.7:5.

654

Kil.5:8

655

Sab.139:1.

656

Sab.139:1.

[7:2][39:2][Reward and punishment for precepts]
The next Mishnah states:
He who performs one precept is well rewarded, his days are prolonged,
and he inherits the land. But he who does not perform one precept, good
is not done to him, his days are not prolonged and he does not inherit theland.
He who is versed in Bible, Mishnah and secular pursuits will not easily sin,657
for it is said "And a three-fold cord is not easily broken." But he wholacks Bible, Mishnah and secular pursuits does not belong to civilization.
The performance of one precept can make an enormous difference. One positive
precept may be the equivalent of many other precepts, and one transgression may
be the equivalent of many other transgressions.
A person is punished in this world to cleanse him of transgressions. One precept
may be all that determines whether or not a person will suffer punishment where
the number of precepts previously performed is equal in importance to the numberof transgressions. A person must therefore concede the justice of his fate, andunderstand that the ways of G-d cannot be understood.
The Mishnah also teaches that a righteous man is rewarded both in this world
and in the next (i.e., he inherits the land). The same thought is expressed elsewhere
in a listing of the precepts for which a person receives "income" in this life, while the"principal" stands him in good stead in the world to come. These precepts include
those which require that one honor his parents, do good deeds, seek to maintain thepeace among persons, and (equal in importance to all the others taken together)study Torah.
It is a principle of faith that there is reward and punishment both in this world
and in the next world. One should not be confused by the apparent success of thewicked or the tribulations of the righteous. All is just. A righteous person may havecommitted certain transgressions. It is better to atone now for these sins, to prepare
him for a "good day" in the world to come.
The reverse is true of the wicked person. He receives his reward now to prepare
657

Ecc.4:12.

[7:2]
him for a "bad day," that is, not to receive a share of the world to come.
The righteous in this world can be compared to a tree whose trunk is on pureground, and a few of whose branches extend into impure ground. By cutting off the
few branches (by punishing the righteous) the entire tree is made to stand on pureground only. "And your beginning shall be small (initially you shall be punished),
658
and your end shall grow exceedingly." The reverse is true of the wicked: "A man
659
may have a direct road, but its end leads to death."
This is not to say that there cannot be a reward for good deeds in this world aswell as in the next. It is the force of circumstances which may delay rewards until thenext world. For example, assume that a person heeds his parent's order to fetch
young birds, and to send the mother bird away before taking the chicks. How is itthat such a person can die while performing two precepts, for each of which
Scripture promises long life? The force of circumstances delays reward until the next
world!
A desire to transgress is not the equivalent of a transgression, but neverthelessthere is punishment for the desire and for the fact that only outside circumstances
prevented performance of the transgression. The reverse is also true. One isconsidered to have performed a precept if he withstands and does not succumb toan evil thought.
A thought can be the equivalent of an action. "So that the Jews grasp this in660
their hearts."[40:1]
The worst possible transgression is for one who is respected as a scholar to658

Job 8:7.

659

Prov.14:12.

660

Ezek.14:5.

[7:2]
profane G-d's name. The punishment for profaning G-d's name is immediate, and if aperson's good deeds are otherwise equivalent to his bad deeds, the bad deeds will
prevail if one of them is profaning G-d's name. It is far better that a persontransgress in private rather than in public.
One who transgresses in private, thinking that G-d is unaware of his actions, isdeemed to press against the legs of the holy Presence, i.e., to be denying that G-d isomnipresent.
The Gemara advises one who cannot withstand his evil desires to dress in blackand to remove himself to a place where he is not recognized. The fact he is there
unknown and is there unconcerned with his dignity, may deflect his desire. If not,better that he transgress there without profaning G-d's name. There are many
wicked persons in the street.
[40:2]
Encourage yourself to perform precepts and to avoid transgressions. Imagine
that the performance of one precept is all that is necessary to outweigh an otherwise
equal balance of your own (and even the whole world's!) precepts andtransgressions.
You cannot rely on credit obtained for past performance of precepts. A life fullof precepts will not protect one who rebels in the end. "The righteousness of the661
saint will not save him on the day of his iniquity." Still, the person's past actions,
unless he regrets them, serve him in the world to come to reduce the punishment hewould otherwise receive then; figuratively, they serve to cool the gehenna. The same
applies in reverse to one who was wicked throughout his life, and at the end
performs proper deeds.
[Disgraceful behavior which disqualifies a witness]
One who is not versed in Bible, Mishnah and secular pursuits does not belong to662
civilization, and is also incompetent as a witness .
Study which is necessary for one's own knowledge is more important than theperformance of a precept which can be performed later. By study, the person makes
it possible for himself to perform additional precepts. However, performing precepts
661

Ezek.33:12.

662

Hag.21:1.

[7:2]
663

is more important than teaching knowledge to others.

One who eats publicly in the street is disgraced and is incompetent as a witness.
The Yerushalmi explains that the disgrace attaches to one who grabs food in thestreet and eats.
Of course, if the food is worth a perutah or more the person is incompetent as awitness anyway as a thief. The Yerushalmi records that R. Judah HaNasi complained
to his son R. Simeon that it is inappropriate for a scholar to eat in the street. The
Yerushalmi asks why R. Judah emphasized the word scholar, and answers that as to ascholar the shame attaches even where the scholar grabs less than a perutah's worth
of food.
Also disgraced are those who walk naked in the street when they perform
disgusting labor.
[41:1]

663

See B.K. 17:1.

[7:2]A person's character is important because it determines whether he will succumbto transgression or perform good deeds. By way of comment, the Rabbis said that aperson is given a taste in this world of the results of his labor. If he angers easily, hisanger will bring him to error and embarrassment in this world. If he is humble, his664
humility will result in leadership. "Humility precedes honor."This completes the first perek
G-d be praised

664

Prov.15:33.

[7:2]

[7:2]PEREK II
With the Help of G-d
This perek deals in the main with the following topics:
1. kiddushin by agency and by a girl's father;
2. when a woman can accept kiddushin without her father's intervention;
3. general aspects of the law of agency;
4. when items worth less than a perutah can combine to effect valid
kiddushin;
5. erroneous kiddushin;
6. one who betroths two women simultaneously; and7. the law relating to one who betroths with sacred property or withproperty from which benefit is proscribed.
The perek also digresses into various unrelated matters.
[Kiddushin by agency]
The first Mishnah states:
A man can betroth a woman through himself or through his agent. A
woman may be betrothed through herself or through her agent. A man
may give his daughter in betrothal when a na'arah either himself or
through his agent.
[Preference that kiddushin be performed personally]
The Mishnah mentions through himself first, to teach that it is better to betroth
personally than through an agent. There is an element of transgression if one
betroths without first seeing the bride. Where betrothal must be through an agent,and the man does not have the opportunity to see the bride in advance, he should
investigate the woman and her family as much as possible. Far better that he forego[7:2]
betrothal with a woman whom he dislikes than to betroth and dislike later.
What of the woman? Must she see the man first to be sure that she will like him?
No. There is a presumption that a woman will find any man acceptable. Still, thegeneral rule applies that wherever possible one should perform precepts personally.
For the same reason, R. Safra would himself singe an animal's head for the Sabbath,and Raba would himself salt fish for the Sabbath.
But what precept applies? A woman is not personally subject to the precept tobe fruitful and multiply! Yes, but she does serve as the agent through which her
husband performs the precept. Alternatively, although the Gemara holds that she isfree from the full force of the precept, she is not entirely exempt.
[Father may betroth his daughter while she is a ketannah or na'arah]
The Mishnah states that a father can give his daughter in betrothal while she is ana'arah even though at that age he can no longer sell her as a maidservant. Here,too, it is preferable that the father perform the betrothal personally, but there is notransgression if he arranges for betrothal through an agent. As noted previously,
there is the presumption that a mature woman will find any husband acceptable.
A father can most certainly give his daughter in betrothal while she is yet aketannah. At that time he can still sell her into slavery. But here the father isforbidden from accepting betrothal through an agent. A ketannah can be unfairly
influenced through her friends to dislike the groom. The father must wait until thegirl becomes a na'arah.
[Formal requirements of agency]
One who betroths personally must declare "You are betrothed to me with thisobject." One who betroths through an agent must formally appoint the agent, andthe agent should declare to the woman "Be betrothed to such and such a man withthis object, for I am his agent." It is not absolutely necessary that the agent identify
himself to the woman as an agent. It is necessary only to establish that there was infact an agency.
The agent can use either the principal's property or the agent's own property,
unless the principal directs otherwise.
What is necessary to establish the agency? For an agency to deliver kiddushin
and get and to separate terumah, no witnesses are necessary. It is sufficient thatboth the principal and the agent testify to the appointment. This is the Meiri's view
and is supported by the Rambam and a Tosefta.

[7:2]
But witnesses must observe the appointment of an agent by a woman to accept
kiddushin. The appointment is the only action taken by the woman, and is therefore
the counterpart of the act of personal kiddushin which must be witnessed.
The Raabad disagrees. Even the appointment of a delivering agent is valid only
665
where witnessed . Besides, if we were to credit the testimony of the agent and his
principal we would disadvantage a second man who might claim to have betrothed
the woman later.
Why is the rule different for get and terumah? Because the get document
supports the agent's contention, and there is no general requirement that witnesses
attest to the separation of terumah.
The Meiri cautions that the Raabad's rule should be applied where this would
lead to more stringent results.
[Ratification of the acts of one who was not an agent]
What if one who is not an agent betroths a woman on behalf of another, andthe other person approves of the "betrothal" when informed of the action? The
Meiri holds there is no kiddushin even if property of the "principal" was used. Others
disagree on account of the doctrine that one can obtain rights for another out of theother's presence. Here are considerations which should be kept in mind:
666

1. The Gemara
holds that where A tells B "Here is a maneh and be
betrothed to C," the betrothal is valid. Yes, but perhaps the case assumes
that C had appointed B as C's agent, and that the Gemara's purpose is only
to show that B can use his own property.
2. Where a ketannah accepts kiddushin without her father's knowledge she
may not remarry without a get, because the father may have acquiesced
667
when he discovered the act. Now, the daughter cannot betroth herself
and she cannot be more than an "agent" who was not appointed by theprincipal-father. Is this not evidence that the kiddushin of an unappointed

665

The Raabad and those who agree with him hold that when the Gemara is concerned at 45:2 thatthe husband might have appointed an agent, the Gemara means that the husband might haveappointed an agent in the presence of witnesses.
666

7:1.

667

44:2.

[7:2]
agent can be ratified?
Not necessarily. The case is different because after all it is the girl who is
being betrothed! That is why ratification is valid here but not elsewhere.
Besides, the Gemara concludes that we do not fear the father's later
acquiescence. It results that the Gemara in fact supports the Meiri's
position.
668

discusses the case of the father of a son who abruptly
3. The Gemaragave a kiddushin object to the father of a girl, and announced that the girlwas thereby betrothed to the boy. The holding is that there is no
kiddushin, because a son cannot be assumed to ratify his father's
unauthorized act on his behalf. It would appear, then, that the kiddushin
would be valid where there is ratification.
Nor can the case be distinguished on the ground that the father was in fact
previously appointed as the son's agent, for the issue of possible agency is
discussed separately in the Gemara.
669

4. The Mishnahholds that a woman who accepted a basket of figs onbehalf of five women can effect kiddushin for all of them. Shall we
presume that the woman had not been appointed as the others' agent,and that the operative doctrine is ratification of unauthorized acts? No.
Perhaps there had in fact been a previous authorization.
The Meiri concludes that one need take the strict view only where this does not cause
undue hardship.
[Recital of blessings in kiddushin by agency]
The Rambam holds that the groom must recite a blessing before he betroths
personally, and the agent must recite a blessing before he betroths for his principal.
This is similar to the rule that an agent who separates terumah for his principal must
recite a blessing. The Rambam also adds that if the blessing is not timely made, theblessing cannot be made at all, because blessings are valid only if made prior toperformance of a precept.
Some commentators do not permit a blessing where the principal transgressed

668

45:1.

669

50:2.

[7:2]and did not see his bride before the agent betrothed her. Compare the rule that no
blessing is recited:by one who dispatches a mother bird only after removing her from thenest with her chicks,
by a husband who divorces his wife (because we dislike divorce),
by one who performs the precept of removing the head of a first-borndonkey where the owner failed to redeem the donkey.
Other commentators hold that the agent should never recite a blessing at all,even where there is no transgression. The blessing can be recited by the husband
himself, before the huppah. The same blessing will cover both the initiation of themarriage by kiddushin and its consummation by huppah.
But what of the rule that a blessing must be performed before the precept towhich it relates? The rule is satisfied because the blessing is performed before thehuppah which completes the precept.
[Who may act as an agent]
All persons who have the capacity to act as agents for get can do so for
kiddushin, except that a blind person cannot be an agent for get but can serve as anagent for kiddushin.
This completes the explanation of the Mishnah. The Gemara adds the following:[May one agent appoint a substitute?]
An agent for kiddushin or get can himself appoint another agent. In the case of
sickness or other emergency this applies even to an agent who is appointed by awoman to accept. It does not matter that an accepting agent is given no physicalobject to pass but has only verbal authority to act on behalf of the woman.
Some commentators hold that without express authority the agent cannot
substitute another agent where the principal appoints the agent with the words "you670
give the kiddushin." The matter is discussed at greater length elsewhere .
The doctrine of substitution of agents for get is derived from the repetition of the670

Git.29:1.

[7:2]
671

672

word send , and for kiddushin by derivation from get . Is the doctrine therefore
limited to these two cases? The Meiri is uncertain. He concludes that where an agent
transfers the principal's property to another the principal should be able to claim that
he did not wish his property to be given to another.
[Derivation of agency rules]
The doctrine of agency is derived generally from the verse "And the whole673
assembly of the congregation shall kill [the Passover sacrifice]." Unless we holdthat:
all Jews may satisfy their obligations with one Passover sacrifice, andthere is no requirement that all Jews eat at least one olive-sized portion of
the sacrifice and674

all Jews are in effect partners in that one sacrifice,

it must be that a person who kills a Passover sacrifice is deemed to do so as theagent for all persons he has in mind.
Can it be that the verse validates agency only where the agent is a partner in the
Passover sacrifice? No. The verse applies even where the agent is not a partner, suchas where he is not a member of the group which has determined to partake of the675
particular sacrifice. An example is the case of an agent who is uncertain whether
he was asked to sacrifice a kid or a calf: he sacrifices both and specifies that if theprincipal designated a calf, then the kid is brought for the agent, and vice versa.
[Agency for terumah]
There is no set requirement for the amount of terumah which must be separated

671

Deut.24.

672

The verses "she shall depart...and she shall be another man's wife" (Deut.24:2) assimilate marriage to
get.
673

Ex.12:6.

674

See 42:1.

675

Pes.88:2.

[7:2]
676

from produce. Scripture speaks only in terms of "the first of your corn,"fromwhich the Rabbis derive the rule that even one grain can satisfy the terumah
677
requirements for a pile of produce. Still, the prophet Ezekiel refers to 1/60th as theproper measure, and the Rabbis hold that this measure applies to one who is meanhearted. An average person is expected to give 1/50th, whereas a kind-hearted
person gives 1/40th.
An agent should separate what he expects of the principal. If he does not know
the principal's mind, he should separate 1/50th. This separation is valid even if it
thereafter appears that there was a divergence of 10, meaning that the principal
preferred to separate 1/40th or 1/60th; in appointing the agent, the principal
implicitly accepted any valid separation of terumah.
[41:2][Mental separation of terumah]676

Deut.18:4.

677

Ezek.45:13.

[7:2]
terumah may be separated mentally. Once the owner mentally designates
produce in one location as terumah he may immediately eat produce at other678
locations. Scripture directs "And terumah shall be considered for you..." The same
applies to hekdesh: one who mentally determines that "this ox shall be a burnt
offering" must sacrifice the animal as a burnt offering. "All those who so willed in
679
their hearts brought burnt offerings."[Agency for Passover sacrifice]Each Passover sacrifice is brought for a specific company. "You shall benumbered on the lamb." The sacrifice may be eaten only by the members of the680
No member can withdraw from a company after the animal has been
company.
killed. There must be an olive-sized morsel available for each member of thecompany, and each member must consume at least that amount. Those who cannot
consume the minimum amount (such as infants and those who are exceedingly sickor aged) may not be included in the company.
Our Gemara does not agree with those who hold that one Passover sacrifice issufficient for all Jews, that it is not necessary that each Jew consume any portion of
the sacrifice, and that the only essential act is that the blood of the sacrifice besprinkled on the altar on behalf of everybody.
Assume that a company loses its sacrifice while the animal is yet alive, and thatthe company appoints one of its members to locate the animal and to sacrifice it on
behalf of the company. Assume further that the member so designated locates andkills an animal, and that the remaining members kill another animal.
If the member-agent killed his animal first, then:
1. All the members may partake of his animal for he was the company's
agent.
2. The remaining members could not withdraw from the original company
once the first animal was killed; hence, they invalidly established acompany for the second animal and that animal must be destroyed byburning.

678

Num.18:27.

679

Chron.II 29:31.

680

Ex.12:4.

[7:2]
If the animal brought by the remaining members is killed first, then:
1. The agent-member may partake of his animal for he did not appoint theothers as his agent to sacrifice for him, and he never withdrew from theoriginal company (which now consists of himself alone).
What of the rule that a company must have more than one
681
member ? That rule states the desired practice, but sacrifices
brought in violation of the rule are valid, if the individual can himself
consume the entire animal or if the animal was initially brought onbehalf of a larger company. The fact that the balance of thecompany withdrew, and that much of the animal will therefore
remain unconsumed, is the result of unexpected circumstances forwhich the individual is not penalized.
2. The remaining members of the original company partake of theiranimal, for they validly withdrew from the original company while the firstanimal was yet alive.
Where it is uncertain which animal was killed first:
1. The agent member can eat his own animal.
2. The other members cannot eat either animal.
3. Animals brought by the other members must be destroyed by burning.
They need not bring a second sacrifice on the 14th day of Iyar for reasons discussed682
elsewhere .
[Capacity of a gentile, kuti, minor and others to act as agent]
A gentile or a kuti cannot be an agent. One source of the rule of agency is the683verse "You also shall separate terumah." The word also is superfluous and from it
the Rabbis derive the rule that an agent can separate terumah. But the agent mustbe like you, in that like you the agent cannot be a gentile. Produce purported to be
separated by a gentile is not terumah, and may be consumed by non-priests.

681

Pes.91:1.

682

Pes.98:2.

683

Num.18:28.

[7:2]
Still, terumah which was separated by a gentile from his own field in Eretz Israel
has the status of terumah as a Rabbinical matter, and the terumah can be eaten by
priests only. Some explain that this rule arises from the doctrine that a gentile's
ownership of land in Israel (and most certainly his winnowing of produce in Eretz
Israel) is not sufficient to relieve the land of its terumah and tithe liabilities.
Other commentators hold that a gentile's ownership or his winnowing does
exempt produce from terumah and tithe. Our Gemara deals with a case in which:the produce was grown on a Jew's land until it was more than one-third ofits full size, so that the gentile's ownership did not result in exemption, andthe produce was sold to a gentile who separated terumah before
winnowing while the grain was still in its stalks (so that the gentile's
winnowing did not result in exemption).
All agree that a gentile's purported terumah is invalid outside of Eretz
Israel.
A deaf-mute, an idiot or a minor can never be an agent. A gentile slave can be
an agent for the purposes of terumah since he has the same status as a woman. Still,684
a get orhe cannot be an agent for the purposes of delivering or accepting
kiddushin. Since a gentile slave is not subject to the laws of kiddushin and get (for685
this purpose the slave has the status of an animal ), he cannot serve as an agent inrelation to these laws.
The rule would be otherwise where the slave is bound or asleep and the get or
the kiddushin is deposited on his person. In this case, the get or kiddushin are
effective not because of the slave's agency but because the slave is the equivalent of
his or her owner's real property, and chattels may be transferred by deposit on thetransferee's real property.
[Where terumah can be separated without the owner's authority]
It is implicit in the preceding discussion that terumah separated by one foranother without the other's authority is invalid. But one partner may separate

684

The Meiri disagrees with some commentators who wold permit the slave to act as an agent fordelivering a get. In Git.23:1 the Gemara treats both delivery and acceptance alike.
685This is implicit in the verse in which Abraham directed his gentile slave Eliezer to "Remain withthe donkey," which can also be read as meaning a nation similar to the donkey.

[7:2]
terumah for himself and his partner, a guardian may separate terumah for
686
687
orphans and a sharecropper may separate terumah for the land-owner .
[42:1][Role of minor regarding Passover sacrifice]
The Gemara states that an adult, but not a minor, can acquire for the purpose of
the Passover sacrifice. What does this mean?
Some explain that the Gemara means that a minor cannot join a Passovercompany if he cannot eat the olive-sized portion referred to above. But the generally
accepted explanation is that a minor who can eat an olive-sized portion, and who
can therefore join a company, nevertheless cannot invite others into the company.

686

Some commentators permit a guardian to separate terumah only to the extent necessary for theorphans' present needs before their adulthood. Compare Git.52:1.
687

See Kesef Mishna in Rambam H. Terumot 4:10 for a reconciliation of these holdings with ourGemara.

[7:2]
688

Why then does another Gemara
hold that a minor can acquire objects onbehalf of another if the minor is mature enough to discard a stone and to retain anut? That Gemara applies only Rabbinically, and only when the minor acquires theobjects from adults for the purpose of transferring ownership to others.
In fact, the Meiri considers the proposition that a minor cannot acquire
objects for another so self evident that he asks why the need for specificsupport to exclude it for the purposes of the Passover doctrine. The factthat a minor can acquire an erub on behalf of others is not instructive, forthe doctrine of erub is Rabbinic only.
The Meiri also cautions that even for erub a minor can acquire on behalf ofothers only if he is mature enough not to discard valuable items.
How can the minor himself be counted in the company when we know that adeaf-mute, an idiot and a minor may retain their findings only for the sake of689
preserving the peace and not as a legal matter ? That applies only when the minor
acquires the object, such as the finding, by his own action. In our case, the minor is
included in the company by adult action, and this gives him legal ownership rights.
[Appointment of guardian for division of estate with minor heirs]
The Gemara states the proposition that when orphans come to divide theirfather's estate, the Beth din appoints a guardian on their behalf to their advantage
and to their subsequent disadvantage.
Although a minor cannot appoint an agent, others can still acquire objects690
on his behalf ; since the guardian was appointed by the Beth din, his
division stands even if it later turns out that the division was
disadvantageous.
The division can be over-turned only if it appears that the guardian erred in
evaluating the worth of the orphans' respective shares.
Now what does the Gemara mean by the phrase when orphans come to divide
their father's estate? Minors have no power to summon a person to the Beth din!

688

Git.64:2.

689

Git.59:2.

690

This results from the general doctrine that A may acquire rights for B without B's knowledge.

[7:2]
Here are two possible explanations:
1. The Beth din or an adult relative initiated the proceeding for a purpose
deemed beneficial to the orphans. A non-guardian can initiate Beth dinproceedings to appoint a guardian for division. It follows that a guardian
most certainly can initiate a division.
2. The orphans share an interest in the estate with an adult, and it is theadult who initiates the division. In this reading, a guardian would not havethe power to initiate a division.
The Meiri prefers the second explanation.
691

How are we to reconcile our Gemara with a Gemara in Gittin which holds thatorphans can protest an action by the guardian which ultimately results in theorphans' disadvantage? There are several possibilities:
1. The Gemara in Gittin deals with a guardian who was appointed by the692
father , and who is empowered to act only for the orphans' advantage.
693
Our Gemara deals with a guardian who was appointed by the Beth din
and who has the additional power of acting to the orphans' later
disadvantage.
In this view, the orphans should not be able to object when aguardian appointed by the father takes specific action authorized by theBeth din to their disadvantage. The result should be no worse than actions
694
taken by a guardian appointed by the Beth din .
2. In our case the disadvantages are relatively slight, and probably relate
only to the particular location of the real estate plots which are distributed.
The Gittin Gemara deals with monetary claims by or against the orphans,
where the disadvantage can be great.
3. Where the orphans are plaintiffs and initiate action, the guardian isprotected even where the suit results in their disadvantage. The Gittin

691

52:1.

692

"An [existing] guardian is not permitted to act to the orphans' disadvantage."

693"They appoint a guardian."

694

This is consistent with a Tosefta in Terumot 1:12.

[7:2]
Gemara refers to a case in which the orphans are defendants; here theorphans can object if the result is disadvantageous.
The Meiri prefers the third view.
[Minor orphans cannot insist that an estate be divided]
Adult orphans, but not minor orphans, may insist on a division of an estate in695
which minor orphans also have an interest . The Beth din appoints a guardian forthe minor orphans, the adult orphans divide the field into equivalent parcels, andthe guardian selects the parcels to be distributed to the minors. Division is not by lot.
The same rule applies: the orphans can later object to the division only if there
has been a valuation error.
[Rule of over-charges on sale transactions]
The following rules apply to a seller who profits on a sale:
1. The seller may retain all profits in real estate sales.
2. Chattel sales are invalid where the overcharge exceeds one-sixth.
3. Chattel sales are valid where the overcharge is precisely one-sixth, solong as the seller refunds the entire profit.
4. Chattel sales are valid where the profit is less than one-sixth, and theseller may retain this profit.
An agent can act only in accordance with his precise instructions, and any
divergence invalidates his authority, even where the divergence is less than onesixth. The principal can demand of the agent "I appointed you for my benefit, notfor my detriment."[Overcharges in the context of the division of an estate and in sales for orphans]696

Where the Beth din values an estate of orphans, the valuation can be upset

695

The Meiri disagrees with Rabbeinu Tam who holds that even the adult orphans cannot force adivision.
696

These evaluations can relate to the sustenance rights of the widow or daughters of the deceased
person, or for the kethubah of the widow, or for the claims of a creditor.

[7:2]
only for divergences of one-sixth or more of the sales price (such as where a plot
worth 120 was sold for 100 or less). The one-sixth measure is derived by analogy fromthe law of overcharges.
But what of the doctrine that this law does not technically apply to real
property sales? Yes, but when the Beth din act, they act as agents.
If so, why must the overcharge be at least one-sixth before their actions
can be upset? Because in this aspect the agency of the Beth din is morepotent than other agents.
That any divergence invalidates the action of an agent other than the Beth din,even if the agent is a guardian, is obvious from our Gemara:
R. Nahman holds that orphans cannot object to a guardian's division ofproperty. How reconcile this with the holding that an undervaluation or
overvaluation (of one-sixth or more) by the Beth din is invalid? The Gemara
explains that R. Nahman refers only to errors which have no monetaryconsequence. An example is where an orphan complains that he would
have preferred land in a different location in which he owned other land.
Why did not the Gemara explain that R. Nahman's rule applies only when thevaluation is in error by less than one-sixth? Obviously, the one-sixth limitation applies
to the Beth din only.
What if orphans profit precisely one-sixth on a sale by a guardian? Some
commentators would apply the general rule and would permit the orphans tovalidate the sale by refunding the excess profit. But what of the Gemara whichinvalidates a sale where the Beth din increased by a sixth? Does this not suggest a
profit? No.These commentators maintain that this refers to where the orphans were
overcharged on a purchase of property.
The Meiri disagrees. The Gemara voids sales where the guardian overcharged as
seller. The agent's action is unauthorized even where he refunds the excess profit.
The Rambam's view is more favorable towards the orphans. In chattel sales
where the overcharge was precisely one-sixth:
1. where the orphans were overcharged, the orphans can either rescind thesale or demand a refund of the overcharge;
2. where the opposing party was overcharged, the orphans can either
rescind the sale or refund the overcharge; where real property is involved
they either rescind the sale or affirm it without paying any refund.

[7:2]The rules discussed above apply where the overcharge was less than one-sixth:
1. if under the Beth din's sponsorship, the sale is valid and there is norefund;2. if done by an agent or guardian, the sale is void.
[42:2]
Adult brothers who divide an estate are purchasers, so that the law of697
overcharges applies to mis-valuations of chattels ; i.e, overcharges of less than onesixth are ignored, overcharges of precisely one-sixth must be refunded but thetransaction cannot be rescinded, and transactions in which the overcharge exceed
one-sixth can be rescinded. The adult brothers for this purpose are not heirs who areentitled to precisely equal divisions as discussed earlier for orphans.
What if the error among adult brothers was made by a guardian who was
appointed to protect younger minor brothers? Here even a minor overcharge
suffices to void the sale. The guardian is an agent, and his action exceeded his
authority. Rescission follows from agency law rather than from the law ofovercharges.
[Rescission in sales transactions]
In the law of overcharges, one must distinguish between errors in valuation(where the rules discussed in the preceding paragraphs apply), and errors on thequantity or measure of the land or chattels sold, in which case minor divergences698
permit rescission even in land sales .
Why rescission? Why not allow the seller to make up the difference? How is thisdifferent from a case in which the purchaser erred and gave the seller 90 zuz insteadof 100, where all hold that the seller cannot rescind, and that his remedy is todemand the excess? The Meiri explains that there is an analytical difference between
the following cases:
1. A agrees to sell B five objects and sells only four, or B asks to buy fiveacres, and the surveyor mistakenly marks out only four. In this case, theemphasis is on the quantity or measure. If the quantity is in error, the697

Recall that the law of overcharges does not apply to real property.

698

See B.B.90:1.

[7:2]
aggrieved party's sole right is to demand the excess.
2. A asks to buy object X which is assumed to have a certain measure. Herethe emphasis is on the object. If the object does not have the presumed
measure, the transaction is void.
There is a minority which disagrees and holds that there is never a right torescission, and that the inconsistent Gemaras can be otherwise resolved. This is699
discussed fully elsewhere .
[Transgressions and damages by an agent]
An agent has no power to commit transgressions for his principal, and theagent's transgressions are his own. The agent's higher loyalty is to the master (G-d)
rather than to the pupil (the agent's principal).
One who causes a conflagration through a deaf-mute, an idiot or a minor isliable morally but not legally. These persons cannot act as agents, and in any casethere is no agency for transgressions.
What if one causes a conflagration through a normal person? There is not even a
700
moral liability. Variations of this ruling are discussed elsewhere .
[Me'ilah by an agent]
One who accidentally derives a perutah's worth of benefit from hekdesh,
whether personally or by way of an agent who adheres precisely to instructions,commits me'ilah. This applies even where the "agent" is a deaf-mute, idiot or minor;
what is important is only that the "principal's" will was done. If the agent does notadhere to instructions, such as where the agent purchases a prayer shawl instead of ashirt, it is the agent who trespasses rather than the principal.
What of the rule that there is no agency for transgressions? The law of me'ilah is
a special case because of agency doctrine derived from terumah by gezerah
701
shawah .

699

B.B.103:2.

700

B.K.59:2.

701

The word sin appears in both contexts. Lev.22:9 and Lev.5:15.

[7:2]
But what is the transgression, given that the law of me'ilah applies only
where both the principal and the agent benefitted without knowing thatthey were dealing with hekdesh? There are two possible explanations:
1. The transgression consists of the failure of the principal and theagent to consider that perhaps the money or other valuables inwhich they dealt were hekdesh.
2. Alternatively, the Meiri suggests that where an agent follows his
principal's instructions exactly, the principal is absolved (other than in
the special case of me'ilah) even where the agent's transgression was
unwitting. The action is still considered a transgression. To ruleotherwise, and to strictly apply the rule that the agent is liable only
where he knows that he is transgressing, would result in too many
ambiguous situations.
[Misappropriation by an agent]
The law of misappropriation, in which a person who takes another's item
assumes the risk of loss, is another special case in which the principal can be held
liable for transgressions by his agent.
Misappropriation requires that the item be physically taken. Mere intent to take702
is not effective .
[43:1][Thief's penalties and agency]

702

See B.M.44:1.

[7:2]
A third special case is the law requiring that a thief pay a quadruple or quintuple
penalty for stolen animals which he either sells or slaughters. The thief is responsible
for his agent's actions because of the otherwise superfluous word or in the verse "If703
a man steals an ox or a sheep...and he shall kill it or sell it" .
[Sacrifices outside of the Temple by agent]
One who willingly kills sacrifices outside of the Temple is penalized by kareth; if
unknowing, he must bring a sin offering. Here the general rule applies which
exempts a principal from transgressions by his agent.
Where two persons kill a sacrifice together outside of the Temple there is no704
liability. Scripture speaks in terms of "he that shall kill," to teach that only one
person can be liable.
If an unknowing violation requires a hattat, for what purpose does our Gemara
say that the word ha-hu excludes liability for persons who are compelled, ignorant or
led into error? To teach that there is no kareth for these violations! Note that the
705
which
word ha-hu appears in the verse "blood shall be imputed to that man"deals with kareth.
A person is ignorant if he knows that to sacrifice outside of the Temple isforbidden but he does not realize that there is a sin offering for violations. A person
is compelled if he is under the mis-impression that he is in the Temple. He is led into
error if he mistakenly believes that sacrifices are permitted outside of the Temple.
Alternatively, a person is compelled if by his own deduction he thinks that sacrifices
are permitted outside of the Temple, and he is led into error if others delude him
into this view.
Why would one think that an unwitting violation would result in kareth? Even if
we could rationalize that the exemption is necessary for ignorant violations how
could we imagine kareth for compelled violations? There are three possible answers:
1. Perhaps the Gemara means only to exempt ignorant violations, and theGemara mentions compelled violations only by-the-way.

703

Ex.21:37. See B.K.71:1.

704

Lev.17:3. The Meiri follows the Rambam's derivation rather than our Gemara's derivation from theword ha-hu.
705

Lev.17:4.

[7:2]
2. The Raabad explains that by compelled the Gemara means one whochooses to transgress in order to save his life. The Gemara wishes to teachthat this transgression is not one for which a person must sacrifice his own
life in order to avoid transgression, and there is therefore no kareth.
The Meiri disagrees. There are certain precepts (such as the proscription
against murder) which a person should not violate even to escape his own
death. But if a person succumbs and does violate a precept of this kind heis not punished. Why would we even think that there is a penalty of karethwhere a person need not sacrifice his life to avoid a transgression?
3. The Meiri prefers to explain that the exemption is from the obligation tobring a sin offering. This is an exception from the general rule that a sin
offering is brought for unknowing transgressions of those precepts which
are punishable by kareth if violated knowingly. Note, however, that the
halacha is otherwise, and unknowing violations are in fact subject to sin
offerings.
But what of the fact that the word ha-hu appears in the context of karethfor knowing violations? The meaning is only that there is no sin offering
for unknowing violations notwithstanding that there is kareth for knowing
violations.
[Moral responsibility for an agent's actions]
Although a principal is not liable for his agent's transgressions, he should takecare not to cause another to transgress. This applies even where the agent ismotivated to transgress and obtains pleasure from the transgression, such as where
the agent is directed to engage in incestuous intercourse or to eat helev.
Thus although Uriah the Hittite was killed by action of the agents of King David,
his death is still ascribed to King David: "And him you killed with the sword of the706
Ammonites."
But what of the view that Uriah the Hittite was justly treated because herebelled against David by comparing Joav to the King in the verse "And the707
servants of Joavand the servants of my Lord [David]" ?

706

Samuel II, 12:9.

707

Samuel II, 11:11.

[7:2]
708

This view is countermanded by the verse "Only because of Uriah..."which suggests that David was culpable for Uriah's death.
[Agent may be a witness]

An agent can serve as a witness both for kiddushin and for get. For example,
where a man sends an agent to deliver kiddushin to a woman, the agent can serve as
one of the two witnesses requisite for the kiddushin. If two agents are sent, theagents can serve as both witnesses. We do not say that the agents are treated as theprincipal, and that they are therefore incompetent as witnesses.
The same rule applies to get, even though there might be concern that a witness
would perjure his testimony in order to marry the woman once her divorce iscomplete. If we were to countenance such concerns, how could we credit witnesses
to a sales transaction without first determining that they are not motivated by adesire to benefit from the witnessed transaction?
[Formalities of agency]
Witnesses to kiddushin need not be appointed as such; they must merely witness
physical facts. Witnesses need be appointed only where there are no "facts," such as
witnesses to a confession of liability.
Now, although witnesses need not be appointed, the woman must know of their
existence in order for kiddushin to be valid. In the absence of witnesses she does nottake the ceremony seriously. The same applies to any formal transfer of title.
The rule is otherwise where no formal ceremony is involved. For example,
persons in hiding who witness a loan may testify on what they saw.
Witnesses may execute a deed only when both parties instruct them to do so.
Otherwise, when a transaction is witnessed by 100 persons, one of the parties would
ask each of them to execute a deed. That is why it is customary for the parties tosummon witnesses to witness sale transactions, and why deeds recite that the parties
summoned the witnesses.

708

Kings I,15:5.

[7:2][43:2][Agent as witness in monetary transactions; potential interest of witnesses]
In a monetary transaction, a plaintiff who is supported by one witness candemand an oath of the defendant. A plaintiff who is supported by two witnesses has
proved his case. An agent can be a witness for these purposes. For example, where aborrower directs his agent to repay an amount to lender, the agent's testimony issufficient to require an oath of the lender should the lender deny receipt of thefunds. If the agent's testimony is supported by another, the testimony absolutely
defeats the lender's claim.
But is not the agent interested, since if the lender is believed, the borrower willhold him personally responsible for the funds? No, because the agent could dispose of
the borrower's claim by maintaining that he had returned the funds to the709
borrower . One who entrusts funds to another in the presence of witnesses cannot
demand that the funds be returned only in the presence of witnesses. And the agent
is no more uncomfortable in lying to the borrower than he is in lying to the lender.
Now, if the borrower wished merely to claim that the lender had been repaid, hewould have been believed without the corroborating testimony of witnesses, basedon the doctrine that one who lends funds to another in the presence of witnesses
cannot demand that the funds be repaid only in the presence of witnesses. Why
must the borrower here produce witnesses that the loan was repaid?
1. Witnesses are required because the borrower chose to defend himself
with the claim that he had repaid the lender with funds forwarded709

But in that case could not the lender sue the agent for returning the funds to the borrower?
Compare Git. 14:1 where the Gemara holds that upon the borrower's delivery of funds to the agent
with the direction to repay the lender, the lender obtains an interest in the funds sufficient to support
a claim against the agent for wrongful return!
There are two possible explanations:
1. The lender can proceed against the agent only where the borrower has no remaining funds.
Otherwise, the lender must proceed first against the borrower. In our Gemara, the borrower
has sufficient funds.
2. The lender can proceed against the agent only where the borrower announced to the agent "Takethese funds to the lender." In our case, the lender did not obtain rights in the funds because
the borrower said only "Be my agent to repay money to my lender."[7:2]
through the agent. In this case the testimony of the agent is required eventhough the initial loan had not been witnessed.
2. Alternatively, witnesses are required where the borrower and lender
initially agreed that only witnessed repayments would be credited, or
where the loan was evidenced by a promissory note.
All this applies only before the Rabbis instituted the oath of equity (heses) for
one who claims to have repaid a loan. Now that the Rabbis have instituted this oath,
the agent no longer is credible as a witness because of his personal interest. When
faced with a choice between testifying falsely that he repaid the lender, or that hereturned the payment to the borrower, the agent prefers to testify that he repaid
the debt to the lender; a claim that he returned the funds to the borrower would be710
believed only after swearing an oath of equity . And the issue of self interest
cannot be overcome by the usual presumption that an agent has completed his
duties.
What then would the result be today in the case just mentioned, i.e., where theborrower claims that he sent money to his lender through the agent, the agent
claims that he delivered the funds to the lender, and the lender denies receiving thefunds?
The agent swears an oath of equity that he paid the funds to the lender.
This absolves the agent of the borrower's claim. The borrower dealt
directly with the agent and he must accept the agent's oath.
The lender swears that he did not receive the funds. He thereby becomes
entitled to receive payment from the borrower. The lender need not
accept the agent's oath since he never credited the agent.

710

Since the borrower wishes to obtain the testimony of the agent, why does he not simply release
the agent of any liability for return of the funds, thereby eliminating the agent's interest? Compare
B.B.43:1 where one who donates funds to a city disqualifies all judges and witnesses from that city
except for persons who renounce any interest in the gift.
The cases can be distinguished. In our case, a release by the borrower has the appearance of a gift
given to the agent in order to encourage the agent to testify. The agent gives up nothing of value. In
the case of the funds donated to the city, the person who renounces rights to a gift cedes a valuableinterest.
The Meiri nevertheless concludes that in our case had the borrower from the start relieved the agentof all liability, there would be no interest and the agent could testify.

[7:2]
Some characterize the agent's oath as the "Mishnahic oath" which is sworn by A
and B in the following case. C owes B money, and directs him to obtain it fromstorekeeper A. A swears that he paid the money to B, and B swears that he received
no money from A. C must then pay both, since neither A nor B dealt with each other,and they need not accept each other's oath.
Other commentators maintain that the Mishnahic oath applies only to persons
such as B who swear in order to obtain funds. This description does not fit the agent's
oath, because its purpose is to avoid liability and it is more in the nature of an oath ofequity. The lender's oath, on the other hand, is in fact akin to the Mishnahic oath.
But there are circumstances nowadays in which monetary agents can bewitnesses, such as where the borrower accompanied the agent and observed theagent's delivery of funds to the lender. The agent is therefore not concerned about
liability to the borrower. This explains why the Yerushalmi permitted the testimony
of a person through whom a bailee returned a deposited item to the bailor;
presumably, the bailee accompanied the agent so that there was no pending claimby the bailee against the agent.
An alternative explanation of the Yerushalmi is that in fact there was a potential
claim by the bailee against the agent. The testimony of the agent was therefore notsufficient to require the bailor to make the standard oath which a credible single
witness can impose. But the testimony was sufficient to require an oath of equity by
the bailor.
Why was testimony necessary for this purpose, given that an oath of equity
applies to every case of denial?
Perhaps the bailee was not certain of the circumstances of the claimed
return, and the bailee's uncertain position would not support an oath by
the bailor were the bailee not supported by his agent's testimony.
Assume that two agents are appointed to deliver a denar to a woman as
kiddushin, and the woman denies receiving the denar. Can they testify to the
kiddushin now that the Rabbis have established the oath of equity? Are theyinterested and not credible because their testimony would absolve them of liability
to the husband for the denar? Here are the two views of commentators on the issue:
1. The witnesses cannot be believed. They can be credited only when they
have no concern on liability, such as where the woman agrees that they
delivered the denar but she maintains that she received it as a gift or asrepayment of a loan or the like.
2. Others would credit the witnesses on the woman's marital status, and[7:2]
they separate this issue from monetary issues. Assume, for example, thatthe witnesses testify that they delivered the denar as kiddushin but inorder to indicate their disinterest they offer to repay a denar to thehusband nevertheless. In this case we would certainly deem the woman
betrothed. How then can the marital status of the woman depend onwhether the witnesses choose to offer to repay a denar to the husband?!
This is supported by the Yerushalmi which concludes that such witnesses711
are credited despite their potential monetary interest .
Assume that a borrower B owes a lender L 100 zuz. A approaches borrower B,
claims to be the agent of lender L, and convinces borrower B to give him the 100 zuz
for delivery to lender L. When lender L demands the funds from A, A retains thefunds based on an independent claim which A has against lender L.
Does A prevail on the independent claim, on the theory that if A were aliar he could have claimed that he had returned the funds to borrower B?
Were he to make this claim he would have succeeded on the principle that
one who accepts a bailment that is witnessed need not return the bailment
under witnesses. And, in current times, must A be believed if he swears anoath of equity?
Or is our Gemara distinguishable because the borrower appointed theagent, and that is why the agent would have been believed had he claimed
that he had transmitted the funds. But in the A, B and L case, the agent in
effect appointed himself, and we do not apply the dictum that return neednot be made in the presence of witnesses.
The Meiri takes the second position.
[Acceptance of get by na'arah or ketannah]
When Scripture decrees that the father of a betrothed na'arah can accept a geton her behalf, Scripture does not intend to remove the na'arah's power to accept aget herself. Both she and her father have the capacity to accept a get. R. Judahdisagrees and holds that the na'arah has no capacity to accept a get on her own solong as the na'arah's father is alive.
The father loses his capacity once the na'arah's marriage is consummated or once
his daughter becomes bogeret. The same rule follows once a ketannah's marriage is

711

The Yerushalmi presumably refers to a time after the oath of equity was instituted.

[7:2]
consummated.
Can a betrothed ketannah accept her own get? The Alfasi holds no.
712

The Alfasi must reconcile his holding with a Mishnah in Gittin whichholds that a ketannah cannot appoint an agent, and that therefore she isdivorced only when the agent passes the get to her. But once the get isgiven to the ketannah she is divorced!
713

True, our Gemara holds that the Mishnah in Gittin deals with a case inwhich the ketannah has no father. But that is required only for a714
different purpose ; the Gemara has no apparent difficulty with theholding that the ketannah can accept her own get.
Nor can the Mishnah be explained as dealing with a ketannah whosemarriage was consummated, for in a later section of the Mishnah, it isheld that the father can validly appoint an agent, and a father does nothave this capacity once his daughter's marriage is consummated.
The Alfasi must explain that the Mishnah deals with a father who has given his
daughter the authority to accept her own get. This is analogous to the rule that a715
father may authorize his daughter to accept kiddushin personally .
The Alfasi would concede that a ketannah may accept her own get where she
has no father or where her marriage was consummated. It is necessary only that the
ketannah be mature enough to distinguish her get from other documents.
Rashi disagrees and holds that any betrothed ketannah can accept her own
get.
Why then does our Gemara state the rule only for na'arah? To emphasizethat R. Judah disagrees even for na'arah.
But why not emphasize that the majority give even a ketannah the power

712

65:1.

713

44:2.

714

To explain the implication from the Mishna that a na'arah, unlike a ketannah, can appoint anagent. Our Gemara explains that this applies only when the na'arah has no father.
715

19:1.

[7:2]to accept her own get? Because it is of greater interest to inform us that R.
Judah gives the father sole authority over a na'arah (despite the na'arah's
maturity and her possession of certain legal rights), than it is to tell us thatthe majority hold that a ketannah has authority to accept her own get(which is a result one would logically expect).
[Declaration of a yabam]
Although Scripturally a yebamah is acquired only by cohabitation, the Rabbis
decreed that she is betrothable with money before cohabitation. The Rabbis call thismonetary betrothal declaration, and its legal consequence is that no other brothermay thereafter perform yibbum. Declaration is effective only if consensual. Certain
other kiddushin rules also apply. Specifically:
if the yebamah is a bogeret, she herself must consent;
if the yebamah is a na'arah, either she or her father must consent(according to the majority, but not according to R. Judah);if the yebamah is a betrothed ketannah, only her father's consent iseffective;
Recall that Rashi holds that a betrothed ketannah can accept her
own get. But Rashi would agree with the proposition on yebamah.
yibbum is more akin to kiddushin than to get. kiddushin of aketannah is invalid even where she has no father at all, whereas theget of a ketannah is valid where she has no father.
if the yebamah is a married ketannah, or if her father died, she herself
716
must consent .
[ketannah can be divorced only if she has understanding]A ketannah cannot be divorced if she does not understand the significance ofher get, or if she does not have sufficient understanding to preserve the document.
Can such a ketannah be divorced through her father if the ketannah was betrothedbut not yet married? The Alfasi rules yes, and disagrees with Rashi. These matters are716

But once she consents the declaration is valid. It does not matter that a ketannah's kiddushin isnever valid, even once the father dies.

[7:2]
717

discussed further elsewhere .
All agree that an immature ketannah cannot be divorced at all once her
marriage is consummated.
[44:1][Annulment of the oaths of a yebamah]
The oaths of a betrothed maiden can be countermanded only by joint action ofher groom and her father. If the betrothed maiden is widowed and her yabam
performs a declaration, her father's action remains sufficient, and nothing isrequired of the yabam.
It follows that the declaration does not change the father's control. Why does
the Gemara suggest otherwise? Some commentators explain that the declaration
makes the father lose his right to give her in betrothal to brothers of the yabam.
[Multiple oaths of a bailee; multiple sacrifices for failure to testify; multiple
kiddushin]

717

Git.64:2.

[7:2]
One who falsely swears that he is not holding a bailment must bring a sacrificefor each false oath. For example, A must bring five sacrifices if five persons claim that718
they deposited an item with A, and A falsely swears "not you, not you, etc." Theseparate listing of each claimant in effect results in an oath for each one, and it is
not necessary that the word oath or swearing be repeated. But where there is no
detail, such as where he swears that he has no deposit from "any of you," only one
sacrifice is required. R. Simon disagrees and considers oaths separate only where A
says "I swear to you, I swear to you, etc."
The rule is different relating to the sacrifice which is brought for wrongfully
failing to give testimony. Only one sacrifice is brought no matter how many items A
falsely swears that he has no testimony to give.
What is the rule for kiddushin? Even when the betrother says "Be betrothed withthis item, and this item, and this item," (the equivalent of "not you, not you, etc."),the meaning is not separate kiddushin with each listed item, but rather a general
kiddushin with all. That is why the woman is betrothed if all the items together have719
the aggregate value of a perutah .
Only where the groom says "Be betrothed with this, be betrothed with this, etc."
is each betrothal deemed separate, so that the woman is betrothed only if at least720
one of the items is alone worth a perutah . The kiddushin rule is therefore
718

The Yerushalmi appears to require that A mention the word "oath" or "swearing" again after
listing the five persons to whom the oath is given. The Meiri holds that this merely reflects
imprecision in the Yerushalmi's language.
719

One commentator would require values to be aggregated only where the groom says "Be
betrothed with these." The Meiri disagrees.
720

But see 12:1 for doubtful kiddushin where an item not worth a perutah here may be worth aperutah elsewhere.

[7:2]
equivalent to R. Simon's minority rule on oaths.
[44:2][May na'arah appoint an agent to accept a get?]
Although a betrothed na'arah can alone accept her get, she does not have thepower to appoint an agent for this purpose if she has a father. A ketannah may notappoint an agent even where she has no father.
Some commentators explain that a na'arah does have the capacity to appoint anagent for the purpose of delivering the get to her. She lacks the capacity only toappoint an agent with the power to accept a get on her behalf. She is divorced once
the get is delivered to her.
Others disagree and hold that the na'arah is not divorced even when she receives721
the get from her agent. They reason from another Gemara which deals with aketannah who purports to appoint an agent to accept her get:
The Gemara holds that she is divorced when she receives the get from her
agent. The assumption is that the husband knows that a ketannah cannot
appoint an agent; accordingly, when the husband gave it to the agent he
did not intend the agent to be the ketannah's agent for acceptance, butrather to be the husband's own agent for delivery to her, so that the
divorce follows when the get is delivered to her.
The commentators hold that for na'arah (as distinguished from ketannah) it cannot
be assumed that the husband knows she cannot appoint an agent. That being so,
the husband gave the get to the agent intending the agent to act, invalidly, as thena'arah's agent for accepting the get.
The holding of these commentators results in the paradox that it is more difficult
to divorce a na'arah than it is to divorce a ketannah.
[Alternatives to passage of get to wife's hands]
722

Scripture directs that the husband give the get into his wife's hand , but this isinterpreted as meaning the wife's control. A wife can be divorced by placing the get
721

Git.63:1.

722

Deut.24:1.

[7:2]
in her court-yard, in her father's court-yard if she is a betrothed na'arah, or (as theequivalent of her court-yard) on her gentile slave if he is asleep and bound.
The court-yard must be guarded by the woman alone, and the court-yard mustnot be mobile. Hence, the slave must be asleep, for otherwise the get is guarded by
the slave as well as by herself. If the slave is not bound the get is invalid because theslave is potentially mobile upon awakening.
[Father's acquiescence in kiddushin]
723

Assume that a girl accepts kiddushin without her father's knowledge . Rav andSamuel require that, both for ketannah and for na'arah, the father must be asked
whether he acquiesced in the kiddushin. If the father confirms his acquiescence, thegirl's kiddushin is valid absolutely, so that if her groom purports to betroth her sister
the second kiddushin is invalid.
If he denies acquiescence, or if the father is not available, we fear that he may
have acquiesced. Accordingly, there is questionable kiddushin, and should the girl's
groom betroth her sister, the second betrothal is possibly valid.
Another result is that the girl, if a ketannah, can marry another only after
she obtains a get (in case there was acquiescence), and only after she
performs mi'un. Mi'un, which is a ketannah's rejection of kiddushin
effected by a person other than her father, is necessary so that onlookers
realize that her kiddushin is questionable and that a betrothal of her sister
may be valid.
If the girl is a na'arah, Rav and Samuel require only a get, since mi'un applies to aketannah only. There is nothing more we can do to avoid error by the onlookers.
Similarly, what can we do to avoid error to onlookers who view only the get of aketannah but not her mi'un?
Ulla is not concerned with possible acquiescence. He requires neither get nor
mi'un.
In construing Ulla, the Meiri and the Alfasi hold that the kiddushin are not valid
even if we know that the father later acquiesced. Others disagree and compare thecase to a person who betroths a woman effective in 30 days. The kiddushin are valid

723

This goes beyond the father's absolute ignorance suggested by Rashi. The father's silent
acquiescence (even if supported by prior kiddushin negotiations), does not count as knowledge
where there was no present discussion of kiddushin.

[7:2]
even if the value given as kiddushin is destroyed before the 30th day. Here, too, thevalue given to the ketannah serves as kiddushin when the father approves even if
the value was destroyed by then.
The Meiri agrees with the Geonim, Alfasi and the Rambam that the halacha
accords with Ulla. Rabina, who is the latest Amora to speak on the subject, accords
with Ulla even where the father has shown a desire for kiddushin, i.e, there had
724
been prior negotiations .
Others disagree and rule with Rav and Samuel. (Several of these commentators
apply R. Nahman's gloss, and require get only where there had been prior725
negotiations.) They reason from the Gemara below in which Abbaye and Raba
argue whether the view of Rav and Samuel applies to the case there discussed in theGemara.
[How mi'un can apply while father still alive]
There is no yibbum where any wife of the deceased brother is forbidden to theyabam because:
1. she is the yabam's daughter or is related to the yabam in one of 14 otherincestuous relations; and2. she was married to the deceased brother at the time of his death.
The yabam must perform yibbum with his brother's other wives where the yabam's
daughter (or other relative) died, or was divorced, or was determined to be barren, or
properly performed mi'un prior to the brother's death.
Now, how could the yabam's daughter have performed mi'un while her father
the yabam was alive? A father's kiddushin of his ketannah is absolute, and can be
dissolved only by get! A ketannah's relative may give her in betrothal subject tomi'un only if her father is not alive! How does this square with Ulla's view thatwithout the father's knowledge while he is alive there is not kiddushin even for the726
purposes of mi'un !

724

45:2.

725

45:2.

726

Rav and Samuel can explain that the Gemara deals with a case in which there is concern that thefather might have acquiesced to kiddushin which the ketannah effected without his knowledge.

[7:2]The Gemara explains for Ulla that the daughter had previously consummatedanother marriage, and she thereby left her father's control. Later betrothals are valid
only because of the Rabbis' concern that she not become promiscuous, and these
betrothals can be dissolved by mi'un.
The matters in the Gemara which relate to the sale of a bondmaid to relatives
were discussed previously.
[45:1][yabam's declaration does not sever yibbum bonds]
A yebamah's bonds of yibbum are finally severed when she cohabits with theyabam. A divorce thereafter requires no halizah; a get is sufficient.
The declaration does institute aspects of the betrothal and marital relationships,
but it does not completely sever yibbum requirements. That is why, if after
declaration and before cohabitation, the yabam and yebamah wish to sever theirrelationship, the yabam must:
perform halizah to sunder the residual yibbum ties, andgive a get to cut off the marital relationship.
Where the yebamah is a ketannah and the declaration is approved by her father, therule is the same. But no mi'un is required, since a declaration approved by the father
is the equivalent of absolute kiddushin which is not subject to mi'un.
[Father's acquiescence in declaration]
Assume that a ketannah's initial betrothal by the yabam's brother, as well as thedeclaration by the yabam, are performed without the knowledge of the ketannah's
father. What would Rav and Samuel require before she marries another? All three ofget, halizah and mi'un:
1. She requires a get because the father might have acquiesced in the
declaration but not in the first betrothal. If so, the declaration resulted inabsolute kiddushin which can be dissolved only by get.
2. She requires halizah because the father might have acquiesced in thefirst betrothal, so that there is a yibbum requirement. It does not matter
whether or not the father also acquiesced in the declaration; even a valid
declaration cannot completely remove yibbum requirements.

[7:2]
3. She requires mi'un because the father might have acquiesced in neither
the betrothal nor the declaration. If so, there is absolutely no marital
relationship with the yabam, and should the yabam betroth the girl's sisterthe kiddushin would be valid. In order for onlookers not wrongly toassume that there is a definite marital relationship and that the girl's sister
is not betrothed, we require mi'un as a signal that the get is not an
absolute get.
Where the girl is a na'arah we do not require mi'un for the reason discussed
previously: there is nothing more we can do in this case to avoid error.
What if there was no declaration? Here only halizah is required. The father
might have acquiesced in the original betrothal and there is a true yibbum
requirement. But why not be concerned that without mi'un onlookers would
wrongly think that there is a certain yibbum requirement and that the yabam's
betrothal of the girl's sister is invalid? Because onlookers will realize that the sister isbetrothed even if they wrongly think that the halizah was absolute. They know thatas a Scriptural matter one may betroth the sister of a woman (the "haluzah") withwhom one performed halizah. It is only the Rabbis who prohibit marriage with ahaluzah's sister.
But what if the yabam's father later attempts to betroth the yebamah? Should
we not be concerned that onlookers might assume that the initial betrothal was
valid, and that therefore the father's betrothal is invalid Scripturally because theyebamah is his daughter-in-law? Because the public is aware of the strict incestuous
prohibitions against daughter-in-law and similar relationships, and the public will
strictly investigate all circumstances before ruling in such cases. It is only mattersrelating to a wife's sister which the public treats lightly, and where the public mighterr.

[7:2][45:2][Son's acquiescence in father's kiddushin]
A father has no power to accept kiddushin for his son. But in this case we apply
to the son everything we have said regarding the father's possible acquiescence inhis daughter's betrothal. This includes the differing holdings of the Meiri and othercommentators on whether the halacha accords with Ulla or with Rav and Samuel,and on whether the halacha takes account of R. Nahman's concern with priornegotiations.
There is only one difference. Rav and Samuel agree that we do not fearacquiescence, even if the father and son maintain that there is acquiescence, where
the kiddushin was effected contemptuously, such as in the market-place (even if witha huge quantity of gold), or if quietly and in discreet fashion but with items of little
value such as vegetables.
Assume that the son is an adult and can appoint an agent. We cannot assume
that the son appointed his father as his agent because this would be an insulting useof the father. Should the father and son both agree that the father had been
appointed as agent, the kiddushin is valid, since the appointment of an agent neednot be witnessed to be valid.
Where a stranger effected kiddushin and there is no issue of insult, there isconcern that perhaps the stranger acted as agent.
What if both agree that there was no agency?
Perhaps even the commentators who rule with Rav and Samuel would
agree that the concern applies only to a father but not to strangers.
We can go even further. It may be that we give no credence to a stranger
who affirmatively claims that there was an agency. Compare the priordiscussion of the Meiri's view that Ulla would not take account of definite
later acquiescence by the father.
[Presumptions against acquiescence]
Assume that a husband demanded that his daughter betroth his relative A, andhis wife demanded that the daughter betroth her relative B. Assume further that thehusband acquiesced to betrothal with B, that he went to the great expense of
preparing a feast for B preparatory to betrothal, and that A betrothed her in theinterim. Even Rav and Samuel would agree that in light of the husband's expense[7:2]
there is no concern that he acquiesced in A's betrothal.
The Meiri cautions that in his own view, agreeing with Ulla, we would not havefeared acquiescence even if there were no feast. After all, the father's concession
and the expense of the feast can be no more indicative than prior negotiations, andin the Meiri's view acquiescence not significant where there were prior negotiations.
There are commentators, however, who distinguish the case of the feastfrom prior negotiations, since in this case the husband previously desired
his own relative, and the fact that he nevertheless undertook expense forhis wife's relative is exceptionally indicative of his desires. Besides, thenegotiations which are of no significance consist only of preliminary
discussions which were not completed; the father's concession and thefeast are greater indicators of approval. The Meiri suggests that a stringent
ruling is appropriate because of the uncertainty.
[Father must indicate acceptability of daughter's huppah]
The marriage of a ketannah or a na'arah can be consummated with huppah onlywith the father's approval. The Tosefta recounts a case in which a ketannah wasremoved from her huppah because her father had approved her kiddushin but not
her huppah. In this case, all agree that what is necessary is some indication of thefather's attitude. A mere indication is sufficient because of the presumption that afather who consented to kiddushin will consent to huppah.
On the other hand, where the father is unavailable to approve or disapprove themarriage cannot be properly consummated. The husband therefore cannot inheritfrom his wife, and (in Rav Assi's view, with which Rav disagrees) the wife may not eat
terumah should the husband be a priest.
But what of the rule that the Rabbis can arrange for consummated marriage fora ketannah? That applies only where her father died, not where her father is indistant lands and his approval has not been ascertained.
Some hold that the marriage is properly consummated once the time fixed for
huppah has passed.
What if the father is here but is silent? The huppah is not valid. The Gemara
invalidates huppah when betrothal was approved by the father, but marriage was
not approved by him while he was here. The Meiri suggests that this means that thefather was present but silent. We take his silence as anger.

[7:2][Why daughter cannot eat terumah if her huppah was not approved]
Now, in essence a woman betrothed to a priest may eat terumah; the prohibition
against her eating terumah arises out of Rabbinic concern:that she may inadvertently feed terumah to her siblings; orthat upon consummating the marriage her husband will discover a bodily
flaw which will cause him to annul the marriage.
In the case just mentioned, the girl lives with her husband, not with her siblings. Why
does not Rav Assi allow her to eat terumah?
Because she visits her siblings frequently because of the uncertainty of her
marital status; andher husband may intend to annul the marriage but may await the father's
return in order to confront him.
What of the halacha in these cases? The Gemara notes that even Rav who holds
that the wife can eat terumah ultimately observed R. Assi's strict view that it isinappropriate to eat terumah. This is the Rambam's holding. However, there arecommentators who hold that Rav maintained his prior view, and that his concern
with Rav Assi's view was a stringent holding he applied only to himself.
[Geonic rule on huppah while father is not available]
The preceding is the strict law. But the Geonim rule, as a matter of ordinance,that a girl's marriage can be properly consummated if betrothal is arranged by her
mother and her brothers while her father is in distant lands. This is in conflict withsome of the Tosafot who are concerned that the father may betroth her to anotherwhile he is away.
How do the Tosafot reconcile their holding with the rule that the daughter of apriest may continue to eat terumah while her father is in distant parts, and there is noconcern that her father may have betrothed her to a non-priest? Similarly, how can aslave continue to eat terumah when his master may have sold him to a non-priest?
The daughter of a priest and his slave can rely on the presumption that
their prior status continues indefinitely, whereas in our case the ketannah
wishes to institute a new relationship.
Alternatively, it is more likely for a father to betroth his daughter to any
Jew and not to realize that his daughter might have been betrothed toanother by her mother and brothers, than it is for a priest to betroth his[7:2]
daughter to a non-priest without informing her somehow so that she cancease to eat terumah.
The Meiri ultimately disagrees with the Tosafot. If there is concern that her
father betrothed her to another, why does this concern cease when the girl becomesbogeret? Why may she then accept kiddushin when her father might have betrothed
her to another while she was a na'arah?
[46:1][Revocation by daughter of kiddushin made without father's knowledge]
The Gemara deals with the girl's right to object to kiddushin made without her
father's knowledge. The Gemara is halachically significant only to thosecommentators who rule that the father's later acquiescence validates kiddushin; thepoint of the Gemara is that if the girl objects before then the kiddushin is void andcannot be resurrected by her father's later approval. The Gemara has no halachic
significance to the Meiri, the Rambam and the Alfasi who hold a father's later
acquiescence is of no consequence. That is why neither the Rambam nor the Alfasi
mention this Gemara.
[Kiddushin by a man who marries a na'arah he seduced]
One who seduces a na'arah must marry her. But the girl or her father may
repudiate the marriage, in which case the man must pay a penalty.
The man must pay a penalty even where the na'arah joined in the seduction andeven where the father approves and has the power to betroth her to whomever hechooses.
What if the seduction was for kiddushin and she wishes to marry the seducer? Is
additional kiddushin required? The Meiri would hold yes. Recall the Meiri's holdingthat kiddushin which is not known to the father cannot be made valid if the father
later approves.
But what of those commentators who hold that the father's acquiescence canvalidate later kiddushin? Do they, too, require additional kiddushin? Perhaps theuntoward circumstances of the seduction result in an irrebuttable presumption thatthe father does not acquiesce. Compare the case discussed earlier of one who
betroths in the market-place.

[7:2][46:1][Aggregation of items each worth less than a perutah]
The next Mishnah reads as follows:
He who says to a woman, "Be betrothed to me with this date, bebetrothed to me with this one," if any of them is worth a perutah, she isbetrothed; if not, she is not betrothed.
If he says "with this one and with this one and with this one," and they are
altogether worth a perutah, she is betrothed; if not, she is not betrothed.
If she eats them one by one she is not betrothed unless one of them isworth a perutah.
When he mentions the words betrothed to me between each date, hedistinguishes among the dates. That is why she is betrothed only if at least one datealone was worth a perutah; she is questionably betrothed if it is possible that any
one date was worth a perutah elsewhere. The dates which are not worth a perutah
are deemed given her as either a gift to be retained or as a deposit to be returned. It
makes no difference whether she eats the dates one by one as he gives them to her,or whether the date which is worth a perutah is given to her first or last.
The same result would follow where the interruptions are by way of the word or:"with this, or with this, or with this."
The result is different where he uses the word and: "with this, and with this, andwith this," or the words and also, or the words "with this pomegranate and with thisother fruit," or where he uses neither the word and nor the word or: "with this, with
this, with this." In each case, the intent is to aggregate all the items.
But where there is aggregation it does matter whether the woman retains theitems or eats them. If she retains the items, she is betrothed if altogether they areworth a perutah. If she eats them one by one, she in effect borrows them from him
until the kiddushin is complete when the last item is given. A woman cannot bebetrothed by the groom's forgiveness of his loan to her. That is why she is betrothed
if the last item is alone worth a perutah. She is not betrothed if the last item is not
worth a perutah even if each of the prior items is worth a perutah.
Why are the dates given to the woman treated as a loan? Because value
given to a woman towards kiddushin, but which cannot effect kiddushin, isreturnable to the groom and remains his property. For example, if a man
gives money as "kiddushin" to a woman who is known to be married, the[7:2]
woman takes the money as the man's bailee. If the woman consumes thevalue, she has borrowed the man's bailment.
Were the property treated as a gift rather than as a loan, then she would
have been betrothed with the first of the dates which have the value of aperutah.
But some hold that kiddushin given to a married woman is a gift. How dothey reconcile that holding with our Mishnah? By distinguishing the casewhere no kiddushin is possible so that the property must have been a gift,
to our case where there would have been valid kiddushin were the727transaction not treated as a loan. The matter is discussed fully elsewhere .
Where A betroths B effective in 30 days, B consumes the value in theinterim, and no one else betroths B in the interim, the kiddushin is valid on
the 30th day. When B consumes the value, is she not appropriating B's
property by way of a loan, and if so why is B betrothed? Because in thatcase all requisite actions were taken at the start, and the only missing
ingredient is the automatic passage of time. That is why the woman has
greater ownership rights in the property than in our case.
The rule is otherwise where the groom says "Be betrothed with these." She has
constructive possession of all the dates even before they are given to her, so that she
is betrothed even if she eats them one by one as she obtains physical possession.
Once the man says "with these" there is a presumption that he will promptly deliver
all the items to the woman.
Still, should another betroth her before the first man has given her all of"these," the Meiri rules that the second betrothal is valid. This is most certainly true
where he did not say "with these," but merely "and this, and this," and anotherbetrothed her while he was delivering the items to her. The Meiri disagrees withcommentators who compare these cases to one who says "Be betrothed to me now
and after 30 days," in which case only the first betrothal is valid.
All that has been explained in the Mishnah is the halacha. Here is what theGemara discusses relative to the Mishnah:727

Git.45:1.

[7:2][46:2]
Certain rules relating to Hallah and terumah]
Dough becomes subject to the Hallah requirement from the time of kneading.
But Hallah is valid if separated earlier at any time after the flour and water are728
mixed, since the mixture is considered dough within the meaning of Scripture . The
Rambam holds that the obligation begins when the water and flour are mixed, but729
his view is difficult to reconcile with the Mishnah which holds that the obligation
for wheat begins with kneading and for barley when the holes in the dough areplugged.
Hallah given at an earlier stage is invalid because it is not dough within themeaning of Scripture. But terumah given on grain still in stalks is valid because the730
kernels are even then considered grain.
A priest who takes Hallah at a premature stage takes property in which he hasno rights, and he must return it to its owner. The dough from which it is taken is
subject to the Hallah requirement once it is kneaded. The premature "Hallah" isitself also subject to the Hallah requirement if it is combined with enough other
dough to meet the minimum quantity which gives rise to the Hallah requirement.
Priests and levites must themselves separate terumah, tithes and Hallah, because
731
in relating the requirements Scripture directs that they apply to "you also." Theadditional word you is taken to include levites, and the additional word also is taken
to include priests.
Priests must separate these items in order to remove the prohibition of tebel;
they need not give the separated property to another priest. The items are retained,
and the terumah is eaten with requisite purity. The tithes and the Hallah are eaten
as Hullin.
Why need a priest separate first tithes at all? First tithes have no sacred status;
the rule that tithes may be eaten only after tevilah for defilement applies only to the728

Num.15:20.

729

Hallah 3:1.

730

Deut.18:4.

731

Num.18:28.

[7:2]
second tithe; the first tithe may be eaten even while one is ritually impure! The Meiri
explains that the first tithe must be separated as a precondition for separating theterumah which must be taken from the first tithe.
Assume that one has grain which is subject to terumah requirements Scripturally,
and other grain which is subject to terumah only Rabbinically. terumah may not be
separated from one of these grains for the other.
For example, grain in an unperforated pot is subject to Rabbinical terumah, andgrain in a perforated pot is subject to Scriptural terumah. If grain is separated froman unperforated pot as terumah for grain in a perforated pot, the owner must
separate additional terumah out of the perforated pot. Still, the priest may retainthe "terumah." In fact, the priest must also separate terumah for the produce hereceived as "terumah"; this rule is not mentioned only because the requirement is
Rabbinic rather than Scriptural.
The same rules apply where grain is separated from the perforated pot asterumah for produce in the unperforated pot. Here the priest's obligation to
separate terumah on his "terumah" (whether from the produce in the perforated
pot or from other produce) is Scriptural.
The Gemara does not mention a requirement that the owner separate
additional terumah from the unperforated pot. This is either because thisobligation is Rabbinic or because the Rabbis did not impose any
requirement in this case.
Bad produce (a cucumber found to be bitter or a melon found to be putrid)
which is separated as terumah for good produce is valid Scripturally, but the Rabbis732
require that terumah be separated again . Scripture directs "You shall bear no sin
733
by reason of it, when you shall have separated from it the best thereof." Thissuggests that where the best is not separated there is a sin because the action avails.
Now, it is a sin to sell an ancestral field past the Jubilee. The sale is invalid
and is therefore not a sin itself. The sin consists of receiving malkot forviolating a negative precept. Why not maintain by analogy that theterumah is invalid?

732

Bitter almonds are considered a separate species which is exempt from terumah altogether. The
sour cucumber in our Gemara is of a species which tends to be sweet, just as a putrid melon is just a
happenstance.
733

Num.18:32.

[7:2]
Because there is a specific precept which is violated by the sale and which
results in malkot. There is no specific precept for inferior terumah, and thatis why the sin can be understood only if the action avails.
734

which suggests that
How shall we reconcile our Gemara with a Mishnah
additional terumah is not required? In our Gemara the owner intended to separate
good produce as terumah (note the reference to cucumbers which were found to besour). His desire to give good produce results in the requirement that he give
terumah again. Where he intends to give inferior terumah, the terumah is valid andno additional terumah need be given.
Where one intends to separate terumah from wine, and the terumah is later735
discovered to be vinegar, the vinegar is not terumah at all . That is because before
the separation, the owner tested the terumah-to-be and confirmed that it was thenstill wine. He showed by his actions that he did not wish the terumah to be vinegar.
Contrast the case of the cucumber which he assumed was sweet, but did not indicate
by his actions that he did not want terumah to attach if sour.
[47:1][Consequence if items given in kiddushin are consumed before kiddushin iscomplete]
Recall the section of the Mishnah which requires that where the woman eats thedates there be at least one date with the value of a perutah. We have explained that
this refers to the second case cited in the Mishnah, i.e., when the language used is734

Terumot 2:6.

735

Can we distinguish the case on the ground that wine and vinegar constitute two species for the
purposes of wine of libation (A.Z.76:1)? No. The Rambam holds that for the purposes of terumah
wine and vinegar are one species, and one can be separated as terumah for the other when this isintended.

[7:2]
such as would permit aggregation. In this case, where the woman eats the dates one
by one, she is betrothed only if the last one is worth a perutah for all others are ineffect borrowed by her when she eats them. This is R. Ammi's explanation.
Rav and Samuel disagree. They hold that this section of the Mishnah refers to theMishnah's first case, i.e, when the language used is such as would not permit
aggregation. The Mishnah tells us only that even when the dates are promptly
eaten, and are of immediate benefit, there is no kiddushin unless at least one date,
not necessarily the last one, is worth a perutah.
But what do Rav and Samuel make of a baraitha which deals with aggregate
type language (this-and-also-this), and nevertheless discusses the issue of the dates
which are eaten one by one! The Gemara answers that although the majority would
hold the baraitha's language to be aggregating, the baraitha itself follows the viewof Rabbi who considers this-and-also-this not to be aggregating. That is why thebaraitha can be explained in the same way as the Mishnah, that is, as teaching thatat least one date, any date, must be worth a perutah even when enjoyment isimmediate and the dates are immediately eaten.
736

The Meiri now explains the dialogue from which the Gemara deduces thatRabbi considers all formulations (including this-and-also this and this-this without
the and) separative except when the reference is to these.
There is a penalty of kareth for one who brings a sacrifice and intends to eat atleast an olive sized portion beyond the time limit set for eating the sacrifice. The
intent also renders the animal piggul. The animal is not piggul (only posul) and there
is no kareth where the intent is to eat an olive sized portion outside of the space inwhich the animal may be eaten.
Where there is an intent to eat both out of time and out of place, the animal is
piggul but there is no kareth. It does not matter which intent is stated first andwhether the intents are separated by the word and. Scripture compares properly
brought sacrifices to improperly brought sacrifices. In properly brought sacrifices
there can be no element of improper intent. So too for improper sacrifices there is
kareth only where all intents lead to kareth, namely, where there is no spatial intent.
Rabbi holds that if an intent to consume a sacrifice outside of time limits
precedes and can be separated from an intent to consume outside of space limits,
there is piggul and kareth, but vice versa there is no piggul (although the animal isposul) or kareth.

736

Zeb.28:2.

[7:2]
Levi wished to ask Rabbi one question and thereby to determine whether thefollowing two statements are sufficiently separative for this purpose:
1. an intent to eat outside of time and outside of space; or
2. an intent to eat a portion outside of time, a portion outside of space.
It is more likely that the statements are separated in the second statement where theword and is not used.
Levi determined to question Rabbi on the rule in the first case and thereby todetermine the rules in both:
1. Were Rabbi to respond that there is separation in the first case, there iscertainly separation in the second case.
2. Were Rabbi to hold that there is no separation in the first case, Rabbi
could indicate that:
there is no separation in the second case by responding in an angry
tone, thereby evidencing his annoyance at Levi's implicit assumption
737
that there is separation in the second case ; orthere is separation in the second case by responding in an even tone,
which impliedly approves Levi's evident assumption (by questioning
only the first case) that there is separation in the second case.
What is important for our Gemara is that Rabbi responded that there isseparation in the first case. This implies that both formulations are separative.
[Forgiveness of loan or bailment]
738

See the Meiri's earlier discussionof the rule that a man cannot betroth awoman by forgiving her indebtedness to him. This applies even where the debt isevidenced by a writing, and even if the woman had not yet spent the borrowed
money. What is dispositive is that loaned funds are outside of the lender's control
until the due date, and that the borrower is responsible for risk of loss.

737

Levi's wrong assumption would result in a replacement hullin animal being wrongfully broughtfor sacrifice.
738

6:2 and 46:1.

[7:2]
There is also no monetary kinyan where a buyer forgives the seller's debt to thebuyer.
[Kiddushin with a bailment]
A deposit or bailment is not meant to be spent. That is why a woman can be
betrothed by a man who says "Be betrothed to me with the bailment I have on
deposit with you." If the major portion of the bailment had already been lost or
stolen, the woman can be betrothed if she retains at least one perutah worth; theman's statement can be interpreted as meaning "Be betrothed with whatever
bailment I have on deposit with you."
The Yerushalmi holds that the result would be different were the man to say "Be
betrothed with the entire bailment you hold for me." Here she is not betrothed if a
portion of the bailment was already lost or stolen. The Meiri suggests that the same
result would follow if he says "Be betrothed with that particular bailment you holdfor me."[Kiddushin with partial payment]
Assume that a woman is told that she will be given a maneh (100 zuz) in
kiddushin but is given only one zuz. She is not embarrassed to demand the 99 zuz
balance, is betrothed, and has a claim against the groom for the balance. But she is
not betrothed where she is given 99 zuz out of 100. She will be embarrassed todemand the one zuz balance, and will never receive what she was promised.
[47:2][When a non-monetary loan cannot be revoked]
A borrowing is made final by meshikhah and cannot afterwards be cancelled by
the lender until the agreed upon repayment date, or until the completion of the job
for which the item was borrowed. meshikhah also transfers the risk of loss to theborrower. It does not matter when the borrowed item is first used.
[Kiddushin by transfer of third-party notes]
What if a man transfers to a woman for kiddushin a promissory note which theman holds against a third party? Assume that the claim is properly transferred, i.e.,
he delivers to her a written assignment in which he states that the transfer is of thepromissory note and of the indebtedness it represents. Is she betrothed? The
Rambam rules that she is betrothed, but the Ramban disagrees.

[7:2]The Ramban holds that she is not betrothed because the groom reserves thepower to waive the debt. The Ramban would agree that the kiddushin are valid
where the assignment is conducted in the "presence-of-the-three," i.e., in thepresence of the assignor (the man), the assignee (the woman), and the borrower, in739
which case the assignor can no longer waive the loan .
Most commentators believe that the Ramban would rule the same way, andvalidate kiddushin, where an oral loan is assigned as kiddushin in the presence-ofthree. Note that:
Our Gemara assumes that the only relevant issue on whether a loan
assignment in the presence-of-three can effect kiddushin is whether therule of the presence-of-three applies to loans as well as bailments. The
Gemara does not distinguish between oral and written loans.
740

A Gemara elsewhereas to bailments.

concludes that the rule does apply to loans as wellBut one commentator disagrees. He maintains that the rule of the presence-ofthree is in essence arbitrary and legislative. Particularly when applied to intangible
debt relationships which are not evidenced by documents, it is inappropriate toapply the rule to such loans to validate kiddushin.
A man may betroth a woman with a collateralized loan owed by a third party.
An assigning lender cannot waive an assigned loan for which the assignee hascollateral.
[48:1]

739

See B.K.89:1.

740

Git.13:1.

[7:2]
A deed may serve as kiddushin only if it was written for the particular woman tobe betrothed. Some say that the woman must also be aware that the deed is being
741
written for her .
A deed is valid if it is signed by witnesses or if its delivery is witnessed. If there742
are no witnesses at all, the deed is void even if written in the groom's hand .
[Generally, no account may be taken of deed's monetary value]
A deed which is invalid as a deed, for example if it was not written for the
woman to be betrothed, cannot bring about monetary kiddushin should the deed
have inherent value in excess of one perutah. There is kiddushin where the deed was743
delivered as a monetary equivalent rather than as a deed . There is questionablekiddushin where it is uncertain in which capacity the deed was delivered.
[No kiddushin by waiver of right to wages]
There is no kiddushin if a woman requests that an artisan make her a necklace,ear-rings or finger-rings, with the understanding (even if expressed by both theartisan and the woman) that she will betrothed to the artisan in lieu of wages. The
liability for wages accrues as a debt throughout the period of the artisan's labor. The
attempted kiddushin is therefore invalid since it is based on the artisan's forgivenessof the woman's debt.
The artisan does not obtain any ownership rights in the jewelry entrusted to him;otherwise the cession of these rights could have supported kiddushin. True, theartisan does obtain collateral rights, and such rights count as payment to pass to him
the risk of loss which is borne by a paid bailee. But the woman does not realize thatthe artisan has these collateral rights. The rule would be otherwise were the couple
to stipulate that the artisan would have collateral rights in the jewelry.
Those who hold that the liability for wages does not accrue until "the end" holdthat the artisan can indeed betroth with the benefit of his forfeited wages:
The wages accrue only upon completion of the labor, and at that moment741

See 9:2.

742

The Meiri disagrees with one commentator who holds that a deed written in the groom's handresults in questionable kiddushin.
743

This is supported by the Yerushalmi.

[7:2]
the kiddushin is effective, so that there is no indebtedness which is waived.
Rashi goes further and explains that the liability for wages does not accrue
until the item is returned by the artisan, so that kiddushin is effective
before (rather than simultaneously with) the accrual of liability.
[48:2][Misunderstandings in kiddushin]
The next Mishnah provides:
If a man says to a woman "Be betrothed to me with this cup of wine," andit is found to be honey, or "of honey" and it is found to be wine; "with thissilver denar," and it is found to be of gold, or "of gold" and it is found to
be of silver; "on condition that I am wealthy," and he is found to be poor,or "poor" and he is found to be wealthy; she is not betrothed. R. Simeon
said: if he deceived her to her advantage, she is betrothed.
"On condition that I am a priest," and he is found to be a levite, or "alevite" and he is found to be a priest; "a natin" and he is found to be amamzer, or "a mamzer" and he is found to be a natin; "a townsman" andhe is found to be a city dweller, or "a city dweller" and he is found to be atownsman; "on condition that my house is near the baths" and it is foundto be far, or "far" and it is found to be near; on condition that he has adaughter or maidservant that is grown up, and he has not, or on condition
that he has not, and he has; on condition that he has no sons and he has,or on condition that he has and he has none -- in all these cases, even if she
declares "it was my intention to become betrothed to him
notwithstanding," she is not betrothed. It is likewise so if she deceives him.
A woman cannot be betrothed if the man gives her an object other than that744
declared, unless the woman was betrothed in circumstances, such as daylight ,where she must have been aware of the substitution. The rule applies even where
the substituted item, e.g., honey, is worth more than the promised item, e.g, wine. It
applies, too, where the substituted item and the promised item are of one species,
e.g., a sweet cucumber and a bitter one. In fact, even where he was rich andpromised to be poor, there is no kiddushin because she may have preferred a poor
man whom she could dominate.

744

Some commentators hold that in this case there is only doubtful kiddushin.

[7:2]
R. Simeon agrees that a woman is not betrothed even where the item given to
her is worth more than the item promised. He disagrees with the majority only
where a woman directs her agent to accept kiddushin from so-and-so "whopromised me silver." Here R. Simeon rules that the woman is betrothed where soand-so gives the agent gold instead. The woman herself was not deceived in thiscase, and never discussed the kiddushin item with the man who wishes to betrothher. We interpret her direction to the agent as meaning "take whatever he gives
you, even if it is silver."The majority view is the halacha, and a direction to an agent is construed strictly.
Similarly, the woman is not betrothed where the agent deceived the man, such aswhere the man told the agent "Please lend me silver to betroth the woman," andthe agent instead loaned him gold.
The Mishnah applies the same rule where the conditions relate to pedigree, even
where the groom's actual pedigree is greater than promised: a woman can feel more
comfortable "with a shoe that is not larger than her foot." Where the conditions
relate to his being a natin or a mamzer it may be that she is aware of her own status
and is concerned that if her husband's status is greater there would be no peace
between the two.
A woman may prefer a townsman to a city man because of monetary inflation745
and population density in the city. The reverse preference may also exist .
Women may prefer houses which are near or far from the bathhouse. Similarly, awoman may prefer that a man have a daughter or maid which is grown (others readwhich can bring up others, or which can braid hair or is otherwise skilled) to assist
her with her household tasks, whereas other women may prefer the privacy of nothaving an adult in the house who can refute her will or reveal her confidences.
The Gemara explains that R. Simeon agrees with the majority on conditions
which relate to pedigree. For this reason R. Simeon agrees with the majority where
the husband does not deliver a grown maid, in the sense of high pedigree (i.e., themaid was born of a Jewish slave). A higher pedigree maid has more access to gossip.

745

The Meiri here quotes a Tosefta which notes that the kiddushin are valid if the condition was met
at the time of kiddushin; later changes in circumstances do not matter. If the betrothal was on
condition that he is a perfumer, and he was, there is kiddushin notwithstanding that he later becomesa tanner.
The Tosefta also considers the condition satisfied if he was a perfumer as well as a tanner. The rulewould be different where the condition is that he be a perfumer but not a tanner.

[7:2]The majority, however, hold that there is no betrothal even where the condition ismonetary rather than pedigree, such as where the word "grown" is interpreted tohave the meaning discussed in the preceding paragraph.
What if the woman later claims that she had mentally determined to waive the
man's condition? Mental reservations cannot detract from spoken words. The same
applies to the man's mental reservation when he is deceived by the woman.
What if at the time of kiddushin she told the man I will be betrothed regardlessof whether your condition (e.g., that you are a priest or levite) is satisfied? She isbetrothed, for by listening and acquiescing, the man in effect waived his condition.
This is especially so since the condition related not to her status but to his own, andhe was certainly aware of his own true status.
This completes the exposition of the Mishnah. Here is what follows in theGemara:[Which items may aggregate to achieve the minimum perutah value]
If a man gives a woman a cup in kiddushin, then:
1. if the contents are water, she is betrothed only if the cup itself, without
the water, is worth a perutah. The water itself has no value to the woman,and the woman assumes that she is to be betrothed with the cup.
2. if the contents are wine, she is betrothed only if the wine is worth aperutah; otherwise she is not betrothed even if the cup is worth a perutah
standing alone. She assumes that she is expected to return the cup after
drinking the wine.
3. if the contents are oil, she is betrothed so long as the oil and the cup are
together worth a perutah. There is no necessary expectation that she
immediately pour out the oil and return the cup.
This is Rashi's view. It is logical and preferred notwithstanding that these holdings do
not follow in the order of the baraitha's to which the Gemara refers. There are otherinstances in which the Gemara explains inconsistent baraitha's out of the order inwhich they are listed.
The Rambam, however, prefers to match the Gemara's holdings to the baraitha's
in the order in which they are listed. The following rules result:
1. if the contents are water, she is betrothed so long as the water and thecup are together worth a perutah. Given that the water has nominal value,[7:2]
it is assumed that he intended to betroth with the cup. Why then did he fill
the cup with water? To complement the value of the cup to provide a totalof one perutah in value.
2. if the contents are wine, she is betrothed only if the cup itself, without
the wine, is worth a perutah. It cannot be assumed that expensive wine isintended to "complement" value.
3. if the contents are oil, she is betrothed only if the oil is worth a perutah;
otherwise she is not betrothed even if the cup is worth a perutah standing
alone. Oil is of greater value than wine, and she assumes that the intent is
to betroth with the oil alone and to return the cup.
There is yet a third view which holds with Rashi where the contents are water,
and that if the contents are wine, she is betrothed if the cup with the wine are
together worth a perutah (on the ground that the man obviously wishes tocomplement the cup's value).
Because of confusion in explaining the Gemara it is best to take the strict view inall cases.
Notwithstanding that for the purposes of terumah wine and vinegar are treated746
as one species , they are separate commercially. Wine cannot be delivered when
vinegar was sold, brown grain cannot be delivered where white grain was sold, etc.
[49:1][Result where plain deeds are given rather than folded deeds, and vice versa]

746

46:2.

[7:2]
Witnesses sign a plain deed (whether a get, a loan document or otherwise) on
the inside, and the plain deed is dated currently. Witnesses sign a folded deed on the747
outside, and the folded deed is dated one year past the actual date . If the reverse
was done, the deed is invalid:
Where witnesses signed on the outside of a plain deed, it will be assumed
that the deed was initially folded and then opened. The deed will be
mistakenly treated as having been delivered one year before the actual
delivery date.
Where witnesses signed on the inside of a folded deed, the lender (where
the deed is a promissory note rather than a divorce deed) may not haverealized that the deed was folded and was being post-dated to his
detriment.
The lender can attack the title of one who purchases land from theborrower after the date of the deed. Presumably, a folded deed would
be understood for this purpose to have been signed one year earlier
than the date in the deed. Still, a lender prefers a plain deed whichstates the earlier date on its face.
Some hold that a lender can validate a folded deed which was signed on the inside:
all the lender need do is open the folds and waive the post-dating. The halacha isotherwise.
A scribe who is asked to write a deed may write either a pain deed or a folded
deed whether or not local custom supports the scribe's choice. Where the scribe is
directed to write a plain deed or to write a folded deed, his failure to conform
invalidates the deed even where local custom supports the scribe. The instruction748
was meant to be taken seriously .
[Interpretation of various conditions to kiddushin]
A get or kiddushin is invalid if accepted on a woman's behalf by her agent at aplace other than where the woman directed for acceptance. But where the woman
directed that the agent bring the get from a designated place, it does not matter if

747

See B.B.164:2.

748

For further details, see B.B.165:1.

[7:2]
749

the get is brought from another place.

If the man betroths a woman on condition that he is a reader or that he canread, she is betrothed only if he can read at least three verse in the synagogue andonly if he can translate them in accordance with the Targum of Onkelos (rather thanin his own, possibly faulty, translation).
If he betroths on condition "that I have read," the kiddushin is valid only if hecan carefully and precisely read all 24 holy books.
One who reads a verse letter by letter, without vowelization, such as one who
proofreads, is a liar. The same is true of one who translates literally, such as one whotranslates literally the verse "And you shall sacrifice the pesach ...sheep or goats and750
cattle," where the correct translation (in accordance with the Targum) limits thepesach to sheep or goats, and applies cattle to peace offerings brought on thefestival.
Where one adds to the translation ("And the angels of G-d said" in the place of"And G-d said"), he is a blasphemer. There are also cases where one can blasphemeby literal translations, such as by literally translating the verse "And they saw the G-d751
of Israel" , instead of translating in accordance with the Targum.
Where the condition is "that I am learned" it is satisfied only if he can read theMishnah. If the condition is "that I am a tanna," it is satisfied only if can read theMishnah, the sifra, the sifri and the Tosefta.
[49:2]
Where the condition is "that I am a disciple" he need not be as learned as b.
749

See Git.65:1.

750

Deut.16:2.

751

Ex.24:10.

[7:2]
Azzai and b. Zoma. It is enough that he has the general information which most
persons know somewhat, such as the rules of shavuot during shavuot, and of
Passover during Passover. This is what our Gemara means by the halachot of kallah,
which is a reference to the topical halachos which were taught at the kallahassemblages.
Some commentators take the reference as being to Tractate Kallah, which israrely studied and which is not part of our Talmud; the Gemara requires that theman be learned even in this Tractate. The Meiri disagrees.
Where the condition is "that I am a sage" he need not be equivalent to R. Akiva
and his companions, whose profundities were beyond the range of understanding ofmost persons. Rather, it is sufficient that he can answer a matter of wisdom asked on
any topic.
Where the condition is "that I am mighty" he need not be as strong as Abner b.
Ner and Joav b. Zeruiah. It is enough that his companions fear him for his strength.
Similarly, where the condition is "that I am wealthy" he need not be as wealthy as R.
Eleazar b. Azariah or R. Eleazar b. Harsom. It is enough that he is honored bycomrades for his wealth.
Where the condition is "that I am righteous" she is betrothed even if he isabsolutely wicked, for he may have meditated repentance in his thoughts. Even
meditated repentance is significant: "in order to seize the hearts of the children of
752
Israel."[Mental reservations not valid in sales transactions]
If one sells his house unconditionally, and it is known to the buyer and others
that the seller sold only to leave to Eretz Israel, the sale is absolute and stands even if
the seller does not or cannot leave. Mental reservations have no force. If the sale ismade conditional on his leaving, the sale is void if he does not leave, even if it is his
own uncompelled decision not to leave. But once he does leave, the sale is absolute
notwithstanding that his emigration is not permanent for whatever reason. He
conditioned the sale on his leaving; he may have meant his permanent settlement,
but he did not say so, and mental reservations have no force.
What if no condition was set, but the seller mentioned during the course of
the sale that he intended to leave to Eretz Israel? The reservation isexpressed, not mental.It does not matter that the reservation was not752

Ezek.14:5.

[7:2]
stated as a condition. But the sale is valid if the seller's failure to leave is by
his choice. The buyer says, "You should have left!"
What if the seller mentioned during the course of the sale that he intended toleave to Eretz Israel, and outside circumstances made it impossible for the seller toemigrate? Shall we let the sale stand because of the invalidity of mental
reservations? No. In the preceding paragraph we held that a reservation of this kind
is not "mental."
Assume that a father makes a gift to his son on condition that the father cansustain himself financially, and the father then abandons his remaining property andis impoverished. Can the son maintain that the father's penury is his own fault? No,
just as the buyer cannot maintain where a condition is stated that the seller's failure753
to leave is his own fault. Similarly, until Hillel legislated a remedial ordinance , abuyer could avoid a seller's redemption payment by absconding at the deadline forredemption notwithstanding that the buyer's action caused the seller's failure to
redeem.
[Where mental reservations are valid]
There are cases where we take judicial notice of mental reservations and enforce
them. For example:
1. A woman prior to her marriage transfers all her property to her son.
When she is divorced, she may rescind the transfers, on the ground they754
were intended only to exempt the property from her husband's claims.
2. A man transfers all of his property to another upon hearing a rumor that
his son has died. The transfer may be rescinded when the rumors prove755
false.
3. A woman who was distressed by her son and who announced that she
will accept kiddushin from anybody, is assumed to mean that she will756
accept kiddushin only from fit persons.

753

That the redemption payment could be deposited in the Temple treasury. Git.74:2.

754

Keth.78:2.

755

B.B.132:1.

756

B.K.80:1.

[7:2]
4. Transfers made by a deathly ill person may be rescinded should he757
recover.
5. A gift made under duress may be rescinded, even where the donoracquiesced in the gift.
In these cases, we infer a condition even without statements by the woman or
the man. There is no such independent inference in the case of the seller who
intended to leave to Eretz Israel.
Besides, in the case of the seller who intended to leave to Eretz Israel, it ispossible that the money he received made him acquiesce in the sale. In the examples
just cited, the transferors received no funds. It is instructive that although acompelled gift can be rescinded, a compelled sale, where funds are received, cannot
758
be rescinded .
Consider also the following cases:
1. R. Akiva wished to prove a halachic point by eliciting an admission from awoman regarding the legitimacy of her son. She agreed to confess thetruth on condition that R. Akiva swear that she would have a portion of
the world to come. R. Akiva made the oath and at the same time mentally
rescinded it.
The recision was valid even without compulsion because of theoverriding importance of determining the halacha. Furthermore,
there was an inherent weakness in the oath, because it would have
imposed on him an obligation which was not in his power toperform.
2. One can abandon hametz mentally where there is some compelling reason,such as where the hametz is owned by a disciple for whom it is improper toleave his master physically to dispose of the hametz, or if the hametz islocated in a recess shared by a Jew and a gentile (where there is danger inphysically removing the hametz), or where the owner of the hametz is
engaged in saving others from brigands or in performing some other759
precept.

757

B.B.150:2.

758

B.B.49:1.

759

Pes.7:1; 8:2; 49:1.

[7:2]The mental act is validated by: the compelling reason, the fact that
there is no second party whose rights are affected, and the fact that
there is no conflicting oral statement.
A person's words are not given effect where he intends to dedicate terumah but
says tithe, or tithe and says terumah, or an oleh and he says a shlamim, or a shlamim
760
and he says an oleh . Why do we not simply ignore the mental reservations, andhonor only the actual statements?
1. We in fact do not honor the reservations. We take them only as
indications that the oral statements were in error. To honor a mental
reservation means to give it effect where it contradicts an oral statement.
2. Mental attitudes are more potent regarding sacrifices. Even a mental
consecration of sacred property is valid. "All those whose hearts shall move
761
him."
Keep these examples in mind when considering other instances in which theforce of mental reservations must be evaluated. Also keep in mind that at times themental reservation consists of pure thought, whereas in other cases the mental
reservation consists of recitation of words at a volume so low that they are notheard.
[Formalities of conditions]
What statements qualify as a condition? The Rambam and others hold that a
condition is valid only if the phrase on condition is used or if the condition is statedin duplicate: my sale is not valid if I do not leave, and my sale is valid if I leave. Other
commentators disagree and hold that the on condition phrase or duplication is not
required in commercial transactions such as our case. The language used in ourGemara "with the view of leaving for Eretz Israel," without duplication, tends tosupport those who hold that no duplication is required.
762

Also supportive of the second view is the Gemara's conclusion that one who
sells land to raise money can rescind when it turns out that there was no need for
him to raise funds. Here it must be that there was no duplication, for if there was,760

Pes.63:1.

761

Ex.35:5. See Shev.26:2.

762

Keth.97:1.

[7:2]
how could the Gemara even consider the possibility that the sale might not be
rescindable?
There is an alternate explanation of the Gemara summarized in the preceding
paragraph. Perhaps the Rambam is correct: where the person making the condition
prefers that the action and condition both be satisfied, then he must duplicate thecondition if it is to effective to void the action, even in monetary transactions. Whatstrengthens the condition in the case of one who sold to raise money is that theaction (the sale) was never truly desired and was performed reluctantly.
How then do we explain the duplication requirement for a get written by a763
deathly ill person to save his wife from the trouble of yibbum and halizah ? The
condition that the get is to be valid only if the husband dies must be duplicatednotwithstanding that the husband does not really wish to effect a divorce! Perhaps
the Rabbis apply a stricter rule for the serious matter of get.
[50:1][Compulsion to bring a sacrifice]763

Git.74:5.

[7:2]
One who commits to bring a sacrifice and does not dedicate and sacrifice ananimal in the ensuing three festivals, is compelled by the Beth din to bring a sacrifice
764
765
at the next festival. "He shall sacrifice it." But what of the verse "to his will"?
766
We compel him
until he says "I agree." Similarly, in all cases in which a man iscompelled to give a get, compulsion is applied until the man acquiesces.
[Unstated conditions cannot upset kiddushin]
A man cannot rescind kiddushin by claiming he wrongly assumed that the
woman was the daughter of a priest, nor can she rescind kiddushin because shewrongly assumed that he had a desirable pedigree. In each case, there was no
deception by anybody.
[Mental reservations ignored for me'ilah]
Recall the discussion regarding a principal's obligation to bring a me'ilahoffering where his agent accurately followed his instructions and accidentallyobtained benefit from hekdesh. Since mental declarations are ignored, where theprincipal tells the agent to bring property from a window sill, and the agent
complies, the principal must bring a me'ilah offering notwithstanding that heintended that the object be brought from a chest. Of course, if the agent realizedthat the property was hekdesh before there was me'ilah, neither the principal nor
the agent brings a sacrifice. A sacrifice is brought only for unwitting me'ilah.
[Where direction on where to effect kiddushin is to be construed strictly]
The fourth Mishnah provides:
If he says to his agent, "Betroth to me so-and-so in such and such a place,"and he goes and betroths her elsewhere, she is not betrothed. "She is insuch and such a place," and he betroths her elsewhere, she is betrothed.
In the first instance, the man insists on the place of betrothal, perhaps because in
the designated place he has friends who will not malign him, or for some other764

Lev.1:3.

765

Id.

766

No compulsion is applied (whether by way of seizure of property or otherwise) for sin and guilt
offerings. There is a presumption that the person will voluntarily bring these sacrifices to obtain theforgiveness which the sacrifices afford.

[7:2]
reason. In the second instance, it is assumed that he merely wished to suggest where
the agent might find her. The same applies to an agent whom she appoints to accept
kiddushin or to deliver or accept a get.
[Consequence if agent dies, and it is unknown whether and whom he betrothed]767

The Gemara elsewhere discusses the case of an agent who dies after he is sent
to betroth a woman. The principal cannot marry any woman who would be
forbidden to him had the agent betrothed her relative on behalf of the principal.
However, the principal may marry women who at the time the agent was appointed
were related only to married women, even if the married women were later
divorced before the agent's death. The agent is empowered to betroth only women
who were available for betrothal at the time the agent was appointed.
[Vows and blemishes which are violative of stated or understood conditions]
The fifth Mishnah provides:
If he betroths a woman on condition that she has no vows upon her, and it
is found that she has, she is not betrothed. If he marries her
unconditionally, and it was found she had vows upon her, she is divorced
without her kethubah.
If he betroths her on condition that she has no blemishes, and blemishes
are found on her, she is not betrothed. If he marries her unconditionallyand blemishes are found on her, she is divorced without her kethubah.
All blemishes which incapacitate priests to serve at the altar render women
unfit.
A husband cannot annul vows which his wife made prior to betrothal; hence,these vows are flaws. But why so, given that a sage may annul any vow for which
extenuating circumstances are found, or which are regretted? Because the husband
does not wish his wife to be embarrassed by presence at the Beth din.
The Rambam maintains that the kiddushin are valid if she does have her
vow annulled by a sage.
Only three vows are considered significant enough to invalidate kiddushin. They
are a vow not to eat meat, a vow not to drink wine, and a vow not to wear colored767

Naz.12:1.

[7:2]
clothing. Any other vows are ignored, despite his protestations, unless his condition
was in the form "that you have absolutely no vows in the world."
What if he betrothed her and married her without any condition at all and itturns out that she had uttered a significant vow? Her betrothal and marriage are of768
questionable validity , but if he chooses to divorce her she receives no kethubah
unless she seizes it from him.
What if he betrothed her on condition that she had no vows, but hemarried her unconditionally?
If he has not cohabited with her, she requires no get to marry another,because his failure to repeat the condition before the marriage is notdeemed a waiver.
If he cohabits with her and there are witnesses to his seclusion, we apply769
the presumption that no person wishes his cohabitation to be illicit . He is
therefore deemed to waive his condition, so that she requires a get tomarry another. It does not matter whether the marriage was previously
consummated by huppah or whether the marriage is consummated by the
cohabitation itself.
The blemishes which are violative of the man's condition are those which
incapacitate priests, plus the following eight: foul odor, excess sweat, foul breath, alow-pitched voice, where one breast is a tefach larger than the other, there is morethan a tefach between one breast and the other, skin which is scarred by a dog-bite,and a mole on the forehead no matter how small and no matter how close to thehair on her head. It does not matter whether there is hair in the mole.
No other blemishes count, probably even if he formulated the condition as "yournot having any blemishes whatsoever."If he betrothed and married her unconditionally and the designated blemishes
appeared, her kiddushin and marriage are of questionable validity and she is not
given her kethubah on divorce. The same is true where he betrothed her on
condition but married her unconditionally.

768

Keth.73:2.

769

Compare the presumption which is applied where one betroths with less than a perutah and thenengages in witnessed seclusion.

[7:2][Elonit as a fault which can invalidate kiddushin]
Does elonit count as a fault which can serve to invalidate kiddushin? There are
the following considerations:
1. Our Gemara refers only to eight faults and elonit is not listed.
2. yibbum does not apply to the elonit wife of a deceased brother, and not
770even halizah is required .
771

3. A Mishnah
kethubah:lists the following women as not being entitled to ai. an elonit;ii. a woman whose marriage violated Rabbinic (as opposed to
Scriptural) prohibitions against incest; andiii. a girl whose betrothal had Rabbinic force only and who annuls
the betrothal or marriage by mi'un.
In dealing with second category, the Gemara asserts that the Mishnah
dispenses only with kethubah, but does require a get. In dealing withmi'un, the Gemara does not make this deduction; no get is required.
Whether elonit requires a get depends on whether she is to beanalogized to second degree kinship or to mi'un.
4. Widow A requires no yibbum if her co-wife Widow B is prohibited to theyabam on account of any one of 15 family relationships. Where Widow B is
discovered to be an elonit after her husband's death, so that she had notrue marital relationship with the deceased brother, her relationship to the770

Yeb.79:2. But why not require halizah on the possibility that the yabam may accept her in her
elonit condition? Note that even a woman with the eight significant blemishes or who has utteredoaths requires a get if she was betrothed without conditions, because not all persons find these
conditions unacceptable!
The Meiri distinguishes the cases on the ground that we take judicial notice that a yabam will find an
elonit unacceptable. The purpose of yibbum is to produce a child who will perpetuate the memory ofthe deceased brother. See Deut. 25:9.
771

Keth.100:2.

[7:2]
772

yabam does not exempt Widow A . This suggests that Widow B would
not have required a get to leave the deceased brother were he to have
objected to her condition after discovering it.
5. R. Meir rules that there is no yibbum for a ketannah. He explains that at
puberty it may appear that she is an elonit. Because of that possibility, therules of yibbum cannot serve to counteract the prohibition against incest773
with a brother's wife . If in fact a husband can reject an elonit without aget, why not permit yibbum? At worst if she is discovered to be an elonit,
her betrothal to the deceased brother was of no force, so that there is no774
incest prohibition against her marrying the yabam?! Does this not provethat elonit requires a get?
Not necessarily. We can give R. Meir meaning even if we hold that anelonit can be rejected without a get. True, yibbum of the ketannah is of noharm in itself since at worst she was never the deceased brother's wife.
Still, R. Meir's concern is that onlookers may wrongly assume that there
was absolute yibbum, rather than possible yibbum, and they might think
775
that the yibbum suffices to free her co-wives to marry strangers .
This completes the explanation of the Mishnah. The Gemara adds nothing.
[Later gifts cannot validate kiddushin made with less than a perutah]
The sixth Mishnah states:
If one betroths two women with the value of a perutah, or one woman

772

Yeb.2:2.

773

Yeb.61:2.

774

The majority of the Sages disagree with R. Meir only because they do not concern themselves withthe remote possibility that the ketannah may turn out to be an elonit. It is clear that were elonit a true
concern they would concur with R. Meir. That being so, the evidence in the text can be adduced
from the Sages' position as well as from R. Meir's position.
Note that although the majority permit yibbum, they do not permit halizah, because the verses
dealing with halizah (Deut.25:5) refer to the ceremony as being conducted by a man, which suggeststhat both participants must be adults.
775

See Yeb.12:1.

[7:2]
with less than a perutah's worth, even if he subsequently sends gifts, she is
not betrothed, because they were sent on account of the first kiddushin. It
is likewise so if a minor betroths [and sends gifts after his adulthood].
Neither of the two women is betrothed. But where A tells B "Your two daughter776
are betrothed to my two sons for a perutah, there is questionable kiddushin
because a full perutah is passed from the giving father to the receiving father.
The situation in the Mishnah cannot be improved by the traditional gifts which
are sent by a groom to his bride after betrothal. It does not matter whether theagents who deliver the gifts specifically refer to them as "gifts," whether the couple
had been discussing matters relating to betrothal, or whether the gifts are given in
the presence of witnesses. The assumption in all cases is that they were intended as
gifts which follow the invalid kiddushin, rather than as kiddushin.
Similarly, a minor can establish no kiddushin or any other marital relation. His
invalid act cannot be rectified by gifts he sends after adulthood, where the gifts can
777
be interpreted as gifts rather than as kiddushin.
There is no kiddushin where a minor announces that he is betrothing a woman
effective upon his adulthood. It does not matter whether the value given in
kiddushin still exists when adulthood is achieved.
Why then can a father validly redeem his first son before the son is 30 days old solong as the father makes the redemption effective after 30 days and the redemption
value is maintained until then?
Firstly, the law of betrothal bears no relation to the law of redemption!
Secondly, all that is necessary to validate redemption is the passage oftime. To validate kiddushin both the passage of time and signs of puberty
are required.
The following matters appear in the Gemara:

776

7:2.

777

There is betrothal if the groom cohabits with his wife after adulthood and there are witnesses tohis seclusion.

[7:2][Kiddushin by idiots, deaf-mutes, androgynous persons and others]778

An idiot as well as a minor cannot establish legal and binding marital relations,even Rabbinically. The rule applies if either the man or the woman is an idiot.
A deaf-mute can establish marital relations Rabbinically. What if a normal person
purports to betroth a normal woman who is married to a deaf-mute? There are thefollowing views:
1. The Rambam holds that the second betrothal is valid Scripturally andcannot be avoided by the prior Rabbinical betrothal. He adds that the deafmute may remarry the woman if she is later divorced by the normal man.
2. The Raabad holds that she may not remarry the deaf-mute, lest
onlookers wrongly assume that the deaf-mute had divorced her prior toher second betrothal, and that one may remarry a wife he has divorced
and who was subsequently married to another man.
A tumtum or androgenous person can establish questionable kiddushin bybetrothing a woman. The Rambam holds there is also doubtful kiddushin where atumtum or androgenous person is betrothed by a man. The Raabad holds that in this779
case there is not even questionable kiddushin .
The Rambam also holds that a drunk person's betrothal is valid unless he is as
drunk as Lot.
[Kiddushin of gentiles]
No marital relation can be established by or with a male or female gentile freeperson or slave. Why are we not concerned that the gentile's ancestors weremembers of the ten lost tribes?
The Gemara first explains that the men and women of the ten tribes were exiled
separately to hasten their assimilation. The children of the Jewish men who marriedgentile women are gentiles because of Samuel's dictum that a Jew's grandson
derived from a gentile daughter-in-law is not considered "your son," i.e., is not
Jewish. The Jewish women, had they married gentiles, would have given birth tochildren considered Jewish. However, the women all drank potions which sterilized778

The attributes of an idiot are set forth in the Meiri to Hag.3:2.

779

The Ra'avid draws support from a Gemara (Yeb.81:1) which states flatly that an androgynous
person cannot be taken in marriage.

[7:2]
them.
Ultimately, the Gemara explains that the ten tribes assimilated and areconsidered gentile.
A Jewish apostate, even an idolater, is still Jewish, and his betrothal and get are
780
valid. Another Gemarastates flatly that a convert can never revert to a gentile
status, and that should he return to idolatry his kiddushin remain valid. The Meiri
disagrees with those who hold that apostates today are considered non-Jewish on
the ground that they do not keep the Sabbath or that they worship idols.

780

Yeb.47:2.

[7:2][50:2][When gifts given prior to kiddushin suggest kiddushin or constitute kiddushin]
The Gemara considers whether there is kiddushin if an agent delivers gifts in thepresence of witnesses before kiddushin, or before it is established that there was
kiddushin (such as where the man and woman contest whether there was
kiddushin).
But what is the issue? We know that kiddushin is valid only if there is a
781
declaration of kiddushin or if at least the couple had been discussing kiddushin .
That being so:
There should certainly be kiddushin if the agent discussed betrothal when
he delivered his gifts!
There should certainly be no kiddushin if he failed to discuss kiddushin!
The Raabad explains that where there was no discussion of kiddushin there is no
absolute kiddushin, but there is nevertheless questionable kiddushin. Our Gemara
deals only with the issue of questionable kiddushin.
The Meiri suggests two alternate explanations:
1. Generally, where betrothal was not discussed there is no betrothal at all.
The Gemara's concern here arises because the gifts were sent to thewoman on completion of negotiations. That is why there may be at least
questionable kiddushin sufficient to require a get before she marries
another.
2. Our Gemara does involve contemporaneous discussion of kiddushin
which would generally suffice for absolute kiddushin. But the issue here is
clouded because in transmitting the gifts, the agents used words whichindirectly suggest that the gifts are being given as gifts. By way of
example, the agents tell her "These things are being sent to you by so-andso to beautify yourself among the girls."
Compare the rule that where there was discussion of betrothal there is only
questionable kiddushin where the man uses ambiguous language such as"You are my rib," or "You are my help"; had he remained silent there

781

See Meiri at 6:1.

[7:2]
782

would have been absolute kiddushin.

[Status of gifts depends on location]
There are varying textual readings of the Gemara's precise conclusion. Here is the
Alfasi's reading:
Where it is customary to betroth and then give gifts, we are concerned.
Where the reverse is customary we are not concerned.
Where it is customary to betroth and then give gifts, of course we areconcerned! Why need the case be stated at all?!
The case must be stated where only a minority of persons betroth before
they give gifts. The teaching is that we pay attention to the minority.
The Meiri explains that there were witnesses to the transfer of the gift. Where atleast a minority betroth before they give gifts, it is the gift itself which we consider
to be kiddushin. Recall that witnesses need not be summoned for the express
purpose of attesting to kiddushin. Were there no witnesses, or were the gift clearly
designated as a gift, there would be no kiddushin in this view.
Why the concern with the minority? Because of the seriousness of marital
relations, and because of concern that if we rule leniently, the minority may one day
become the majority.
Others explain that for the Alfasi the "concern" is not that the gifts constitutekiddushin but that they create a presumption that there was prior kiddushin.
Compare the Gemara's question on whether the fact that a woman's kethubah
became known in the market-place can be taken as evidence that she had been
betrothed. This concern applies even where the gifts were transmitted expressly as
gifts, and even if there were no proper witnesses to the transfer. This reading fitsbetter with the Gemara's language "we are concerned with gifts," which implies
somewhat that the word "gift" was used.
Rashi has the reverse textual reading:
The case must be stated where a majority betroth and then give gifts
and a minority do the reverse.
The teaching is that we may not rely on the minority ("be concerned with the
782

6:1.

[7:2]
minority") to void kiddushin. Why might we have relied on the minority? Because theminority is supported by the presumption that a person's personal status (in this casethe woman's unbetrothed status) continues until there is evidence of change. But
where the majority provide gifts before betrothal there is no issue of kiddushin at all.
Is it appropriate to speak of concern with factors which result in lenient rulings?
783
Yes. The Meiri cites two examples in which the term is used in this sense. The word
connotes attention to remote and unlikely cases.
The Meiri prefers the Alfasi's more stringent reading. However, nowadays all
persons give gifts, complete negotiations and then betroth. Those who do thereverse are an infinitesimal minority to whom no attention need be paid unless thegiver of the gift ostentatiously seeks witnesses to the transfer.
[kethubah as evidence of kiddushin]
Assume that a woman does not hold a kethubah and is not known to be
betrothed or married. Assume further that the market-place is aware of a kethubah
which so-and-so has written for her. In areas where betrothal always precedes thekethubah we consider her possibly betrothed, so that she cannot marry anotherwithout a get.
This applies even where the kethubah does not contain language such as "Be
you a wife for me" which could be read as making the kethubah itself a deed of
kiddushin, and even where there are no permanent scribes so that it might beargued that the kethubah was written in advance when a scribe happened to bepresent.
Where it is customary to write a kethubah before kiddushin there is no kiddushin
at all, since the woman is not known to be betrothed or married.
Some hold that where betrothal customarily precedes the kethubah there iscertain kiddushin, and that where the reverse is true there is questionable kiddushin.
The Meiri disagrees.
[Simultaneous betrothal of related women]
The next Mishnah reads:
If one betroths a woman and her daughter or a woman and her sister783

Sab.151:1, and Git.19:2.

[7:2]
simultaneously, they are not betrothed. And it once happened to five
women, among whom here were two sisters, that a man gathered a basket
of figs, which was theirs, and which was of sheviith and declared "All of
you are betrothed to me with this basket," and one accepted on behalf of
all: the sages ruled, the sisters are not betrothed.
Had he betrothed the mother and daughter or the two sisters one after the other,
the second could not be betrothed because of her incestuous relation to him;
accordingly, when they are betrothed simultaneously neither can be betrothedeven though two perutahs were used.
The Gemara notes that had he said "One of you is betrothed to me," there
would be questionable kiddushin. It does not matter that the betrothal cannot be
consummated because we do not know which is his wife and which is prohibited on
account of incest. But were he to say "The one of you with whom I can consummatea marriage is betrothed," neither is betrothed, since marriage cannot be
consummated with either.
Consider now the case of the betrothal with the basket of figs. Because the figs
were sheviith produce they were considered abandoned. Otherwise, there could be
no betrothal at all; a woman cannot be betrothed with property illegally seized from784
her unless there were prior negotiations .
As noted, the two sisters were not betrothed even though there was a perutahof value for each of the five women. But the other three women were betrothed
notwithstanding that their betrothal is effected through action which is invalid forthe two sisters. We hold that where A tells B "My property is given to you and thedonkey," the donee acquires one-half of the property notwithstanding that the gift
to the donkey is invalid.
Why then does the Gemara explain that non-related women are betrothed only
because the man said "Those of you fit to me are betrothed?" Because the Gemara
wishes to make the Mishnah consistent even with those who hold, contrary to thehalacha, that there is no gift where property is given to "you and the donkey."
The Rambam holds otherwise. The non-related women are betrothed only if theman said "Those of you fit to me are betrothed to me," and yet the Rambam holds
that a gift to "You and the donkey" is valid. How so? Because the Rambam does notwish to apply monetary doctrine to cases involving ritual betrothal. The Meiri
disagrees.

784

See Meiri to 13:1.

[7:2]
Nine rules can be derived from the Mishnah:
1. Many non-related women can be betrothed simultaneously.
2. Two related women cannot be betrothed simultaneously.
3. Where related and non-related women are betrothed simultaneously,
the related women are not betrothed and the non-related women are
betrothed.
4. Where one of two related women is betrothed, there is questionablebetrothal although no marriage can be consummated.
5. Where a man simultaneously betroths non-related women and one of
two related women, the non-related women are betrothed absolutely, andthe related women are questionably betrothed.
6. Where one of two related women is betrothed with the declaration "theone of you with whom I may consummate a marriage," neither isbetrothed at all.
7. One may betroth with sheviith produce, although Scripture refers to such785
produce as "holy" .
8. One may not betroth a woman with property seized from her unlessthere had been prior negotiations.
9. One woman can act as another's agent even if the agent becomes her
co-wife. Some apply the rule even where the agent was not appointed inadvance, but her actions were merely ratified afterwards.
This completes the exposition of the Mishnah. Here is what is added in theGemara:785

Lev.25:12.

[7:2][51:1][Separation of excess first tithes]
After terumah is separated, one tenth of the remaining produce must be
separated as a tithe by exact measurement rather than by estimate. Where too little
is separated, the portion separated does not have the status of tithe at all. What
must be done? A tithe must be separated both from the invalid tithe and from theremaining produce.
If one separates a proper measure of tithe and then separates an additional
unnecessary portion, the unnecessary portion is not a tithe. In fact, the initial tithe
served to convert the unnecessary portion from tebel to Hullin, and it may be freely
consumed.
If one initially separates an excess portion, the remaining produce is considered
properly tithed and may be consumed. But there is no tithe for the excess portion,
which is a mixture of tebel and tithe.
The Meiri holds that there is no remedy for the mixture of tebel and tithe. But
Rashi holds that the mixture can be remedied by separating tithe from other tebel ina measure calculated to tithe the portion of the mixture which is itself tebel. It
follows that the mixture becomes one of tithe and produce for which a tithe has
been separated. The mixture may be consumed, for even certain tithe may beconsumed by all Jews.
But what does Rashi make of the rule that tithe can be separated only fromnearby produce? The rule only sets forth what is preferable, and is not an absolute
requirement. Alternatively, the tebel from which the tithe is separated is physicallyplaced alongside the mixture.
And what of the terumah which must be given to the priest exclusively fromtithes? The terumah cannot be taken from the mixture itself, since the mixture also
contains produce other than tithe?! There is no problem. The terumah can beseparated from other certain tithe, since most commentators hold that terumah canbe separated from produce which is not located near the tithe for which it is to be
separated.
Commentators propose two other remedies for the mixture. Assume that there
were five measures of tebel for which the proper tithe is one-half measure. If one
full measure was separated, then one-half of the measure is proper tithe and theother half is tebel.
1. No attempt is made to separate out the half which is proper tithe.

[7:2]
Instead, one-tenth of one-half (assumed to be the non-tithe half) is
separated from the measure as a tithe to cover the other nine-tenths of the
non-tithe half. There remains a mixture of tithe and properly tithedproduce.
2. The measure is physically separated into halves, and one half is assumed
to be the proper tithe. Then, one-tenth of the remaining one-half isseparated from the measure as a tithe to cover the other nine-tenths of theremaining half. There remains purely tithed produce which is not mixed
with tithe.
Note that these remedies differ from Rashi's remedies in that Rashi assumes that theuntithed produce in the measure can only be tithed from outside produce which iscertainly tebel.
We have previously explained that successive separations cannot result in excess
tithes. What does the Gemara mean by the statement that tithes can be given in
halves? That one can separate one full measure (instead of a half measure) out offive, so long as one states that only half of the measure (or half of each grain)
constitutes tithe. The result is that tithe and tithed produce are mixed, and can be
consumed. The halacha is in accord despite possible inconsistencies with Gemara's
elsewhere.
[Erroneous or excessive separation of animal tithes]
Cattle tithes are not effective in successive stages or in halves. The tithes are
effective simultaneously or if in error. Namely:
1. Successive stages.
Assume that nine animals were properly counted, the tenth was properly
counted as the tenth, and the eleventh is then called "tenth." Once there isa proper tithe, a later animal cannot be tithed; the eleventh animal has notithe status at all. It does not matter whether the counter announced "ten"aloud as the tenth passed before him.
2. Halves.
If the tenth and eleventh emerge together, and the counter announcesthat one-half of each is tithe, neither is tithe.
3. Simultaneous.
If the tenth and eleventh, or the ninth and the tenth, emerge together,[7:2]and the counter calls them both "tenth" or "eleventh" or nothing, thenboth are considered doubtful tithe, and the tithe and the non-tithe animals
are "mixed," in the sense that we do not know which one is the tithe
animal.
What is the remedy for the "mixture?" The two animals are set out tograze until they are sufficiently blemished to permit redemption. The
animals (more accurately, the indeterminate one of the two which is thetithe animal) are then redeemed onto another animal which is sacrificed astithe.
4. Error.
What if the counter in error called either the ninth or the eleventh the"tenth" and he called the actual tenth "tenth" or he did not call the actual
tenth anything at all? In each case the animal called tenth, and the actual
tenth, are considered mixed-tithe-non-tithe.
But there is no doubtful tithe where the eighth or a lower number, or thetwelfth or a larger number, was called "tenth." In these cases, the actual
number is too far removed from ten.
5. Special rule where ninth and eleventh are both called "tenth".
What if the counter called both the ninth and the eleventh animals "ten"and the tenth animal "nine" or nothing at all? All three have elements ofsacredness. The tenth is considered tithe, the eleventh is brought as a
786
peace offering, and the ninth is eaten after it is blemished .
[Excess or erroneous todah loaves]
There are three sorts of individual peace-offerings:
1. Joyful (shalmei simha) and festive (shalmei hagigah) peace offerings
which are brought either on account of a vow or by free will. Suchofferings are not accompanied by loaves.
2. Nazirite peace-offerings, also known as nazirite rams, are accompaniedby 10 loaves and 10 wafers. The 10 wafers are anointed with oil. The flour
for the loaves is moistened in oil before grinding. Both the loaves and the786

See Bekh.60:1.

[7:2]
wafers are baked as matzo in an oven.
3. Thanksgiving offerings (todah) are brought to mark miracles which
occurred to the person bringing the offering. They are accompanied by 10
hametz loaves and 30 matzos. Of the 30 matzos, 10 are oven-baked loaves,
10 are oven-baked wafers and 10 are prepared from a pulp of flour which ismixed with hot water and is then fried in oil.
The nazirite's loaves are baked out of six and two-third tenths measures, and his
wafers are also baked out of six and two-third tenths measures. The 30 matzos of thetodah offering are baked out of one measure and the 10 loaves of the todah
offering are also baked out of one measure.
The priest is entitled to one each of the nazirite's loaves and wafers, and to one
each of the three types of matzo and the one type of loaf which accompanies atodah offering. The loaves, wafers and matzos are consecrated when the related
animal offering is sacrificed.
The following additional rules apply to the baked items which accompany
the todah offering:
1. They cannot be brought in halves. None of the items are consecrated
where half of 80 loaves (meaning half of each loaf) is brought. Scripture
speaks in terms of the priest's taking one of each kind, suggesting that hemust take a whole loaf which is sacred in its entirety.
2. They cannot be brought in error. Where he expected the baked items tobe white, they are not sacred if they are actually black. Nor are loaves
sacred if they were accidentally substituted for those originally intended.
Mistaken consecration is ineffective.
3. They cannot be consecrated in succession. Where first 40 baked items
were brought, the owner cannot later consecrate an additional 40 items.
If 80 items are brought, and the owner consecrates 40 of the 80, theconsecration is valid for 40 which are selected at random. The other 40 must be
redeemed. If 80 items are brought and he consecrates 40 on condition that 80 areconsecrated, none are consecrated.
If 80 items are brought and nothing is said, Hezekiah holds that the intent wasto consecrate only 40; 80 were brought only to ensure alternate loaves in case any of
the initial 40 are lost. R. Johanan disagrees. The Rambam rules with R. Johanan,
whereas others rule in favor of Hezekiah, based on the dictum that the halacha
favors the master as against his disciple. Hezekiah was R. Johanan's teacher.

[7:2][Raba's view that kiddushin is not valid if uncertainty prevents consummation]
In the Mishnah, we expressed the rule that kiddushin are valid even where
uncertainty renders consummation impossible. This accords with Abbaye's holding,and is one of the six disputes between Abbaye and Raba in which the halacha
accords with Abbaye.
How can Raba invalidate such kiddushin when we know that kiddushin are
effective in women with whom marriage cannot be consummated on account of
787
negative precept ?! The Tosafot explain that Raba expresses his rule only where theinability to consummate results from actions relating to the kiddushin (such as wherea man betroths one of two sisters), rather than from pre-existing incestuous
relationships which are forbidden by precept.
[51:2][Uncertainty on which daughter was betrothed]
These rules apply to one who gives one of his daughters in betrothal
without specifying which:
1. If there are two daughters one of whom is either a ketannah or ana'arah and the other of whom is a bogeret, the ketannah or na'arah isbetrothed. This applies even where the bogeret appointed her father as
her agent to accept kiddushin and even where the bogeret waived herright to retain the value given in kiddushin. There is a presumption that afather prefers to betroth the ketannah or na'arah to fulfill obligations he
has towards her but not towards the bogeret.
2. If there are two daughters, both of whom are either a ketannah or ana'arah, or one of whom is a ketannah and the other is a na'arah, the caseis treated as if one of two equals were betrothed without specifying which.
The betrothal cannot be consummated, and each daughter must obtain a
get before she remarries.
3. If the "senior" daughter is given in betrothal, the presumption is that787

Rather than by capital punishment.

[7:2]
the oldest non-bogeret daughter was meant, regardless of whether they
are of different mothers. The same is true with the word "junior"; theyoungest is meant. In each case, the person uttering the word is assumed
to desire specificity, not uncertainty.
We disregard testimony by the father that he had another daughter in mind.
Mental reservations cannot overcome words we consider clear.
But what if negotiations had been completed for one daughter? Some
commentators hold that if an unspecified daughter is then betrothed to the manwith whom there were negotiations, it is assumed that the betrothal is with thedaughter who was the subject of the negotiations; if the betrothal is to another, it isassumed that the betrothal is with the daughter who was not the subject of thenegotiations.
The Meiri agrees with this view despite the disapproval of other commentators.
This also appears to be the import of a Tosefta which states:
Where they were dealing with the senior for the senior and the junior forthe junior, I say the senior is betrothed to the senior and the junior isbetrothed to the junior.
Can the Tosefta be distinguished as dealing with two men who knew at the timeof betrothal whom they were betrothing but were confused later? Is this notdifferent from the case in which it was never absolute who was betrothed to whom?
Does not our Gemara distinguish between circumstances in which facts wereoriginally known and circumstances in which facts were never known?
Not necessarily. The distinction is made only to reconcile Raba's non-halachic
position that holds invalid betrothal which cannot be consummated with a baraitha
which suggests that such betrothal is valid. The Gemara limits the baraitha to cases inwhich the facts were known at the time of betrothal, and the betrothal could havebeen consummated then.
But why then does the baraitha use the individualistic formulation "I do not
know," which could be taken to suggest that the facts were forgotten, rather than"it is not known," which could imply that the facts were never known? Because thebaraitha's purpose in using the formulation is quite different. It is to personallychastise and censure the light-headed persons who do not know whom they betroth.
The Meiri ultimately concludes that negotiations are relevant in cases of
uncertainty. He explains further that this is most definitely the rule today when there
is a herem on one who repudiates a negotiated match, but was also true prior to theherem, on account of the presumption implicit in the dictum that "the remnant of

[7:2]
Israel will not do an injustice."
Some would apply this presumption even in favor of a bogeret where she was
the daughter with whom negotiations were completed. But why is the completionof negotiations a greater indicator than the daughter's appointment of her father as
her agent? We noted earlier that the Gemara does not give weight to the bogeret's
appointment of her father as her agent! There are several explanations:
1. The groom is a participant in negotiations, whereas the daughter's
appointment of her father is unilateral.
2. An appointment as agent is ineffective only if it gives the father
authority to select any groom. Where the agency is specific to one groom,
the appointment is in fact given the same effect as negotiations. This is
Rashi's view.
[Uncertainty where there is also an issue of yibbum]
Return now to the case of one who betroths one of two sisters (sister A and sisterB) without knowing which was betrothed. Recall that both sisters require a get
before they may remarry. What if the betrothing man dies and his brother, theyabam, survives?
The yabam must perform halizah to both A and B before they can remarry. He
cannot perform yibbum with either, even after he has performed halizah with theother. Here is the rationale (for the sake of convenience A is assumed to be the sister
whom the yabam confronts first):
1. The yabam must perform halizah with A before she marries another; shemight have been the one who had been betrothed to the deceased
brother, and the halizah is required to break the tie of yibbum.
2. The yabam cannot perform yibbum with A because there may be anincestuous interdict: possibly, B was the one who was betrothed to thedeceased brother, so that A is the sister of a woman tied to the yabam byties of yibbum.
3. After the yabam performs halizah with A he cannot perform yibbumwith B. Possibly A was the one who was betrothed to the deceased
brother, and she truly required halizah. B is therefore the sister of theyabam's haluzah, and is incestuously forbidden to the yabam.
What if the deceased brother is survived by two brothers, brother A and brother
B? Brother A performs halizah with sister A, and brother B may then perform[7:2]
yibbum with sister B. Here is the rationale:
1. Although a person cannot marry the sister of the woman with whom heperformed halizah, a person may marry his brother's haluzah. Accordingly,
if sister A was actually the deceased brother's wife, then once brother A
performs halizah with her, sister B may marry brother B, since sister B isonly the sister of brother A's haluzah.
2. If sister A was not the deceased brother's wife, then sister B isappropriately subject to yibbum and may therefore marry B.
But brother A cannot perform yibbum with sister A. Sister B may have been the
deceased brother's wife, so that sister A is incestuously prohibited as the sister of awoman tied to brother A by ties of yibbum.
What if brother A did not wait and proceeded to marry sister A, and brother B
thereafter married sister B? The brothers need not divorce their wives. It does notmarry whether they married simultaneously or successively.
1. Insofar as concerns brother B, there is certainly no problem, since atworst sister B is the wife of a woman with whom brother A appropriately
performed yibbum. There is no prohibition against two brothers marrying
two sisters.
2. Insofar as concerns brother A, the yibbum was initially inappropriate
because sister A may have been the sister of a woman tied to brother A byties of yibbum. Still, once brother B married sister B, this possible tie wasdissolved and concerns us no longer.
Consider another complication. Assume that A and B, who are not brothers,
betroth X and Y who are sisters. There is confusion on who betrothed whom. Neitherof X or Y may marry any person until they receive a get from each of A and B.
Assume that each of A and B die, and that there survive a brother of each, A1 and B1.
Neither of A1 and B1 knows who was his brother's wife. The women therefore
require halizah from each. Here is the reasoning:
A1 may not perform yibbum with either woman. Assume, for instance that
A1 wishes to marry X.
1. If B1 has not yet performed halizah with X, then A1 may not marry X. Y
may have been married to A, and X may have been married to B so that:
X is prohibited to A1 as a woman who is tied to another (B1) by tiesof yibbum; and[7:2]
X is also prohibited to A1 as a woman who is the sister of Y who istied to A1 by ties of yibbum.
2. If B1 has already performed halizah with X and Y, A1 may still not marryX, because perhaps A had been married to Y, so that X is prohibited to A1
as a woman who is the sister of a woman (Y) tied to A1 by ties of yibbum.
Nor can A perform halizah with Y first to dissolve these ties, because once
A1 performs halizah with Y, X becomes the sister of his haluzah.
One final complication. Assume that A had only brother A1, but that B had
brothers B1 and B2. Here are the rulings:
1. A1 cannot marry either of X or Y. At best, even after B1 or B2 performhalizah, X may be the sister of a woman who is tied to A1 by ties ofyibbum.
2. A1 performs halizah with both. B1 must perform halizah with one
woman, e.g., X, and B2 may then marry Y:
i. neither woman any longer has potential ties of yibbum to A1, since
A1 has already performed halizah with both.
ii. Y's sister X cannot be tied to B2 with ties of yibbum, for if X were
married to B, her ties were already sundered by B1's halizah.
Again, if despite the halacha each of B1 and B2 marries one of the sisters, we do notinsist on a divorce. This follows from the reasoning discussed previously.
[52:1]
Assume that A (whose five sons have appointed him as their agent for betrothal)tells B "Your five daughters are betrothed to my five sons," or "One of your fivedaughters is betrothed to one of my five sons." We do not assume that the sons anddaughters were meant to be paired in the order of seniority. Instead, there isdoubtful kiddushin which cannot be consummated, and each daughter requires adivorce from all five sons. If one of the five sons dies, then each daughter requires a
get from all four survivors and halizah from one of the survivors.
788

See the Meiri's earlier discussion
items.

788

13:1.

on the rules relating to betrothal with stolen[7:2]
789

The Meiri discusses elsewhere the rule that where an item was stolen from aperson who had not abandoned hope of its return, neither the owner nor the thief
may consecrate it.
[52:2]

789

B.K.68:2.

[7:2]
Also discussed elsewhere is the presumption that an owner abandons hope for
790
return of items robbed by an armed Jewish robber .
[Property deemed taken wrongfully cannot support kiddushin]
A sharecropper or partner cannot betroth with his part of jointly owned
property. The property may be partitioned only after evaluation. Unilateral partitionis therefore theft.
[What constitutes approval of another's taking]Where A took an owner's produce and betrothed with it after the owner told
him "Why did you not take the better produce?!" this too is theft and the betrothal
is void. Some explain that the owner is ironic; others that the owner seriously
complains that better produce should have been used.
There are two parenthetical rules for kiddushin:
The woman is betrothed if prior to the betrothal the owner tells A
clearly "I don't mind, you may use my produce."
If the owner makes the statement afterwards there is no kiddushin.
We consider the object to have been stolen at the time of betrothal
even if we are convinced that the owner would have made thestatement then had he known that A wished to use the produce.
Compare the rule that an object found before the owner despairedof its return does not belong to the finder. It does not matter that
had the owner discovered the loss earlier he would certainly have791
despaired then.
The rule for terumah is different. There is terumah where A unilaterally
separates terumah for the owner, the owner says "Why did you not take the better
produce," and there in fact exists better produce, or the owner personally adds
additional produce to the terumah. Here, the owner must separate terumah in any
event, and it is assumed that he meant to approve and acquiesce.

790

See supra at 13:1, and B.K.114:1.

791

B.M.22:2.

[7:2][Betrothal with hekdesh and second tithe]
The next Mishnah reads:
If one betroths a woman with his portion, whether it is of the higher or the
lower sanctity, she is not betrothed. If with the second tithe, whether
unwittingly or deliberately, he does not betroth her: this is R. Meir's view.
R. Judah said: if unwittingly, he has not betrothed her; if deliberately, hehas.
If with hekdesh, if deliberately, he has betrothed her; if unwittingly, he has
not: this is R. Meir's view. R. Judah said: if unwittingly, he has betrothed
her; if deliberately, he has not.
"One's portion" means:the priest's share of the flesh of sacrifices after their blood has beensprinkled, whether the sacrifices are of the higher sanctity (such as
sin or guilt offerings, of which the entire meat is distributed among
the priests) or of the lower sanctity (such as peace offerings, of which
the priests were given only the chest and the thigh, with the balance
being retained by the owners); and also
the owner's share (all but the chest and the thigh) of sacrifices oflower sanctity.
In each case, the woman is not betrothed if these shares are proffered to her.
Although the shares may be consumed by the persons to whom they are lawfully
given, they are not the property of these persons. Rather, G-d affords them theseshares only for the limited purpose of consuming the flesh. The flesh may not be used
to repay debts or for any other purpose.
The Tosefta rules that the meat of animals sacrificed as tithe may not be
used for kiddushin but the bone, sinew, horn and hoof portions of suchanimals may used for this purpose. The bones and other portions are notsubject to the penalties of me'ilah after the sacrifice's blood has beensprinkled on the altar, suggesting that they are then private property. The
same applies to the animal's milk, and to the animal's blood taken while
the animal is still alive or before it has flowed after death to the Brook
Kidron. Once the blood arrives at the Brook Kidron, me'ilah applies, and792
the blood can no longer be used for kiddushin .

792

See Me'ilah 12:2.

[7:2]
793

R. Meir holds that second tithe is similarly the property of G-d ("it is for G-d" ),and cannot be used for kiddushin. This applies whether or not one or both of the
man and woman knew that the property was second tithe. Even in Jerusalem, where
the second tithe may be eaten, the "owner" of the second tithe cannot do anythingwith the tithe, other than eat it, until it is properly redeemed.

But where she did not know that the produce was second tithe, she is betrothed
only if given to her in Jerusalem. If given elsewhere, there is a presumption that she
does not wish to undertake the perils of the journey in order to consume theproduce. It does not matter that the man must assume the risk of loss on account of
his failure to disclose the true nature of the property he used.
The halacha accords with R. Meir because we rule that second tithe is not
personal property. Still, R. Judah's holding has legal significance, for it teaches that awoman cannot be betrothed with a coin which unbeknownst to her is legal tender
only in a location which can be reached only with some peril. Here again it does notmatter that some hold that the husband is responsible for risk of loss from perils of
the journey.
[Relationship of me'ilah with betrothal through hekdesh]
The following summarizes the respective views of R. Meir and R. Judah on thecircumstances in which me'ilah of hekdesh donated for Temple repair results insecularization, and the circumstances in which a me'ilah offering must be brought:

R. Meir

R. Judah793

Lev.27:30.

Unwitting

Deliberate

Secularized and me'ilahoffering brought only if
propertyisconsumed,burnedorotherwise
destroyed.

Secularized whether or notproperty is destroyed. Me'ilahofferings never apply.

Secularized in all cases, andme'ilahofferings
arebrought. The value of thehekdesh plus one-fifth, must
be returned to the Temple

Never secularized. No me'ilahofferings apply.

[7:2]
treasurer.

It follows that R. Meir holds that kiddushin result where hekdesh of this kind isused and accepted deliberately. The woman receives secularized property although
there is no me'ilah offering. Nor, given her knowledge, can the woman complainthat she does not wish to be party to a transaction in which hekdesh is secularized.
Where he was unwitting, R. Meir holds that there is no kiddushin. The property
could not have been destroyed; if it were there would certainly be no kiddushin. The
property therefore retains its hekdesh character, is not secularized and is not private
property usable for kiddushin. Where he is deliberate and she is not, there is no
kiddushin although the property is secularized. She is conclusively presumed not to
be willing to be a party to a transaction in which hekdesh is secularized. Her
protestations to the contrary do not avail.
R. Judah holds that there is kiddushin where he was unwitting, since R. Judahholds that in this case the hekdesh is secularized. It does not matter whether she wasunwitting or deliberate. Where he was deliberate (regardless of her status), there isno kiddushin because the property is not secularized.
The halacha accords with R. Judah.
[Betrothal with orlah, kilayim, etc.]
The next Mishnah, at 56:1, provides:
If he betroths a woman with orlah or kilayim of the vineyard, or an ox
condemned to be stoned, or the heifer which is to be beheaded, or aleper's bird-offerings, or a nazirite's hair, or the firstlings of a donkey, ormeat seethed in milk, or Hullin slaughtered in the temple court, she is not
betrothed. If he sold them and betrothed her with the proceeds, she isbetrothed.
Further, at 58:1:
If one betroths a woman with terumot, tithes, priestly gifts, the water ofpurification and the ashes of purification, she is betrothed, even if an
Israelite.
No benefit may be derived from any of the items listed in the first sentence of thefirst paragraph of the Mishnah, as well as from hametz during Passover. The same
applies when the prohibition is Rabbinic only, such as for hametz from 11 A.M. to 12[7:2]
noon on the 14th day of Nissan; property is not private if subject to a Rabbinic
prohibition.
If despite the prohibition, the listed properties are sold, the proceeds may freely
794
be used for kiddushin . A prohibition attaches to proceeds only for objects which795
796
are prohibited on account of idolatry or sheviith .
But is it not true that if a Jew purchases the forbidden items, the buyer
may rescind the sale since he unwittingly purchased an object from which
he is permitted no use? If so, the seller in effect stole the proceeds, and no
kiddushin can result!
Yes, but there is kiddushin in the Mishnah because the sale was to agentile.
The Yerushalmi in the name of R. Haggai b. Zeira offers an alternate
explanation: The Mishnah validates betrothal not with the proceeds
themselves but with an object purchased with the proceeds.
[Is the right to give an item a property right?]
Kiddushin by an Israelite with terumah and tithe is valid, even though theterumah and tithe must be donated, rather than sold, to a priest and levite,
respectively. The Gemara first bases this holding on the so-called benefit-of-disposal:
it is a valuable right to decide which priest or levite is to receive property, because insome way the donor will receive some benefit from the selection. It is this rightwhich the man transfers to the woman as kiddushin.
However, the Gemara concludes that benefit-of-disposal is not value, and that
the Mishnah deals with the case in which the Israelite has the right to sell theterumah or tithe and is not obligated to give them to anyone. This is because theIsraelite inherited the produce from a maternal grandfather who was a priest or a

794

The Mishna's syntax "If he sold them and betrothed her," in the past tense, does not indicate that
it is improper to betroth her. The syntax merely follows the past tense of the word sold, which isappropriate since the sale violated the prohibition against deriving benefit from the listed items.
795

Even the excrement of animals used in idolatry is considered prohibited proceeds. Scripture
decrees that "Nothing [idolatrous] shall attach in your hands." Deut.13:18.
796

Notwithstanding that the sheviith prohibition attaches even to proceeds of sheviith produce, theproduce itself, and most certainly its proceeds, may be used for kiddushin.

[7:2]
levite:If the produce was actually terumah or tithe when inherited, the produce
was his grandfather's personal property without further obligation. The
Israelite inherits the grandfather's absolute title to the produce and can sellthem as he wishes.
Where the produce was inherited while yet tebel, the grandfather's title
was not yet perfected, since the grandfather was obligated formally toseparate terumah and tithe before consuming the produce. Nevertheless,the obligation to separate does not detract from legal title: produce notyet separated is treated the same as separated produce. That being so, theheir has sufficient title to separate and sell the terumah to a priest and toretain the proceeds.
The halacha is that benefit-of-disposal does not rank as value, although a minority of797
commentators are uncertain. This will be explained later .
[Betrothal with priestly gifts, etc.]
Just as a priest may betroth with terumah he may also betroth with priestly gifts,
that is, the arm, the cheeks and the maw of Hullin animals.
"Water of purification" is water drawn from a spring into a receptacle in order
later to receive the ashes of purification. The water must be placed in the receptacle
before the ashes.
No benefit may be derived from ashes or water of purification, and it isimpermissible to demand payment for mixing the ashes of purification with the798water or for sprinkling the mixture. The Gemara explainsthat the Mishnahpermits kiddushin by way of these ashes where the man waives the right to receive
payment from the woman for bringing the ashes from the place where they weresecreted or for drawing and bringing the waters of purification.
But is the waiver of a right to receive compensation for services ever valid as
kiddushin, when we know that an artisan cannot betroth a woman by waiving
799
amounts she owes him in payment for work he did for her? The ashes and water
797

58:2.

798

In Rashi's interpretation. See Rashba.

799

48:1.

[7:2]
are not her property and the case is similar to an artisan who has an express pledgeof the item taken for repair. The artisan's waiver of these rights is sufficient tovalidate kiddushin.
This completes the Mishnah, which is the halacha to the extent described. The
Gemara explains the following:[Lower grade sacrifices are owner's property]
One who swears falsely in repudiating another person's property right must800
bring an asham for "trespass[ing] in G-d" . The reference to G-d teaches that an
asham must be brought even where the property right that is repudiated is anotherperson's lower grade sacrifice. It follows that a lower grade sacrifice is the owner's
property until its blood is sprinkled on the altar, and that an Israelite may betroth awoman with a lower grade sacrifice at this stage. The woman succeeds to the man's
right to eat the sacrifice.
[May women enter the Temple court?]
Recall the Mishnah's holding that one cannot betroth with higher grade
sacrifices. Now, higher grade sacrifices may be consumed only in the Temple Court.
The Gemara therefore inquires on how the woman happens to be in the Temple
Court rather than in the Woman's Court. The Gemara explains that:
1. She was a ketannah or a na'arah and her father accepted kiddushin for
her while he was in the Temple Court; or
2. She was an adult and appointed a male agent to accept kiddushin for
her while he was in the Temple Court; or
3. She forced her way into the temple court.
Is it forbidden for a woman to enter the Temple Court, or is it only unusual that
she appear there? The following considerations are relevant:
1. Our Gemara says "she forced her way in," rather than "she transgressedand entered."801

2. A Mishnah elsewhere
800

Lev.5:21.

801

Kelim 1:6 et seq.

lists the following 10 grades of increasing levels

[7:2]
of sanctity:i. The land of Israel is more sacred than other lands because only its
produce may be used for omer, bikurim, and the two breads of
shevuot.
ii. Walled cities in Eretz Israel have greater sanctity in that a leper isexpelled from such cities, and the Rabbis prohibit a corpse to be
returned to such cities once removed. Until removed, the corpse may
be transported from one place to another in walled cities for eulogy.
iii. The area within Jerusalem's walls has greater sanctity because
lower grade sacrifices and second tithes may be consumed there.
iv. The Temple mount has greater sanctity since it is forbidden to azav, a zavah, a niddah and a woman who has given birth and who
has not yet brought the requisite offerings.
v. The hel on the Temple mount has greater sanctity in that entry is
not permitted to gentiles or to persons who were defiled withcorpses.
vi. The Women's Court has greater sanctity since entry is forbidden to
one who has performed tevilah but must still wait until sunset to beritually clean.
vii. The Temple Court has greater sanctity in that entry is forbidden
to one who is ritually clean but has not yet brought requisite
sacrifices. Besides, even a ritually pure person cannot enter without
802
tevilah .
viii. The Priest's Court is of greater sanctity in that Israelites may enter
only for the purpose of putting their hands on the heads of theirsacrifices (which must be done by the owner), slaughtering sacrifices(which may be done by non-priests), and waving of the sacrifice(which must be done by the owner).
ix. The area between the hall leading into the interior of the Temple
and the altar is of greater sanctity because entry is forbidden to
blemished and bareheaded priests.

802

Yoma 30:1.

[7:2]
x. The Temple itself is of higher sanctity since it may be entered only
after the priest has appropriately washed his hands and feet. The
Holy of Holies is of the highest sanctity since it may be entered onlyby the high priest on Yom Kippur.
Note that the Mishnah does not say that the Temple Court has a higher
level of sanctity than the Woman's Court in that women are not permitted.
3. We know that women may slaughter sacrifices. And sacrifices were803
generally slaughtered in the Temple Court .
4. Rashi holds that a woman can have no greater status than a man who isperfectly clean but has not yet brought requisite sacrifices. Entry istherefore forbidden.
The Meiri disagrees with Rashi and concludes that women may enter the Temple
Court, but that this was not common.
[53:1][Distributions among priests]

803

The Mishna's reference to slaughter in the Priest's Court merely teaches that sacrifices are also
valid if performed in the Priest's Court. Presumably, only men may perform sacrifices in the Priest's
Court.

[7:2]The priesthood was divided into families. Each family participated in all property
to which any member of the family was entitled. With reference to meal-offerings ofsifted fine flour Scripture states "It shall be to all of Aaron's sons, each as his804
brother."
Why then does Scripture provide for asham "It shall be to the priest who effects
the forgiveness," and for shlamim "It shall be to the priest who sprinkles the805
blood"? To teach that the distribution is made only among priests who are fit to
conduct sacrifices, so as to exclude minors, ritually impure priests, women andandrogynous priests.
Blemished priests are entitled to a distributive share. Although they are not fit to
conduct sacrifices, they are permitted to remove worms from the kindling woodplaced on the altar, to remove the sacrifice's skin and to cut the sacrifice into
separate sections. Scripture states of the blemished priest "[he eats] of the bread of
806
G-d, from the higher grade sacrifices."
The distribution is made in kind from each sacrifice. We do not distribute topriest A a portion of sacrifice A and to priest B a portion of sacrifice B. The moredifferent the sacrifices, the more logical the rule that priests must share in kind. The
rule applies in all cases, from the most different to the most alike:
1. Not only:
where sacrifice A is an animal offering and sacrifice B is a mealoffering, in which case:the species are different, anda meal offering cannot be substituted, in the case of poverty, forthe animal offering which must be brought by one who defiles
the Temple or falsely swears that he knows no testimony (a mealoffering can be brought only if the person cannot afford a fowl
offering);
But also:

804

Lev.7:10.

805

Lev.7:14.

806

Lev.21:22.

[7:2]
where sacrifice A is a fowl offering and sacrifice B is a meal offering,notwithstanding that meal offerings follow next in line to fowl
offerings where the owner cannot afford a fowl offering in the casejust described.
2. Not only:
where sacrifice A is a fowl offering and sacrifice B is a meal offering,where one offering is not live;
But also:
where sacrifice A is an animal offering and sacrifice B is a fowl
offering.
3. Not only:
where sacrifice A is an animal offering and sacrifice B is a fowl
offering, where the animal's sacrifice is performed with a knife,
whereas the fowl's sacrifice is performed by pinching the fowl's neckby hand;
But also:
one meal offering as against another meal offering, and one fowl
offering as against another fowl offering.
4. Not only:
where sacrifice A is a meal offering dressed in the frying pan, andsacrifice B is a meal offering dressed in the baking pan, where one isdressed firmly and the other is soft;
But also:
where each offering is dressed in a frying pan or in a baking pan.
5. Not only:
where the sacrifices are high grade where it is well known that thesacrifices are not property of the priests, so that it is inappropriate to
distribute different sacrifices and to even out values by monetary
payment;
But also:[7:2]
lower grade sacrifices, for these, too, are not the priest's property,
and equalizing payments are also improper.
A baraitha relates that initially even a small portion of the lehem ha'ponim wasenough to satisfy a priest, but that subsequently a curse entered the lehemha'ponim, and the small pieces did not satisfy. At that point "the modest withdrew
their hands, but the greedy shared." One can assume that it was impossible to
distribute equal portions to each priest. Does not then the word sharing suggest thatthe greedy priests indemnified each other if their portions were not equivalent?! No,
the word sharing is used more in the sense of snatching and grabbing.
Do not deduce that priests have rights only in distributions which are divided
equally among family members. Certain types of property are distributed only to thepriests on a particular watch and the property is nevertheless the distributee's forsale and other purposes. Recall for example that one who falsely denies under oaththat he stole property from a convert must deliver the property to the priests if theconvert has since died. The priests of the watch receive this property and have title toit although they need not distribute it among family members.
The lehem ha'ponim was made of matzo weekly, and was presented on Sabbath.
The two breads of shevuot were made of hametz. When shevuoth fell on Sabbath,
both breads were brought, with the hametz distributed separately and the matzo
distributed separately.
[53:2][Me'ilah with deposited funds]
Assume that one deposits funds of hekdesh with a money-changer without
telling him that they belong to hekdesh. If the funds were obviously not intended
for the money-changer's use, such as where they were conspicuously bundled orsealed, and the money-changer uses the funds nonetheless, it is the money-changer
who has committed me'ilah.
If there was no distinguishing sign, the Meiri holds that the owner has
committed me'ilah, since he in effect authorized the money-changer to use thefunds. The Rambam disagrees based on a different textual reading; he holds that theowner has not committed me'ilah, because he did not direct the money changer to
expend the funds.
The same rules apply to a store-keeper.

[7:2][54:1][Me'ilah with priestly garments]
There is no me'ilah in a hekdesh object from which any person (it does notmatter that the person is not the one who commits me'ilah) is permitted to derive
any personal use.
For example, there is no me'ilah if a non-priest unwittingly eats high grade
sacrifices after the blood has been sprinkled; the sacrifices may then be consumed bypriests. Similarly, priestly tunics may be worn during the service (when their use is807
not personal), and also afterwards (when their use is personal) . The Torah was not
given to angels who can remove their tunics instantaneously upon completing theservice. That being so, even a non-priest commits no me'ilah by using these tunics.
Since there is no me'ilah, it follows that the tunics are not secularized by use.
Once the tunics are worn out, no use may be made of them by anyone, andme'ilah applies both to priests and non-priests.
There is no me'ilah for high grade sacrifices which have been rendered unfit for
consumption, because there had once been a time (before the animal was rendered
unfit) when consumption was permitted. Why, then, does me'ilah apply to worn out
tunics from which personal use was once allowed? Because the permission to derive
personal use from tunics was grudging and narrow; it resulted only from the physicalimpossibility of removing the tunic instantaneously after the service was completed.
But what of the rule that an object which has served its ritual purpose is not
subject to me'ilah? Worn out tunics and ashes removed from the altar are exceptions
808
to this rule .

807

Commentators differ on whether the avnet, which was made of kilayim, could be worn on the
day of the service in the Temple after the service had been completed.
808

Me'ilah 11:2. The Gemara there also discusses the rule that there is me'ilah for the linen clothingworn by the high priest on Yom Kippur. Some hold (consistent with the halacha) that the verse forsuch clothing "And he shall lay them there" (Lev.16:23) refers to permanent laying aside. It follows
that the ritual purpose of the clothing has been permanently served. The holding that me'ilah applies
must be an exception from the rule that there is no me'ilah for objects whose ritual purpose has been
served.
An opposing view holds that the verse directs only that the clothing not be used by the high priest in
the following year. The clothing can otherwise be used by the high priest and the other priests

[7:2]
Cloth from worn-out tunics which belonged to non-high priests was made into
wicks for the menorah. Worn out breaches and girdles were used to form wicks foroil lights used in the simhat bet ha'shoeva on the second night of Sukkot. Why was
there no me'ilah? Because, in the view of most commentators, these uses wereritually based, and were for public benefit. Compare the rule that surplus Temple
funds could be used to maintain city walls even in the view (inconsistent with the
halacha) of those who hold that me'ilah applied to these funds. Other commentators
explain that me'ilah applies to vestments of the high priest but not to othervestments.
[Me'ilah with funds contributed to the Temple]
There were 13 money receptacles in the Temple. They were shaped as a shofar,
and were narrow on top and wide on bottom. The funds in each receptacle were809
segregated for specific purposes as explained elsewhere . One receptacle wasmarked "new" and was used for deposit of shekels contributed for the year
commencing with the first day of the most recent Nissan; when this was receptacle
was full, its funds were transferred to the Temple treasury for use as described in thenext paragraph. Another receptacle was marked "old"; in it were deposited funds
which were contributed for the prior year. The funds in the "old" receptacle could810
not be used for sacrifices in the current year . In referring to Nissan, Scripture says
811
"This chodesh is to you." The word chodesh means both month and new.
Once the "new" funds were transferred to the Temple treasury, they wereplaced in a large chamber and were then deposited in three large boxes, each ofwhich held nine se'ah. Before each of Passover, Shevuot and Sukkot, three se'ah's
worth of shekels were placed in a small three se'ah box in a procedure called the"separation of the treasury," and were used to purchase the tamid, musaf and otherthroughout the year, so that it cannot be said that the purpose of the clothing has been served. In thisview, the applicability of me'ilah is not an exception from the general rule.
809

Shek.6:4.

810

Funds deposited in the old receptacle after Nissan are deemed atoned for by sacrifices brought
prior to Nissan, so long as the delay in bringing the old funds was not deliberate. When, prior to
Nissan, the past year's funds were removed to the Temple treasury, the priests intended that theremoval also cover all funds which were yet to be collected for the year, which had been collected
but lost, or which had otherwise not timely reached, or would otherwise not timely reach, theTemple receptacles.
811

Ex.12:2.

[7:2]
812

public sacrifices, and for certain other purposes explained elsewhere . The funds
remaining in the small boxes at the end of the year were called "remainders of theseparation," and were used to make thin golden sheets for placement in the Holy of813
Holies and for certain other purposes explained elsewhere .
The funds which remained in the large chamber or in the large box after thesmaller boxes were separated were called "remainders of the chamber," and wereused for repair of the city walls and towers, and for certain other purposes explained814
elsewhere . Funds deposited in the "old" receptacle were also considered"remainders of the chamber."
What was done with funds which were not necessary for repair of the city, etc.?
R. Ishmael holds that they were used by the Temple treasurer to conduct businessactivities for the account of the Temple. R. Akiva holds that it is improper for thetreasurer to engage in profit making activities. The Mishnah does not explain forwhat purpose R. Akiva would use the excess funds; it is likely that they were
deposited in a reserve for potential future use in city repairs.
Me'ilah applies to "new" funds but not to "old" funds.
Me'ilah applies to general Temple property. In fact, Temple construction projects
are not consecrated until completion, to avoid me'ilah by workers who accidentally
benefit from Temple property by sitting on stones during construction or by standing815
in the shade of a beam.
[The formulation which is requisite for a vow]
An oath can attach to a non-hekdesh object only if the person uttering the oathdeclares that the object is to be to him as an object consecrated to hekdesh by anoath.
By way of example, a vow can be validated by declaring that an object "is to be
to me as a hattat or an asham," or a "lamb" (assumed to mean the lamb brought asa sacrifice), as a "shed" (assumed to mean a shed of sacrificial animals or a shed of

812

Shekolim 4:1.

813

Shekolim 4:2.

814

Shekolim 4:2.

815

See B.M.57:2.

[7:2]
kindling-wood to be placed on the altar), as "clubs of wood" (assumed to mean thetwo clubs of kindling-wood placed on the altar), as "fires" (assumed to mean the
flame on the wood of the altar), as the "altar" or the "temple" or as "Jerusalem"(assumed to mean the sacrifices brought in these places rather than to the wood orstone of the altar or the Temple).
It is not necessary to express the vow as "the object shall be as a shed, as
Jerusalem, or as the temple." The word as is assumed if the statement takes the form
"an altar if I shall eat of yours," or "Jerusalem if I eat of yours."
There is no vow if a person says "this object shall be to me as meat of swine." A
vow is valid only for an interdict which arises from consecration.
[54:2][Fourth-year vintage compared to second tithe]
Fourth-year vintage is similar to second tithe in the following respects:
1. It can be eaten only by its owners and only in Jerusalem, unless the
produce is redeemed for money, in which case the money must be
expended for produce consumed in Jerusalem.
2. If the fourth-year vintage is redeemed by its owner (rather than a third
person) the redemption price must be one-fifth in excess of true value.
3. Fourth-year vintage may not be maintained in the home after the third
and the sixth year of each sheviith cycle.
4. Fourth-year vintage is exempt from the laws which dedicate to the poor
fallings (individual grapes) and gleanings (small single bunches) which are
dislodged during the harvest. The law of fallings and gleanings applies only
to "your vineyard," whereas fourth-year vintage is considered the propertyof G-d.
It follows that fourth-year vintage need not be marked conspicuously
to alert the poor of fourth-year status: the poor have no businesstaking even the fallings and gleanings of such produce, let alone
other portions of such produce. A Mishnah which requires thatfourth-year vintage be conspicuously marked refers only to fourthyear vintage which grows in the sheviith year. All persons may eat
sheviith fruit, and the markings are necessary to alert the rich as wellas the poor.

[7:2]
Fourth year vintage may be processed into wine before it is redeemed. The sameis true of fourth-year plantings of olives: they may be converted to oil before
redemption. Other fourth-year produce must be redeemed in its natural originalform.
[Me'ilah and the laws of agency]
We previously explained that a principal commits me'ilah if he unwittingly816
directs his agent to expend hekdesh funds for non-hekdesh uses. This applies evento an agent who is a deaf-mute, an idiot or a minor. Where the agent did not carryout the principal's orders precisely, and the agent is adult, sane and not a deaf-mute,then the principal is exempt from me'ilah and the agent is liable.
What if after giving the funds to the agent the principal realizes that the funds
were hekdesh? Since it is only the agent who is unwitting, it is only he who commits
me'ilah. If indeed the agent before he expends the funds also realizes that the funds
are hekdesh, then neither the principal nor the agent commits me'ilah and the funds
are not secularized by their expenditure.
Assume that a principal gives a storekeeper money which the principal knows to
be hekdesh. The storekeeper commits me'ilah when he later transfers the money
unwittingly.
[How one can give a gift of second tithe or fourth-year vintage]
One who redeems his own second tithe pays a redemption price equal to thevalue of the tithe plus one-fifth. This applies even where he succeeded to its
ownership by inheritance or gift.
How could the donor give a gift of property which is divinely owned? Bygiving produce before the tithe is separated. But what of the rule thattithes are considered legally separated even before they are physicallyseparated? The rule does not apply here: sanctity cannot attach until actual
separation.
The same applies to fourth year vintage. One who redeems his own fourth year
vintage pays a redemption price equal to the value of the vintage plus one-fifth. Thisapplies even where the owner succeeded to the vintage by inheritance or gift.

816

The hekdesh involved here means funds consecrated for temple repair work; not funds
consecrated for the purchase of sacrificial animals.

[7:2]
But how could the donor give a gift of property which is divinely owned? It
is no answer here that sanctity cannot attach until separation; there is no
separation for fourth-year vintage!
When then could the property have been given in gift? Before the grapes
are considered fruit, i.e., immediately after the opening of the bloom when817
the grapes first become recognizable as grapes . At this stage the rules offourth-year vintage and orlah do not yet apply.
Some commentators explain that gifts can be made only after this stage isreached; if given at an earlier stage the grape is not yet an object in being
and can therefore not be the subject of a gift.
[Sale of second tithe]
Second tithe is sacred property and should not be sold. But a sale whichtransgresses this prohibition is valid and effective. What form of kinyan applies? The
818
same as for hekdesh; the basic kinyan is by transfer of money . However, where
beneficial to hekdesh (in this case the seller of second tithe is treated as hekdesh)meshikhah is also valid; this is a Rabbinical rule to avoid a result which would
otherwise favor civil property over sacred property.
It follows that:
1. If the buyer performed meshikhah when the tithe was worth one zuz but
money did not pass until the price rose to two zuz, the seller prevails. He
can insist that only the passage of money can finalize a sale of hekdesh-tithe.
2. If the buyer performed meshikhah when the tithe was worth two zuz
but money did not pass until the price fell to one zuz, the seller can insist
817

The Rambam would apply the same rule even at the later stage of boser. The Meiri disagrees; atthat stage the doctrine of fourth-year vintage applies in full force.
818"He shall give the purchase price ... and it shall stand in his possession."[7:2]
that the sale is final and that the buyer pay him two zuz.
The Rambam and certain other commentators disagree with this interpretation of theGemara and explain that the Gemara deals with a case in which monetary tithes arebeing exchanged for civil produce. The Meiri disagrees.
[55:1][Dealing with animals which are possibly hekdesh]
Migdal Eder was a town near Jerusalem. An animal found outside of Jerusalem
within a distance no greater than that from Jerusalem to Migdal Eder was assumed
to have strayed from Jerusalem. Most animals in Jerusalem were hekdesh, and forstringent purposes the animal was given the sanctity of all types of sacrifices forwhich it could possibly have been brought.
The following lists the types of sacrifices which can be brought in the Temple,
and certain delimiting characteristics:

Sacrificepublic/ private

species

male/ female

age

Oleh

public andprivatecattle, sheep(including rams),
goats, turtle
doves, young
doves

animals must be
male; fowl canbe male orfemalevaries

Hattatpublic andprivatesame as oleh

public may bringmale only;
private brings
female only(with minor
exceptions)private-one
year of age
with minor
exceptions

asham

privatesheep only

male only

if for theft,me'ilah or a
betrothedmaidservant,
two years; if
for a nazir ora leper one

[7:2]
year
shlamimprivate (except
for two sheep ofAtzeret)two sheep ofAtzeretpublicbekhor,maser orpesachprivatesame animals as
oleh; no fowl

male or female

variessame as shlamimsame as shlamimsame asshlamim

The exceptional male hattat sacrifices to which the table refers are thosebrought by a Nasi, the anointed priest, and by the high priest on Yom Kippur.
It follows that:
1. If a female one-year old animal is found, it is potentially a hattat. It
cannot be sacrificed, for possibly it is one of the five types of hattat whichmust be put to death by confining it to graze until it dies.
The reference to imprisoning it in an enclosure is not literal,
although it is possible that an enclosure dedicated for this purpose
did exist.
2. If a female two-year old animal is found, it can only be a shlamim.
However, on account of uncertainty on whether the animal is a todah-type
shlamim, the animal must be sacrificed with the loaves which accompany
the todah.
3. If the animal is male and two-years of age, it can only be an asham whichmust be brought on account of theft, me'ilah or a betrothed maidservant.
Such sacrifices cannot be brought voluntarily. As a result, the found animalcannot be sacrificed, but is permitted to graze until its ultimate death.
There is no concern that the animal was a hattat brought by the public, theanointed priest or by the Nasi, since this is unlikely.
4. A male animal one-year old is assumed not to be an asham brought by aleper or a nazirite because these are unlikely events.
There is concern that the animal may be either an oleh or a shlamim. It
follows from this uncertainty that the animal cannot be sacrificed. The[7:2]
remedy is to do as follows:
i. Wait until the animal is permanently blemished. Only a sanctified
animal which has been blemished may be redeemed.
ii. Purchase two animals and designate one as destined to be an oleh
(animal O) and the other as destined to be a shlamim (animal S).

iii. Announce that if the found animal was an oleh, then the sanctityof the animal is to be transferred to animal O. If the opposite was true,
then the sanctity is to be transferred to animal S.
iv. Animals O and S are then sacrificed as oleh and shlamim,
respectively. Out of concern that the found animal was a todah-type
shlamim, the appropriate loaves are brought with animal S.
v. The found animal, now blemished, may then be eaten. This isbecause all sacrifices other than pesach (which is a variety of shlamim) may
be eaten once redeemed.
But what if the found animal was in fact a pesach? This is of noconcern on the day when the pesach sacrifice is to be brought, since it isassumed that the owner of the sacrifice then carefully guards his animal. If
the time for sacrifice is past, the pesach's status reverts to typical shlamim
and the redeemed animal may be eaten.
[Consecutive me'ilah in the same object]
A Mishnah states the proposition that "There can be no consecutive me'ilah inrespect of sacred objects except in the case of animals and vessels of ministry." Theproposition relative to animals and vessels of ministry can be explained in one of
two ways:
1. The majority hold that the reference is to objects which obtain
bodily sanctity. In the case of animals this means pure unblemished animals
which are fit for sacrifice, and in the case of vessels, this means the actual
vessels used in the Temple service. Such an animal or vessel is subject torepeated me'ilah by those who unwittingly use or derive unlawful benefit
from it.
For example, if A rides on a sanctified animal and B then does thesame, each commits me'ilah. The same applies if A sells or gives the animal

[7:2]
to B, and B then sells or gives the animal to C, or if A drinks form a sacredutensil, and B drinks from it afterwards.
The rule is otherwise for objects whose sanctity attaches to theirmonetary value only, such as property donated to the Temple for the sakeof the Temple's physical upkeep, including impure animals which are notfit for sacrifice. Here, the first person to commit me'ilah transmutes theobject into civil, non-sacred status, and no other person can thereaftercommit me'ilah.
2. The Rambam disagrees. Our Gemara holds that there can be
successive me'ilah where the sanctity is monetary rather than bodily. The
reference to animals is to those which are impure and are therefore
sanctified, not as a sacrifice, but for their monetary value only. The
reference to vessels is to objects not used in the Temple service itself. Thus,
the Tosefta refers to an axe which was consecrated as hekdesh.
But what of the rule that me'ilah secularizes monetary sanctity? That
applies only when the me'ilah consists of a transfer of title; it does not
apply to me'ilah which consists of injury to hekdesh caused by obtaining a
proscribed benefit, such as a perutah's worth of benefit from riding on adonkey or from using a consecrated axe. That is in fact why the Gemara
uses these examples (in which there is proscribed use rather than atransfer) to explain situations in which there is successive me'ilah.
In analyzing these views, the Meiri observes that:
1. Although the Rambam is supported by the Tosefta, he is contradicted by
our Gemara, and our Gemara must prevail over the Tosefta. For ourGemara holds that the Mishnah reflects the rule that items of bodily
sanctity cannot be redeemed, and that it is this doctrine which results insuccessive me'ilah.
2. The Mishnah uses the words vessels of ministry, and this term is neverused otherwise than for the vessels actually employed in the Temple
service.
3. Animals fit for sacrifice, primarily sheep or goats, are generally not fit forriding. Does this not support the Rambam that impure animals such as
donkeys are meant? Not necessarily. Perhaps the reference is to occasionaluse, or to riding on an ox or a cow, which are also fit for certain sacrifices.
The Meiri concludes against the Rambam that all monetary sanctity is secularized
by proscribed benefit as well as by transfer of title, and that the Mishnah's reference[7:2]
to successive me'ilah is limited to objects of bodily sanctity.
But is it possible that successive me'ilah for items of bodily sanctity applies
only where there was no transfer of title? In other words, shall we apply tosuch items the distinction which the Rambam proposed for items ofmonetary value?
The Meiri disagrees with a minority of commentators who make this
distinction. Although he disagrees with the Tosefta's basic view (which isthe same as the Rambam's), the Meiri does consider the Tosefta sufficiently
authoritative on this point: the Tosefta specifically refers to successive
me'ilah in cases of transfer of title.
The Meiri also disagrees with a minority of commentators who would distinguishbetween different sorts of bodily sanctity, such as between sacrifices and kindlingwood.
[55:2][Where second tithe is inappropriately redeemed or expended]
Second tithe funds may be redeemed outside of Jerusalem by transferring theirsanctity to other coins. Alternatively, second tithe may be used in Jerusalem topurchase food for consumption.
Funds which are second tithe may not be used to purchase an animal outside of
Jerusalem for consumption in Jerusalem. We are concerned that the animal will be
weakened by transport to Jerusalem. For these reasons, the prohibition applies:
not onlyin the owner's residence outside of Jerusalem, where there is concernthat the animal might inadvertently be consumed outside of
Jerusalem,
but also
on the road to Jerusalem, where it is obvious that the overriding
purpose is to consume the animal in Jerusalem,and not only
when many animals are bought, out of concern that a herd ofsecond tithe animals will be engendered and not be properly[7:2]
consumed,
but also
where only one animal is bought.
There are the following corollary rules:
1. If the buyer of the animal and transferor of the funds (B) did notknow that his funds were second tithe, the transaction was a mistakeand is rescinded if the seller of the animal and recipient of the funds(S) is available. "The money is returned to its place."
2. If B was unwitting but S is not available for rescission, B may takethe animal to Jerusalem for consumption. "It must be brought up
and consumed in the Place." B is not penalized, since he wasunwitting.
3. If B and S realized that the funds were second tithe, and that B
intended that the animal be purchased as shlamim for consumption in
Jerusalem, there is no mistake in the transaction and there is norescission. The animal must be brought to Jerusalem and consumed asa shlamim.
4. If B and S deliberately intended that the animal be consumed as
Hullin, whether inside or outside of Jerusalem, and S is not available,
then B is penalized and is required "to eat the value thereof." Thismeans that B must produce additional funds, and he must announce
that the funds which B previously gave to S are redeemed on
additional funds which B must produce. The additional funds mustthen be taken to Jerusalem to purchase food and drink for
consumption.
5. If B and S deliberately intended that the animal be consumed as
Hullin, whether inside or outside of Jerusalem, and S is present, then S
819
too is penalized and we demand rescission .

819

The Rambam holds that in case 5, where the violation is deliberate, the funds "are brought to theirplace," whereas in case 1 where the violation is unwitting, B must "eat the value thereof." The Meiri
assumes that the Rambam's rationale is that the rule as outlined in Items 1 through 5 represents R.
Judah's view, presumably in opposition to the view of the Sages. The Meiri disagrees. R. Judah's
purpose is to elaborate on the Sages' view rather than to disagree with them.

[7:2]The rescission rule where S is available makes eminent sense where
the transaction occurs in Jerusalem, and is in the nature of purchaseand sale. Because an improper item was purchased, the sale is invalid
as a mistake. It follows that the property in B's hands is not hekdesh,
whereas the funds paid to S are hekdesh in his hands. S should
certainly be penalized as well as B.
But transactions outside of Jerusalem are redemptive (rather thanpurchase and sale) in nature and there is no concept of mistake. The
sanctity of the second tithe did pass to the Hullin animal, and thefunds which passed to S are freed of sanctity. Why do we penalize S
by insisting on rescission? Why not demand that B "eat the value
thereof?"Rashi explains that S's guilt is that he engages in the transaction
although he knows that B intends to consume the purchased animal
outside of Jerusalem. This transgresses the rule that one may notabet another's transgressions ("You shall not set an obstacle in thepath of a blind man").
[56:1]
6. Produce may be purchased with second tithe only for food or
drink or for oil to be used for anointing.
It follows from case 5 that where second tithe funds are used topurchase items (such as impure animals, slaves and real property)
which cannot be used for these purposes, the transaction must be
rescinded where S is available, and B must eat the value thereof
where S is not available.
[Must hekdesh and fourth-year vintage be in hand in order to be redeemed?]
Recall the cases in which B is required to make redemptions designed "so that heeat the value" of funds which are owned by S, who is absent. This suggests that
redemption is valid even where the sacred funds to be redeemed are not in hand.
The same rule may be implied from the following two Gemaras.
1. Funds derived from sheviith must be expended for sheviith produce
for one's own personal consumption before the end of the sheviithyear. The funds cannot be used in business transactions. Accordingly,
it is forbidden to transfer such funds to an ignorant am ha'aretz, outof concern that the am ha'aretz will violate this prohibition. If the[7:2]
funds were nevertheless given to an am ha'aretz, the transferor must
redeem the funds (which are not in the transferor's possession) onto
the transferor's non-sheviith produce, which thereupon attain
820
sheviith status.
2. One can redeem another's hekdesh, even without the owner's
821
knowledge.
822

holds that pious persons would each day in advanceBut another Gemara
redeem the fourth-year vintage which the poor would consume later that day. Does
not that Gemara prove that fourth-year vintage cannot be redeemed while inanother's possession!?
The Meiri concludes that neither our Gemara, nor the two others cited, hold that
redemption is valid on property which is not physically possessed:
1. Our Gemara does not mean to imply that the property in B's hands
is validly redeemed by S's unilateral action. Rather, the purpose is
only to penalize S by requiring that he "eat the value thereof." Notethat the Gemara only requires "that he eat the value thereof," anddoes not state that "he redeems B's property and eats the value
thereof."
2. The Gemara relating to sheviith reflects a Rabbinical remedy to be
applied where nothing else can be done.
3. hekdesh is distinguishable because of its dedication to G-d, so that
it is no more in one person's possession than in another's. Distinguishsecond tithe, fourth year vintage and sheviith, where (unless as a

820

Sukkah 39:1.

821

Yeb.88:1.

822

B.K.69:1.

[7:2]
Rabbinical remedy where there is no alternative) there is a definite
ownership interest, and it is inappropriate for anyone to redeem
property which is not in his possession.
[56:2][Kiddushin with orlah]
The rule that no benefit can be derived from orlah applies, not only where there
is a tangible benefit, such as where the orlah or its sales proceeds are consumed, butalso where:
1. the benefit is only to the eye, such as where the orlah is used as adye; and2. the orlah is destroyed (such as oil that is used in a lamp) in the823
course of the benefit. This is the purpose of the additional verse
824"You shall count the fruit thereof as uncircumcised."
It is permissible to derive benefit from orlah, as well as from other prohibited
items, where the benefit is derived in:a non-standard way by a person who suffers from some ailment,even if minor, orin accordance with its usual use where the ailment carries with itserious risk.
Is there kiddushin where orlah is given to an ailing woman?
The Rashba is uncertain, and rules that the woman should be consideredbetrothed where this results in a stringent holding. The Rashba notes that a woman
can be validly betrothed with an item which is worth a perutah only to her, such as aleaf of lettuce or a myrtle branch which she requires to perform a commandment, orwith an apple which she requires for her health while ailing. Other commentators
disagree.

823

A previous verse states "They shall be as uncircumcised unto you; they shall not be eaten."

824

Lev.19:23.

[7:2][Kiddushin where a woman has a craving for an item not worth a perutah]
All agree that a woman is betrothed where she has a strong craving for an item
which is not worth a perutah, and the craving does not arise from illness or the need825
to fulfill a commandment. But recall the Gemara which holds that only persons of
the standing of R. Kahana could value a head-dress at five shekels, because suchcoverings are appropriate to them. This suggests to some commentators that thecraving must be appropriate to the woman.
Some commentators disagree. They would distinguish between a head-dress, acalf or a tallit, which are not of general utility, and objects which are of generalutility. They hold that objects of the second sort can be accorded value even by
persons to whom they are not appropriate.
826This view is not supported by the Gemara which states that there is concern that
objects not worth a perutah here may be worth a perutah in Medea. Why do we notexpress concern that the object may be worth a perutah to the particular woman, no
matter how inappropriate we think it?
The Meiri concludes that the matter is unclear, and stringent holdings areappropriate.
[Kiddushin with various items from which benefit is proscribed]
No benefit may be derived from k'lay hakerem. Scripture explains that one
should not take actions relating to k'lay hakerem in language which can be read tomean "lest it [be wrongfully] burn[t] in fire," suggesting that the produce cannot be
used to fire an oven.
827

No benefit may be derived from an ox, whether tam or muad , which iscondemned to be stoned, even from its hide. The prohibition applies even if thecondemned ox is ritually killed (rather than stoned). Note that benefit may bederived from non-condemned animals which are not ritually killed. Scripture permits
828
them "to be sold to a gentile."

825

8:1.

826

12:1.

827

See B.K.41:1 and 43:2.

828

Deut.14:21.

[7:2]
Where a muad injures, its owner is personally responsible for the injury infull. Where a muad kills, its owner must pay a full ransom. Where a tam
injures rather than kills, the injured person may levy on the animal torecover one-half of his damages. Where the tam kills, its owner is not
responsible for any portion of a ransom, even for one-half of a ransom.
Even where a tam causes injury, the injured person can recover half of his
injury only by levying against the animal. He cannot attach the owner's
other assets.
Since a tam which kills must be stoned and benefit from the animal is prohibited,
why is it necessary to teach that a tam pays no ransom at all? In cases where theanimal is not stoned, such as where the animal was condemned on the testimony of
its owner or of a single witness.
No ransom is paid where either a tam or a muad causes a woman to abort her
fetus.
The matters relating to slaughter with a stone, glass or reed are explained829
elsewhere.
[57:1]

829

Hullin 15:2.

[7:2]
No benefit may be derived from an eglah arufah, and the rules of me'ilah apply:
Scripture refers to the eglah arufah as providing forgiveness in the manner of
830
sacrifices . The prohibition begins at the time it is first known as beheaded, i.e,from the moment it is brought into the rugged valley to be beheaded. Before thattime, no sanctity at all attaches; the proceeds of its sale at that time are notdedicated to hekdesh even for the monetary purpose of Temple repair.
But if sanctity attaches once the animal descends into the rugged valley, how can
we explain the rule that even at that stage if the murderer is found before theanimal is beheaded, the animal resumes civil status and feeds with all other animals?
Another Gemara concludes that the considers the rules inconsistent and are
the holdings of different tannaim.
The Rambam and Meiri suggest that it is acceptable to hold that sanctity
attaches when the animal descends into the rugged valley, but that the
sanctity dissipates if the murderer is found before the animal is beheaded.
[Procedure on purification of a leper; kiddushin with items used in the purification
procedure]
A leper who wishes to be purified must bring two bird offerings. He slaughters
the better bird, pours its blood into an earthen receptacle which contains one reviith831
of water, and then follows the procedure detailed in Scripture . The slaughteredbird is then buried.
The leper takes cedar wood, hyssop and scarlet thread, and with them surrounds
and ties the wings and tail of the remaining live bird. He then dips the bound bird
into the blood and water in the earthen receptacle. The leper is sprinkled seven832
times as directed in Scripture . The live bird is freed outside the city walls. The bird
is directed towards the fields rather than towards the sea or the desert. Scripture833
directs that the bird be set free "outside the city towards the fields."

830"Forgive your people Israel..." Deut.21:8.

831

Lev.14:4 et seq.

832

Lev.14:7.

833

Lev.14:53.

[7:2]
834

From the verse "But these [birds] you shall not eat," in which the word but isotherwise superfluous, we derive the rule that the slaughtered bird may not beeaten; if a person eats more than a k'zayit he is given malkot. Nor may any benefit
be derived from the slaughtered bird. The rule is derived as follows:
1. A leper's bird offering are brought outside of the Temple to qualify him
to resume residence among the general population.
2. A leper's asham is brought inside of the Temple for the same purpose,i.e., to qualify him to resume residence. No benefit may be derived fromthe leper's qualifying asham; Scripture treats the asham as an atoning
835
hattat: "just as the hattat so the asham" .
3. The eglah arufah is brought outside of the Temple for atonement. As
noted previously, no benefit may be derived from the eglah arufah.
It follows that within the Temple, a qualifying offering (i.e., the leper's asham istreated as an atoning sacrifice. So, too, outside of the Temple, the leper's qualifying
bird-offerings must share the same rule as the atoning eglah arufah.
The prohibition applies only once the bird is slaughtered. It follows that noprohibition attaches to the remaining bird once it is set free. Scripture would not
attach a prohibition to a bird which roams freely, and from which might result
unwitting transgressions by persons who later capture and slaughter the bird.
Benefit may be derived from the slaughtered bird if it is determined that it istrefa; no sanctity attaches to a trefa bird. Where it is determined that theslaughtered bird was not of the proper species, the error is sufficient even to permit
the bird to be eaten. In each case, the remaining live bird is not invalidated, and theleper need bring only one additional bird in the place of the trefa bird.
If one bird was in fact slaughtered but any one or more of the cedar wood,hyssop or scarlet thread was not used, the slaughter is improper. But because theslaughter was for the purpose (albeit not achieved) of purifying the leper, theslaughter is sufficient to apply the rule which forbids benefit.

834

Deut.14:12.

835

Lev.7:7.

[7:2][When an animal is stoned for participating in human transgression]
An animal is stoned only if it was a party to a person's transgression, and only if
836
its continued existence causes shame to a Jewish person . Once an animal must be
stoned no benefit may be derived from it. It follows that:
1. An animal which was worshipped by a gentile or which was designated
for worship by a gentile may be used for all purposes except as a sacrifice.
The animal is not stoned because it did not shame a Jewish person.
2. An animal with which a Jewish person committed bestiality in thepresence of at least two witnesses is stoned, and no benefit may be derived
from the animal once it is condemned. Both elements are present: theanimal was a party to transgression and shames a Jewish person.
But where there is only one witness or the owner's testimony, the animal is
not stoned. Here again, the animal is unfit for sacrifice, but individuals may
derive benefit from the animal.
[Additional items from which no benefit may be derived]
No benefit may be derived from a nazirite's hair. "He shall be holy, he shall let837
the hair of his head grow long" suggests that an element of sanctity attaches tothe hair. As explained in the Mishnah, the sanctity is not sufficient to attach to theproceeds of the hair.
The first-born of an ass must be redeemed for a lamb. If this is not done, the firstborn animal must be beheaded. No benefit may be derived from the first born
animal until redemption. If the animal dies prior to redemption it must be buried.
Our Mishnah holds that the sales proceeds of the first born ass can be used in
kiddushin. Why then does the Rambam hold that no benefit may be derived fromthe sales proceeds? Perhaps the Rambam holds that the sales proceeds are permitted
only to a third party, such as a woman receiving the proceeds in kiddushin, but not
to the seller.
No benefit may be derived from meat-in-milk. Scripture three times states theprohibition against seething meat in milk, in order to prohibit eating, benefit andseething.
836

See Sanh.55:2.

837

Num.6:5.

[7:2][Benefit from Hullin slaughtered in the Temple court]
No benefit may be derived from Hullin slaughtered in the Temple court.
Initially, the Gemara attempts to derive the rule thus:
1. Sacrifices, which are brought for sacred purposes, may be brought only in838
the sacred Temple court. "He shall slaughter the calf before G-d."
2. Hullin, which is brought for ordinary purposes, is properly brought inordinary precincts; "You shall slaughter from your cattle and from your839
sheep...in your gates."
3. No benefit may be derived from sacrifices brought in ordinary precincts
because there is lacking any action to remove the sanctity which attachedto the animal while alive.
4. Just so, no benefit may be derived from the converse case, i.e., whenordinary animals are brought in sacred precincts.
The Gemara then rejects this derivation because if it were valid, kareth would apply
to Hullin slaughtered in the Temple court, just as kareth applies to sacrificesslaughtered outside of the Temple court.
The Gemara determines that the following is the proper derivation:
1. Initially, while the Jewish nation was in the desert near the mishkan,
animals fit for sacrifice could be consumed only if brought as a sacrifice.
2. Scripture permitted Hullin sacrifices once the Jews entered Eretz Israel
and were dispersed far from the mishkan or the Temple. "When the place
shall be distant from you, you shall slaughter [Hullin]...and you shall
840
eat."
3. For this purpose "distant" is interpreted broadly. The term means
outside of the Temple.
4. This implies a prohibition: Hullin may be brought only distant, i.e.,
838

Lev.1:5.

839

Deut.12:21.

840

Deut.12:21.

[7:2]
outside of the temple, but not near, i.e., inside of the Temple.
The prohibition applies even to beasts, birds and blemished animals which could
not have been brought as sacrifices in the desert.
What if the proscription is transgressed, and Hullin is slaughtered in the Temple
court? The animal may not be eaten. Only "When the place is distant...you shall eat."
But may benefit be derived? Scripture states of trefa "You shall not eat any flesh
that is torn of beasts in the field, you shall cast it to the dogs," i.e., you may derive841
benefit therefrom. Scripture speaks in terms of in the field to teach that benefit
may be derived from parts of animals which at the time of slaughter extend out into
the open, out of their normal enclosure, such as the limb of a fetus which isextended out of the birth canal. But in emphasizing that only it may be cast to thedogs, Scripture implies that no benefit may be derived from other animals which areslaughtered out of their proper enclosures, such as Hullin slaughtered in the Temple
court.
The Meiri agrees with some commentators who hold that the proscription of
benefit is Rabbinic only, and that the derivation in the last paragraph is used only tobuttress the Rabbinic rule.
Those who hold that the proscription is Rabbinic have no difficulty with the rulethat a woman cannot be betrothed with Hullin slaughtered in the Temple court.
Compare this with the rule that a woman cannot be betrothed with hametz on the
14th day of Nissan during the hours when the hametz is proscribed only Rabbinically.
[58:1][Disposition of items from which benefit is proscribed]
What is to be done with objects from which benefit is proscribed? Of those
discussed in our Gemara the following are buried, whether animal, beast or fowl:
the ox condemned to be stoned

841

Ex.25:30.

[7:2]
the eglah arufah
the leper's bird offerings
the hair of a defiled nazirite
the first born ass
meat seethed in milk
Hullin sacrificed in the Temple court.
The hair of a non-defiled nazirite is burned. orlah and k'lay hakerem are burned
where burning is customary (such as food), and are otherwise buried. A fuller
842
discussion of these rules appears elsewhere[Status of improper slaughter]
Improper slaughter, meaning slaughter which does not make an animal's flesh fit
to eat (such as where the animal is trefa or is discovered to be trefa), counts as
slaughter for the rule that an animal may not be slaughtered in the same day as its
son. It does not count as slaughter for the rule that the blood of a slaughtered beast
or fowl must be covered with earth.
But does improper slaughter count as slaughter in applying the proscription
against deriving benefit from Hullin slaughtered in the Temple court? The Meiri rules
no, based on his holding that the proscription is Rabbinic even for properlyslaughtered animals.
[Benefit from idolatry, hekdesh and sheviith]
No benefit may be derived from idolatry, or from the proceeds of idolatry, orfrom the proceeds of the proceeds ad infinitum. "You shall not bring an
abomination into your house, lest you be a cursed thing like it," means that anything
you bring into being relative to idolatry is as accursed as the idolatry itself.
The rule is more lenient for hekdesh. Where hekdesh is redeemed, the proceeds
become sacred and the redeemed item is secularized.
Sheviith stands midway between hekdesh and idolatry. The original sheviith842

Tem.33:2.

[7:2]
object can never be secularized. The ultimate proceeds partake of sheviith sanctity.
However, intermediate proceeds are secularized. For example, If sheviith fruit is soldfor meat, both are sheviith. If the meat is later sold for fish, then the fruit and thefish are sheviith and the meat is secularized.
Now, the sanctity of the original sheviith fruit cannot attach to monetaryproceeds of a sale. If one says "these fruit are redeemed for this money," the money
is not treated as sheviith. But the sanctity of secondary sheviith fruit does attach tomonetary sales proceeds.
[Right to dispose as a property value]
We noted in the Mishnah that the mere right to give some object to a third
person, the so-called "benefit-of-disposal," is not considered value. The rule isotherwise where the benefit may be sold for value to a third person, such as awoman who sells her contingent right to receive her kethubah should she bedivorced or widowed.
843

But what are we to make of the following Gemara
benefit-of-disposal is a property right:

which suggests that

If an owner of produce vows that no priest or levite may derive any benefit
from the produce, the vow is invalid. Priests and levites continue to beentitled to terumah and to the first tithe.
The vow is effective when applied to particular priests or levites, and theterumah and tithe must be given to other priests. This suggests that thevow validly attaches to the owner's benefit of disposal.
Why then when the vow is global does not the owner's vow result ina prohibition to all priests and levites?
Raba explains that by purporting to impose a ban on all priests andlevites the owner would in effect abrogate the rights of all priests
and levites. This the owner cannot do.
The Meiri suggests that benefit-of-disposal counts as property only for the purposesof the doctrine of vows, which is strictly interpreted. Note the strict interpretation
where one forswears any benefit from his neighbor: if the neighbor is a retailer, theperson making the vow may not even accept the retailer's customary addition to the843

Ned.84:2.

[7:2]
exact measure.
Other commentators disagree. They rule from the case of vows that benefit-ofdisposal does count as value, and, indeed, if one betroths a woman with terumah ortithes she is questionably betrothed with the value of her benefit of disposal, i.e., herright to give the terumah or tithe to a priest or levite of her own choosing.
[58:2]
Return again to our basic holding that benefit-of-disposal does not count asvalue. There are the following additional rules:
1. One who steals from an owner terumah or tithe which the ownerhas set aside does not steal value. Hence, the doctrine of kefel does
not apply. Kefel applies only for theft from one's "friend," i.e., forproperty in which one's friend has ownership rights.
2. The rule is otherwise where the terumah was stolen from an
Israelite who has inherited a monetary right in the terumah from a
grandfather who was a priest. In this case, the Israelite had the rightto sell the terumah to whichever priest he chose.
3. Where one steals an owner's tebel, the thief must pay kefel for thewhole theft, and he cannot deduct the amount separatable as
terumah. The owner can maintain that he would have separated
only the one grain of wheat which legally suffices for terumah.
But what of the tithe portion, where a full one-tenth must be given?
Either we do not wish to make excessive distinctions between
terumah or tithe, or we choose to penalize the thief by not giving
him the benefit of the tithe portion.
[No compensation permitted for judges and witnesses]
A judge may be compensated only for the use of his time, not for his services as a
judge. If he does accept payment in any lawsuit, that ruling and all subsequent
rulings are void. Hence, the plural form of the doctrine: "his rulings are void."
The same is true of a witness who accepts payment for his testimony. That
testimony and all subsequent testimony is void unless it is determined that the later
testimony was not given for pay.
If the witness returns the payment, his testimony is reinstated. There is noinherent defect in the testimony for which payment was received. Instead, our[7:2]
refusal to accept it is in the way of a penalty based on the verse "See, I have taught
844
you laws and decisions as G-d has commanded me," which teaches that just as G-dteaches for no pay, so must we also act without pay.
The Beth din publicly announces the names of persons who are incompetent totestify, even where the incompetence is rabbinic only. But no announcement is madeof a witness whose testimony was invalidated on account of payment; it is not thewitness who is incompetent, it is his testimony which we disregard by way of penalty
until we are certain that no payment was received.
[No compensation permitted for sprinkling and mixing ashes of the red heifer]
If one accepts payment for sprinkling and mixing with water the ashes of the redheifer, his water is cavern water and his ashes the ashes of a hearth. The water andashes are not valid.
This completes the Perek, with praise to G-d.

844

Deut.4:5.

[7:2]

[7:2]PEREK III
With the Help of God[Where an agent betroths a woman intended for the agent's principal]
This Perek deals in the main with the following topics:
1. disputed, mistaken, future and uncertain kiddushin; and2. the status of children born of proscribed marriages.
As is usual, the Perek also digresses into various unrelated matters.
The first Mishnah reads as follows:
If he (the first man) says to his neighbor (the second man) "Go forth andbetroth me such a woman," and the second goes and betroths her tohimself, she is betrothed to the second.
The second was unethical and cheated the first and the woman. Further, one mightargue that she was misled and would have rejected kiddushin from the second were
she aware of the first's interest. Still, the second's action is valid.
Where the second intended to betroth her on behalf of the first, but the woman
demurred, the second acted honorably in betrothing her to himself. We do not
impose on the second the obligation to inform the first of the woman's refusal andof the second's intentions. The second can legitimately be concerned that she may
betroth herself to another while these consultations take place.
But if this is the second's first marriage, why the concern that she may marryanother? Why does not the second rely on the dictum that a person's first wife isselected for him 40 days before his birth? A person cannot rely on this dictum toneglect personal efforts. Besides, the effect of the dictum can be overcome by arival's prayer and the love of G-d.
The Mishnah is consistent with the halacha.
The Gemara discusses the following matters.

[7:2][Where an agent appropriates a commercial advantage]
Similar rules apply in commercial transactions. Where A sends B to purchase land
for A, and B buys it for himself, B owns the land although he acted dishonestly. But
where the seller refused to sell to A and is willing to sell to B (such as where theseller honors B more or prefers to be B's neighbor), B may purchase for himself
without informing A.
The Yerushalmi holds that where A sends B to buy produce with theunderstanding that A and B will share any profit, then:
1. If B fails to buy the produce, A has no legal recourse other than tovoice his complaint.
2. If B does buy the produce, A has a legal right to seize the produce.
How is the second ruling consistent with our Gemara? The Meiri explains that in the
Yerushalmi's case, B did not inform the seller that B was purchasing the property forhimself. By being silent, B permitted the interpretation that he in fact was acting as
A's principal.
B is considered dishonest even where A did not give him funds to make apurchase, but where B knows that A has made efforts to purchase a property, or that
A is making efforts to acquire an abandoned item, or to obtain an item as a giftfrom its owner. It is a trait of pious and learned persons to return all such items to
the person who first sought to obtain them.
Where the person who first sought to obtain the item is a poor person, one who
preempts him is more than a cheat; he is "wicked." Here, it is appropriate to returnthe item even if at the time the second person obtained the item he was not awareof the first's interest.
The Gemara recounts that R. Giddal sought to purchase a parcel of land, and R.
Abba preempted him. R. Giddal complained to R. Zera, who in turn complained to R.
Issac Nappaha. R. Issac Nappaha told R. Zera to wait until R. Abba came up to him for
the Festival. When R. Abba came, R. Issac Nappaha asked him "If a poor man is
examining a cake and another comes and takes it away from him, what then?" "Heis called a wicked man." "Then why did you do so?" "I did not know of R. Giddal'sinterest." "Then let him have it now!" "I will not sell it to him, because it is my first
field, and it is a bad omen to sell one's first field. If he wants it as a gift, he may haveit." R. Giddal refused to take possession on account of the verse "He who hates gifts
845
Neither took possession. The land was made available to students toshall live."
845

Prov.15:27.

[7:2]
stroll in it, and was called "The Rabbis' field."
One should beware of bidding up the price of property which another wishes tobuy. The Yerushalmi mentions that R. Zera cursed those who by bidding increase theprice paid by another. R. Bon b. Zera also cursed those sellers who conspire jointly toraise the price to one known to be anxious to buy. The Rabbis apply to such persons
846
the verse "He melts [robs] kindness from his comrade."[Kiddushin stated to be effective at a later time]
The Mishnah continues:
If he says to a woman, "Be betrothed to me after 30 days," and anothercomes and betroths her within the 30 days, she is betrothed to the second.
If she was an
Israelite's daughter betrothed to a priest [i.e., the second person is a priest]
she may eat terumah.
The first person's kiddushin is of no effect whatsoever until the 30 days pass.
Consequently, the second person's kiddushin is absolute, so that if he is a priest the
woman may eat terumah as far as Scripture is concerned. When the 30th day arrives
she is already betrothed to the second, so that there is no kiddushin at all to the first.
The first kiddushin also never takes effect if prior to the 30th day either the manor the woman revokes his or her willingness to betroth or be betrothed. As concerns
the man, the Gemara at first assumed that the power to revoke was implicit in his
statement that the kiddushin were to take effect only in 30 days, presumably to give
him time to reconsider. But ultimately the Gemara applies the same rule to thewoman.
Where neither revokes, and there is no intervening kiddushin, the kiddushintakes absolute effect on the 30th day even if the value given to the woman is thennon-existent (such as where kiddushin money was spent by the 30th day).
But why is meshikhah of a cow ineffective when it is stipulated that it is to take847
effect in 30 days (unless the cow is in the purchaser's possession on the 30th day?)
Because meshikhah is a formality which has significance only if intended to effect a846

Job 6:3.

847

B.M.34:1.

[7:2]
present kinyan. Contrast funds given to a woman which give her actual present
benefit.
But where the value is spent, why is the case different from a deposit given by a
man to a woman, and which is later transferred to her as kiddushin, where kiddushin
is valid only if the funds exist at the time of transfer?! Because a deposit is held forthe benefit of the bailor, whereas here the woman had the full use of the funds forher own benefit, with the funds being returnable only if there was ultimately no
kiddushin.
Recall also the rule that forgiveness of a loan cannot effect kiddushin. That ruleis based on the doctrine that a loan is given to be spent, so that the presumption isthat the funds are no longer available once they are purportedly designated as value
for kiddushin. In our case, when the funds were passed to her they were at that time
designated to be for kiddushin rather than for expenditure.
Certain commentators distinguish between
1. monetary kiddushin which has been expended, and2. Kiddushin by deed where the deed is lost or is in a publicthoroughfare out of her possession, or by way of cohabitation.
These commentators hold that there is kiddushin where monetary kiddushin was
expended, because the woman must return the money if there is no kiddushin, andkiddushin benefits her by freeing her of this obligation. This continuing benefit does
not apply in the case of deeds or intercourse which are to be effective at a later time,
and where kiddushin does not free her of any obligation. The Meiri does not favor
this distinction.
[Where kiddushin to be effective "now and after 30 days"]
The Mishnah continues:
But if he declares "Be betrothed to me from now and after 30 days," andanother comes and betroths her within the 30 days, she is betrothed andnot betrothed to both. An Israelite's daughter thus betrothed to a priest,
or a priest's daughter to an Israelite, may not eat terumah.
Rav and Samuel disagree on the Mishnah's meaning:
Samuel says that from now and after 30 days means Be betrothed effective now
unless I revoke by 30 days. In other words, the statement is a condition. It follows
that once the 30 days pass, and there is no revocation, the first kiddushin is absolute.

[7:2]The Mishnah which holds that both the first and the second kiddushin are possibly
valid applies only before the end of the 30th day, when it is still unknown whether
the condition (i.e, that there be no revocation) will be satisfied. It is only until the
30th day that she cannot eat terumah.
Rav says that the Mishnah is uncertain whether the statement is:a condition, in which case Samuel's result would follow, orwhether it is to be interpreted as if the man after saying now changed his
mind and said after 30 days, in which case the same rules apply as if theman had said only after 30 days: she is betrothed only if another failed to
betroth her by the 30th day.
If another betroths before the 30th day, and the first does not revoke, the uncertainty
is never resolved. She can never eat terumah, even after the 30th day.
But why does Rav hold that the statement is less definite a condition than otherstatements such as "You are betrothed to me if you do so and so?" Because in the
Mishnah's case the only subsequent event which affects kiddushin is the passage oftime rather than the occurrence of any designated action or omission. Given the
man's lack of any interest in events occurring during the time lapse, there is concernthat what really happened was that he changed his mind in the course of thestatement.
The halacha agrees with Rav.
The same uncertainty applies in the case of get where the husband says "This is
your get now and when I die."
The Gemara discusses the following matters.
[59:1][Revocation of agency]
Where one appoints an agent to separate terumah, the agency can be revokedprior to separation, even if the revocation occurs outside of the agent's presence.
The Yerushalmi holds that the revocation is effective only if the agent does notfollow the principal's instructions, such as where the agent separates in the south,
whereas the principal directed that he separate terumah in the north. The Rambam
follows the Yerushalmi. However, the Meiri explains that the Yerushalmi's position isvalid only according to the views of those who hold that an oral agency cannot be[7:2]
revoked orally. Since the halacha is that oral revocation is valid, the Yerushalmi's
distinction does not hold.
If a husband sends an agent to deliver a get, the agency can be revoked before
delivery. To revoke the agency the husband must tell the agent, either personally or
through a second agent, "The get I gave you is revoked." The get can later be usedagain; it was only the agency that was destroyed, not the validity of the deed.
What if the husband revokes the get while he still holds it? Most commentators
hold that here the only possible interpretation is that the deed's power as a get was
abrogated, so that the get can never be used again. Others disagree. They claim thata valid get cannot be invalidated by a statement. Compare a woman who says "I will
never be betrothed with this money." Certainly, she is betrothed if she later accepts
the money in kiddushin!
[Intent as affecting ritual purity]
Utensils cannot be rendered ritually unclean until they are completely fabricatedfor their intended purpose. Where a utensil is sufficiently fabricated for a lesser
purpose, it may be made unclean by the mere intent to use it for the lesser purpose.
Rashi holds that the intent to use the utensil as-is for the lesser purpose issufficient even where it is conventional to apply additional work even for the lesser
purpose. The Meiri finds this dubious; why should we respect the intent of one who,
for example, wishes to use an unpolished and unsanded utensil where most persons
would not?
The rule that we ignore mental reservations does not apply for the reasons848
stated previously .
Assume that:a utensil was fabricated for a lesser purpose, orthere was an intent to use for a lesser purpose a utensil partiallyfabricated for a higher purpose.
Can liability for uncleanliness be removed by the intent to limit use of the utensil to ahigher purpose? No. What is necessary is a further change in substance, i.e., actual
additional fabrication towards the higher purpose.

848

49:2.

[7:2]
By way of example, a hide generally intended for shoes can be renderedsusceptible to uncleanliness by the mere intent to use the hide, as-is, as a tablecloth.
The hide remains susceptible to uncleanliness notwithstanding a new intent tofashion it into shoes. But if work commences to fashion the hide into shoes, it is nolonger susceptible to uncleanliness (even if work had previously been done tofashion it as a tablecloth). In fact, most commentators hold that if the hide wasactually made unclean, the uncleanliness is removed by actual fabrication towards
849
shoes .
[59:2]
Produce can be rendered unclean only if moistened while no longer connectedto the ground, and only if the moistening is acceptable to its owner. In discussing the
moistening, the literal words used by Scripture "And if one put [moisture]" are read"And if it be put." How reconcile the literal words and the reading? The putting[moisture] must be acceptable to the owner when it is put by others, in the same
way that it is acceptable when he puts it himself.
The Meiri had a variant reading of our Gemara in which the Gemara states
the proposition that "Just as there is an action when the owner puts, so
too must there be an action when it is otherwise put." How does this fit
with the tenor of our Gemara in which the purpose is to show that intent
counts as action for rendering implements susceptible to uncleanliness?
The Meiri explains that the action refers to produce (as distinguished from
implements) where there must be a specific act of wetting. The point isthat the action of wetting is sufficient when acceptable to the owner even
if he does not do it alone. This shows that for implements, where there
must be no particular action, the intent of the owner is alone sufficient.
[Woman's revocation of agency]
The following rules apply to a woman who appoints an agent to accept her
kiddushin:
849

See B.K.66:1 for rules which vary depending on whether the hide is fashioned by a professionaltanner.

[7:2]
1. If she accepts kiddushin from another before the agent accepts his
kiddushin, her kiddushin is valid. The reverse is true if the agent's
kiddushin is prior in time.
2. The woman can revoke the agent's authority by express statementin the presence of witnesses.
[R. Johanan's holding where kiddushin to be effective "now and after 30 days"]
Refer back to the case in the Mishnah of the man, A, who betrothed "now andafter 30 days," where another, B, betrothed her on the 20th day. Recall Rav's viewthat she is permanently possibly betrothed to both A and B. Rav explains that we areuncertain whether A intended a condition (i.e., whether A chooses to revoke in theinterim), in which case only A's kiddushin is valid, or if A meant to cancel the "now"statement and to render kiddushin effective only on the 30th day, in which case only
B's kiddushin is effective.
What if:
A betrothed "now and after 30 days,"
B betrothed her "now and after 20 days," and850

C betrothed her "now"or "now and after 10 days"?

Only A's and C's kiddushin are possibly valid; to marry she requires no get from B. If
the meaning of the phrase is a condition, then only A's kiddushin is valid. If themeaning is to cancel the now portion of the phrase, then only C's kiddushin are valid,because his preceded the others'.
But why not interpret A as having meant cancellation, and B as having meant a
condition, in which case B's kiddushin would be valid? Because the interpretive issue
is one which concerns us, as the Beth din. We must decide whether the words mean
850

The Gemara only discusses the case in which C says "now and after 10 days." The same result
would follow hold if C says only "now." The longer formulation is used as a carryover from thestatements made by A and B, which must be compound.

[7:2]
one thing or another. Whatever our decision, the words mean the same bywhomever they are used.
[60:1]
R. Johanan disagrees with Rav, and holds that there is also possible kiddushin to
B. But R. Johanan does not base his view on B's statement's possibly having a
different meaning from A's statement. For if that were R. Johanan's intent he would
not have used the phrase "Even a hundred persons can have a hold on her," whichsuggests that each of 100 has some absolute kiddushin relationship with her. Rather,R. Johanan should have said "She is possibly betrothed to each of the 100."What then is R. Johanan's explanation? He interprets the statement of each as
meaning "my kiddushin begins today, but is not completed until 10, 20 or 30 days, inthe sense that anyone else who betroths you during this period can also obtainabsolute (albeit partial) kiddushin rights in you."Given that this is R. Johanan's reasoning, the same result would obtain where
100 persons simultaneously betroth a woman "now and after 30 days," or where,
after one or more persons have betrothed her "now and after 30 days," others
within the 30 day period betroth her "now."
But what of the rule that the is no kiddushin if some rights remain, such aswhere A betroths a woman "insofar as concerns the whole world other than B, who
may still obtain kiddushin rights in you?"!
That rule does not apply where kiddushin is to all except B, the opening to
B is a remaining right which is permanent, whereas the remaining right inour case is limited in time to 30 days.
There is additional evidence that R. Johanan means absolute and certain
kiddushin to each. The Gemara suggests that R. Johanan's holding is inconsistent
with the rule that there is only a questionable get if the get is given "now and after I
die." The Gemara's point is that were R. Johanan correct in that room remains forlater get, the first get should be absolutely invalid. This is because a get (asdistinguished from kiddushin) is totally invalid whenever there is some absolute
remaining tie with the husband.
Why is the remaining tie a more serious defect in the case of get than in the caseof kiddushin, where we have just explained that a remaining right limited in time is
not a defect? Because no get can be given after death. Contrast kiddushin where
absolute kiddushin can be given after 30 days.
The Alfasi and the Rambam hold that the halacha is consistent with R. Johanan,[7:2]
probably because of the rule that R. Johanan's view prevails in disputes with Rav. But
the Alfasi and the Rambam are incorrect in stating that she is possibly betrothed toall; for we have proved that R. Johanan holds that she is certainly partially betrothed
to all. Perhaps in referring to each of the kiddushin as being doubtful the Rambam
and the Alfasi mean only that the kiddushin are insufficient to permit any one of the
betrothers to marry her unless she first obtains a get from each of the otherbetrothers.
The Meiri concludes by preferring to rule with Rav against R. Johanan:
1. The Meiri does not accept R. Johanan's explanation that timelimited remaining rights are not fatal to kiddushin.
2. The Gemara concludes by distinguishing between a get given851"now and after my death," where the get is possibly valid , and a
get given "now, if I die" where the get is absolutely valid upon
death. The Gemara explains that in the first case we are uncertain
whether the statement is a condition or a withdrawal, whereas in
the second case it is certainly a condition. This reasoning is consistent
with Rav and not with R. Johanan.
[Where betrother dies in the interim in an "after 30 days" case]
Refer back to the Mishnah's case of one who betroths "after 30 days." Recall thatthe woman is not betrothed if either she or the man rescinds before the 30th day,and that she is betrothed to another who betroths her before the 30th day. Finally
recall that where there is no rescission and no intervening kiddushin she is betrothed
to the first betrother even if the kiddushin money has been spent in the interim.
What if the betrother dies in the interim? Must she perform halizah with the
betrother's brother out of concern that the kiddushin were valid? The Meiri holds
no. The kiddushin can be effective only on the 30th day, and on the 30th day the
betrother had died.
Consider the rule where the intervening betrother dies or divorces within the 30
days:
1. Where the intervening betrother dies childless and the rules ofyibbum apply, all hold that the intervening kiddushin serves to851

So that if the marriage was childless, the get does not absolve her from halizah. On the other hand,the possible validity of the get proscribes yibbum.

[7:2]
nullify the first kiddushin.
2. Where there is no yibbum requirement, the Yerushalmi holds thatthe first kiddushin springs into place on the 30th day. The Meiri finds
this surprising: why not treat the intervening kiddushin as at least
the equivalent of rescission or withdrawal? Perhaps because weinterpret the woman as intending to be betrothed to the second only
until the 30th day.
All hold that the first kiddushin is void where the intervening betrother died or
divorced after the 30th day.
[Cancellation by betrother in the interim]
Return once more to the case of the man who betroths "now and after 30 days."
Recall once more Rav's view that we are uncertain whether the man meant his
betrothal to be valid unless he rescinds within 30 days, or whether the man meant tocancel the "now" statement and to render kiddushin effective only on the 30th day.
Most commentators hold that the man can rescind the kiddushin if he so
852
desires .
But why is the case different from:
1. "Be betrothed now on condition that I give you a maneh," where theman has no right to rescind (in the sense that she is betrothed if he853
purports to rescind and later gives the maneh)?!
Because in the case of the maneh it is not obvious that he wishes theopportunity to rescind, only that he does not now have access to themaneh. In our case, the only logical reason for the condition, which is only
a time delay, is to give the man the opportunity to reconsider.
2. "Make meshikhah of this cow to purchase it now and after 30 days," where
the rule is that the seller cannot withdraw?!
Because the seller's statement can be interpreted as reflecting a852

One dissenting commentator holds that the man cannot withdraw by analogy with the case of one
who gives a get "now, on condition that you not be divorced until 30 days." (Git.74:2.) The rule in thatcase is that the man cannot rescind.
853

See 8:1.

[7:2]
desire to use the cow during the 30 day period, and it is not necessary (as inour case) to explain the statement as insisting on the right to reconsider.
All hold that only the man may reconsider. The woman consented to have her
kiddushin depend on the man's ultimate decision, and she is bound by it.
[Death of betrother in the interim in an "now-after 30-days"case]
What if the man dies before the 30th day? Is the kiddushin so absolutely voidthat the woman need not perform halizah with the dead man's brother? There are854
the following views :1. Rashi holds that halizah is not required. Given the man's absoluteright to reconsider it follows that where the man dies before the30th day the kiddushin should be absolutely void and no yibbum or
halizah should be required. Death should be the equivalent ofrescission.
2. The Meiri does require halizah. But how reconcile this with the
man's right to abrogate the kiddushin by his unilateral rescission?
Because the case is no different from one who betroths "On
condition that my father does not protest within 30 days," where
there is kiddushin should the father die before the 30th day without
having protested. The point is that the condition is subject only tothe man's rescission or his father's protest. The condition is not thatthe man or his father survive.
If the condition so clearly focuses on rescission rather thanon death, why then not permit yibbum to the dead man's brother(by analogy with the absolute kiddushin in the case of the father
who dies without making protest)? Because of Rav's uncertainty
whether the statement is a condition at all, or whether the man
intended to withdraw from the "now" portion of his statement,leaving only the "after 30 days" portion. If the latter is true, thewoman was not the dead man's wife so that yibbum isinappropriate.

854

Needless to say, the one commentator who holds that the man has no right to rescind would
require that the woman obtain halizah should the man die before the 30th day. The discussion in the
text focuses on those (the majority) who hold that the man can freely rescind.

[7:2]
Others disagree. yibbum is permissible. If the man meant towithdraw from the "now" portion of his statement, then certainly
his kiddushin were not valid if he dies before the 30th day, so that
his brother can marry her in any event: either as yibbum if the
betrother meant his statement as a condition, or as a woman
never married to the purported betrother, if the betrother meant
to withdraw from his "now" statement.
The only possible objection to yibbum is that the dead man
may have had other wives who require absolute yibbum or halizahon account of his death. Need we not fear that by his brother's
marrying the woman who was betrothed "now and after 30 days"
observers might mistakenly think that full-fledged yibbum
occurred, so that the other wives no longer require even halizah?
Is it not this reasoning which proscribes yibbum of an elonit, i.e.,
concern that her co-wives would be wrongly absolved of halizahon account of the assumed validity of the elonit's marriageyibbum?
Not so. The elonit was generally known to be the brother'swife. Hence the potential error. On the other hand, all observers
know that the "now and after 30 days" woman was not the deadbrother's certain wife, and error will be avoided.
[Where there are surviving brothers]
Another case. Where A betrothed "now and after 30 days," B betrothed within
the 30 days, and one of A or B died within the 30 days in circumstances (i.e., there
being a surviving brother to both A and B) where yibbum would otherwise apply.
She requires halizah from the surviving brother:
1. The statement may have been a condition, so that the first kiddushin
were valid, and as noted in the prior discussion the first's brother must
perform halizah in such cases.
2. The first brother may have intended to withdraw from the "now"portion of his statement, so that the second kiddushin was absolutely valid,
and the second's brother must perform halizah.
Another case. Assume that A betrothed "now and after 30 days," B betrothedwithin the 30 days, both died within the 30 days and one had a surviving brother andthe other either divorced the woman or had no surviving brother. Here the surviving
brother may perform yibbum. Here is the analysis:[7:2]
1. Assume that the first betrother has a surviving brother.
i. If the statement was a condition, the first kiddushin was valid.
Hence yibbum is appropriate.
ii. If the statement was meant as a withdrawal from the "now"portion, then the second's kiddushin was valid, and the first had no
marital relationship with the woman. But the second betrother has
no surviving brother, so that there are no yibbum requirements.
Accordingly, the first's surviving brother may marry the woman, since
she was not his brother's wife, and has no yibbum bonds.
2. Assume that the second betrother has a surviving brother.
i. If the statement was a condition, the first kiddushin was valid, andthe second had no marital relationship with the woman. But the first
betrother has no surviving brother, so that there are no yibbum
requirements. The second's surviving brother may marry the woman,since she was not his brother's wife, and has no yibbum bounds.
ii. If the statement was meant as a withdrawal from the "now"portion, then the second's kiddushin was valid, Hence yibbum isappropriate.
A final case. Assume that A betroths a woman "now and after 30 days," and thewoman dies within the 30 day period. Assume also the woman's sister had beenmarried to A's brother A2, and A2 had previously died under circumstances which
would otherwise have required that A perform either yibbum or halizah with thesister.
In general, there is no requirement of halizah, and yibbum is proscribed, with awoman who is related to the wife of the prospective yabam. In this case, does A havea sufficient marital relationship with the "now and after 30 days" woman to dissolve
the requirements of halizah and to proscribe yibbum with the woman's sister? Can A
perform yibbum if he so chooses?
Recall Rashi's holding that where the man dies, his wife needs nohalizah from his surviving brother. Rashi would hold that A had no
marital relationship with the deceased woman, and that he canperform yibbum with her sister.
On the other hand, those who require halizah where the man diedwould hold that there is a marital relationship with the deceased
woman sufficient to proscribe yibbum with her sister. But the[7:2]
relationship is not sufficient to permit the surviving sister to marryanother without halizah.
[When a condition can impose an obligation on the person who states the condition]
The next Mishnah reads:
If one says to a woman "You are betrothed to me on condition that I giveyou 200 zuz, she is betrothed and he gives it. "On condition that I give you
within 30 days from now": she is betrothed if he gives her within 30 days, if
not she is not betrothed.
R. Huna and R. Judah dispute the meaning of the Mishnah:
R. Huna maintains that the Mishnah means "Once he gives it." The woman
855
cannot compel him to pay the 200 zuz . But once the man does give the 200 zuz
the kiddushin are effective retroactively to the time of the man's statement. This
follows a general principle that conditional statements are assumed to be effective
retroactively once the condition is satisfied.
R. Judah maintains that the Mishnah means "When he gives it." Since the man
did not say "effective as of now," retroactive application is not assumed. R. Judahdoes not agree with R. Huna's general principle.
The Gemara explains that R. Judah believes his view to be consistent with those
Sages who hold that where a get is given "today and after my death" the get is of
doubtful validity. This suggests to some commentators that R. Judah is not certainthat retroactivity is inappropriate; his point is merely that he disagrees with R. Huna's
certainty that there is retroactivity.
Now, even R. Huna, who holds that kiddushin is effective retroactively once the
200 zuz are paid, would hold that it is improper to cohabit with the woman before
the 200 zuz are paid. Possibly he will not pay the 200 zuz and the children resulting
from the cohabitation will be blemished in social standing. What practical difference,
then, is there between his view and R. Judah's view?
The Gemara explains that the two differ where the woman accepts kiddushinfrom another before the zuz are paid. R. Huna holds that the subsequent paymentof the zuz validated the first kiddushin retroactively and voids the second. R. Judahwould hold that the second kiddushin is first in time, and that the first is void.

855

See 8:1.

[7:2]The halacha accords with R. Huna.
856

The Meiri earlier

explained the following views:

1. Although the man cannot be compelled to pay the zuz he cannot
rescind the kiddushin. Accordingly, if he chooses to pay the zuz after
purporting to rescind the kiddushin, the payment results in
kiddushin.
2. The woman certainly cannot rescind, for she was not the one who
set the condition.
3. The woman may waive the 200 zuz in the presence of witnesses.
The waiver has the same legal effect as the payment of the 200 zuz.
4. Where a time limit was set to the payment of the zuz, kiddushin
are valid only if the payment is in fact made within the time limit.
This completes the exposition of the Mishnah. Here is what follows in theGemara.
There is a corresponding dispute between R. Huna and R. Judah where ahusband gives a wife a get on condition that she give him 200 zuz. Here again R.
Huna on satisfaction of the condition validates the get retroactively, and R. Judahdisagrees.
Again, the halacha accords with R. Huna.
In discussing the different practical result of these views, the Gemara explainsthat where the get was destroyed or lost before the condition is satisfied, R. Huna
would hold the get valid, since it was extant when the divorce was retroactively
effective. Of course, the woman may not marry until the zuz are paid, and it is
known that the condition has been satisfied. R. Judah requires that she obtain a new
get.

856

8:1.

[7:2][60:2]
But why not explain that R. Huna and R. Judah would differ on get in the same
circumstances in which we explained their difference on kiddushin? Specifically,
where a get is given and the woman accepts kiddushin from another before thecondition is satisfied, R. Huna would hold that the first person's get is retroactively
valid, so that the second person's kiddushin is valid. R. Judah would hold that the get
is valid only after the second person attempted kiddushin; it follows that the
kiddushin is void!
Some explain that even R. Judah would not void the kiddushin. As noted
previously, he is not certain that there is no retroactivity, and he would therefore
apply retroactivity to avoid a lenient ruling. Another solution was discussed
857
previously . The Meiri suggests that the most practical explanation is that when
dealing with get the Gemara prefers a difference between R. Huna and R. Judah
which deals only with get. On the other hand, our Gemara deals with kiddushin andprefers to deal in purely kiddushin cases.
[Death before monetary condition is satisfied]
Where a husband tells his wife "Here is your divorce on condition that you giveme 200 zuz," and the husband dies before she pays him the zuz, the get is void andshe is subject to yibbum requirements. She cannot validate the get by paying themoney to her husband's heirs. The condition was that she give the money to him.
Compare this with the case of a man who betroths "On condition that I give you
200 zuz." What happens in this case if the man or the woman dies before the 200
zuz are paid? May his heirs pay 200 zuz to the woman's heirs in order to establish
yibbum requirements to the dead man's brothers? Where she dies before the moneyis paid, and he chooses to pay the money to her heirs, is there a marital relationshipwhich would prohibit him from marrying her relatives?
The Meiri and Rashi hold that the same principles apply. In each case, the money
was to be paid by him and not by his estate, and to her and not to her estate.
Others disagree. In the case of get the condition was stated by the intended recipientof the funds, whereas in the case of kiddushin the condition was stated by theprovider of the funds. A provider is less insistent than a recipient on whether thefunds are given by a person or by his estate or to a person or to his estate.

857

8:1.

[7:2]In rebuttal, the Meiri argues that once a recipient dies should he not consider
funds given to his heirs to be the same as funds given to him during his lifetime?!
Obviously, then, the issue is not one of personal preference, but rather of straightinterpretation. That being so, there is no reason to treat the cases differently.
The Mishnah continues:"On condition that I possess 200 zuz," she is betrothed if he possesses
them. "On condition that I show you 200 zuz," she is betrothed and hemust show her. But she is not betrothed if he shows her money lying on
the counter.
Until the man establishes that he has 200 zuz she is considered possibly betrothed, on
the possibility that he has the funds. She is absolutely betrothed once he establishes
that he has the funds. He need not show her the funds if he establishes possession
through witnesses.
Assume that A says "On condition that I have 200 zuz on deposit with B," and B
claims not to have any money on deposit. The Tosefta rules that there isquestionable kiddushin. Presumably, A would not have stated the condition had he
not had funds on deposit. Possibly, then, A reconsidered, and he conspired with B
wrongly to invalidate the kiddushin.
Where the condition is stated in terms of showing her she is not betrothed
unless he proves he has the money and he shows it to her. Witnesses are insufficient.
If a time limit was established, and he did not show her the money until after thetime had expired, she is not betrothed, even doubtfully.
Where he showed her the money on the counter, such as where he is a moneychanger and the profits are his, she is not betrothed. She wishes to be betrothed
only if the principal is his, not only the profits.
[Requisites to satisfaction of certain conditions]
The next Mishnah reads:"On condition that I own a Beth kor of land," she is betrothed if he owns
it. "On condition that I own it in a designated place," she is betrothed if heowns the land in the designated place. Otherwise, she is not betrothed.
"On condition that I show you a Beth kor of land," she is betrothed if heshows it to her. But if he shows it to her in a plain, she is not betrothed.
Again, until he proves that he owns the Bethbetrothed.

kor she is considered possibly[7:2]
Where he claims that he owns property in a designated place, she is betrothed
only if he owns it there. It is of no avail that he owns property elsewhere. The
location of property is significant, whether as a result of the relative value of aparticular location, its proximity to or abutment on the owner's other lands, or the
behavior of the persons on neighboring lands.
Note that the requirement that property be in a designated place is stated only
for land and not for money in the prior Mishnah. This might be taken to suggest thatthe location of money is not as significant, so long as the funds are relatively
portable. The Rambam takes a stricter view and requires that even money be in adesignated location for kiddushin to be valid. The Tosefta supports the Rambam.
Where the condition is that he show her the land, he must actually show theland, as well as establish that he owns it.
Where he shows her land in a plain she is not betrothed even if he has usufruct
rights to the land and even if he has sharecropping rights. She intends to be
betrothed only if he owns the land in fee.
This completes the Mishnah. The Gemara discusses the following:[7:2][61:1][When non-arable portions of land can be taken into account as satisfying conditions
based on land holdings]
Assume that he betrothed her on condition that he owned a Beth kor of land,
but he owned a Beth kor only if one takes into account rocks which are 10 or more
tefachim tall and on which plants cannot take root. Or assume that there is a Bethkor only if one includes ravines which are 10 or more tefachim deep and whichcannot be planted or sown because they are water-logged. In each case, she is not
betrothed because he does not have a Beth kor of land. But rocks which are not 10
tefachim high, and ravines which are not water-logged, do count as part of the field.
The same rules apply to hekdesh. The basic principle here is that an inherited
field is redeemed from hekdesh at the arbitrary rate, independent of true value, of
50 shekels for 49 Jubilee years (one and 1/49th shekel per year) for each parcel ofland on which there can be sown a homer of barley (the same as a Beth kor). The
redemption price is proportionately adjusted for smaller or larger fields. Although
one may redeem a portion of an inherited field, it is improper to redeem only thesuperior portion.
Where an inherited field contains large rocks or waterlogged ravines, these areas
count as separate fields, so that the land other than these rocks and ravines can beseparately redeemed. If the former owner does choose to redeem the ravines andthe rocks, they are redeemed at true value and cannot be redeemed at the arbitrary
rates which apply to inherited fields. Where the rocks are less than 10 tefachim highor where the ravines are not water-logged they are treated as one with the rest of
the field.
The rule is otherwise with respect to sales. Here a seller who has offered a Bethkor of land cannot sell a Beth kor consisting in part of ravines which are 10 or more
tefachim deep, even if they are not water-logged and can be planted. A buyer does
not wish to purchase a field which is in effect separated into two or three fields byravines. The Meiri disagrees with the Rashbam who holds that this rule applies only
where the seller promised a Beth kor of land, but not where he promised only aBeth kor. The Rashbam holds that the rule is applied against the seller only where
the ravines are at least four tefachim wide; in this the Meiri agrees.
What is the rule for get? Where the husband says "here is your get on condition
that you give me a Beth kor," can she give him a Beth kor which includes non-water
logged ravines? Get (unlike kiddushin and hekdesh) is treated as a sale, and nonwaterlogged ravines cannot be proffered as part of a Beth kor.

[7:2]
Most commentators agree that, whether for get or for kiddushin, two nonadjacent fields cannot be offered where a Beth kor was promised or demanded.
[Formal requisites to validity of conditions]
The next Mishnah reads:
R. Meir said "Every stipulation which is not like that of the children of Gad
and the children of Reuben is not a valid stipulation, because it is written"And Moses said unto them, 'If the children of Gad and the children of
Reuben will pass with you [then they will have the land of Gilead],' and it isalso written 'But if they will not pass over with you armed [then they shallnot have possession].'R. Hanina b. Gamliel said "The matter had to be stated for otherwise it
implies that they should have no inheritance even in Canaan."
By way of introduction to the following discussion, consider the statement "If
you do X, then Y shall be effective." The "If you do X" phrase is referred to as thecondition, and "Y shall be effective" is referred to as the action.
The verse to which the Mishnah refers reads in full as follows:
And Moses said to Eleazar and Yehoshua bin Nun "If the children of Gad
and the children of Reuben will pass with you over the Jordan [River], thenyou shall give them the land of Gilead, but if they shall not pass they shallhave possession among you in the land of Canaan."
Note that the conditions were stated in duplicate: If you shall pass...; if you shall not
pass.... R. Meir deduces that a condition which is not double is not a valid condition,and the action is effective even if the condition is not satisfied. Because of the failure
to duplicate, it is assumed that the condition was not meant as a condition but rather
as a stern request that the condition be satisfied.
Specifically, R. Meir holds that in the case of the tribes of Gad and Reuben:
Since the condition was duplicated, the tribes would not have obtainedsole possession of Gilead had they failed to satisfy the double condition.
Instead, they would have shared generally with all other Jews in bothCanaan and Gilead.
If no double condition had been stated, the tribes would have obtainedsole possession of Gilead even if they did not cross the Jordan.

[7:2]
By way of further example, if a man says "You are betrothed to me if you giveme 200 zuz by such-and-such day," without saying "You are not betrothed to me ifyou don't give me 200 zuz by such-and-such day," the woman is betrothed [theaction is effective], even if the condition is not performed.
But how reconcile this with another of R. Meir's holdings?
R. Meir holds that where one demands of potential witnesses in his favor"G-d not strike you if you testify for me," this is a good subpoena, since the858
essential oath "G-d strike you if you fail to testify" can be implied .
The Gemara explains that R. Meir generally permits the converse of astatement to be implied in issues of religious proscriptions, such as theritual necessary to penalize potential witnesses who refuse to testify.
Now, in the religious context of kiddushin, from the condition "If you pay, then..."why do we not simply imply the converse "But if you don't pay, then...." Why mustthe converse be stated?
Perhaps because matters of get and kiddushin are taken more strictly thanother religiously based matters. This is consistent with the Yerushalmi
which notes that R. Meir generally ("in every place") implies the converseof statements, but his holdings on get and kiddushin reflect the stringency
of marital and incest laws.
Now, the failure to imply a converse in the case of kiddushin is obviously astringency since it results in a woman's greater susceptibility to be betrothed and torequire a get before she marries another. But what of get? There are two
explanations:
Once we apply the rule strictly for kiddushin we make no distinction andapply it also to get.
Alternatively, we are stringent not in the results of our holdings, but in thestrictness with which we insist on clarity and precision.
To what general cases of religious matters does the Yerushalmi refer? The Meiri
offers two illustrations:
1. To the case of the subpoena to witnesses already discussed.

858

See Shevuot 36:2.

[7:2]
2. To the verse which promises that priests who enter the Sanctuary859
without having drunk wine will live , from which we imply theconverse that they will not live if they enter after having drunk wine.
But what of one who states "I am not under oath not to obtain benefit fromyou." Even though oaths are religious matters, R. Meir does not imply the converse,
860
i.e., a positive oath against obtaining positive benefit?!
Perhaps this reflects thegeneral principle that in matters of oaths words are interpreted in accordance with
their every-day meaning, and oaths are therefore judged in the same manner asmonetary matters.
Return to the Mishnah. R. Hanina b. Gamliel disagrees with R. Meir. The
duplication for Gad and Reuben was necessary to ensure the result should they notcross. The two tribes would share in all of Canaan and Gilead with the other Jews.
Otherwise, we might have thought that, notwithstanding that the tribes assisted in
the conquest of Gilead, the failure to cross would result in the penalty that the tribes
would not obtain land anywhere, let alone in Gilead!
The halacha accords with R. Meir, although some commentators rule that
reliance can be placed on R. Meir only where this results in a stringent ruling.
[Additional requisites to validity of conditions]
Although the Mishnah refers only to the requirement that a condition must be
stated in the duplicate, there are 10 aspects of conditions which are derived from theverse relating to the tribes of Gad and Reuben. They are:
1. Conditions must be double, as already stated.
2. The condition must be stated before the action. Note that Moses
did not say "Give them the land if they cross." Where the action is
mentioned first, this downgrades the condition. The condition is861
treated as a mere request that the condition be preformed.
3. The affirmative action must be stated first. One who is intent on

859

Lev.10:9.

860

Ned.11:2.

861

See B.M.94:1 for a disagreement between the Meiri and the Rambam relating to this aspect ofconditions.

[7:2]
the performance of his condition takes care to mention first thenarrow circumstance in which the action will be valid.
It does not matter whether the first statement of thecondition is put in negative fashion. The condition of Moses would
have been equally valid were it phrased "If you do not stay here in
Gilead, you will inherit Gilead...." The fact is that the action, i.e., theinheritance of Gilead, precedes the reverse action, i.e., the failure
exclusively to inherit Gilead.
862

As a further illustration see the Gemara below
where R.
863
Meir interprets a verse on sotah
as containing the double
condition "If you did not stray, be clean," and "If you did stray, be
strangled." The condition is valid. It does not matter that the first
condition is stated in the negative. What does matter is that thepositive action (the declaration of the woman's innocence) appears
in the first statement.
As a final illustration, it is a valid condition for one to say "If
you don't steal my money you are betrothed, but if you do steal, you
are not betrothed. The positive betrothal is contained in the firststatement.
4. The condition and the action must not deal with the same
proposition. It is all right to say "If you cross the Jordan, you will
inherit land." It is not proper to say "If you return the paper onwhich the get is written, this is your get," or "If you return this etrog,
it is yours." In each case, the condition is considered contradictory to
the action, and is treated as a null jest. The action is valid although
the condition is not performed.
5. A condition is valid only where the action is not personal and canbe performed by an agent. For example, the settlement in Gilead
could be performed by agents. Where the action is personal, such as
the case of the mistaken halizah discussed below, the action isconsidered of exceptional power, and cannot be voided by the mere
failure of a condition.

862

62:1.

863

Num.5:19.

[7:2]
Why then can a condition abrogate the effectiveness of kiddushin bycohabitation, which cannot be performed by an agent? Because all864
forms of kiddushin are treated alike and share the same rules .
6. It must be physically possible to perform the condition. A condition
that "You rise to the sky" is invalid, and the action is effective as if
no condition had been stated.
What if the condition would require the other person to perform an
act which is physically possible but is proscribed religiously? The
condition is valid. "Let her not eat [swine], and let her not be
865
divorced!"
7. The condition must not violate the Torah in religious matters. How
is this consistent with the rule just stated regarding "Let her not eat[swine], and let her not be divorced!" where the condition is valid?
The condition is void only where:
the condition would apply to the person who states the condition,such as to give himself rights he does not otherwise have, or toabsolve himself of obligations he otherwise has. An example is "If I
have no marital obligation to you, you are betrothed to me."orwhere the condition affects another by imposing obligations
which the other person does not otherwise have. An example is astatement to a woman captured in battle "If I may sell you toanother, I am taking you as my wife."
8. The condition must deal with an existing matter.
9. The condition must deal with a tangible matter.
10. The condition must be serious on its face, and must not be mere
verbiage. For example, a condition is considered verbiage where thecondition is stated after the action was already performed, or where
the condition is addressed to one who is unaffected and has nointerest in the action.
864

See Ned.74:1.

865

Git.84:2.

[7:2][R. Hanina's view on formal requisites]
R. Hanina b. Gamliel explains why R. Meir's holding on duplication cannot bederived from the case of the tribes of Gad and Reuben. From this Rashi deduces that
he argues only with the R. Meir's duplication requirement, but not with the othernine aspects just discussed. Note also the argument by R. Simeon b. Gamliel
866
elsewhere that there are two verses which require duplicate conditions, and that is867
why the rule for duplicate conditions should not be applied universally . The
suggestion is that the other nine aspects do apply universally.
The Meiri agrees with Rashi, although he expresses some concern with a Gemara
868
which holds that R. Hanina disagrees also with R. Meir's rule that theelsewhere
condition must be stated before the action. If R. Hanina disputes this rule too, should
he not dispute all of R. Meir's other eight propositions?
All of this is theoretical since the halacha accords with R. Meir on all ten aspects.
[Precisely when do formal requisites apply?]
There are numerous views on the scope of R. Meir's holdings. They may besummarized as follows:
I. Aspects generally apply only in "if"-type conditions
What if the condition is stated in terms of "If you do so and so, this is your get
effective now," or the equivalent (also implying retroactivity to now) "On condition
that you do so and so, this is your get." Do the aspects apply? A majority of thegeonim hold "no." The 10 aspects apply only where the condition is stated in termsof if, without effective now language, such as "If you do such and such, this is yourget."
In the case of "if" the effect of the condition is great. It serves to delay theeffectiveness of a present action even if the condition is ultimately performed. Notethat should the get be destroyed before the condition is performed, the get is void.
To accomplish this drastic result, the if condition must satisfy the 10 rules of R. Meir.
A "from now" condition is less drastic. The effectiveness of the action is not

866

Git.76:1.

867

For if Scripture intended general application, why did not one Scriptural reference suffice?

868

B.M.94:1.

[7:2]
delayed once the condition is performed; if the get is destroyed before the conditionis performed the action is still valid. That being so, the majority of R. Meir's rules do
not apply.
But what of the condition relating to the tribes of Gad and Reuben? Were they
not permitted immediately permitted to settle in Gilead? Yes, but the 10 rules still
applied because the words "from now" or the equivalent words "on condition"
were not used.
Now, the Gemara holds that where a person performs halizah on condition thatthe woman pay him 200 zuz, the condition is void and the halizah is valid even if the
200 zuz are not paid. The Gemara explains that this reflects the rule that a condition
is not valid for actions, such as halizah, which cannot be performed by an agent. But
why does the Gemara apply R. Meir's rules at all? The condition was stated with theon condition formulation?! And what of numerous other instances in which theGemara refers to R. Meir's rules in the context of conditions made with the "from869
now" or "on condition" formulations? There are several explanations:
1. The Gemara is not precise in its use of the terms "from now" or"on condition.
2. R. Meir (but not the halacha) applies the 10 aspects even to "fromnow" or "on condition" formulations.
Yes. But the halacha (not only R. Meir's view) is that a get given by a dangerously
ill person must state that it is effective "from now and after I die," for otherwise theget would be void as having been made effective after death. Yet we (not only R.
Meir) nevertheless require that the condition be double!
Perhaps this is a special case in which even the majority follow R. Meir's
general rule. We insist on a double condition so that there be no error
should the get be presented to a Beth din which wrongly agrees with R.
Meir.
II. Some, but not all, aspects are limited to "if"-type conditions.
Some hold that "now" and "on condition" statements are exempt only from therule that conditions must be double, and possibly also from the rule that affirmative
action must precede the negative. But certain of the other aspects continue to apply.
They are logical and are not dependent on derivation from the Gad and Reuben
condition. These are the aspects which require that:
869

See, e.g., Git.75:2.

[7:2]
It must be physically possible to perform the condition.
The condition may not be violative of the Torah in religious matters.
The condition must deal with an existing matter.
The condition must deal with a tangible matter.
What about the following aspects:
the action and condition cannot deal with the same thing
the action must be susceptible to performance by an agent
The Meiri thinks that these should not apply in "on condition" formulations. R. Ashi
holds that a get given on condition that the paper be returned is a valid condition,870
notwithstanding that the action and condition deal with the same thing . Besides, if
the source of all the aspects is the condition relating to the tribes of Gad and Reuben,
if any aspects do not apply to "now" and "on condition," why should the others
apply?
III. The aspects apply only when another person is directed to satisfy the condition
Where a person accepts a sharecropping tenancy and states "If I do not farm thefield, I will pay you well," the condition is valid without reference to R. Meir's
871
aspects . Some commentators explain that this proves that R. Meir's aspects do not
apply to self-directed conditions. Were R. Meir's rules to apply, the condition would
have been ignored, and the action (to pay well) would apply even if the farmer did
his duty. The statement would therefor be inherently nonsensical and would notenforced.
Others maintain that the case can be distinguished on the ground that therequirement to pay the landlord where the land is left fallow is the appropriate ruleeven if the condition were not stated. The Meiri concurs.
The initial commentators disagree, and note that the farmer promises to
pay well. To them this indicates that there is a promise to pay more than isappropriate on the application of straight law. Nor is the amount so
excessive as to constitute an unenforceable asmakhta penalty. An example

870

Git.75:2.

871

B.M.104:1.

[7:2]of an asmakhta penalty would be a promise to pay 1,000 zuz (a huge sum)
if a field is not farmed.
IV. Conditions to retention of funds as distinguished from conditions for extracting
funds.
Some commentators hold that we insist on R. Meir's aspects only where thiswould result in the retention of funds.
V. Conditions directed to a person's agent.
Where a person directs that his agent take certain actions on stated conditions,the conditions must be fulfilled even if they do not satisfy R. Meir's aspects. An agent
has power to act for his principal only as expressly instructed.
872

VI. R. Meir's aspects do not apply to monetary matters generally.

The Alfasi and the Raabad hold that R. Meir's rules do not apply to monetary
matters. The Rambam disagrees. The essence of this dispute was mentioned
previously in the interpretation of the Yerushalmi which discusses R. Meir's views.
Here are the arguments which are presented in this context:
1. The Raabad explains that monetary matters are generally fixed bykinyan. Where there is a kinyan, this is the equivalent of a "from873
now" statement . The Raabad then applies the holdings of thecommentators who do not apply R. Meir's rules to "from now"conditions.
2. In monetary matters we give legal effect even to presumptions
and appearances which we consider obvious. A non-double condition
should have a status at least equal to an obvious presumption!
The opposing view holds that a presumption which is obvious to all
observers should indeed have greater weight than a "condition"
which may have been intended only as a request, rather than as amatter which can countermand an action.
3. The Rambam points out that the Gad and Reuben condition, from872

For a related discussion relating to mental reservation, see 49:2.

873

See B.B. 137:1.

[7:2]
which R. Meir derives his aspects, in fact deals with monetary issuesof land division!
The Meiri does not think this is valid evidence:i. A monetary division which is Divinely dictated is treated as
religious rather than monetary.
ii. Perhaps R. Meir would in fact apply his rules even monetarily,
given his derivation from the Gad and Reuben condition. We, on
the other hand, rule with R. Meir only as concerns get andkiddushin.
4. Recall the Yerushalmi which notes that R. Meir implies converses
generally, so as not to require duplication, except for get andkiddushin. The word generally can be taken as referring to all else
other than get and kiddushin, i.e., all other religious matters and allmonetary matters.
Alternatively, the word generally can be taken to mean in religious
matters generally, without there being any reference to monetary
matters.
5. Recall Samuel's rule, discussed previously, that a bequest made bya dangerously ill person must state that it is effective "from now andafter I die," in double form. Does this not contradict the Alfasi and
the Raabad?
Again, perhaps R. Meir applies his rule even monetarily. We theninsist that the condition be double to validate the condition
according to all views, so that there be no error should the deed ofbequest be presented to a Beth din which wrongly agrees with R.
Meir.
6. How do the Alfasi and the Raabad explain another Gemara's
874
holdingthat a condition must precede the action even in amonetary case? Again, that particular Gemara may follow R. Meir's
holding, with which we do not agree.
Other commentators suggest yet another explanation on how the Alfasi and the
Raabad can be reconciled with the Gemara which deals with obvious presumptions
874

B.M.94:1.

[7:2]and the fact that the case of Gad and Reuben was monetary:
A double condition is required monetarily only where it appears that atransaction is entered into willingly, such as the whole-hearted gift ofGilead to the tribes of Gad and Reuben. In such cases, we need particularly
strong conditions to void the transaction.
The rule is otherwise where the transactions are not willing, such as where
there is a strong obvious presumption which supports a mental875
reservation . Here a non-double condition is as effective as an obvious
presumption, and actions which reflect the participant's state of mind are
as effective as a single condition.
The effect of these rules is evident in the following cases:
1. Assume that one sells with the view, known to all, to apply thesales proceeds to the purchase of X. If it turns out that X is notavailable for purchase, the seller can rescind his transaction if there isa single condition.
2. The penalties of asmakhta are void even where there is no double
condition, as mentioned in the earlier discussion. Here, too, there is apresumption that the person to be subject to the penalty does notwish the penalty promise to stand.
3. Where it is evident that sale is forced by exigencies, such as topurchase food or to emigrate to Eretz Israel, even a single conditionis sufficient.
VII. R. Meir's rules apply only where the action is taken immediately.
Moses gave possession of Gilead to Gad and Reuben immediately upon stating
the condition. The duplication of the condition is required in order to allow thedrastic result of conditioning an action which was already taken.
In this view, even those who apply R. Meir's rules monetarily would exempt the
double condition where the monetary action is deferred. An example is a case inwhich A promises to give B an object when B performs a condition. The condition is876
valid. This is supported by a Gemara which holds that where A says "If B marries
875

See 49:2.

876

Betzah 20:1.

[7:2]
my daughter give him 200 zuz": the condition is valid, and the zuz are given only if
the condition is satisfied.
What then is meant by the rule that the condition must precede the action? Not
that the condition must precede the performance of the action, for as we have
explained, even in the case of Gad and Reuben the action was performed
immediately, long before the condition was satisfied. Rather, the rule requires onlythat the condition be expressed before the action is expressed. The Meiri
877
elsewhere discusses the Rambam's differing view on this.
[Explanation of Gemara's dialogue between R. Meir and R. Hanina]
This completes the Mishnah. The following summarizes the Gemara's analysis of
the dispute between R. Meir and R. Hanina and indicates what halachot may bederived from the Gemara.
R. Meir: Without the second condition, Gad and Reuben would have succeeded to allof Gilead even if they did not pass! This proves that the first condition, standing
alone, would not have countermanded the first action: the grant of all of Gilead.
R. Hanina: One condition is enough to countermand an action. Even without thesecond condition, the tribes would not have succeeded to Gilead if they failed to pass.
The second condition is necessary to correct a possible misapprehension. We
might have thought that the tribes would be penalized if they did not pass. That is
why the verse must teach that should they fail to pass, they would not be penalized,
but would retain equal rights with other Jews.
What penalty might have been asserted? Most certainly that they receive no landin Gilead, where a penalty is more appropriate because they coveted it and (unlike
Canaan) the Jews did not have primeval rights in it. But the penalty would begreater. We would not give them land even in Canaan!
R. Meir: To teach that there is no penalty, the second condition should have statedonly "but if they shall not pass they shall have possession among you."
Why the additional words in the land of Canaan? To duplicate the first conditionand countermand the action: The tribes would not receive all of Gilead if they did
not pass, they would share only in the land of Canaan.

877

B.M.94:1.

[7:2]
R. Hanina: The first half of the statement teaches that there is no penalty. As
explained below, once there is no penalty, we automatically know that if the tribes
fail to pass, they will share in Gilead which they helped conquer. The second half ofthe verse (in the land of Canaan) teaches that they will share not only in Gilead but
also in Canaan.
R. Meir: Among you is sufficient to teach that the tribes share everywhere. The only
possible meaning of the words in the land of Canaan is to duplicate the first conditionand countermand the action: The tribes would not receive all of Gilead if they did not
pass, they would share only in Canaan.
R. Hanina is not persuaded by R. Meir's rejoinder and their dispute at this point
stands.
Note that in this discussion it is implicit that penalties would more likely havebeen assessed in Gilead than in Canaan, on the ground that Gad and Reuben
coveted Gilead and on the further ground that (unlike Canaan) the Jews did nothave primeval rights in Gilead. That is why the Mishnah speaks in terms of "forotherwise it implies that they should have no inheritance even in Canaan," implying
and most certainly not in Gilead. But once we determine that penalties are notappropriate, as in R. Hanina's last rejoinder, it becomes more appropriate for Gad
and Reuben to share in Gilead, in whose conquest they assisted, than in Canaan, in
whose conquest they would not have assisted.
[Analogous rules where bequest is made on condition]
R. Hanina then seeks to bolster his view by comparing the Gad and Reuben caseto a father who bequeaths Field A to son A and Field B to son B. The father directs
that son C is to have the right to pay 200 zuz to sons A and B and is on account of
the payment to obtain superior field C. The father adds that should C not pay the
200 zuz he shall maintain the right to inherit the shares of Fields A and B (as well as
Field C) which C would have inherited had the father not offered him theopportunity alone to succeed to Field C by making payment. The additional
language is significant, for it emphasizes that C is to have inheritance rights apartfrom his 200 zuz, so that if he fails to pay the 200 zuz he will share in all three fields
with A and B and not only obtain his share in Field C.
The same applies to Gad and Reuben. Were Moses not to make his express
second statement, we would have thought that if Gad and Reuben did not pass theywould not share at all in Canaan which was set aside for the other Jews.
One of the Sages listened to this discussion and recalled our earlier analysis thatpenalties are more readily assessed in Gilead than in Canaan, and that were it notfor the "take possession" language, Gad and Reuben would been penalized and[7:2]
would have received nothing. The Sage therefore asked that the analogy bears nosimilarity to the Mishnah, because in the analogy were it not for the father's
statement C would at least have received his share of C, for there is no reason topenalize C.
The Gemara responds that R. Hanina's analogy is proffered only at the stage
where it had been determined from the take possession language that penalties
were not appropriate, and R. Meir had explained that the source of his doublecondition rule was the reference to the land of Canaan. Recall that R. Hanina had
responded that the purpose of these words was to give Gad and Reuben a share in
Canaan as well as in Gilead. It is at this point that the analogy comes into play and isappropriate.
[61:2]
There remain certain issues with respect to the case of Fields A, B and C:
878

Another Gemara
holds that where one says "Give 400 zuz to X and let him
marry my daughter," the money must be given although X need not marry thedonor's daughter. But where the donor says "If he marries my daughter, give him
200 zuz," the money is given only if X marries the donor's daughter.
Should not the same rule apply in the analogy? Where the father says "let him
inherit, and let him give," should not C inherit field C, even if he does not give? The
879
Meiri holds no, for reasons discussed elsewhere .
What if the father says "If C does not pay, let him not inherit at all"? The
statement is invalid because one cannot totally disinherit a son. But any bequest
which the father makes to A and B is valid and is indirectly sufficient to remove C's
880
rights .
As stated, if the father says "If he does not give the 200 zuz, he shall inherit withthe others," without specifying in which fields C is to share, the halacha is that son C
obtains only his share of Field C. But why do we not apply R. Meir's holding that takepossession among you means wherever you are? Why do we rule with R. Hanina?

878

Betzah 20:1.

879

Id.

880

B.B.129:1.

[7:2]The Meiri offers two explanations:
1. We prefer R. Hanina's view where there are no conditions and thematter is a purely monetary interpretive dispute.
2. Perhaps the distinctions between the father's statement and the
Scriptural verses are so numerous that comparisons are not appropriate atall.
[62:1][sotah as bearing on the dispute between R. Meir and R. Hanina]
The Gemara discusses the verses:
And the priest shall make [the sotah] swear "If you did not stray... beclean....
And if you did stray....the priest shall make the [sotah] swear [an oath]
Note that there is no express statement that the sotah is not to be clean if she didstray. The Gemara suggests that this supports R. Hanina's view that conditions neednot be double.
What of R. Meir? He holds that because of the absence of the letter yod, theword "be clean" can also be read as "be strangled," and this satisfies therequirement that conditions be double.
How does R. Hanina explain the missing yod? To teach that if the woman didstray the transgression must be punished.
But, the Meiri asks, do we not know in any event that the whole purpose of thesotah ritual is to punish a straying woman? Do we not know that an adulterer isstrangled? The Meiri explains that the verse is necessary in those circumstances
where
the waters proffered to the sotah do not determine her guilt (such aswhere she cohabited with the adulterer before cohabiting with her
husband or where her husband himself was not free of sin), or
she is not subject to the Beth din's punishment (such as where there are no
witnesses and proper warnings).
In these cases, the missing yod, with the "be strangled" reading, constitutes a[7:2]
warning that G-d has many avenues of recourse. Compare the dictum that although881
capital punishment has been abolished, G-d still metes out equivalent punishments .
[Certain rules on sprinklings with ashes of the parah adumah]
One who is unclean on account of a dead person must be sprinkled with theashes of the parah adumah on the third and seventh days of his uncleanliness inorder to eat terumah or kodshim. The interval between the sprinklings is three fulldays.
What if he is sprinkled on the second day, and waits three full days before he issprinkled on the sixth day? The sprinkling is invalid, because the first sprinkling did
not have the requisite separation from the time he became unclean.
What if he is sprinkled on the third and on the eighth day? Here the separation
between the sprinklings is excessive.
But if there are additional days which separate uncleanliness from the firstsprinkling, and if the second follows the first by no more than three full days, thesprinkling is effective. An example is a sprinkling on the fourth and on the eighth882
days .
Why then does the Gemara state that sprinklings on the fourth and eighth days
are ineffective? The textual reading is improper and should refer to sprinklings on
the third and eighth days. Alternatively, the teaching is that it is preferable toaccomplish the sprinklings timely on the third and on the seventh days.
[Mental conditions are not valid]
The next Mishnah reads:
If he betroths a woman and then declares "I thought she was a priest's
daughter, whereas she is a levite," or "a levite whereas she is of a priest";"poor, whereas she is wealthy," or "wealthy, whereas she is poor," she isbetrothed, since she did not deceive him.
883

This Mishnah was explained previously

in the second perek. It would more

881

Sanh.37:2.

882

The Meiri supports this rule by reference to the Sifri.

883

49:2.

[7:2]
appropriately have been placed in that perek, but is placed here only to teach that
although R. Hanina does not require a double condition, he does require that thecondition (albeit single) be expressed aloud. Conditions maintained in the mind or theheart are ineffective.
The Gemara adds nothing.
[Conditions whose fulfillment depends on acts of others]
The Mishnah continues:
If he says to a woman "You are betrothed to me after I become a convert,"
or "after you become a convert," or "after you are liberated," "after yourhusband dies, "after your sister [who is married to me] dies," or "after youryabam performs halizah for you," she is not betrothed.
There is no betrothal "after you become a convert" or "after I become aconvert" even if the funds of the kiddushin still exist at the time of the conversion.
At the time of the kiddushin the man cannot alone obtain a status which permits
kiddushin.
But where the man is to be converted, is not his conversion within his power,
and if so why do we not apply the dictum that actions which are within one's power
are considered as already accomplished? Because conversion, and the capacity tomarry a Jewish woman, require that the convert immerse himself in a mikveh in thepresence of a three-person Beth din. Who can say that a Beth din will accommodate
the convert?
Similarly where he or she is a slave he is not in a position alone to obtain a status
in which valid kiddushin can be had. But what if she is his slave? In this case he canliberate her on his own, and her immersion does not require a Beth din, because a
Beth din was already present when she converted. Nor does her immersion evenrequire witnesses, because her master's testimony is sufficient!
She cannot be betrothed because once liberated she is considered a person
different from the slave who received the kiddushin. This rule applies only
to Canaanite slaves or maidservants and members of the seven nations
who inhabited Canaan (all of whom are deemed nations equivalent toasses). The rule does not apply to other gentiles.
She is not betrothed "after your husband dies," or "after your sister [who ismarried to me] dies," because it is not within his power to betroth her now.
She is not betrothed "after your yabam performs halizah." The Mishnah holds[7:2]
that kiddushin do not attach in a woman who requires halizah notwithstanding thather prohibition is based solely on the negative precept (without the penalty of
kareth) under the verse "The wife of the dead man shall not be [married] to the884
outside."What of the general rule that kiddushin attaches to women whose marriage is
not forbidden on pain of kareth or capital punishment? The Mishnah holds thathalizah is an exception on account of the word be in the verse just mentioned, whichsuggests that there is be no state of being in which the woman can have a marital
relationship prior to yibbum or halizah.
Certain commentators hold that the halacha accords with the Mishnah. Theynote, for instance, that both R. Johanan and R. Simeon b. Lakish agree with our
885
Mishnah . They also note the subsequent reference to the Mishnah's rule in our
886
Gemara .
However, most commentators are uncertain whether the verse is intended only
to convey a negative precept, or whether it extends also to invalidate any state ofmarital being. Accordingly, kiddushin to a woman who requires halizah results in887
questionable betrothal. Why then does another Gemara say that all agree that achild is not a mamzer if born to a man who cohabited with a woman who required
halizah? The Gemara means only that the child is questionably a mamzer rather thana certain mamzer.
R. Akiva holds that kiddushin cannot attach to any woman who is forbidden by
negative precept, and that therefore a child born of any such union is a mamzer.
But, paradoxically, even R. Akiva agrees that a child born of a woman who requires
888
halizah is not a mamzer :The fact that the negative precept is expressed in terms of being (whichshould not be necessary for R. Akiva in light of his general view) suggeststhat this is an isolated case in which there is in fact being if the negative
precept is884

Deut.25:2.

885

Yeb.92:2.

886

68:1.

887

Yeb.49:2.

888

See Rashi at Yeb.49:2.

[7:2]
transgressed.
[Future transfers]
The Mishnah continues:
If he says to his neighbor "If your wife gives birth to a girl, she is betrothed
to me," she is not betrothed.
The Mishnah reflects the majority view that one cannot now transfer to any
person the future form of an object (e.g., a fetus given in kiddushin) which is yet
incomplete. Similarly, a transfer of a complete object cannot be made to a person(e.g., a fetus) who will be perfected only in the future.
R. Eliezer b. Jacob disagrees. He holds that kiddushin attaches to a fetus which
has become noticeable. Note that Rabbah and R. Joseph disagree on precisely how
incomplete R. Eliezer b. Jacob would permit a transferable object to be. When theGemara states that "all agree" that kiddushin attaches at this stage, the reference is
not to the majority, but rather to Rabbah and R. Joseph in their dispute on themeaning of R. Eliezer. The Meiri therefore disagrees with the Rambam who states
889
that even the majority would validate kiddushin of a noticeable fetus .
Some explain that the Rambam validates kiddushin only where the man
postpones the kiddushin until birth; at that time the fetus is fully competent toaccept transfers. The Meiri objects: the Rambam holds that a transfer to a fetus is890
invalid, and the Rambam does not distinguish on whether the transferor attempts
to delay effectiveness until birth!
Some commentators are not as certain as the Rambam that a delayedtransfer to a fetus is invalid. These commentators rule that there isquestionable kiddushin where one betroths a noticeable fetus effective
upon its birth.
This completes the Mishnah. The Gemara discusses the following:
Produce is not liable to terumah while it is attached to the ground. It is only889

The Rambam does require that the girl be betrothed anew upon birth in order that there be
kiddushin without question.
890

A view in which the Meiri concurs.

[7:2]
891

when harvested that terumah can be the "first of your grain."
If one offers
attached produce as terumah for harvested produce, and harvested produce forattached produce, there is no terumah. All remains tebel, and terumah must be
separated: for the harvested produce now, and for the attached produce when it isfinally harvested.
But harvested produce is terumah if it is separated for attached produce fordelayed effectiveness when the attached produce is harvested. Similarly whereattached produce is offered as terumah for harvested produce effective when theterumah is harvested.
What of the rule that one cannot affect the status of an object which exists
only in the future?
The rule presents no problem. Matters within one's power, such as harvest,
are deemed to have already occurred. Compare the case of a person who
now owns a field which he proposes to resell and repurchase. He may
consecrate the field now effective as of his repurchase; it is within his
power to consecrate it now before he sells it.
There is one additional requirement. terumah applies to produce only once theproduce has grown to at least one-third of its full maturity. It follows that in ourcase, we must insist that the minimum size have been attained, so that in fact theowner could cause traditional terumah by the mere act of harvest.
The owner's act is invalid where the minimum size is not reached, even where
the produce is sufficient for animal fodder, and even more so where the produce has
only attained leek-like size. (Produce which is leek-like is large enough to bend its
head over, but is not yet sufficiently mature to serve as fodder.) Nor does it matterfor this purpose whether the produce grows in an irrigated field or in one which
relies on rainwater.
The one-third in size requirement applies for terumah only. As far as concerns
sales transactions, produce is considered to exist from the point of blossoming.

891

Deut.18:4.

[7:2][62:2]
Recall the rule that it is not within a gentile's power to convert because thecooperation of a Beth din is necessary. The rule is otherwise for divorce, where a
Beth din is not necessary, and all that is required is a scribe and witnesses. A scribe
and witnesses are assumed to be available to all who require them.
[Present betrothal and re-betrothal after future divorce]
If one says to his wife "Here is a perutah with which I am now betrothing you
effective after I divorce you" there is no kiddushin. It is within his power to divorce
her, but it is not within his power alone to betroth her.
What if the woman is not yet married to him, and he gives her two perutahs,saying "I am betrothing you with one perutah, I will then divorce you, and I am now
betrothing you again with the other perutah"? The Gemara at first suggests that
here, too, she should not be betrothed. But the Gemara then appears to be
uncertain, suggesting that perhaps this case may be different because at least one of
the man's actions is given effect, i.e., the current kiddushin.
Most commentators seize on the perhaps formulation to rule that there isquestionable betrothal.
Other commentators rule that there is no betrothal at all, based on a892
Gemara in Nedarim :Assume that a person consecrates plants as hekdesh until "the plants are
harvested." If he redeems the hekdesh prior to the harvest, the redemption
is valid momentarily, sufficiently so that the redemption funds themselves
become hekdesh. But the person's initial action in insisting that hekdesh
apply until the harvest results in the immediate reassertion of hekdesh.
R. Johanan holds that this result obtains only where the owner redeems.
Where another redeems, the plants are within the other's power until theharvest, and hekdesh cannot reestablish itself where the owner himself is
powerless to reestablish hekdesh.
893

The Gemara then considers it certainthat the same rule should apply

892

30:1.

893

In fact, R. Yermiohu was angry that his students failed to recognize the similarity in the two cases.

[7:2]
where a person gives two perutahs to a woman not married to him, saying"I am betrothing you with one perutah, I will then divorce you, and I am
now betrothing you again with the other perutah." Here, too, once she isdivorced her husband is powerless to betroth her then. That being so, his
initial statements and his initial kiddushin should be insufficient toreestablish kiddushin.
Nevertheless, other commentators hold that the Gemara's comparison of ourcase with hekdesh redeemed by another is not a flat holding, but rather only apossible reading which the Gemara suggests. For, in fact, our case is logicallydistinguishable on the ground that the woman wishes to be betrothed after the
divorce. In the case of hekdesh there is no corresponding will. The Meiri rules thatthe uncertainty is sufficient to institute questionable kiddushin where the woman
understands and is willing to be betrothed.
The Meiri considers surprising the Rambam's holding that the woman isabsolutely betrothed. The Rambam's source is the Gemara which holds that theowner of a field can consecrate it as hekdesh effective after he sells it andrepurchases it. Likewise, the Rambam assumes that where one consecrates plants
until the harvest, he may re-consecrate them effective after he repurchases themfrom another person who will redeem them.
The proof is weak. In our case the woman has her own mind, and it is moredifficult to reestablish rights over her, than it is over an inanimate field or an
894
inanimate plant .
[63:1][Purchase of slave for purposes of redemption]
Where one purchases a slave with the intent to emancipate him, the slave cannot
complain if the master reneges. The slave is his master's property and as such has nostanding to assert or obtain any rights.

894

Note that the logic of this distinction is somewhat at odds with the discussion in the priorparagraphs.

[7:2]
But what if the master tells him prior to the purchase "You are now redeemed
effective as of my purchase." This, too, is invalid, for the master's rights in the slave
are in the future, and future rights cannot be assigned. The slave therefore remains
the purchaser's property, and he must be returned to the purchaser should he escapeand be captured.
There is one exception to this rule: where the slave escapes from outside of Eretz
Israel to Eretz Israel. It is to this case that we apply the verse "You shall not deliver a895
slave unto his master." The master is compelled to deliver a deed of emancipation
to his slave, and the slave delivers to the master a note by way of redemption. The
master collects on the note when the slave can pay.
[Wife's vow on her labor]
The Sages decreed that a husband owns his wife's labor, in consideration of his
896
prescribes the amount of
obligation to provide her with food. Another Gemara
labor which the wife must perform. But if she exceeds the minimum, all of her laborstill belongs to her husband.
A married woman cannot use a vow to avoid her husband's right to her labor.
The husband has a lien on this labor, even labor in excess of the minimum, and thewife cannot unilaterally destroy this right. But where the woman renounces her
rights to her husband's support, she can utter such a vow, and the vow is effective.
The only condition is that the vow take the form "My hands be prohibited to myhusband insofar as concerns their future labor." If she fails to use this formulation,
the vow is invalid because it purports to attach to labor which does not yet exist.
Of course, even where the vow is valid, the husband retains the right to annul
the vow.
It is wise for the husband to annul a vow which is properly formulated but isinvalid because the wife has not renounced his support. Otherwise, the vow will beeffective should he divorce her and free himself of his support obligations. Nor will
he have the power to annul her oaths once she is no longer his wife. If this occurs
the husband will not be permitted to remarry her: there can be no marital
897
relationship where the husband cannot obtain any benefit from his wife's labor .

895

Deut.23:16.

896

Keth.64:2.

897

See Keth.59:1.

[7:2][Kiddushin by the benefit of a man's future labor]
The next Mishnah reads:
If one says to a woman "You are betrothed to me on condition that I speak
for you to the governor," or "that I work for you as a laborer," if he speaks
for her to the governor or works for her as a laborer, she is betrothed.
Otherwise, she is not betrothed.
The value given in kiddushin is not the benefit of the discussion with thegovernor or the benefit of the husband's labor. The discussion and labor areconditions to a kiddushin which is brought about by other value, such as a perutah.
Were the kiddushin proposed on the basis of the benefit of the discussion orlabor, there would be no kiddushin even if he performs these actions. The same
applies to the other actions listed in the Gemara, such as to mount the woman on adonkey, or to sit in the woman's company, or to dance for her, or to do as was donein a public game.
In each case, the woman's liability to pay wages for the man's labor accrues
as a debt as the labor is performed. In effect the man is attempting to
betroth, not by granting his labor to her, but by way of his forgiveness of898
the woman's debt to him. Betrothal with a debt is invalid.
[Where the man and women disagree on whether a condition was performed]
The Geonim disagree on the proper rule where the man and the woman dispute
whether a condition was performed. The Meiri suggests that the following principles
should apply:
1. Where the condition is that she not perform an action she isbelieved when she claims that she satisfied the condition and did not
perform the action.
This proposition is evident from another rule. Where a husband gives
his wife a get on condition that she not perform an action until adesignated time we permit the wife to remarry immediately without
insisting that she wait until the designated time to be certain thatthe action is not performed.
Were the husband to be believed if he claims that his wife did
898

The Meiri further explains these concepts at 48:1.

[7:2]
perform the action, how could we allow the woman to marrywithout witnesses who monitor her constantly to be able to testify
that the action was not performed?
2. Where the condition is that she does perform an action, theperson who wishes to establish the action must prove it, whether the
person is the man or the woman.
The Ramban disagrees and holds as follows:
1. We always credit the person who was to perform the action. For
example, the Ramban would credit the man if he claims that he has
spoken to the governor or that he has walked to such and such aplace. Similarly, where the condition is that she perform an action,
she is believed if she claims to have performed it.
2. Consider a case in which both the man and woman must
participate in the designated action, such as where the condition isthat one give the other 200 zuz.? What if the woman claims that thecondition was not satisfied? Here the Ramban suggests two
approaches:
The person who announced the condition, namely, the husband,must prove that the action was performed; or
She is believed in the case of kiddushin where the result would be
to preserve her unmarried status, and he is believed in the case ofdivorce where the result would be to preserve her status as his
wife. In other words, we change her status only where the claimed
action is proved.
The text of the Yerushalmi on this topic is confused and cannot be relied upon. Still,
the Yerushalmi is somewhat supportive of the view that we respect a presumption infavor of continuation of the woman's prior status.
Assume that a man betroths a woman on condition that he give her 200 zuz
before 80 days pass. In the general case, as noted, the man must prove that he gave
her the money, since the man desires to change her marital status. What if the man
marries her before the 80th day?
The Yerushalmi recounts that in such a case R. Abbahu held for the wife andrequired that the husband pay her the money. In entering into the marriage thewoman intended her marriage to be absolute and waived the right to annul it
should he not give her the money; the woman did not want a non-firm marriage in[7:2]
which her children could be rendered illegitimate were the husband not to pay. But
conversely, there is an implicit agreement that the payment, although no longer a
condition, become an absolute obligation of the husband which the woman can
enforce until he proves that the money was paid.
This completes the explanation of the Mishnah. The Gemara contains nothingwhich we have not explained.
[Kiddushin subject to father's consent; meaning of "consent"]
The next Mishnah reads:
If he says "On condition that my father consent":
If his father consents, she is betrothed; if not, she is not betrothed.
If his father dies, she is betrothed.
If the son dies, the father is instructed to say that he does not consent.
The Mishnah's reference to consent can be interpreted in three ways:
1. That the father affirmatively consent. If so, there should be no
betrothal where the father dies before consenting.
2. That the father fail to object when he first hears. It does notmatter whether he objects later. Further, the emphasis is onobjection, so that where the father dies without having been
informed there is kiddushin.
3. That the father permanently refrain from objecting even after hehas affirmatively approved or remained silent. If so, there can never
be kiddushin so long as the father is alive.
The first part of the Mishnah holds that she is betrothed if the father consents.
The condition for the purposes of this part can be explained as either referring to thefather's affirmative consent, or the father's initial failure to object.
The second part of the Mishnah holds that she is betrothed if the father dies,
whether or not he heard before he died. For this part consent cannot meanaffirmative consent, for there was none. But the latter two explanations are
possible: the initial failure to object, and the permanent failure to object.
The third part of the Mishnah teaches that where the son dies we instruct thefather to object in order that the woman not be tied to her yabam. Obviously, at the[7:2]
time of the son's death the father had been informed and had initially failed toobject. For otherwise, the Mishnah should have said we inform him rather than we
instruct him. Nevertheless, the father can still revoke his consent. It must be that
there is kiddushin only if the father permanently fails to object.
It follows that the condition cannot be uniformly interpreted across all three899
parts of the Mishnah !
The Gemara explains that there is one interpretation which is generally suitable.
The condition is that the father fail to object within a designated time, such as in 30
days. She is engaged in the first part where the 30 days have passed and the father
fails to object. In the second part, she is betrothed when the father dies, for he will
not have objected within the 30 days. In the third part, we instruct the father toobject within the 30 day period in order for the woman to be free of the bonds ofyibbum.
The Meiri then summarizes the halacha.
1. Where the condition is that the father not object for a designated time:i. Where the father does not object within the allotted time, there is
betrothal even if the father was never informed before the time
lapsed, and even if he died without having been informed.
ii. There is no betrothal if the father objects within the allotted time.
iii. There is no betrothal if the father objects within the allotted time,even if he previously consented affirmatively, and even if the son has
899

The Raabad disagrees on the interpretation of "initial failure to object":

He requires that the father hear and fail to object before either he or the son dies. If the father dies
before hearing there is no kiddushin. In the Mishna's second case, the father in fact
heard and failed to object. But would it not be more relevant for the Mishna to saythat the father heard rather than that he died? No. The point is that there is kiddushin
although death cut off the possibility of affirmative consent.
How then does the Raabad deduce from the third part of the Mishna that the father can revoke
even after he heard and failed to object? Perhaps there the father never heard before
the son's death and that is why he can still revoke?! Because the Raabad maintains
that from the second part we know that the father heard and failed to object before
he died, so presumably the father heard and failed to object before the son died in thethird part.

[7:2]
died.
2. Where the condition is that the father never object:i. There is no betrothal so long as the father is alive, even if thefather affirmatively consents. This applies even where the son
marries the woman; the father can later object and blemish thestatus of children of the marriage.
ii. Where the father dies there is betrothal whether or not the father
had been informed.
iii. Where the son dies, we instruct the father to object so that there
be no yibbum bonds.
3. Where the condition is that the father be silent initially the rules are as statedpreviously.
4. Where the condition is that "my father say yes," most commentators hold that
there is no kiddushin if the father is silent on being informed.
The Meiri holds that there is questionable kiddushin because the father may say
yes at a later time, just as we are concerned that a father who does not object
immediately may later object.
All agree that there is no kiddushin if the father dies before having said yes.
5. What is the halacha where a man uses the Mishnah's formulation (as originally
understood by the Gemara) "on condition that my father consent"? The matter isunclear. The commentators interpret this variously as "that my father be silent," or"that my father say yes." It is appropriate to apply the stringent rulings of eachinterpretation.
Can the phrase also be interpreted as "on condition that my father not object"?
This is questionable:
900

Another Gemara , deals with the case in which a man tells a woman "I
will marry you on condition that my father consents." The Sages hold that
there is betrothal even if the father does not consent, whereas R. Simeon b.
Gamliel holds that there is betrothal only if the father consents.

900

Keth.73:2.

[7:2]At one point, the Gemara suggests that the dispute is whether the phrase
means the father's affirmative consent or whether it means the father'ssilence. True, this interpretation does not survive the Gemara's final
analysis, but still note that the Gemara never even considered that the
failure to object is a possible interpretation.
The Meiri emphasizes the tentative nature of the Gemara's discussion. He
therefore thinks it appropriate also to apply the failure-to-object
interpretation when this results in stringent rulings.
901

The rules of berera also have application in this context.

[63:2][Credibility of third person where it is uncertain to whom a father betrothed his
daughter]
The next Mishnah reads:
If a man declares "I have given my daughter in betrothal, but do not know
to whom," and then another comes and says "I betrothed her," he isbelieved. If one says "I have betrothed her," and another says "I have
betrothed her," both must give a get. But if they wish, one can give a get
and the other can then marry her.
A father is believed when he declares that he betrothed his ketannah or na'arah
to a particular person. Where the father does not remember to whom he betrothed
her, she can marry no one.
Where a second person comes and claims that the betrothal was to him we
believe him, not only
to permit her to marry a third person after obtaining a get from thesecond, on the theory that a person does not sin for the sake of another,
but also

901

See Git.25:2; 26:1.

[7:2]
to permit the second person himself to marry her, without additional902
kiddushin , on the theory that, even if he were disposed to lie on accountof his desire for the woman, he would be intimidated by fear that thefather would contradict him.
Since the second may marry her only because we rely on his fear of contradiction, it
follows that he cannot marry her where the father is not alive. He can, however, giveher a get sufficient so that she may marry others: for this purpose we rely on thepresumption that one does not sin for the benefit of others. It also follows that where
the father contradicts him, even his get is meaningless.
Assume that a person claims that the betrothal was to him, and the father is at
first silent but later contradicts the person and maintains that he had betrothed his
daughter to another. The Meiri would believe the father in this case, too. He
disagrees with the Raabad who would require a get from the first person in this case.
The Raabad explains that this is the case to which the Gemara refers when it saysthat the person is believed [the Raabad assumes against the father] "to give a get."
Where each of two persons claim that the betrothal was to him, we know that
one is lying, but we do not assume that both are lying. That is why she can marryfreely once she obtains a get from both. This is also why where one gives a get theother may marry her. However, he must provide new kiddushin: she may actually
have been betrothed to the one who gives the get.
What if one person marries her before a second comes to object that the
betrothal was to him? The second person has no credibility. The only exception isthat the father can undermine the first's marriage, as explained previously.
This completes the Mishnah. The Gemara discusses the following.
Where a woman declares that she was betrothed, but does not remember towhom, she may marry no one. If a man then announces that he was the one, he may
not marry her. It is possible that he desires her, and that she seeks to protect him sothat she may marry him.
[Limits on father's credibility on to whom he betrothed his daughter]
The father's credibility is not sufficient to cause one who cohabits with hisdaughter to receive punishment. This applies not only902

If we were to require additional kiddushin then the father's kiddushin must have been to another!
How then could we permit the second to marry her?

[7:2]
where the father does not recall to whom he betrothed his daughter,and the cohabiting person may have been the person to whom she
was betrothed so that no penalty is appropriate,
but also
where the father asserts that the cohabiting person was not one ofthose to whom the father may have betrothed his daughter,and also
where the father asserts that the cohabiting person was a minor or agentile at the time and who therefore could not have been the
person who betrothed his daughter,and also
where the father or the woman or both affirmatively state flatly thatthe father betrothed her to so and so (who is not the cohabiting
person), but there are no witnesses.
Insofar as concerns punishment of the woman or the cohabiting person, there are nofacts, even admission, which establish that a woman is betrothed. Witnesses are
essential.
The same lack of credibility for punishment applies to one who testifies that his
cohabiting son or daughter had reached the age of intercourse, i.e., age nine years
for a boy, and age three years for a girl.
Now, a father is believed when he testifies that his sons and daughters havereached the age at which their oaths, erukhin, heramim or hekdesh are valid
regardless of whether they had signs of puberty or understood the meaning of theiraction. This age is 13 years and one day for a boy, and 12 years and one day for a
903
girl.
But the father's testimony cannot be credited where this would result inpunishment to the son or daughter for transgressions.
May we rely on presumptions based on commonly held opinions? Such903

Note that during the one-year period prior to these respective ages (i.e., from age 12 and one day
in boys and age 11 and one day in girls), vows and hekdesh are valid only if the boy or girl understands
the meaning of his or her action. It does not matter that there are signs of puberty; at this age thepubic hairs are assumed to be mere moles. At younger ages, all actions are invalid even if there isunderstanding.

[7:2]
presumptions cannot be used to determine whether there was an act of kiddushin,
but they can be relied upon to support the father's testimony on collateral issues
such as age. Accordingly, a person who cohabits with a girl who is known to haveengaged in an act of betrothal is punished if the girl is generally assumed to havereached age three years, and the father so testifies.
[64:1][Limits on father's credibility on whether he betrothed his daughter to another]
The next Mishnah reads:
If a man says "I have given my daughter in betrothal," or "I gave mydaughter in betrothal and then accepted her get while she was aketannah," and she is still a ketannah, he is believed. He is not believed if
she is not now a ketannah, and he says "I gave my daughter in betrothal
and then accepted her get while she was a ketannah." Whether or not she
is now a ketannah he is not believed if he says "She was taken captive and I
redeemed her.
If a man says "I have given my daughter in betrothal," whether as a ketannah or asa na'arah, he is believed so long as his daughter is still a na'arah. Similarly, we
believe him when he says he accepted a get for her and thereby rendered her unfit
to marry a priest.
A woman who was captured and redeemed is not permitted to marry a priest; itis possible that she was violated by her captors and thereby became a zonah. A
father is not believed if he says "she was captured and I redeemed her." Why not?
The Gemara first assumes that the father's credibility depends on whether he has
the present power to bring about the result which flows from his testimony. He has
no power to give her to captors! But would not the result be the same were he tosay "I betrothed her and then accepted a get"? No. The latter statement would not
result in an interdict against eating terumah, whereas a claim that she was captured
would make her ineligible for terumah. Only improper cohabitation can proscribe
terumah to the daughter of a priest who returns to her father's house.
But he does have power to make her ineligible to eat terumah by betrothing her
to a halal! For just as the children of a marriage to a halal are forbidden to thepriesthood, so also must the wife be forbidden if she is widowed from the halal.
Similarly, he can render her ineligible to eat terumah by betrothing her to one towhom she is prohibited!
The Gemara ultimately concludes that the father's credibility has nothing to do[7:2]
with his power to bring about a result. In fact, the father cannot even bring about
betrothal and divorce, for how do we know that he can find someone to whom tobetroth her? Or that the person will later divorce her?
Why then do we believe the father in that case? Because of the direct Scriptural904
authority stemming from the verse "I gave my daughter to this man."Thisauthority applies only in matters of marriage and divorce. There is no authority
elsewhere, and it follows that the father has no credibility in matters of capture. Also
the verse refers only to ketannah and na'arah, so that the father's authority applies
only while she is yet a ketannah or a na'arah.
The Gemara explains no additional matters.
[Father's credibility on whether he has sons which exempt his wife from yibbum]
The next Mishnah reads:
If a man says at the time of his death "I have sons," he is believed. He is notbelieved if he says "I have brothers."
If he says "I have sons," the result is that his wife requires no halizah, and he isbelieved. If he says "I have brothers," the result would be that she requires halizah,
and he is not believed.
The Gemara explains that prior to the declaration the woman was presumed not
to have bonds of yibbum. The husband's statement that he has sons is believed
because it does not contradict the presumption. Instead, it strengthens it towithstand any later rumor that there are bonds of yibbum. On the other hand, thehusband's statement that he has brothers is not believed because it contradicts thepresumption.
Rabbi and R. Natan disagree in the following case. A man is presumed to havebrothers and proposes to betroth a woman who, absent further action, would
thereby be presumed to have bonds of yibbum. At the time of kiddushin the man
declares that he has sons or that he has no brothers. Although the statement
contradicts the presumption, it is credited because if the man were lying he could
have promised the woman a divorce effective prior to his death.
Note that in the Mishnah the man is dying and is presumably not in aposition to give a divorce. That is why his testimony cannot be buttressed904

Deut.25:16.

[7:2]
with the were-he-lying argument. See the Meiri's discussion later on therule where at the time of death there is still the opportunity to deliver aget.
The were-he-lying rationale results in the opposite presumption, that the woman has
no bonds of yibbum.
Assume further that at the time of his death the same man declares that he has
brothers and no sons. Rabbi does not believe the man, because Rabbi holds that thelenient presumption introduced by the were-he-lying argument is absolute, andtotally destroys the prior stringent presumption. R. Natan holds that the stringent
presumption is not destroyed. Rather, it is in rough balance with the lenientpresumption. Where the man dies without denying his prior statement, thisstrengthens the lenient presumption, for there is yet another presumption that aman does not sin for the benefit of others. But where he does deny his priorstatement, we have no authority to rely on the lenient presumption rather than thestringent presumption.
There is a general principle that the halacha accords with Rabbi in disputes with
one person, such as R. Natan in this case. The Meiri appears to hold that the principle
applies here, although he mentions that some commentators would make an
exception in light of our Gemara's efforts to reconcile our Mishnah with R. Natan.
If we rule with Rabbi, we must reconcile our holding that were-he-lying canabsolutely destroy a contrary presumption, with the holding elsewhere that the issue905
is a matter of doubt . The Meiri explains that the were-he-lying argument here is
supported by the fact that the wife, not the husband, is the direct beneficiary of thehusband's statements. We therefore apply the dictum that a person does not sin forothers. It is where the statements are self-serving that we are uncertain on therelative strengths of were-he-lying and a contrary presumption. In these other cases
we apply stringent rulings in religious matters, and lenient rulings (on behalf of thepossessor) in monetary matters.
Both Rabbi and R. Natan agree as follows:
1. The husband's statement at the time of kiddushin can establish alenient presumption if the husband does not later deny thisstatement. Read carefully R. Natan's holding: "The husband [by hisstatement at the time of his death] is believed to bind, too,"
implying that the husband's lenient statement at the time of905

B.B.6:1.

[7:2]
kiddushin is also credited.
2. Where a woman is under a presumption that there are bonds ofyibbum, the husband should be believed if:
at the time of death he says that he has sons or that he has nobrothers, andthere is still time to write and deliver a get, so that even now we
can apply the were-he-lying argument.
The Meiri is surprised that both the Rambam and the Raabad appear to disagree withthe second principle.
But what of the rule that a husband who declares that he divorced his wife
cannot thereby free his wife from the bonds of yibbum, even where it is in the906husband's power to deliver a get ? Because a get generally becomes a matter ofpublic knowledge and we are concerned with the absence of notoriety. On the other
hand, the public is not expected to take wide notice of whether the husband has
brothers or sons.
No additional matters are explained in the Gemara.
[64:2][Who is meant when a father gives his "eldest" or "youngest" daughter in betrothal]
The next Mishnah reads as follows:
If one gives his daughter in betrothal without specifying which, thebogeret are not included.
If one has two groups of daughters from two wives, and declares "I havegiven in betrothal my eldest daughter, but do not know whether theeldest of the seniors or the eldest of the juniors, or the youngest of theseniors who is older than the senior of the juniors," all are forbidden

906

B.B.135:1.

[7:2]
except the youngest of the juniors. This is R. Meir's view. R. Jose said "Theyare all permitted except the eldest of the seniors.""I have betrothed my youngest daughter, but do not know whether the
youngest of the juniors or the youngest of the seniors, or the eldest of thejuniors who is younger than the youngest of the seniors," they are all
forbidden except the eldest of the seniors, this is R. Meir's view. R. Jose
said: "They are all permitted, except the youngest of the juniors.""If one gives his daughter in betrothal without specifying which, the bogeret are907
not included." This is the halacha in the circumstances discussed earlier , and thesame rule applies in the case of get.
In considering the rest of the Mishnah, know that each daughter is considered anelder daughter relative to those younger than she. Also recall that in the second
908
perek , we established that the father at the time of kiddushin knew whichdaughter he was betrothing, but was subsequently confused. For if the matter wereuncertain initially, R. Meir would hold that the kiddushin are invalid because the
kiddushin could never be consummated.
R. Jose assumes that the eldest of the seniors was betrothed, and (in the secondcase the youngest of the juniors), based on the principle that a person does not place
himself in a position of doubt.
Now, R. Meir's holding applies only when the there are two groups of daughtersfrom different wives. Where they have the same mother, the father refers only tothe actual oldest as "my oldest" and to the actual youngest as "my youngest." Allother daughters are referred to by their proper names. Only where there are twogroups of girls can he refer to all members of one group as the "oldest" or the"youngest" relative to the other group.
Why then when there are two groups does the term eldest apply to all but the
youngest daughter of the second group? Why does it apply to the middle daughtersof the second group? In fact, it does not, and the Mishnah states its rule flatly
because it assumes that the second group has no middle daughters. Were R. Meir tohold that the middle daughters in the second group are included, the Mishnah
should have said that the man does not know whether he betrothed "the eldest of
the seniors or the eldest or the middle daughter of the juniors...."

907

51:2.

908

51:2.

[7:2]Is this proper proof, given that the middle daughter of the eldest group is
betrothed, although the Mishnah does not mention her? The proof is valid. Insofar
as concerns the eldest group, the middle girls are deemed covered by the term
"eldest" since they are older relative to the members of the second group.
The halacha is consistent with R. Jose even where there are two groups. A person
does not place himself in a position of doubt.
The same principle applies elsewhere. Where one vows not to derive benefit
from another until the Passover, what is meant is until the beginning of Passover.
Where he says until Passover shall be, he means until the end of Passover. Where hesays until the face of Passover, the phrase can be read to mean until the front ofPassover, or until the last day of Passover, because each day in effect shows its faceto the other. In order to resolve the ambiguity we apply the principle that a person
does not place himself in a position of doubt, and we rule that he meant until thearrival of Passover.
Refer again to the rule just stated that the phrase until such and such shall be909
means until the end of such and such. The Gemara explains elsewherethat thisrule applies only where the mentioned thing has a specific time limit. But where
there is no established time, such as where he says until the harvest shall be, theintent is only until the beginning of the harvest.
This completes the Mishnah. The Gemara adds nothing that we have not910
explained elsewhere .
[65:1][Where the husband and wife dispute whether there was betrothal]
The next Mishnah reads:

909
910

Ned.61:2.

See 51:2.

[7:2]
If he says to a woman "I have betrothed you," and she says "You have not
betrothed me," her relations are forbidden to him but his relations are notforbidden to her.
If she says "You have betrothed me," and he says "I have not betrothed
you," her relations are permitted to him, but his relations are forbidden toher.
"I have betrothed you," and she replies "You have betrothed none but mydaughter," the relations of the mother are forbidden to him, while his
relations are permitted to the mother; the daughter's relations are
permitted to him, and his relations are permitted to the daughter.
"I have betrothed your daughter," and she says "You have betrothed none
but myself," the daughter's relations are forbidden to him, while his
relations are permitted to the daughter; the mother's relations are
permitted to him, while his relations are forbidden to the mother.
The person who maintains that there was kiddushin claims that the kiddushin were
witnessed, but that the witnesses departed to a distant land, or died, or that he or shecannot recall who the witnesses were.
Were both the man and the woman to agree that there had been kiddushin in
the presence of witnesses, there would be absolute kiddushin notwithstanding thatthe kiddushin is not established by witnesses. The issue in the first part of theMishnah is that she contradicts him.
Her relations (such as her sister and the like) are forbidden to him based on his
own admission. His relations are not forbidden to her, for she denies his claim andthere are no witnesses.
Where she claims that he betrothed her, and he denies it, she cannot marry his
relations after she receives a get from him. Until she receives his get she cannot
marry anyone. He can marry her relations because, unless he gives her a get (as will
be explained below), he has confessed to nothing. The fact that she renders herself
forbidden to the whole world does not add credibility to her claim; perhaps she did
not realize this result when she made her claim.
The Meiri cites a recent case in which the woman claimed that she had been
betrothed at a specified time. The man denied it and was supported by witnesses.
Nevertheless, the Rabbis applied the rule that a person's testimony adverse tohimself is stronger than 100 witnesses. The woman was therefore forbidden to thewhole world.

[7:2]A mother has no credibility as regards her daughter. Where the mother claims
that a man betrothed her daughter, and he claims that he betrothed the mother, themother's relations are forbidden to him, and his relations are forbidden to themother but not to the daughter.
The daughter's relations are not necessarily the same as the mother's. For
example, the daughter's half sister from her father's side is not a relation of
the mother at all.
The following additional matters are discussed in the Gemara.
Where she says that he betrothed and he denies it, we request that he give her a
get to permit her to marry another. We do not compel the get because by giving it
her relations become forbidden to him.
He need not give her a kethubah if he divorces her at our request. He must giveher a kethubah if he divorces her on his own volition, since this suggests a concessionthat he betrothed her.
[kethubah rights of a woman who is divorced after betrothal]Now, it must be that there is no written kethubah in our case, for if there were
the kethubah would prove the betrothal. Our Gemara is therefore evidence that a
betrothed woman who is divorced is entitled to a kethubah payment even if there is
no written document, probably in order to discourage the groom from divorcing her
without mature consideration.
911

Consider another Gemara which holds that a widowed betrothed woman isgiven a kethubah payment without a kethubah deed, but is uncertain whether toapply the same rule to women who are divorced after betrothal. How are we toreconcile the Gemara's?
Several explanations are possible:
912

1. Our Gemara follows Rav's view that both widows and divorced womenare entitled to payment of their unwritten kethubahs. The difficulty withthis explanation is that, if so, our Gemara would not be consistent with the
halacha. Why then is it cited by the Alfasi?

911

Keth.89:2.

912

Id.

[7:2]
2. In our Gemara there in fact does exist a written kethubah. Why then is it
not evidence of kiddushin? Because of a local custom that the kethubah iswritten prior to kiddushin.
3. Where a woman insists that her betrothal was conditional on her
husband's oral acceptance of a kethubah obligation, this acceptance isequivalent to a written deed. In our Gemara she claims, but cannot provewith a deed, that he betrothed her and, further, that she had insisted that
betrothal was conditional on payment of the kethubah. That is why she
receives a kethubah if he ultimately accedes to her position and divorces
her on his own volition
The Meiri closes this discussion by remarking that the Rashba holds that both
widowed and divorced betrothed women are entitled to kethubah payments even
where there is no deed. Evidence supporting and contradicting the Rashba's position
913
is discussed elsewhere .
There can be no kiddushin without witnesses even if both agree that heperformed a kiddushin ceremony. As noted in the Mishnah there is kiddushin if bothassert that witnesses were present. Where he claims that there was kiddushin in thepresence of witnesses, she denies it, and his position is supported by one witness, she
914
prevails. As will be explained later , a single witness has no credibility.
If the witnesses were not competent Scripturally, the kiddushin is null. If the913

B.M.17:2. Among other things, the Rashba notes that in Keth.89:2, the Gemara does not ask
whether a kethubah is payable, but rather inquires on the source of the rule that a kethubah ispayable.
914

65:2.

[7:2]
915

incompetence was Rabbinical she is questionably betrothed . In these cases wecompel him to give a get and we compel her to accept it.
One who divorces his married wife and secludes with her overnight in an inn
must give her another get if there are witnesses to the seclusion. Because the man
and woman are familiar with each other, the witnesses of seclusion are considered
the same as if they had witnessed cohabitation. There is less familiarity where the916
divorce was at the betrothal stage, and here no new get is required .
[65:2][Where two men and one woman dispute each other's marital status and property
rights]915

See 24:2.

916

Git.81:1.

[7:2]
Assume that two men and one woman arrive from a distant location, and thatthey bring with them a certain chattel. Each man claims that the woman is his wifeand that the other man is his slave. The woman claims she is married to neither and
917
that the men are her slaves. All three claim to own the chattel outright.
The woman requires no get, for witnesses do not support either man. The same
result would obtain were one of the men supported by one witness. A single witness
cannot contradict any person in religious matters.
The rule is different insofar as concerns civil matters, such as whether oneof the men is the slave of the other: A single witness is sufficient to require
an oath of the person whom he contradicts.
How do we deal with the case?
All three swear that they own not less than a third of the chattel, and they each918
succeed to a one-third portion . She receives a get from both men. Once thisdivision is complete and she has received a get she can compel the two to pay to her
one kethubah, but only out of the men's remaining interest in the chattel.
Why so? Does she not deny that she was married to either, and does she notthereby disclaim her kethubah? And is it not the rule that a man need not pay akethubah where he maintains that he betrothed a woman and she denies it? And is
it not the rule that where the donee of a gift denies receiving the gift of a field, thatthe donor eats the fruit, on the principle that in disputed cases we leave money
rights where we find them?
Yes, but in our case she argues "If I tell the truth, then the chattel is all myproperty apart from any kethubah. If either of the two of you tell the truth, thenyou owe me a kethubah!"
Most commentators hold that she cannot collect a total sum out of the men's
combined interest in the chattel which exceeds one kethubah [presumably thesmaller of the two kethubahs if they differ in amount]; both men cannot owe her akethubah. Others disagree and permit her to recover both kethubahs. It isconceivable that one of the men married her after the other first divorced her, sothat both are liable for a kethubah payment.

917

The Yerushalmi cites a case in which the woman arrives riding on an animal in which all threeclaim full ownership.
918

B.M.2:1.

[7:2]
Similarly, where only one of the men has divorced her, then she can recover one
kethubah only out of that man's one-third interest in the chattel. If that one-thirdinterest is sufficient to cover her kethubah, then her situation is no worse with one
get than with two.
In discussing this case, the Yerushalmi also resolves the claims of servitude in thiscase: the woman and one of the men issue an emancipatory deed to the other man,and the other man then joins with the woman to issue an emancipatory deed to thefirst man. The Yerushalmi also concludes that the three share equally in the chattel,
919
without discussing the woman's rights to receive a kethubah .
Others disagree with the basic thrust of the prior discussion. The woman must
decide whether she wishes to recover one-third of the chattel based on her oath that
she owns at least that third, or (where the value of her kethubah exceeds one-thirdof the chattel) she can choose to recover her entire kethubah from the chattel. Here,again, the commentators differ whether she can recover one or two kethubahs. Also,
for the woman's kethubah to affect more than two-thirds of the value of the chattel(one-third in excess of the one-third available to her upon her oath) it is necessarythat she have received a get from both men.
Where each man brings two witnesses, and it is possible that both groups aretruthful, such as where one man may have married the woman after the otherdivorced her, the witnesses stand, and the woman is not believed unless she, too,brings a pair of witnesses which supports her.
Where it is not possible that both groups are telling the truth, mostcommentators hold that neither group is believed. A minority would credit thewitnesses to the extent of finding that the woman must be treated as married, forboth groups agree that she is married to one of the two men. In a similar case,where one group of witnesses testifies that A owes B 100 zuz and another group
testifies that A owes B 200 zuz, we rule that there is adequate proof that at least 100920
is owed .
But would the minority apply the same rule where each man brought one
witness? Shall we say that both witnesses agree that she is a married woman? Is nota plaintiff believed when one witness testifies that the plaintiff loaned the919

One commentator on the Yerushalmi suggests that the Yerushalmi's rule is grounded on the pregeonic halacha that chattels are not responsible for kethubah payments. See the discussion of R.
Meir's view on this below.
920

Sanh.31:1.

[7:2]
defendant money on Sunday, and the other testifies that the loan occurred on
921
Monday? Yes, but the cases are distinguishable. There each witness supports theplaintiff. Here one witness supports one of the men, and the other witness supports
the other. The fact that they agree on the woman's general status is not sufficient to
combine them. As separate witnesses they must fail when arrayed against a party(the woman) who contests their credibility. The same result would obtain were one
witness to be directly contradicted by another witness.
Where the men are not supported by witnesses she may not marry either one. By
her own declaration she has declared them slaves. She must first free the man she
wishes to marry and she must accept a get from the man she does not wish to marry.
But where the men are supported by witnesses who both testify that the men are
free, some commentators hold that she cannot by her declaration cause the men to
be treated as slaves even as relates to her own status.
[Woman's rights to seize chattels against her kethubah]
The woman's right to seize a chattel in payment of her kethubah is consistent
with the rule introduced by the Geonim following the completion of the Talmud. In
earlier Talmudic times the rule was followed only by R. Meir. The majority held thata woman could enforce her kethubah rights only against real property, whereas allother creditors could seize even a debtor's chattels, "even the coat on his
922
923
shoulders." An inconsistent Gemara which holds that a woman can seize eventhe proceeds of her husband's hair, should he sell it, is also R. Meir's minority view.
[Are witnesses essential for commercial transactions?]
Witnesses are essential to the validity of kiddushin, but not to the validity ofmonetary transactions. In monetary deals, witnesses serve only as proof that atransaction has been finalized by a kinyan. Where the kinyan is determined byadmission of the parties, the transaction is final and irrevocable whether or not924
witnessed . This is the view of the Alfasi and the Rambam.

921

Sanh.30:1.

922

B.K.11:2.

923

Ned.68:2.

924

This is the significance of R. Ashi's holding on the issue propounded to him by Mar Zutra and R.
Adda Saba.

[7:2]
Rabbeinu Tam concurs, and he maintains that this is also the import of a925
Gemara which deals with the rule that the redemption price for another's second
tithe is equal to the tithe's value, whereas the price for one's own tithe is 125% of its
value. It therefore behooves the owner of the tithe wherever possible to transfer
funds to his comrade so that his comrade can redeem the tithe.
A baraitha suggests that this effect can be brought about in a roundabout
way: the owner gives the tithe produce to his comrade, and the ownerthen uses his own funds to redeem the tithe now owned by his comrade.
The Gemara at first suggests that this scheme is used because the funds are
not physically present, and halifin is invalid to transfer money. The Gemara
ultimately explains that the case involves the unusual situation where thetransferor owns no property which could be used to effect halifin.
Now, if witnesses are essential to monetary transfers, why does not theGemara more logically explain that halifin is indeed valid, but there are no926
witnesses!
927

The Raabad disagrees based on another Gemara
which compares a kinyan
with an admission, in that just as an admission of a debt is invalid without witnesses,
so also does a kinyan require witnesses. The Meiri disagrees. Witnesses are required
for admissions only to ensure that the admissions were made seriously rather than injest. They are not essential per se. The Meiri discusses this at greater length928
elsewhere .
["Confessions" in monetary matters]
Note the Gemara's explanation that confessions are valid in monetary matters
because others are not harmed. This does not apply to A who owes money to B, and
who "confesses" to C that C owes him no money. B is harmed by A's confession, sothat A is not believed without witnesses. But B is not considered harmed if he lendsmoney to A after A has made his confession.

925

B.M.46:1.

926

Query how the produce could be transferred if there were no witnesses?

927

B.B.40:1.

928

B.M.55:2; B.B.40:1.

[7:2][When a hattat is brought on account of the testimony of a single witness]
One who unwittingly eats helev must bring a hattat sacrifice. Abbaye propounds
the following rules:
1. If a witness claims that a person has unwittingly eaten helev, andthe person insists that he did not eat it, or that it was not helev, orthat "I do not believe you that it was helev," no hattat need bebrought so long as the witness's testimony is not upheld.
2. If the person does trust the witness, but denies this trust in order
not to bring a hattat, he indeed brings no hattat, but is considered
wicked. "You shall fear your G-d" who knows your internal thoughts.
3. If he affirms his trust, or remains silent, he must bring a hattat. But
there are the following differences:If he affirmatively states his trust, he can never withdraw it.
If he was merely silent, he can revoke his position, and be freed ofa hattat, if his revocation is based on subsequent investigation.
What is the basis of the rule that a hattat is brought where the person remains
silent? Some commentators analogize from the rule that a single witness has
credibility in religious matters for lenient rulings. They claim that the witness should
more certainly be credited for stringent rulings, such as where his testimony resultsin the requirement that a hattat be brought.
The Meiri disagrees. A person must bring a hattat only "if his sin became known929
to him;" this implies self realization. Besides, if a hattat can result from testimony,
why is there no hattat where the person says "I don't know"?
Instead, the Meiri explains that the person's silence is interpreted as trust. This is
the equivalent of self realization. Where this trust is absent, such as where he says "I
don't know," he need not bring a hattat.
Why, then, do some commentators hold that where the witness is a gentile,
silence does not result in a hattat? Is there no self-realization? Quite so, we assume
that the person does not credit the witness, and that he does not take the trouble tocontradict the witness because the witness is a gentile.

929

Lev.4:23.

[7:2]
Similar rules apply where one witness tells a person "Your clean food was
defiled." Where he contradicts the witness, the food is presumed clean. Where he issilent, we read this as agreement, and the food is considered defiled.
[Analogous dispute between Abbaye and Raba relating to defiled food]930

A Gemara in Gittin rules that where a person claims "The clean food we areworking on today is defiled," he is believed. But he is not believed when he says
"The clean food on which we worked the other day was defiled." Abbaye explainsthat in the first case the witness is still in a position to defile the food. The witness is
no longer in a position to defile the food in the second case.
Presumably, the owner was silent in both cases. Still, the witness is believed only
where the witness is in a position to take action! How then can we reconcile thiswith Abbaye in our Gemara where a witness is believed notwithstanding that it is
not within his power to feed anyone helev?
The Tosafot explain that the witness is believed where either:a matter is within a witness's power, or
the owner is silent when the witness claims "You yourself know that you
ate helev."
The Meiri takes another approach. In the Gemara in Gittin, the owner does nottrust the witness and says so. Abbaye holds that where something is within a931
witness's power, the witness has credibility even where not trusted by the owner .
Where something is not within a witness's power he is believed where he is creditedby the person on whom he testifies, and this crediting can be evidenced by silence.
Rabbeinu Tam explains that the witness is given credibility in our Gemara bysilence, whereas in the Gemara in Gittin the owner of the clean food affirmatively
says "I don't know," and that is why the witness is believed only when it is within his
932
power. The Meiri disagrees, for in our Gemara a blind man's silence is treated assilence, when at most it has the status of a seeing person's "I don't know."
Now Raba explains the two parts of the Gemara in Gittin differently. His basic
930

Git.54:2.

931

But probably not for hatos purposes, where self realization is required.

932

66:1.

[7:2]
premise is that where it is in the witness's power to defile, he is believed whether
defilement is claimed to have occurred today or long ago. The cases assume that thewitness is not in a position to defile the food. They are distinguished thus:
Where a person claims "The clean food we are working on today is defiled,"
silence connotes belief because the witness acted properly in promptly informing theowner. But silence does not connote belief if the witness says "The clean food weworked on such and such a day was defiled." The owner expects the witness to
inform him promptly where the witness worked with him. In our Gemara, where thewitness is a stranger, there is no such expectation, and mere silence does denoteagreement.
Recall the Meiri's interpretation of Abbaye's view:
Where something is within a witness's power, the witness has credibility
independent of the person's trust. Where something is not within awitness's power he is believed where he is credited by the person on whom
he testifies, and this crediting can be evidenced by silence.
Analytically, Raba agrees with Abbaye that the witness is always credited on all
matters within his power. In fact, Raba agrees with Abbaye in all cases except one:
Abbaye holds that silence denotes agreement even where the witness did not comeforward immediately. In that one case Raba does not credit the witness.
The Meiri disagrees with commentators who explain that Raba does not credit awitness who was not immediately forthcoming even where the witness has thepresent power to bring about a result. The Meiri complains that this is illogical.
Besides, the witness's present power must mean that his testimony is immediate!
[Another analogous case]933

It remains to reconcile a Gemara in Sanhedrin
with our Gemara. Where awitness testifies that "Your father hid money in a chest, and declared it to be second
tithe":
the witness is not believed where the chest was hidden in the father'shouse;
he is believed where he claims that the chest was hidden in the field.

933

Sanh.30:1.

[7:2]In the first case, it is not within the witness's power to take the funds and expend
them as he wishes: in the second case it is. Does it not appear that where a matter is
not within a witness's power, silence connotes nothing?!
There are several possible explanations:
1. In Sanhedrin there was no silence. The witness was contradicted.
2. There was silence, which in this case does not denote agreement
because the witness does not claim to know that the money wassecond tithe, only that he heard the father say so. Perhaps the money
was not second tithe but the father nevertheless did not wish the934sons to take the oath imposed on heirs who are presented with aclaim against their estate.
Why then is he believed where the chest is in the open field? Because
the father obviously trusted the witness by placing the funds where
the witness could take them for himself.
3. The Gemara in Sanhedrin is a monetary case; if believed, thewitness would transfer ownership of produce from civilian hands tothe status of second tithe. The testimony of a single witness is notcredited in monetary matters. But where the funds are secreted in an
open field, the witness is in effect a third party escrow and istherefore credited.
Where one witness tells a person "You were defiled," meaning "You entered theTemple in a defiled state" and must bring a sacrifice, the following rules apply:
1. If the person contradicts the witness, he need not bring a sacrifice.
The same would be true if there are two witnesses, and the person's
denial can be interpreted as meaning "I was no longer defiled, for I
had cleansed myself in a mikveh."934

The text of the Meiri refers to the father's desire to avoid his having to take an oath. The Meiri's
source here is the Rashba, and the Rashba refers to the father's desire not to have the sons take theoath.

[7:2]
2. Where he is silent, he is understood to agree with the witness.
[66:1][Where a witness testifies on bestiality]
Where a witness says "Bestiality was committed with your ox," the following
rules apply:
1. If the owner contradicts the witness, the animal need not be killed.
The animal is fit for sacrifice.
2. If the owner agreed or was silent, the animal is not fit for sacrifice.
3. If the owner says "I don't know," the animal is also unfit for
sacrifice. This rule differs from hattat, where it is necessary that there
be self-realization.
[Where a witness testifies on adultery]
Where a witness tells a husband that his wife committed adultery, the following
rules apply:
1. The husband may continue to cohabit with his wife where thehusband considers the witness only generally credible. This applies
even where the husband was silent and even if the husband believedthat the witness was telling the truth. The rule is based on thedictum "No marital matter may be established by less than two."It goes without saying that the husband may cohabit with his wife
where he contradicts the witness or where he says that he does not
know. In all these matters we entrust a person's heart to Him towhom all mysteries are open.
2. Where the husband so trusts the witness that he considers him theequivalent of two witnesses, and the wife does not contradict thewitness, all hold that as a moral matter, the husband may determine
not to cohabit with his wife. As a legal matter, the dictum continues
to apply that "No marital matter may be established by less than
two."
Note that where a husband warns his wife outside of the presence of
witnesses not to seclude with another, and there is a witness that she
nevertheless secluded, the husband surely believes the witness. Still,[7:2]
the husband may continue to cohabit with his wife.
The Meiri took this lenient view (i.e., that there is not even a moral problem
where the husband believes that his wife sinned but he does not credit the witness
generally as he would two witnesses) in an actual case, and he was supported in his
ruling by the Rashba. The Rashba adduced evidence from our Gemara's reference to"Don't cohabit with her if you believe the single witness as two," rather than to"Don't cohabit with her if you believe that she transgressed."
The Rambam takes a stricter view. He requires the woman to be divorced where
the husband only feels in his heart that the witness is telling the truth. The Rambam
even applies his rule where the witness is a woman or a slave!
But how does the Rambam explain the Gemara which the Rashba cites as
support? Even Abbaye, who does rely on one witness, requires a divorce only where
the witness is eligible to testify: "Divorce her if you believe the witness was not arobber"! A slave or a woman is not eligible!
Some explain that the Rambam would limit the Gemara to cases in which thehusband did not previously suspect his wife of infidelity. But this explanation isunsatisfactory. For even in suspect circumstances (such as where a husband finds his
935
wife arranging her clothing while a peddler leaves her house ) a woman can beforbidden to her husband only by two witnesses.
Others suggest that a slave's testimony suffices for the Rambam because theRambam understands "Divorce her if you believe the witness was not a robber" tomean "Divorce her if you believe the witness," rather than "Divorce her if thewitness is legally competent to testify."[Credibility of a woman to assert that she committed adultery]
What if a wife asserts to her husband that she committed adultery? She is notbelieved, even where she explains why she sinned. We fear that her purpose is tomarry another man.
936

This is the import of a Gemara in Nedarim . A woman married to a priest (whomay not cohabit with his wife if she cohabited with another even accidentally oragainst her will) habitually would bring water to wash her husband's hands after

935

See Yeb.24:2.

936

Ned.91:1.

[7:2]
relations. In an instance when she brought water when they had no relations, she
explained that by error she had relations with a perfume salesman whom she
confused with her husband. The woman was not believed; her purpose may havebeen to marry another.
The same rule would apply to the wife of a non-priest who offers a pretext why
she sinned with another willingly (since wives are forbidden to non-priests only ifthey sin willingly).
At one point the Rabbis determined to veer away from the halacha because ofconcern that women might have sinned and were wrongfully cohabiting with theirhusbands. The Rabbis returned to the pure halacha when they realized women could
be motivated by the desire to marry another.
We have to this point discussed circumstances in which the husband has a moral
obligation to divorce. We have noted that he has a legal obligation to divorce hiswife only where two witnesses testified that she committed adultery willingly(insofar as concerns non-priests). The same rule applies (except that the kethubah
must be paid) where the husband claims that he himself witnessed the adultery: wecompel the husband to divorce his wife.
Now this last rule applies only where the halacha and local law is that a husband
may freely divorce his wife. But where the herem applies which prohibits a man fromdivorcing his wife against her will, or where local gentile laws prohibit such divorce,
we do not compel or permit the husband to divorce based on adultery he claims tohave witnessed. We fear that his purpose is only to divorce her to marry another.
Compare this with the prior discussion in which it was noted that the
Rabbis became concerned that women were "admitting" to adultery
merely to marry another. The presumption is so strong that we ignore her
assertion and allow her to continue to eat terumah (where her husband isa priest) and to live with him, notwithstanding that a person generally has
the power to apply interdicts to himself.
The Rashba applies this reasoning even in areas where a person may still marry
two wives, since practically speaking a woman will more readily marry a man who is
not already married.
The Meiri recounts his ruling in the following actual case. A husband constantly
abused his wife to encourage her to consent to a divorce. This consent was required
under local law. The husband also caused malicious rumors to circulate regarding his
wife, and it was determined that certain of these were false. A corrupt person who
had argued with the wife's father agreed to assist the husband in destroying the
wife's reputation. The corrupt person approached the husband and asserted that he[7:2]
had committed adultery with the wife. The husband joyfully approached the Bethdin with this claim and demanded that the Beth din affirm that a get was in order.
The husband proposed to use this affirmation to obtain the consent of the civil
authorities to a divorce.
The Meiri applied the following analysis:
1. A person cannot testify against himself. The corrupt person
therefore cannot indict himself for having committed adultery. But
shall we immunize the corrupt person against his testimony but
credit the testimony insofar as concerns the woman?
No. The very purpose of the testimony is to further a wicked scheme.
Even someone who is generally suspected of ill-deeds is incompetentto testify in marital matters; much more so a person who is corrupt inthe very testimony under consideration!
Besides, the rule that one cannot indict himself applies only where
one intends his statement as testimony, whether in the presence of
the Beth din or out of the Beth din's presence. Where statements
are not meant as such, a person can freely indict himself, and we
937
must judicially take note of what he says, even against himself .
We therefore cannot immunize the corrupt person against his own
testimony and believe it against others. His statements must fall in
their entirety.
2. But does not the husband have a moral obligation to divorce when
he believes the witness? Yes elsewhere, but not here. We give nocredence to the husband when he says that he believes the witness.
We assume that the husband's purpose is to marry another. Our
position is based on the many arguments between the pair and theinstances in which the husband's statements were proved false.
Compare the rule that a woman who frequently argued with her
husband is not credited when she asserts that her husband has
938
died .

937

The Gemara in Yebamoth (24:2) holds that an adulterer's testimony is sufficient to require that hedivorce the woman if he marries her. See the discussion in the Gemara on whether the rule applies
only where there were witnesses to the adultery, etc.
938

Yeb.114:2 and 116:1.

[7:2]
Besides, how can we believe him when he says that he trusts andcredits the testimony of a person who claimed to have cohabitedwith his wife.
The husband then maintained that he had witnessed his wife behave repulsively.
The Meiri rules that this is insignificant even if believed. A woman cannot marrya person with whom she engaged in repulsive behavior while she was married toanother. But repulsive behavior with another can never result in a requirement that
her husband divorce her. A woman receives no malkot, nor is she proscribed to herhusband, on account of seclusion with another. The only circumstances in which awoman is forbidden to her husband (other than by the direct testimony of two
witnesses) is where the husband warned her in the presence of witnesses, and she
secluded in the presence of one witness.
The husband realized that he was losing his case, and suddenly maintained that
he had witnessed his wife's adultery. The Meiri ignored this claim for several reasons:
1. The husband never until now claimed personal knowledge ofadultery. A witness is not believed when he alters his testimony.
2. Compare the effect on credibility of witnesses who did not comeforward immediately when they first obtained information
regarding the defiling of food.
3. The husband has no credibility in any event where there is concernthat his intent is to marry another.
Here again the Rashba supported the Meiri, and expressed his view (which wasstated earlier) that the halachic basis of our refusal to credit the woman or the manis doctrine that neither the husband nor the wife can unilaterally affect the other's
rights and claims.
But where the assertion is by the woman what claims does the woman
have against her husband? Certainly she has no right to compel him tohave relations when he claims that she had committed adultery?! The Meiri
explains that the reference is to her claims to food and clothing.
[Uncertainty on whether a woman was held captive]
A woman who was once held captive may not marry a priest. There is concernthat she cohabited with a captor and is a zonah. Where two pairs of witnesses
contradict each other on whether she was captured, there is a presumption that the
woman's prior non-captive status continued. Needless to say, the witnesses who[7:2]
assert that she was not captured must be able to state their case affirmatively: it is
not enough for them to say "we didn't see any capture."
Why then was Yannai not presumed to be legitimate on account of thepresumption that his mother's non-captive status continued? Because Yannai's
mother was not present to be judged. The question focused on Yannai's legitimacy
at birth, so that Yannai never had a valid status to which a presumption could be939
applied .
The prior discussion assumes that the witness pairs contradict each other but
940
there is no hazamah . Were a third set of witnesses to refute by hazamah the pairwhich testified that Yannai's mother was captured then no force would have been
given to the captive testimony, and Yannai would have been ruled legitimate. The
same would be true were one pair to testify that yes, she was captured, but she
immediately managed to secrete herself and replace herself with a bondmaid.
A single witness that a woman was captured has no force. A marital matter canbe decided only by two witnesses.
We mentioned previously that the wife of a non-priest is forbidden to herhusband only if she willingly committed adultery. Where a minor commits adultery,
she is deemed to have acted unwillingly, and she is not prohibited to her husband.
[66:2][When a present finding is assumed to have occurred]
Whenever there is doubt whether an unclean person or object was purified in a
mikveh, we apply the presumption that the object continued in its unclean status.
The uncertainty takes one of two forms. There may be uncertainty whether
the mikveh was full or not, and there may uncertainty whether there was939

The Meiri refers to his commentary to Kethuboth (26:2) for an alternate approach.

940"How could you testify so? You were with us that day!"[7:2]
tevilah of the person or thing.
Here is how we apply the presumption in the first case: If a mikveh is found to be
not full, even if only by the testimony of a single witness, we presume that themikveh was not full as far back as one moment after it was measured and found full;
all items which thereafter used the mikveh for tevilah are unclean.
This is R. Akiva's view. R. Tarfon disagrees and holds that a mikveh which is
discovered unfull is assumed to have been full until it is first determinedthat it is not full.
Where the uncertainty is whether an object became unclean, then, if theuncertainty is based on events occurring in a public thoroughfare, we rule that theobject is clean. There is no definite uncleanliness to which a presumption can attach.
A priest may not serve in the Temple if two witnesses establish that he is ahalal.If a person who is possibly a halal serves anyway, his service is valid. What if aperson who is a definite halal serves despite the proscription? Is his service valid?
The Gemara notes that in his dispute with R. Akiva on mikveh R. Tarfon
argues by analogy from the rule that the services of one who served whilea halal is valid, and that just so the mikveh should be presumed to be full
until we know it to be unfull.
Now, we know that R. Tarfon holds that a mikveh has no force for any
tevilah which occurs after it is determined that the mikveh is not full. For
there to be an analogy it must be that where the priest is definitely a halal
his service is void, the same as tevilah which occurs in a mikveh after it is
known not to have been full.
[Priest cannot perform service while blemished]
If a priest has a blemish, whether permanent or transient, his service is void. Thisapplies only if the blemish is of the sort which renders an animal unfit for sacrifice.
A priest is given malkot if he willingly performs the service while blemished,whatever the form of blemish and whether or not it would render an animal unfit
for sacrifice. The only exceptions are those blemishes which are only apparent
blemishes.
Why do we not permit a priest to perform the service where one witness testifies
that the priest is blemished? Because it is a simple matter to disprove the witness,
and we place this burden on the priest.

[7:2][Status of child born to parents of differing genealogical status]
The next Mishnah reads:
Whenever there is kiddushin and no transgression, the child follows thestatus of the male. This is the case with the daughter of a priest, a levite oran Israelite.
But where there is kiddushin and transgression, the child follows the statusof the inferior. This is the case where a widow is married to a high priest,
or a divorced woman or a haluzah to an ordinary priest, or a mamzeret ora netinah to an Israelite, and the daughter of an Israelite to a mamzer ornatin.
Whatever woman cannot contract kiddushin with that particular person
but can contract kiddushin with another person, the child is a mamzer. Thisis the case with one who cohabits with any relation prohibited in the
Torah.
Whatever woman cannot contract kiddushin with that particular person orwith others, the child follows her status. This is the case with the child of abondmaid or a gentile woman.
R. Tarfon said "Mamzerim can be purified. How? If a mamzer marries abondmaid, her son is a slave. If the son is freed, the son is a free man." R.
Eliezer said "The son is a slave, a mamzer."
The Meiri proceeds to explain each section of the Mishnah.
Whenever there is kiddushin and no transgression, the child follows thestatus of the male.
For example, where the mother is an Israelite and the father is a priest, the child is a
priest. Where the mother is the daughter of a priest and the father is an Israelite, theson is an Israelite. The same applies to all other unions among priests, levites andIsraelites.
But where there is kiddushin and transgression, the child follows the statusof the inferior.
[Examples of kiddushin interdicted by negative precept]
Where kiddushin is interdicted by negative precept only, the kiddushin is valid
and the child has the status of the inferior person. For example:

[7:2]
1. If an Israelite woman marries a natin or a mamzer, the childfollows the father. The child follows the mother where the mother isa netinah or a mamzeret.
The natinim were the Gibeonites who converted in the time of
Joshua in the course of deception. They were assigned to be
hewers of wood, and their conversion, although sufficient torequire that they follow the precepts, was not adequate to permit
them to intermarry freely with Israelites. Hence, the Yerushalmi's
reference to Joshua as having distanced the natinim.
But why does the Bavli maintain that it was David who decreedthat there be no intermarriage with the natinim? Either because
Joshua's action was reintroduced by David when Joshua's
restriction was forgotten, or because David's prohibition was for
all time, whereas Joshua's prohibition was to endure only so longas the Temple.
2. Where a high priest marries a widow or a divorced woman, andwhere an ordinary priest marries a divorced woman, the child is ahalal, and in this respect follows the mother who becomes a halala asa result of her first cohabitation with the child's father. It makes nodifference whether the cohabitation is willing or forced, or naturalor unnatural.
What of the father? The father must divorce the halala but hehimself does not become a halal.
[Examples of where a child is a mamzer]
Whatever woman cannot contract kiddushin with that particular person
but can contract kiddushin with another person, the child is a mamzer.
For example, one cannot contract kiddushin with one's sister or his other relations
who are forbidden on pain of kareth or execution by the Beth din. Any such woman
can contract kiddushin with others. The issue of such forbidden relations is a mamzer.
[Where a child is a gentile or a slave]
Whatever woman cannot contract kiddushin with that particular person orwith others, the child follows her status. This is the case with the child of abondmaid or a gentile woman.
Where a gentile or a slave purports to betroth a Jewish woman, or where a Jewish

[7:2]
male purports to betroth a gentile woman or a bondmaid, there is no kiddushin. The
child follows the mother's status.
[Child of a master-father and a bondmaid-mother]
Some hold that there is an exception to this rule: Where one cohabits with his
own bondmaid, the child is Jewish on the presumption that the father freed his slave
so as not to render his cohabitation illicit. For the same reason, where a marriedperson dies without children other than the child of his bondmaid his wife is free tomarry another without yibbum.
The Rambam disagrees. The presumption against illicit cohabitation is applied
only in limited circumstances:
1. Where one cohabits with a woman he previously divorced.
2. Where one betroths with a stated condition, but thenconsummates the marriage without repeating the condition.
The Meiri agrees with the Rambam, because of a baraitha which holds that only
cohabitation which is for the purpose of kiddushin results in kiddushin.
[Must all mamzer descendants be mamzerim?]
R. Tarfon said "Mamzerim can be purified. How? If a mamzer marries abondmaid, her son is a slave. If the son is freed, the son is a free man." R.
Eliezer said "The son is a slave, a mamzer."
A non-mamzer may not marry a slave because of the verse "A [slave] shall not be941
taken among the daughters of Israel" . But a mamzer may marry a bondmaid (andvice versa), and kiddushin between the two are effective. It is not requisite that themamzer first achieve the status of a Jewish slave.
It follows that R. Tarfon's method applies even during periods in which the
Jubilee rules are suspended and there is no Jewish slavery. The Jubilee rules
are suspended when not all of the land's inhabitants live on the land.
The son of this union is a slave, based on the rule that we follow the inferior. The
child can be freed by his owner and then be legitimate.

941

Deut.23:18.

[7:2]The marriage of a mamzer with a gentile woman is subject to interdict. Still, if
such a marriage does occur, the child can be legitimized by conversion.
Cannot the same result be achieved where a slave marries a mamzeret? No. In
this case the child is a mamzer. Why do we not follow the inferior and declare thechild a slave? Because a male slave is not deemed to have any lineage.
R. Eliezer disagrees with R. Tarfon because R. Eliezer holds that the taint ofmamzerut can never be removed. Scripture forbids a mamzer to intermarry942"forever." Accordingly, the child of a mamzer father and a slave mother is both aslave and a mamzer.
The halacha accords with R. Tarfon.
This completes the explanation of the Mishnah. The Gemara discusses thefollowing matters:[67:1][Passage of mamzer or halal status to descendants]

942

Deut.23:4.

[7:2]A convert may marry a mamzeret, and a mamzer may marry a female convert.
943"A mamzer may not come into the assembly of G-d," but he may enter into theassembly of converts. In each case the children are mamzerim, since we follow theinferior status.
What of later generations? Male and female descendants of converts may marrymamzerim so long as they are still commonly recognized as converts and so long as
the convert does not have any Jewish non-convert ancestors.
A halal can freely marry non-priests. There is no interdict, and kiddushin are
effective. That being so, in determining whether the child is a halal we follow thefather. It follows that Jewish daughters do not purify their husband's lineage of
halalim, whereas Jewish sons do purify their wives's lineage of halalim.
[Three categories of converts]
For marital purposes there are three sorts of converts:
1. Converts from all nations other than Amon, Moab, Egypt andEdom may intermarry with Jews immediately.
2. Male Amon and Moab converts, and their male descendants, arefull-fledged Jews, but can marry only other Amon and Moabconverts. Female converts are permitted to intermarry immediately.
Scripture speaks of "Amonites," not of "Amonitesses."
3. Whether male or female, only third generation Egyptian or
Edomite converts may intermarry with Jews. Where a second
generation Egyptian convert marries a first generation Egyptian
convert, the child follows the inferior, and is considered a second
generation convert.
[67:2]
Where gentile Egyptian and Edomite persons intermarry with gentile Amonites
or Moabites, we follow the father in determining the status of the child. Where the943

Deut.23:3.

[7:2]
father is Amonite, the male descendants may never intermarry with Jews afterconversion. Where the father is Egyptian, the third converted generation may
intermarry.
Similarly, where the father is of any nation other than the seven nations native
to Israel who cannot be left to live, and the mother is of one of the seven nations,the child is deemed to be of the permitted nations. Accordingly, the child may bepurchased as a slave. It is to such a person that Scripture refers in the verse "And also944
of the children of the residents [may you purchase slaves]" , meaning children ofmen who arrived from elsewhere to reside here and to marry women of the sevennations who are native here.
What if intermarriage occurs after conversion? We follow the inferior. Here areseveral examples:
1. Where the father is an Amonite convert and the mother is an
Egyptian convert, a son is treated as an Amonite (so as to forbidintermarriage with him and his direct male descendants) and adaughter is treated as an Egyptian (so as to forbid intermarriage
until the third generation).
2. Where the father is an Egyptian convert and the mother is an
Amonite convert, both a son and a daughter are treated as Egyptian.
3. Where a convert of other nations marries an Egyptian woman
convert, the child is treated as an Egyptian.
[Penalties for incest with familial relations]
A father's wife, a son's wife, and a brother's wife (except where yibbum isappropriate) and the wife of a father's brother are forbidden forever, even where
they were only betrothed but not married by the father, son or brother, and evenafter they are divorced or widowed from the father, son or brother. A transgression
is punished with kareth. Purported kiddushin with these forbidden relations is null,because Scripture says in regard to a divorced woman "She shall go out and be945[meaning be as a wife, in the sense that kiddushin are effective] to another man,"meaning to a person not her relative.

944

Lev.25:45.

945

Deut.24:2.

[7:2]
Corresponding to the women who may not marry a man because of their marital
relationship to the man's relatives, there are six relatives of a woman who are
forbidden to her husband. They are
the wife's mother,her mother's mother,her father's mother,her daughter,her daughter's daughter, andher son's daughter.
In each case, cohabitation is punished by kareth even after the wife is divorced.
A wife's sister (whether from her father's side or her mother's side) is also
forbidden on pain of kareth, but only while the wife is alive.
Now there are other forbidden relations which are punishable by execution by
the Beth din where there was forewarning, by way of strangulation (such asadultery with a woman who was married and not thereafter divorced or widowed)
946
or by stoning or burning . But the punishment in each case is kareth where there
was no forewarning.
In all these cases, unwitting violators must bring a hattat, under the dictum thata hattat is brought for every unwitting violation of a precept whose deliberateviolation is punishable by kareth.
Those relations for which there is no execution by the Beth din, such as thoselisted above and cohabitation with one's sister, are punishable by malkot in addition
to kareth where the transgressors were forewarned.
[68:1]

946

Sanh. perek 7 and 8.

[7:2]
Relations with a niddah are punishable by kareth. Nevertheless, kiddushin of a947
niddah is effective. We interpret the verse "And her nidatha shall be upon him,"
to mean that she can be to him in betrothal.
[Penalty for cohabiting with a wife known to have committed adultery; status ofchild]
One who cohabits with his wife after she is known to have committed adultery ispunished by malkot, for he has violated the precept forbidding relations with a wife
948
Where the wife was warned in the presence of"after she has been defiled."
witnesses and thereafter secluded herself with another in the presence of witnesses,
and there is no proof of adultery, she is forbidden to her husband Rabbinically.
Should he transgress he is punished with malkot which is Rabbinically derived forrebelling against rabbinic proscriptions. Since the prohibition is only Rabbinic it
follows that a child which results from such forbidden relations is not a mamzer.
R. Akiva disagrees with the prior discussion. He holds that relations with thesecluded woman is forbidden by a Scriptural negative precept, and he further holds
that the issue of relations forbidden by negative precept is a mamzer. The halacha
disagrees with him on both counts.
Although we hold that there is kiddushin in women whose relation is forbidden
by negative precept, one uncertainty remains. Scripture says of a woman who949
requires yibbum or halizah "The wife of the dead man shall not be to the outside"
until she has received halizah. Is this only a negative precept, with the result that
kiddushin of a third party is effective, consistent with kiddushin of all others
interdicted by negative precept? Or is the phrase shall not be directed at voiding
states of marital being, so that kiddushin is not effective?
Because of the uncertainty, the woman is considered questionably betrothed.
But the issue of such a union is not a mamzer.
[Children born of cohabitation proscribed by positive precept]
Even R. Akiva agrees that the issue of marriages forbidden by positive precept
are not mamzerim. Such marriages are:947

Lev.15:24.

948

Deut.24:4. See Yeb.11:2.

949

Deut.25:5.

[7:2]
between a Jew and an Egyptian or Edomite convert of the first or
second generations (because the prohibition is derived by implicationfrom the positive precept that the third generation may intermarry,
implying that the first and second may not); anda non-virgin to a high priest (because the prohibition is derived by
implication from the positive precept that he must marry a virgin,
implying that he cannot marry a non-virgin).
[68:2][Derivation of rule that gentile status depends on mother]
Here is an explanation of the Gemara's discussion regarding the verses:"Your daughter do not give to his [the gentile's] son, and his daughter do
950
not take for your son. For he will turn your son away from me."Logically, "For he will turn" refers to the immediately preceding clause, namelythat in which the Jew takes the gentile's daughter for the Jew's son. If so, and thereference is to the daughter-in-law's action, should not the verse have read "For she
will turn...."?
It must be that the reference in "he will turn" is to the gentile girl's father
influencing his Jewish son-in-law. That being so, it appears that Scripture evinces noconcern that the gentile daughter-in-law will influence her son (your grand-son),because the grand-son is the son of a gentile mother and is not Jewish!
Rabina then derives the converse rule. He points out that once we learn from thelast clause that "he will turn your son" refers to actions of the gentile father-in-law,
it is applied in the same way to the second preceding clause, namely that in which
the Jew gives his daughter to the gentile's son.
Now, who is the gentile father-in-law turning away? It cannot mean hisson (your son in law), for his son is gentile. It must mean his grandson. It
follows that the son of a gentile father and a Jewish mother is Jewish.
The preceding explanation is consistent with the Tosafot, but does not agreewith Rashi, who provides another explanation.

950

Deut.7:3-4.

[7:2]The majority hold that where a slave or a gentile marries a Jewish woman, thechild is completely legitimate and may even marry into the priesthood. The Meiri
disagrees with several Geonim who question whether the child may marry into thepriesthood.
[69:1][Monetary status of bondmaid's child]
Recall that where the mother is a bondmaid, her child takes her status. But this is
for marital purposes only. It is possible for a master to free his bondmaid, and for her
son to remain a slave. In fact, a master can free his pregnant bondmaid and insist
that her fetus remain a slave. For this purpose we do not apply the doctrine that a
fetus is considered as one with its mother ("as the mother's limb").
The reverse is not true. If a master purports to free a fetus and to retain his rights
to the mother he has done nothing and his action is a nullity. The Rambam explainsthat this is because one cannot free half a slave. But this rationale is inconsistent withthe rule that for these purposes the fetus is not considered one with its mother.
The Meiri prefers the Raabad's alternate explanations that:
1. The fetus cannot obtain rights because it has not yet come into thisworld, and so is not in a state fit to obtain any rights, or
2. One slave of a master cannot accept a deed of emancipation forthe master's other slave.
This completes the Perekwith praise to G-d.

[7:2]

[7:2]

Perek IV
With the Help of G-d
This Perek deals in the main with genealogy in the following sections:
1. The different genealogical classes, and the classes which may intermarry.
2. The determination of a persons's genealogy, and the presumptions
which may be applied.
3. Genealogical classes which are forbidden to marry into the priesthood.
4. The circumstances in which a person may establish his son's genealogy.
The Perek also deals with uncertainties in kiddushin and related issues. The Perek
concludes with the rules which forbid seclusion with forbidden relations and other
women.
As is usual, the Perek also digresses into unrelated matters.
[The genealogical classes]
The first Mishnah states:
Ten genealogical classes went up from Babel. Priests, levites, Israelites,
halalim, converts, freedmen, mamzerim, natinim, shetuki, and foundlings.
Priests, levites and Israelites may intermarry with each other. Levites,
Israelites, halalim, converts and freedmen may intermarry.
A shetuki knows his mother but not his father. A foundling was gatheredin from the streets and knows neither his father nor his mother. Abba Saul
used to call the shetuki "Beduki."
The Mishnah continues:
All who are forbidden to enter into the assembly may intermarry with eachother. R. Judah forbids it.

[7:2]
R. Eleazar said, "A person who is certainly unfit may marry a person who iscertainly unfit. Intermarriage is forbidden between persons who arecertainly unfit and persons who are doubtfully unfit, and is also forbidden
between persons who are doubtfully unfit. The doubtful persons areshetuki, foundlings and kutim."
When Ezra left to Israel from Babel, he was accompanied by the major scholarsof the age. No person remained in Babel who was equipped to establish genealogy.
Ezra feared that in the absence of persons of stature, or as a result of poverty, theremaining populace would intermarry to the point that genealogy would behopelessly confused. He therefore brought with him to Eretz Israel all persons who
were genealogically unfit. Babel was left as sifted flour.
Why was not Ezra concerned that there would be intermarriage in Eretz Israel?
Because the Sanhedrin were there, as well as other leaders, who guarded against
951
marriage with the unfit. The Gemara notes elsewhere that the Sanhedrin in the
Chamber of Gazith engaged in genealogical determination of priestly and leviticalancestry.
The Mishnah counts ten genealogical classes:
952

1-2. Priests and levites. But what of the statement in Ezra that "I did not
find any levites there"? One explanation is that he found no unblemishedlevites. The levites had all bitten off their thumbs by the rivers of Babylon
to prove to Nebuhadnezzar that they could not use their harps to sing thesongs of Zion. Another explanation is that levites arrived at a later time. In
fact, Ezra says "And the priests and the singing [presumably unblemished]953
levites sat...."
3. Israelites.
4. Halalim. These are persons descended from the relations between apriest and a woman who was unfit for the priesthood.
5-6. Converts and freedmen. Both classes have the same legal status. Still, a954
explains
convert who was never a slave is preferred. Another Gemara
951

76:2.

952

8:15.

953

2:70.

954

Horiot 13:1.

[7:2]
that persons more readily marry converts than freedmen, because slaves
were included in the curse of Noah "And Canaan shall be a slave untohim."
7. Mamzerim. Persons descended from a cohabitation of two persons
between whom there could be no effective kiddushin.
8. Natinim. This class was explained previously.
9. Shetuki. One who recognizes his mother but not his father. The
reference is to an unmarried woman who cohabited and gave birth, andwho died or otherwise became incapable of communication before theBeth din had the opportunity to question her on the father's identity. The
shetuki is unfit because he may be a mamzer.
What if the mother was questioned?
If the mother claims that she cohabited with a man who was fit to
give her kiddushin, she is believed, even if the majority of the men in
the city were unfit, and even if she was betrothed and claimed that
she cohabited with her groom.
Now, the mother's credibility is sufficient to establish her own
legitimacy so that if she is a priest's daughter she may still eat
terumah and marry a priest. Certainly her credibility extends to herdaughter to establish that the daughter is not a mamzeret. But does
her credibility suffice to establish that her daughter is not a halalaand may marry a priest?
The Meiri agrees with the Rashba that the daughter may marry apriest only when the mother's assertion is supported by two
majorities: namely, only if the majority of the city in which she
cohabited are fit, and the majority of the persons passing throughthe area in which she cohabited are also fit. But even without thesemajorities, if the daughter went ahead against our ruling andmarried a priest, we do not insist that she leave him.
If the mother claims that she cohabited with an unfit person or witha mamzer she cannot establish that the child is a definite mamzer,
even where the putative father agrees with the mother. Instead, thechild is a shetuki, meaning a doubtful mamzer. It is such a shetuki
whom Abba Saul called a "beduki," meaning a child who wasinvestigated.

[7:2]
10. Foundlings. Persons who are brought in off the street by compassionate
persons and who know neither their mothers nor their fathers. The child isconsidered a possible mamzer. His mother may have been a married
woman who committed adultery and who could not attribute the child toher husband; she may have abandoned the child out of shame.
Alternatively, the mother may have been unmarried, or she may not have
had the means to feed the child, and the child is legitimate. The child istherefore a possible mamzer.
[Intermarriage among classes]
There follow the rules on intermarriage among the classes:
1. A priest may not intermarry with classes below the Israelite. A halala isforbidden to him, and a convert and a freed woman are each considered azonah. The term zonah includes both Jewish women who cohabited withpersons who could not betroth them, and non-Jewish women who
converted or were freed.
2. Levites and Israelites have equal status, and may intermarry with allclasses down through the freedmen.
3. Converts and all lower classes may freely intermarry:i. A mamzer may marry a convert because a mamzer is forbidden
955
only to enter the assembly of G-d . The assembly of converts is
considered a separate assembly.
ii. A freedman may also marry a mamzer because he has the same
status as a convert.
iii. A natin is a convert for all purposes, with the sole exception that
he may not intermarry with the status of Israelite and above.
iv. A shetuki and a foundling could intermarry with all classes basedon the strict law. It is only a definite mamzer who may not enter theassembly of G-d; a doubtful mamzer may enter. However, the Rabbis
set a higher standard for genealogy and forbade the highest threeclasses to intermarry with a doubtful mamzer, namely, the shetuki
and the foundling.

955

Deut. 23:3.

[7:2]
Recall the Mishnah:
All who are forbidden to enter into the assembly may intermarry with eachother.
The Gemara considers two difficulties with this portion of the Mishnah:
1. Presumably those who are forbidden to enter into the assembly
are the mamzer, natin, shetuki and foundling. Do we not know thisalready from the statement that converts, freedmen, mamzerim, natinim,
shetukim and foundlings may intermarry? For certainly the meaning is thateach of the six classes may marry into any one of the other six classes. It
would go against the sense of the Mishnah to read it as allowing converts
and freedmen to intermarry with the other four classes, but not to allow
the other four classes to intermarry among themselves.
2. The converse of the Mishnah would imply that all those who arepermitted to enter into the assembly may not intermarry with any of thesix classes. But that is not so! For we know that a convert and a freedman
may marry a mamzeret.
The Gemara then suggests that perhaps the Mishnah which deals with "those
who are forbidden to enter into the assembly" wishes to teach the following
additional doctrine:
A woman is a zonah if she was once a gentile or a slave, even where she
did not cohabit prior to conversion or freedom, such as where conversion
or emancipation occurred before the age (three years) at which
cohabitation is first legally recognized.
But this explanation is rejected. There are numerous other women who cannot
marry a priest and who are not listed. For example the Mishnah makes no hint of theproscriptions against marriage of a priest with a divorced woman, a halala, a woman
who is a zonah because she cohabited with one who could not betroth her, and(insofar as concerns a high priest) a widow.
The Gemara ultimately concludes that the Mishnah reflects the minority, nonhalacha view of R. Judah that a convert may not marry a mamzeret because theassembly of G-d includes the assembly of converts. The Mishnah points out that R.
Judah agrees that male Amonite and male Moabite converts (who may not marry
Israelites and higher classes) are exceptions and may marry mamzerim. Such converts
are not in the assembly of G-d. Interpret the Mishnah thusly:
All [converts] who are forbidden to enter into the assembly [namely, male

[7:2]
Amonite and Moabite converts] may intermarry with each other [including
mamzerim]. [Although] R. Judah forbids it [as to other converts, he permits
it for these converts].
What does R. Eliezer add? He refers back to the strict law which forbids only adefinite mamzer from entering into the assembly of G-d; a doubtful mamzer (such asa shetuki or a foundling) may enter. Recall also that the Rabbis set a higher standard
for genealogy and forbade the highest three classes to intermarry with a doubtful
mamzer.
R. Eliezer holds that the higher standard extends to a prohibition against a
doubtful mamzer marrying a definite mamzer, and even against one doubtful
mamzer marrying another doubtful mamzer, on the possibility that one may be amamzer while the other is not.
R. Eliezer's prohibition attaches only when the issue is mamzerut. It does not
apply to converts, freedmen and natinim who may freely marry a shetuki, foundlingor other doubtful mamzer. The child of a marriage of this sort takes the inferior
status and is deemed a shetuki or a foundling or a doubtful mamzer.
The halacha agrees with R. Eliezer.
Would R. Eliezer permit one shetuki or foundling to marry another?
1. R. Eliezer's strict reasoning would prohibit marriage of this kind,because a mamzer may be marrying a non-mamzer. Still, the Meiri's
rabbis conclude that R. Eliezer's Rabbinical prohibition would not go
to this extreme.
956

2. What of the Gemara which forbids a kuti from marrying a kuti
because of possible intermarriage with mamzerim? Perhaps that
Gemara is limited to those who hold that the kutim intermarried
with definite mamzerim.
The Meiri concludes that a Tosefta supports those who take the strict view.
Recall the final portion of the Mishnah: "The doubtful persons are shetuki,

956

75:1.

[7:2]
foundlings and kutim." The Gemara explains that kutim are doubtful in the sensethat they may have intermarried with mamzerim or slaves. Ultimately, the rabbis
considered kutim as gentiles. Our Mishnah also does not consider them agenealogical class, and prohibits any of the 10 classes from intermarrying with them.
This completes the Mishnah which is consistent with the halacha to the extent
discussed. The Gemara adds the following.
[69:2][Priestly lineage]
A priest could serve in the Temple, and eat the priestly portion of sacrifices andScriptural terumah, only if he could trace his lineage to a priest who served in the
Temple. For such a priest we apply the presumption that there was no intervening
event which rendered the priest ineligible.
Where a person's lineage could not be traced in this matter, but the person wascommonly considered a priest in the sense that he ate Rabbinical terumah, he waspermitted to continue to eat Rabbinical terumah. The rule applies even if it is known
that he never ate Scriptural terumah when available. Further, we allow him tocontinue to eat Rabbinical terumah where Scriptural terumah exists; we are notconcerned that he will inadvertently eat Scriptural terumah. He is not permitted to
eat Scriptural terumah or the priestly portion of sacrifices, nor do we allow him to
perform Temple services.
What if witnesses testify that a person has eaten Scriptural terumah? Such aperson is considered the equivalent of a priest whose lineage has been traced. This
explains why the Gemara holds that where lineage is not traced, priests werepermitted only Rabbinical terumah: were they given Scriptural terumah a Beth dinwould have elevated them to the full priesthood.
The preceding represents the view of the Meiri and the Rambam. The Raabad
disagrees and holds that anyone who is commonly considered a priest need not trace
his lineage for any purpose. But what of the verses in Ezra referred to in our Gemara
which recount that the persons who could not establish their lineage were forbidden957
to eat of the priestly sacrifices until "there stood up a priest with urim v'tumim?"
The issue in Ezra was that there was a specific rumor that the persons were halalim.

957

Ezra 5:62. The reference to urim v'tumim is literary, since there were no urim v'tumim during theSecond Temple. The meaning is that the priests were excluded indefinitely as if the verse read "until
they died" or "until the coming of the Messiah".

[7:2]
But if there were such rumors how could the persons referred to in Ezra eat
958
terumah? Does not another Gemara
hold that where there is a rumor, we"demote" the priest? No. We demote him from what was his father's custom if his
father customarily partook of more priestly rights than the son. A rumor is not
sufficient to demote a priest from matters in which he himself customarily partook.
In fact, the Gemara supports the Raabad that there was an issue of halalim. Notethe mention in Ezra that the family was descended in part from the convert Barzilai.
Recall also the rule that a priest may not marry a convert who is descended only fromconverts and in whose lineage there is no Jewish non-convert blood. It would appear
that the issue with the priests in question was whether the convert who had married
into the family had any Jewish non-convert ancestors, in which case the family was
not halal, or whether the reverse was true. It was only for this reason that
presumptions could not be relied upon, and that the family was permitted to eat
only Rabbinical terumah.
Recall the Raabad's basic premise that anyone who is commonly considered apriest need not trace his lineage for any purpose. The Meiri explains that the Raabad
applies his rule only during brief exiles, such as the one in Babel. Where the exile islong, such as the present, the lineage of priests will have to be determined byprophecy.
[70:1][Various rules of behavior]
A person should seek a wife of fit family. Children naturally follow the characterof relatives, particularly on the wife's side. A person should reject not only families
which are definitely unfit, but also families in which the parents personally or in theuse of their money act contrary to law. This behavior is evidence that the family is
not fit from a genealogical standpoint.
Where one ignores this rule and marries for money his children will not beproper, "Eliohu will bind him and G-d will flagellate him." The reference to Eliohu isbased on the convention that Eliohu the Prophet will one day resolve all uncertain
matters. But a person's uncertainty of his wife's familial status will not be resolved.
958

Keth.26:1.

[7:2]The effect to him will be the same as if she were definitely unfit. G-d flagellates him
in the sense that he is punished for his wrong.
Do not denigrate other people out of spite or envy or to increase your own
honor. To do so reflects concern on your own standing, and fear that others will
discover your own problems. Samuel adds that where one claims that another'sfamily is blemished, we suspect that the family of the denigrator has that very same
blemish. The Meiri cautions that we do not announce that the denigrator's family isunfit until it is determined that this is actually so.
We pronounce a ban against one who insults a scholar, whether or not the insult
was uttered in the scholar's presence. The scholar himself may pronounce the ban.
One who obtains a community leadership position because of his wisdom orother attributes should conduct himself with appropriate dignity. For he will loseauthority if he conducts himself as a commoner. That is why such a person should
not perform labor in the presence of three or more people, except for minor labor in
his house where a precept is involved, such as the construction of a balustrade.
One should not accept any personal service from a woman, even if she is aketannah and unmarried. What is prohibited is personal service which may result infamiliarity, such as preparation and mixing of wine, the washing of hands and feet,the preparation of a bed, and the like. Other services are permitted.
[70:2]
Where the woman is married, it is forbidden even to inquire of her welfare, eventhrough another person and even through her husband. Excepted are persons whoare confident that they will not thereby become unduly familiar. "You shall fear959
in determining whether you are the kind of person to whom theyour G-d"
exception applies.
A scholar who has a personal interest in an issue should not propound on it evenby citing the ruling of his rabbis or others. But we do heed teachings which thescholar propounded before his personal interest arose. We also heed the teachingsof an accompanying scholar who has no personal interest.
[Hasmonean family intermarried with slaves]
The Gemara asserts that all who claim descent from the Hasmonean family are959

Lev.19:14.

[7:2]
slaves. Why so? Did we not learn that if a slave marries a Jewish woman, the children
are legitimate? Could this not have occurred with at least some members of the
Hasmonean family after they first intermarried with slaves? Rashi answers that thegeneral populace was aware of the intermarriage with slaves and took care that noJewish girl marry into the family.
[71:1][mamzer taint is removed with passage of time]
Recall the rule that the taint of mamzerut continues forever unless there is amarriage with a bondmaid whose child is then freed. The rule is different if in thecourse of time a family of mamzerim slowly intermarries on account of their wealth,until the matter of mamzeret becomes a matter of remembered tradition rather
than certainty. Here we allow the family to intermarry freely. "A family once mixed
up remains so." Such families also will remain fit in the time to come, even should
prophecy ascertain their initial mamzer status.
The same applies to natinim.
[Requirement of ritual slaughter]
The Scriptural requirement that animals be slaughtered is stated only for960
domestic animals "And you shall slaughter from your cattle" . The rulenevertheless applies also to beasts of chase and to fowl. Beasts of chase arecompared to domestic animals in reference to the first-born of a domestic animal,
961
which is to be eaten "as the deer and the hart." Further, fowl are compared to962
beasts of chase in that the blood of both must be covered .

960

Deut.12:21.

961

Deut.15:22.

962

Lev.17:13.

[7:2][72:1][Statement required of an agent who brings a get]A messenger who brings a get to a woman from one place to another within
Eretz Israel need not view the writing of the get and its signature. He need merely
give the get to the woman in the presence of witnesses, and she may thereupon
marry. Should the husband later attack the get's witnesses, it is incumbent on the
woman to prove the validity of the signatures. If she fails she must leave her second
husband.
A messenger who bears a get to a woman from one place to another outside ofEretz Israel, or from Eretz Israel to a place outside of Eretz Israel, must declare that
he witnessed the writing and signing if he indeed did do so. If the husband
thereafter attacks the get we ignore him.
If in the last case the messenger did not witness the writing and the signing,then he may not deliver the get until we establish the validity of the signatures. If hedelivers the get before we establish its authenticity, the get is invalidated and she
may not marry with it. However, we do not insist that she leave her second husband
if she marries in violation of this prohibition.
For all these purposes, Babel is considered the same as Eretz Israel. There is much
confusion on Babel's boundaries. But this is of no real concern since the locations
referred to in the Gemara have long been lost and forgotten.
[72:2][Abandoned slaves]
A slave is freed if he is abandoned by his master. He still needs a writ of963
emancipation before he can marry a Jewish woman .

963

Git.38:2.

[7:2][Women may marry unfit men]
Recall that a priest may not marry a convert woman. But fit women are notforbidden from marrying unfit men, and a convert man may marry the daughter of a964
priest . Similarly, the daughter of a priest may marry a freedman or a halal.
[73:1][Status of foundlings]
A child found in circumstances where it is obvious that those who abandoned
him took care to ensure his survival is assumed to have been abandoned on accountof poverty rather than because of mamzerut. Such a child is fit for intermarriage
generally. Here are several examples:
1. The child is circumcised.
2. His limbs are set and properly arranged.
3. His face is massaged with oil or he was powdered around his eyescosmetically.
4. On his neck he carries an amulet of inscriptions, herbs or otherobjects which women commonly hang on their children's necks.
5. He is found suspended on a tree at a level at which beasts of chasecannot reach.
On the other hand, a child is a foundling, and a possible mamzer, where he wasabandoned in a place where people generally fear to go.
These rules (other than the first) apply only in totally Jewish cities where the only
issue is whether the Jewish child is fit or a mamzer. If the city is not completely
Jewish, then, even if the child was found in circumstances where care was taken for
its survival:
964

It results that a convert may marry a mamzeret (although their children are mamzerim) as well as
the daughter of a priest. The same is true of a freedman.

[7:2]
1. If a majority is gentile, the child is treated as a gentile, and may be
fed carrion. If his ox gores one of ours we treat him as a gentile andimmediately recover our entire loss. But what of the rule that inmonetary matters we do not follow the majority? That rule applies
only to persons known to be Jewish.
There is one exception to the child's status as a gentile. If he iscovered by stones on Sabbath, we violate the Sabbath to save him.
This follows the general principle that lenient rulings are applied inmatters of life and death.
One commentator disagrees. He maintains that the fact that amajority is gentile does not make it likely that child is gentile. Recall
the rule that a child is Jewish if born to a Jewish mother of a gentile
father. The Meiri complains, however, that the same commentator
agrees with the specific rules listed below for cities which are half
Jewish. How would this commentator distinguish between half
Jewish cities and majority gentile cities?
2. If a majority of the city is Jewish, we treat him as a Jew in that wesustain him and return objects he loses and which have not beenpossessed by other Jews. Where he seeks to remove objects fromJewish possession, we do not treat him as Jewish: in monetary
matters we do not follow the majority.
But unlike the case where a child is found in caring
circumstances in a city wholly Jewish, a child found in a majority
Jewish city is not fit for the priesthood unless there are two
majorities favoring the child's status, such as that a majority of thecity and a majority of the persons in the surrounding area are both
Jewish. Without the two majorities, if the child is a girl, she may notmarry a priest; if a boy, his daughter and his widow may not marry apriest.
One commentator holds that without two majorities the childis fit for intermarriage, even with Israelites, only if he conducts
himself in line with what we expect of Jews. If he conducts himself
properly his status is no worse than that of a convert. If he does notconduct himself properly and he betroths a woman we consider the
kiddushin only possibly valid.

[7:2]
965

The Meiri disagrees. The Gemara holds where a majority of
the city is Jewish, the child is treated as Jewish for all purposes otherthan his fitness for intermarriage with the priesthood. This suggeststhat for all other purposes, including his kiddushin, there is no issue
but that the child is treated as fully and certainly Jewish. Besides, theTosefta states that kiddushin is possibly valid where the city is only
half Jewish. This supports our view that where a majority of the city
is Jewish the kiddushin are fully valid.
3. If precisely half of the city is Jewish, the following rules apply:
i. we must sustain him;ii. we do not give him carrion;
iii. we do not return items which he loses;
iv. if our ox gores his, we do not pay him. We ask that he provethat he is Jewish and is entitled to compensation;
v. if his ox gores ours, he pays only half of our loss. He tells us that
he will pay our entire loss only if we prove that he is gentile.
What if the child was found circumcised and it is obvious that he was not born
circumcised? The Meiri rules that in this case a child found in a city with gentiles istreated under the same rules which apply to wholly Jewish cities.
What if a child is found in a city in which gentiles live, and he is converted by theBeth din or converts himself after he reaches adulthood? The Rambam holds thatthe conversion merely removes the issue of whether he is a gentile. We then apply
the rules governing children found in Jewish cities to determine whether the childshould be treated as a possible mamzer.
The Raabad disagrees where the majority is gentile. Here the conversion removes
the gentile issue. In light of the gentile majority there is no need for concern that thechild was a Jewish mamzer.
Return now to the case of the child found in a wholly Jewish city. What if aperson comes forward and claims that he or she is the child's father or mother?
1. While the child is still in the street, the person is believed.

965

Keth.15:1.

[7:2]
2. Once the child has been taken off the street, the person is believed
only in times of famine when we can explain that the person delayed
because of his or her desire to have the child fed by others.
As more fully explained below, our Gemara holds that a midwife andothers have credibility only if they act promptly. But in the case of afoundling most commentators hold that the identifying person need
not act promptly.
[Credibility of a midwife]
A midwife is believed when she identifies the first born of a set of twins. She
loses her credibility if she leaves the room before making the identification. On theother hand, she does not lose credibility if she merely turns her head away while stillin the same room.
If three women sleep on the same bed close to one another, and blood is foundunder one of them, we consider unclean those women who could then possibly be aniddah (i.e., those women who are not pregnant or nursing a child). But if one of thewomen discovered blood when she tested herself with a cloth immediately after the
blood was found only she is unclean.
Assume that many women give birth in the same room, and that they havedifferent classes of genealogy. A midwife is believed when she identifies one child as
the daughter of a priest, and another child as the daughter of a mamzeret, and soon.
But the midwife is not believed when there was a protest on him, meaning thechild. A protest is sufficient even if only by one witness; two witnesses are requiredfor protest only when their testimony would result in a change of a person's status.
In this case the issue is the child's initial status, rather than a change in status.
The Rambam emends the text to read that the midwife is not believed when
there is a protest on her, meaning the midwife's credibility. The result is the same.
What results when the midwife is not believed?
1. The Meiri holds that each child in the room is a doubtful mamzer.
2. The Rambam holds that each child is legitimate but has no lineage.
The Meiri finds this difficult. For what purpose is he legitimate if we
do not know his lineage and he may be a mamzer?!
Should one witness's protest also destroy the mid-wife's credibility that one of[7:2]
twins is the first born? The Meiri's rabbis rule "yes." But the testimony of the child's
father or mother has greater weight: it can be contradicted only by the direct
testimony of two witnesses.
Mere rumors, even when conveyed by two or more persons, are insufficient togainsay the testimony of the father or the mother. This explains the Gemara whichholds that a father is believed when he identifies one son as his first born
notwithstanding that another son was commonly assumed to be the first born.
[74:1][Credibility of the father and mother]
Recall the rule that a midwife is believed when she testifies promptly on whichof two children is the first born. Compare the following rules:
1. A mother's credibility continues for the children's first seven days.
She pays great attention to the children's respective identities while
they are prepared for circumcision. The Meiri believes that themother's credibility is permanent where the two sons are not twins.
2. A father's credibility persists forever. In certain circumstances afather is also believed when he testifies that a son is born of a966
haluzah or a divorced woman .
[Credibility of a judge]
Assume that a judge decides a law suit, that there is no written decision, andthat the disputants disagree on who was awarded judgment:
1. If the case was determined on the basis of strict law, the judge
must reconsider the entire case and rule anew. He cannot by his
testimony establish who won his prior decision.
2. If the case was one determined by the judge's sense of equity, thejudge may by his testimony establish who won his prior decision, but
only so long as the disputants still stand before him.

966

B.B.127:2.

[7:2][Credibility of a seller in a dispute among purchasers]
Here is an excerpt of the following Gemara:
A seller is believed when he says "To this one I sold it and to this one I did967
not sell." When is that? Only if his ware is in hand ; but if his ware is nolonger in his hand, he is not believed.
[Where he no longer holds the ware] let us see whose money he holds? Heholds money from both, and states "One paid me with my consent and theother paid me against my will," and he does not know which was with his
consent and which was against his will.
From this textual reading it follows that had the seller known when he no longer
held the ware, he would have been believed. But why need the Gemara tell us that
he is not believed when he does not know? What is there to believe?
The Gemara intends to teach various levels of credibility:
1. If he doesn't know, the seller does not have the standing of even a single
witness.
2. Where he does know, and he does not hold the ware, he has the force ofa single witness, and the single purchaser who contradicts him must takethe oath required of one who contradicts a single witness.
3. Where he does know and holds the ware he has the deciding force of
two witnesses.
The Meiri prefers Rashi's textual reading:and it is not known which was with his consent and which was against his
will.
The point is that even if the seller claims to know, we the Beth din do not know.
We assume that the seller can easily err because he holds money from both and heno longer holds the ware. The seller cannot count even as a single witness.
Here is an analysis of Rashi's holding:
1. The seller counts as an escrow agent for the ware so long as he
967

Such as where the sale was consummated by halifin or with another form of kinyan which does
not require that the ware be physically delivered by the seller to the buyer.

[7:2]
holds it. That is why he is believed when he holds the ware regardlessof who paid what purchase price.
2. Where the seller no longer holds the ware, but he accepted only
one person's money, he counts as an escrow agent for the money
who was appointed by both purchasers, with the absolute right todecide which purchaser paid the money.
3. Where the seller no longer holds the ware and he accepted moneyfrom both, he no longer counts as an escrow agent, or even as asingle witness, because he has a personal interest which may sway
him on the subtle issue of to which purchaser he intended to sell. The
seller may fear that one potential purchaser will be more hostileshould the seller return money to him and declare the ware was soldto the other.
In both previous readings, the question "Let us see whose money he holds" wasassumed to refer to the case when the seller no longer holds the ware. Rabbeinu
Tam disagrees. The question is presented when the seller still holds his wares: whybelieve him when we can see whose money he holds? To which the Gemara answers
that he accepted money from both and we don't know whose money the seller
accepted willingly. That is why we must rely on the seller's testimony. The seller has
absolute credibility.
What if the seller no longer holds the ware? Rabbeinu Tam would give him thestatus of a single witness.
There are additional interpretations. One would agree with Rashi in all respects,
except that (as in Rabbeinu Tam's interpretation) the seller is treated as a single
witness where he no longer holds the ware and he has accepted money from both.
The Meiri discusses this view and others in detail elsewhere.
[74:2][When a woman becomes a zonah]
We have previously explained that a woman convert may not marry a priest. The
essence of the prohibition is based on presumed cohabitations which result in her
being a zonah. But the Rabbis extend the rule to apply to a woman who converted
when she was less than three years old and whose prior cohabitations are notrecognized in law.
A woman, whether single or married, becomes a zonah if she has relations witha man whom she may not marry (whether as a result of a positive or a negative

[7:2]
precept), or with a man with whom she can have no kiddushin or get, or with one
who is a halal. Therefore, a woman is a zonah if she has relations with any of thefollowing males who is more than nine years and one day old. It does not matter
whether the woman is the daughter of a priest, a levite or an Israelite:
1. An Amonite or Moabite convert, notwithstanding that theconvert's daughter may freely intermarry;
2. An Egyptian or Edomite convert of the first two generations,notwithstanding that the next generation may freely intermarry;
3. A natin or a mamzer;
4. A gentile or a slave (since no kiddushin or get can apply);
5. A petsuah daka or a khrut shofkha;
6. Any man other than one to whom she is bound to perform yibbum
or halizah;
7. A halal, even though a woman is permitted to marry a halal.
A zonah may not marry a priest. Also, if she is the daughter of a priest she may nolonger eat terumah.
[75:1]
The child of a second generation Egyptian convert may intermarry freely, eveninto the priesthood. It does not matter that the child's mother or father is a person(such as an Israelite woman) who was not permitted to marry the second generation
Egyptian convert and who became a zonah because of relations with the convert.
The same applies to the child of an Amonite or Moabite convert and an Israelite
woman.
The following relations, standing alone, do not give a woman the status of a zonah:
1. Relations with an animal, notwithstanding that she is punishable
with stoning;
2. Relations while a niddah, because she could have married theperson who cohabited with her while she was a niddah;
3. Permitted relations while she is single.

[7:2][The rules relating to women of "suspected family"]
A woman of suspected family means a woman whose status is subject to "double
doubt." She may not marry a priest.
What is the double doubt?
Assume that priest A divorced his wife in circumstances where the get may
not be valid. For example, assume that he threw the get to her and we do
not know whether the get rested more closely to him or to her.
Assume that priest A immediately remarried his wife, who may by thenhave been a divorced woman, and that she gave birth to priest B withinseven months. Even if A's wife is a divorcee, it is possible that priest B wasconceived prior to the divorce.
It follows that priest B is a halal only if both doubts are determined against
him, i.e., it is assumed that:the divorce was valid; andthat he was conceived after the divorce and that he was born after
seven months' gestation.
When priest B marries, his widow's status is also subject to this double doubt.
B's widow may not marry a priest, notwithstanding that there is only a double
doubt that she is a halala or zonah, [and a person generally is presumed to maintainhis or her status in the face of a double doubt. But] because the woman's daughter isprohibited to the priesthood [because she begins life without any previous
968
legitimate status,] so too is the mother prohibited . If she goes ahead and marries a
priest anyway we do not insist that he divorce her.
We do insist that he divorce her where there is only a single doubt.
The same rule applies to the widow of a priest who was a member of afamily which was known to include a person who was possibly a halal.
There is double doubt: The family possibly includes a halal and she possibly
married that halal.
Rashi holds that the double doubt begins not with the priest but with thewidow. The case involves a priest who is a possible halal. His wife is subject to a
968

The bracketed material is not mentioned in the Meiri but is derived from Tosafot Keth.14:1.

[7:2]
double doubt in the sense that her status becomes questionable only derivatively
through her husband. The Meiri does not approve of Rashi's view, because the Meiri
holds that where the husband is subject to a single doubt, so too is his widow, forher status reflects and depends on his.
[Where a woman is not a halala]
Do not be confused on the rule in the following case. If a halala marries an
Israelite her daughter may marry a priest. If a divorced woman marries an Israelite noone would question that her daughter may marry a priest. A halala is forbidden to apriest only where she herself engaged in relations with a priest which wereforbidden to him, or if she was conceived in such relations with a priest, or if she is969
the daughter of a halal .
[Status of a child born to a betrothed woman]
The following rules apply to a child born to a betrothed woman:
1. If the husband asserts that the child is not his, the child is a definite
mamzer.
2. If the husband asserts that the child is his, then the child islegitimate and inherits with his brothers.
3. If the husband is silent or is unavailable and the mother assertsthat the child was her husband's, we believe her to the extent that if
the child seizes a share in his father's inheritance he may retain it.
4. In all other cases, the child is a doubtful mamzer who may marryneither an Israelite or a mamzer. He may not inherit with his"brothers" even if his mother later consummates her marriage withthe bridegroom. If the child seizes an inheritance share we compel
him to return it.
[Intermarriage of converts into the priesthood]
In the Mishnah we discussed the rule that converts may marry into thepriesthood if at least one ancestor is not a convert. Converts without Jewish
ancestors may marry mamzerim so long as the populace still identifies them as
converts.
969

76:1.

[7:2]The same rule applies to freedmen.
The Gemara discusses kutim. But we can safely ignore this topic because kutim
were subsequently deemed equivalent to gentiles.
[75:2][Certain yibbum rules]
A woman is free of yibbum bonds where she has a forbidden relation to theprospective yabam, such as where she is the yabam's daughter. Not only is she free,
but her co-wives who have no relation with the yabam are also free. That being so, if
the co-wife nevertheless marries the "yabam", both she and the "yabam" transgress
the interdict which forbids one to marry his brother's wife. Their child is a mamzer
and they themselves are subject to kareth.
The widow of a childless husband is subject to yibbum bonds even if she was only
betrothed and the marriage was not consummated.
Assume that a woman is subject to yibbum bonds and nevertheless marries
970
another. The child has no taint of mamzerut .
[76:1][Familial investigation before marriage]
The next Mishnah reads:
He who marries a priest's daughter must investigate her descent up to four
mothers, which are eight, namely,
her mother and her mother's mother,her mother's paternal grandmother and her mother,her father's mother and her mother,
970

68:1.

[7:2]
her father's paternal grandmother and her mother.
In the case of a levite or an Israelite, one more is added.
We make no investigation from the altar and upwards, from the dukhan
and upwards, nor from the Sanhedrin and upwards.
All whose parents were established to have been among the public officers
or charity overseers are permitted to marry into the priesthood, and theirdescent is not investigated.
R. Jose said "Also those who signed as a witness in the old court ofSephoris. R. Hanina b. Antigonus said "Also one who was recorded in the
king's list of officers."
The Mishnah deals with a priest who wishes to marry. The priest must determine
whether there are family blemishes peculiar to priests, such as divorced women,zonah and halala. The priest therefore extends his search to cover all blemishes,
including mamzerut and the like. Since an Israelite need not investigate blemishes
peculiar to priests, we do not require that he investigate even for blemishes which
affect Israelites, such as mamzerut.
The Gemara asks why the woman need not investigate the man's family, andexplains that women may marry men with family blemishes. More precisely, theGemara refers to men with priestly defects. Certainly, women may not marry men
with family defects, such as mamzerut, which affect Israelites generally.
The Mishnah requires this investigation even for families for which there has
been no claim of family blemishes. Where there has been such a claim even an
Israelite would be required to perform an investigation prior to marriage. For thispurpose, a "claim" means testimony by two witnesses that a mamzer or the like hasintermarried into the family. Mere rumors are not sufficient, unless the family is
known to be quarrelsome and to be hasty in ascribing family blemishes to others.
However, the Gemara ultimately determines that the halacha is that even a
priest need make an investigation only where there has been a claim of blemish. The
halacha is also that where there is a claim of priestly or other defects for priests orother defects for Israelites, both priests and Israelites must perform the described
investigations.
If the woman is of a priestly family, the investigation must cover four mothers,
each with their respective mother, so that eight are investigated, four on each side.
In short, we investigate each of the following and her mother:
1. the woman's mother[7:2]
2. the mother of the woman's father
3. the mother of the woman's grandfather on her father's side
4. the mother of the woman's grandfather on her mother's side
Why need we not investigate whether any of the male ancestors weremamzerim, etc.? Because men tend to insult one another with family blemishes
when they argue, so that any blemishes would be publicly known. Woman tend to
insult one another with licentiousness rather than with family blemishes.
If the woman is not of a priestly family additional investigation is necessary
because non-priestly families are more likely to intermarry with blemished persons:
The Mishnah specifies that we investigate also the mother of each of thelast group of four mothers whom we investigate for priestly families. This
would result in 12 mothers being investigated.
But the Gemara explains that we must also investigate the mother of eachof the four mothers added by the Mishnah (as if the Mishnah required
investigation of an additional pair of mothers), so that 16 mothers areinvestigated.
The Yerushalmi interprets the Mishnah to mean that additional investigation isnecessary where the man is not a priest. The Yerushalmi recognizes the incongruityof requiring that a non-priest pay greater attention to lineage than a priest. It
explains that we make difficulties in order to encourage a person to marry into his
own family, which he knows and of which no investigation is necessary. Priests are
more concerned with lineage and are therefore disposed even without difficulties tomarry into their own families. The Yerushalmi is inconsistent with the Bavli, and theMeiri's rabbis preferred the Bavli's interpretation.
An investigation need go no further into the past once the investigation arrives
at a priest who served in the Temple, or a levite who sang on the dukhan, or aperson who was a member of the Sanhedrin. It is assumed that a person would nothave served in any of these posts without a complete familial investigation.
However, some commentators hold that where an investigation is occasioned by aclaim of family blemish, it cannot be cut short by determining that an ancestor
served in one of these posts.
The Mishnah's reference to public officers means local judges who wereappointed to rule on minor matters so that disputants could avoid the difficult
journey to the 23-man Jerusalem court which would otherwise have jurisdiction. The
Gemara explains that public officers are assumed to be of good family only in[7:2]
Jerusalem, because outside of Jerusalem no account was taken of family inappointing the officers. As a matter of strict law even a mamzer may judge monetary
matters.
Charity overseers are presumed to be of good family because of their power toseize collateral even on the eve of Sabbath. Were they of bad family their blemishes
would have been exposed in the quarrels in which they would be embroiled while
they seize the collateral.
The old court in Sephoris admitted as members only persons of goodfamily.
The king's list of officers means the list of King David's army officers.
This completes the Mishnah. The Gemara discusses the following:[76:2][Fitness to act as a witness or judge]
One who is unfit to testify as a witness is unfit to sit as a judge.
There are instances, some relating to capital cases and some relating to civil
cases, in which one who is fit to be a witness may not sit as a judge. The following
may not sit as a judge even in civil matters:
1. an enemy of a principal;
2. a close friend of a principal;
3. a convert whose mother is not an Israelite;
4. a freedman.
The following may not judge capital cases, but may judge civil cases:
1. an aged person;
2. a saris;
3. a mamzer;
4. a person who is blind in one or both eyes.
Any person with a Jewish mother may be appointed to all leadership positions.

[7:2]
Where his mother was not an Israelite he may not be appointed to any leadership
position.
Minor leadership positions are an exception. This is how the words in theGemara "deals with them" are appropriately read. Rashi has a different
reading.
[Certain idolatry rules]
If a gentile blemishes or otherwise degrades an idol it ceases to have the statusof an idol. A Jew's idol continues to have the status of an idol regardless of any
971
action which is taken.
[77:1][Descendants of a halal and of a halala; certain zonah rules]
The next Mishnah reads:
The daughter of a male halal is unfit for the priesthood for all time. If an
Israelite marries a halala, his daughter is fit for the priesthood. If a halal
marries the daughter of an Israelite, his daughter is unfit for thepriesthood.
R. Judah said "The daughter of a male convert is as the daughter of a malehalal."
R. Eliezer b. Jacob said "If an Israelite marries a female convert, hisdaughter is fit for the priesthood, and if a male convert marries thedaughter of an Israelite, his daughter is fit for the priesthood. But if a maleconvert marries a female convert, his daughter is unfit for the priesthood.
The same law applies to a convert as to freed slaves, even unto ten
generations his daughter is unfit unless his mother is of Israelite stock."
R. Jose said "If a male convert marries a female convert, his daughter is fit
for the priesthood."
971

A.Z.53:1.

[7:2]
A halal's direct male descendants are halalim notwithstanding that their mother
had no blemish prior to marrying their father. The daughter of any one halal in theline of halalim is a halala. Should a halala marry a non-halal her children are nothalalim; Jewish non-halal men (but not Jewish non-halala women) are like a mikveh
which purifies their spouse's halal status.
R. Judah holds that anyone with convert ancestors is unfit for the priesthood. R.
Eliezer b. Jacob disagrees, and holds that a convert who has any Jewish ancestors is
fit for the priesthood. The same applies to freedmen. R. Jose disagrees further, andholds converts with no Jewish ancestors are also fit for the priesthood.
The halacha accords with R. Eliezer b. Jacob. Still, if a female convert with noJewish ancestors goes ahead and marries a priest we rely on R. Jose not to insist on aget. But if she herself converted, rather than being the daughter of persons whoconverted before she was conceived, she may not marry a priest and must be
divorced if she does marry. Even where she is not a zonah in the traditional sense,
because she converted before the three year age of intercourse, we still apply the
972
dictum a priest's wife must be from the "seed of Israel."
It goes without saying that the daughter of a halal must be divorced if she goesahead and marries a priest.
This completes the Mishnah. The following matters are discussed in theGemara.
There are two sorts of halala:
1. A woman who was born a halala because she, her priestly father or oneof her father's direct male ancestors is the issue of a union between a priest
and a woman forbidden to a priest; or
2. She was born a non-halala but had relations with a priest
notwithstanding that she was forbidden to a priest. For example if she wasa widow and had relations with a high priest she becomes a halala. The
high priest must divorce her but does not become a halal himself. She canno longer marry any priest on pain of malkot. The daughter of such a
union is a halala and the son is a halal. The son's halal taint continues
down through his direct male descendants.
A woman who cohabits with an Israelite to whom she is forbidden does not
become a halala but a zonah. Should a priest then cohabit with her she also becomes
972

Ezek.44:22.

[7:2]
a halala, because she was forbidden to the priest as a zonah.
A halala who has relations with a priest is also a zonah, since the relations wereforbidden to the priest; it does not matter that she was permitted to enter into therelations.
There is a negative interdict against remarrying one's divorced wife who in theinterim has married another. Nevertheless, if he does remarry her, their children arelegitimate.
A woman does not become a zonah if she cohabits with a man while a niddah,
assuming that the relations are not otherwise forbidden. That she is a niddah does
not take away from the fact that she may marry the man.
[77:2][Accumulation of prohibitions]
If a high priest is warned not to cohabit with each of three different widows, heis given malkot for each cohabitation. In fact, the same would apply to threecohabitations with one widow if he is warned separately on each. If he was warned
only once he receives malkot only for the first. Compare the rule that a nazir is given
only one malkot if he drinks wine all day after one warning. If he is warned
intermittently he receives malkot for each warning.
If the high priest cohabits with a woman who was widowed three times, thehigh priest receives only one malkot even if he was warned not to cohabit with her
on account of her being a widow thrice.
Assume that a high priest cohabits with a woman who:
was first a widow;
then married and was divorced;
then cohabited with a priest to whom she was forbidden on account of her
being a divorced woman, and who thereupon became a halala; andthen became a zonah when she cohabited with either a halal or a relative
forbidden to her.
Assume also that the high priest was warned that his cohabitation was forbidden on
account of each of these four statuses. Now, there is a general rule that we do not
cumulate prohibitions for the same transgression. Still, the high priest is punishable[7:2]
with four sets of malkot. The rule against cumulation does not apply in the following
three circumstances:
1. where the prohibitions attach simultaneously;
2. where the later prohibitions are of wider scope in the sense that theyaffect more people or are subject to more severe penalties ("mosif"); and3. where the later prohibitions are more inclusive on the mattersprohibited, such as where the later prohibition forbids all foods whereas aprior prohibition attached to only certain foods ("kollel").
In our case the prohibitions are mosif:
1. A widow is forbidden only to a high priest.
2. A divorced woman is forbidden to all priests; because the prohibitionattaches to non-high priests, it also attaches as an additional prohibition to
the high priest.
Note that at this point if the woman is the daughter of a priest she may
return to her father's house to eat terumah if she has no children.
3. As a halala she may no longer eat terumah.
4. Once she becomes a zonah we take note of the fact that there exists acase, albeit not in this one, where znut, meaning adulterous transgression,
results in a woman being forbidden even to an Israelite: that is, the case ofa married woman who willingly commits adultery.
But what of the rule that prohibitions included in the same interdict can bepunished only once? Is not the prohibition for the high priest included in the one
973
interdict "a widow, divorcee, halala and zonah, of these he shall not take" ? Yes,
but note that in the verse dealing with non-high priests there is a separate
prohibition for divorced women: "A woman who is a zonah or a halala they shall not
974
take, and a woman divorced from her husband they shall not take." Obviously aseparation is also implied for the high priest, although not stated. That being so, we
imply the separation for all four prohibitions, and we also imply the separation for
non-high priests insofar as concerns halala and zonah.

973

Lev.21:14.

974

Lev.21:7.

[7:2]
If the four statuses were attained in an order in which additional persons were
not covered at each stage, there is no mosif, and only the first prohibition attaches. If
there was no warning for the first prohibition, there is no punishment for later
prohibitions even if they were warned against. This rule applies, for example, where
the woman first became a zonah, then a halala, then a divorcee, and finally awidow.
The preceding paragraph assumes that zonah is more encompassing than halala,
for the reasons stated previously. Realize, however, that the penalties for zonah may
in a special case be less severe than the penalties for halala. Assume that a woman
becomes a zonah on account of a cohabitation which was prohibited only by positive
precept. For this cohabitation she receives no malkot. When she later cohabits with apriest, she becomes a halala and thereby becomes subject to malkot.
[Additional rules on cumulation]
If a high priest cohabits with a woman who is his sister and a widow, he ispunished only for incest with a sister. Her becoming a widow did not prohibit her toadditional persons, for she was prohibited to the high priest anyway. The exceptionof mosif does not apply, and prohibitions cannot accumulate.
One who eats on Yom Kippur is liable for kareth if deliberate, and to bring ahattat if unwitting; if he was warned not to eat he also receives malkot. One who
eats nevela deliberately and after warning is given only malkot. If one eats nevela on
Yom Kippur the interdict of Yom Kippur is added to the interdict of nevela for two
reasons:
the doctrine of mosif applies because of the addition of the kareth penalty;
the doctrine of kollel applies because of the additional foods other thannevela which are interdicted by Yom Kippur.
But if the animal became nevela on Yom Kippur, did not the interdict of Yom
Kippur apply first?
1. Some explain that the interdict of nevela applies to an olive-sized
portion, whereas the interdict of Yom Kippur applies only to larger
date-sized portions. In this sense the interdict of nevela is first.
2. Rashi explains that at the onset of Yom Kippur there was aninterdict equivalent to nevela: that which forbids the eating of live
animals.
Now, we know that the interdict of Yom Kippur falls on animals

[7:2]
which were properly slaughtered on Yom Kippur. Why so? These
animals, too, were prohibited at the onset of Yom Kippur!
Yes, but at the instant of the slaughter the animal is permitted, andthe interdict of Yom Kippur falls without hindrance. Where theanimal became nevela the interdict of nevela attached immediately
when the interdict against eating live animals was lifted, so that Yom
Kippur must fall on an existing interdict.
[Interplay of rules of halala and zonah]
You already know the following rules:
1. A woman becomes a zonah if she has relations with a man who isforbidden to priests and Israelites alike, such as a mamzer, a natin ora person forbidden by the interdicts against incestuous relations,
including those forbidden by negative precept.
2. A woman also becomes a zonah if she has relations with a halal,
notwithstanding that she is permitted to marry him.
3. A woman can become a halala by cohabitation only if she has
relations with a priest which would have been permitted to nonpriests. Examples are the prohibitions against a priest's marrying a
divorced woman or a zonah, or against a high priest marrying awidow.
It follows that if an Israelite has relations with his sister, she becomes a zonah.
Should she later have relations with a priest she is also a halala. Since the status ofzonah preceded the status of halala there is no mosif, and accordingly there is no
malkot for halala.
It also follows that if a priest has relations with his sister, she becomes a zonah
only and not a halala. Therefore, a child of that union is a mamzer and not a halal;
those who permit a mamzer to eat terumah would allow the child to eat terumah.
975

But the halacha is that a mamzer cannot eat terumah . Of what significance,
then, is it that the child is a mamzer rather than a halal? That if the child has
relations with the daughter of a priest, she becomes a zonah rather than a halala.
She therefore can eat terumah.

975

Yeb.66:1.

[7:2]
Return now to the case of the woman who becomes a zonah because she had
relations with her brother who was a priest. Should her brother or another priest
have any other relations with her, she becomes a halala, and the issue of any such
union is a halal.
Why does not the same rule apply to the first cohabitation? We know that theonset of intercourse is sufficient to cause a woman to become a zonah. Should we
not say that she becomes a zonah with the onset of intercourse, and a halala at its
completion? No. The rule that a woman can become a zonah with the onset ofintercourse applies only where intercourse was interrupted at that stage. Where
intercourse is completed, we consider the entire intercourse as resulting only in thestatus of zonah.
[78:1][Multiple prohibitions on cohabiting with a halala]
In referring to the high priest, Scripture directs that "He shall not profane his976
seed." We separate this verse into two sections. The first part of the verse (He shallnot profane) refers primarily to the profanation of an interdicted woman, whereas
the second part of the verse (his seed) deals with the profanation of the seed. Thereis another verse, parallel to a similar verse for non-high priests, which directs that "A
widow, a divorced woman, a halala and a zonah he [the high priest] shall not take977
[in the sense of taking in betrothal]."Now then, if a high priest betroths a widow and then commences intercoursewith her, he violates two precepts: that against taking a widow, and that against
profaning a widow by making her a halala.
Should he interrupt intercourse and later complete it, he violates a thirdinterdict: that against profaning his seed by intercourse with a halala.
If intercourse is not interrupted, we apply the prior rule that the entire
intercourse serves to make her a halala, so that he does not violate theprecept against profaning his seed by intercourse with a halala.
But if intercourse was interrupted, should we not hold that she became a halalaat the onset? If so, when he completes intercourse, why does he not also violate the976

Lev.21:15.

977

Lev.21:14.

[7:2]
interdict against taking a halala?
In fact he does violate that interdict. But the interdict against profaning awoman by making her a halala disappears. The fact is that at the end of
the intercourse she was already a halala. It does not matter that he caused
the status. The same intercourse cannot be held to be both the making of ahalala and intercourse with a halala.
Although there is no equivalent verse which prohibits profanation for non-highpriests, the doctrine of hekesh is used to apply the same rules where a non-highpriest has relations with a divorced woman, a halala or a zonah.
[haluzah forbidden to a priest]
Scripture does not prohibit a haluzah to a priest, but the Rabbis do prohibit her
to a priest because of a haluzah's resemblance to a divorced woman. Similarly, thechild of such a union is Rabbinically a halal.
[Status of a halal]
One who is a halal Scripturally is treated in all respects as an Israelite: he may
marry a divorced woman and he may defile himself for the dead. One who is a halal
Rabbinically is treated as a priest for stringent rules, and he may not may marry a
divorced woman or defile himself for the dead. He is also treated as an Israelite
where that results in stringent rulings: he may not eat terumah or serve in the
Temple.
[Where a priest betroths but does not cohabit, or cohabits without betrothal]
Refer back to the rule that a high priest who betroths and cohabits with a widow(or a non-high priest who betroths and cohabits with a divorced woman) violates
two precepts: taking and profaning. What if he betroths and does not cohabit? He
violates nothing! Taking is prohibited only when it results in profanation.
The reverse is not true: the priest violates the precept against profanation where
he cohabits without betrothing. There is only one exception: One who cohabits withhis divorced wife after she has married another violates an interdict only if he978betroths her again. Scripture forbids only to "take her [again] for a wife."
But

978

Deut.24:4.

[7:2]
979

does the verse which forbids one "to take her again" mean that one violates theprecept by betrothal without cohabitation? No. Scripture refers only to betrothal
which leads to relations.
The bracketed material shows how the Gemara is consistent with this
discussion:
Abbaye said "When he [a high priest with a widow, or a non-high priest
with a divorced woman] betroths he receives malkot [for taking]; andwhen he cohabits [after betrothing] he receives malkot [for profaning].
Raba said "When he cohabits [after betrothal], he receives malkot[meaning two malkots], as you said. But when he betroths without
cohabiting, he does not receive malkot even for taking. The interdict
against taking applies only when it results in cohabiting.
And Abbaye admits that in the case of one who marries his divorced wife,
although here too there is a negative precept against taking, still there isno malkot [because of the verse "to take her for a wife"].
And Raba admits that if he [meaning a high priest with a widow, or a nonhigh priest with a divorced woman] cohabits but does not betroth, hereceives malkot, for he has profaned. [In fact, the same is true of all
prohibited relations, where the interdict is stated in terms "He shall nothave relations."]
And both admit that in the case of one who cohabits with his divorced
980
wife , there is no malkot, for the Torah prohibits cohabitation only which
981
results in the building of a new household .
In sum:1. Both agree that relations which are interdicted with language
which forbids cohabitation are punishable where there has no
betrothal;
979

Id.

980

The Meiri rejects a variant reading in which both Raba and Abbaye admit that there is no malkot
with one who cohabits with his haluzah. To the contrary, cohabitation with one's haluzah, who is his
brother's wife, is subject to kareth, so that attempted betrothal would not even be valid!
981

This discussion does not appear in our texts.

[7:2]
2. Both agree that there is malkot for one's divorced wife only where
there is both betrothal and cohabitation;
3. Both agree that there is malkot for cohabitation without betrothal
for women prohibited to the priesthood; and4. They argue only on women who are prohibited only to thepriesthood, and who were betrothed without cohabitation. Raba
holds there is no malkot; Abbaye disagrees. The halacha is as Raba.
This is the understanding of the Meiri and of the Geonim, and is supported by thetext.
The Rambam disagrees and holds as follows:
1. There is no malkot where any priest has relations with a divorced
woman, a halala or a zonah without betrothal.
2. There is malkot where a high priest has relations with a widow
without betrothal.
Recall Raba's admission, which the Meiri interpreted as follows:
And Raba admits that if he [meaning a high priest with a widow, or a nonhigh priest with a divorced woman] cohabits but does not betroth, hereceives malkot, for he has profaned. [In fact, the same is true on all
prohibited relations, where the interdict is stated in terms "He shall nothave relations."]
The Rambam reads Raba's admission as follows:
And Raba admits that if he [meaning only a high priest with a widow],
cohabits but does not betroth, he receives malkot, for he has profaned.
[The same is not true of other prohibited relations.]
The Rambam reasons that a high priest does profane a widow by cohabiting
with her. He does not profane a divorced woman, a halala or a zonah, because such
women are already profaned.
The Meiri does not understand. A priest does profane a divorced woman, ahalala (and a halala's children) or a zonah by cohabiting with them. Because of the
cohabitation, a divorced woman and a zonah become a halala and unfit forterumah.
The Rambam goes on to say that all relations which are interdicted by negative

[7:2]
precept, such as that prohibiting relations between a mamzer and an Israelite, are982
subject to malkot only where cohabitation follows betrothal . The Raabad attacks
this proposition with another Gemara which analyzes the view of R. Isaac that one
who violates a virgin whom he may not marry cannot both receive malkot for thetransgression and a monetary penalty for the violation. The Gemara considers R.
Isaac's view to be inconsistent with a Mishnah which requires a penalty for one who
violates a mamzeret. Obviously the case involves no betrothal, and yet the Gemara
assumes that there is malkot for cohabiting with a mamzeret!
The Meiri concludes that the Rambam's interpretation is strange.
[78:2][Credibility of a father to declare that a son is a mamzer]
The next Mishnah reads:
If a man declares "This son of mine is a mamzer," he is not believed. Andeven if both the husband and the wife admit that the child within her is amamzer, they are not believed. R. Judah said "They are believed."
The father admits that the child is his son, but the father claims that the child
was a mamzer because he was born of a woman prohibited to the father on pain of
execution by the Beth din or kareth. The father is not believed for two reasons:
1. A witness has no credibility in testimony regarding his kin; just as aperson is considered kin to himself, so also is he kin to his son.
2. A person cannot incriminate himself by his own testimony. Byclaiming that the child is a mamzer the father is in effect testifyingthat he cohabited with a woman prohibited to him. For if he meansthat the child is a mamzer of another father, then the father would
not have acknowledged the child as his son.
Where the wife's husband does not acknowledge the child as his son, he is notbelieved even if his wife concurs that the child is a mamzer and even if the child is982

Again, the only exception is cohabitation between a widow and a high priest.

[7:2]
not yet born, and therefore has less of a status of fitness.
R. Judah holds that the husband is believed in both cases, even without themother's concurrence. What of the rule against self-incrimination and the rule that
one cannot testify regarding his kin? Credibility is based on the express Scriptural983
direction that the father is credited when he acknowledges "to others" a child as
his first-born son who has the right to receive a double portion in the father's
inheritance. He may so acknowledge the child even where an older child waspresumed to be the first born, and even where the necessary result of theacknowledgement is that the older child is not his son. For were the older child hisson, he would have the rights of a first-born even if he is a mamzer.
From this R. Judah concludes that just so may a father acknowledge a child as his
son, but that the child is a mamzer or the son of a divorced woman or a haluzah. R.
Judah would certainly credit a person who claims that a child is not his son and amamzer, since here there is no self-incrimination.
Now, precisely how does Scripture teach that the father has special
credibility?
Does not the father have the power to give his property to the younger
boy in any event?
Yes, but the father has that power only for property he now owns; hecannot now convey property to which he will succeed in the future. The
fact that the father's testimony will give the younger boy a double portionof even such property is evidence of special credibility.
But is there evidence according to R. Meir who holds that any person has
the power to convey property which does not yet exist?
Yes, because R. Meir agrees that one cannot now transfer property towhich one will succeed during and after one's final death throes at a time
when one could not physically make a present transfer. Still Scripture
credits the father by allowing the child to take a double portion inproperty to which the father succeeds while is his death throes and a single
portion in property which the fathers's estate inherits after the father's
death.
As a side matter, note that in the latter case, the son can have only asingle portion, because of the rule that a first born inherits a double
983

Deut.21:17.

[7:2]
portion only in property which the father owned at the time of hisdeath.
The majority disagree with R. Judah and hold that the Scriptural direction which
gives credibility on one's first-born is limited to just that: identification of the firstborn. There is no further credibility.
The halacha is as R. Judah, but only where the father's testimony would notadversely affect persons, including grandchildren, in addition to the child identified
984
as a mamzer. That is why the Gemara elsewhere concludes that one is believed on
his minor son but not on his adult son. The Gemara explains that a minor son meansa son without children of his own, and an adult son means a son with children of his
own.
This completes the Mishnah. The Gemara contains nothing which we have notalready explained.
[Agent's betrothal acts may be pre-empted]
The next Mishnah reads:
If a man authorizes his agent to give his daughter in betrothal, and then hehimself goes and gives her in betrothal to another, if the betrothal by him
is first, his betrothal is valid; if the agent's was first, the latter's betrothal isvalid. But if it is unknown, both must give her a get. If they wish, one gives
her a get and the other marries her.
The case involves a na'arah or a ketannah. When the father preempts the agent andaccepts kiddushin himself, he effectively cancels the agent's authority. Since the agent
loses his authority, it follows that his kiddushin is not valid even should the one fromwhom the father accepted kiddushin die before the agent accepts kiddushin fromanother.
Likewise, if a woman authorizes an agent to give her in betrothal, and she goesand betroths herself to another: if her own preceded, her betrothal is valid; if her
agent's preceded, his betrothal is valid. If they do not know, both must give her a984

B.B.127:2.

[7:2]
get. If they wish, one gives a get and the other marries her.
The Mishnah accords with the halacha.
The Gemara explains the following.

[7:2][79:1][Signs of bogeret, and interplay with father's betrothal; relation back of present
status]A girl is a na'arah for six months from when she is 12 years and one day old andshe has two pubic hairs. It does not matter whether during this period she shows
signs of bogeret; she remains a na'arah. Once the six months expire, she is a bogeret
whether or not she shows signs of bogeret.
Her status on the day on which the six months end depends on whether she
985
shows signs of bogeret. These signs are explained elsewhere . R. Jose HaGlili says
the sign is the appearance of a fold under the breast. R. Akiva holds the sign is thebending downward of the breast. Ben Azzai holds the sign is the darkening of thenipple. R. Jose holds that the sign is when the nipple remains depressed for a period
after being pushed downward. The Gemara also discusses other signs. The halacha ineach case takes account of the view which would result in the most stringent ruling.
Now if her father betroths her during the six month period on the assumptionthat she is a na'arah and she betroths herself to another, her own betrothal is voideven if she shows signs of bogeret.
Rav says that if she is a bogeret now she is assumed to have been a bogeret
previously. The Gemara questions Rav's position: why so, "only now has she becomea bogeret!"
Does this not suggest that were we to know that she had signs of bogeret
earlier we would deem her a bogeret then, even during the six-month
period? No. The Gemara means only that where the issue comes before theBeth din after the six months have elapsed, we say that she is bogeret
now; but where there were known signs of bogeret earlier she would be abogeret commencing after the six-month period.
If the father betroths her after the six months, his action is void even if she
showed no signs of bogeret.
If the father betrothed her and she betrothed herself on the day on which the six
months ended, the issue becomes whether she had shown signs of bogeret on thatday. If she is known to have signs of bogeret at the end of the day she is assumed tohave had the signs at the beginning of the day, whether or not she herself knows
985

Niddah 47:1.

[7:2]
whether she had the signs.
Other commentators disagree and hold that signs of bogeret are significant evenduring the six month period. They take literally the Gemara's question mentioned
previously and hold that the issue is that we did not know that she was a bogeret
previously.
The Meiri concludes that the Gemara's plain reading supports the othercommentators. Still he holds that the halacha is as stated previously.
986

We have already considered
the rules relating to a mikveh which wasmeasured and found not to have sufficient water.
987

Elsewhere we consider the result where one discovers that a barrel presumed
to contain wine, and for which one has separated wine as terumah, is discovered tocontain vinegar instead. The basic rule is that the barrel is assumed to have turned tovinegar three days prior to the discovery of the vinegar. In considering the status of
the barrel before that day, we rule in whichever manner would result in a stringent
holding.
[79:2]
If a person is dangerously ill and conveys all of his property, without leaving any
to himself, it is implied that the gift was meant to be valid only if he dies. If a healthy
person makes such a gift it is irrevocable.
If the donor insists that he was dangerously ill, and the donees insist that thedonor was healthy, the donor prevails because he has possession of his real property
and the others wish to take it away. This applies even where the donees have
purported to make a hazakah in the property; land remains in its owner's possession
until we know that title has changed.

986

66:2.

987

B.B.96:1, Pes.107:1.

[7:2]For chattels the rule is different. The donees swear the Rabbinical oath of protest(heses) and retain the chattels, for if they were lying they could have successfullyargued that they purchased the chattels. The matter is explained at greater length988
elsewhere .
[Credibility of a man who identifies women and children as his]
The next Mishnah reads:
A man emigrated overseas together with his wife, and then he, his wifeand his children returned. The man declared "This is the woman who
emigrated with me overseas, and these are her children." The man isbelieved and he need not bring proof of the woman or of the children.
If he declares "She died abroad and these are her children," he must bring
proof of the children but not of the woman.
If he declares "I married a woman overseas, and this is she, and these areher children," he must bring proof of the woman, but not of the children.
If he said "She died, and these are her children," he must bring proof of
the woman and of the children.
The case refers to a priest, and the issue is whether the woman and her children
are fit for the priesthood. If she is the same woman who left here, we assume that
she was properly investigated when he married her initially. The children are
presumed to be fit only if they cling to her so that they are obviously the woman's
children. In this case the children may eat terumah, and (in R. Johanan's view) theirown children are fit for the priesthood.
The Yerushalmi gives an additional rationale. The man and woman are given thecredibility of witnesses because a woman will not stand by silently while another'schildren are passed off as her own.
Where only the man is present, so that there is no clinging, or where the children
989
are adult and do not cling, the father must prove that the children are fit before
they may eat terumah, let alone to have their daughters marry into the priesthood.
990
The halacha does not agree with Rabbi who holds that a father can without proof
988

B.B.153:2.

989

Unless the father's statement was made innocently, and not as testimony.

990

Keth.25:2.

[7:2]
identify his son as a fit priest for the purposes of terumah.
Now the Rambam agrees with Rabbi's holding. But that view is contradicted by
our Gemara. Both R. Johanan and Resh Lakish hold that the children are fit only ifthey cling to the mother.
Resh Lakish holds that clinging is sufficient proof to permit the children to
eat terumah, but not to permit their children to marry into the priesthood.
R. Johanan takes the lenient view and permits their children to marry into
the priesthood.
991

Why does another Gemara hold that a person is believed when he says that A
is my slave, and he later reverses himself and says A is my son? Does this not support
the Rambam? No. The Gemara credits the father only as concerns the son's
inheritance and to free the man's wife from yibbum bonds. The Gemara does notrefer at all to issues of fitness for the priesthood.
Return now to the Mishnah. Where the man left without a wife and returned
with a wife and children, he must prove the wife's fitness. The children thereafterneed no proof, so long as they cling to the mother. Where the man returns with thechildren only and without the wife, he must prove the fitness of both the wife andthe children, since there is no clinging from which to derive evidence.
This completes the Mishnah, all of which is halacha.
The Gemara explains the following matters.
Assume that one returns from overseas and declares that he married two
women, that one of the women died, that the woman with whom he returned is theother, and that the children with whom he returned belong to the surviving woman.
Here he must prove the fitness of both the woman and of the children. It does notmatter that the children cling to the woman: she may be their foster mother. Some
commentators would apply the rule even where both women return, since even here
one wife may have been more affectionate to the other's children than the mother.
The Meiri does not agree with these commentators.

991

B.B.127:2.

[7:2][80:1]The presumption that a child who clings to his mother is her son is powerful. In
an actual case in Jerusalem a woman was stoned when she had relations with such achild who was at least nine years old and whose intercourse was therefore
recognized at law. The child would also be stoned in a case of this kind if he hasreached the age at which he is liable for punishment. Similarly, a father who
cohabits with a girl presumed to be his daughter is burned.
[Reliance on presumptions for malkot and ritual impurity]
These presumptions are also sufficient for malkot. A husband receives malkot if
he has relations with his wife in the face of warnings grounded on niddah-type
clothing recognized by her neighbors.
Numerous commentators hold that the presumption applies only where the wife
does not dispute the presumption, such as where she was asleep while her husband
cohabited with her. Were she awake and were she not to dispute the presumption
she too would be punished.
Other commentators disagree and hold that the woman can dispute thepresumption only when she offers a plausible explanation of why she wore theniddah type clothing. The Meiri believes that the Gemara supports this view.
Once we give the husband malkot he is freed of the penalty of kareth. This
follows the general rule that one who has received malkot for a transgression is no992
longer liable for kareth .
Presumptions are sufficient to support capital punishment and malkot. Still there
are circumstances where presumptions cannot be relied upon for terumah.
By way of explanation note the following background rules:
1. When a question arises on whether an item was made unclean by an
intelligent person in private property we rule that the item is unclean.
2. If the issue is whether the item was made unclean by an unintelligent
person, such as a deaf-mute, idiot or minor, the item is clean.
But the item is clean only if there is no presumption which supports

992

Mak.23:1.

[7:2]
uncleanness.
If there is a presumption that the item is unclean, the presumption isequivalent to a ruling that the issue of uncleanliness arose with regard to
an intelligent person.
Still, if the item is terumah we do not rely on the presumption to burn theterumah. Instead, the terumah is held in suspense and may not be eaten or
burned until the question is determined.
For example, assume that a child who is ritually unclean is found at the side of apiece of terumah dough and there is dough in his hand:
The Sages hold that the entire dough is unclean because of thepresumption that a child dabbles and that he himself took some doughfrom the dough at his side.
R. Meir disagrees, since it is possible that a clean person took from thedough at the child's side and gave it to the child. Only the dough in thechild's hands is unclean.
But, for the reasons stated previously, even the Sages do not permit thedough to be burned.
Now Rashi explains that in our case the child was not known to be unclean.
Rather, he is presumed to be unclean because he may have dabbled with dead
reptiles. But, if so:
Why does R. Meir hold that the dough in the child's hand is unclean? Does
not R. Meir refuse to rely on presumptions?
And further, why do the Sages hold that the dough at the side of the childis unclean, given the double doubt: whether the child is unclean, and even
if the child is unclean whether the child touched the dough at his side.
The Raabad also attacks Rashi's position based on a Tosefta which holds that achild which was left alone by its mother is presumed to have remained clean.
Obviously, then, in the Gemara just referred to the child must be known to havebeen unclean.
The Raabad also notes a Tosefta in which R. Jose takes issue with both R. Meirand the Sages in our case. R. Jose holds that if the child can reach out and touch thedough at his side, it is unclean; if not, it is clean. Obviously then the issue is whether
the child touched the dough at his side, not whether he was clean or uncleanhimself.

[7:2]
If there is a clean piece of dough in a house which contains fowl and unclean
fluid, and holes made by the fowls' beaks are found in the dough, there is apresumption that the fowl drank from the fluid and that they made holes in thedough while their beaks were still wet. The dough is therefore unclean. Here again,
the presumption that fowl drink and make holes is sufficiently strong to treat the
fowl as an intelligent object and to require that the dough be held in suspense andnot burned or eaten.
Here are additional rules regarding the presumption that fowl drink and thenmake holes in food:
1. The presumption does not apply where there is sufficient groundbetween the fluid and the dough in which the fowl could dry theirbeaks. There is the contrary presumption that fowl dry their beaks
where they can do so.
2. Where the fluid is turbid there is the contrary presumption that
had the fowl not dried their beaks the turbidity would have beenrecognized in the holes.
This contra presumption does not apply to non-turbid fluid even if
colored red; the dough could have absorbed the non-turbid colored
fluid.
Fluid is considered turbid if it reflects no images.
But what of the rule that a reviith of fluid is the minimum amount which canrender other objects unclean? How can the lesser amount on a fowl's beak suffice?
The fact that the fluid is not loose but attached to the beaks renders even less than areviith significant. Compare the rule that unclean fluid on the outside of a goblet
993
can render objects unclean because of the materiality of the goblet .
The Rambam has an alternate explanation. A reviith is necessary only to render aperson unclean. Less than a reviith is sufficient to render food unclean. But what of
the rule that a gentile's wine can render food unclean only if there is at least areviith? That is because the uncleanliness of a gentile's wine is Rabbinical only.
Hence, the lenient ruling.
Other animals have rules similar to fowl where their bites can be recognized in
the dough. In each case the presumption applies only where there is not sufficientground between the fluid and the dough in which the animal can dry its mouth, or
993

Berak.52:1.

[7:2]
in the case of a cow, to dry its tongue. There is an exception for dogs: dogs are
considered sufficiently intelligent not to drink where food is available.
The next Mishnahs read as follows:[When seclusion with a woman or women is prohibited]
A man may not be alone with two women, but one woman may be alone
with two men. R. Simeon said "Even one man may be alone with two
women, if his wife is with him, and he may sleep with them in an inn,because his wife watches him."
A man may be alone with his mother and his daughter, and he may sleep
with them in immediate bodily contact; but when they grow up, she mustsleep in her garment and he in his.
A bachelor [ravek] must not be an elementary teacher [teach sofrim], nor
may a woman be an elementary teacher. R. Eliezer said "One may also not
be an elementary teacher if he has no wife."
R. Judah said "A bachelor must not tend cattle, nor may two bachelors
sleep together under the same cover." But the Sages permit it.
One whose business is with women must not be alone with women, andone should not teach his son a trade among women.
One may not be alone with a woman forbidden to him lest this lead toforbidden relations. The proscription is not Scriptural and is not counted among the994
precepts. But the Gemara supports the proposition by the Scriptural verse "the son
995
of your mother" which suggests that a son may be found close to his mother, butthat other relations may not seclude with each other.
Since the issue is Rabbinical, the Rabbis extend it to prohibit a man to be alone
not only with one woman but even with two women. The man may be motivated bylust, the women may not take the matter seriously and they may protect one
another should they transgress. Besides, the woman who transgresses seeks to havethe other transgress too, so that the other is also motivated to keep the matter

994

See e.g., A.Z.36:2 where the Gemara states that the proscription is "Scriptural," meaning based on
Scriptural support.
995

Deut.23:7.

[7:2]
confidential.
The rules go further. King David's Beth din reacted to the events of Tamar andAmnon by forbidding a man to be alone even with a single permitted woman, and996
Hillel and Shammai forbade a man to be alone with a gentile woman . For all
purposes discussed in the Gemara, being alone with either a single woman or agentile woman is treated the same as being alone with a married Jewish woman.
Rashi holds that one man may be alone with three or more women. That is why
the Mishnah emphasizes two. But one who deals with women by profession may not
be alone even with many women. That is why the Mishnah discusses no number
when dealing with such persons.
One woman may be alone with two men, even where she is forbidden to one orboth of them. The men prevent each other from transgressing. This applies only
when the men are respectable, not if they are profligate. In one instance ten
profligate persons carried a married woman out on a bier, and then committed
adultery with her.
There is also a converse rule. A man may be alone with a woman if her husband
is in the city. Fear of the husband will deter the woman from sinning. But she may bealone with a man who is bold with her, such as a man who raised her or who is her
relative, only if her husband is in the house.
Finally, a woman may be alone with a man in a house whose door is open to a
public thoroughfare.
R. Simeon permits even one man to be alone with two women. The halacha
disagrees.
All hold that a man may be alone with another woman if the man's wife is in thesame house or inn. Even at night a wife is alert to her husband's possible adultery
with another. But a Jewish woman may not be alone with a gentile even if thegentile's wife is in the house or inn. The gentile's wife has no shame and does notdeter her husband. In fact, while the husband eats old pumpkins she eats young
997
pumpkins , i.e., she sins on her own.
A father may be alone with his daughter and a mother may be alone with her
son because they have no temptation to sin. They may actually live together. But
996

A.Z.36:2.

997

Sot.10:1.

[7:2]
once the daughter either shows signs of na'arah or is embarrassed to stand nude in
his presence, she may sleep in immediate bodily contact with her father only if bothlie in their garments.
A husband may be alone with his wife when she is a niddah.
[Trades prohibited because of possible seclusion]
The Mishnah directs that a ravek may not teach sofrim. A ravek is a bachelor who
has never married. Schoolchildren are sofrim; the Mishnah's meaning is that abachelor may not teach learning to schoolchildren. Others explain that sofrim refers
to elementary teachers, so that the Mishnah's meaning is that a bachelor shall not
accustom himself to be an elementary school teacher. The concern is not pederasty,
but that they may have relations with the mothers who bring their children toschool. A widower is under no such restriction. His inclinations are assumed to beunder greater control.
Similarly, a woman should not be an elementary school teacher because relations
may ensue with fathers who bring children to school.
R. Eliezer applies the same prohibition to one who is presently unmarried. It
does not matter that he was previously married. Most commentators other than theRambam conclude that the halacha is with the Sages.
R. Judah says that two bachelors may not sleep together under the same cover
lest pederasty ensue. But the halacha is with the Sages who hold that Jews are notsuspected of pederasty.
The Mishnah directs that one whose business is with women must not be alone
with women. It does not matter that he is busily at work while in their presence, as atailor for their clothing or as a jeweler for their ornaments, or otherwise. He may not
be alone with them no matter how many women are present, unless his own wife isalso present.
Some commentators apply a stricter rule. He may not be alone with women evenif his wife is present. His wife cannot guard him constantly, and because of his close
association with many women, and their need for his services, they feel familiar withhim and will protect him if he transgresses.
The Mishnah continues that one should not teach his son a trade which involves
working with women. Others explain that the interdiction is against teaching any
trade to a young boy and a young girl together.

[7:2][Trades one should teach his son; certain evil trades]
R. Meir said "One should always teach his son a clean and easy craft, andpray to him to whom all wealth and property belongs. For every craft
contains both poverty and wealth; neither poverty nor wealth is due to thecraft but all depends on one's merit."
R. Meir recommends a clean and easy craft, without great travail and shame, such as
being a tailor or a weaver. True, these trades do not generally enrich those whopractice them. But G-d controls wealth and property and it is up to each person to
pray to Him for success in his trade. Every trade has within it both riches and poverty,
and all depends on one's personal merit and the mercy of G-d.
R. Simeon b. Eleazar said "Have you ever seen a wild beast or bird with acraft? Yet they are sustained without anxiety. Now, they were created only
to serve me, while I was created to serve my master. Surely, then, I shouldmake a living without anxiety! But what shall I do if I have acted evilly anddestroyed my livelihood.
Abba Gurion of Zaidon said on the authority of Abba Guria "One should
not teach his son to be an ass-driver, camel driver, wagoner, sailor,shepherd or shop-keeper because their profession is the profession ofrobbers."
R. Judah said in his name "Most ass-drivers are wicked, while most camel
drivers are worthy men, and most sailors are pious. The best of doctors are
destined for Gehenna, and the worthiest of butchers is Amalek's partner."
Certain persons in these trades travel on the roads and seize produce belonging toothers. A shepherd grazes his animals on others' fields. A shop-keeper is typically
adept at fraud; he mixes wine with water and other substances, and tampers withhis weights.
Ass-drivers travel short distances in relative safety. Camel drivers are more
subservient to G-d; they travel to greater distances and to places in which wild
animals and brigands roam.
998

that camel drivers are all wicked?
Why then does the Gemara say elsewhere
When they ride on their camels they tend to arousal and emissions. This does notoccur when they lead their camels without riding.

998

Niddah 14:1.

[7:2]
Sailors travel to the greatest distances, and are so frequently in danger that theycannot help but be constantly repentant.
The best of doctors is destined for Gehenna. Doctors despair too early of theirpatients' recoveries, do not make sufficient efforts on behalf of their patients, andact as experts in matters in which they are not expert.
Rashi explains that the best of butchers is Amalek's partner because they sellpossibly non-kosher meat for their economic benefit. But why the comparison to
Amalek? Because Amalek's ancestor Elifaz was mercenary and seized all of Jacob's
money.
The Meiri prefers to explain that butchers tend to transgress by castrating
animals. This is related to Amalek's actions in castrating Jews and casting theirforeskins to the sky in order to insult the precept of circumcision. Hence, Scripturesays of Amalek vayazanev, meaning he excised the extremities, and hanechashalim,
999
meaning he severed the testicles .
R. Nehorai said "I abandon every trade in the world and teach my son
Torah only, for man enjoys the reward thereof in this world while theprincipal remains to him for the world to come. But all other professions
are not so; for when a man comes to sickness or old age or suffering andcannot engage in his craft, he must die of starvation. The Torah is not so,for it guards him of all evil in his youth and gives him a future and hope in
his old age.
Of his youth what is said? 'But they that wait upon the Lord shall renew
1000
their strength .' Of his old age what is said? 'They shall bring forth fruit
1001
in old age.'
And thus it is said of our father Abraham 'And Abraham was
1002
old...And the Lord blessed Abraham with everything.'
We find that our father Abraham observed the whole Torah before it wasgiven, for it is said 'Because that Abraham obeyed my voice, and kept my999

Deut.25:18.

1000

Isa.40:31.

1001

Ps.92:15.

1002

Gen.24:1.

[7:2]
1003

charge, my commandments, my statutes and my laws.'"

This completes the Mishnah, its explanation, and the halachot which may bederived from it. The Gemara discusses the following matters.
Evil inclinations are present even during a person's grief. He may not then bealone with a woman on the very day on which a relative died. The Gemara notesthat when an infant dies before it is 30 days old it must be accompanied to burial by1004
three persons , at least two of whom must be men. One man and two women may
not conduct the burial because of the rules which prohibit men to be alone withwomen.
[Rule where a man's wife secludes with another]
If a man's wife secludes with another despite the husband's warning, thehusband must report this to the Beth din of his city and explain to them that hewishes to bring his wife to Jerusalem to drink the bitter waters of sotah. The Bethdin appoints two scholars to accompany the couple on the way to Jerusalem toassure that the husband does not cohabit with his wife before she is cleared of
suspicion. For if the husband does cohabit, he is not free of sin, and the waters will
not serve to indict the wife if she sinned.
[81:1][Which men may accompany a sotah, etc.]
Recall that one woman may seclude with two respectable men. By way ofcomment, the Gemara mentions that Rav and R. Judah were walking on the road,and a woman was walking in front of them. Rav directed R. Judah to "lift your feet
before Gehenna," that is, to pass ahead of the woman. Rav explained to R. Judah
1003

Gen.26:5.

1004

Where the infant is more than 30 days old, burial requires a full complement of 10 persons.

[7:2]
that neither he nor R. Judah were considered respectable, and that R. Hanina b. Papa
and his companions were examples of respectable persons.
Now, Rav's purpose was only to advise R. Judah to pass ahead of the woman to
avoid evil thoughts. Insofar as concerns the prohibition against being alone with awoman, the average person is considered respectable if he is known to havewithstood temptation. Consider the following:
1. Persons of the ilk of R. Hanina b. Papa and his companions are
rare. And where will we find persons with more integrity than Rav and R.
Judah to accompany a couple to Jerusalem to drink the bitter waters ofsotah?
2. The Gemara says that respectable persons guard against adultery,
but profligates do not. The Gemara does not say that average persons do
not. Obviously only known profligates are ineligible, and are suspected of
intimacies. It results that if two profligates seclude with one unmarried
woman, we give both malkot mardut (as discussed below) and forbid themto marry the woman.
Why then do we need two scholars to accompany a couple to Jerusalem? Because
only scholars can with proper urgency warn the couple not to cohabit. It follows thatany two respectable men may accompany one or more women on the road in cases
where there is no issue of sotah.
[Malkot given for improper seclusion]
We give malkot to a couple who improperly seclude where the woman isunmarried or a gentile.
What sort of malkot is this? Some say that Scriptural malkot is meant, and thatthe case involves a forbidden staying alone, in the face of a warning, with a woman
with whom relations are forbidden by negative precept. The theory is that thewitnesses of seclusion are equivalent to witnesses of cohabitation. But the Meiri
disagrees: cohabitation can be inferred from seclusion only where there is preexisting familiarity, such as where the pair were formerly married.
1005

The Meiri prefers to interpret the malkot as Rabbinical malkot mardut.

There is no malkot where the woman was married. No matter how carefully we

1005

Compare Shab.40:2 where the Gemara explains that malkot means malkot mardus.

[7:2]
announce the malkot others will hear of the malkot and not of the explanation.
They will believe that she was punished for actual cohabitation and that her children
are mamzerim.
The Gemara considers whether to make announcements for married women as apossible way to give the couple malkot and yet avoid tainting her children. The
Gemara ultimately decides that these announcements are inappropriate.
No announcements are made for unmarried woman. The Rambam's contrary
view is puzzling.
[Presumption that no transgression occurred despite seclusion]
A married woman is not forbidden to her husband because of seclusion unlessthere was a proper witnessed warning. Even if she asserts that she committed
adultery, we do not believe her; perhaps she lies because she wishes to marryanother.
In an actual case certain of the Meiri's Rabbis wished to make an exception
where one secluded with his former wife who had remarried, on the theory that the
couple's familiarity means that witnesses of seclusion are the same as witnesses of
cohabitation.
The Rabbis ultimately decided that the exception was not appropriate:
A person is bold with his former wife where she is single and he ispermitted to cohabit with her, not where she has remarried. The same istrue even if the second husband dies, for she remains forbidden to the firsthusband despite the second husband's death.
1006

Elsewhere
the Gemara recounts the case of a man who secluded with amarried woman in a locked house. When her husband arrived, the other man brokethrough the fence around the house and escaped. Raba did not forbid the woman toher husband. There is a presumption that had the other man sinned he would havehidden rather than escaped. The same ruling was applied in another case, where theother man cautioned the husband not to eat figs which may have been poisoned bya snake. But why do we need the presumption, given the halacha that a woman
does not become forbidden solely on account of seclusion?
1. The Tosafot explain that the woman had asserted that she had sinned, or

1006

Ned.91:2.

[7:2]
she was otherwise suspected of having relations with the other man. Were
it not for the deduction derived from the man's escape, we would haveruled against the woman because of these prior circumstances, and we
could not have relied on the theory that she lied to obtain a divorce tomarry another.
2. The Ran explains that in that case the husband wishes to satisfy moral(rather than legal) scruples against continuing to live with his wife.
3. Yet others explain that the husband had actually warned the wife
previously not to seclude.
Although a single woman is given malkot for being alone with a man, we do notconsider her a zonah. She may marry a priest.
[Malkot for licentious persons]
We give malkot to one whom the public believes to have sinned. "No, my sons,1007
for it is a no good report that I hear being passed ("ma'avirim ") by the nation of
1008
G-d."
Although it does not appear in the Torah itself, the "No" by tradition has
the legal force of a proscription.
[Where men may not meet with women even if many men are present]
Recall that seclusion is permitted in a room which contains many men and many
women. But where the men and women are separated there is concern that a man
may somehow meet with a woman. Even this concern disappears where reeds orother objects are placed between the groups and would make noise if traversed.

1007

Compare the same verb in the verse "And they passed ("vayaviru") a rumor in the camp." E.26:6.

1008

Samuel I 2;24.

[7:2][81:2][Avoidance of evil thoughts]
A person should avoid evil thoughts because evil thoughts can lead to evil deeds.
A person requires forgiveness if he satisfies an evil desire in thought. In one case ascholar repented for having relations with a woman he mistakenly thought not to be
his wife.
In the same vein, Scripture states that where a husband has annulled his wife's
1009
oath, "G-d will forgive her."
Why the forgiveness if her oath was annulled? Itmust be that she was not aware of the annulment and took actions which she
thought contrary to her oath.
On this R. Akiva cried. If a person needs forgiveness for desiring to eat swine
when in fact he ate calf, how much more so is forgiveness required where he desires
swine and eats swine!
Or go the other way. One must bring a hattat sacrifice where he thought he waseating calf but unwittingly ate swine. How much more so is forgiveness required
when one desires to eat swine and eats swine!
[Where another woman's presence is sufficient to permit seclusion]
A person may seclude with:
two yebamot, meaning in this case two women who are married to twobrothers,
with two wives of one man,with a woman and her yebamah, meaning a woman and the wife or thesister of her husband, andwith a woman and her husband's daughter.
We assume that these women dislike each other and will not protect each other ifthey sin.
Also, one may seclude with a woman and with a girl old enough to understand1009

Num.30:13.

[7:2]
the meaning of cohabitation but who has not reached the age at which she herself
would engage in cohabitation. Her knowledge means that she will notice and beable to recall transgressions, and her innocence means that she will not protect theother woman.
[Seclusion with one's daughter]
Recall that one may not sleep with his daughter in the same garment if sheeither has shown signs of na'arah or if she is embarrassed to stand before him naked.
The prohibition applies at an earlier age if the girl has been betrothed, for the1010
betrothal arouses her desire .
A father may not hug or kiss his daughter once she shows signs of na'arah or if
she is embarrassed to stand before him naked. But he may do so if he intends merely
to display affection to his daughter ("for the sake of Heaven") without any prurient
intent.
[82:1][All crafts serve a purpose; sons and daughters]
Goldsmiths, carders and handmill cleaners, wool-dressers, barbers, launderers,
blood-letters, bath attendants and tanners are of mean professions. They may not be
appointed as kings or high priests.
[82:2]
No craft departs from the world, and all are necessary. Still, each person shouldseek to choose a clean craft. The world needs both perfumers and tanners. Fortunate
is he who is a perfumer! Woe is he who is a tanner!

1010

Recall the rule that a man should not betroth his daughter to another until she is mature enoughto make a conscious decision whether she wishes to be betrothed to the particular person.

[7:2]
Best of all is to forsake all worldly crafts and to engage only in Torah. All crafts
stand by a person only in his youth, whereas Torah stands by him in his youth and in
his old age. Of his youth what is said? "But they that wait upon the Lord shall renew
1011
their strength and raise wings as eagles ." Of his old age what is said? "They shallbring forth fruit in old age."
Similarly, the world must have both males and females. Fortunate is he whosechildren are males, and woe to him whose children are females ("nekevot")!
Besides the simple meaning of nekevot as girls, the word can also be
explained from the root "incomplete": fortunate is he whose children arecomplete--whether or not male.
"The father of the righteous shall rejoice, and he who gives birth to a scholar shall behappy in him." Amen, Amen.
Here is completed what we saw appropriate to write on M. kiddushin, praise to
G-d. There will follow what is appropriate to include in M. Kethubot, with the helpof G-d and with his assistance. Amen selah, amen selah.

1011

Isa.40:31.

[7:2]

[7:2]GLOSSARYBARAITHAa teaching or a tradition of the Tannaim that has been excluded from
the Mishna and incorporated in a later collection compiled by R.
Hiyya and R. Oshaiah.
BETH DIN

a gathering of three or more learned men acting as a Jewish court oflaw.
BOGERETa girl from the age of twelve years and a half plus one day andonwards.
DENAR

Denarius, a silver or gold coin, the former being worth one twenty
fourth (according to others one twenty-fifth) of the later.
ERUB

a quantity of food, enough for two meals, placed (a) 2000 cubits
from the town boundary, so as to extend the Sabbath limit by that
distance; (b) in a room or in a court-yard to enable all the residents
to carry to and fro in the court-yard on Sabbath.
GET

a deed or legal document; when used without further specification
denotes generally a writ of divorce.
GEZERAH SHAWAH

[7:2]
the application to one subject of a rule already known to apply toanother, on the strength of a common expression used inconnection with both in the Scriptures.
HABER

one scrupulous in the observance of the law, particularly in relation
to ritual cleanness and the separation of the priestly and Leviticaldues.
HADASHthe new cereal crops, which may not be eaten before the 16th day of
Nissan.
HALACHA

the final decision of the Rabbis, whether based on tradition orargument, on disputed rules of conduct.
HALIFIN

exchange; a legal form of acquisition effected by handing to theseller an object in nominal exchange for the object bought.
HALIZAH

the ceremony of taking off the shoe of the brother of a husband who
has died childless.
HALLAHthe portion of the dough which belongs to the priest.
HALAL

the issue of an interdicted priestly union.
HALUZAH[7:2]

a woman who has performed halizah.
HAZAKAHa legal term denoting (a) presumptive title based on the occupier"sundisturbed possession during a fixed legal period, in cases where aclaim to ownership cannot be established by other legal evidence;
usucaption; (b) taking possession (of landed property) by means of aformal act of acquisition, e.g., digging, fencing.
HEKDESHany object consecrated to the Sanctuary.
HELEV

the portion of the fat of a permitted domestic animal which may not
be eaten; in sacrifices that fat was burnt upon the altar.
HULLIN

ordinary unhallowed food, as opposed to terumah; unconsecrated
objects, as opposed to hekdesh.
HUPPAHthe bridal chamber; the entrance of a bride into the bridal chamber,whereby the marriage was completed.
ISSAR

a small Roman coin.
KAVmeasure of capacity equal to four logs or one sixth of a se'ah.
KETANNAH[7:2]

a girl under the age of twelve years and a day.
KETHUBAH(a) A wife's marriage settlement which she is entitled to recover on
her being divorced or on the death of her husband. The minimum
settlement for a virgin is two hundred zuz, and for a widow
remarrying a hundred zuz; (b) the marriage contract specifying themutual obligations between husband and wife and containing theamount of the endowment and any other special financial obligations
assumed by the husband.
KIDDUSHIN(a) The act of affiancing or betrothal; (b) the money or article given
to effect the betrothal.
KILAYIM(a) Diverse seeds sown together, which is forbidden; (b) the
prohibited mixture of wool and linen in garments.
MA'AH

the smallest current silver coin, weighing sixteen barley-corns, equalin value to two dupondia, a sixth of a silver denar or zuz.
MAMZERa child born from a union prohibited under penalty of death or
kareth.
MANEH

one hundred zuz. The maneh was a weight in gold or silver equal tofifty hold, or a hundred common, shekels.
MESHIKHAH

[7:2]

one of the legal modes of acquiring a movable object, which thebuyer performs by drawing the object into his-not necessarily
exclusive-possession.
MESIRAHa formal act of taking possession of an animal through delivery by
the vendor or donor to the recipient.
MIKVEHa ritual bath containing not less than forty se'ahs of water.
MISHNAthe collection of oral laws edited by R. Judah ha-Nasi.
NA'ARAHa girl between the age of twelve years and a day and twelve years
and a half plus one day, when she becomes a bogereth.
NA'ARUTH

the state of being a na'arah.
NASI

chief, patriarch; the chief of the Great Sanhedrin in Jerusalem; after
its abolition, the head of Palestinian Jewry.
NAZIR

one who has taken a nazirite vow to abstain from wine and let thehair grow long.
NEZIRAH[7:2]
a female NAZIR.
NEZIRUT

naziriteship, the state of being a nazirite.
NIDDAHa woman in the period of her menstruation.
OMER

the sheaf of barley offered on the sixteenth of Nissan, before which
the new cereals of that year were forbidden for use.
ORLAH("uncircumcised"); applied to newly-planted trees for a period of
three years during which their fruits must not be eaten.
PEAH("corner"); the corner of a field that is being reaped,which must beleft for the poor.
PERUTAH

the smallest copper coin, equal to one-eighth of an issar or onesixteenth of a dupondium.
SE'AH

measure of capacity, equal to six kavs.
SELAH

coin, equal to four zuz or denarii (one sacred, or two common,shekels).
SHEKEL[7:2]

coin or weight, equal to two denarii or ten ma'ah The sacred shekel
was worth twenty ma'ah or gerah, twice the value of the common
shekel.
SOTAH

a married woman suspected of infidelity who has been formallywarned by her husband.
SUKKAHbooth, esp. the festive booth for Tabernacles, the roof of which must
be made of something that grows from the ground, e.g., reeds or
branches.
TEBEL

produce, already at the stage of liability to the levitical and priestly
dues, before these have been separated.
TEVILAH

the act of taking a ritual bath in a mikveh.
TERUMAH"That which is lifted or separated"; the heave-offering given from theyields of the yearly harvests.
YABAM

the brother of a married man who dies childless; the widow is called
YEBAMAH.
YIBBUM

Levirate marriage with a brother's childless widow.

[7:2]ZAV(f.ZAVAH) a person suffering certain bodily discharges.
ZONAH

a harlot, i.e., a woman who has had intercourse with a man
forbidden to her on all grounds save those specifically applying topriests.
ZUZ

a coin the value of a denarius.