Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry

ISSN: 0916-8451 (Print) 1347-6947 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tbbb20

Polishing Properties of Sake Rice Koshitanrei for
High-Quality Sake Brewing
Yoshihiko ANZAWA, Yoshihito NABEKURA, Kenji SATOH, Yuko SATOH, Satomi
OHNO, Tsutomu WATANABE, Mitsuoki KANEOKE, Kazunori KUME, Masaki
MIZUNUMA, Ken-ichi WATANABE, Kazuaki KATSUMATA & Dai HIRATA
To cite this article: Yoshihiko ANZAWA, Yoshihito NABEKURA, Kenji SATOH, Yuko SATOH,
Satomi OHNO, Tsutomu WATANABE, Mitsuoki KANEOKE, Kazunori KUME, Masaki MIZUNUMA,
Ken-ichi WATANABE, Kazuaki KATSUMATA & Dai HIRATA (2013) Polishing Properties of Sake
Rice Koshitanrei for High-Quality Sake Brewing, Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry,
77:10, 2160-2165, DOI: 10.1271/bbb.130515
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1271/bbb.130515

Published online: 22 May 2014.

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Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 77 (10), 2160–2165, 2013

Note

Polishing Properties of Sake Rice Koshitanrei for High-Quality Sake Brewing
Yoshihiko A NZAWA,1; y Yoshihito N ABEKURA,2 Kenji S ATOH,1 Yuko S ATOH,1 Satomi O HNO,1
Tsutomu W ATANABE,1 Mitsuoki K ANEOKE,2 Kazunori K UME,3 Masaki M IZUNUMA,3
Ken-ichi W ATANABE,2 Kazuaki K ATSUMATA,1 and Dai H IRATA3
1

Asahi Sake Brewing Co., Ltd., 880-1 Asahi, Nagaoka 949-5494, Japan
Niigata Prefectural Sake Research Institute, 2-5932-133 Suido-cho, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8121, Japan3
Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Graduate School of Advanced Sciences of Matter, Hiroshima University,
1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-hiroshima 739-8530, Japan
2

Received June 25, 2013; Accepted July 22, 2013; Online Publication, October 7, 2013
[doi:10.1271/bbb.130515]

The Japanese high-quality sake Daiginjo-shu is madefrom highly polished rice (polishing ratio, less than50%). Here we showed that the sake rice Koshitanrei(KOS) has an excellent polishing property. Rice grainsof KOS had the same lined white-core region as thesake rice Yamadanishiki (YAM). The grain rigidity/
hardness of KOS was higher than that of the sake rice
Gohyakumangoku (GOM). The loss ratio of KOS after
high polishing by an industrial polishing machine waslower than that of GOM. Further, a clear taste ofsake produced from KOS was conﬁrmed by sensory
evaluation.
Key words:

daiginjo-shu; koshitanrei; polishing property;
sake brewing; sake rice

The nature of the raw materials is one of the importantfactors determining the quality of a ﬁnal product. The
Japanese traditional alcoholic beverage sake is produced
from rice and water by a unique process using 2
microorganisms, a fungus (Aspergillus oryzae, so-calledkoji-mold) and yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).1) In
sake brewing, 2 processes, the hydrolysis of starch to
glucose by enzymes from A. oryzae, and the productionof ethanol from glucose by S. cerevisiae, proceed
simultaneously.1) Brown rice is polished, and thesteamed rice is used in 2 ways: direct addition of it tosake mash (as kakemai), and the production of malted
rice (koji). The germ and the surface fraction of ricegrains are abundant in proteins, lipids, and inorganic
substances such as potassium and phosphate.1–3) An
excess of these ingredients, especially proteins (totalamino acids), becomes a negative factor (producing arough taste and deepening the color) in sensory evaluation by sake tasting,1,4,5) and further accelerates deterioration during storage.1) Therefore, highly polished riceof less than 50% polishing ratio (polishing ratio,
percentage of white/polished rice weight to the original
brown rice weight) is used in brewing the high-quality
sake Daiginjo-shu.6)
The rice suitable for sake brewing is called sake rice.
Several features are desired in such rice. Especially, thestrength of the rice grain is an important feature forhigh-quality sake brewing. The grain size and theycontents of proteins/lipids of sake rice are larger andless, respectively, than those of the general rice eaten in
Japan. Sake rice has a characteristic white opaque-core
region (called shin-paku), which has a low content ofstarch, in the center of the grain.7) This white-core
region contributes not only to the invasion of koji-moldto the inside of the steamed rice grain, but also to thedigestibility and gelatinization of the steamed rice
during the sake brewing.7–9)
Breeding of sake rice is done in many areas ofJapan.10) In Niigata Prefecture, the originally developed
sake rice Gohyakumangoku11) (GOM) is used widely.12)
GOM produces a high-quality sake with a clear taste(‘‘Tanrei’’ one of the perceivable attributes of thereﬁned sake), but the hardness of its grains is
insuﬃcient for high polishing (especially to less than
the 50% polishing ratio for daiginjo-shu). This disadvantage of GOM is due to the shape and size of its
white-core region. This region of GOM is larger thanthat of the sake rice Yamadanishiki (YAM), which wasdeveloped originally in Hyogo Prefecture11) and has
been used widely for daiginjo-shu brewing in Japan.
To improve the polishing property of GOM, the sakerice Koshitannrei (KOS) was originally developed in
Niigata Prefecture by genetically crossing GOM with
YAM.13) Recently, KOS has been used widely for highquality sake brewing in Niigata Prefecture,12) but
analysis of the characteristics of KOS has been
limited.13) No comparative analysis of the polishingproperty among these 3 rice cultivars (GOM, YAM,
KOS) has been reported.
In this study, to clarify the suitability of KOS forhigh-quality sake brewing, we examined the polishingproperty of KOS using a wide range of polished rices(up to a polishing ratio of 30%). First, using alaboratorial polishing machine, we compared the polishing property of KOS with that of GOM and YAM. Then,
using an industrial polishing machine, we focused on
KOS and GOM, because KOS was developed to
improve the polishing property of GOM. We conﬁrmedthat KOS had an excellent polishing property bycomparing this property with that of GOM. Finally, wedemonstrated KOS to be suitable for the brewing of
high-quality sake with a clear taste.

To whom correspondence should be addressed. Fax: +81-258-92-4875; E-mail: anzawayoshihiko@asahi-shuzo.co.jp

Suitability of Koshitanrei for High-Quality Sake Brewing

A

Grain size (mm)Ricecultivars

L

W

2161

1000-kernel

Percentage of grains

weightwith white-core region

(g)

(%)

26.60

53.8

T

KOS 5.34 ± 0.27 3.14 ± 0.17 2.07 ± 0.08
GOM 5.33 ± 0.22 3.18 ± 0.16 2.10 ± 0.09

26.33

60.2

YAM 5.52 ± 0.22 3.11 ± 0.15 2.07 ± 0.08

27.20

46.8

B

Shape of white-core region (%)
Ricecultivars
Ellipsoidal

Lined

Deviated from

Dottedcenter (Harajiro)
KOS

17.7

56.3

12.5

13.5

GOM

54.5

22.2

7.1

16.2

YAM

8.5

62.8

9.6

19.1

n=100
KOS

(AV ± SD)
35.4 ± 15.7

YAM

31.8 ± 15.0

GOM

54.4 ± 14.4

C

40
30
20

Number of grains

10
0
40
30
20
10
0
40
30
20
10
0

Ratio (%) of area of white-core
region to total cross-sectional area

Fig. 1. Analysis of Grain Size and White-Core Region of Koshitanrei.
A, Grain size (L, length; W, width; T, thickness) and percentage of grains with a white-core region. Values indicate averages for 2 independent
experiments. All sake rice cultivars used in this study were harvested in 2012: Koshitanrei (KOS, grown in Niigata Prefecture),
Gohyakumangoku (GOM, grown in Niigata Prefecture), and Yamadanishiki (YAM, grown in Hyogo Prefecture). B, Classiﬁcation of shapes of
the white-core region. Values indicate averages for 2 independent experiments (n ¼ 100). C, Ratio of area of white-core region to total crosssectional area of brown rice grains (n ¼ 100). Values indicate AV (average)  SD (standard deviation). In analysis of the white-core region, we
followed the Oﬃcial Methods of Analysis of the National Tax Administration Agency.16) For observation of sections and classiﬁcation of thewhite-core regions, basically we followed the method reported by Takahashi et al.17) First we applied liquid paraﬃn to cross-sections of the top
side of brown rice. Next we acquired images of cross-sections of brown rice by microscopy (BX51, Olympus, Tokyo) and binarized the whitecore region by the use of an image analysis processor (WinROOF, Mitani, Tokyo). Finally, we calculated the ratio of the area of white-core
region to the total cross-sectional area of brown rice grains.

First we analyzed the grain size and white-core regionof KOS, and then we compared KOS with GOM and
YAM in respect to these features. We measured the sizeof brown rice grains and the percentage of grains with awhite-core region in 3 rice cultivars (Fig. 1A). The grain
size (L, W, T) of KOS was similar to that of GOM,
but the grain length of KOS appeared to be shorter thanthat of YAM. The 1,000 kernel weight of KOS had avalue intermediate between those of GOM and YAM.
The percentage of KOS grains with a white-core region
was also intermediate between those for GOM andYAM.
As mentioned above, sake rice has a characteristic
white opaque-core region (called shin-paku), which
contributes not only to the invasion of the koji-mold tothe inside of the steamed rice grain but also to thedigestibility/gelatinization of the steamed rice during

the sake brewing.7–9) Next we examined the shape of thewhite-core region in brown rice grains of the 3 sake ricecultivars. The shapes of the white-core regions wereclassiﬁed into 4 groups: ellipsoidal, lined, dotted, anddeviated from the center (Fig. 1B). In GOM, thepercentage of ellipsoidal white-cores was more thanhalf (54%). On the other hand, in YAM, the lined whitecore was the major one (62%). The distribution of the
shape of the white-core in KOS was similar to that in
YAM. Further, we measured the area ratio of the whitecore region to the total cross-sectional area of 100 brownrice grains (Fig. 1C). The average values of the area
ratio for KOS, YAM, and GOM were 35.4%, 31.8%, and54.4% respectively. The peaks of the area ratios of YAM
and GOM were 20–30% and 50–60% respectively. The
peak and the distribution of the area ratio of KOS werevery similar to those of YAM. Thus the shape and area

2162

Y. ANZAWA et al.

A

Rice Polishing times (min) for polishing ratios
cultivars 70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
KOS

60

110

175

365

GOM

60

90

160

260

530
420

YAM

75

165

330

450

680

C
Protein content(%/dry weight)

10
KOS

8

YAM

GOM

6

0
100

70

60

50

40

30

Polishing ratio (%)

GOM

8

4
2
0
25
20
15
10
-

5
0
100

D
Enzyme digestibility ( Brix)of the steamed rice

YAM

6

4
2

KOS

10

Potassium content
102 (ppm/dry weight)

Grain rigidity (kg/ cm2)

B

70

60
50
40
Polishing ratio (%)

30

12
KOS

11

YAM

GOM

40

30

10
9
8
7
70

60

50

Polishing ratio (%)

Fig. 2. Polishing Property of Koshitanrei Assessed by Laboratorial Polishing Machine.
A, Polishing time for the polishing ratio obtained with the laboratorial polishing machine. Brown rice was polished to white rice (from 70% to
30% polishing ratio) by the use of a laboratorial polishing machine (HS-4; Chiyoda Engineering, Hiroshima, Japan; input of rice, 70 g) at a speedof 1,300 rpm. B, Grain rigidity. The strength of the brown and polished rice was measured by crushing the grains (n ¼ 100) with a grain rigidity
tester (Kiya, Tokyo). Values indicate averages. The moisture contents of the rice grains were adjusted as follows: brown rice ¼ 14.5%, polishedrice 70% ¼ 11.5%, 60% ¼ 10.0%, 50% ¼ 9.5%, 40% ¼ 9.0%, 30% ¼ 8.5%. C, The protein and potassium levels of polished rice. Values
indicate averages for 2 independent experiments. D, Enzymatic digestibility (Brix value) of the steamed rice. Values indicate averages for 2
independent experiments. We followed the National Standard Analysis Method of Materials.18)

ratio of the white-core region of KOS were similar to
those of YAM, although the grain size of KOS was
almost the same as that of GOM.
Next, to clarify the polishing property of KOS, wepolished the 3 sake rice cultivars by using a laboratorial
polishing machine (HS-4; Chiyoda Engineering, Japan;
input of rice, 70 g) at a constant rate of 1,300 rpm, andcompared polishing times among them (Fig. 2A). The
polishing times for polishing ratios from 70% to 50% for
KOS were similar to those for GOM. However, thepolishing times for polishing ratios from 40% to 30% for
KOS were much longer than those for GOM. On theother hand, the polishing times for polishing ratios from
60% to 30% for YAM were much longer than those forthe other cultivars. The polishing time for the 30%
polishing ratio for KOS was intermediate between thosefor GOM and YAM.
To explore the causes of the diﬀerences in thepolishing time among the rice cultivars, we measured
the strength of the brown and polished rice by crushinggrains (n ¼ 100) with a grain rigidity tester (Fig. 2B).
Grain rigidity indicates the strength of the rice grain.
The grain rigidities of the brown rice grain for the 3 sakerice cultivars showed almost the same values (4.32–
4.75 kg/cm2 ). For GOM, the grain rigidity/hardness

decreased from 4.32 kg/cm2 (100% brown rice) to
1.88 kg/cm2 (30% polishing ratio) with the decrease in
the polishing ratio. On the other hand, in the case of
KOS and YAM, the grain rigidity of the brown rice wasmaintained up to the 50% polishing ratio, and thendecreased slightly with further decrease in this ratio (40–30% polishing ratio). The change in grain rigidity withdecreasing polishing ratios in KOS was very similar tothat in YAM, indicating that the KOS and YAM ricegrains had almost the same strength.
The shape of the white-core region and the grain
rigidity of KOS were very similar to those of YAM, but
the polishing time for these rices were diﬀerent. The
frequency of the lined white-core region for the 3 sakerice cultivars (Fig. 1B) might be positively correlatedwith grain rigidity (Fig. 2B), and the polishing time forthe 3 sake rice cultivars (Fig. 2A) might be negatively
correlated with the percentage of grains with a whitecore region (Fig. 1A). It has been reported that physicalproperties between grains with and without a white-core
region in sake rice are related to the structures of theendosperm cells.14) Further analysis is necessary to
clarify this point.
To investigate the suitability of KOS for high-quality
sake brewing, we measured the protein and potassium

Suitability of Koshitanrei for High-Quality Sake Brewing

contents of the polished rice (polishing ratios from 70 to
30% obtained by the use of the laboratorial polishingmachine; Fig. 2C). The changes in the crude protein(Fig. 2C, upper panel) and potassium contents (Fig. 2C,
lower panel) of KOS were very similar to those of
the other 2 rice cultivars. The protein contents (6.7–
7.2%) of the brown rice decreased gradually withdecreasing polishing ratios up to the 50% polishingratio, and then decreased further slightly at the 40–30%
polishing ratio (3.1–3.5% for 30% polished rice). The
potassium content decreased sharply with decreasing

B

Polishing Revolution
ratio
rate
(%)
(rpm)
100-95
95-90
90-85
85-80
80-75
75-70
70-65
65-60
60-55
55-50
50-45
45-40
40-30

polishing ratios to the 70% polishing ratio, and then
did not change further (brown rice, 2,064–2,339 ppm;
30% polishing ratio, 299–401 ppm). The changes inprotein and potassium contents of KOS were consistent
with those previously reported for other sake ricecultivars.2,3)
Next we measured the enzymatic digestibility of thesteamed rice (Fig. 2D). The Brix value indicates thesolubility of unreﬁned rice in sake mash. For the 3 sakerice cultivars, the Brix values increased from 9.1–10.2(70% polishing ratio) to 10.3–11.0 (30% polishing
Polishing times (h) for polishing ratios
Rice
cultivars 70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
KOS
GOM

470
455
440
425
410
395
391
387
383
380
377
375
350

Loss ratio during
polishing (%)

23.30
20.43

31.98
29.23

42.53
38.49

53.60
48.53

D 60

70%

KOS
GOM
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

45
30

*
**

KOS

GOM

8
6
4

0
60

-

50%

*
-

45
30

**

-

15
0
60

**

30%

**

45

-

**

2

30

-

15

-

0
70

E

-

15

C
10

11.58
10.05

Water absorption (%)

A

2163

60
50
40
Polishing ratio (%)

30

0

AA

10
120
20
Water absorption time (min)Cultivars

OE

TA

Flavor components (ppm)

Sensory

Polishing ratio(%)(mL) (mL) iAmOH iAmOAc EtCap

score

70%

32.6

2.2

1.1

175

4.7

0.7

2.17

50%

32.2

2.2

1.1

165

4.1

0.7

1.50

30%

32.9

2.1

1.0

152

3.5

0.7

1.67

70%

32.2

2.3

1.2

163

3.9

0.5

2.33

50%

31.2

2.2

1.0

152

3.2

0.5

2.17

30%

31.8

2.2

0.9

126

2.9

0.6

2.17

KOS

GOM

Fig. 3. Polishing Property of Koshitanrei Determined by the Industrial Polishing Machine.
A, Polishing condition. Brown rice of 2 sake rice cultivars (means of moisture contents of KOS and GOM were 14.94% and 15.08%
respectively) was polished to white rice (to a 30% polishing ratio) with an industrial polishing machine (NF-26FA, Shin-Nakano, Okayama,
Japan; input of rice, 1,020 Kg). B, Polishing time. C, Loss ratio during polishing. Two sets of independent experimental data are plotted. Lines
indicate averages. D, Water-absorbing ratio of the polished rice. Values indicate AV  SD for 5 independent experiments. The SDs were
suﬃciently small (0.09–0.33). Single and double asterisks indicate p < 0:05 and p < 0:01 respectively for the ratio (%) between KOS and
GOM. E, Properties of the sake produced from the rice. General properties (OE, original extract; TA, total acidity; AA, amino acidity), and ﬂavor
components (iAmOH, isoamyl alcohol; iAmOAc, isoamyl acetate; EtCap, ethyl caproate) of the sake are indicated as averages for 2 independent
experiments. General properties and ﬂavor components were measured according to the Oﬃcial Methods of Analysis of the National Tax
Administration Agency19) and gas chromatography (GC-2014, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan), respectively. Sake samples adjusted the 20  C were
evaluated by 7 experienced panelists. Sake quality was graded by sensory scores from 1 to 4, 1 indicating the highest quality. The sake wasproduced as follows (small-scale sake brewing test, total rice, 300 g): 240 g of polished rice (polishing ratios, 70, 50, and 30%) was used as
kakemai (addition to sake mash as steamed rice).20) 60 g of the same koji-mold made from 50% polished GOM by an industrial kojimanufacturing system was used. The sake yeast G9NF strain, which was developed originally at the Niigata Prefectural Sake ResearchInstitute,21) was used. Sake fermentation was done at 12  C for 16 d, and clear sake liquid was obtained by centrifugation.

2164

Y. ANZAWA et al.

ratio). The enzymatic digestibility of KOS and YAM
was higher than that of GOM. The change in the Brix
values of KOS was similar to that of YAM.
To conﬁrm the polishing property of KOS, we
investigated the polishing properties of KOS and GOM
with an industrial polishing machine (NF-26FA, ShinNakano Industry, Japan; input of rice, 1,020 Kg) under
the polishing conditions shown in Fig. 3A. As shown in
Fig. 3B, the polishing time (11.58 h) for the 70%
polishing ratio in the case of KOS was slightly longer
than that for GOM (10.05 h). The polishing time
(31.98 h) for the 50% polishing ratio for KOS was
2.7 h longer than that for GOM (29.23 h). Further, thepolishing time (53.60 h) for the 30% polishing ratio for
KOS was 5.0 h longer than that for GOM (48.53 h).
These results obtained with the industrial polishingmachine showed the same tendency as those obtainedwith the laboratorial polishing machine (Fig. 2A).
We measured the loss ratio during polishing(Fig. 3C), which is calculated by subtracting theapparent polishing ratio (percentage of total polishedrice weight to the original total brown rice weight) fromthe true polishing ratio (percentage of 1,000 polishedrice kernel weight to 1,000 brown rice kernel weight).
The loss ratio of KOS increased with decreasing
polishing ratios, from 2.64% (70% polishing ratio) to
6.45% (30% polishing ratio). On the other hand, the loss
ratio of GOM also increased with decreasing polishingratios, from 2.86% (70% polishing ratio) to 8.96% (30%polishing rice), but the loss ratio of KOS was lower thanthat of GOM. These results indicate that KOS has an
excellent polishing property for high-quality sake brewing with highly polished rice. It is possible that thisexcellence is due to the high frequency of the lined
white-core of KOS (Fig. 1B).
Using polished rice (polishing ratios, 70, 50, 30%)
prepared by the use of the industrial polishing machine,
we further examined the water-absorbing ratios of KOS
and GOM (Fig. 3D). The amounts of water absorbed by
KOS and GOM increased with decreasing polishingratios. In the case of water absorption for a short time(especially for 10 min), the water-absorbing ratio of
KOS was lower than that of GOM. On the other hand,when water was absorbed for 120 min, the waterabsorbing ratio of KOS was higher than that of GOM.
These results indicate that the maximum water absorption of KOS for 120 min of water absorption was higher
than that of GOM. It has been reported that rice grains of
YAM with a lined white-core show a high waterabsorbing ratio in the case of water absorption for
120 min.15) KOS had the same lined white-core as YAM(Fig. 1B).
To conﬁrm further the suitability of KOS for highquality sake brewing, we carried out a small-scale sakebrewing test using 300 g (total rice) of polished rice (70,50, and 30% polishing ratios) of KOS and GOM(Fig. 3E). In general, sake rice grains with a white-core
region, which have a high water absorption rate and ahigh Brix value, exhibit good digestibility or sacchariﬁcation in sake mash. The original extract of sake from
KOS was higher than that from GOM, indicating that
KOS had good digestibility in sake mash. This result is
consistent with the results for the Brix value (Fig. 2D)
and the water-absorbing ratio for 120 min (Fig. 3D).

There was no diﬀerence in the total acidity or amino
acidity of the sakes produced from KOS and GOM. The
ethyl caproate (EtCap) content of sake produced from
KOS was slightly higher than that from GOM, and theisoamyl acetate (iAmOAc) content of sake produced
from KOS was 1.2 times higher than that from GOM.
Indeed, the clear taste of the sake produced from KOS
was evaluated to be high by 7 experienced panelists. In
sake tasting, appropriate levels of these esters (EtCap
and iAmOAc) correlate positively with the sensory
evaluation scores. One of the reasons for a highevaluation of sake from KOS is high contents of theesters. Further analysis of the relationship between saketaste and the conversion ratio from raw materials toethanol is important to clarify the character of sake ricecultivars.
In this study, with the laboratorial polishing machine,
we compared the polishing property of KOS with thoseof GOM and YAM. Then, with an industrial polishingmachine, we focused on KOS and GOM and compared
their polishing and brewing properties, because KOS
was originally developed to improve the polishingproperty of GOM. As the next step, it is necessary tocompare polishing and brewing properties between KOS
and YAM, with an industrial polishing machine.
Taken together, our data indicate that KOS has an
excellent polishing property for the production of highquality sake from highly polished rice. Our results
provide information that should contribute to theimprovement of high-quality sake brewing using KOS
and stimulate further breeding and characteristic analysis of sake rice in Japan.

Acknowledgments
We thank S. Yamashita (Niigata Sake Brewers
Association) for experimental materials, all membersof Niigata Prefectural Sake Research Institute, S.
Kawamoto (Hiroshima University), and M. Okuda(National Research Institute of Brewing) for helpful
discussions and advice. We also thank S. Matsui (Asahi
Agricultural Association) and N. Anzawa for their help.

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