Part 2 - The Marco Polo Bridge Incident andthe Battles of Shanghai and Nanking
The Battle of Shanghai: The true starting point of the war
The Marco Polo Bridge Incident is usually considered to be the start of the Second
Sino-Japanese War. There is no mistake that this incident served to trigger the
Sino-Japanese conflict, but the incident itself was only a small skirmish—it cannot becalled the start of a full-blown war. Consequently, it would be inaccurate to claim that thefighting at the Marco Polo Bridge "spread" to Shanghai.
After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, the Japanese Army sent three divisions from Japanand units of the Kwantung Army to northern China in the hopes of restraining the nonstop
ceasefire violations of Chinese soldiers in the area. Japanese forces occupied Tianjin, butthey did not advance beyond, or make any attempt to advance beyond, the city of Baoding,just southwest of Beijing. Furthermore, on August 5, the Japanese government made alandmark peace proposal with the Chinese and planned to hold its first meeting with
Chinese leaders in September. Therefore, the Chinese Army's attack on Shanghai, carriedout on August 13, can hardly be called a natural extension of the Marco Polo Bridge
Incident. Rather, the Chinese attack on Shanghai should be seen as a dramatic new crisis
sparked by Chiang Kai-shek's determination to wage full-scale war against Japan.
Rather than a clash of local units, an all-out, state-dictated military offensive constitutes“war” under international law. The existence of an official declaration of war is not thedefining factor. On August 13, 1937, Chiang's regime launched a full-scale offensive
against the Japanese naval landing force, which was stationed in Shanghai to protect
Japanese residents, with an army of 30,000 regular soldiers. On August 15, ChiangKai-shek issued an order of general mobilization and was appointed commanding chief of
the Army, Navy and Air Forces. This, therefore, should be considered the official starting
point of the Second Sino-Japanese War. Historian Edwin Reischauer concurs that the Battleof Shanghai was the engagement which marked the beginning of World War II.
Who, then, caused the actual war between China and Japan?
The following report by The New York Times special correspondent Hallett Abend was
published on August 31, 1937:
Foreigners Support Japan - Official foreign observers and officials of various foreign
governments who participated in various conferences here in seeking to avoid theoutbreak of local hostilities, agree that the Japanese exhibited the utmost restraint underprovocation, even for several days keeping all of the Japanese landed force off thestreets and strictly within their own barracks, although the move somewhat endangered
Japanese lives and properties. 'Opinions may differ regarding the responsibility for the
opening of hostilities in the vicinity of Peiping early in July,' said one foreign official1who was a participant in the conferences held here before Aug. 13, 'but concerning theShanghai hostilities the records will justify only one decision. The Japanese did not wanta repetition of the fighting here and exhibited forbearance and patience and did
everything possible to avoid aggravating the situation. But they were literally pushed
into the clash by the Chinese, who seemed intent on involving the foreign area andforeign interests in this clash.'
The tenor of The New York Times article was critical of Japan and sympathetic toward
China in accordance with the general trend of the time. Nonetheless, the article confirmsthat the start of the fighting in Shanghai was due to a unilateral attack by the Chinese Army.
The unmistakeable aggressor was China
As was reported in The New York Times, there can be no question that it was China thatembarked on an unprovoked war against Japan.
In the Shanghai International Settlement1, there were over 30,000 Japanese citizens
working in a variety of businesses and industries protected by a 2,200-man Japanese naval
landing force. When the naval landing force realized that the Chinese Army had infiltrated
a large number of soldiers into the demilitarized zone outside the settlement, in violation of
the ceasefire agreement,2 it was rapidly reinforced with another 2,000 men. When thepreviously mentioned article noted that Japan was "keeping all of the Japanese landed force
off the streets", it was referring to these roughly 2,000 reinforcements.
On August 9, the Chinese Army murdered two members of the Japanese naval landing
force, Sublieutenant Oyama Isao and Seaman First Class Saito Yozo, who were carryingout an inspection while in their car. The Chinese insisted that they had been attacked andreturned fire, dragging out the body of a Chinese Peace Preservation Corps soldier as“evidence”. However, the corpse clearly indicated that it had been shot at from the Chineseside, a fact also confirmed by multiple foreign reporters on the scene. The criticallyacclaimed biography, Mao: The Unknown Story, by Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, explainsthat the incident was orchestrated by General Zhang Zhizhong in order to force ChiangKai-shek to attack Japanese forces. Zhang, who was the defensive commander of Nanking
and Shanghai, was also a member of the CCP who had infiltrated Chiang's high command.3
1

The International Settlement was a settlement of foreign residents in China which had the rights ofself-government and extraterritoriality. In addition to the International Settlement, where British, American,
Japanese, and other foreigners lived, there was also the French Concession.
2
The Shanghai Ceasefire Agreement was approved by Japan and China on May 5, 1932 following theShanghai Incident. A joint committee was formed of American, British, French, and Italian members working
alongside Chinese and Japanese members to observe that the terms of the treaty were carried out. The location
for stationing troops of both Japan and China was decided by the agreement.
3
According to page 198 of Mao: The Unknown Story (New York: Anchor Books, 2006), "But on 9 August,at Shanghai airport, an army unit hand-picked by ZZZ [Zhang Zhizhong] killed a Japanese marine [sic]lieutenant and a private [sic]. A Chinese prisoner under sentence of death was then dressed in a Chinese
uniform and shot dead at the airport gate, to make it seem that the Japanese had fired first. The Japanese gave

2

More than 30,000 Chinese regulars surrounded the concession. The core of the Chinese
force was the elite 88th Division, which had been trained by German military advisors. On
August 13, the offensive began, and on the 14th the Chinese began simultaneous aerial
bombardment as well. Later, I will show how these attacks led to the outbreak of full-scalewar.
In any case, it is clear that the Chinese were the ones who set the course for war, and that
the Japanese were dragged into a war they did not desire.4 The launching of a concentrated
attack by regular army troops against civilians and soldiers stationed in accordance to apreviously established treaty is an "act of aggression" under international law, regardless of
where the troops are stationed, whether inside or outside their home country. Therefore, wemust conclude that, even though it took place on Chinese territory, the Second
Sino-Japanese War was a Chinese war of aggression.
China's orchestration of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident
The article in The New York Times stated: "Opinions may differ regarding the responsibility
for the opening of hostilities in the vicinity of Peiping early in July." It stated this because,at that point, the facts about the clash at Marco Polo Bridge, which was the impetus forwhat followed, were not yet sufficiently known. In reality, this too was undoubtedly an
incident orchestrated by the Chinese.
China's responsibility was unambiguously recorded in the local ceasefire agreement signed
four days after the clash on July 11 by Qin Dechun, Deputy Commander of China's 29th
Route Army, and Matsui Kyutaro, Chief of the Japanese Army Beijing Special Service
Agency. The three clauses of the ceasefire agreement were:(1.) The representative of the 29th Route Army expresses regret and will punish those
responsible. He affirms his intention to take responsibility for preventing further such
incidents in the future. (2.) The overly close proximity of the Chinese Army to Japanesesoldiers stationed in Fengtai has increased the likelihood of such incidents. Therefore,
China will station no soldiers on the east bank of the Yongding River in the vicinity of
Marco Polo Bridge and the Peace Preservation Corps will maintain security there. (3.)
Because this incident was in many ways inspired by the work of anti-Japaneseorganizations, including the Communist Party and the so-called Blue Shirts Society,5China will undertake countermeasures and a thorough crackdown against them.

every sign of wishing to defuse the incident, but ZZZ still bombarded Chiang with requests to launch an
offensive, which Chiang vetoed."4
See the book The Reluctant Combatant: Japan and the Second Sino-Japanese War (Lanham, Maryland:
University Press of America, 2014) by Kitamura Minoru and Lin Siyun.
5
The Blue Shirts Society was a terrorist and espionage organization under Chiang Kai-shek's direct control.

3People still ask the question of who fired the shots at Marco Polo Bridge, but the answer
should be obvious based on the terms of the ceasefire agreement which were published incontemporary newspapers. Because this was an agreement, it was approved by mutual
consent and does not represent the view of the Japanese side alone. The agreement statedclearly that responsibility for the incident laid with the Chinese.
It has been said that the ceasefire agreement was forced upon China due to pressure fromJapan, but that is an untenable argument which ignores basic facts. The 29th Route Army,commanded by Song Zheyuan, was a force of roughly 150,000 men which dominatedNorth China. The opposing Japanese China Garrison Army6 numbered a mere 5,600 men,so one could not possibly describe the Japanese as an overwhelming force in a position to
impose an unreasonable ceasefire deal. China would later stridently insist that there had
never been a ceasefire agreement, but the document itself leaves little doubt of its existence.
The work of putting the particulars of the three-point ceasefire agreement into operation
went forward later, and a fleshed-out version of the pact was concluded on July 19. In fact,
Japan labored throughout this time to observe the terms of the agreement, even while
frequent violations were taking place. However, nothing could be done about China's
repudiation of the existence of the agreement. In other words, not only did the Japanesemilitary not provoke the fighting, all of the blame for escalating the crisis rested squarelyon the shoulders of the Chinese.
China's need to attack Japan
In the first place, Japan had absolutely no reason to attack China. It goes without sayingthat it would have been sheer folly for the 5,600 Japanese troops stationed there to attack
the 150,000-man 29th Route Army. The full might of the Japanese Army in mainland Japan,
Manchuria, Korea, and China would have been roughly 250,000 men. Compared to this,
China had about 2.1 million men, 500,000 of which formed modernized units trained andequipped by German military advisors. What's more, Japan's greatest potential enemy was
the Soviet Union, and the Soviets had a large military force of 1.6 million, 400,000 ofwhich were deployed in the Soviet Far East. Given all these conditions, it would have been
insane for Japan to open hostilities in northern China. Japan had no reason, much less plans,
to do any such thing.
In China at that time, however, those who advocated war against Japan dominated.
Excluding the peasantry, the urban residents of China had a burning desire for war andwere confident of victory. The idea that Japan invaded a weak China and that the war
6

The Boxer Protocol, signed in 1901 following the Boxer Rebellion, permitted eight countries includingFrance, the United States, Great Britain, and Japan to station soldiers in China in order to protect their citizens.
At the time, the United States had 1,200 soldiers and France had 1,800 soldiers stationed in China. Japan had
5,600 soldiers because the Japanese were, with 33,000 people, the largest foreign community in the vicinity ofBeijing. In terms of the ratio of civilians to soldiers, Japan was 6:1, America 2:1, and France 1:3.
Proportionally speaking, of the eight countries, Japan stationed the smallest military force.

4

expanded from there is a highly distorted view of history—entirely refuted merely bylooking at any contemporary Chinese newspaper. The book, The Reluctant Combatant:
Japan and the Second Sino-Japanese War, provides a detailed account of this.
The sabre rattlers of the time can be broadly broken down into three groups. First, there
were the radical intellectuals, students, and urban citizens, second, members of the CCP,
and third, provincial military cliques. The objective of the CCP and the military cliques inadvocating war was to enhance their position vis-à-vis Chiang Kai-shek by currying favorwith radical public opinion leaders such as the intellectuals.
The CCP in particular used its anti-Japanese stance as its most powerful political weapon.
The Chinese Soviet Republic, which was established in November 1931 in Ruijin, Jiangxi
Province, issued a proclamation of war against Japan in the name of the central government
on April 26, 1932. For good measure, a so-called "official" proclamation of war was alsoannounced by telegram on September 18. In addition, the CCP issued a declaration ofanti-Japanese patriotism in August of 1935 in accordance with the Comintern's order toorganize "anti-fascist popular fronts". Then, in December 1936, the Xian Incident took
place.7 While setting out to urge his soldiers to fight more vigorously in the subjugation of
the CCP, Chiang Kai-shek was detained by Zhang Xueliang, the commander of theNortheast Army. Zhang, who had been plotting with the CCP, pressured Chiang into
working with the communists to fight Japan. Consequently, the Nationalist Party dropped
its confrontational line toward the CCP, and in its place grew anti-Japanese resistance.
The outbreak of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident
Given the circumstances, it was only a matter of when and where the attack would come.
The first shots were fired on July 7, 1937 at the Marco Polo Bridge.
The 135 men of the Japanese China Garrison Army's 8th Company, having given priornotice to the 29th Route Army, conducted manoeuvres on the dry riverbed near the Marco
Polo Bridge. As the map (attachment 1) shows, they began their manoeuvres in front of thebridge at a position about 400 meters distant from the Marco Polo Bridge wall (theWanping Fortress wall) and an embankment studded with Chinese pillboxes. At around10:40 PM, just before the manoeuvres were to end after a 400-meter advance, several shots
were fired into the Japanese positions. After that, ten-odd shots were fired from thedirection of the embankments, and a few hours later at 3:25 AM, there were three more
shots. At 5:30, after taking fire a fourth time, the Japanese forces finally responded with
their own fire. This was seven hours after the first shots had been fired.
It was, therefore, only natural that the 29th Route Army would admit total culpability in theceasefire agreement signed on July 11.
7

In December of 1936, Chiang visited the city of Xian in order to encourage Zhang Xueliang and Yang
Hucheng to make an all-out attack on the communist Red Army's headquarters, but the two of them instead
switched sides and proceeded to kidnap and imprison Chiang.

56

As noted earlier, the third clause of this ceasefire agreement stated, "Because this incident
was in many ways inspired by the work of anti-Japanese organizations, including theCommunist Party and the so-called Blue Shirts Society, China will undertake
countermeasures and a thorough crackdown against them."
The commanders of the 29th Route Army were also not entirely certain who had really
fired the shots, but the text of the ceasefire agreement implies that they suspected the CCP.
It was natural that the CCP, which continued to cry for full-scale anti-Japanese action,
would continue to provoke clashes, but the truth was that at the time the CCP found itself
facing a serious predicament. To be sure, with the Xian Incident, Chiang Kai-shek ceased
attacking the communists and promised to forge a cooperative relationship with the CCP.
However, Chiang proceeded to thrust strict conditions, one after another, at the CCP, andhalf a year later, around June 1937, relations between the Nationalist and Communist
Parties were on the verge of breakdown.
Edgar Snow8 wrote, "Following Chiang's release the Communists were in fact soon again
placed at his mercy... By June, 1937 Chiang Kai-shek... again was blockading the Reds...
Once more they now seemed to face the choice of total surrender or encirclement anddisaster, or retreat to the northern desert."9The CCP secretly implemented a bold scheme to escape their existential crisis. The idea
behind their strategy was very simple. Basically, the CCP would provoke a conflict
between the Japanese Army and Nationalist China while keeping their own role in the plot
hidden. In case of success, the Nationalists would have no choice but to leave thecommunists alone and divert the brunt of their military to the war with Japan. It is now
known from publications released in China that the CCP had infiltrated many party
members into the 29th Route Army, including staff officers such as a battalion commander,
the chief of intelligence, the deputy chief of propaganda, and, most importantly, Vice Chiefof Staff Zhang Kexia.10

8

Edgar Snow was an American journalist. Thanks to a letter of introduction from Song Qingling, Snow wasadmitted into the CCP's base in Yan'an in 1936. Gaining Mao Zedong's trust, Snow was able to interview him
and ended up writing a series of articles and books reporting favorably on the Chinese communist movement
led by Mao. Representative works of Snow's include Red Star Over China, a favorite book of Franklin
Roosevelt, and The Battle for Asia.
9
See Random Notes on Red China, 1936-1945 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1957)
by Edgar Snow, page xiii.
10
See Zhongguo Gongchandang Zuzhishi Ziliao Huibian [Collected Documents on the History of theStructure of the Chinese Communist Party] (Beijing: Hongqi Publishing Company, 1983) edited by Wang
Jianying and Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Zhiguanzhi [List of Official Positions in the People's Republic ofChina] (Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Publishing Company, 1993) edited by He Husheng.

7The CCP's secret plan was to use these infiltrated agents provocateurs to incite
anti-Japanese sentiment within the units of the 29th Route Army and to provoke shooting
incidents while mingled into crowds of regular soldiers. This is what happened at 10:40
p.m. on the night of July 7.
The smoking gun: The CCP's "7-8 circular telegram"
We now have the “smoking gun” that leaves no doubt that it was the CCP that engineered
the incident at Marco Polo Bridge.
On the 8th, the day after the shooting, the CCP sent a long telegram from Yan'an in thename of the Central Committee to those affiliated with the Nationalist Government, thearmy, the newspapers, various other organizations, and all persons in positions of power in
China from Chiang Kai-shek on down. In official CCP histories, the telegram is given
special mention, as the "7-8 circular telegram". Moreover, on the same day, the same kindof telegram was sent under the names of Mao Zedong and six other military leaders to
Chiang Kai-shek, General Song Zheyuan, and others.
As mentioned before, the Japanese Army first began to return fire at 5:30 on the morning of
the 8th. Until that point, the Japanese had begun negotiations at Marco Polo Bridge walland other locations, and had made preparations to respond to repeated shootings, but no fire
had yet been returned.
Even though Japan's counterattack began on the 8th, due to the circumstances oftransmission there is no way that the 7-8 circular telegram could have been prepared thesame day. After having received word of the Japanese counterattack, the communists would
still have had to write up their lengthy appeal to arms in the form of an official telegram,include all the details of the counterattack within it, gain the approval of the Central
Committee, and transmit it across China.
The only way the telegram could have been distributed so quickly is that it was prepared inadvance. The CCP must have written an outline in advance, confirmed that everything hadgone according to plan, and then finalized it in the form of an official message.
In fact, we have evidence proving that this was indeed the case.
Colonel Akitomi Jujiro, the Chief of the China Expeditionary Force Intelligence
Department Beiping (Beijing) Office, told the newspaper Sankei Shinbun, as reported in its
September 8, 1994 evening edition, that, "Late at night immediately following the incident,
the Tianjin Special Intelligence Section radio operator intercepted an urgent wirelesstransmission from a transmitter believed to be on the grounds of Beijing University to the
CCP military headquarters in Yan'an. It repeated 'Chenggong-le [success!]' three times."
Akitomi stated that, at the time, they had no idea what the transmission might have meant.
It is clear now. The transmitter informed Yan'an that the stratagem at the Marco Polo8

Bridge succeeded. Immediately afterward the circular telegram was drawn up in Yan'an.
Then, on the morning of the 8th, after having confirmed that Japan had begun firing back, it
was wired en masse to locations across China. Thus, the group responsible formasterminding the Marco Polo Bridge Incident was none other than the Chinese
Communist Party. An alternative theory, which holds that the incident happened by
accident, assumes that the communists were fools who would never have attempted such ascheme. However, this theory really gives the communists too little credit.
Edgar Snow wrote about the Marco Polo Bridge Incident as if the Japanese Army had
caused it, thus incidentally rescuing the CCP from its great predicament of June. Snow
wrote, "Now a second stroke of luck opened up the broadest and most fertile opportunities
for them [the communists]. For it was in the following month that they were extricatedfrom their precarious position only by Japan's 'providential' major invasion of China, whichgave Chiang no choice but to shelve any and all plans for another annihilation drive."11
Snow should have known that the incident was staged by the CCP, but he nonethelessrepeatedly referred to the Japanese attack as "providential". To reiterate, it was the Chinese,
specifically the CCP, who caused the incident. Above all, there is no way that a Japaneseforce numbering a mere 5,600 could have launched a "major invasion" of China—which is
not what happened. Snow could write these sort of lies plausibly by claiming that the facts
were not yet known, but because President Franklin Roosevelt was a fan of his book, Red
Star Over China, he was appointed in 1942 as an unofficial intelligence provider. What was
truly outrageous was that Roosevelt exploited Snow's false reports to wage war on Japan.
Although a ceasefire agreement was signed on the 11th, the agreement was repeatedly
broken by the Chinese, either by the Chinese Army itself or by persons unknown. This soon
culminated in large-scale violations by the Chinese Army such as the Langfang Incident12
and the Guang'anmen Incident.13 On July 27, the Japanese government, which had
consistently followed a non-expansionist policy since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident,
finally made a decision to dispatch three army divisions into the Chinese interior. On the
28th, Japan sent notice to the 29th Route Army that a state of war had begun.
The CCP's plans to escalate the crisis
Though the so-called "major invasion" of the Japanese Army never took place, Snow let it
slip in his writings that such an invasion was exactly what the communists had wanted.
They were delighted that Chiang Kai-shek had had no choice but to abandon his operations
to wipe them out, but, going beyond that, their true goal was to have Chiang fight the11

See Snow, op. cit., page xiii.
In the vicinity of Langfang, Japanese units had gone to repair a severed army telegraph line, but eventhough they had notified the 29th Route Army in advance, they were attacked and suffered fourteen
casualties.
13
Japanese Army units were attempting to enter their barracks inside the walls of Beiping after having
received permission from the 29th Route Army. However, after two thirds of the Japanese troops had entered
the city, the gates were abruptly shut and the Japanese were attacked. They suffered nineteen casualties.
129Japanese for them. A Comintern order issued after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident included
the following two instructions:14"1.) You must staunchly avoid localized resolutions and instead lead the way to a full-scale
confrontation between China and Japan. 2.) You must use every possible measure toaccomplish the above goal, and eliminate leading figures who are betraying the liberationof China through localized resolutions and compromises with the Japanese."
From this, one can see clearly that, in addition to their immediate objective of extricating
themselves from their precarious position, the true goal of the communists was to use the
Marco Polo Bridge Incident to cause a full-scale outbreak of hostilities between Japan and
China. Even though the leaders of the CCP were calling for resistance against Japan, they
had no intention of directly engaging with the Japanese military themselves. Rather, theirtrue goal was to cause a full-scale war between the Japanese Army and Chiang Kai-shek’sarmy.
By doing this, the communists could achieve their objective of weakening the JapaneseArmy and guaranteeing the security of the Soviet Union. This was all part of theirlong-term strategy of winning power by having the armies of Japan and China wear down
and destroy one another. Needless to say, the Comintern's global strategy, which waspromoted by the CCP to further its ultimate goals, finally came to fruition in 1949. For allof these reasons, the CCP was hell-bent on provoking and escalating war between China
and Japan.
The North China Incident and the Tongzhou Incident
The conflict in China expanded just as the CCP had planned. Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist
Government went ahead with plans to send its army north, and as I have previously noted,
Japan was also forced to alter its policy of non-expansion of hostilities by dispatching threedivisions on July 27 and notifying the 29th Route Army on the 28th that a state of war
existed. Though outnumbered, Japan's forces received some reinforcements from theManchurian Kwantung Army and the Japanese Korean Army, and they soon gained total
control of the Pingjin area (the vicinity of Beijing and Tianjin).
14

Below is a full copy of the Comintern order of July 1937, as recorded in the book Kominterun ni Kansuru
Kihon Shiryo [Basic Documents on the Comintern] (Tokyo: Koain Seimubu, 1939).
"1.) You must staunchly avoid localized resolutions and instead lead the way to a full-scale confrontation
between China and Japan. 2.) You must use every possible measure to accomplish the above goal, andeliminate leading figures who are betraying the liberation of China through localized resolutions andcompromises with the Japanese. 3.) You must undertake operations to stir up a mass movement among thelower classes which will leave the Nationalist Government with no choice but to launch a war against Japan.
4.) The CCP must extend its anti-Japanese boycott throughout China and also threaten with boycotts any
third-party nations aiding Japan. 5.) The CCP must recruit common people, as well as ordinary soldiers,
noncommissioned officers, and low-ranking leaders from the army of the Nationalist Government, in order toachieve a party strength exceeding that of the Nationalists."

10

However, soldiers from the Chinese Peace Preservation Corps took advantage of theredeployment of Japan's outnumbered forces in order to carry out a massacre of Japanese
residents in Tongzhou.
The town of Tongzhou, located some twelve kilometers east of Beijing, was home to 420
Japanese residents. Because its Japanese garrison had launched an offensive on nearby
Nanyuan on July 29, less than 110 Japanese soldiers remained there. The men of the local
Peace Preservation Corps, affiliated with the pro-Japanese autonomous government of Yin
Rugeng, seized the opportunity to turn their guns on unarmed civilians and the few
remaining Japanese soldiers in Tongzhou. They suddenly swooped down on the town andsavagely massacred them.
It was later established that Zhang Qingyu, the First Unit commander of the Peace
Preservation Corps, and Zhang Yantian, the Second Unit commander, had been in contact
with the Nationalist Party before the massacre. Many books have claimed that the rebellionof the Peace Preservation Corps was sparked when the Japanese accidentally bombed them,but, in fact, that incident was dealt with after it had taken place. The true cause of themassacre was the treachery of Zhang Qingyu and Zhang Yantian, who had been waiting forsome time for their chance to strike.
All manner of brutalities, including looting, beatings, rape, and murder were directed
toward a great number of innocent people, including the old, the young, and women. The
number of the slain totaled 223.
Unlike the mythological but highly publicized "Nanking Massacre," this dreadful atrocity
actually did happen. (I will discuss the "Nanking Massacre" in more detail later.) In spite ofthis, for a long time Japanese history textbooks mentioned only details of the "Nanking
Massacre," in line with the Chinese government's outlandish wartime propaganda, but theysaid nothing about the real-life Tongzhou Massacre. This bizarre situation continued until
the year 2015 when a proper history textbook, which finally corrected this fault, wasapproved for use in middle schools. That textbook was the New History Textbook: Revised
Edition, published by Jiyusha. Unfortunately, the problem remains uncorrected in othertextbooks.
The Tongzhou Massacre
I will now recount some of the horrible events of the Tongzhou Massacre, as recorded insworn affidavits of witnesses summoned to the Tokyo War Crimes Trials who were at thescene of the massacre.
Firstly, there is the following excerpt from the testimony of Kayajima Takashi, who at thetime of the massacre was commander of the Tianjin Infantry Unit and the 2nd Infantry
Regiment of the Japanese China Garrison Army. After having joined the Battle of Nanyuan,
he rushed to rescue the inhabitants of Tongzhou on the afternoon of July 30.

11

12

13

"In Asahiken (a Japanese restaurant), there were seven or eight women between the ages offorty and seventeen or eighteen who had all been raped. They had been shot dead and were
naked with their privates exposed. Four or five had been stabbed in their privates withbayonets. Almost all of the Japanese men's bodies left in businesses and government offices
showed signs of having been strangled with ropes. Blood spattered the walls. It beggars
description."
Katsura Shizuo, acting unit commander in the 2nd Infantry Regiment in charge of relieving
Tongzhou, gave this testimony.
"At the entrance to Kinsuiro (an inn), I saw the body of a woman who looked to have been
the proprietress. Her legs were pointed toward the entrance, and only her face was covered
with a newspaper. I remember that it seemed as if she had resisted considerably. The upperand lower parts of her body were exposed, and stab wounds from four or five bayonet
thrusts were visible. It looked like her privates had been gouged out with an edged weapon,
and there was blood everywhere... The bodies of four Japanese women, who appeared to bemaids, lay in the maid-servants' room. It looked like they had all died in agony. They had
died lying on top of one another, and only one of the women was turned upwards with her
privates exposed. At the front desk and pantry there were two women and one man who
had died face up, face down, and sprawled sideways. There was clear evidence that they
had fought their killers. The man's eyes were gouged out and the upper half of his body
appeared to have been riddled with bullets. Both of the women had bayonet wounds in theirbacks... In the house of a Japanese family behind it, two people, a parent and child, hadbeen butchered. All the fingers of the child had been cut off. At the store of a Japanesecitizen near the South Gate, the body of what seemed to have been the proprietor had beenleft in the street with his ribs exposed and his organs scattered."
Sakurai Fumio was a platoon commander in the 2nd Infantry Regiment who arrived inTongzhou with the main force of his regiment on July 30. According to Sakurai,"As soon as we came through the garrison's East Gate, we were enraged to see the bodies ofmurdered male and female civilians sprawled out on the ground every several meters infront of us. We went around checking each house, while shouting out 'Are there any
Japanese people here!' In trash cans and ditches all over the place, we kept on finding
corpses, including a child with a wire run through his nose like a cow, an old woman with
one of her arms cut off, and a pregnant woman whose belly had been ripped with a bayonet.
In one restaurant, a whole family had been slaughtered with their hands and heads chopped
off. Every woman older than fourteen or fifteen years of age had been raped. The sight of it
was unbearable... In a pond near the East Gate, there were the bodies of six family memberswith ropes around their necks and hands pierced together with barbed wire. There was clear
evidence on the bodies that they had been strung together and dragged over the ground."14

Since my readers may be getting sick to their stomachs, I will leave it at that. However,other eyewitness accounts have been written by Japanese women who married Chinese men
and were living in Tongzhou at the time of the massacre. I wanted to reprint them here, butultimately chose to omit them because they are rather long and might be traumatic to myreaders. Those who are interested in reading the accounts can consult the book Tenno-samaga Naite Gozatta [Tears of the Emperor] by Shirabe Kanga.
What about the Nanking Massacre?
Some readers might find the preceding descriptions of unspeakable horror and fiendish
violence in Tongzhou to be eerily familiar. Indeed, these same scenes appear in accounts of
the Nanking Massacre. The writings of Iris Chang and like-minded individuals containcountless similar examples.
Nevertheless, as I will explain later, the so-called "Nanking Massacre" is an illusion,nothing more than war propaganda. Throughout its history, Japan has never had the same
sort of "massacre culture" as China. Japanese people may kill one another, but it would befair to say that no large-scale, indiscriminate slaughters have ever occurred in Japanese
history. By contrast, massacres of tremendous scale are not at all unusual in Chinese
history.
By reading the book A History of Massacres in China: What Makes the Chinese Such
Lovers of Murder? by Shi Ping,15 a graduate of Beijing University, we learn that in China
massacres far exceeding anything in Japanese history were frequent occurrences in ancient,medieval, and modern times, extending to present day communist China. Particularlyinteresting is the fact that there was a Nanking Massacre in Chinese history, not in 1937,
but in 1864 during the Taiping Rebellion. Nanking, then the capital of the Taiping
Heavenly Kingdom, was conquered by an army commanded by Zeng Guofan. After Zeng's
death, one of his staff officers, Zhao Liewen, described what happened after the city's fallin his book Nengjin Jushi Riji [Diary of a Capable, Quiet Gentleman]:"Children also became the targets of killing and many soldiers wildly engaged themselves
in killing children as if they were playing a game. Regarding women, those who were under
40 served as instruments of carnal pleasure for the soldiers but most of those who wereolder or very ugly were randomly killed by the sword."16
Ghastly mass killings, a million slaughtered at the massacres in Sichuan, Yangzhou, Jiading,and so forth, fill page after page. Shi Ping's book is a must-read to understand China.
To repeat, no such massacres have ever taken place in Japanese history. The Chinese havevehemently insisted that the "Nanking Massacre" was the work of the Japanese in spite of15

An English translation of this book is available on the website of the Society for the Dissemination ofHistorical Fact. (http://www.sdh-fact.com/CL02_1/71_S4.pdf)
16
See A History of Massacres in China: What Makes the Chinese Such Lovers of Murder?, page 107.

15

the fact that the Japanese have no history of engaging in this sort of atrocity. In fact, the taleof the Nanking Massacre was created on the basis of the massacres which the Chinese
themselves have repeatedly perpetrated throughout their own history. This is precisely thereason why the stories of the Nanking Massacre, which were fabricated to indict theJapanese Army, are identical to the accounts of both the mass killings that have occurred
time and again in Chinese history and the more recent massacre which the Chineseperpetrated in Tongzhou.
Japanese outrage and the rise of the "Punish China" slogan
The Japanese people were enraged at the news of the Tongzhou Massacre. Newspapers
throughout Japan carried the headline "Punish China".17 And yet, though public opinion
seethed against the unforgivable atrocity and voices demanding resolute government action
grew louder, no attacks on Chinese residents in Japan, like those during the Wanpaoshan
Incident in Korea, ever occurred. As I described earlier, in 1931 Korean rioters attacked
Chinatowns in Seoul, Pyongyang, and Sinŭiju, killing 109 people. It's important toremember that in Japan in 1937, no harm ever came to the Chinese quarters of either
Yokohama or Kobe.
One might be led to believe that this upsurge in popular outrage against China compelled
the Japanese government to go to war with China. However, that is not what happened.
In fact, the government held firm to its non-expansionist policy in spite of the atrocities in
China and the incensed public opinion in Japan. In accordance with the Emperor's
suggestions, a landmark peace plan18 was drawn up on August 1. On August 5, the Foreign
Minister and the Army and Navy Ministers approved the proposal that would be submitted
to China. Japan's peace plan was a momentous, conciliatory document wherein most of thepending issues between China and Japan to that point, and in particular vested rights inNorth China, were renounced.
Japan's peace plan was called the Funatsu Peace Initiative, after Funatsu Tatsuichiro who
was selected to be in charge of the negotiations. Funatsu was formerly Japan's consul
general in Shanghai and at the time he was the chairman of the board of the Spinners' Trade
Association in China.
August 9, the day of the first meeting between Kawagoe Shigeru, Japan's ambassador to
China, and Gao Zongwu, head of the Chinese Foreign Ministry's Asia Office, was also the
day that Sublieutenant Oyama was killed. As I mentioned already, this was an act carried
17This slogan, boshi yocho in Japanese, literally means "punish the violent Chinese".
Draft of ceasefire negotiations: (1.) The Tanggu Truce, the He–Umezu Agreement, the Qin–Doihara
Agreement, and any other extant military agreements in North China are cancelled. (2.) Special areas will beestablished as demilitarized zones. (3.) The administrations in East Hebei and Hebei–Chahar are to beabolished. (4.) The strength of the Japanese forces stationed shall return to their status quo ante bellum.
Draft of diplomatic relations: (1.) China must recognize or acquiesce to the state of Manchukuo. (2.) China
and Japan will enter into an anti-communist pact. (3.) Repeal of the free flight of Japanese aircraft, etc...
18

16

out by the crypto-communist Zhang Zhizhong, the defensive commander of Nanking andShanghai, in order to get Chiang Kai-shek to fight the Japanese. It was also meant to be an
obstruction to the peace process. The Comintern order had read, "1.) You must staunchly
avoid localized resolutions and instead lead the way to a full-scale confrontation between
China and Japan. 2.) You must use every possible measure to accomplish the above goal,and eliminate leading figures who are betraying the liberation of China through localized
resolutions and compromises with the Japanese." Through various means, this order was
successfully implemented. As intended, the peace negotiations collapsed.
The Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and secret military agreement
Chiang Kai-shek had moved forward with preparations for war with Japan. His
preparations consisted of the formation of a central army, including fifty divisions withmodern equipment and training under the direction of a corps of German military advisors
led by General Alexander von Falkenhausen, as well as the construction of a solid
defensive network of 20,000 bunkers in the suburbs of Shanghai. This came to be called the"Seeckt Line" after General Hans von Seeckt, the fourth leader of the German advisors.
Still, Chiang Kai-shek was cautious about starting a real war. Falkenhausen had suggested apreemptive strike, but Chiang distanced himself from that idea, as well as from thecontinued warmongering of General Zhang Zhizong and others.
Despite this, Chiang had to confront facts outside his control, including the rise ofanti-Japanese sentiment and the murder of Sublieutenant Oyama. Finally, he did make thedecision to go to war. Many theories exist about when Chiang came to this decision, though
it seems that none of them have been definitively proven. Professor Lloyd E. Eastman of
the University of Illinois, a leading researcher of modern Chinese history, has argued that
Chiang made the decision on August 7 at a meeting with his top military commanders.
According to Eastman, "Chiang then made one of the greatest - and most debatable gambles of his career."19
I suspect that the main reason why Chiang was willing to make this gamble was themilitary agreement20 he signed with the Soviet Union as part of the Sino-Soviet
Non-Aggression Pact of August 21. Under the terms of this agreement, the Soviet Union
was bound to provide the following military aid before the end of the year: 360 planes, 200
tanks, 1,500 trucks, 150,000 rifles, 120,000 artillery shells, and 60 million rounds ofammunition, plus technical experts in a variety of fields.
Negotiations for this treaty began much earlier, and it is assumed that the secret items were
set in early August at the latest. This promise of such a great quantity of military supplies
from the Soviet Union had to have been reassuring to China, which, despite having a large
19

See Lloyd E. Eastman's book The Nationalist Era in China, 1927-1949 (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1991), page 119.
20
See The Lowdown, issue of January 1939, page 18. The secret agreement seems to have been leaked out at
an early stage, because its contents also appear in several other publications.

17

army of 2.1 million soldiers, lacked the ability to manufacture its own aircraft and tanks.
Setting aside the beginning of the hostilities, if the fighting were to be drawn out even alittle longer, such supplies would become absolutely essential to the prosecution of the war.
Thus, we can surmise that, without them, Chiang Kai-shek would probably not have beenable to make the decision to go to war.
Indeed, it would seem that the Soviet Union was pushing China toward war. As we can see
from the Comintern orders, that was exactly in accordance with the goals of Soviet strategy.
The actual situation of the Second Sino-Japanese War was that China relied entirely on
Soviet military aid for the first half of the war, and for the second half on British andAmerican military aid, to continue fighting.21 It was not because mainland China was sohuge that the conflict went on and on and became a quagmire, but rather because of the vast
military assistance and intervention from the great powers. Still less was it because ofJapanese “aggression”.
China's all-out attack: The struggle of the naval landing force and the dispatch of two
divisions
On August 13, 1937, the 30,000-strong elite Chinese force encircling the concessions ofShanghai began its attack on Japan's 4,200-man naval landing force stationed there. It is
often said that the fighting leapt like a flame from northern China to Shanghai, but thismanner of speaking is far removed from the truth. Japanese forces in northern China did not
move south of Baoding, which was 1,000 kilometers away from Shanghai, and therefore
were in no position to threaten Shanghai.
Just as The New York Times described, the Battle of Shanghai was provoked unilaterally by
the Chinese, or in other words, by Chiang Kai-shek. On the 15th, Chiang Kai-shek ordereda nationwide general mobilization, established a supreme command headquarters, andassumed the rank of commander-in-chief of all three branches of the military - the army,
the navy, and the air force - for waging all-out war against Japan.
Since 4,200 troops could not have been expected to protect the 30,000 Japanese residents ofShanghai, Japan decided on August 13 to dispatch two divisions to China. On the 15th, theShanghai Expeditionary Army under the command of General Matsui Iwane was formed.
However, it was to take nearly ten days at the minimum to mobilize, transport, and landthese two divisions, and until then, the naval landing force in Shanghai had to hold out
against attacks from an elite force nearly ten times their size. What might have happened ifthey had been beaten and allowed a Chinese force to penetrate the concession had alreadybeen demonstrated in Tongzhou. It would have been a second Tongzhou Massacre. There
was a strong possibility that thousands, or even tens of thousands, of civilians might havebeen slaughtered.

21

See Hata Ikuhiko's book, Rokokyo Jiken no Kenkyu [Research on the Marco Polo Bridge Incident] (Tokyo:
Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1996).

18

19

One Japanese army division finally landed in Wusong near Shanghai on the 23rd. In thoseten days, the men of Japan's tiny landing force defended their positions well.
Thanks to their remarkable bravery, a "Shanghai Massacre" was averted. Chiang reportedly
lamented that, "In the first week of the war, we proved incapable of wiping out the enemy
in Shanghai even with all our strength." Evidently, Chiang had been expecting a quick
victory in Shanghai.
China's deadly bombing of the foreign concessions
On August 14, a group of Chinese aircraft, which had embarked on a raid against Japanese
warships, wandered off course during a counterattack and instead dropped their bombs in
the French Concession and the Shanghai International Settlement. Some of the bombs
landed on the road in front of the Palace and Cathay Hotels, killing 729 civilians instantly
and leaving another 861 wounded, but an even greater tragedy occurred at the Great World
Amusement Center, which was serving as a women's refugee center. The bombs which fell
on Great World killed 1,012 people and wounded another 1,007. The majority of thevictims were Chinese, but many foreigners also perished, including the elder brother of
Edwin Reischauer.
As usual, the Nationalist Party publicly blamed the attack on the Japanese, but the bombing
had taken place in full view of Shanghai's international community, including a large
number of foreign journalists. As could be expected, this lie convinced no one, and theChinese government ultimately expressed its regret over the incident.
Though Japan's Shanghai Expeditionary Army had finally gone ashore, it quickly became
embroiled in a desperate campaign against nearly 200,000 Chinese soldiers firmly
ensconced in over 20,000 bunkers and defensive encampments. The main force of theChinese Army had received German military training and was supplied with the latest
equipment. One of the most formidable challenges for the Japanese Army was dealing with
China's high-quality light machine guns, which were called "Czech guns". On September 9,
the Japanese Army finally began making further progress thanks to an additional threedivisions and one brigade in reinforcements. On October 26, the Japanese captured thestrongpoint of Dachangzhen and brought most of the city of Shanghai under their control.
However, the victory in Shanghai had been achieved at great cost. Japan's casualties
ultimately totaled more than 41,000, including 10,076 dead and 31,866 wounded, whichwere the heaviest losses Japan sustained since the Siege of Port Arthur during the
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). On the other hand, the Chinese Army is believed to havesuffered about 400,000 dead and wounded. On November 5, the Japanese 10th Army,composed of three divisions, executed a surprise landing at Hangzhou Bay, sixty kilometers
south of Shanghai, in order to cut the Chinese Army off from behind. This manoeuvre
succeeded in causing the rapid collapse of the Chinese forces, who fled in disarray towards
Nanking. In the end, the Japanese military had committed a force of 250,000 to rout about
600,000 Chinese.

20

The order to capture Nanking
Because of the non-expansionist policy adopted by the Japanese government and military,
Japanese forces could not advance beyond an operation restriction line stretching from
Suzhou to Jiaxing. However, as long as this policy was maintained, there was the realpossibility that most of the Chinese Army fleeing chaotically from Shanghai would bepermitted to escape. Moreover, Chiang Kai-shek had not accepted peace terms Japan
offered by way of the German ambassador to China, Oskar Trautmann,22 and wascontinuing to put up stiff resistance. In Japan, it seemed more and more likely that the war
would not be brought to a conclusion unless the Chinese command center of Nanking was
occupied. On November 28, the Japanese Army General Staff handed down its decision tocapture Nanking.
Matsui Iwane, the commander of the Central China Area Army, which was formed throughthe combination of the Shanghai Expeditionary Army and the 10th Army, ordered hisforces to advance on Nanking on December 1. The Chinese had constructed both outer andinner defense lines between Shanghai and Nanking, but the Japanese Army broke throughthem one by one in pursuit of the fleeing Chinese forces. On December 9, the JapaneseArmy completed its encirclement of Nanking and airdropped leaflets over the city callingupon the commander of the Nanking Garrison Force to surrender.
At the same time that the Japanese Army released this ultimatum, an attempt was madefrom within Nanking to save the city from the ravages of war. On December 9, members of
the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone23 presented a ceasefire proposal
to Chiang Kai-shek. Their proposal asked the Chinese Army to withdraw peacefully from
Nanking and permit the Japanese Army to enter the city without further bloodshed.
Unfortunately, Chiang Kai-shek vetoed the offer. Meanwhile, the deadline of the Japanese
ultimatum, set at noon on December 10, passed without a response from the Chinese side.
At 1:00 PM, the Japanese Army launched an all-out attack on the walls of Nanking.
Fierce fighting continued, but Nanking had already lost its outer defenses, and its fortresswalls, however strong they may have been, were no match for modern weapons. Tang
Shengzhi, the commander of the garrison in Nanking, deemed the situation hopeless andfled the city at 8:00 PM on the 12th, abandoning his subordinates to their fates. Nanking
fell on the 13th, but without their commander the Chinese soldiers in Nanking scrambled in
confusion to escape the city. Often they were shot dead in mid-flight by Chinese barrier
22

The Trautmann Mediation was a peace initiative between the governments of China and Japan that took
place between November 1937 and January 16, 1938, under the mediation of the German ambassador in
China.
23
The International Committee was established on November 29 by a group of Westerners, mostly
Americans, who had chosen to not evacuate from Nanking. Their objective was to create a noncombat zone
which would ensure the safety of Nanking's civilian population. The Committee was composed of a total of
fifteen people, including seven from the USA, four from Great Britain, three from Germany, and one from
Denmark. The head of the International Committee was a German, John Rabe.

21

troops. Those who were unable to escape instead cast off their uniforms and went into
hiding in the Nanking Safety Zone, an act which was a violation of the international laws of
war. In many cases, they were later discovered and executed by the Japanese. Still, very
little fighting occurred within the city itself. In fact, at the time the Japanese Army entered
Nanking, the city was virtually deserted except for the Safety Zone. Outside the city walls,
several pitched battles did occur between the Japanese Army and Chinese units attempting
to withdraw, but inside the city it was mostly quiet.
Why do people say that a massacre happened in Nanking?
The Japanese soldiers did not all enter Nanking at once. Instead, only specially selected
portions of each unit were permitted to invade the city. For example, the 6th Division from
Kumamoto selected two of its battalions to enter the city, and the 20th Regiment selected
one of its companies. It has been estimated that the first Japanese soldiers to go into
Nanking numbered fewer than 10,000. Within Nanking, there was very little disorder, a fact
noted by the nearly 150 Japanese reporters and cameramen who were present in the city at
the time it fell.
The soldiers of the units entering Nanking were much more unnerved by the deadly quiet of
the wholly abandoned city, a situation described in the diaries and other accounts they left
behind. The reason for this was that almost all of the 200,000 inhabitants of Nanking had
congregated within the "Safety Zone", which was administered by the International
Committee. No citizens were found anywhere outside the Safety Zone. This should not be
surprising, as a directive had been issued by Tang Shengzhi on December 8 ordering all
citizens of Nanking except those with special permits to remain in the Safety Zone.
Considering that there were 150 reporters and cameramen in Nanking, all energeticallyreporting on events in the city and sending their stories back to Japan, there is no possibility
that they could have failed to witness a massacre in the Safety Zone, which covered an area
only about the same size as New York's Central Park. And yet, none of them wrote a single
article describing a massacre, nor did they admit after the war to having seen one. One
typical news report was the series of photographs appearing in the newspaper Asahi
Shimbun. The first photo in the series was "Peace returns to Nanking", taken by special
correspondent Kawamura on December 17 and reprinted in this book. The next
photographs in the series were captioned with "Benevolence to yesterday's enemies - A
scene of amity in Nanking", "Nanking smiles - A sketch of life within the city walls", and"Holding hands on New Years' - Sino-Japanese friendship deepens each day". These photos
certainly seem to reveal the way things really were in Nanking at that time. Controls on thepress in Japan were not rigorously enforced, and only two articles were censured on the
grounds that they might compromise military operations.
How did the Nanking Massacre take place under such circumstances? How could it havetaken place? Common sense alone should allow the reader to answer this question.
Nationalist China's silence on the "Nanking Massacre"

22

The International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone left records of its activities inEnglish. An extra-governmental organ of the Nationalist Party edited these documents in
1939 and published them with Kelly & Walsh Co. in Shanghai under the title Documents of
the Nanking Safety Zone. American missionaries held key positions on the International
Committee, and their observations are tainted with a heavy anti-Japanese bias, but even so,
the following two facts recorded in these documents are extremely important.
1.) The population of Nanking was 200,000 at the time of the city's fall, and remained atthat level for the rest of the month of December. However on January 14, a month later, thepopulation of Nanking was recorded as being 250,000. This is definitive proof, from acontemporary primary source, that no large-scale massacre could possibly have taken place.
2.) Twenty-six cases of murder were recorded on a list of the complaints brought forward
by citizens of Nanking. However, only one of those cases had an eyewitness, and it had anote appended to it explicitly stating that it had been a lawful killing. The Safety Zone,
which held 200,000 people, was about the same size as New York's Central Park, and if amassacre had happened there, it could not have gone unnoticed. Nevertheless, there wereno eyewitnesses to any massacre.
Those two points alone should make the extent of the massacre hoax clear enough, but for
those who need even more proof, there is also the top-secret document "Outline ofInternational Propaganda Operations, International Propaganda Section: from 1938 to April
1941", which was discovered by Professor Higashinakano Shudo at the Museum of Chinese
Nationalist Party History in Taipei.24 This was an internal document of the Nationalist
Party, so any hints of propaganda within it are slim. According to the document, during aneleven-month period which included the month when Nanking fell, China's International
Propaganda Section invited foreign correspondents three hundred times to press
conferences in Hankou, where the Nationalist Government had retreated after the Battle of
Nanking. Even though these press conferences were convened for the purpose of criticizing
the conduct of the Japanese Army, not one single time was there any talk of a massacre ofcivilians or the unlawful execution of prisoners in Nanking. If there had been a massacre,
would they really have said nothing about it? That is, of course, impossible.
Though there are many people who seem to be under the mistaken impression that the
Nationalist Government condemned the Nanking Massacre in the aftermath of the fall of
Nanking, the reality is quite different. It is true that there were covert operations,particularly for overseas audiences, which employed foreigners to disseminate atrocity
propaganda that actually came from the Chinese government. However, if the Chinese hadcarelessly brought up the massacre at any of the aforementioned three hundred press
conferences in Hankou, then the foreign correspondents would have gone to Nanking toinvestigate it themselves. At the time Japan was not at war with other foreign countries like24

See Higashinakano Shudo's book The Nanking Massacre: Fact Versus Fiction (Tokyo: Sekai Shuppan,
2005), page 298.

23the United States and Great Britain, so as soon as public order in Nanking had been
restored, there was nothing to stop them from going there. If they had done that, theNationalist Government's lies would have been quickly exposed. In order to maintain its
credibility, China would not have been foolish enough to repeat such false claims publicly.
The anti-Japanese group, American Committee for Non-Participation in Japanese
Aggression, which was organized principally by the YMCA, released a booklet entitled"America Supports Japanese Aggression" roughly half a year after the fall of Nanking. In
1938, 60,000 copies of it were printed and then distributed to the media, Congress,
academic societies, and other groups. The booklet includes an extensive denunciation ofJapan's alleged aggressive acts towards China. Among them is the bombing of Canton,
which took place half a year after the fall of Nanking and left a few hundred dead, butthough the bombing received thorough coverage, not one word was devoted to the Nanking
Massacre. This is yet another powerful piece of evidence that no massacre ever occurred in
Nanking.
In short, the Nanking Massacre is simply a trumped-up lie, fabricated by the victors andfoisted upon Japan after the war when Japan was occupied by the US Army and unable toeffectively object to or rebut the accusation.
Open questions for President Hu Jintao
Research on the "Nanking Massacre" has progressed rapidly in recent years. It has now
been proven in a virtually irrefutable manner that the "massacre" was a creation of the
Nationalist Party's wartime propaganda machine. A pamphlet which summarizes all thelatest research was published by the Campaign for the Truth of Nanking and is now
available in English.25
It is surely very foolish that people continue to harp on about this lie as if it actually
happened. To put a stop to this ridiculous situation, the Committee for the Examination of
the Facts about Nanking (Kase Hideaki, chair; Fujioka Nobukatsu, secretary general)presented an open letter of inquiry to President Hu Jintao of China when he came to Japan.
The five important points of their questions are summarized below, followed by its fulltext.
(1.) Mao Zedong did not mention the Nanking Massacre one time in his life, a significant
fact considering that it was alleged to be one of the largest massacres of the century and notjust a trivial incident. Jung Chang criticizes Mao for this in her book Mao: The Unknown
Story, but it is those like Chang who still deeply believe this lie who truly deserve thecriticism.

25

An English translation of this pamphlet is available on the website of the Society for the Dissemination ofHistorical Fact. (http://www.sdh-fact.com/CL02_1/112_S4.pdf)

24

(2.) The Nanking Massacre was never mentioned at any of the aforementioned threehundred press conferences.
(3.) According to Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, which consists of the records ofthe International Committee, the population of Nanking was 200,000 in December and roseto 250,000 in January.
(4.) Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone claims that twenty-six murders were committed
in Nanking. However, only one of those cases had an eyewitness, and this case had a note
appended to it explicitly stating that it had been a lawful killing in which a Chinese man
was shot dead for running away when asked to identify himself.
(5.) It has been demonstrated that none of the several hundred alleged pieces ofphotographic evidence for the Nanking Massacre prove the existence of any massacre.
This message has been disseminated to the world via press conferences and the Internet. It
appears on the website of the Society for the Dissemination of Historical Fact in Japanese,
Chinese, and English. (The English version is available at
http://www.sdh-fact.com/CL02_3/17_S1.pdf) It comes as no surprise that Hu Jintao has
yet to respond. This is because he cannot respond. With this, the issue of Nanking has, at its
essence, been settled.
OPEN QUESTIONS FOR HIS EXCELLENCY HU JINTAO,PRESIDENT OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
May 5, 2008
As enthusiastic supporters of friendly relations between Japan and the PRC, we would liketo extend the warmest of welcomes to President Hu Jintao on the occasion of Your
Excellency's visit to Japan.
For some years, our organization has been engaged in an investigation into the events thattranspired in Nanking in connection with the Battle of Nanking, which took place inDecember 1937. We are profoundly concerned about the PRC's position on and approach tothese events. Additionally, we are exceedingly uncomfortable with the duplicity of the PRC
in its pursuit of friendship with Japan on the one hand, and actions that are most unfriendly
in nature — the expansion and renovation of the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall in 2007
— on the other. Recent research has proven that there is absolutely no basis for the claimthat there was a massacre in that city. We respectfully request Your Excellency's responses
to five important questions, which follow.
1. Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong never referred to a massacre in
Nanking. He made exactly one mention of the Battle of Nanking during a lecturedelivered at Yan'an six months after the conflict, reproduced in On Protracted War.
Chairman Mao criticized the Japanese for failing to annihilate Chinese troops after25

having surrounded them. If there had been slaughter in Nanking of a magnitude so great(300,000 civilian victims) as to prompt the description "holocaust of the century," there
is not the slightest chance that he would have been silent on the matter. What are Your
Excellency's thoughts on the facts presented here?
2. In November 1937, during the Second United Front and prior to the Battle of Nanking,the Nationalist Party established a new section at the Central Propaganda Bureau — theInternational Propaganda Section. We would like to direct Your Excellency's attention
to a top-secret document entitled "Outline of International Propaganda Operations,"
which states that the International Propaganda Section held 300 press conferences in
Hankou between December 1, 1937 and October 24, 1938 (a period that includes theBattle of Nanking); they were attended by 35 foreign journalists and diplomats, on the
average. How does Your Excellency explain the fact that not once during any of these300 conferences was a statement or announcement made to the effect that a massacre
had been perpetrated, or that prisoners of war had been unlawfully killed in Nanking?
Does Your Excellency, too, find these circumstances extraordinary?
3. The International Committee cared for the civilians remaining in Nanking, who weregathered in the Safety Zone. Records of the International Committee's activities were
published in 1939 as Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone by a British company inShanghai, under the auspices of the Nationalist Government's Council of International
Affairs. According to those records, the population of Nanking prior to its occupationby the Japanese was 200,000. That figure remained unchanged, at 200,000, throughout
the remainder of 1937. By the end of January, it had increased to 250,000. Thesestatistics completely and utterly destroy the credibility of any accusation of a massacrethat claimed 300,000 victims. What are Your Excellency's views on this matter?
4. Among the records in the aforementioned Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone aredetailed complaints about misconduct attributed to Japanese military personnel. They
include a total of 26 murders, only one of which was witnessed (to that account isappended a note describing the "murder" as a lawful execution). Can Your Excellency
reconcile these records with the PRC's claim of a massacre with 300,000 victims?
5. Photographs purported to be evidence of a massacre in Nanking are on display at the
Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall, at other exhibitions, and in printed publications.
However, Analyzing Photographic "Evidence" of the Nanking Massacre byHigashinakano Shudo (Soshisha, 2005) and other recent scientific research reveal that
there are no photographs attesting to a massacre in Nanking. If Your Excellency isaware of photographic evidence of a massacre, please have it forwarded to us so that we
may examine it.
On the basis of the factual information contained in these five questions, we are completely
and totally convinced that there was no massacre in Nanking. We would greatly appreciateYour Excellency's responses to our questions. Please note that we have selected the26

open-question format precisely because the matter at hand is clearly one of the prime
concerns of many citizens of Japan and the PRC. Our hopes for friendly relations between
our two nations, for all generations to come, rest in Your Excellency's hands.
COMMITTEE FOR THE EXAMINATION OF THE FACTS ABOUT NANKING
Chairman: KASE Hideaki
Secretary-General: FUJIOKA Nobukatsu
Auditors : TOMIZAWA Shigenobu, MOTEKI Hiromichi
Members: ARA Kenichi, UESUGI Chitoshi, KOBAYASHI Taigan, SUGIHARA Seishiro
SUGIYAMA Kouichi, TAKAIKE Katsuhiko, TAKAYAMA Masayuki, HANAOKA
Nobuaki, HIGASHINAKANO Shudo, NISHIMURA Kohyu, MIZOGUCHI Ikuo,
MIYAZAKI Masahiro
Japan's peace terms after the fall of Nanking and the First Konoe Statement
On December 22, after Nanking was occupied, the Japanese government decided once
again to try to resolve differences peacefully, mediated through the good offices ofGermany's ambassador to China, Oskar Trautmann. The following four points were thebasic conditions.
1.) China will renounce pro-communist, anti-Japanese, and anti-Manchukuo policies, andwill cooperate with Japan and Manchukuo's anti-communist policies.
2.) Demilitarized zones will be put in place in required regions, and special organizations
will be established to administer them.
3.) China, Japan, and Manchukuo will enter into an agreement for economic integration.
4.) China will pay reparations to Japan.
Prior to the occupation of Nanking, the clause on reparations had not been included in thepeace talks, but it was inserted after taking into account the demands of the Japanese people.
Even so, one cannot say that these were particularly severe conditions. No demands weremade for a piece of territory or for certain special rights or interests. Instead, they mention
formalizing a relationship of economic cooperation. They also speak of collaborative
anti-communism, but since Chiang Kai-shek was anti-communist from the start, this item
can hardly be said to have been a harsh one.
Chiang Kai-shek did not accept the agreement probably for fear of how it might affect his
relationship with the Soviet Union and the CCP, as well as his relationship with America
and Great Britain. Even when the deadline for his reply, January 12, was reached, he did
not respond. In the face of Chiang's stalling, the leaders of Japan's government, including
Prime Minister Konoe Fumimaro and Foreign Minister Hirota Koki, concluded that the
Chinese side was not negotiating in good faith. On the 16th, the Japanese government cut

27off negotiations and issued the First Konoe Statement declaring that, "We will no longer
deal with the government of Chiang Kai-shek".
Japan's Army General Staff put up strong resistance to this decision, insisting thatnegotiations with Chiang Kai-shek's government be carried through to their conclusion. If
this view had prevailed and the negotiations had continued, is it possible that at very least
the complete breakdown of Sino-Japanese relations could have been averted, and thatperhaps some sort of compromise could have been reached? If that had happened, Japan's
conflict with China would not have devolved into the quagmire that it was to become.
It is possible that there was some influence here by one of Konoe's close associates, Ozaki
Hotsumi,26 who was a covert operative of the Comintern. However, I think that it is more
likely that Konoe made the decision out of a desire to curry favor with a Japanese public
who were fed up with China's brazen acts.
It has been commonly said that Japan went down the path to war because of therecklessness of the Japanese military, but if we turn to the facts, it seems that in many cases
it was the military which acted with great caution whereas it was the civilian government
which turned to war in order to appease popular opinion. This was more or less the same
reason why the Konoe government issued a tough statement toward China and hinted at
dispatching three divisions from Japan on the July 11 following the Marco Polo Bridge
Incident, even though a local ceasefire had been concluded that very night.
Regardless, the end result was that Japan was drawn into a protracted war against the
government of Chiang Kai-shek. Still, calling this a “war of aggression” is wholly
unwarranted.
Firstly, it was the CCP that orchestrated the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, and it was also the
CCP that expanded the conflict based on their Comintern instructions to "staunchly avoid
localized resolutions and instead lead the way to a full-scale confrontation between China
and Japan." Furthermore, it was Chiang Kai-shek's government that rebuffed Japan's
Funatsu Peace Initiative, amidst growing anti-Japanese sentiment, and set the course forfull-scale war in Shanghai.
Thus, the Second Sino-Japanese War was caused entirely by China. Even after the outbreakof the war, Japan again made peace overtures, but they were all flatly refused. The onus for26

Ozaki Hotsumi was a reporter for the newspaper Asahi Shimbun. As a member of Prime Minister Konoe's
brain trust and especially as a recognized expert on the China question, Ozaki exerted influence on Japan's
government from the time of the Second Sino-Japanese War until World War II via his contacts with some ofJapan's highest-ranking and most influential political figures. Just before the outbreak of war with the UnitedStates, Ozaki was exposed as being the mastermind behind Richard Sorge's Soviet spy ring. He was arrested,
put on trial, and executed. In his personal recollections, Ozaki states that, "I believe that World War II willlead inevitably to a world revolution." It was for this reason that Ozaki supported the idea that Japan should
advance into Southeast Asia and the Pacific.

28

the war lies primarily on the Chinese side, and the result was that the fighting dragged on.
No matter how one looks at it, describing Japan's actions as aggressive is undeserved.
Under international law, the aggressor is the one making lawless attacks or unprovoked war,and thus by this standard, it was China that was the aggressor even though the war took
place on Chinese soil.

29