Philosophy of Economics
The philosophy of economics concerns itself with conceptual, methodological, andethical issues that arise within the scientific discipline of economics. 1 The primary focus is on
issues of methodology and epistemology—the methods, concepts, and theories through which
economists attempt to arrive at knowledge about economic processes. Philosophy of economics
is also concerned with the ways in which ethical values are involved in economic reasoning—thevalues of human welfare, social justice, and the tradeoffs among priorities that economic choices
require. Economic reasoning has implications for justice and human welfare; more importantly,
economic reasoning often makes inexplicit but significant ethical assumptions that philosophersof economics have found it worthwhile to scrutinize. Finally, the philosophy of economics isconcerned with the concrete social assumptions that are made by economists. Philosophers havegiven attention to the institutions and structures through which economic activity and changetake place. What is a “market”? Are there alternative institutions through which modern
economic activity can proceed? What are some of the institutional variants that exist within thegeneral framework of a market economy? What are some of the roles that the state can playwithin economic development so as to promote efficiency, equity, human well-being,productivity, or growth?
The dimension of the philosophy of economics that falls within the philosophy of sciencehas to do with the status of economic analysis as a body of empirical knowledge. Primary
questions include: What is economic knowledge about? What kind of knowledge is provided
by the discipline of economics? How does it relate to other social sciences and the bodies ofknowledge contained in those disciplines? How is economic knowledge justified or evaluated?
Does economic theory purport to offer abstract theories of real social processes—theirmechanisms, dynamics, and institutions? What is the nature of economic explanation? What is
the relationship between abstract mathematical models and theorems, on the one hand, and theempirical reality of economic behavior and institutions, on the other? What is the nature of theconcepts and theories in terms of which economic beliefs are formulated? Are there lawlike
regularities among economic phenomena? What is the status of predictions in economics?
The intellectual role of the philosophy of economics
Philosophers are not empirical researchers, and on the whole they are not formal theorybuilders. So what constructive role does philosophy have to play in economics? There areseveral. First, philosophers are well prepared to examine the logical and rational features of anempirical discipline. How do theoretical claims in the discipline relate to empirical evidence?
How do pragmatic features of theories such as simplicity, ease of computation, and the like, playa role in the rational appraisal of a theory? How do presuppositions and traditions of research
serve to structure the forward development of the theories and hypotheses of the discipline?
Second, philosophers are well equipped to consider topics having to do with the concepts andtheories that economists employ—for example, economic rationality, Nash equilibrium, perfectcompetition, transaction costs, or asymmetric information. Philosophers can offer useful
analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of such concepts and theories—thereby helping
practicing economists to further refine the theoretical foundations of their discipline. In this role1

The philosophy of economics is now a well-established sub-discipline within philosophy. Significant contributions
to the discipline include (Buchanan 1985), (Hausman 1984), (Hausman 1992), (Hausman and McPherson 1996),(Little 1995), (Sen 1987), and (Rosenberg 1992). See also the journal Philosophy and Economics.

the philosopher serves as a conceptual clarifier for the discipline, working in partnership with thepractitioners to bring about more successful economic theories and explanations.
So far we have described the position of the philosopher as the “underlaborer” of theeconomist. But in fact, the line between criticism and theory formation is not a sharp one.
Economists such as Amartya Sen and philosophers such as Daniel Hausman have demonstrated
that there is a very constructive crossing of the frontier that is possible between philosophy andeconomics; and that philosophical expertise can result in significant substantive progress withregard to important theoretical or empirical problems within the discipline of economics. The
cumulative contents of the journal Economics and Philosophy provide clear evidence of the
productive engagements that are possible when philosophy meets economics.
In order to accomplish these goals, the philosopher of economics has a responsibility
parallel to that of the philosopher of biology or philosopher of physics: he or she must attain aprofessional and rigorous understanding of the discipline as it currently exists. The mostvaluable work in the philosophy of any science proceeds from the basis of significant expertiseon the part of the philosopher about the “best practice,” contemporary debates, and futurechallenges of the discipline. Only through such acquaintance will the philosopher succeed inraising topics that genuinely engage with important issues in the profession.
Important questions in the philosophy of economics
Let us now consider a sampling of philosophical questions about economics as an organizedbody of knowledge. These questions by no means exhaust the content of the philosophy of
economics, but they serve to give the reader of the types of questions that philosophers have
posed to the discipline of economics.
Are there laws in economics?
The concept of a “law of nature” has been central to our understanding of the naturalsciences. The intellectual power of classical physics derived from the fact that it was capable ofadvancing statements of physical laws that were simple and universal—laws of gravitation andplanetary motion, optics, electricity and magnetism, etc. Is this an essential feature of a
successful empirical science? And does economics possess such laws? Several authors areaffirmative on both points (Kincaid 1996), (Rosenberg 1976). However, several points haveemerged in recent discussions of the social sciences that lead to doubt about the centrality oflaws in the social sciences—including economics. First, there are significant differences
between natural and social phenomena that should make us dubious about the availability ofstrong “laws of nature” describing social phenomena. Second, it is clear that there areregularities within the discipline of empirical economics—consumption usually rises when prices
fall, trade increases when transport costs fall, and infant mortality usually falls when states
devote more resources to public health. But these are fairly humdrum empirical regularities,
exception-laden and obvious. Are there strong “economic laws” that have the force of
Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetic propagation? Nothing in current economic theory provides
reason to think that there are such laws. The foundational assumptions of economic theory
plainly do not fall in the category of “laws of nature.” And as we will see below, the assumptionof economic rationality does not constitute a universal generalization about individual behavior.
Here, as is the case in other areas of social science, it is more justifiable to seek out causal
mechanisms rather than social laws.

Are the assumptions of economics “realistic”?
Do economic theories and hypotheses serve to describe unobservable economic
mechanisms and structures? Milton Friedman set the stage for one answer to this question byarguing for an instrumentalist interpretation of economic assumptions (Friedman 1953). On
Friedman’s view, the value of a theory is entirely expressed in its ability to predict observablephenomena; the theory is an instrument of prediction. Instrumentalism, however, has generally
faced strong criticism from philosophers of science (Leplin 1984). This doctrine makes theempirical success of a theory a source of mystery. The best explanation of a theory’s having
generally reliable predictions about a range of phenomena is that the mechanisms that it
postulates are in fact true. So it is a deficiency in a theory that the mechanisms it postulates are
implausible or false. And economic theory would be substantially undermined if we were toconclude that its premises are profoundly inconsistent with the real underlying causal processes
that constitute a working economy. Against this instrumentalist framework Daniel Hausman
puts forward a realist approach to economic theory (Hausman 1992). Within this approach, thegoal for the economist is to arrive at assumptions that are approximately true. (As we will see
below, this methodological principle suggests that economists ought to pay greater attention toeconomic institutions, comparative economic analysis, and economic history.)
Are economic theories testable or falsifiable?
Before we can ask whether a theory is testable, we have to have a clear specification of
its empirical content. This requires us to ask the question, What is the theory intended todescribe, predict, or explain? A theory has empirical content if it makes assertions about causal
processes underlying a domain of phenomena and those assertions have consequences forobservable states of the world. Under these circumstances it is possible for us to perform
experiments (arrange the world in a certain way, observe the outcome, and compare with thetheory’s predicted outcome), controlled observations (collect “before-after” cases and compare
the outcomes with the theory’s predictions), piecemeal observations (examine elements ofprocess in order to assess whether the postulated causal processes did in fact occur), and so on.
Through these efforts we can bring empirical evidence to bear on the task of assessing the truthof the hypothesis. So the question before us is this: does economic theory contain substantive
assumptions about the causal workings of the economic world that are intended to have
implications for future observable states of the economic world? And are we able to perform
observations of states of the world that confirm or falsify the theory (Hands 1992)? In principle,
it is clear that the answer to this question is affirmative. Consider a range of theories of specificeconomic processes—economic growth, trade, unemployment, wages, or discrimination. Suchtheories have predictive consequences, and it is not especially difficult to describe theobservations that would need to be secured to test these theories. The epistemic difficulty comes
later: most theories of complex phenomena are in fact falsified—without necessarily being far
from the mark in their description of the underlying processes. So how are we to distinguishamong “falsified” theories to single out the more likely from the less likely (Lakatos 1974)?
Are economic theories simply formal mathematical systems, without empirical relevance?
Alexander Rosenberg makes a case for the formalist view of economic theory, having
concluded that economists have not succeeded in producing empirical theories or explanations ofreal empirical phenomena (Rosenberg 1992: chapter 8). Rosenberg likens microeconomics to
Euclidean geometry rather than classical physics or evolutionary biology; the “theory” is a set ofabstract and non-empirical axioms, and the exercise of “doing economics” is one of deriving
theorems from these axioms. Is this a satisfactory way of understanding the intellectual programof economics, however? It is not. The intellectual charge for the discipline of economics—notalways or successfully achieved—is to provide a social-scientific basis for understanding,explaining, and, perhaps, predicting economic phenomena. Why do interest rates affectinvestment levels? Why are inflation and unemployment related? Why is economic growthmore rapid in the context of one set of institutions than another? What are the causal links that
secure connections among economic variables? These are the sorts of questions that economists
are charged to answer. And the approach to economic theorizing that stipulates that thediscipline is purely formal will not aid in shedding light on these real, though unobservable,
economic mechanisms. On this line of thought, the persistent mathematization of economics
ought to be construed as a means to an end rather than the end itself. The formal ormathematical machinery of economics is intellectually valuable only insofar as it contributes to abetter understanding of real, empirically given economic processes, causes, and systems.
What is the status of the concept of economic rationality?
The concept of economic rationality is foundational within economic theory, andespecially so within neoclassical economics. So a special concern for philosophers of economics
has been to provide critical examination of the theory of economic rationality. Philosophers
have raised a series of important issues concerning the theory of economic rationality. Taken
together, these criticisms have led to a substantial enhancement in our understanding of theconcept of rationality. First, philosophers have devoted a great deal of attention to the gap
between a theory of utility and a theory of individual preference. Second, they have taken issue
with the assumption of egoism or rational self-interest that is presupposed in the pure theory (Sen1987), (Anderson 2000). Third, philosophers and others have pointed out that real psychologicalactors reason in ways that are at odds with the pure theory of economic rationality (Simon 1983),(Kahneman, et al. 1982). Fourth, philosophers and others have devoted significant attention to
the assumptions underlying game theory. Finally, some philosophers have undertaken to study
the characteristics of “economic rationality” in real human persons through experiment(Schmidtz 1991). For example, Robert Axelrod has used experimental settings to examine howreal human reasoners deal with prisoners’ dilemmas; he finds that experimental subjects are
frequently able to achieve cooperation rather than defection, contrary to the prediction of twoperson game theory (Axelrod 1984). The results of this research suggest that real reasoners
behave intelligently—but differently from the axioms of the theory of pure economic rationality.
What is the role of ethical values in economics?
Economists often portray their science as “value-free”—as a technical analysis of thedemands of rationality in the allocation of resources rather than a specific set of value or policy
commitments. On this interpretation, the economist wishes to be understood in analogy with thecivil engineer rather than the transportation policy maker: he or she can tell us how to build astable bridge, but not where, when, or why to do so. It is for citizens and policy makers to makethe judgments about the public good that are needed in order to decide whether a given road or
bridge is socially desirable; it is for the technical specialist to provide design and estimate ofcosts. This description of the discipline of economics fails in several important respects,
however. Economic theory contains a family of substantive presuppositions about the nature of
the good—individual and social—that directly influence the policy recommendations to whicheconomic theory gives rise. For example, the assumption of rational egoism is inconsistent withseveral of the values of communitarianism; the assumption that equity is subordinate toefficiency is inconsistent with an egalitarian political philosophy; and the assumption that abundle of commodities constitutes individual “wellbeing” is inconsistent with a more
Aristotelian conception of the good human life (Nussbaum 2000). So the premises andassumptions of economics are substantially intertwined with normative assumptions about thegood human life and the good society. This is not a deficiency, but it needs to be recognized sothat we can recognize the workings of the unstated value assumptions. And it certainly
invalidates the assumption of “value-free” social science. In general, it seems fair to say that the
ethical assumptions that neoclassical economics presupposes fall together into a family of
normative ideals that privilege individualism, inequality, and the minimal exercise of public
policy.
Is distributive justice a topic for economists?
Once it is recognized that economics has ethical content, it becomes apparent that weneed to examine the content of these ethical premises in detail, and offer critique when we findthem wanting. In particular, economics is obliged to confront issues of distributive justice much
more explicitly than it has to date. A market economy implies some degree of inequality, ofvarious kinds: inequalities of outcomes (wealth and income), inequalities of opportunity,
inequalities of power and influence, inequalities of levels of well-being (health, longevity,
education). What sorts of inequalities are morally acceptable in a just society? How extensive
can inequalities be before they create differences among citizens that interfere with their humandignity and the preconditions of democracy? Throughout the past thirty years philosophers havemade substantial contributions to our understanding of these issues of distributive justice and themoral status of inequality; (Rawls 2001), (Nozick 1974), (Elster 1992). There is more to bedone.
Is there a basis for rational debate about economic institutions?
What sort of social world does economic theory presuppose? In considering this type ofquestion, philosophers begin to move into substantive debates about the nature of the empiricalphenomena under study. The discussion falls under the rubric of “criticism,” in that it focuses onblindspots that can be discerned within the visual field of economic theorizing. Economists
make assumptions about the institutions that constitute the framework of economic transactions,and these assumptions are sometimes inflexible and unrealistic. It is therefore worthwhile forphilosophers to devote attention to the shortcomings of the social institutional assumptions that
economists often make. The new institutionalism in the social sciences has focused substantial
interest on the specifics of the institutions within which social activity takes place (Brinton and
Nee 1998), (Powell and DiMaggio 1991). Institutions matter; so a more refined account of theeconomic institutions of a particular market economy may lead to better understanding of thephenomena that we witness. For example, incorporation of transaction costs and asymmetric
information between buyer and seller has significantly changed our understanding of market
institutions. One strand of philosophical criticism comes from the level of abstractness of typicaleconomic theories. Greater empirical detail may well change the inferences we draw about theworkings of the institution. Market “imperfections” may be the rule rather than the exception—
so it is important to incorporate some of these empirical characteristics into our theories of
economic institutions.

Are there alternative economic institutions that can work in a modern economy?
Economic activity within a modern society requires institutions that define the use,management, and enjoyment of resources; the deployment and management of labor; and the
management of enterprises. Neoclassical economics presupposes private ownership of capital;“free” workers who do not own property; and states that have minimal economic influence. Are
there other institutions through which economic activity might be conducted within a modern
and productive society (Elster and Moene 1989)? For example, what is the economic logic ofworkers’ cooperatives? How could worker-controlled pension funds be used to enhance
democratic equality? Is there more to be learned from the experience of market socialism, state
ownership, or workers’ control of industrial processes? Are alternative institutions feasible? Arethey efficient? Are they equitable?
What can we learn from comparative economic analysis?
Economic development has proceeded in very different ways in different nations andregions since the emergence of modern technologies and economic institutions. Market
institutions developed very differently in Britain, France, and the United States during the 19thand 20th centuries. Collectivized economies followed different institutional trajectories in
Yugoslavia, the USSR, and China. What can we learn about economic processes and dynamics
by studying and comparing national economies in significant detail? For example, what do theparallel yet different experiences of China and India since 1945 teach us about alternative
pathways of economic development (Drèze and Sen 1989)? Does this sort of comparative
economic research provide a “post cold war” basis for analyzing the political economy ofdevelopment? As economists come to confront the intellectual challenge of providing realistic
causal accounts of economic systems, they will be able to arrive at significant new insights
through comparative economic analysis.
What is the intellectual relevance of the history of western industrial capitalism for economic
theory?
Re-examination of the history of European capitalism suggests that there were feasible
alternative paths of economic development besides mass manufacture and specialized production(Sabel and Zeitlin 1997). Mass manufacture and mass unskilled labor represented one importantalternative, but there were other historically feasible alternatives. As Sabel and Zeitlin
demonstrate, another feasible system of industrial production involves highly skilled workers,
flexible production, and flexible tools and production processes (Sabel 1985). Once again, themoral for the discipline of economics is an important one : It is possible to arrive at more
empirically satisfactory economic theories when we consider the range of institutions throughwhich economic activity and growth has taken place.
Conclusions
The philosophy of economics serves as a source of sympathetic yet rigorous critique ofthe science of economics, broadly construed. It raises familiar questions about the epistemologyof this branch of the social sciences—questions about theory structure, theory confirmation,
explanatory adequacy, and the like. It questions the implicit normative assumptions that
economics contains. It raises some of the ethical questions that economics is almost forced toconfront—but rarely does. And it suggests the value of a broader and more eclectic approach toeconomic theorizing—making more extensive use of alternative theoretical approaches,incorporating more study of economic institutions, paying more attention to comparative
economic trajectories, and giving more rigorous attention to economic history. Economics will
be a more successful social science when it embraces more of the role it often played in the 19th
century as a seminal social science—an area of social inquiry that was equally interested in theconcrete social and economic institutions that constituted a “modern” economy, interested in the
ethical implications of the social phenomena with which it was concerned, and willing toconsider a variety of theoretical models in aspiring to the goal of achieving a scientificunderstanding of economic processes, institutions, and outcomes.
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