Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414
DOI 10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9

THEORETICAL REVIEW

Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation
and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theoryof motor learning
Gabriele Wulf 1 & Rebecca Lewthwaite 2,3

Published online: 29 January 2016
# Psychonomic Society, Inc. 2016

Abstract Effective motor performance is important for surviving and thriving, and skilled movement is critical in many
activities. Much theorizing over the past few decades has focused on how certain practice conditions affect the processingof task-related information to affect learning. Yet, existing
theoretical perspectives do not accommodate significant recent lines of evidence demonstrating motivational and attentional effects on performance and learning. These include research on (a) conditions that enhance expectancies for future
performance, (b) variables that influence learners’ autonomy,and (c) an external focus of attention on the intended movement effect. We propose the OPTIMAL (Optimizing
Performance through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for
Learning) theory of motor learning. We suggest that motivational and attentional factors contribute to performance andlearning by strengthening the coupling of goals to actions.
We provide explanations for the performance and learningadvantages of these variables on psychological and neuroscientific grounds. We describe a plausible mechanism for expectancy effects rooted in responses of dopamine to the anticipation of positive experience and temporally associated withskill practice. Learner autonomy acts perhaps largely throughan enhanced expectancy pathway. Furthermore, we consider
Gabriele Wulf and Rebecca Lewthwaite contributed equally to this work.
* Gabriele Wulf
gabriele.wulf@unlv.edu

1

Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of
Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154-3034, USA

2

Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Center, Downey, CA,USA

3

University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA

the influence of an external focus for the establishment ofefficient functional connections across brain networks that
subserve skilled movement. We speculate that enhanced expectancies and an external focus propel performers’ cognitiveand motor systems in productive “forward” directions andprevent “backsliding” into self- and non-task focused states.
Expected success presumably breeds further success and helps
consolidate memories. We discuss practical implications andfuture research directions.
Keywords Motivation . Attentional focus . Self-efficacy .
Positive affect . Dopamine . Motor performance
Skilled movement is fundamental to surviving and thriving in
the world and the basis as well for many of the highest humanendeavors and cultural achievements, from sport to art to music.
How people learn and relearn movement skills has been addressed from a number of disparate scientific perspectives andlevels of analysis, including behavioral, social cognitive, neurophysiological, and neurocomputational. In part, differences inassumptions, scientific terminology and philosophy, as well as
methodological approaches have made scholarly
rapprochement challenging, but we see the end goal of optimizing motor learning as important. We suggest that it may bevaluable to bring recent insights from various approaches together to identify a coherent way forward that can result in
optimized learning from humans’ earliest encounters with new
motor skills to the lifelong development of motoric expertise.
It is typically considered time to look afresh at dominant
theories in a field when the accumulating evidence suggeststhat old frameworks cannot account for substantial new insights and data. We contend that such a circumstance exists
with respect to the state of motor learning theory. With respect
to the need to refresh and align perspectives on motor learningPsychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

theories, we posit that a substantial body of knowledge has
accumulated with respect to behavioral evidence on intrinsic
forms of motivational influences as well as the focus ofmovers’ attention and its effects on motor performance andlearning. None of these literatures has a home within prevailing theoretical approaches, yet they have had substantial playwithin the empirical realm. Where and how might they (andother related research) fit our conceptions of important influences on human motor performance and learning?
Furthermore, there have been continuing advances beyond
origins in animal models in neuroscience, including content
related to human social, cognitive, affective, and motor neuroscience. These advances include insights into brain structureand function, network connectivity, neuromodulators of brain
activity, mechanisms of neuroplasticity, and in methodology(Braver, Krug, Chiew, Kool, Westbrook, Clement et al.,2014). Moreover, beyond its connections to neuroscience,
psychological science (and sport psychology) provide important experimental, observational, and qualitative perspectives
on especially longer-term influences on skilled motor behavior that should inform theories that purport to explain realworld and sustainable motor learning. With such an expansionof available insights, we think it is time to begin to explore aricher blend of findings from these different scholarly traditions to contribute to our ability to influence movement learning in the many domains of human endeavor where it is crucial or desirable. The collective lines of behavioral research
can provide perspectives on influences and mechanisms ofhuman motor performance and learning beyond what can easily be accomplished in a neuroimaging scanner, heightening
insights into the ecological validity of that work. Furthermore,
the breadth of experimental manipulations regarding positive
motivational influences on learning may suggest ways to expand upon the heavy use of extrinsic rewards in studying
neural systems with roles in learning. That being said, we notethat our anchoring perspective is in human motor behavior per
se, as it can be studied experimentally with classical phases ofskill acquisition and learning in the forms of retention andtransfer tests for motor skill.

Need for a new perspective
While the popularity of various factors or practice conditions
that affect motor learning (e.g., variable versus constant practice, random versus blocked practice, augmented feedback,movement observation, self-controlled practice) has changed
over the years, what has been fairly consistent across different
lines of research is the interpretation of how these factors
affect learning. Stemming from earlier models of humans ascomputer-like processors of information (Broadbent, 1958;
Sternberg, 1969), factors influencing motor learning havebeen viewed almost invariably from a motivationally neutral

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information-processing perspective. The view that motor
learning is enhanced by practice conditions that make information processing more difficult and effortful has dominatedthe discourse in the motor learning literature (Guadagnoli &Lee, 2004; Lee, Swinnen, & Serrien, 1994; Schmidt & Bjork,1992). While the task-related informational functions of augmented feedback, model presentations, or variable or random
practice, etc. are likely important, it has become clear that
motivational (e.g., social-cognitive, affective) factors associated with various practice conditions have an important influence on learning as well (Lewthwaite & Wulf, 2010a, 2012).
Theoretical perspectives (Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984;
Schmidt, 1975) that consider no more than temporary motivational influences are not able to capture and adequately explain the entirety of influences on motor behavior, including
perhaps some of the most important ones.
Given the considerable advances in our understanding of
motor skill learning over the past few decades, a new theory
that encompasses new findings—some of which are the resultof new methodologies—is needed. Therefore, in the present
paper, we propose a theory of motor learning that takes into
account the social-cognitive–affective–motor nature of “motor” behavior (Lewthwaite & Wulf, 2010a): The OPTIMAL(Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and
Attention for Learning) Theory. Before outlining this new
theory, we discuss the intertwined nature of motor, cognitive,
affective, and sociocultural influences on performance. We
then review findings that point to strong motivational andattentional focus impacts on motor learning. Next, we describe
the OPTIMAL theory, which takes into account those new
insights, as a new perspective on motor learning. The foundation of our theory is motor behavior. That is, we are lessconcerned with skills that have a strong cognitive or
decision-making component (i.e., learning “what”; see
Shmuelof & Krakauer, 2011). Rather, of concern is primarily
the learning of “how” to bring about the coordinated or skilledcontrol of (complex) movement, for which the quality of
movement execution is of primary importance (Shmuelof &Krakauer, 2011). Certainly, the acquisition of skilled movement would allow for more effective integration with strategic
and interactive decisions relevant to natural contexts ofmotoric achievement.

Social-cognitive-affective-motor behavior
Human behavior, including motor behavior, is embedded in a
cultural context, with norms and stereotypes about appropriate or expected activities for certain age, gender, or ethnic
groups (Stone, Lynch, Sjomeling, & Darley, 1999). Motorbehavior is observable and often performed publicly, that is,
in a social context. The presence of another person, or otherpersons, may provide reassurance (e.g., rehabilitation

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alongside another person who has experienced a stroke) or
conjure pressure to perform well, and exert facilitating or impeding influences, respectively. Similarly, cognitions or
thoughts can speed (e.g., focusing on the intended movement
effect) or slow motor learning (e.g., focusing on movement
coordination) (Wulf, 2013). For instance, a novice windsurfer
who is already a proficient surfer will have confidence in her
ability to acquire the skills necessary for windsurfing. Beyond
the transfer of balance-related skills, this confidence will likely reduce self-related concerns and cognitions, allowing her tofocus on achieving the task goal and maintaining her balance
despite perturbations from wind and water, or being watchedby others. The experience of success may create positive expectations that, in turn, may further contribute to her learning
progress.
The influence of a person’s mindset on his or her performance can be observed easily in situations in which complex
motor skills are performed, such as sports. Choking underpressure (Beilock, 2011) or flow states (Csikszentmihalyi,1990) are well-known phenomena that have been linked tothe performer’s state of mind. In the former case, concerns,
worries, or nervousness in challenging situations can result ina downward spiral of poor performance, ensuing conscious
control attempts and self-regulatory activities, and further performance decrements. In the latter case, high confidence in
one’s abilities can produce the effortlessness, automaticity,and task focus seen in effective high-level performance. Is
there a principal difference in how a performer’s mindset influences performance at an advanced or high skill level and in
the early stages of learning? Is confidence simply a “sideeffect” of expertise, or can confidence-enhancing measuresfacilitate learning in beginners? Is conscious control of
movements detrimental to efficiency of expert performance but necessary, or even desirable, in novices? Or
can methods that promote automaticity early enhancelearning in the long-term?
It has become clear that the view of humans as processorsof neutral information does not capture the breadth or variety
of influences on motor behavior. The OPTIMAL theory builds
on the premise that motor learning cannot be understood without considering the motivational (e.g., social-cognitive andaffective) and attentional influences on behavior. We contend
these influences on the performance and learning of motor
skills are similar across human learners, though perhaps amplified or dampened within individuals. Presumably not coincidentally, certain motivational factors, in particular those that
underlie intrinsic motivation or which satisfy fundamental
psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2008; Ryan &Deci, 2000), have been found to affect performance and learning in domains beyond movement (Hagger, Sultan,
Hardcastle, & Chatzisarantis, 2015; Taylor, Jungert, Mageau,
Schattke, Dedic, Rosenfield et al., 2014). We argue that thoseneeds must be met, or at least not be threatened, in order toPsychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

optimize motor learning. Broadly speaking, variables that enhance expectancies for future performance success—including those that satisfy the psychological need for competence(i.e., experiencing oneself as capable and competent)—have abeneficial effect on motor skill learning. Also, learnerautonomy (i.e., the need to actively participate in determining
one’s own behavior) appears to influence optimal learning.
Furthermore, an external focus of attention, or a concentrationon the intended movement effect, enhances motor performance and learning (Wulf, 2013).

Motivation
Motivation can be a broad and inclusive term for factors
influencing and encompassing the energization, direction,and intensity of behavior. It is not surprising then that thewords motivation and motor [learning, behavior, performance] share the same Latin root, movere (to move). Thus,
many variables—from social and other environmental conditions to internal thoughts and processes, and affective responses—can initiate or alter the direction and intensity ofongoing behavior. These motivational influences can be implicit (subliminal, primed) (Aarts, Custers, & Marien, 2009;
Chartrand & Bargh, 2002; Ferguson & Bargh, 2004; Radel,
Sarrazin, & Pelletier, 2009) or explicit in nature. Within thehistory of the study of human motivation, a number of theoretical perspectives elevate cognitions and conditions
pertaining to expectations for the future as well as perceptionsof autonomy to prominent motivational positions. That is, we
act when future prospects provide a sense that positive outcomes will occur, and perhaps particularly when we believe
we will be the agents who bring these positive outcomes tofruition. It is therefore perhaps not surprising that conditions
that enhance learners’ performance expectancies (see next
subsection, “Enhanced Expectancies”) or support their needto feel autonomous (see “Autonomy” section) facilitate motor
learning.
Enhanced expectancies
Expectations carry personal histories of experiences forward
in time into new contexts to allow preparation for future
events. Critically, expectations are not motivationally neutral;
they anticipate rewarding properties of significance to fulfilling organismic needs and desires (Schmidt, Braun, Wager, &Shohamy, 2014). Expectations or expectancies have hadprominent roles in both psychological (e.g., expectancyvalue theory, Feather, 1982; self-efficacy theory, Bandura,
1977) and neuroscientific (e.g., reward prediction error;
Schultz, 1998, 2000) theorizing for decades. While lack ofconfidence may detract from movement fluidity or automaticity, circumstances that enhance learners’ expectations of futurePsychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

performance success can potentiate even more success, improvement, and learning (Rosenqvist & Skans, 2015). The concept of expectancies is used here to refer to a range of forwarddirected anticipatory or predictive cognitions or beliefs about
what is to occur. These encompass self-efficacy and outcome
expectations (Bandura, 1977), including placebos (Wager &Atlas, 2015), as well as signals predicting extrinsic rewards(Fiorillo, Newsome, & Schultz, 2008; Schultz, 2000). Because
we focus on volitional movement, often occurring without the
involvement of others, the form of expectation particularly pertinent to motor learning and performance in its individual expression is self-efficacy expectations. Self-efficacy expectations
are relevant directly to the performer and the quality of the
movements she or he can produce. Ostensibly, relevant expectations for the same movement task performed in different contexts (e.g., throwing a javelin in ideal environmental conditions
versus in a windstorm) may involve differing impacts of selfefficacy versus outcome expectancies, depending upon the performer’s control over the ultimate relevant outcome. We apply
the term “confidence” as well to self-efficacy expectations. We
further acknowledge that these terms may apply in the sense ofcollective or team efficacy (Feltz, Short, & Sullivan, 2008),
although we do not develop those arguments in the present
paper. Importantly, we presume that expectations are among
the motivational variables that can exert influence through implicit means (e.g., stereotype threats, goals), although deliberative, explicit, forms of these variables were originally described(Bandura, 1977; Deci & Ryan, 1985).
Self-efficacy is an individual’s situation-specific confidence or prospective sense that he or she will be able to effectthe actions that bring about task outcomes (Bandura, 1977,
1997). Past success experiences, or lack thereof, are the main
theoretical determinants of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977;
Lamarche, Gammage, & Adkin, 2011; Tzetzis, Votsis, &Kourtessis, 2008). Confidence has been recognized as a predictor of performance (Feltz, Chow, & Hepler, 2008; Moritz,
Feltz, Fahrbach, & Mack, 2000; Rosenqvist & Skans, 2015),
and importantly, self-efficacy resulting from success experiences during the practice of a motor task is predictive of performance on subsequent tests of motor learning (Pascua,
Wulf, & Lewthwaite, 2015; Stevens, Anderson, O’Dwyer, &Williams, 2012; Wulf, Chiviacowsy, & Cardozo, 2014) or
performance (Rosenqvist & Skans, 2015).
Findings from a number of lines of research provide converging evidence for the effectiveness of practice conditions
that enhance learners’ performance expectancies. Some ofthese findings come from investigations into the effects ofpositive feedback, including social-comparative feedback
and self-modeling. Other studies have provided evidence ofimproved performance or learning by, for instance, reducing
perceived task difficulty, defining success liberally or in positive normative terms, alleviating learners’ concerns, or
influencing how ability is conceptualized.

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Positive feedback
While feedback plays an important role in any learning process, the predominant view of augmented feedback in the
motor learning literature is that it provides the learner withinformation about his or her performance relative to the task
goal (cf. guidance hypothesis; Salmoni et al., 1984). An underappreciated function of feedback in the motor learning literature has been its influence on the performer’s motivational
state. In a series of recent studies, providing learners withfeedback after “good” trials, compared with “poor” trials, resulted in more effective learning (Badami, VaezMousavi,
Wulf, & Namazizadeh, 2012; Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2007;
Chiviacowsky, Wulf, Wally, & Borges, 2009; Saemi, Porter,
Ghotbi-Varzaneh, Zarghami, & Maleki, 2012; Saemi, Wulf,
Varzaneh, & Zarghami, 2011). In those studies, feedback
about task performance was given after blocks of trials.
However, it was provided for only half of the trials in eachblock. Unbeknownst to the participants, they were given feedback about either their most or least accurate trials in thatblock. Groups that received feedback on the more accurate
trials demonstrated more effective learning on retention tests
without feedback. Thus, feedback emphasizing successful performance, while ignoring less successful attempts, benefitedlearning. Feedback after good trials has also been found to increase perceptions of competence (Badami, VaezMousavi, Wulf,& Namazizadeh, 2011; Saemi et al., 2011) and self-efficacy(Badami et al., 2012; Saemi et al., 2012). The conviction that
one is doing well, and the confidence in being able to perform
well in the future, or their correlates such as positive affect, areconditions consistent with optimal performance and learning.
Social-comparative feedback
Providing individuals with normative information, such as theaverage performance scores of other learners, is a potent basis
for evaluating one’s own competence. Experimentally, socialcomparative information is typically provided in addition toveridical feedback about the learner’s own performance(Ávila, Chiviacowsky, Wulf, & Lewthwaite, 2012;
Lewthwaite & Wulf, 2010b; Wulf, Chiviacowsky, &Lewthwaite, 2010, Wulf et al., 2012). Studies have demonstrated that motor learning is enhanced by (false) positive feedback,suggesting more effective performance or greater improvement
than average, compared with negative feedback that indicatespoorer performance relative to others, or even no socialcomparative feedback (control conditions). In one study(Lewthwaite & Wulf, 2010b), participants who were given normative feedback suggesting that their performance on a balancetask was better than average (“better” group) demonstrated
more effective learning on a delayed retention test without
feedback than did participants who were led to believe that theirperformance was worse than average (“worse” group).

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Interestingly, a control group that was not provided normative
feedback showed performance and learning similar to that of
the worse group. Positive normative feedback also produced
qualitative differences in movement control, with participants
exhibiting greater automaticity and efficiency in motor control
than participants who received negative or no normative feedback. Similarly, in studies concerned with performance rather
than learning, increases in movement efficiency resulting frompositive social-comparative feedback were observed. Stoate,
Wulf, and Lewthwaite (2012) found that favorable feedback
enhanced running efficiency in experienced runners, in addition
to reducing perceptions of effort. A study by Hutchinson,
Sherman, Martinovic, and Tenenbaum (2008) showed greater
tolerance for sustained effort in a continuous force productiontask, increased self-efficacy, and lower perceived exertion as afunction of positive normative feedback compared with both
negative feedback and control conditions.1
Positive normative feedback has been found to increase perceived competence (Ávila et al., 2012), reduce concerns andnervousness about performance and ability (Wulf et al., 2012,
Experiment 1), increase satisfaction with performance and motivation to learn (Wulf, Lewthwaite, & Hooyman, 2013), andincrease positive affect (Stoate et al., 2012). In contrast, negative feedback (and perhaps control) conditions seem to trigger
thoughts about the self and resulting self-regulatory activities
that hamper learning of the primary task. For example, in astudy by Wulf, Lewthwaite, and Hooyman (2013), participantslearning a balance task who received negative normative feedback, demonstrated defensive, self-enhancing reactions to theself-related threat that was reflected in increased signature size
over the course of practice. Signature size change has beeninterpreted as reflecting an implicit mechanism to regulate anxiety and negative affect resulting from threats to self-esteem,
and increased signature sizes are seen as a sign of implicit selfesteem compensation (Rudman, Dohn, & Fairchild, 2007).

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

and learning effects of positive social-comparative feedback
and its motivational consequences.

Perceived task difficulty
There are also more subtle and less expensive ways of enhancing
expectancies to facilitate performance and learning than giving
false feedback, editing videotapes (self-modeling), or providing
rewards. In one study, older adults (average age: 64 years)—who
may have concerns when expected to demonstrate abilities, suchas balance, that supposedly decline with age (Hughes, Geraci, &De Forrest, 2013)—were informed, before practicing a novel
balance task, that “active and experienced persons like (them)”
typically did well on that task (Wulf et al., 2012, Experiment 2).
Compared with not receiving this information (control group),
this simple statement resulted in increased self-efficacy and superior learning. Thus, the general comment on a peer group’s
performance presumably made the novel and relatively challenging balance task appear less daunting and alleviated concerns
older adults may have had, elevating self-efficacy relative to acontrol group. Performance and learning were also facilitated.
Setting criteria that purportedly indicate good performance,
but that can be reached relatively easily, can also raiselearners’ expectancies. Using a visuo-motor adaptation task,
Trempe, Sabourin, and Proteau (2012) found that visuomotor
adaptation was enhanced when participants were given a relatively easy objective or goal—and thus experienced more
success during practice—relative to participants who were
given a more difficult goal. As shown in Figure 1, a groupwith an easy goal (24-hour easy-objective) outperformed agroup with a difficult goal (24-hour difficult-objective) when

Self-modeling
In a few studies, the effects of edited video feedback about
learners’ best performance (so-called self-modeling) werecompared with video feedback about their actual or average
performance, no video feedback (Clark & Ste-Marie, 2007),or verbal instructions (Ste-Marie, Vertest, Rymal, & Martini,2011). Interestingly, learners who watched the edited videos
that showed their best swimming strokes or trampoline skills
demonstrated enhanced learning relative to other groups. In
addition, self-modeling resulted in greater intrinsic motivationand satisfaction with performance (Clark & Ste-Marie, 2007).
These findings are consistent with the beneficial performance1

Of course, experimental use of false social-comparative feedback,though revealing of learners’ needs for a sense of competence, is notrecommended for direct application.

Fig. 1 Errors on a visuomotor adaptation task in the study by Trempe,
Sabourin, and Proteau (2012). When given an easy goal in session 1 (24hour easy objective group), enhanced learning was seen 24 hours later(session 2). Thus, rather than actual performance during session 1, thesubjective experience of success facilitated memory consolidation. Note.
From “Success modulates consolidation of a visuomotor adaptationtask,” by Trempe, Sabourin, and Proteau, 2012, Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, p. 56

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

were relatively permanent and independent of the presence ofthe optical illusions. Both self-efficacy and learning (i.e., retention performance without optical illusions) were enhancedin the group that practiced with a perceived larger hole compared with a group that experienced a smaller-looking hole
(Figure 2). Thus, the benefits of enhanced expectancies dueto the apparently larger hole during practice extended to thelearning of this task. Overall, it is striking how easily performance and learning, across task domains, can be affected by
performers’ expectancies.
Hypnosis also may have the capacity to increase expectancies (Barker, Jones, & Greenlees, 2010), which in turn may
lead to performance or learning enhancements. In one study,
even a brief (10-minute) hypnotic intervention improved
throwing accuracy (Jalene & Wulf, 2014). A group that
underwent a hypnosis session, which had as a central theme
the suggestion that a focus on the target would enhance accuracy, showed greater throwing accuracy on 10-minute and 1week retention tests than a control group that simply received
instructions informing them about the benefits of a focus on
the target.
Interestingly, suggestions that one is doing well do not haveto be related to one’s motor performance per se. For example,
instilling the belief in individuals that they are likely toa)45

Retention

Practice

Deviation (cm)40
35

Perceived small hole

30

Perceived large hole
25
20
15
1

2

3

4

5

1

Blocks of 10 trialsb)7
6

Self-efficacy

both groups were retested 24 hours after the practice phase.
The 24-hour easy-objective group also outperformed two other groups that performed the second session after 5 minutes.
Thus, when memory consolidation had a chance to take place(24-hour groups), the success experienced during practicemanifested itself in enhanced learning. Interestingly, this was
the case even though the actual performance of the 24-houreasy-objective group did not differ from that of the othergroups in the first session. Conversely, providing performers
with a criterion for good performance that is difficult to reachcan impair learning. Palmer, Chiviacowsky, and Wulf (2016)provided non-golfers with instructions that putting withinsmaller or larger concentric circles surrounding a target would
constitute “good” golf putts. The group for whom the larger
circle was identified putted more accurately in practice and in
24-hour retention and transfer tests than did the group with thehigher standard or more conservative (smaller circle) definition of success. Chiviacowsky, Wulf, and Lewthwaite (2012)
demonstrated that learners practicing a coincident-timing task,
who were informed that errors within a very small bandwidth(4 ms) constituted good performance, showed less effective
learning than those with a comparatively large error bandwidth (30 ms), or those who had not been given a criterion(control group). Self-efficacy was degraded in the 4-ms groupas well.
Performance expectancies can be influenced by beliefs orsuggestions that certain aids or devices will assist performance,by optical illusions, and sometimes superstition (Ashor, 2011;
Damisch, Stoberock, and Mussweiler, 2010; Calin-Jageman &Caldwell, 2014). For example, believing that a putter used tobelong to a professional golfer was found to enhance putting
accuracy (Lee, Linkenauger, Bakdash, Joy-Gaba, & Proffitt,2011). In a series of experiments using both motor (e.g., golf
putting) or cognitive tasks (e.g., solving anagrams), Damisch,
Stoberock, and Mussweiler (2010) demonstrated that superstition—for instance, believing in “lucky” golf balls or the effectiveness of lucky charms—enhanced performance relative tocontrol conditions. In some of those experiments, self-efficacy
was assessed before the task was performed and was found to
be increased when a lucky charm was present as opposed toabsent. Moreover, performance was mediated by self-efficacy(but see Calin-Jageman & Caldwell, 2014, for a failure to replicate some of the superstition findings).
Optical illusions affecting the perceived size of the hole can
influence accuracy in golf putting. As demonstrated by Witt,
Linkenauger, and Proffitt (2012), when the golf hole appeared
larger because it was surrounded by small circles, participants
produced more successful putts than when the hole wassurrounded by larger circles and therefore appeared smaller(Ebbinghaus illusion). In a follow-up study, Chauvel, Wulf,
and Maquestiaux (2015) assessed participants’ self-efficacy as
a function of perceived hole size and used a retention test to
determine to what extent the performance-enhancing effects

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5
4

Perceived small hole

3

Perceived large hole2
10Before practice

After practice

Before ret.

Fig. 2 Golf putting performance (a) and self-efficacy (b) of the groups
for which the hole was surrounded by large circles (perceived small hole)or small circles (perceived large hole) during practice. The apparently
larger hole increased self-efficacy before and after practice, andenhanced learning (i.e., retention performance). Note. From “Enhanced
expectancies resulting from visual illusions can facilitate sport skill
learning,” by Chauvel, Wulf, and Maquestiaux, 2015, Psychonomic
Bulletin & Review, p. 720

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perform well in a certain category of situations (e.g., pressure)
can result not only in a higher perceived situational ability but
also in enhanced performance. In one study, enhancing performers’ expectancies for generic performance under pressure
increased their throwing accuracy relative to the control condition (McKay, Lewthwaite, & Wulf, 2012). That is, motor
performance was enhanced simply by suggesting to performers that they were likely to do well under pressure.
Conceptions of ability
Individuals’ conceptions of abilities—that is, their views of abilities as reflecting a fixed capacity versus being amenable tochange with practice (Dweck, 1999)—can affect not only theirmotivation to practice but also influence performance and learning more directly (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007;
Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Jourden, Bandura, & Banfield, 1991;
Mangels, Butterfield, Lamb, Good, & Dweck, 2006; Wulf &Lewthwaite, 2009). In general, people who believe that (motor)
abilities are relatively fixed (so-called entity theorists), tend to be
more concerned with proving their ability, and they perceive
errors or negative feedback as a threat to the self, because they
reveal a limited capacity or lack of ability. In contrast, people
who assume that abilities are changeable or malleable (so-called
incremental theorists) tend to focus more on learning and improving their performance on a given task. They are less threatened by feedback indicating errors or poor performance, andthey confront difficulties by increasing their effort.
Conceptions of ability can be influenced, often relatively
easily, by task instructions or performance feedback. Thosethat promote an entity theory tend to induce concerns about
performance or abilities being measured—with importantconsequences for actual performance, learning, and motivation. For both types of theorists, violations of patterns of expected results have affective and motivational consequences(Plaks & Stecher, 2007). Children’s conceptions of ability for
movement-relevant tasks were affected by even subtle differences in the wording of feedback (Chiviacowsky & Drews,
2014; Cimpian, Arce, Markman, & Dweck, 2007). In
Cimpian and colleagues’ study, 4-year-old children who performed a drawing task were given feedback implying that
performance reflected an inherent ability (“You are a good
drawer”) or the effort invested in a particular picture (“Youdid a good job drawing”). When confronted with mistakes
later, children who had received feedback that induced anentity as opposed to an incremental theory, showed diminished motivation and more negative self-evaluations.
Chiviacowsky and Drews (2014, Experiment 1), examinedchildren’s motor performance and learning as a function ofmanipulated beliefs about the nature of ability. Ten-year-old
children kicking soccer balls at a target received feedback
promoting an entity (“You are a great soccer player”) or incremental theory (e.g., “Those kicks were very good”) in thePsychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

first phase of the study. In a second phase, they were given
negative feedback (i.e., shots purportedly being “not very accurate”). After the negative feedback, participants in the former condition demonstrated degraded kicking accuracy relative to the latter condition.
Ability conceptions can also influence adults’ motivationand motor performance or learning. Jourden et al. (1991) informed one group of participants that a pursuit rotor task they
were about to perform, which required tracking a moving cursor with a stylus, represented a learnable skill. Participants inthat group showed greater self-efficacy, more positive affective
self-reactions, greater interest in the task, and greater
improvement across trials than did participants who were led
to believe that the apparatus measured their natural capacity forprocessing dynamic information. Wulf and Lewthwaite (2009)
examined whether instructionally induced conceptions of ability would have more permanent (i.e., learning) effects. The
learning of a balance task (stabilometer) was indeed enhanced
by instructions depicting performance on the task as an acquirable skill rather than something that reflected an inherent ability
for balance. The acquirable-skill group showed greater improvement in balance performance across retention trials, aswell as greater automaticity in the control of their movements(i.e., frequency of movement adjustments) than did theinherent-ability group. Control group participants without
ability-related instructions demonstrated similar performanceand learning as the inherent-ability group and therefore wereless effective and efficient than participants who viewed thetask as a learnable skill. Drews, Chiviacowsky, and Wulf
(2013) found similar effects in 6-, 10-, and 14-year-old children. Children of all age groups showed less effective learningof a throwing task when the instructions given before the practice phase suggested that performance was a reflection of an
inherent ability rather a function of practice.
Conceptions of abilities may affect the extent to which people frame and interpret performance fluctuations as successes
and failures, which may in turn influence motor performanceand learning. Some support for this notion comes from a study
by Wulf, Lewthwaite, and Hooyman (2013). Using astabilometer balance task, these authors found that instructions
inducing an entity theory led to an increase in participants’nervousness before and while balancing (during practice), as
well as more thoughts about their performance and ability, anda greater focus on body movements (during retention and transfer). Individuals who see task performance as a reflection of an
inherent ability presumably approach practice situations with acertain degree of apprehension (low expectations) that hinders
the learning process. This also may be the case for performers
whose concerns are not alleviated by information about themalleability of skills (control conditions). In contrast, individuals who believe that skills are acquirable are more likely toapproach a task as an opportunity to improve, and to see errors
as temporary and as being part of learning.

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

Extrinsic rewards
If rewards are experienced as an index of performance effectiveness, intrinsic motivation and personal performance expectancies are likely enhanced (Eisenberger, Pierce, &Cameron, 1999). Importantly, rewards appear to exert theireffects via expectation rather than receipt. That is, it is the
anticipation of reward (broadly defined) or reward prediction
error (Schultz, 2000, 2013) that places this form of enhanced
expectancies within our consideration here.
A few human behavioral studies have examined the effects
of extrinsic rewards on motor behavior and learning. Thosebehavioral studies corroborate the findings reviewed above
for other approaches to enhancing expectancies. For instance,
the prospect of a monetary incentive has been shown to improve movement performance in persons with Parkinson’s disease (Kojovic, Mir, Trender-Gerhard, Schneider, Pareés,
Edwards et al., 2014; Kühn, Brücke, Hübl, Schneider, Kupsch,
Eusebio et al., 2008) and to increase force production in healthy
participants (Pessiglione, Schmidt, Draganski, Kalisch, Lau,
Dolan et al., 2007). Abe and colleagues (Abe et al., 2011) foundthat a group receiving monetary rewards for good performanceon a tracking task during practice showed more effective learning than a group that was punished for poor performance (byhaving money deducted) or a control group. Interestingly, allgroups demonstrated similar performances immediately after
the practice phase. However, 6 hours later, the rewarded groupoutperformed the other two groups and, in contrast to thepunished and control groups, even showed performance gains
after 24 hours and 30 days.
Positive affectPositive affect is likely to accompany most experiences that
produce enhanced expectancies for valued outcomes. One
would expect heightened positive affect with desired outcomes
including performance success, satisfaction of fundamental
psychological needs, and extrinsic reward. In most cases, positive affect and positive cognitions would likely be co-effects ofthe same positive events or experiences. Anticipation of positive affect may be one relevant form of enhanced expectancies
with the potential to influence performance and learning.
Research directed at the impact of positive affect on cognitive
processes has documented increased cognitive flexibility andcreativity (cognitive performance) effects (Ashby, Isen, &Turken, 1999; Dreisbach & Goschke, 2004; Lyuborminsky,
King & Diener, 2005). Distinct from performance-generated
positive affect, Ridderinkhof and colleagues (Ridderinkhof,
van Wouwe, Band, Wylie, Van der Stigchel, van Hees,
Buitenweg et al., 2012) found that positive mood inductions
benefited cognitive processing in persons with Parkinson’s disease. Participants showed increased positive affect after
watching a Charlie Chaplin slapstick film clip and enhanced

1389

performance on a subsequent decision-learning task. By its
nature, to anticipate positive affect is to anticipate a pleasantand rewarding experience. It also is conceivable that theexpression of or invitation for positive affect enhanced
the participants’ sense of agency and thus expectationsof positive outcomes (Gentsch & Synofzik, 2014; see“Autonomy” section).
To our knowledge, there has been no claim that positive
affect itself uniquely indexes dopamine release; expectationsof other desirable cognitive experiences also are associated withdopaminergic response. Berridge (2007) contends that dopamine is not associated with the hedonic “liking” of rewards,
but rather with the “wanting” of rewards, which might suggestthat positive affect per se, unrelated to performance-associatedpositive emotional reactions, may in itself be rewarding but not
be the driver of a large range of rewarding effects on performance and learning (but see Ridderinkhof et al., 2012).
Interim summary: enhanced expectancies
Human beings appear to have a propensity to prefer positive
information about themselves, such as positive feedback about
their performance (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2007) or physicalfitness, athleticism, health, and physical attractiveness(Ennigkeit & Hänsel, 2014). While these preferences may simply imply a preference for states of positive over negative affectwithout performance implications, they may reflect people’s(implicit) knowledge of the beneficial consequences of thistype of feedback for motivation, performance, and learning.
As reviewed above, within the motor learning domain evidence
from various lines of research indicates that enhancing performance expectancies facilitates learning. Findings of enhanced
self-efficacy, increased task interest or satisfaction with one’s
performance, reduced concerns about one’s performance orabilities, and greater positive affect, support the notion thatthe observed learning benefits are mediated by motivational
factors. It is also worth noting that, when control conditions were
included – for example, in studies using social-comparative feedback (Lewthwaite & Wulf, 2010b), providing information about
the performance of peers (Wulf et al., 2012), or inducing conceptions of ability (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2009)—learning also
was suboptimal. These findings suggest that control conditions are not, in fact, “neutral” (or at least not affirmatively
positive). Experimental settings after all are public places andas such presumably induce worries about one’s performanceor abilities being observed, measured, and compared withthose of others—leading to less-than-optimal learning.
Mechanisms for enhanced expectancy effects
Interest in expectancy-performance relationships has long
been prominent in social and sport psychology. Heightened
expectations result from performance accomplishments

1390(Bandura, 1977), but expectations have also been experimentally and prospectively linked to motor performance (Feltz,
Chow, & Hepler, 2008; Hutchinson et al., 2008; Moritz
et al., 2000; Neiss, 1989; Wulf et al., 2012).
Prospectively, expectancies for personal performance appear to serve a task-readying function. We would be merely
reactive, and not proactive, without predictive and probabilitybased mechanisms that prepare us for action. Self-efficacy
expectations influence goals set and generate goal setting(Theodorakis, 1995; Locke & Latham, 2006). Perceptions ofself-efficacy are related to affective self-reactions and related
self-regulatory activity (Bandura & Jourden, 1991; Jourden,
Bandura, & Banfield, 1991; Themanson, Pontifex, Hillman,& McAuley, 2011). Task enjoyment (Hutchinson et al., 2008)
and positive affect as assessed by the Positive and Negative
Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988)
also have been related to conditions that enhance expectancies(Stoate et al., 2012). However, it is not known whether these
cognitive and affective impacts are co-effects or integral aspects of a confident state of mind. Self-efficacy or confidence
is more than just a consciously experienced perception or
belief in one’s own situation-specific capabilities. The affective feeling or sense of confidence is likely coincident with theself-percept or cognition of confidence. Watson and Clark(1999) included the affective dimension of self-confidence(self-assured) in the expanded version of the Positive and
Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS-X). The generation of
positive affect by the cognition of confidence may trigger
affective consequences relevant to performance and learning.
Beyond goal setting and positive affect with enhanced expectancies, a number of other preparatory-like effects of expectancies have emerged (Rowe, Eckstein, Braver, & Owen, 2008).
For example, expectancies can influence performance throughproactive effects on effort expenditure (Fiorio, Andani, Marotta,
Classen, & Tinazzi, 2014; Hutchinson et al., 2008) and on perception (Abrams & Weidler, 2015; Chauvel et al., 2015;
Piedimonte, Benedetti & Carlino, 2015; Witt, South, &Sugovic, 2014). Perception, rather than being a pure reflectionof objective sensory reality, incorporates perceivers’ assessments of their own and relevant others’ abilities (Linkenauger,
Witt, Stefanucci, Bakdash, & Proffitt, 2009; Witt et al., 2014).
Perceived task demands, therefore, can in effect be altered because of a performer’s confidence in his or her capabilities(Chauvel et al.) or in a placebo’s effect (Piedimonte et al.).
Action-specific perception may serve as preparation for task
performance, potentially sustaining focus on achievable elements and reducing concern about abilities to meet demands,
thus freeing up self-regulatory resources for performance.
Movement-system readying occurs through pre-movement
excitation or inhibition of neuromuscular systems relevant toupcoming movement execution. These, including thecorticospinal tract, have been recently attributed to expectations(Arias, Robles-García, Espinosa, Corral-Bergantiños,

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

Mordillo-Mateos, Grieve et al., 2014; Mooshagian, Keisler,
Zimmermann, Schweickert, & Wassermann, 2015; vanElswijk, Kleine, Overeem, & Stegeman, 2007). Similarly, suppression of activity related to unanticipated response options
has been found (Klein, Petitjean, Olivier, & Duque, 2014).
Expectancies can affect attention and cognition. Expectations
can influence working memory, long-term memory, and attentional capture, biasing them toward expected stimuli (Bollinger,
Rubens, Zanto, & Gazzaley, 2010; Jiao, Du, He & Zhang, 2015;
Shomstein & Johnson, 2013). Themanson and colleagues studied the relationship of self-efficacy to task-related attention processes in the context of flanker task performance (Themanson,
Hillman, McAuley, Buck, Doerksen, Morris, et al., 2008;
Themanson & Rosen, 2015). Higher self-efficacy was associatedwith greater attention to task error cues (Themanson et al., 2008)
and greater response accuracy during task execution with faster
reaction time (RT) during more difficult or incongruent task
conditions (Themanson & Rosen, 2015).
Within the set of “enhanced expectancy” variables we discuss, outcome expectations and external rewards provide themajority of the direct evidence of dopaminergic mediation(Lidstone, Schulzer, Dinelle, Mak, Sossi, Ruth et al., 2010;
Wager & Atlas, 2015). Outcome expectancies are central in
the placebo response in which individuals expect that pharmacological and other interventions will lead to beneficial outcomes (Ashor, 2011; de la Fuente-Fernandez, 2009; Lidstone
et al., 2010; Wager & Atlas, 2015). Outcome expectations forclinical improvement were altered for individuals with mild tomoderate levels of Parkinson disease (PD) by verbal information concerning the probability of receiving an effective pharmacological treatment for their PD symptoms (Lidstone et al.,2010). Four groups of participants received information indicating that they had a 25%, 50%, 75%, or 100% chance ofreceiving levodopa (a dopamine agonist commonly prescribedfor PD). All groups received a placebo. The group led tobelieve they had a strong but not certain (75%) expectationof levodopa receipt experienced dopamine release in theirventral and dorsal striata consistent with their measured
dopamingeric responses to actual levodopa.
High performance expectancies, as described above, appear to prepare the mover for successful movement throughdiverse effects at cognitive, motivational, neurophysiological,
and neuromuscular levels—ensuring that goals are effectively
coupled with desired actions. In the moments when action isplanned and executed, higher performance expectancies may
also serve as a buffer or protection against responses thatwould detract from optimal performance, such as
nonbeneficial alternate responses, including off-task activity(Jiao et al., 2015; Zahodne, Nowinski, Gershon, & Manly,2015) or self-referential thinking. The dual role of enhanced
expectancies for goal-action coupling—maintaining a focus
on the task goal and preventing or reducing a self-focus (orother off-task activity)—is indicated in the schematic of thePsychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

OPTIMAL theory in Figure 3. Of course, the obverse may betrue: low personal expectations for a positive outcome may
activate conflicting responses or act in the manner of a selfinvoking trigger (see section on “External Focus of Attention”;
McKay, Wulf, & Lewthwaite, 2015), inviting potentially taskincompatible concerns, anxiety, negative affective reactions, andneuromuscular activity, necessitating resource deployment toself-regulation and recovery. Conceptually at least, it also ispossible to hold such high expectations that preparation andattention to the task at hand seem superfluous and concentrationand commitment may suffer (Feltz & Wood, 2009).
Desirable experiences and outcomes produce psychological recognition, in the form of positive cognitions (e.g., efficacy and outcome expectations) and associated positive affective responses. A common substrate to consciously or subliminally registered conditions that signal success, enhance expectations of extrinsic rewards, support psychologicalbiological fundamental needs including competence, autonomy, and social-relatedness (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Deci
& Ryan, 2008; Leotti, Iyengar, & Ochsner, 2010; White,1959), and create positive affect, or several of the above(Koepp, Gunn, Lawrence, Cunningham, Dagher, Joneset al., 1998) may be the elicitation of a response in the
dopamingeric system. While the expectation of reward hasreceived particular attention as a trigger for a dopamine response (Schultz, 2013), other related cognitive-affective states
are supported as well (Schultz, 2010). These triggers andstates include novelty and other violations of expectations(Costa, Tran, Turchi, & Averbeck, 2014; Duzel, Bunzeck,
Guitart-Masip, & Duzel, 2010; Murty & Adcock, 2014), active video game play (Koepp et al., 1998), stress (Lighthall,
Gorlik, Schoeke, Frank, & Mather, 2013), and risk (Schultz,
2010). In the neuroscience tradition that stems from origins inanimal work, extrinsic rewards, such as food, water, and money, have been predominant in the study of dopamine responses. Importantly, as noted by Schultz, “Although rewards
have objective, physical, and chemical properties, their value

Fig. 3 Schematic of the OPTIMAL theory1391

is defined by the needs of the individual decision maker andthus intrinsically subjective.… The data suggest that both subjective perception and physical presence of a stimulus arenecessary to evoke dopamine responses, whereas physicalpresence alone is insufficient” (Schultz, 2013, pp. 231-232).
Dopaminergic systems subserve brain activity relevant tomotor, cognitive, and motivational functioning and include
the mesocortical, mesolimbic (often combined into themesocorticolimbic), and nigrostriatal dopamingeric systems(Nieoullon & Coquerel, 2003; Wise, 2004). The mesolimbic
dopaminergic system is associated with the reward or motivation system (a component of the salience network; Menon,
2015, see later section on “Goal-action coupling: a common
mechanism for motivational and attentional effects on motor
performance and learning”) and is centered in the subcorticalventral striatum that includes the nucleus accumbens, ventral
tegmental area, and globus pallidus. The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system, centered in the dorsal striatum, has been associatedwith working memory and motor system functions, such as motor
planning and response selection. Importantly, the latter system
receives projections from the former (Draganski,B., Kherif, F.,
Kloppel, S.,Cook, P. A.,Alexander,D.C., Parker et al., 2008;
Schmidt, Lebreton, Clery-Melin, Daunizeau, & Pessiglioni,
2012; Yin, Ostlund, Balleine, 2008), which may interact withthe motor system, including the primary motor cortex, via otherdirect and indirect pathways (Hosp, Pekanovic, Rioult-Pedotti, &Luft, 2011). We should note that the identification of a potential
common denominator in dopaminergic response, however, does
not negate recognition of the complexity of neurophysiologicalinfluences on performance and learning (Boureau & Dayan,
2011; Lancaster, Heerey, Mantripragada, & Linden, 2015).
While dopamine neurons predominantly signal some manner of positive reward and expected success is therefore important, a smaller set of dopamine neurons is responsive tonegative signals. Occasional risks to expected rewards (i.e.,
challenge) can transiently dampen the extant levels of rewardrelated dopamine but amplify the impact of subsequent1392

positive (but not negative) cues, strengthening the learning
effect (Schultz, 2010, 2013). It is conceivable that the potentiating effect of success with challenge on the strength of theresultant dopamine response may give rise to a variety of
beneficial learning and memory effects often attributed tochallenge or task difficulty per se (Lee, Swinnen, & Serrien,1994). Behaviorally, as well, challenge or stress may alert
learners to increase effort and attention to the task,
improving performance. A number of disparate but
intriguing effects also point to the potency of success withchallenge, particularly over challenge alone. For example,
Finn and Miele (2015) found that test takers preferred longer
tests of difficult math problems with starting or ending sets ofmoderately difficult (successful) items to shorter tests of thesame difficult math problems only. Interestingly, in the hippocampus, learning, but not training per se, rescues or increases
the survival of newly generated cells into differentiated neurons to the extent that the learning experience is new, effortful,and importantly successful (Shors, 2014).

Autonomy
Allowing individuals to exercise control over the environment
may not only satisfy a basic psychological need (Deci &Ryan, 2000; 2008; White, 1959) but may be a biological necessity (Leotti & Delgado, 2011; Leotti, Iyengar, Ochsner,2010). Studies with both humans (Tiger, Hanley, &Hernandez, 2006) and other animals (Catania, 1975; Catania& Sagvolden, 1980; Voss & Homzie, 1970) have shown thatboth prefer an option leading to a choice than an option that
does not, even if this option results in greater effort or work—suggesting the existence of an inherent reward with the exercise of control (Karsh & Eitam, 2015; Leotti & Delgado,2011). Along the same lines, Eitam, Kennedy, and Higgins(2013) demonstrated that human motivation is dependent on(the perception of) one’s actions having effects on the environment. Even if the effects of one’s actions are trivial, intrinsic motivation is enhanced if the performer has control overthose effects (termed Control Effect Motivation by Eitam
et al.). Conditions that provide an opportunity for choice
may be motivating, because they indicate that one will be able
to control upcoming events.
Consistently, studies in the motor learning literature
have shown that giving the learner control over certain
aspects of the practice conditions enhances motor skill
learning (for reviews, see Sanli, Patterson, Bray, & Lee,
2013; Wulf, 2007b). Also, the type of instructional language (i.e., autonomy-supportive, controlling) has beenfound to have an impact on motor learning. Perhaps mostinterestingly, giving learners choices—even it if they areincidental to the task—can influence learning. Thesefindings are reviewed next.

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

Control over practice conditions
Learning benefits of self-control have been found for control in
the forms of the delivery of feedback, augmented task information, use of assistive devices, movement demonstrations,amount of practice, task order, etc. Studies examining effects
of self-controlled practice usually involve a yoking procedure,in which each participant in a self-control group is paired withanother participant in a yoked group. A participant in the yokedgroup receives feedback, for example, on the same trials as did
their counterpart in the self-control group. Thus, because thefrequency and timing of feedback delivery, etc. is controlled
for and identical for both groups, any group differences thatemerge on retention or transfer tests can be attributed to the factthat one group had control over a certain variable, while theother group did not.
Enhanced learning with self-controlled feedback has beenfound with various movement tasks, including throwing tasks,
in which feedback was provided about movement form
(Janelle, Barba, Frehlich, Tennant, & Cauraugh, 1997) or theaccuracy of the throws (Chiviacowsky, Wulf, Laroque deMedeiros, Kaefer, & Tani, 2008). Other researchers have foundlearning advantages of self-controlled feedback for timing tasks(Chen, Hendrick, & Lidor, 2002; Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002;
Patterson & Carter, 2010). Self-controlled concurrent feedback
has been shown to facilitate the learning of perceptual invariants (i.e., adjusting walking speed when walking through virtual opening and closing doors) (Huet, Camachon, Fernandez,
Jacobs, & Montagne, 2009) and landing a virtual aircraft (Huet,
Jacobs, Camachon, Goulon, & Montagne, 2009).
In situations in which learning the correct movement sequence is challenging (e.g., dance routines, sign language, typographical script), information or reminders about the movement pattern to be executed are sometimes provided to thelearner. In a study using a Graffiti language learning task, which
involved entering symbols into a personal digital assistant when
prompted by the English-script cue, learners allowed to decide
when they wanted to view the correct pairing of the English cue
and respective symbol, as well as the viewing duration, before
entering the symbol, outperformed their yoked counterparts(Patterson & Lee, 2010).
When learners are given control over the use of physicalassistive devices on balance tasks, learning was enhanced relative to the externally controlled use of those devices (yokedconditions) (Chiviacowsky, Wulf, Lewthwaite, & Campos,
2012; Hartman, 2007; Wulf, Clauss, Shea, & Whitacre, 2001;
Wulf & Toole, 1999). For example, in one study participants
practiced a ski-simulator task and had, or did not have, theopportunity to decide on which trials to use poles that wereplaced on the floor to help them maintain their balance (Wulf& Toole). The participants in the self-controlled group showed
more effective learning, as measured by performance on a retention test without the poles, than did their yoked counterparts.

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

In other studies (Chiviacowsky et al., 2012a; Hartman,2007), learning to balance on a stabilometer platform was facilitated by holding a balance pole horizontally when the use ofthat pole was chosen by the participants rather than imposed
upon them. This finding is particularly interesting because, in apilot study, Hartman did not find advantages to using the poles
for the learning of this task, suggesting that control over anassistive device can have a beneficial effect on learning, even
if that device in and of itself is relatively ineffective.
Chiviacowsky and colleagues found similar learning benefitsof self-controlled pole use for persons with Parkinson’s disease.
Questionnaire results in that study revealed that participants
who were given a choice regarding the use of the pole felt lessnervous and were less concerned about their body positions.
Observational learning, that is, watching another performer
demonstrate a goal movement, is a commonly used and effective way of learning motor skills (for reviews, see Maslovat,
Hayes, Horn, & Hodges, 2010; Ong & Hodges, 2012). In a
study by Wulf, Raupach, and Pfeiffer (2005), participants
practiced a basketball jump shot, and a video of a skilledmodel could either be requested by them or was provided tothem at the respective times during practice. After a 7-day
retention interval, the self-control group showed superior
movement form compared with the yoked group.
Instructional language
The way in which task instructions are worded—that is,whether the language is autonomy-supportive or controlling—has been shown to influence motor learning(Hooyman, Wulf, & Lewthwaite, 2014), perhaps through thedown-regulatory effect of cortisol on the brain’s reward circuitry (Montoya, Bos, Terburg, Rosenberger, & van Honk,
2014). Hooyman et al. followed up on a study by Reeve andTseng (2011), in which instructions related to a puzzle taskthat was unsolvable in the time available led to differential
cortisol responses when they were worded in an autonomysupportive rather than controlling way. Hooyman and colleagues varied the way in which instructions for performinga modified cricket bowling action were presented. Instructions
that gave the participant a sense of choice (i.e., autonomysupportive language) led to superior learning than those thatoffered little option for how to execute the bowling action, etc.
(i.e., controlling language). As shown in Figure 4a, throwing
accuracy during both practice and retention was higher for thegroup that received autonomy-supportive rather than controlling language instructions during practice.
Incidental Choices
Allowing learners to choose the extent of practice or the spacingof practice trials has been found to lead to more effective learning than yoked control conditions (Post, Fairbrother, & Barros,1393

2011; Post, Fairbrother, Barros, & Kulpa, 2014). Letting participants choose the order in which they wanted to perform balance
exercises resulted in more effective learning of those exercises
than not giving them this choice (Wulf & Adams, 2014). In acase study with a professional kickboxer, letting him choose theorder of punches resulted in greater punching velocity and impact forces than a prescribed order of punches (Halperin,
Chapman, Martin, & Wulf, 2015). In addition, choice of exercise order can increase performers’ willingness to complete
more repetitions (Wulf, Freitas, & Tandy, 2014), which may
provide an additional indirect benefit to learning.
Importantly, even giving individuals choices that are incidental to the motor task has been demonstrated to have a positiveeffect on the learning of that task (Lewthwaite, Chiviacowsky, &Wulf, 2015). In one experiment, allowing participants to choose
the color of golf balls they were putting led to more effective task
learning than a yoked condition. Giving participants a choice ofball color also has been found to increase the learning of athrowing task (Wulf, Chiviacowsky, & Cardozo, 2014). In asecond experiment by Lewthwaite et al., the findings were evenmore compelling: The learning of a balance task (stabilometer)
was enhanced in a group in which participants were given a
choice related to one of two tasks they would practice afterwards
and in which they were asked their opinion as to which of two
prints of paintings should be hung in the laboratory. That is,relative to a yoked group that was simply informed of the second
task or the print to be hung, the choice group demonstrated more
effective retention performance on the balance task.
Interim summary: autonomy
As outlined above, providing learners with control, or
supporting their need for autonomy, has been found to enhancelearning in numerous studies. Independent of which factor thelearner is given control over—or whether this factor is evenrelated to the task to be learned—the learning benefits appear
to be very robust and generalizable to different tasks, agegroups, and populations. Its broad impact on motor learning
seems to suggest that autonomy support may exert its influencein various ways. Many possible explanations have been suggested for the learning benefits of granting learners control overpractice conditions. For example, it has been suggested that amore active involvement of the learner in the learning process
promotes deeper processing of relevant information(McCombs, 1989; Watkins, 1984; Chen & Singer, 1992); encourages error estimation (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2005); fosters the use of self-regulation strategies (Kirschenbaum, 1984);
or that giving the learner control over the practice conditions
might be, in a general sense, more motivating (Bandura, 1993;
Boekaerts, 1996). Increased task interest (Lewthwaite et al.,2015) and motivation to learn (Chiviacowsky, Wulf,
Lewthwaite, & Campos, 2012) when learners are given a choice
has indeed been found. Yet, we contend that the perception of

1394

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414a)Deviation from target (cm)70

Practice

Pre-test

Retention

60
50

ASL

40

CL
30
20
1

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

Blocks of 10 trialsb)
9

Self-eﬃcacy

8
7
6

ASL

5

CL

4
3

Day 1

Day 2

Fig. 4 Performance on a cricket bowling action task (i.e., target
deviations) (a) and self-efficacy (b) as a function of autonomysupportive (ASL) or controlling language (CL) instructions. Note. From

“Impacts of autonomy-supportive versus controlling instructional
language on motor learning,” by Hooyman, Wulf, and Lewthwaite,
2014, Human Movement Science, 36, p. 194-195

autonomy has a more direct impact on learners’ motivational
state and, consequently, their motor control and learning.

controlled feedback tend to receive feedback more after good
trials (i.e., with smaller errors) than after poor trials comparedwith control groups (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002;
Chiviacowsky, Wulf, Medeiros, Kaefer, & Tani, 2008;
Patterson & Carter, 2010; Patterson, Carter, & Sanli, 2011).
Thus, one reason for the effectiveness of self-controlled conditions may be that they have the potential to enhancelearners’ self-efficacy (Wulf, Chiviacowsky, & Cardozo,
2014; Wulf, Chiviacowsky, & Drews, 2015). Support for thisnotion also comes from a study in which learners’ perceptionsof competence in a self-controlled feedback condition werethwarted by informing them that only performances within avery small error range (i.e., 4 ms or less on an anticipationtiming task) were considered successful (Chiviacowsky, Wulf,& Lewthwaite, 2012). Compared with self-control groups thatwere not provided a performance criterion or were given acriterion that was easier to reach (30 ms), self-efficacy was
lower in that group and learning was degraded. Thus, when
given the opportunity, learners appear to use feedback as ameans to protect or enhance their perceptions of competence.
Similarly, the use of assistive devices (Chiviacowsky,
Wulf, Lewthwaite, & Campos, 2012; Hartman, 2007; Wulf
& Toole, 1999) or the ability to review solutions to problems

Mechanisms for autonomy-support effects
Potential consequences of autonomy-supportive conditions include facilitation of performance (Karsh & Eitam, 2015;
Legault & Inzlicht, 2013) as well as the opportunity to enhance
perceptions of competence, self-efficacy, and sense of agency(Chambon & Haggard, 2012). Legault and Inzlicht examinedin separate studies autonomous motivation (trait autonomy; seealso Ryan & Deci, 2000) and an autonomy-supportive condition as they affected the magnitude of the error-related negativity response to performance errors in Go/No-Go and Stroop
tasks requiring performance inhibition for accurate responding.
Autonomy was associated with greater self-regulatory responsiveness to task errors than controlling motivation and conditions, and in meditational analysis, to better performance.
Indirect effects of autonomy-supportive conditions include
the opportunity to enhance expectations for performance.
Indeed, learners able to control the delivery of feedback, typically report asking for feedback when they assumed theirperformance was relatively successful. Groups with self-Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

before entering them (Patterson & Lee, 2010) may allow
learners to maintain or increase their self-efficacy. Some evidence for a reduced self-focus (resulting from the presumed
increase in self-efficacy) comes from findings that participants, who were able to control their use of a balance poleon the stabilometer task (Chiviacowsky, Wulf, Lewthwaite, &Campos, 2012), reported being less nervous before a trial andwhile balancing, compared with their yoked counterparts.
Furthermore, they indicated that they were less concerned
about the position of their body parts, suggesting that they
were less likely to adopt a self-focus.
Interestingly, self-efficacy can also be increased byautonomy-supportive relative to controlling task instructions(Hooyman et al., 2014, Reeve & Tseng, 2011). In Reeve andTseng’s study, using a puzzle-solving task, participants in theautonomy-supportive group reported higher perceived competence than did participants in either the neutral or controlling group (which did not differ from each other). Also, in the
Hooyman et al. study, self-efficacy was higher when participants learning a cricket bowling action were given instructions
that provided them with a sense of autonomy (or neutral instructions), compared with controlling instructions(Figure 4b). Furthermore, in both studies, perceived autonomy
or choice was significantly correlated with self-efficacy. It
seems likely that autonomy-supportive conditions instill ageneralized sense of agency for learners that increases theirown confidence in being able to do well on a given task. Thus,
autonomy support directly affects performance and indirectly
contributes to goal-action coupling by enhancing performance
expectancies. These contributions are indicated by the arrows
from autonomy support in Figure 3.
One mechanism through which the assumption of heightened causality or sense of agency may occur is known as theintentional binding effect (Haggard, Clark, & Kalogeras, 2002).
Intentional binding refers to the linking of an environmental
effect with the agent’s intent to produce it, an awareness that
occurs only when actions are volitional or intentional.
Intentional binding is affected by temporal contiguity of intent
and action (Haggard et al.) and is used as an index of a sense ofagency. Thus, when an effect occurs soon after the agent’s intent
and action, agency is expected and assumed. Sense of agency isaffected by exerted effort (Demanet, Muhle-Karbe, Lynn,
Blotenberg, & Marcel Brass, 2013), anticipated affect (Frith,2014), perceived task success (Dewey, Seiffert, & Carr, 2010),
and ease of action selection such as occurs when stimulus andresponse are compatible (Chambon & Haggard, 2012).
Given people’s psychological and presumably biologicalneed for autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2008; Leotti et al.,2010), controlling environments tend to induce stress (Reeve &Tseng, 2011) and, presumably as a result, self-regulatory attempts at controlling emotional responses. One consequenceof external control attempts can be behavior that is opposite
to the behavior that is desired (Stephens, Franks, Rook, Iida,

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Hemphill, & Salem, 2013). Psychological stress and/or subsequent control attempts would be expected to take attentional
capacity away from the task and result in degraded learning.
Some evidence for negative emotional consequences in response to a controlling environment comes from the study byReeve and Tseng. These authors measured cortisol levels as afunction of “teaching style” (i.e., autonomy-supportive, controlling, or neutral instructions related to a puzzle-solving task).
Cortisol is considered a stress hormone, and increased levels
are thought to reflect coping processes in response to the stress(Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004). Even though Reeve and Tseng
did not assess performance on the puzzle task, designed to beunsolvable in the provided time, the controlling instructional
style increased salivary cortisol, whereas an autonomysupportive style decreased it relative to a neutral style. In a
subsequent study using a novel version of a cricket bowlingaction, Hooyman et al. (2014) found that learning was enhanced with autonomy-supportive instructions (e.g., “…you
may want to cradle and deliver the ball in a windmill fashionso the ball travels over the shoulder and not to an angle or to theside.”) compared with controlling instructions (e.g., “…youmust cradle the ball so it travels in a circular pattern. At theapex of the pitch the ball must be directly over the shoulder. Do
not throw it at a side angle.”), whereas a neutral-language condition (“…cradle and swing the ball so it travels in a circular
fashion before it is released. Before the release of the ball, makesure it travels over the shoulder.”) did not differ from either one.
These results lend support to the idea that learning is degradedin situations that do not meet learners’ need for autonomy, inpart because self-regulatory activity in response to external
control attempts interferes with learning.
To this point, we have discussed a variety of “positive” motivational influences on motor performance and learning, including intrinsic (perceived competence, self-efficacy, perceived
control) and extrinsic (external rewards, monetary incentives)forms. We have not generally distinguished between these typesof motivation, in part, because the psychological and neuroscientific evidence does not yet identify consistent differences between forms of positive motivation, mediating mechanisms (e.g.,
dopamine), and performance outcomes. However, when additional dependent variables, such as whether or not participants
return to the task when they are free to do so (free choice behavior), and task engagement are considered, some divergence in
effects occurs. In psychological science, the undermining impact
of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation, such as that demonstrated when external rewards are provided after performance but
removed subsequently, is well known (Deci, Ryan, & Koestner,
1999; White & Sheldon, 2014). It is assumed to reflect the controlling aspects of reward on behavior.
Recently, Murayama and colleagues demonstrated theundermining effect of reward on subsequent free choice behavior and neural activation, finding more limited engagementin the task and reduced activation in the anterior striatum,

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midbrain, and lateral prefrontal cortex following reward(Murayama, Matsumoto, Izuma, & Matsumoto, 2010).
Thus, if outcomes beyond task performance are considered,all “rewards” (and sources of enhanced expectations) may not
be equal. Further, as the autonomy studies suggest, there are
now a more substantial set of findings in which choice, perceived control, and other forms of autonomy support produce
superior performance and/or learning than do control or yokedconditions without choice (see also Murayama, Matsumoto,Izuma, Sugiura, Ryan, Deci et al., 2015; Patall, Cooper, &Robinson, 2008).
However, the undermining effect of extrinsic rewards is notuniversal (Eisenberger, Pierce, and Cameron, 1999; Lutz,
Pedroni, Nadig, Luechinger, & Jäncke, 2012; Marsden, Ma,
Deci, Ryan, & Chiu, 2015). An additive impact of external
rewards and intrinsic motivation on performance and freechoice behavior can occur when rewards follow performancestandards that require higher levels of attention, effort, andperformance, and thus perhaps assist in the development ofgreater perceived competence. Additive effects of the “reward” of expectancies enhanced with positive social comparison and autonomy support (Wulf, Chiviacowsky, & Cardozo,2014), and of enhanced expectancies due to liberal definitionsof success with autonomy support (Chiviacowsky, Wulf, &Lewthwaite, 2012) have also been found in motor learning.
The differentiation of effects of different forms of motivation
affecting enhanced expectancies is likely a fruitful target in thenear term for neuroscientific study.

instructions (“your feet” vs. “the markers”) had differential
effects on learning. That is, instructions directing attention
away from one’s body parts or self and to the intended movement effect have consistently been found to have an enhancing
effect on performance and learning—despite the similar information content. The use of analogies may serve the same
purpose by directing attention to the production of a given
image (i.e., external focus), rather than body movements(Liao & Masters, 2001; Wulf & Toole, 1999).
A person’s attentional focus often has a similar influence on performance during the practice phase when focus instructions are given, and learning, as measured byretention or transfer tests. Therefore, a number of studies
have used within-participant designs to examine immediate effects of different attentional foci on performance. In
either case, enhanced performance or learning with an
external relative to an internal focus has been found forvarious measures of movement effectiveness (e.g., accuracy in hitting a target, producing a certain amount of force,
maintaining a balance position) and efficiency (e.g., reduced muscular activity, oxygen consumption, heart rate).
As skilled performance is characterized by both highlevels of movement effectiveness and efficiency(Guthrie, 1952), those findings provide evidence that an
external focus of attention effectively speeds the learning
process so that a higher skill level is achieved sooner(Wulf, 2007a). Also, when learners adopt an external as
opposed to an internal focus, movement kinematics start
to resemble those typically seen at later stages of learning.

External focus of attention

Movement effectivenessAttention may refer to task and environment monitoring,
scope or breadth of physical and other cues relevant to task
performance, the skill or ability to control concentration despite conflicting inputs or distraction, as well as concentrationon content regarding particular movement-relevant cues. We
address the latter aspect of the attentional literature—what
learners should focus on to optimize learning. Experimental
evidence has amassed for the benefits of adopting an external
focus on the intended movement effect (e.g., on an implement)
relative to an internal focus on body movements (for reviews,
see Lohse, Wulf, & Lewthwaite, 2012; Marchant, 2011; Wulf,
2007a, 2013). Since the publication of the first study demonstrating the advantages of an external focus for motor learning(Wulf, Höß, & Prinz, 1998), many studies have followed. Inthat original study, balance learning was found to be enhanced
when participants in an external focus group were instructed
to focus on the pressure exerted on the wheels of a skisimulator (Experiment 1) or the markers attached to a balance
platform (Experiment 2) as opposed to their feet (internal focus groups). What is particularly striking is that, in these andsubsequent studies, a one- or two-word difference in the

Balance
A number of studies have used balance tasks to assess performance and learning differences as a function of an externalversus internal focus. Balance has been shown to be enhanced
when the performer’s attention is directed externally to minimizing movements of a balance platform (or markers attached
to it) as compared to being directed internally to movements of
their feet (Chiviacowsky, Wulf, & Wally, 2010; Jackson &Holmes, 2011; McNevin, Shea, & Wulf, 2003; Shea & Wulf,
1999; Wulf, Weigelt, Poulter, & McNevin, 2003). Other tasks
have included standing still on other movable platforms(Laufer, Rotem-Lehrer, Ronen, Khayutin, & Rozenberg,
2007; Rotem-Lehrer & Laufer, 2007) or an inflated rubber disk
(Wulf, Landers, Lewthwaite, & Töllner, 2009), or riding a
Pedalo (Totsika & Wulf, 2003). An external focus has also beenshown to yield more effective responses to perturbations(Ducharme & Wu, 2015). When control conditions without
focus instructions were included (Landers, Wulf, Wallmann,& Guadagnoli, 2005; Wulf et al., 1998, Experiment 1; Wulf,
Weigelt, Poulter, & McNevin, 2003, Experiment 2; Wulf,

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

Landers, Lewthwaite, & Töllner, 2009), they yielded similar
performances as internal focus instructions, and both led toinferior outcomes relative to external focus instructions.
Accuracy
Movement effectiveness as a function of attentional focus has
also been assessed by using outcome measures such as theaccuracy in hitting a target. Accuracy in hitting golf balls
has been demonstrated to be enhanced when performers wereasked to focus externally on the club motion or intended ball
trajectory (Bell & Hardy, 2009; Wulf & Su, 2007) rather thanon their arms (Wulf & Su) or wrists (Bell & Hardy). Accuracy
in throwing balls (Al-Abood, Bennett, Hernandez, Ashford, &Davids, 2002; Chiviacowsky, Wulf, & Ávila, 2013; Zachry
et al., 2005), darts (Lohse, Sherwood, & Healy, 2010;
Marchant, Clough, & Crawshaw, 2007), or Frisbees (Ong,
Bowcock, & Hodges, 2010) also has been found to be improved with an external focus.
In other studies, participants were asked to produce a certain amount of force while concentrating on the effector, suchas the hand, tongue (Freedman, Maas, Caligiuri, Wulf, &Robin, 2007) or foot (Lohse, 2012; Lohse, Sherwood, &Healy, 2011), or on the device against which the force wasexerted, such as a bulb or platform. For example, Lohse
trained participants to produce a certain percentage of theirmaximum voluntary contraction (MVC) in a plantar flexion
task. Participants trained under the external focus condition(focus on platform) were significantly more accurate by theend of practice and on retention and transfer tests one week
later than the internal focus group (focus on foot).
Movement efficiency
A movement pattern is considered more efficient or economical if the same movement outcome is achieved with less energy expended. Direct measures of efficiency that have beenused in examinations of attentional focus effects include muscular (electromyographic or EMG) activity, oxygen consumption, and heart rate. In other studies, more indirect measures
such as maximum force production, movement speed, or endurance were used.

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et al.’s for basketball free throw shooting. These studies areinteresting as they demonstrate a possible association between
muscular activity and movement accuracy. It is also noteworthy that EMG activity was affected in muscle groups thatparticipants were not specifically instructed to focus on—
demonstrating that a performer’s attentional focus on one partof the body can “spread” to other muscle groups, thus increasing movement inefficiency at a more general level (see also
Wulf, Dufek, Lozano, & Pettigrew, 2010; Vance et al., 2004).
EMG activity has also been found to be lower when performers were asked to focus on the weight they were lifting as
opposed to their arms or legs with which they were lifting theweight, or in control conditions (Marchant, Greig, & Scott, 2008;
Vance, Wulf, Töllner, McNevin, & Mercer, 2004). Lohse, Healy,
and Sherwood (2011) found fewer co-contractions of agonist
and antagonist muscles with an external relative to an internal
focus on an isometric force production task, in addition to moreaccurate force production (Figure 5) (see also Lohse &Sherwood, 2012). Furthermore, an analysis of the power spectral
density of the EMG signal in the Lohse et al. (2011) study
demonstrated increases in the median power frequency—indicating superfluous motor unit recruitment of larger motor units
within the muscles—when participants focused internally.
Maximum force production
Producing maximum forces requires optimal coordination
among and within muscles. Studies have demonstrated greater
maximum force production with an external relative to aninternal focus or control conditions, including tasks involving
isokinetic contractions (Marchant, Greig, & Scott, 2009),
maximum vertical jump height (Wulf & Dufek, 2009; Wulf,
Zachry, Granados, & Dufek, 2007; Wulf, Dufek, Lozano, &Pettigrew, 2010), standing long-jump (Porter, Anton, & Wu,
2012; Porter, Ostrowski, Nolan, & Wu, 2010; Wu, Porter, &Brown, 2012), or discus throwing (Zarghami, Saemi, & Fathi,
2012) (for a review, see Marchant, 2011). Interestingly, theproduction of greater maximal forces with an external focus
also has been found to be associated with reduced muscular
activity (Marchant et al., 2009b; Wulf & Dufek, 2009; Wulf,
Dufek, Lozano, & Pettigrew, 2010).
Speed and endurance

Muscular activity
EMG activity has been measured in studies using targetoriented tasks such as free throw shooting in basketball(Zachry et al., 2005) and dart throwing (Lohse, Sherwood,& Healy, 2010). For example, in a study by Lohse et al., anexternal focus on the flight of the dart not only improved
throwing accuracy relative to a focus on the hand, but also
resulted in reduced EMG activity in the antagonist triceps
muscle. Similar findings were obtained in a study by Zachry

Enhanced movement efficiency with an external focus is also
reflected in greater movement speed and endurance. For instance, faster running times for an agility task (Porter, Nolan,
Ostrowski, & Wulf, 2010) or sprint starts (Ille, Selin, Do, &Thon, 2013) were seen when participants adopted an external
focus (e.g., clawing the floor with the shoes), compared with aninternal focus (i.e., moving the legs and feet down and back as
quickly as possible). Also, oxygen consumption was reduced inexperienced runners when they focused externally (Schücker,

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Fig. 5 EMG and force data of 3 representative participants from thestudy by Lohse et al. (2011). The task involved pushing against a force
platform with the foot and producing 30% of the maximal force. Focusing
externally on the platform versus internally on the muscle (soleus)
producing the force led to very different results. Agonist and antagonist

activity was reduced and force production was more accurate with an
external focus. Note. From “Neuromuscular effects of shifting the focus
of attention in a simple force production task,” by Lohse, Sherwood, andHealy, 2011, Journal of Motor Behavior, 43, p. 178

Hagemann, Strauss, & Völker, 2009; Schücker, Anheier,Hagemann, Strauss, & Völker, 2013). Similarly, swim times
were reduced in novices (Freudenheim, Wulf, Madureira, &Corrêa, 2010) and experts (Stoate & Wulf, 2011) when they
focused on pushing the water back as opposed to pulling theirhands back. Marchant, Greig, Bullough, and Hitchen (2011)
demonstrated the benefits of an external focus on muscular endurance (i.e., increased number of repetitions) in trained individuals performing various weight lifting tasks. Finally,
Neumann and Brown (2013) gave different attentional focus
instructions to participants performing sit-ups. External focus
instructions resulted in reduced heart rate and EMG activity thaninternal focus instructions, despite a larger range of motion.

blade level during the recovery”) rather than the hands(e.g., “Keep your hands level during the recovery”) led togreater improvements in the technique, as evidenced byvarious kinematic measures after a 7-week retention interval (Parr & Button). Another study examined the effects ofattentional focus instructions on the learning of movement
form in novice golfers (An et al.). The instructions were
aimed at increasing the angle between the shoulders andpelvis during the downswing—a characteristic of skilled
performance—that can be achieved by encouraging a forward weight shift. External focus instructions to “pushagainst the left side of the ground” (for right-handed participants) resulted in a greater increase in that angle than
did internal focus instructions to shift their weight to theleft foot, or no instructions (control group). Importantly,
the carry distance of the ball was increased by the external
focus instructions as well (Figure 6). Thus, a single external focus instruction enhanced both movement form andoutcome in novices. A similar pattern of results was foundfor experienced gymnasts (Abdollahipour et al.) who performed a gymnastics skill (180-degree turn in the air).
Movement form (number of deductions) as well as movement outcome (jump height) were enhanced by one instruction that promoted an external focus. Finally,
Christina and Alpenfels showed that experienced golfers
learned to change their swing path more effectively withexternal rather than internal focus instructions. Overall, it isclear that the performer’s attentional focus fundamentally

Movement form
Aside from enhanced coordination within muscles (i.e., motor
unit recruitment) and between muscles (i.e., co-contractions),
there is accumulating evidence that an external focus also
facilitates coordination on a larger scale. Expert ratings(Abdollahipour, Wulf, Psotta, & Palomo Nieto, 2015; Wulf,
Chiviacowsky, Schiller, & Ávila, 2010) as well as analyses of
movement kinematics (An, Wulf, & Kim, 2013; Christina &Alpenfels, 2014; Lohse, Sherwood, & Healy, 2010; Parr &Button, 2009; Southard, 2011; Wulf & Dufek, 2009) haveshown that movement form can be optimized with external
relative to an internal focus as well. For example, in novice
rowers, instructions directed at the blade (e.g., “Keep thePsychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

a)

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6

Angle (deg)54External

3Internal
2

Control10Pre-test12
3
Practice blocks

4

Retentionb)
6

Angle (deg)54External

3Internal

2

Control10Pre-test12
3
Practice blocks

4

Retention

Fig. 6 Results of the study by An et al. (2013) in which different groups
of novice golfers hit golf balls under external focus, internal focus, orcontrol conditions (see text for more details). The pre-test and retention
test (after 3 days) included 10 trials, whereas the practice blocks included
25 trials each. The increase in the angle between shoulders and pelvis

during the downswing as well as the carry distance of the ball weregreatest in the external focus group. Note. From “Increased carry
distance and X-factor stretch in golf through an external focus ofattention,” by J. An, G. Wulf, and S. Kim, 2013, Journal of Motor
Learning and Development, 1, p. 6

affects movement coordination. An external focus on theintended movement effect enhances all aspects of performance, independent of skill level, task, age, or (dis)ability.

Williams, 2009) or joint moments (Wulf & Dufek, 2009) withan internal but not external focus. An external focus on theintended movement effect also appears to increase “functionalvariability” (Loosch, 1995), which is typically seen in skilled
performers (e.g., dart throwers; Müller & Loosch, 1999). In
essence, it reflects compensatory corrections among various
effectors, with the results that variability in the movement outcome is decreased. For example, in skilled dart players it wasobserved that smaller release angles were compensated byhigher velocities of the dart, and vice versa (Loosch, 1995;
Wulf & Prinz, 2001). Lohse and colleagues (Lohse, Jones,
Healy, & Sherwood, 2014; Lohse, Sherwood, & Healy, 2010)
demonstrated that an external focus also leads to greater functional variability than an internal focus.
Studies also have shown an association of external focus
instructions and various measures of automaticity. For example,
the attentional demands of the task have been shown to be
reduced when performers adopt an external rather than internal
focus (Kal, van der Kamp, and Houdijk, 2013; Wulf, McNevin,& Shea, 2001). Using a probe reaction time paradigm, Wulf

External focus promotes automaticity
The attentional focus effect has been explained with theconstrained action hypothesis (Wulf, McNevin, & Shea,
2001; Wulf, Shea, & Park, 2001), according to which an internal focus induces a conscious type of control—causing individuals to constrain their motor system by interfering with automatic control processes. In contrast, an external focus promotes a more automatic mode of control by utilizing unconscious, fast, and reflexive control processes. Several converging
lines of research support this notion. Evidence suggests that aninternal focus indeed leads to a constrained motor system, or“freezing” of degrees of freedom (Vereijken, van Emmerik,
Whiting, & Newell, 1992), whereas an external focus seems
to “free” those degrees of freedom. Evidence includes correlations between joint movements (Ford, Hodges, Huys, &1400

et al. found short reaction times with an external focus on abalance task. Enhanced performance on a secondary task (i.e.,faster reaction times) indicated reduced attention demands—orgreater automaticity—of the primary task. Probe reaction times
generally decreased across practice, indicating that attentional
demands decreased with experience. Importantly, shorter reaction times for the external relative to the internal focus groupcorroborated the view that an external focus speeds the learning
process by facilitating automaticity. Providing further support
for this notion, Kal et al. more recently demonstrated reduced
cognitive dual-task costs with an external relative to an internal
focus. Using a cyclic leg extension-flexion task, Kal et al. alsomeasured movement fluency (i.e., jerk) as well as movement
regularity (i.e., sample entropy) under external and internal focus conditions. Both fluency and regularity were enhanced withan external focus, providing further evidence for greater automaticity when an external focus is adopted.
In another line of evidence, analyses of the movement frequency characteristics, particularly in balancing, have shownhigher-frequency movement adjustments for external compared to internal focus participants (McNevin et al., 2003;
Wulf, McNevin et al., 2001; Wulf, Shea, & Park, 2001).
Higher frequencies are viewed as an indication of a more
automatic, reflex-type mode of control. This suggests thatlearners who concentrated on markers on the balance platform(external focus) utilized more, and faster, reflex loops operating at an automatic level, while those who focused internallyon their feet used more conscious, and slower, feedback loops.
Interestingly, placing the markers at a greater distance fromthe feet resulted in even higher frequencies in responding, as
well as greater stability, than focusing on markers directly infront of the feet (McNevin, Shea, & Wulf, 2003). This suggested that movement effects that occur at a greater distancefrom the body, or self—and are presumably more easily distinguishable from body movements—result in even greater
automaticity. This “distance” effect has been replicated withother tasks, including hitting golf balls (Bell & Hardy, 2009),
dart throwing (McKay & Wulf, 2012), or the standing longjump (Porter, Anton, & Wu, 2012).
Other lines of attentional focus research
A number of interventions, beyond an external focus instructional approach, have been developed in recent years that may
broadly be seen as aimed at providing the motor learner with abeneficial attentional focus. Some of the more notable ones
include implicit learning (Masters & Poolton, 2012), thequiet eye (Vickers, 1996), mindfulness training (Kee,Chatzisarantis, Kong, Chow, & Chen, 2012), and self-talk(Chang et al., 2014; Hardy, Begley, & Blanchfield, 2015).
We outline some commonalities and differences between theassumptions underlying those approaches and the ones wehave put forward in this theory.

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

Since the early 1990s, Masters and his colleagues haveargued that movements should ideally be learned implicitly
rather than explicitly (Masters, 1992; Maxwell, Masters, &Eves, 2000). Therefore, instructions should be kept to a minimum as they increase the likelihood that learners “reinvest”
acquired knowledge and engage in conscious control processes that interfere with the automatic execution of the movement. Many aspects of motor skills can be and presumably
are learned implicitly, including regularities in environmental
stimuli and balance skills, and it has been shown that implicit
learning can be more effective than explicit learning (Green &Flowers, 1991; Shea, Wulf, Whitacre, & Park, 2001; Wulf &Schmidt, 1997). Indeed, the motor system’s remarkable coordination capabilities seen with an external focus of attention
are presumably a reflection of the effectiveness of implicit
processes (Wulf, Höß, & Prinz, 1998). However, we question
the idea that learners should generally not be given instructions about the correct movement technique. It is unlikely thatknowledge per se is detrimental to performance. Rather it
appears critical that an appropriate external focus be adopted
in preparation for or during performance (Wulf, 2016). Thus,
it is not that the entire process must be implicit or explicit, butthat timely goal-action coupling is facilitated. If that couplingis effected by an overt instruction, or by the nonconscious
recognition of a primed goal, both explicit and implicit conditions can facilitate goal-action binding.
In another line of research, the so-called “quiet eye”—a finalvisual fixation of at least 100 ms directed at a certain location or
target (e.g., golf ball, basketball hoop, bull’s eye) before movement execution—has been shown to be associated with enhanced performance of tasks with specific targets (Moore,
Vine, Freeman, & Wilson, 2013; Vickers, 1996). Whereas various possible accounts of this phenomenon have been offered(for a review, see Vickers, 2009), it seems likely that an external
attentional focus promoted by the visual focus on an external
object is at least partially responsible for the performance effects (Vine, Moore, Wilson, 2011, 2015). Aside from keeping
the attentional focus on a relevant aspect of the task (e.g., golfball), a visual focus on the target may also serve to “clear the
performer’s mind” (Vine, Moore, Wilson, 2015).
Mindfulness training may serve a similar “mind-clearing” function. Mindfulness, a state of non-judgmental
awareness of the present moment (Brown & Ryan, 2003),
has been linked to reductions in stress and negative affect(Taren, Gianaros, Greco, Lindsay, Fairgrieve, Brown et al.,2015). Moreover, mindfulness training has been shown tolead to improved decision making (Hafenbrack, Kinias, &Barsade, 2013). Mindfulness training has been related toenhanced balance performance resulting from greater automaticity in movement control (Kee et al., 2012).
Interestingly, after a mindfulness induction participants also reported a greater use of an external focus of attention
compared with control group participants.

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Doll and colleagues (Doll, Hölzel, Boucard,
Wohlschläger, & Sorg, 2015) found evidence that 2 weeks
of mindfulness intervention focused on breath training (acomponent of mindfulness training) in novices of thistechnique was associated with increased functional connectivity between the default mode network and the salience network (see section on “Goal-action coupling: acommon mechanism for motivational and attentional effects on motor performance and learning”). How this pattern of increased connectivity might relate to other components of mindfulness training and especially to motor
task performance will be important areas for future research, and may distinguish this form of intervention formotor performance and skill acquisition from external attentional focus instructions with movement effect focus.
Wilson and colleagues recently identified a potential unintended consequence of mindfulness meditation—increased susceptibility to false memories, possibly suggesting that attention to some task-relevant foci could be impaired (Wilson, Mickes, Stolarz-Fantino, Evrard, &Fantino, 2015). Thus, clearing the mind from distracting
or self-related thoughts may be helpful, but an affirmative
external focus on relevant movement effects may potentially be even more beneficial.
Self-talk training has been used to assist athletes in systematizing their internal dialogues before performance.
Content of such self-talk regimen are often categorized as
motivational versus instructional or informational in nature,
although there are wide variations in the specific focus andwording of self-talk statements. Hardy and colleagues foundthat skilled Gaelic football players attempting free kicks with
their dominant and nondominant feet performed with greater
kicking accuracy with a motivational self-talk statement(dominant limb) and equally well with motivational or instructional self-talk using their nondominant foot (Hardyet al., 2015). Chang and colleagues examined novice highschool students performing a softball throw for accuracy
and distance, and motivational, instructional, and unrelated(weather, pet’s and parents’ names, etc.) self-talk conditions(Chang et al., 2014). Motivational self-talk was confidencedirected in nature (“I can do it, I believe I can do it well,”etc.). Instructional self-talk was a mixture of internal andexternal attentional foci. Throwing for accuracy was betterfor both motivational and instructional self-talk relative tounrelated self-talk, and best for motivational self-talk when
the task was throwing for distance. Self-efficacy was enhanced in parallel with performance results. Self-talk research
has often incorporated self-efficacy theory but generally notbenefited by integration with the work on attentional focus
described previously (although Hardy et al., 2015 is an exception). Efforts to consider how to facilitate goal-action coupling from positive motivational and external attentional approaches might optimize performers’ results.

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Interim summary: attentional focus
Directing performers’ attention to the (environmental) effectsof their movements (external focus), rather than to the coordination of their body movements per se (internal focus), resultsin more effective performance and learning. By facilitating
automaticity in movement control, an external focus generally
results in more effective performance (e.g., movement accuracy, balance, maximum force production) than does a counterpart internal focus. Moreover, the enhanced outcome isachieved with less effort, as indicated by reduced muscular
activity, heart rate, oxygen consumption, and so forth. Thus,
movement efficiency is enhanced as well. An external focus
of attention seems to be a precondition for optimal motor
performance. Interestingly, interviews have shown that, even
without explicit internal focus instructions, learners tend to
focus on movement form and body movements (Pascua,
Wulf, and Lewthwaite, 2015). This includes athletes (GussWest & Wulf, 2016; Porter, Wu, & Partridge, 2010; Stoate
et al., 2012). The reliability of the external focus benefits
across tasks, skill levels, age groups, or other individual
differences (Wulf 2007a, 2013) suggests that the necessityof focusing on the intended movement effect to achieve
successful outcomes reflects a fundamental movement
principle.
Mechanisms for attentional focus effects
Why is an external focus integral to optimal motor performance? We suggest that an external relative to an internal
focus plays a dual role by (a) directing attention to the task
goal and (b) reducing a focus on the self. Thus, an external
focus is an important contributor to goal-action coupling(Figure 3). Furthermore, by reliably producing more successful performance outcomes and ease of movement as noted
above, an external attentional focus contributes to enhanced
expectancies for positive outcomes (Pascua, Wulf, andLewthwaite, 2015; Shafizadeh, Platt, & Bahram, 2013;
Wulf, Chiviacowsky, & Cardozo, 2014) through mechanisms
described in earlier sections. In Figure 3, this influence isrepresented by the arrow going from (improved) motor performance to enhanced expectancies.
The ecological importance of an external focus can be illustrated by this example: What does the mountain goat about
to jump across a chasm focus on? Presumably, it focuses on
the other side of the chasm to which it is jumping. Its motor
system seems to “know” what it has to do to achieve thedesired outcome. A skilled and confident human in a similar
situation might also let his or her motor system do its job andsuccessfully land on the intended spot. An external attentional
focus may be the intrinsic, “natural,” or default focus to movement skills from which humans tend to stray over time—perhaps “aided” by well-intended teaching or coaching, and

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55

Throwing Accuracy

thoughts and ideas about the best ways to produce valued
movement. It is hard to imagine other animals moving affirmatively for food or survival with a constant internal conversation regarding how to move their limbs most effectively.
Likely, they pursue their goals with purpose and action unimpaired by digressions into self-reflection or concerns about
how to coordinate their muscles and joints.
One advantage of adopting a focus on the intended outcome (e.g., landing location) may be that it directs concentration to the intended movement effect or task goal. Indeed, arecent study by Russell, Porter, and Campbell (2014) showed
nicely that an external focus on the primary task (dart throwing) was necessary to enhance performance, whereas anexternal focus on a simultaneously performed secondarytask—which should have directed attention away fromthe self—was not able to enhance performance (similar
to internal foci on either task). The consequence of focusing on the intended effect is a coordination pattern that
resembles one that is typically seen at a more advanced
skill level—with a more efficient recruitment of motor
units, fewer co-contraction of agonists and antagonists(Lohse & Sherwood, 2012), greater force output(Marchant, Greig, & Scott, 2009), a “freeing” of thebody’s degrees of freedom (Wulf & Dufek, 2009; Wulf,2013), increased functional variability (Lohse et al., 2014;
Wulf & Prinz, 2001), and generally increased movement
accuracy. How exactly the motor system accomplishes thisis perhaps one of most intriguing questions.
We have previously proposed the notion of a “self-invoking trigger” (McKay, Wulf, Lewthwaite, & Nordin, 2015;
Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2010). According to this view, instructions that promote an internal focus by referring to body
movements provoke access to the self and result in “microchoking” episodes (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2010), that is, widespread, inefficient activation of the muscular system, disruption of automaticity, and the use of more conscious control
over ongoing movement. The result is a constrained movement pattern which can be seen when a player “short-arms” afree throw in basketball or when a golfer leaves a putt short.
While the self-invoking trigger idea is still somewhat speculative, a study by McKay et al. (2015) provided initial evidence consistent with this notion. In two experiments, asking
performers to reflect on their task-related experience resulted
in degraded performance (Experiment 1) or learning(Experiment 2) relative to the control condition (Figure 7). A
study by Perreault and French (2015) provides additional preliminary evidence for the self-invoking trigger hypothesis.
Children between the ages of 9 and 11 years practiced basketball free-throws and were given internal- or external-focus
feedback. In response to the question about what they werethinking at the conclusion of the experiment, those in theinternal focus group reported more self-evaluative content(36–57%) than did participants in the external focus group

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

50
45
40
35
30

Self

Control
Block 1

Self

Control
Block 2

Fig. 7 Throwing accuracy (higher scores reflect greater accuracy) of selfand control groups. Between 2 blocks of 10 throws, participants in the selfgroup were to asked think about their previous throwing experience
including their strengths and weaknesses as a thrower. As a result,
throwing accuracy was degraded on block 2, whereas that of a control
group remained unchanged. Note. From “The self: Your own worst
enemy? A test of the self-invoking trigger hypothesis,” by McKay,
Wulf, Lewthwaite, and Nordin, 2015, Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, p. 1913

(7–21%). One advantage of adopting an external focus on
the intended outcome may be that it directs concentration
away from the self.
Self-referential processing appears to be a significant
aspect of the brain’s default mode of operation (Brewer,
Worhunskya, Gray, Tang, Weber, & Kober, 2011;
Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, & Schacter, 2008). Brain imaging studies have revealed the importance of the self inhumans and how easily it is accessed. Self-referential processing has been shown to occur in brain structures at thecortical midline, in particular the medial prefrontal cortex(mPFC) (Amodio & Frith, 2006; Eisenberger, Lieberman,& Satpute, 2005; for a review, see Northoff et al., 2006).
The mPFC seems to be linked to a variety of self-related
capacities that are maintained across space and time,reflecting the self (Gallagher, 2000). This includes the recognition of one’s physical characteristics (Sugiura, Watanabe,
Maeda, Matsue, Fukuda, & Kawashima, 2005), memory for
one’s personality traits (Craik, Moroz, Moscovitch, Stuss,
Winocur, Tulving, et al., 1999), or one’s hopes for the future(Johnson et al., 2006). Also, a temporary association of self
and objects that were assigned to participants, for example,
engaged the mPFC more than other objects (Kim & Johnson,2012). Even word processing while reading (without instructions for self-referential processing) has been found to be different depending on whether the word is preceded by a personal pronoun (“my”) instead of an article (“the”)—particularly when the noun is unpleasant (Herbert, Pauli, & Herbert,2011). These findings highlight the importance of the self forhuman beings (James, 1890)—and how easily it can be
activated.

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

Goal-action coupling: a common mechanism
for motivational and attentional effects on motor
performance and learning
Insight into brain systems subserving self-referential processing may provide one key to the mechanisms by which attentional focus and motivation can produce performance andlearning effects. Motor learning is associated with structuralchanges in neuroanatomy as well as in functional connections
across brain regions. We posit that practice under optimal
motivational and attentional focus conditions facilitates thedevelopment of more effective neural connections in support
of better performance and more efficient learning. Both enhanced expectancies (and related autonomy) and attentional
focus direct movers with relative clarity toward their action
goals. Furthermore, these drivers may suppress off-task andself-focused attention, buffering learners from these obstacles
to optimal performance (McKiernan, Kaufman, KuceraThompson, & Binder, 2003). Figure 3 illustrates the putativemodel for enhanced expectancy, autonomy, and external focus
effects on performance and learning.
Structural connections within brain regions concern grayand white matter and more localized projections and pathways
that develop through practice and use (Dayan & Cohen, 2011;
Draganski & May, 2008). Beyond the motivational potentiation of learning attempts described in earlier sections, dopamine influences synaptogenic processes that create more robust connections, including long-term potentiation at the cellular level (Ashby et al., 1999; Shohamy & Adcock, 2010;
Wise, 2004) and enlargement of the spiny processes on medium spiny neurons to facilitate new neural connections(Yagishita, Hayashi-Takagi, Ellis-Davies, Urakubo, Ishii, &Kasai, 2014). Dopamine, in its motivational role, also contributes to the consolidation of motor memories when present
during and after motor practice (Sugawara, Tanaka, Okazaki,
Watanabe, Sadato, 2012; Wise, 2004).
Functional connectivity refers to temporal linkages
between spatially distinct neural regions or networks,
including large-scale coordinated activations and deactivations of various structures and subsystems, that occur
relative to task (or non-task) performance and learning (Di& Biswal, 2015; Friston, 2011; Fox et al., 2005).
Correlated low-level oscillatory resonance of activity
patterns in participating regions can be observed at rest
when regions have operated in concert. Reward-related
dopamine boosts the replay or reactivation of memories
during rest that contribute to consolidation (Ewell &Leutgeb, 2014). It has been argued that the strength of
the functional connectivity in resting-state networks
reflects a history of task-relevant coactivation, with stronger coherence in spontaneous activity at rest for regionsthat were coactivated or fired together during the task
(Corbetta, 2012).

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The default mode network is a key functional network,
centering brain activity, and pertaining to cognition, including
diverse functions such as long-term planning, mind wandering, and self-referential thought (Buckner, 2012; Buckner,
et al., 2008; Gusnard, Akbudak, Shulman, & Raichle,2001). As its name implies, the default mode network is spontaneously active when other systems are passive, although it
does not always deactivate when other so-called task-positiveor attentional networks are active (Raichle, 2015). The default
mode network roughly includes the ventral medial prefrontal cortex, the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex; and the posterior cingulate
cortex, precuneus, and lateral parietal cortex (Raichle, 2015).
The default mode network typically does not overlap withfunctional groupings involved in goal-directed and motor tasks.
A number of other functionally organized networks have been
identified, with some overlap in regions various researchers
have included within each. These networks include: a dorsal
attention network, a central executive network, task-positive networks, a sensorimotor network, a reward network, and a salience
network. Clusters of brain regions involved in motor learning canbe recognized, both at rest (Albert, Robertson, & Miall, 2009;
Biswal, Yetkin, Haughton, & Hyde, 1995; Wu, Srinivasan,
Kaur, & Cramer, 2014) and in-task (Hasan et al., 2013).
Functional connectivity can be disrupted in a number of
diseases and disorders, including clinical conditions such as
Parkinson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, depression,
Alzheimer’s disease, autism, schizophrenia, and stroke(Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, & Schacter, 2008; Corbetta,2012). Importantly, functional connectivity is related to motor
skill learning (Albert et al., 2009; Song, Gotts, Dayan, &Cohen, 2015) and to higher levels of motor skill (Di, Zhu,
Jin, Wang, Ye, Zhou et al., 2012; Ito, Matsuda, & Shimojo,
2015; Kim, Han, Kim, & Han, 2015; Milton, Solodkin,
Hluštík, & Small, 2007; Li, He, Huang, Zhang, Lu, Lai et al.,2015). Functional connectivity tracks the learning of motor
skills, and more distinct functional connections are associatedwith higher skill (Kim, Chang, Kim, Seo, Ryu, Lee et al., 2014;
Milton et al., 2007).
Shifting from default mode to other task-related functional
networks to accomplish different activities may be challenged
in conditions such as Parkinson disease (Delaveau et al., 2010;
van Eimeren, Monchi, Ballanger, & Strafella, 2009) and depression (Greicius, Flores, Menon, Glover, Solvason, Kenna et al.,2007). The salience network comprises cortical (anterior insulaand dorsal anterior cingulate cortex) and subcortical (amygdala,ventral striatum, including nucleus accumbens, and substantia
nigra/ventral tegmental area) regions with diverse roles in detecting events salient to the organism, and integrating cognitive,
emotional, motivational, motor, and interoceptive signals into
response selection (Floresco, 2015; Menon, 2015; Sridharan,
Levitin, & Menon, 2008). The salience network has recently
been identified as critical in executing the switch between networks focused on exogenous and self-referential processing to1404

reposition the organism for new tasks (Sridharan et al., 2008).
The salience network, with its integrative nature and networkswitching role, may be an important site for future investigations
into goal-action coupling by positive motivation and external
attentional focus.

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414
Table 1

Predictions of the OPTIMAL Theory

1. When temporally associated with skill practice, conditions thatenhance expectancies for positive outcomes trigger dopaminergic
responses and thereby benefit motor performance
2. Enhanced expectancies and autonomy support contribute to efficientgoal-action coupling by readying the motor system for task execution
3. Autonomy support facilitates performance by enhancing expectancies

Conclusions and predictions

4. An external focus of attention directs attention to the task goal,enhancing goal-action coupling

While it may seem deceptively simple and almost automatic, expert performers find ways to will efficient and sometimes spectacular movements into being. How do theylearn to cut to the chase and connect their thoughts to theiractions? We have reviewed several lines of evidence that
document the impacts of positive motivational and attentional focus variables on motor performance and learning.
Conditions that enhance expectancies for future performance success, including potential satisfaction of the psyc h ol o g i c a l n e ed f or c om p e t e n c e a r e i m p o r t a n t .
Circumstances that provide an opportunity for choice orself-determination, even minimally, influence learners’
sense of agency or autonomy, with consistently beneficial
results. Instructions or feedback that promote an external
focus of attention by directing concentration to a relevant
and appropriate external goal are reliably more helpful thaninternal attention focused on body parts or movement coordination. Table 1 identifies a number of predictions that
follow from the OPTIMAL theory.
We contend that these factors contribute to successful outcomes by strengthening the coupling of performers’ goals totheir movement actions, presumably operating in complementary ways. We provide a plausible mechanism for the diverse
effects of expectation of positive experiences or outcomes as
defined by the mover; these expectations stimulate a dopaminergic response. When this dopaminergic response is temporally linked with performance attempts, we propose that motor
performance is optimized—for that learner at that given timeand level of task experience (Prediction 1; Table 1). It is likelythat enhanced expectancies for success will influence the facility with which a beneficial task focus can be identified andheld in concentration. Enhanced expectancies as well as
autonomy-supportive conditions contribute to efficient goalaction coupling by preparing the motor system for task execution (Prediction 2). Furthermore, we suggest that autonomy
or learner control over some practice elements triggers a senseof agency and thus acts through enhanced expectancies toaffect learning (Prediction 3).
An external focus of attention is a critical element in the
coupling of goals and actions, whereas an internal focus directs attention to the self, thereby degrading performance(Predictions 4 and 5). We consider the influence of an unambiguous attentional focus on the movement goal to be a usefulpairing with a sense of confidence. Furthermore, the5. An internal focus of attention impedes performance by directing
attention to the self
6. Movement success resulting from an external focus enhances
expectancies for future success
7. Enhanced expectancies and autonomy support facilitate motor learning
by making dopamine available for memory consolidation and neuralpathway development
8. Challenge, in the context of prevailing success, elicits a potentiating
dopaminergic response that contributes to learning beyond success orchallenge alone.
9. Higher expectancies facilitate efficient switching from the default mode
network to motor networks associated with the movement skill
10. An external attentional focus facilitates efficient switching from thedefault mode network to relevant motor networks
11. An internal attentional focus impedes efficient switching from thedefault mode network to motor networks associated with the
movement skill
12. Generally, conditions that optimize performance facilitate learningadvantage of an external attentional focus will be manifest inincreasingly successful motor performance, thus fueling astrong sense of performance accomplishment and the expectation for more of the same (i.e., relatively high self-efficacy)(Prediction 6).
Practice conditions that create positive motivation byenhancing performers’ expectancies or providing autonomy
support facilitate motor learning by making dopamine
available for online and offline memory consolidationand neuroplastic changes, such as structural and functional
connectivity (Prediction 7). In particular, substantial success and moderately challenging practice provide the conditions for the potentiation as well as ongoing presence of
dopamine, applied at the moments of successive actions(Prediction 8). Effective structural connections within brain
regions would appear to lay the groundwork for theestablishment of efficient functional connections acrossbrain networks. Such connectivity appears to be a hallmarkof experienced and expert performers (Di et al., 2012; Itoet al., 2015; Kim et al., 2015; Kim et al., 2014; Li et al.,2015; Milton et al., 2007).
We speculate that some of the benefits of higher expectancies and an external attentional focus occur by facilitating efficient switching within and across brain networks (Predictions 9
and 10). The proximity and connectivity of motivational andsensorimotor systems, perhaps in the salience network, make

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

the delicacy of switching from the default mode network to
relevant motor networks an intriguing potential locus for bothbeneficial and disruptive goal-action coupling. While the forté
of enhanced expectancies and an external focus may be inlinking goals to upcoming actions, the possibility of beneficial
suppressive or preventative effects against intrusive or selffocused thoughts exists. In contrast, an internal focus would
forestall switching from the default mode network to motor
networks (Prediction 11). Lastly, the OPTIMAL theory predicts that, in general, conditions that optimize performance
facilitate learning (Prediction 12). Paraphrasing the saying
linking current success to future success, the anticipation of
success breeds success and the presence of dopamine, which
supports the development of skill.

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As we noted in our introduction, differences between scientific fields studying motor learning from different vantage
points can be challenging to overcome in order to achieve
important insights. We have intrepidly walked into this intersection. Further progress will involve closing empirical gaps,
including the elicitation of dopamingergic responses with avariety of “rewards” or positive experiences and capturing
the process of network development and dynamic switching
between networks. Testing of theory predictions will require
diverse expertise. How researchers may capture exquisite network coordination and motor performance is a challenge, partially aided by resting state observations and new analyticalmethods and imaging technology (Di & Biswal, 2015;
O’Neill, Bauer, Woolrich, Morris, Barnes, & Brookes,a)b)Fig. 8 Conditions that fail to enhance learners’ expectancies and support
their need for autonomy, and promote an internal focus of attention resultin a vicious cycle of non-optimal learning (a), whereas conditions thatenhance expectancies, provide autonomy support, and promote an
external focus result in a virtuous cycle of enhanced motor learning (b)1406

2015). Measurement of dopamine activity also is more challenging than some other biochemical substances (e.g., cortisol), because it cannot presently be assessed with salivary orother less invasive methods than positron emission technology paired with dopamine-antagonist medication (Lidstone
et al., 2010). Indirect measurement may be helpful (Aarts,
Bijleveld, Custers, Dogge, Deelder, Schutter et al., 2012).
Furthermore, innovations in the study of moments in athletic
performance are promising (Kim et al., 2015; Kim et al., 2014;
Milton et al., 2007).

Practical implications
Effective and skilled movement needs permeate many areas oflife, having relevance to individuals relearning basic motor
control after a neurological insult, learning to drive a newvehicle, taking up or mastering a sport, controlling complex
systems, handling weapons in emergency situations, learning
to play a musical instrument, active gaming, using surgicalinstruments, operating a robotic device, mastering a newbrain-computer interface or prosthesis, to name just a few.
Implications of the OPTIMAL theory for optimizing motor
performance and learning in applied and clinical contexts involve finding the right approaches to boosting or supporting
positive motivation and directing attention to effective external foci. Instructors, teachers, coaches, trainers, and clinicians
who may direct and frame learning experiences can create andmake use of these performance and learning features.
In a typical scenario, the instructor (e.g., coach, physical therapist, music teacher) selects the tasks to be practiced, describes
how movements should be performed, gives corrective feedback,and instructions that refer to the coordination of body movements. Observations or interviews of coaches and physical therapists confirm anecdotal evidence for the predominance of suchapproaches (Durham, Van Vliet, Badger, & Sackley, 2009;
Halperin, Chapman, Martin, Abbiss, & Wulf, 2015; Johnson,
Burridge, & Demain, 2013; Porter, Wu, & Partridge, 2010).
Thus, instructors often neglect to enhance learners’ expectancies,
do not recognize and support their need for autonomy, and induce
an internal focus of attention (Figure 8a). Direct consequences ofsuch an approach would be low learner self-efficacy, little or no
positive affect, increased self-focus, and limited capacity to focus
on the task goal. Moreover, indirect consequences resulting frompoor performance or little performance improvement, andlearners’ perceptions of effort might lead to further decreases inself-efficacy and positive affect, increased self-focus, etc.—essentially resulting in a vicious cycle and less-than-optimal learning.
Ultimately, this scenario may lead to a lack of interest in practicing or learning new skills, and perhaps activity avoidance.
In contrast, imagine a scenario in which the instructor gives
the learner choices, provides feedback at the request of thelearner, highlights good aspects of task performance while

Psychon Bull Rev (2016) 23:1382–1414

mostly ignoring mistakes, avoids references to body movements, and instead directs the performer’s attention externallyto the task goal (Figure 8b). In this case, enhanced performance
expectancies and perceptions of autonomy would likely increase learners’ self-efficacy. [Experimentally, there have been
many variations in the forms of positive motivational influences that produce performance and learning benefits. In translation, expectancies can be enhanced by intrinsic or autonomous means that do not involve external rewards, incentives,
or deception, preventing threats to autonomy and social relatedness (Fenton, Duda, Quested, & Barrett, 2014; Hagger et al.,2015).] Confidence in their ability to perform well, in combination with an instructed external focus, should facilitate successful movement outcomes. These in turn will further promote
self-efficacy and positive affect that helps solidify good performance, resulting in a virtuous cycle with overall positive consequences for learning and motivation. Thus, simple changes in
the wording of task instructions and feedback that are often
used in applied settings (i.e., scenario 1) might be sufficient tocreate the conditions necessary for optimal learning.

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